diff options
Diffstat (limited to '30877-h/30877-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | 30877-h/30877-h.htm | 12234 |
1 files changed, 12234 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/30877-h/30877-h.htm b/30877-h/30877-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6e7e0b2 --- /dev/null +++ b/30877-h/30877-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,12234 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Painter In Oil, by Daniel Burleigh Parkhurst. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot{margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .caption {font-weight: bold;} + + .ins.correction {text-decoration:none; border-bottom: thin solid gray;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: center; width: auto;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: center; width: auto;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem span.i8 {display: block; margin-left: 8em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +Project Gutenberg's The Painter in Oil, by Daniel Burleigh Parkhurst + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Painter in Oil + A complete treatise on the principles and technique + necessary to the painting of pictures in oil colors + +Author: Daniel Burleigh Parkhurst + +Release Date: January 6, 2010 [EBook #30877] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PAINTER IN OIL *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Ritu Aggarwal and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<img src="images/cover.jpg" width="100%" alt="Cover Page." title="Cover Page." /> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"> +<a name="illus001" id="illus001"></a> +<img src="images/illus001.jpg" width="100%" alt="November Beechwood." title="November Beechwood." /> +<span class="caption">November Beechwood. <i>D. Burleigh Parkhurst.</i></span> +</div> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> + +<h1>THE PAINTER IN OIL<br /><br /></h1> + +<h3>A COMPLETE TREATISE</h3> + +<h5>ON</h5> + +<h3>THE PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUE</h3> + +<h5>NECESSARY TO</h5> + +<h3>THE PAINTING OF PICTURES IN OIL COLORS<br /><br /></h3> + +<h5>BY</h5> + +<h3>DANIEL BURLEIGH PARKHURST</h3> + +<h5>PUPIL OF WILLIAM SARTAIN, OF BOUGUEREAU AND TONY-FLEURY, AND OF<br /> +AIMÉE MOROT; MEMBER OF THE NEW YORK WATER COLOR CLUB;<br /> +FORMERLY LECTURER ON ART IN DICKINSON COLLEGE;<br /> +AUTHOR OF "SKETCHING FROM NATURE," ETC.<br /><br /></h5> + + +<div class="poem"><p> +<span class="i8">"<i>La peinture à l'huile est bien difficile;</i></span> +<span class="i8"><i>Mais beaucoup plus beau que la peinture à l'eau.</i>"<br /></span> +</p></div> + +<h3><br /><br />BOSTON:</h3> +<h2>LOTHROP, LEE & SHEPARD CO.</h2> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1898, by Lee and Shepard</span><br /> +<br /> +<i>All Rights Reserved</i><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Painter in Oil</span><br /><br /><br /> +</h5> + +<h6>TYPOGRAPHY BY C. J. PETERS & SON<br /> +<br /> +PRESSWORK BY BERWICK & SMITH, NORWOOD PRESS<br /> +NORWOOD MASS.</h6> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h5>TO</h5> + +<h2>A. M. P.</h2> + +<h5>THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY INSCRIBED.</h5> + +<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>September 4th, 1897.</i></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + + +<p>Books of instruction in the practice of painting +have rarely been successful. Chiefly because they +have been too narrow in their point of view, and +have dealt more with recipes than with principles. +It is not possible to give any one manner of painting +that shall be right for all men and all subjects. +To say "do thus and so" will not teach any one +to paint. But there are certain principles which +underlie all painting, and all schools of painting; +and to state clearly the most important of these +will surely be helpful, and may accomplish something.</p> + +<p>It is the purpose of this book to deal practically +with the problems which are the study of the +painter, and to make clear, as far as may be, the +principles which are involved in them. I believe +that this is the only way in which written instruction +on painting can be of any use.</p> + +<p>It is impossible to understand principles without +some statement of theory; and a book in order +to be practical must therefore be to some extent +theoretical. I have been as concise and brief in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span> +the theoretical parts as clearness would permit of, +and I trust they are not out of proportion to the +practical parts. Either to paint well, or to judge +well of a painting, requires an understanding of +the same things: namely, the theoretical standpoint +of the painter; the technical problems of +color, composition, etc.; and the practical means, +processes, and materials through which and with +which these are worked out.</p> + +<p>It is obvious that one cannot become a good +painter without the ability to know what is good +painting, and to prefer it to bad painting. Therefore, +I have taken space to cover, in some sort, +the whole ground, as the best way to help the +student towards becoming a good painter. If, +also, the student of pictures should find in this +book what will help him to appreciate more truly +and more critically, I shall be gratified.</p> + +<p style='text-align:right;'>D. B. P.</p> +<p><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><i>December</i> 4, 1897</span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents"> +<tr> + <td colspan="3" align="center"><a href="#PART_I">PART I.—MATERIALS</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><small>CHAPTER</small></td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td> + <td>Observations</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td> + <td>Canvases and Panels</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td> + <td>Easels</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td> + <td>Brushes</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td> + <td>Paints</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td> + <td>Vehicles and Varnishes</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td> + <td>Palettes</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></td> + <td>Other Tools</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a></td> + <td>Studios</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="3" align="center"><a href="#PART_II">PART II.—GENERAL PRINCIPLES</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">X.</a></td> + <td>Mental Attitude</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">XI.</a></td> + <td>Tradition and Individuality</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">XII.</a></td> + <td>Originality</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">XIII.</a></td> + <td>The Artist and the Student</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIV">XIV.</a></td> + <td>How to Study</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="3" align="center"><a href="#PART_III">PART III.—TECHNICAL PRINCIPLES</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XV">XV.</a></td> + <td>Technical Preliminaries</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVI">XVI.</a></td> + <td>Drawing</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_126">126</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVII">XVII.</a></td> + <td>Values</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XVIII">XVIII.</a></td> + <td>Perspective</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIX">XIX.</a></td> + <td>Light and Shade</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XX">XX.</a></td> + <td>Composition</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_166">166</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXI">XXI.</a></td> + <td>Color</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="3"> </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="3" align="center"><a href="#PART_IV">PART IV.—PRACTICAL APPLICATION</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXII">XXII.</a></td> + <td>Representation</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIII">XXIII.</a></td> + <td>Manipulation</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_224">224</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIV">XXIV.</a></td> + <td>Copying</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_236">236</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXV">XXV.</a></td> + <td>Kinds of Painting</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_242">242</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVI">XXVI.</a></td> + <td>The Sketch</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_245">245</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVII">XXVII.</a></td> + <td>The Study</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_254">254</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXVIII">XXVIII.</a></td> + <td>Still Life</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXIX">XXIX.</a></td> + <td>Flowers</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXX">XXX.</a></td> + <td>Portraits</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_286">286</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXI">XXXI.</a></td> + <td>Landscape</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXII">XXXII.</a></td> + <td>Marines</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_335">335</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXIII">XXXIII.</a></td> + <td>Figures</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_347">347</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXIV">XXXIV.</a></td> + <td>Procedure in a Picture</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_371">371</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_XXXV">XXXV.</a></td> + <td>Difficulties of Beginners</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_389">389</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p> +<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="List of Illustrations"> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td> </td> + <td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus001"><span class="smcap">November Beechwood</span></a></td> + <td><i>Parkhurst</i></td> + <td align="right"><i>Frontispiece</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus024"><span class="smcap">Stretchers</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus026a"><span class="smcap">Canvas Pliers</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus026b"><span class="smcap">Double-Pointed Tack</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus029"><span class="smcap">Easel</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus030"><span class="smcap">Easel</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus031"><span class="smcap">Sketching Easel</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus032"><span class="smcap">Sketching Easel</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span class="smcap">Brushes</span>.—</td> + <td><a href="#illus035">Red Sable, Round</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#illus036">Red Sable</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#illus037">Red Sable, Flat</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#illus039">Round Bristle</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#illus041">Flat Bristle</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#illus042">Flat Pointed</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td> </td> + <td><a href="#illus043">Fan</a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus044"><span class="smcap">Brush Cleaner</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus067"><span class="smcap">Oil Colors</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus078"><span class="smcap">Oval Palette</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus080"><span class="smcap">Arm Palette</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus083"><span class="smcap">The Color Box</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus084"><span class="smcap">Palette Knife</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus085"><span class="smcap">The Scraper</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus086a"><span class="smcap">The Oil-Cup</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus086b"><span class="smcap">Mahl-Sticks</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus087a"><span class="smcap">Three-legged Stool</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus087b"><span class="smcap">Sketching Chair</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus088"><span class="smcap">Sketching Umbrella</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus147"><span class="smcap">Drawing of Hands</span></a></td> + <td><i>Dürer</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus167"><span class="smcap">Eggs. White against White</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus169"><span class="smcap">The Canal</span></a></td> + <td><i>Parkhurst</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus172"><span class="smcap">Bohemian Woman</span></a></td> + <td><i>Franz Hals</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus174"><span class="smcap">Sewing by Lamplight</span></a></td> + <td><i>Millet</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus176"><span class="smcap">Descent from the Cross</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus187"><span class="smcap">The Golden Stairs</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus188"><span class="smcap">The Sower</span></a></td> + <td><i>Millet</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus191"><span class="smcap">Return to the Farm</span></a></td> + <td><i>Millet</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus230"><span class="smcap">The Fisher Boy</span></a></td> + <td><i>Franz Hals</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus234"><span class="smcap">Boar-Hunt</span></a></td> + <td><i>Snyders</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus240"><span class="smcap">Good Bock</span></a></td> + <td><i>Manet</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_227">227</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus259"><span class="smcap">Sketch of a Hillside</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_246">246</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus263"><span class="smcap">The River Bank</span></a></td> + <td><i>Parkhurst</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_250">250</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus270"><span class="smcap">Study of a Blooming-Mill</span></a></td> + <td><i>Parkhurst</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_257">257</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus278"><span class="smcap">Still Life, No. 1</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_265">265</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus279"><span class="smcap">Still Life, No. 2</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_266">266</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus280"><span class="smcap">Still Life, No. 3</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_267">267</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus282"><span class="smcap">Still Life, No. 4</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_269">269</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus283"><span class="smcap">Still Life, No. 5</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus284"><span class="smcap">Still Life, No. 6</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus295"><span class="smcap">Sweet Peas</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_282">282</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus302"><span class="smcap">Dürer</span></a></td> + <td><i>by Himself</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_289">289</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus304"><span class="smcap">Portrait of his Mother</span></a></td> + <td><i>Whistler</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus306"><span class="smcap">Portrait of Himself</span></a></td> + <td><i>Valasquez</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_293">293</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus310"><span class="smcap">Portrait</span></a></td> + <td><i>Parkhurst</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus320"><span class="smcap">Haystacks in Sunshine</span></a></td> + <td><i>Monet</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_307">307</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus327"><span class="smcap">On the Race Track</span></a></td> + <td><i>Degas</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_314">314</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus330"><span class="smcap">Willow Road</span></a></td> + <td><i>Parkhurst</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_317">317</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus350"><span class="smcap">Entrance to Zuyder Zee</span></a></td> + <td><i>Clarkson Stanfield</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus358"><span class="smcap">Girl Spinning</span></a></td> + <td><i>Millet</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_345">345</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus368"><span class="smcap">Sketch of a Flute Player</span></a></td> + <td><i>Parkhurst</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_355">355</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus376"><span class="smcap">Milton Dictating</span> "<span class="smcap">Paradise Lost</span>"</a></td> + <td><i>Munkacsy</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus381"><span class="smcap">Buckwheat Harvest</span></a></td> + <td><i>Millet</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_368">368</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus386"><span class="smcap">Study of Fortune</span></a></td> + <td><i>Angelo</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_373">373</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><a href="#illus392"><span class="smcap">Ébouch of Portrait</span></a></td> + <td><i>Th. Robinson</i></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_379">379</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus407"><span class="smcap">Landscape Photo. No. 1</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_394">394</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2"><a href="#illus408"><span class="smcap">Landscape Photo. No. 2</span></a></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_395">395</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I"></a>PART I<br /><br /> +MATERIALS</h1> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> + +<h1>THE PAINTER IN OIL</h1> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2> + +<h3>GENERAL OBSERVATIONS</h3> + + +<p>There is a false implication in the saying that +"a poor workman blames his tools." It is not +true that a good workman can do good work with +bad tools. On the contrary, the good workman +sees to it that he has good tools, and makes it a +part of his good workmanship that they are in +good condition.</p> + +<p>In painting there is nothing that will cause you +more trouble than bad materials. You can get +along with few materials, but you cannot get along +with bad ones. That is not the place to economize. +To do good work is difficult at best. +Economize where it will not be a hindrance to +you. Your tools can make your work harder or +easier according to your selection of them. The +relative cost of good and bad materials is of slight +importance compared with the relative effect on +your work.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +The way to economize is not to get anything +which you do not need. Save on the non-essentials, +and get as good a quality as you can of the +essentials.</p> + +<p>Save on the number of things you get, not on +the quantity you use. You must feel free in your +use of material. There is nothing which hampers +you more than parsimony in the use of things +needful to your painting. If it is worth your +while to paint at all, it is worth your while to be +generous enough with yourself to insure ordinary +freedom of use of material.</p> + +<p>The essentials of painting are few, but these +cannot be dispensed with. Put it out of your +mind that any one of these five things can be got +along without:—</p> + +<p>You must have something to paint <i>on</i>, canvas +or panel. Have plenty of these.</p> + +<p>You must have something to set this canvas on—something +to hold it up and in position. Your +knees won't do, and you can't hold it in one hand. +The lack of a practical easel will cost you far +more in trouble and discouragement than the +saving will make up for.</p> + +<p>You must have something to paint with. The +brushes are most important; in kind, variety, and +number. You cannot economize safely here.</p> + +<p>You must have paints. And you must have +good ones. The best are none too good. Get +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +the best. Pay a good price for them, use them +freely, but don't waste them.</p> + +<p>And you must have something to hold them, +and to mix them on; but here the quality and +kind has less effect on your work than any other +of your tools. But as the cost of the best of palettes +is slight, you may as well get a good one.</p> + +<p>Now, if you will be economical, the way to do +it is to take proper care of your tools <i>after you +have got them</i>. Form the habit of using good +tools as they should be used, and that will save +you a great deal of money.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2> +<h3>CANVASES AND PANELS</h3> + + +<p>You should have plenty of canvas on hand, and +it would be well if you had it all stretched ready +for use. Many a good day's work is lost because +of the time wasted in getting a canvas ready. It +is not necessary to have many kinds or sizes. +It is better in fact to settle on one kind of surface +which suits you, and to have a few practical sizes +of stretchers which will pack together well, and +work always on these. You will find that by +getting accustomed to these sizes you work more +freely on them. You can pack them better, and +you can frame them more conveniently, because +one frame will always do for many pictures. Perhaps +there is no one piece of advice which I can +give you which will be of more practical use outside +of the principles of painting, than this of +keeping to a few well-chosen sizes of canvas, and +the keeping of a number of each always on hand.</p> + +<p>It is all well enough to talk about not showing +one's work too soon. But we all do, and always +will like to see our work under as favorable conditions +as possible. And a good frame is one of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +favorable conditions. But good frames are expensive, +and it is a great advantage to be able to have +a frame always at hand which you can see your +work in from time to time; and if you only work +on four sizes of canvas, say, then four frames, +one for each size, will suit all your pictures and +sketches. Use the same sizes for all kinds of work +too, and the freedom will come, as I say, in the +working on those sizes.</p> + +<p>Don't have odd sizes about. You can just as +well as not use the regular sizes and proportions +which colormen keep in stock, and there is an advantage +in being able to get a canvas at short +notice, and it will be one of your own sizes, and +will fit your frame. All artists have gone through +the experience of eliminating odd sizes from their +stock, and it is one of the practical things that we +all have to come down to sooner or later, and the +sooner the better,—to have the sizes which we +find we like best, not too many, and stick to them. +I would have you take advantage of this, and decide +early in your work, and so get rid of one source +of bother.</p> + +<p><b>Rough and Smooth.</b>—The best canvas is of linen. +Cotton is used for sketching canvas. But you +would do well always to use good grounds to work +on. You can never tell beforehand how your work +will turn out; and if you should want to keep your +work, or find it worth while to go on with it, you +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +would be glad that you had begun it on a good +linen canvas. The linen is stronger and firmer, +and when it has a "grain," the grain is better.</p> + +<p><b>Grain.</b>—The question of grain is not easy to +speak about without the canvas, yet it is often a +matter of importance. There are many kinds of +surface, from the most smooth to the most rugged. +Some grain it is well the canvas should have; too +great smoothness will tend to make the painting +"slick," which is not a pleasant quality. A grain +gives the canvas a "tooth," and takes the paint +better. Just what grain is best depends on the +work. If you are going to have very fine detail in +the picture use a smoothish canvas; but whenever +you are going to paint heavily, roughly, or loosely, +the rough canvas takes the paint better. The +grain of the canvas takes up the paint, helps to +hold it, and to disguise, in a way, the body of it. +For large pictures, too, the canvas must necessarily +be strong, and the mere weight of the fabric will +give it a rough surface.</p> + +<p><b>Knots.</b>—For ordinary work do not be afraid of +a canvas which has some irregularities and knots +on it. If they are not too marked they will not +be unpleasantly noticeable in the picture, and may +even give a relief to too great evenness.</p> + +<p><b>Twilled Canvas.</b>—The diagonal twill which some +canvases have has always been a favorite surface +with painters, particularly the portrait painters. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +This grain is a sympathetic one to work on, takes +paint well, and is not in any way objectionable in +the finished picture.</p> + +<p><b>The best.</b>—The best way is to try several kinds, +and when you find one which has a sympathetic +working quality, and which has a good effect in +the finished picture, note the quality and use it. +You will find such a canvas among both the rough +and smooth kinds, and so you can use either, as +the character of your work suggests. It is well +to have both rough and smooth ready at hand.</p> + +<p><b>Absorbent.</b>—Some canvases are primed so as to +absorb the oil during the process of painting. They +are very useful for some kinds of work, and many +painters choose them; but unless you have some +experience with the working of them, they are apt +to add another source of perplexity to the difficulties +of painting, so you had better not experiment +with them, but use the regular non-absorbent kinds.</p> + +<p><b>Old and New.</b>—The canvas you work on should +not be too freshly primed. The painting is likely +to crack if the priming is not well dried. You +cannot always be sure that the canvas you get +at stores is old, so you have an additional reason +for getting a good stock and keeping it on hand. +Then, if you have had it in your own possession a +long while, you know it is not fresh. Canvas is +all the better if it is a year old.</p> + +<p><b>Grounds.</b>—The color of the grounds should be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +of interest to you. Canvases are prepared for the +market usually in three colors,—a sort of cool +gray, a warm light ochrish yellow, and a cool pinkish +gray. Which is best is a matter of personal +liking. It would be well to consider what the effect +of the ground will be on the future condition +of the picture when the colors begin to effect each +other, as they inevitably will sooner or later.</p> + +<p>Vibert in his "<i>La Science de la Peinture</i>" advocates +a white ground. He says that as the color +will be sure to darken somewhat with time, it is +well that the ground should have as little to do +with it as possible. If the ground is white there +is so much the less dark pigment to influence your +painting. He is right in this; but white is a most +unsympathetic color to work over, and if you do +not want to lay in your work with <i>frottées</i>, a tint +is pleasanter. For most work the light ochrish +ground will be found best; but you may be helped +in deciding by the general tone of your picture. +If the picture is to be bright and lively, use a light +canvas, and if it is to be sombre, use a dark one. +Remember, too, that the color of your ground will +influence the appearance of every touch of paint +you put on it by contrast, until the priming is +covered and out of sight.</p> + +<p><b>Stretchers.</b>—The keyed stretcher, with wedges +to force the corners open and so tighten the canvas +when necessary, is the only proper one to use. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +For convenience of use many kinds have been invented, +but you will find the one here illustrated +the best for general purposes. The sides may be +used for ends, and <i>vice versa</i>. If you arrange +your sizes well, you will have the sides of one size +the right length for the ends of another. Then +you need fewer sizes, and they are surer to pack +evenly.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus024" id="illus024"></a> +<img src="images/illus024.jpg" width="100%" alt="Stretchers." title="Stretchers." /> +<span class="caption">Stretchers.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Stretching.</b>—You will often have to stretch your +own canvases, so you should know how to do it. +There is only one way to make the canvas lay +smoothly without wrinkles: Cut the canvas about +two inches longer and wider than the stretcher, so +that it will easily turn down over the edges. Begin +by putting in <i>one tack</i> to hold the <i>middle</i> of +one end. Then turn the whole thing round, and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +stretch tightly lengthwise, and put a tack to hold +it into the <i>middle</i> of the other end. Do the same +way with the two sides. Only four tacks so far, +which have stretched the canvas in the middle +two ways. As you do this, you must see that the +canvas is on square. Don't drive the tacks all +the way in at first till you know that this is so. +Then give each another blow, so that the head +binds the canvas more than the body of the tack +does; for the pull of the canvas against the side +of the tack will tear, while the head will hold more +strands. This first two ways stretching must be +as tight as any after stretching will be or you will +have wrinkles in the middle, while the purpose +is to pull out the wrinkles towards the corners. +Now go back to the ends: stretch, and place one +tack each side of the first one. In a large canvas +you may put two each side, but not more, and +you must be sure that the strain is even on both +sides. Don't pull too much; for next you must +do the same with the other end which should bear +<i>half</i> of the whole stretch. Do just the same now +with the two sides. Now continue stretching and +tacking,—each side of the middle tacks on each +end, then on each side, then to the ends again, +and so gradually working towards the corners, +when as you put in the last tacks the wrinkles +will disappear, if you have done your work well. +Don't hurry and try to drive too many tacks into +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +a side at a time, for to have to do it all over again +would take more time than to have worked slowly +and done it properly. You may of course stretch +a small canvas with your hands, but it will make +your fingers sore, and you cannot get large canvases +tight without help. You will do well to +have a pair of "canvas pliers" which are specially +shaped to pull the canvas and hold it strongly without +tearing it, as other pliers are sure to do.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus026a" id="illus026a"></a> +<img src="images/illus026a.jpg" width="100%" alt="Canvas Pliers." title="Canvas Pliers." /> +<span class="caption">Canvas Pliers.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 30%;"> +<a name="illus026b" id="illus026b"></a> +<img src="images/illus026b.jpg" width="100%" alt="Double-pointed Tack." title="Double-pointed Tack." /> +<span class="caption">Double-pointed Tack.</span> +</div> + +<p>When you take canvases out-doors to work, you will find it useful to +strap two together, face inwards, with a double-pointed tack like this +in each corner to keep them apart. You will not have any trouble with +the fresh paint, as each canvas will then protect the other. You can +pack freshly painted canvases for shipping in the same way.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +<b>Panels.</b>—For small pictures panels are very useful, +and when great detail is desirable, and fine, +smooth work would make an accidental tear impossible +to mend well, they are most valuable. +They are made of mahogany and oak generally.</p> + +<p>Panels are useful, too, for sketching, as you can +easily pack them. They are light, and the sun +does not shine through the backs. You can get +them for about the same cost as canvas for small +sizes, which are what you would be likely to use, +and they are often more convenient, particularly +for use in the sketch-box.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2> + +<h3>EASELS</h3> + + +<p>The important thing in an easel is that it +should be steady and firm; that it should hold the +canvas without trembling, and so that it will not +fall as you paint out towards the edges. You +often paint with a heavy hand, and you must not +have to hold on to your picture with one hand and +paint with the other. Nothing is more annoying +than a poor easel, and nothing will give you more +solid satisfaction, than the result of a little generosity +in paying for a good one. The ideal thing +for the studio is, of course, the great "screw +easel," which is heavy, safe, convenient, and expensive. +We would like to have one, but we +can't afford it, so we won't speak of it. The next +best thing is an ordinary easel which doesn't cost +a great deal, but which is firm and solid and practical. +Don't get one of the various three-legged +folding easels which cost about seventy-five cents +or a dollar. They tumble down too often and too +easily. The wear and tear on the temper they +cause is more than they are worth. It is true that +they fold up out of the way. But they fold up +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +when you don't expect them to; and you ought to +be able to afford room enough for an easel anyway, +if you paint at all.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 35%;"> +<a name="illus029" id="illus029"></a> +<img src="images/illus029.jpg" width="100%" alt="Easel." title="Easel." /> +</div> + +<p><a href="#illus029">The illustration</a> shows one of the firmest of the inexpensive easels, +and one which will fold up into as small a compass as any practical +easel will. It will hold perfectly well a good-sized canvas, even with +its frame, and will not tumble over on slight provocation.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 35%;"> +<a name="illus030" id="illus030"></a> +<img src="images/illus030.jpg" width="100%" alt="Easel." title="Easel." /> +</div> + +<p>Another good easel is shown on <a href="#illus030">p. 17</a>. It is more lightly made, not so +well braced, but is more convenient for raising and lowering the +picture, as the catch allows the whole thing to be raised and lowered +at once.</p> + + +<p>If you are to save money on your easel, don't +save on the construction and strength of it, but +on the finish. Let the polish and varnish go, but +get a well-made easel with solid wood. The <ins class="correction" title="original reads 'heavvier'">heavier</ins> +it is, the less easily it packs away, to be sure, +but the more steadily it will hold your picture.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 35%;"> +<a name="illus031" id="illus031"></a> +<img src="images/illus031.jpg" width="100%" alt="Sketching Easel." title="Sketching Easel." /> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +<b>Sketching Easels.</b>—The same things are of importance in an easel +for out-of-door work that are needed in a studio easel, except that it +must also be portable. So if you must have a folding easel, get a +<i>good</i> sketching easel; or if you can't have one for in-doors and one +for out-doors, then pay a good price for a sketching easel, and use it +in doors and out also. There are two things which are absolutely +essential in a sketching easel. It <i>must</i> have legs which may be made +longer and shorter, and it <i>must hold</i> the canvas firmly. It is not +enough to lean the canvas on it. The wind blows it over just when you +are putting on an interesting touch, or the touch itself upsets it, either of which is most aggravating, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +and does not tend to satisfactory work. You must not be obliged to sit down to work just +where you don't want to, a little this side or a little that side of +the chosen spot, because the ground isn't even there and the easel +will not stand straight. You must be able to make a leg longer or +shorter as the unevenness of the ground necessitates. It is impossible +to work among rocks or on hillsides if you cannot make your easel +stand as you want it. These things are not to be got round. You might +as well not work as to sketch with a poor sketching easel. And you +must pay a good price for it. The sketching easel that is good for +anything has never been made to sell for a dollar and a half. Pay +three or four dollars for it, at any rate, and use it the rest of your +life. I use an easel every day that I have worked on every summer for +twelve years. Most artists are doing much the same. The easel is not +expensive <i>per year</i> at that rate! It is such <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> an easel as +that shown on the opposite <a href="#illus031">page</a>, and is satisfactory for all sorts of +work.</p> + +<p>If you are working in a strong wind, or if you +have a large canvas, such an easel as <a href="#illus032">this illustration</a> +shows is the best and safest yet invented, and +it is as good for other work, and particularly when +you want to stand up. And either of these easels +will be perfectly satisfactory to use in the house.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"> +<a name="illus032" id="illus032"></a> +<img src="images/illus032.jpg" width="100%" alt="Sketching Easel." title="Sketching Easel." /> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2> + +<h3>BRUSHES</h3> + + +<p>An old brush that has been properly cared for +is generally better than a new one. It seems to +have accommodated itself to your way of painting, +and falls in with your peculiarities. It is astonishing +how attached you get to your favorite brushes, +and how loath you are to finally give them up. +What if you have no others to take their places?</p> + +<p>Don't look upon your brushes as something to +get as few of as possible, and which you would +not get at all if you could help it. There is nothing +which comes nearer to yourself than the brush +which carries out your idea in paint. You should +be always on the lookout for a good brush; and +whenever you run across one, buy it, no matter +how many you have already. Don't look twice +at a bad brush, and don't begrudge an extra ten +cents in the buying of a good one. If you are +sorry to have to pay so much for your brushes, +then take the more care of them. Use them well +and they will last a long while; then don't always +use the same handful. Break in new ones now and +again. Keep a dozen or two in use, and lay some +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +aside before they are worn out, and use newer +ones. So when at last you cannot use one any +more, you have others of the same kind which +will fill its place.</p> + +<p>Have all kinds and sizes of brushes. Have a +couple of dozen in use, and a couple of dozen +which you are not using, and a couple of dozen +more that have never been used.</p> + +<p>What! six dozen?</p> + +<p>Well, why not? Every time you paint you look +over your brushes and pick out those which look +friendly to what you are going to do. You want +all sorts of brushes. You can't paint all sorts +of pictures with the same kind of brush. Your +brush represents your hand. You must give every +kind of touch with it. You want to change sometimes, +and you want a clean brush from time to +time. You don't want to feel that you are limited; +that whether you want to or not these four +brushes you must use because they are all you +have! You can't paint that way. That six dozen +you will not buy all at once. When you get your +first outfit, get at least a dozen brushes. As you +look over the stock and pick out two or three +of this kind, and two or three of that, you will +be astonished to see how many you have—yet +you don't know which to discard. Don't discard +any. Buy them all. Then, if you don't paint, it +will not be the fault of your brushes. And from +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +time to time get a half a dozen which have just +struck you as especially good ones, and quite unconsciously +you acquire your six dozen—and even +more, I hope!</p> + +<p><b>Bristle and Sable.</b>—The brushes suitable for oil +painting are of two kinds,—bristle and sable +hair. Of the latter, <i>red</i> sable are the only ones +you should get. They are expensive, but they +have a spring and firmness that the black sable +does not have. Camel's hair is out of the question. +Don't get any, if you can only have camel's +hair. It is soft and flabby when used in oil +and you can't work well with such brushes. The +same is true of the black sable. But though the +red sables are expensive, you do not need many +of them, nor large ones, so the cost of those you +will need is slight.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus035" id="illus035"></a> +<img src="images/illus035.jpg" width="100%" alt="Brushes.—Red Sable, Round" title="Brushes.—Red Sable, Round" /> +</div> + +<p>The only sables which are in any degree indispensable +to you are the smaller sizes of <i>riggers</i>. +These are thin, long brushes which are useful +for outlining, and all sorts of fine, sharp touches. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +You use them to go over a drawing with paint in +laying in a picture, and for branches, twigs, etc. +As their name implies, you must have them for +the rigging of vessels in marine painting also. +The three sizes shown in the cut on the opposite +<a href="#illus035">page</a> are those you should have, and if you get +two of each, you will find them useful in all sorts +of places. When you buy them, see that they are +elastic and firm, that they come naturally and +easily to a good point, without any scraggy hairs. +Test them by moistening them, and then pressing +the point on the thumb-nail. They should bend +evenly through the whole length of the hair. Reject +any which seem "weak in the back." If it +lays flat toward the point and bends all in one +place near the ferrule, it is a poor brush.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus036" id="illus036"></a> +<img src="images/illus036.jpg" width="100%" alt="Brushes.—Red Sable" title="Brushes.—Red Sable" /> +</div> + +<p>These three larger and thicker sizes come in +very useful often and it would be well if you were +to have these too. Sometimes a thick, long sable +brush will serve better than another for heavy +lines, etc.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +All these brushes are round. One largish flat +sable like this it would be well to have; but these +are all the sables necessary.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus037" id="illus037"></a> +<img src="images/illus037.jpg" width="100%" alt="Brushes.—Red Sable, Flat" title="Brushes.—Red Sable, Flat" /> +</div> + +<p><b>Bristle Brushes.</b>—The sable brush or pencil is +often necessary; but oil painting is practically always +done with the bristle, or "hog hair," brush. +These are the ones which will make up the variety +of kinds in your six dozen. A good bristle brush +is not to be bought merely by taking the first +which comes to hand. Good brushes have very +definite qualities, and you should have no trouble +in picking them out. Nevertheless, you will take +the trouble to select them, if you care to have any +satisfaction in using them.</p> + +<p><b>The Bristle.</b>—You want your brush to be made +of the hair just as it grew on the hog. All hair, +in its natural state, has what is called the "flag." +That is the fine, smooth taper towards the natural +end of it, and generally the division into two +parts. This gives the bristle, no matter how thick +it may be, a silky fineness towards the end; and +when this part only of the bristle is used in the +brush, you will have all the firmness and elasticity +of the bristle, and also a delicacy and smoothness +and softness quite equal to a sable. But this, in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +the short hair of an artist's brush, wastes all the +rest of the length of the hair; for it is only by +cutting off the "flag," and using that, which is +only an inch or so long, that you can make the +brush. Yet the bristle may be several inches +long, and all this is sacrificed for that little inch +of "flag." Naturally the "flag" is expensive, and +naturally also the manufacturer uses the rest of +the hair for inferior brushes. These latter you +should avoid. These inferior brushes are made +from the part of the bristle remaining, by sandpapering, +or otherwise making the ends fine again +after they are cut off. But it is impossible to +make a brush which has the right quality in this +way.</p> + +<p><b>Selection.</b>—Never buy a brush without testing +its evenness, as has been advised in the care of +sables. Feel carefully the end of the bristles also, +and see that the "flag" is there. All brushes are +kept together for packing by paste in the bristles. +See that this is soaked off before you test your +brush.</p> + +<p><b>Round or Flat.</b>—It will make little difference +whether you use round or flat brushes. The flat +brush is most commonly preferred now, and most +brushes are made that way. So you had better +get that kind, unless you have some special reason +for preferring the round ones.</p> + +<p><b>Handles.</b>—Whether the handles are nicely polished, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +also, is of no importance. What you are +to look to is the quality of the bristles and of the +making; the best brushes are likely to be nicely +finished all over. But if you do find a really good +brush which is cheaper because of the plain handle, +and you wish to save money, do it by buying the +plain-handled one.</p> + +<p><b>Sizes and Shapes.</b>—You will need some quite +large brushes and some smaller ones, some square +ones and some pointed.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus039" id="illus039"></a> +<img src="images/illus039.jpg" width="100%" alt="Brushes.—Round Bristle" title="Brushes.—Round Bristle" /> +</div> + +<p><a href="#illus039">Here</a> are three round brushes which, for all +sorts of painting, will be of very general utility. +For most of your brushes select the long and +thin, rather than the short and thick ones. The +stubby brush is a useless sort of thing for most +work. There are men who use them and like +them, but most painters prefer the more flexible +and springy brush, if it is not weak. So, too, the +brush should not be too thick. A thick brush +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +takes up too much paint into itself, and does not +change its tint so readily. For rubbing over large +surfaces where a good deal of the same color is +thickly spread on the canvas, the thick, strong +brush is a very proper tool. But where there is +to be any delicacy of tone, it is too clumsy; you +want a more delicate instrument. The same proportions +hold with large and small brushes, so +these remarks apply to all.</p> + +<p><b>Flat Brushes.</b>—This is particularly applicable to +the flat brushes, and the more that most of your +brushes will be flat.</p> + +<p>You should have both broad-ended and pointed +brushes among your flat ones. For broad surfaces, +such as backgrounds and skies, the broad +ends come in well; and for the small ones there +are many square touches where they are useful. +The most practical sizes are those shown on <a href="#illus041">page 28</a>. +But you will often need much larger brushes +than the largest of these.</p> + +<p>For the smaller brushes you will have to be +very careful in your selections. For only the +silkiest of bristle will do good work in a very small +brush, and then the temptation is to use a sable, +which should be resisted. Why you should avoid +using the sable as a rule is that it will make the +painting too "slick" and edgy. There is a looseness +that is a quality to prize. All the hardness, +flatness, and rigidity that are desirable you can get +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +with the bristle brush. When you work too much +with sables, the overworking brings a waxy and +woodeny surface, which is against all the qualities +of atmosphere and luminosity, and of freshness +and freedom of touch.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus041" id="illus041"></a> +<img src="images/illus041.jpg" width="100%" alt="Brushes.—Flat Bristle" title="Brushes.—Flat Bristle" /> +</div> + +<p>Some of the most useful sizes of the more +pointed brushes are shown on opposite <a href="#illus042">page</a>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> +There are, of course, sizes between these, and +many larger; but these are what you will find the +best. It would be better to have more of each +size than to have more sizes. You should try to +work with fewer rather than more sizes, and, as a +rule, work more with the larger than with the +smaller brush, even for fine work. You will work +with more force and tend less to pettiness, if you +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +learn to put in small touches with the largest +brush that will do it. Breadth is not painting +with a large brush; but the man who works +always with a small brush instinctively looks for +the things a small brush is adapted to, and will +unconsciously drift into a little way of working.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus042" id="illus042"></a> +<img src="images/illus042.jpg" width="100%" alt="Brushes.—Round Pointed" title="Brushes.—Round Pointed" /> +</div> + +<p>The fan brush, such as <a href="#illus043">here illustrated</a>, is a useful +brush, not to paint with, but to flick or drag +across an outline or other part of a painting when +it is getting too hard and liney. You may not +want it once a month, but it is very useful when +you do want it.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus043" id="illus043"></a> +<img src="images/illus043.jpg" width="100%" alt="Brushes.—Fan" title="Brushes.—Fan" /> +</div> + +<p><b>Care of Brushes.</b>—The best of economy in brushes +lies in your care of them. You should never let +the paint dry on them nor go too long without +careful washing. It is not necessary to wash +them every day with soap and water, but they +would be the better for such treatment.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> +Quite often, once a week, say, you should wash +your brushes carefully with soap and water. You +may use warm water, but don't have it hot, as +that may melt the glue which holds the bristles +together in the ferrule. Use strong soap with +plenty of lye in it—common bar soap, or better, +the old-fashioned soft soap. Hold several brushes +together in one hand so that the tips are all of a +length, dip them together into or rub them onto +the soap, and then rub them briskly in the palm +of the other hand. When the paint is well worked +into the lather, do the same with the other brushes, +letting the first ones soak in the soap, but not in +the water. Then rinse them, and carefully work +them clean one by one, with the fingers. When +you lay them aside to dry, see that the bristles are +all straight and smooth, and they will be in perfect +condition for next painting.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 30%;"> +<a name="illus044" id="illus044"></a> +<img src="images/illus044.jpg" width="100%" alt="Brush Cleaner." title="Brush Cleaner." /> +</div> + +<p><b>Cleaning.</b>—But from day +to day you need not take +quite so much trouble as +this. True, the brushes +will keep in better condition +if washed in soap and +water every day, but it is +not always convenient to +do this. You may then use the brush-cleaner. +This is a tin box with a false bottom of perforated +tin or of wire netting about half-way down, which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> +allows the liquid to stand a half-inch or so above +it; so that when you put your brush in and rub it +around, the paint is rinsed from it, and settles +through the perforations to the bottom, leaving +the liquid clear again above it. If you use this +carefully, cleaning one brush at a time, not rubbing +it too hard, and pulling the hairs straight +by wiping them on a clean rag, you may keep +your brushes in good condition quite easily. But +they will need a careful soap-and-water washing +every little while, besides. The liquid best for +use in this cleaner is the common kerosene or +coal oil. Never use turpentine to rinse your +brushes. It will make them brittle and harsh; +but the kerosene will remove all the paint, and +will not affect the brush.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2> + +<h3>PAINTS</h3> + + +<p>Of all your materials, it is on your paints that +quality has the most vital effect. With bad paint +your work is hopeless. You may get an effect +that looks all right, but how long will it stand, +and how much better may it not have been if +your colors had been good? You can tell nothing +about it. You may have luck, and your work +hold; or you may not have luck, and in a month +your picture is ruined. Don't trust to luck. Keep +that element out as much as you can, always. But +in the matter of paints, if you count on luck at all, +remember that the chances are altogether against +you. Don't let yourself be persuaded to indulge +in experiments with colors which you have reason +to think are of doubtful quality. Keep on the +safe side, and use colors you are sure of, even if +they do cost a little more—at first; for they are +cheaper in the long-run. And even in the time +of using of one tube, generally the good paint does +enough more work to cover the difference of cost.</p> + +<p><b>Bad Paints.</b>—Suspect colors which are too cheap. +Good work is expensive. Ability and skill and experience +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> +count in making artists' colors, and must +be paid for. If you would get around the cost of +first-class material you must mix it with inferior +material.</p> + +<p>The first effect you will notice in using poor +colors is a certain hindrance to your facility, due +to the fact that the color is weak—does not have +the snap and strength in it that you expect. The +paint has not a full color quality, but mixes dead +and flat. This you will find particularly in the +finer and lighter yellows. You need not fear +much adulteration in those paints which are naturally +cheap, of course. It is in those higher-priced +colors, on which you must largely depend +for the more sparkling qualities, that you will +have most trouble.</p> + +<p>Unevenness of working, and lack of covering +or mixing power, you will find in poor paints +also. They have no strength, and you must keep +adding them more and more to other colors to +get them to do their work. All these things are +bothersome. They make you give more attention +to the pigments while working than you ought +to, and when all is done, your picture is weak and +negative in color.</p> + +<p>Another effect to be feared from bad colors is +that your work will not stand; the colors fade or +change, and the paint cracks. The former effect +is from bad material, or bad combinations of them +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> +in the working, and the latter mainly from bad +vehicles used in grinding them.</p> + +<p>I have seen pictures go to pieces within a month +of their painting—bad paint and bad combinations. +Of course you can use good colors so that +the picture will not stand. But that will be your +own fault, and it is no excuse for the use of colors +which you can by no possibility do good work +with.</p> + +<p><b>Good Paints.</b>—The three things on which the +quality of good paint depends are good pigment, +good vehicles, and good preparation.</p> + +<p>The pigments used are of mineral, chemical, and +vegetable origin. The term <i>pigment</i> technically +means the powdered substance which, when mixed +with a vehicle, as oil, becomes <i>paint</i>. The most +important pigments now used are artificial products, +chiefly chemical compounds, including chemical +preparations of natural mineral earths.</p> + +<p>As a rule, the colors made from earths may be +classed as all permanent; those from chemicals, +permanent or not, as the case may be; and those +of vegetable origin fugitive, with few exceptions. +Some colors are good when used as water colors, +and bad when used in oil. Further on I will speak +of the fugitiveness and permanency of colors in +detail. I wish here to emphasize the fact that +the origin of the material of which the pigment +is made has much to do with the sort of work +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> +that that pigment will do, and with the permanency +of the effect which is produced; and therefore +that while a paint may look like another, its +working or its lasting qualities may be quite different.</p> + +<p><b>The Vehicles.</b>—The vehicles by which the pigment +is made fluent and plastic are quite as important +in their effects. They not only have to +do with the business of drying, owing to the substances +used as dryers, but they may have to +do with the chemical action of one pigment on +another.</p> + +<p><b>The Preparation.</b>—Finally, the preparation of the +pigment demands the utmost skill and knowledge, +if the colors are to be good. The paints used by +the old masters were few and simple, and the fact +that they prepared them themselves had much +to do with the manner in which they kept their +color. The paints used now are less simple. We +do not prepare and grind them ourselves, and we +could hardly do so if we wished to, so we are +the more dependent on the integrity of the colorman +who does it for us.</p> + +<p>The preparation of the paint begins with the +chemical or physical preparation of each pigment, +and then comes the mixing of several to produce +any particular color; and finally the mechanical +process of grinding with the proper vehicle to +bring it to the proper fineness and smoothness.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> +<b>Grinding.</b>—The color which the artist uses must +be most evenly and perfectly ground. The grinding +which will do for ordinary house paints will +not do for the artist's colors. Neither will the +chemical processes suitable for the one serve for +the other. Not only must the machinery, but the +experience, skill and care, be much greater for +artist's colors. Therefore it is that the specialization +of color-making is most important to good +colors for the use of the artist.</p> + +<p><b>Reliable Makers.</b>—If you would work to the best +advantage as far as your colors are concerned, +both as to getting the best effects which pure +pigments skilfully and honestly prepared will give +you, and as to the permanency of those effects +when you have gotten them, see to it that you +get paint made by a thoroughly reliable colorman.</p> + +<p>It is not my province to say whose colors you +should use; doubtless there are many colormen +who make artists' materials honestly and well. +Nevertheless, I may mention that there are no +colors which have been more thoroughly tested, +both by the length of time they have been in the +possession of painters, and by the number of +painters who have used them, than those of Winsor +and Newton of London. No colors have been +so generally sold and for so long a time, particularly +in this country, as these, and none are so +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> +well known for their evenness and excellence of +quality.</p> + +<p>I do not say that these manufacturers do not +make any colors which should not go on the palette +of the cautious artist—I believe that they do not +make that claim themselves; but such colors as +they do assert to be good, pure, and permanent, +you may feel perfectly safe in using, and be sure +that they are as well made as colors can be. This +is as much as can be said of any paints, and more +than can be said of most. I have used these +colors for many years, and my own experience is +that they have always been all that a painter need +ask.</p> + +<p>The fact that Winsor and Newton's colors can +be found in any town where colors can be had at +all, makes me the more free to recommend them, +as you can always command them. This fact also +speaks for the general approval of them.</p> + +<p>Inasmuch as certain colors are not claimed to +be permanent and others are, it is for you to compose +your palette of those which will combine +safely. This you can do with a little care. Some +colors are permanent by themselves or with some +colors, but not in combination with certain others. +You should then take the trouble to consider these +chemical relationships.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary for you to study the chemistry +of paints, but you may read what has been +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> +ascertained as to the effects of combinations, and +act accordingly. There are practically duplications +of color-quality in pigments which are bad, +and in pigments which are good; so that you can +use the good color instead of the bad one to do +the same work. The good color will cost more, +but there is no way of making the bad color good, +so you must pay the difference due to the cost +of the better material, or put up with the result +of using bad colors.</p> + +<p><b>Chemical Changes.</b>—The causes of change of color +in pigments are of four kinds, all of them chemical +effects. 1, the action of light; 2, the action of +the atmosphere; 3, the action of the medium; and +4, the action of the pigments themselves on each +other. The action of light is to bring about or to +assist in the decomposition of the pigment. It is +less marked in oil than in water color, because the +oil forms a sort of sheath for the color particles. +The manner in which light does its deteriorating +work is somewhat similar to that of heat. The +action of light is very slow, but it seems to do +the same thing in a long time that heat would do +in a short time.</p> + +<p>Some colors are unaffected or little affected by +light, and of course you will use them in preference +to all others. The atmosphere affects the +paint because of certain chemical elements contained +in it, which tend to cause new combinations +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> +with the materials which are already in combination +in the pigment. The action of the oxygen in +the air is the chief agent in affecting the pigment, +and it is here particularly that light, and especially +sunlight, assists in decomposition. The air +of towns and cities generally contains sulphuric +and sulphurous acids and sulphuretted hydrogen. +This latter gas is most effective in changing oil +paintings, because of its action in turning white +lead dark; and as white lead is the basis of many +qualities in painting, this gas may have a very +general action.</p> + +<p>Moisture in the atmosphere is also a cause of +change, but there is little to be dreaded from this, +as the oil protects the colors.</p> + +<p>Oil absorbs oxygen in drying, and so is apt to +have an effect on colors liable to change from that +element, and many vehicles contain materials to +hasten the drying which further aid in the deterioration +of the pigment. Bad oil will tend to +crack the picture also. The greatest care should +be used in this direction, as the most permanent +colors may be ruined by bad vehicles.</p> + +<p>Pigments will not have a deteriorating effect +on each other as long as they are solid. But if +one of them is soluble in the medium, then chemical +action commences; but as most pigments are +somewhat soluble, there is always some danger in +mixing them. The best we can do is, as I said +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> +before, to try to have on the palette, as far as +possible, only colors which are friendly to each +other.</p> + +<p>As a student you should not be much occupied, +however, with all this. You must expect that all +color will change somewhat. But you need not +use those which change immediately or markedly, +and you may use them in a way which will tend +to make them change as little as may be. Colors +have stood for years, and what is practical permanence, +not perfect permanence, is all you need +look for. If you think too much of the permanence +of your colors, it will interfere with the +directness of your study. Therefore, decide on a +palette which is as complete and safe as you can +make it, excluding the notably bad pigments, and +think no more about it.</p> + +<p>When you need to add a new color to your palette, +choose it with reference to those already on +it, and go ahead. This is what the whole subject +resolves itself to, practically, for you as a student.</p> + +<p><b>Opaque and Transparent Colors.</b>—Some colors, like +the madders, have a jelly-like consistency when +mixed with oil, others, the earths among them, +are dense and opaque. We speak of them respectively +as "transparent" and "solid" colors. +These qualities, which divide the paints into two +classes, have no relation to their permanency. As +far as that is concerned you use them in the same +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> +way, as some transparent colors are safe and some +fugitive; and the same with the opaque colors.</p> + +<p>The only difference is in the fact that, as a rule, +the solid colors are better dryers. But you will +notice that while you may mix these colors together +as though this difference between them +did not exist, in certain processes you use them +differently. So you will see, farther on, that for +a "glaze" you can use only the transparent or +semi-opaque colors, for a scumble you naturally +use the solid ones. You should know, however, +for the sake of clearness, just what is meant when +"solid" or "body" or "opaque" color is spoken +of, and what is meant by "transparent" color.</p> + +<p><b>Safe and Unsafe Colors.</b>—Beyond what has been +said of the causes of change in colors it is not +necessary that you should know the chemical constituents +of them. If you want to look into the +matter further there are books, such as "Field's +Chromatography," which treat fully of the subject, +and which you may study.</p> + +<p>But practically you should know which colors +are to be depended on and which not. Let us +consider the principal colors in detail then, merely +as to their actual stability. I will speak of them +in connection with the plates of colors at the end +of this book. I would like you to compare what +is said of each color with the corresponding color +in the plates. Those colors in the plates which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> +are not spoken of here, you may consider as useful +in showing you the character of different colors +which are made, but which may or may not be +used, according as you may need them. I shall +not attempt to mention all the pigments that are +in the market. You need never use more than +fifteen or twenty all told. Many painters use +more, it is true; but if you know how to make +the best use of that number, you may safely wait +till you "grow to them" before you bother with +more. And I shall speak only of those which you +will find essential or most generally useful, and +those which should be particularly avoided.</p> + +<p><b>Permanency.</b>—It should be stated what is meant +by a permanent color. There is no color which +is not to be influenced in some way. The most +sound of pigments will change if the conditions +favor the change. When we speak of a permanent +color, we mean only one which under the usual +conditions will stand for an indefinite time. By +which is meant ordinary diffused daylight, not +direct sunlight, and the ordinary air under normal +conditions. If there be direct sunlight, you may +expect your picture to change sooner or later. +But one does not hang his pictures where the +sun's rays will fall on them. If there is any exceptional +condition of moisture in the air, the picture +may suffer. Or if from any cause unusual +gases are in the atmosphere, or if the picture be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> +too long in a dark, close place, the picture may +smother for lack of fresh air, just as any other +thing, plant or animal, which depends on normal +conditions of atmosphere would do.</p> + +<p>Let us say, then, that what we mean by a permanent +color is one which will stand unchanged +for an indefinite length of time in a room which is +of the usual condition of temperature and freedom +from moisture, and where the light is diffused, and +such that the direct rays of the sun are not on +the picture often, or to any great extent. Cold +will not hurt a picture if the canvas is not disturbed +in that condition, but to bend or roll it +while it is very cold will of course crack it, and +sudden and extreme changes of temperature may +have the same effect. In other words, some care +must be used with all pictures as a matter of +course.</p> + + +<h4>COLOR LIST</h4> + +<p><b>Whites.</b>—<i>Zinc white</i> is the only permanent +white, but it lacks body and is little used. The +lead whites, <i>flake</i>, <i>silver</i>, <i>cremnitz</i>, will darken in +time, and will turn yellow with oil, and may change +with or affect change in other pigments. The +zinc white is liable to crack. We have no perfect +white, so practically you may consider the +lead whites as permanent enough, as other painters do.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> +<b>Yellows.</b>—<i>Cadmium</i> is permanent in all three +of its forms. It is a color the permanence of +which is of great importance; for its brilliancy is +quite essential to modern painting, and if it were +not permanent, the picture would soon lose the +very quality for which the color was used. <i>The +chromes</i>, which are of similar color-quality, are less +permanent, and are almost sure to turn to a horny +sort of yellow; and a green, which by their use +was bright and sparkling, will, in a few months, +lose its freshness—this cadmium will not do. +Cadmium is also to be preferred to chrome, because +it is of a much finer tonality. Greens and +yellows made by the admixture of chrome are apt +to be crude as compared with those in which cadmium +was used.</p> + +<p><i>Strontian yellow</i> is a permanent and most useful +light yellow, much to be preferred to all other citron +yellows except the pale cadmium, and can be +used in place of that if necessary. They are both +expensive colors of about the same cost.</p> + +<p><i>Naples yellow</i> was a very prominent pigment with +the older painters. It is still very much used, but +in the simplification of your palette you may as +well leave it out, as you can get the same qualities +with cadmium and white. It is durable and safe, +but adds another tube to your palette which you +can well dispense with.</p> + +<p><i>The ochres</i> are among the oldest and safest of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> +pigments. You can use them with any colors +which are themselves permanent. There are several +of them,—<i>yellow ochre</i>, <i>Roman ochre</i>, <i>transparent +gold ochre</i>, and others. They are all native +earths, and though they contain iron, they are sufficiently +inert to be thoroughly sound colors.</p> + +<p><i>The siennas</i>, burnt and raw, are like the ochres, +native earths, very old and permanent colors, and +may be used anywhere.</p> + +<p><i>The umbers</i> are in the same class with the siennas +and ochres. They should all rank among the +yellows. The browns of umber and sienna will +make greens with blues.</p> + +<p><i>Indian yellow and yellow lake</i> should both be +avoided as fugitive.</p> + +<p><i>Aureolin</i> is a rich, warm golden yellow of the +greatest permanence, and should be used when +Indian yellow and yellow lake would be used if +they were permanent.</p> + +<p><b>Reds.</b>—The <i>vermilions</i> are permanent when well +made. They are of great body and power, as well +as delicacy. They are of two kinds,—<i>Chinese</i>, +which is bluish in tone, and <i>scarlet</i> and <i>orange vermilion</i>, +which have the yellow quality. Both kinds +are useful to the palette because of the practical +necessities of mixing.</p> + +<p><i>Light red</i> is a deep, warm red earth, made by +calcining ochre, and has the same permanence +as the other ochres. It is a fine color, of especial +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> +value in painting flesh, and mixes with everything +safely.</p> + +<p><i>The madders</i>—<i>rose</i>, <i>pink</i>, <i>purple</i>, and <i>madder +carmine</i>—are the only transparent reds which +are permanent. Whatever the name given them, +they should not be confounded with the <i>lakes</i>, +which are absolutely untrustworthy. By reference +to the plates you will see that the madders are +practically the same as the lakes in color when +first used. But the lakes fade and the madders do +not. The madders cost about twice as much as +the lakes; but you must pay the difference, for +the lakes cannot be made to stand, and you must +have the color. There is nothing for it but to pay +twice as much and buy the madders.</p> + +<p><i>The lakes</i>—<i>scarlet</i>, <i>geranium</i>, <i>crimson</i>, and <i>purple</i>—are +all bad. The madders and lakes are all +slow dryers; but unless carelessly used with other +colors which are not yet dry they need not have +a bad effect on the picture from cracking.</p> + +<p>Distinguish the so-called <i>madder lakes</i> and the +<i>lakes</i>; and between <i>carmine</i>, which is a lake, and +<i>madder carmine</i>, which is a madder.</p> + +<p><b>Blues.</b>—The <i>ultramarine</i> of the old masters is +practically unused to-day because of its cost. +But the artificial ultramarines, while not quite of +the same purity of color, are equally permanent, +and are in every respect worthy to be used. Of +these the <i>brilliant ultramarine</i> is the nearest in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> +color to the real lapis lazuli. The <i>French ultramarine</i> +is less clear and vivid, but is a splendid +deep blue, and most useful. The so-called <i>permanent +blue</i> is not quite so permanent as its name +implies, but permanent enough for practical purposes.</p> + +<p><i>Cobalt blue</i> and <i>cerulean blue</i> are two pigments, +one very light and clear, the other darker, which +are made of the oxide of the metal cobalt. In +oil they are permanent, and do not change when +mixed with other colors. For delicate tints, when +the tones are to be subtly gray yet full of the +primary colors, the cobalts are indispensable. +You should always have them on hand, and generally +on your palette. Cerulean blue is of less +importance than the other, but in very clear, delicate +blue skies it is often the only color which will +get the effect.</p> + +<p><i>Prussian blue</i> possesses a depth and power and +a quality of color which make it unique. The +greenish tone gives it great value in certain combinations +<i>as far as its tinting effect is concerned</i>. +But it is not reliable as a pigment. It changes +under various conditions, and fades with the light. +It is not to be depended upon. <i>Antwerp blue</i>, +a weaker kind of Prussian blue, is even more fugitive. +It is a pity that these colors will not stand, +but as they will not, we must get along without them.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> +<i>Indigo</i> has a certain grayish quality which is +useful sometimes, but it cannot be placed among +the even moderately permanent colors.</p> + +<p><i>The blacks</i> may be classed as blues, because +they will make green if mixed with yellow. Considered +as blues, they are, of course, dense and +negative, and should not be too freely used. But +they are all permanent. The only ones we need +speak of are <i>ivory black</i>, which has a reddish cast, +and <i>blue black</i>, which is weaker, but lacks the +purplish note, which is often an advantage.</p> + +<p><b>Greens.</b>—We need mention only a few greens. +There are numerous greens, of various degrees +of permanence, but it is not necessary to speak of +all the colors on the market. You could not use +them all if you had them, and we may as well confine +ourselves to those we really need.</p> + +<p><i>Veridian</i>, or <i>emeraude green</i>, is the deepest and +coldest of our greens, and is permanent. It is too +cold, and looks even more so at night. In use it +needs the addition of some yellow which holds its +own at night, such as yellow ochre, or the painting +will be impossible in gaslight, and even worse +under electric light.</p> + +<p><i>Emerald green</i> is the same as the French <i>Veronese</i> +green, and is generally permanent. It is said +to turn dark, and does lose some of its brilliancy +with time and the effect of impure air. But there +are places where one needs it, especially in sketching, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> +and it is well to use it sometimes. But bear +in mind that it is not absolutely permanent, and +as the quality that it gives, brilliant light green, +is the very one it will lose should it change, don't +expect too much of it.</p> + +<p><i>Terre verte</i> is a very weak color. But it is most +tender in its quality, and is permanent to all intents +and purposes. It may get slightly darker +in time, but will not lose the qualities for which +it will be used. It is very useful to use with ivory +black or elsewhere, to slightly modify a reddish +tendency, and is a fine glazing color.</p> + +<p><i>The chrome greens</i>, by whatever name, Brunswick +green, or the better-known Cinnabar or Zinnober +greens, are all bad. They are useful colors as +color, but they will not stand, and you will even +get better color by mixing certain yellows and +blues than these will give you, so you had better +lay them aside, tempting as they are.</p> + +<p><b>Other Colors.</b>—You will notice that I have said +nothing about the various browns and olives and +purples. It is simply because it is better for you +to make all these colors than to get them in the +tubes. The earths and the browns of madder are +all good, and the mixing of madders and good +blues will make all the shades of violet and purple +you can possibly want in their purity.</p> + +<p><b>Palettes.</b>—We have, then, a number of pigments +which are solid and safe, of each of the primary +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> +colors, and of such variety of qualities that the +whole range of possible color is practicable with +them in combination. To recapitulate, let us make +a list of them.</p> + + +<h4>THE PERMANENT COLORS.</h4> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +<span class="smcap">Zinc White.</span> (<span class="smcap">Lead white enough so.</span>)<br /> +<span class="smcap">Cadmium yellow.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Cadmium orange.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Cadmium yellow, pale.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Strontian yellow.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Yellow ochre.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Roman ochre.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Transparent gold ochre.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Raw sienna.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Burnt sienna.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Raw umber.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Aureolin.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Chinese vermilion.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Scarlet vermilion.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Orange vermilion.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Light red.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Rose madder.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Pink madder.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Purple madder.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Madder carmine.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Rubens madder.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Ultramarine blue brilliant.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Ultramarine blue French.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Permanent blue.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Cobalt.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Cerulean blue.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Ivory black.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Blue black.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Veridian.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Emerald green.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Terre verte.</span><br /> +</p></div> + +<p>Here is a list of colors which will work well +together, and with which you can do as much +as is possible with colors as far as our present +materials go.</p> + +<p>Most of these colors, I am aware, are among +the more expensive ones. This I am sorry for, +but cannot help. The good colors are at times +the expensive ones, but as there are no cheaper +ones which are permanent to take their places, it +would be the falsest of economy to use others.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> +<b>Palette Principles.</b>—In making up your palette, +you must so arrange it that you can get pure +color when you want it. There is never any +trouble to get the color negative; to get richness +and balance is another matter. If you will refer +to the color plates, you will see that in each of the +three primary colors there are pigments which +lean towards one or the other of the other two. +The scarlet red is a yellow red. The Chinese +vermilion and the rose madder are blue reds. +The same holds with yellows and blues, as orange +cadmium is a red yellow, and strontian yellow is a +greenish yellow. This is, in practice, of the utmost +importance in the absence of the ideal color, for +when we deal with the practical side of pigment, +we deal with very imperfect materials which will +not follow in the lines of the scientific theory of +color. If we would have the purest and richest +secondary color, we must take two primaries, each +of which partakes of the quality of the other. +To make a pure orange, for instance, we must +use a yellow red and a red yellow. If we used a +bluish red and a bluish (greenish) yellow, the +blue in both would give us a sort of tertiary in +the form of a negative secondary instead of the +pure rich orange we wanted. This latter fact is +quite as useful in keeping colors gray without too +much mixing when we want them so, but nevertheless +we must know how to get pure color also.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span> +These characteristics have a bearing on the +setting of our palette, for we must have at least +two of each of the three primary colors—red, +yellow, and blue—and white. There may be as +many more as you want, but there must be at +least that number.</p> + +<p>But the character of the work you are doing +will also have an influence on the colors you use. +You may not need the same palette for one sort +of picture that is essential to another. You can +have a palette which will do all sorts of work, but +a change in the combinations may often be called +for in accordance with the different color characteristics +of your picture.</p> + +<p>I will suggest several palettes of different combinations +which will give you an idea of how you +may compose a palette to suit an occasion. I do +not say that you should confine yourself to any +or all of these palettes, nor that they are the best +possible. But they are safe and practical, and you +may use them until you can find or compose one +better suited to your purposes. They will all be +made up from the colors we have in our list, and +will all have the arrangement I called your attention +to as to the use of two of each primary.</p> + +<p>It would be well if you were to compare each +of the colors with the corresponding one in the +plates at the end of the book, and get acquainted +with its characteristic look.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> +<b>Expense.</b>—I have several times referred to the +relative expense of colors, and stated that when +the good color was of greater cost +than others, there was nothing for +it but to get the best. I cannot +modify that statement, but it is +well to say that as a rule the expensive +colors are +not those that you +use the most of, +although some are +used constantly. +Vermilion is so +strong a color that the cost hardly matters. Of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> +the deep blues the same is true. But the light +yellows, and the madders and cobalt, will often +make you groan at the rapidity of their disappearance. +But you can get more tubes of them, and +their work remains, while were you to use the +cheaper paints, the flight of the color from the +canvas would make you groan more, and that +disappearance could never be made good except +by doing the work all over.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus067" id="illus067"></a> +<img src="images/illus067.jpg" width="100%" alt="Oil Colors." title="Oil Colors." /> +</div> + +<p><b>Sizes.</b>—The cheapest colors come in the largest +tubes. In the illustration, No. 3 represents the full +size of the ordinary tube of the average cost. Some +of the most commonly used colors come in larger +tubes at corresponding price. Only professionals +get these large sizes except in the case of white. +You use so much of this color that it hardly pays +to bother at all with the ordinary tube of it. Get +the quadruple tube, which is nominally four times +as large, but contains nearly five times as much.</p> + +<p>No. 2 represents the actual size of the second +size of tubes in which a few regular-priced colors +come; while the smallest tube is the size of No. 1. +In this sized tube all the high-priced colors are put +up; the cadmiums, the madders, vermilions, and +ultramarines and cobalts. The cheap colors are +the ordinary earths, such as the ochres, umbers, +siennas, the blacks and whites, and all sorts of +greens and blues and lakes, which you had better +have nothing to do with.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> +<b>Arrangement.</b>—In the following palettes I shall +give the names of the colors, as you would look +down upon them on your palette. The arrangement +is that of a good many painters, and is a convenient +one. It is as well to arrange them with +white at the right, then the yellows, then the reds, +the browns, blues, blacks, and greens. But I have +found this as I give it, to be the best for use, simply +because it keeps the proper colors together, +and the white, which you use most, where it is +most easily got at, and I think you will find it a +good arrangement.</p> + +<p><b>A Cheap Palette.</b>—This palette I give so that you +may see the range possible with absolutely sound +colors which are all of the least price. You can +get no high key with it. All the colors are low in +tone. You could not paint the bright pitch of +landscape with it, yet it is practically what they +tried to paint landscape with a hundred years ago, +and it accounts largely for the lack of bright greens +in the landscapes of that date. But for all sorts +of indoor work and for portraits you will find it +possible to get most beautiful results. You will +notice there is no bright yellow. That is because +cadmium is expensive and chrome is not permanent. +Vermilion is left out for the same reason. +Add orange vermilion and cadmium yellow and +orange cadmium, and you have a powerful palette +of great range and absolute permanency.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span></p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +<span style="margin-left: 9em;"><span class="smcap">White.</span> <span class="smcap">Naples Yellow.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><span class="smcap">Venetian Red.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 6em;"><span class="smcap">Yellow Ochre.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><span class="smcap">Light Red.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 10em;"><span class="smcap">Roman Ochre.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Indian Red.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 6em;"><span class="smcap">Transparent Gold Ochre.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Burnt Sienna.</span></span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Raw Umber.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Permanent Blue.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Ivory Black.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Terre Verte.</span></span><br /> +</p></div> + +<p><b>An All-Round Palette</b>:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +<span style="margin-left: 10em;"><span class="smcap">White.</span> <span class="smcap">Strontian Yellow.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 4em;"><span class="smcap">Orange Vermilion.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 3em;"><span class="smcap">Cadmium Yellow.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><span class="smcap">Rose Madder.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 7em;"><span class="smcap">Orange Cadmium.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Burnt Sienna.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 10em;"><span class="smcap">Yellow Ochre.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Raw Umber.</span></span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Cobalt.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Ultramarine.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Ivory Black.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Terre Verte.</span></span><br /> +</p></div> + +<p>This palette is a pretty large one, and you can +do almost anything with it. But for many things +it is better to have more of certain kinds of colors +and less of others. This is a good palette for all +sorts of in-the-house work, and if you call it a still-life +palette, it will name it very well. For a student +it will do anything he is apt to be capable of +for a good while.</p> + +<p><b>A Rich Low-Keyed Portrait and Figure Palette</b>:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +<span style="margin-left: 9em;"><span class="smcap">White.</span> <span class="smcap">Cadmium.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><span class="smcap">Chinese Vermilion.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 3em;"><span class="smcap">Orange Cadmium.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Light Red.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 9em;"><span class="smcap">Yellow Ochre.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Rose Madder.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 5em;"><span class="smcap">Transparent Gold Ochre.</span></span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Raw Umber.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Cobalt.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Blue Black.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Terre Verte.</span></span><br /> +</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> +<b>A Landscape Palette.</b>—Landscape calls for pitch +and vibration. You must have pure color and +great luminosity, yet a range of color which will +permit of all sorts of effects. The following will +serve for everything out-of-doors, and I have seen +it with practically no change in the hands of very +powerful and exquisite painters. There are no +browns and blacks in it because the colors which +they would give are to be made by mixing the +purer pigments, so as to give more life and vibration +to the color. The blackest note may be gotten +with ultramarine and rose madder with a little +veridian if too purple; the result will be blacker +than black, and have daylight in it. The ochre is +needed more particularly to warm the veridian.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +<span style="margin-left: 9em;"><span class="smcap">White.</span> <span class="smcap">Strontian Yellow.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><span class="smcap">Orange Vermilion.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 4em;"><span class="smcap">Cadmium Yellow.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Pink Madder.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 7.5em;"><span class="smcap">Orange Cadmium.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Rose Madder.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 10em;"><span class="smcap">Yellow Ochre.</span></span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Cobalt.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Ultramarine.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Veridian.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Emerald Green.</span></span><br /> +</p></div> + +<p>If you paint figures out-of-doors you will need +this same palette. Madder carmine or purple +madder, and cerulean blue may also usefully added +to this list.</p> + +<p><b>A Flower Palette.</b>—For painting flowers the colors +should be capable of the most exquisite and delicate +of tints. There should be no color on the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> +palette which cannot be used in any part of the +picture. The range need not be so great in some +respects as in others, but the richness should be +unlimited. In the matter of greens, it is true +though hard to convince the amateur of, that if +there were no green tube in your box, and you +mixed all your greens from the yellows and blues, +the picture would be the better. As to the browns, +they will put your whole picture out of key. In +this palette I am sure you will find every color +which is needed. There are few greens, but those +given can be used to gray a petal as well as to +paint a leaf; therefore there is no likelihood of +your using a color in a leaf which is not in tone +with the flower.</p> + +<p>I am calculating on your using all your ability +in studying the influence of color on color, and in +mixing pure colors to make gray. Here as elsewhere +in these palettes I have in mind their use +according to the principles of color and light and +effect as laid down in the other parts of the book, +which deal specially with those principles. If you +do not understand just why I arrange these palettes +as I do, turn to the chapters on color, and on +the different kinds of painting, and I think you +will see what I mean, and understand better what +I say, about these combinations.</p> + +<p>Of course you do not need all of these colors on +your palette at the same time. Some are necessary +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> +to certain flowers whose richness and depth +you could hardly get without them. The colors +you should have as a rule on your palette are +these:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +<span style="margin-left: 9em;"><span class="smcap">White.</span> <span class="smcap">Strontian Yellow.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 3em;"><span class="smcap">Orange Vermilion.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 4em;"><span class="smcap">Cadmium Yellow.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Pink Madder.</span></span> <span style="margin-left: 9em;"><span class="smcap">Yellow Ochre.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Rose Madder.</span></span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Cobalt.</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Ultramarine.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="smcap">Veridian.</span></span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Emerald Green.</span></span><br /> +</p></div> + +<p>To add to these when needed, you should have +in your box, pale and deep cadmium, Chinese vermilion, +madder carmine, and purple madder.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2> + +<h3>VEHICLES AND VARNISHES</h3> + + +<p>A vehicle is any liquid which is mixed with +the color to make it fluent. The vehicle may be +ground with the pigment or mixed with it on the +palette, or both. Oil colors are of course ground +in oil as a vehicle; but it is often necessary or convenient +to add to them, in working, such a vehicle +as will thin them, or make them dry better. +Those which thin or render more fluent the paint +are oils and spirits; those which make them dry +more quickly are "dryers" or "siccatives."</p> + +<p>All vehicles must of necessity have an effect on +the permanency of the pigments. Bad vehicles tend +to deteriorate them; good ones preserve them.</p> + +<p><b>Oils.</b>—The most commonly used oils are linseed +and poppy oil. They are neither of them +quick dryers, and are usually mixed with sugar +of lead, manganese, etc., to hasten the drying. +These have a tendency to affect the colors; but +if one will have recourse to none but the pure +oils, he must be patient with the drying of his picture. +For this reason it would be well to use +vehicles with the colors on the palette as little +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> +as possible—and that is against thin and smooth +painting.</p> + +<p>Oil has the tendency to turn dark with time, +thus turning the color dark also. The only way +to reduce this tendency is to clarify the oil by +long exposure to the sunlight. The early German +painters used oil so clarified, and their pictures +are the best preserved as to color of any that we +have. But the drying is even slower with purified +oil than with the ordinary oil.</p> + +<p>It would be best, then, to use oil as little as may +be in painting, and if you need a dryer, use it only +as you actually need it in bad drying colors, and +then very little of it.</p> + +<p>The essences of turpentine and of petroleum +may be used to thin the paint, and are preferable +to oil, because they have less darkening tendency. +They do not, however, bind the color so well, and +the paint should not be put on too thinly with +them. Usually there is enough oil ground with +the pigment as it comes in the tubes to overcome +any probability of the paint scaling or rubbing +when thinned with turpentine, but in the slow-drying, +transparent colors there will be a liability +to crack. Moderation in the use of any and all +vehicles is the best means of avoiding difficulty. +Use vehicles only when you need them, not habitually, +and then only as much as there is real need +of. If you use oil, use the lighter oils, and expect +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> +some darkening in time. Prefer turpentine to +oil, and expect your color to dry rather "dead," or +without gloss, by its use. If you intend to varnish, +this is all right. If you do not intend to varnish +the picture, keep the color as near the pure tones +as you can. The grayer the color, the more the +"dead" or "flat" drying will make it look colorless.</p> + +<p><b>Varnishes.</b>—When the picture is done, after it +is dry, varnishes are used to bring out the freshness +of color, and to preserve the surface from outside +influences of all sorts. A picture must be +well dried before it is varnished, or it is likely to +crack; six months is not too long to be safe. If +you are in a hurry to varnish, use a temporary or +retouching varnish.</p> + +<p>The best varnish is necessary for use on pictures. +Never use any except a varnish especially +made for the purpose by a reliable colorman. +Those made by Winsor and Newton may all be +depended upon. Pay a good price for it, and don't +use too much.</p> + +<p>Mastic varnish is that which is most favorably +known. Be sure you get a good and pure quality.</p> + +<p>Varnishes are made from various gums or resins +dissolved in a solvent such as alcohol, turpentine, +or oil, as the case may be. The lighter gums are +the best for pictures, because they do not affect +the color of the picture. Much care should be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> +used in putting on the varnish—that it is even +and as thinly distributed as will serve the purpose. +It should not be flowed on, but carefully worked +out with a clean brush, and then kept from dirt +and dust until dry.</p> + +<p>The finer varnishes in oil or turpentine are best +for ordinary use. Those in alcohol do not hold +their freshness so well.</p> + +<p>Varnishes are sometimes used as siccatives, and +to mix with colors which are liable to affect other +colors, or to lack consistency. Usually, however, +they are not needed.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2> + +<h3>PALETTES</h3> + + +<p>The most important qualities in a palette are that it should be large +enough, and that it should balance well on the thumb. Whether it is +round or square is a slight matter. The oval palette is usually best +for the studio because the corners are seldom of use, and add weight. +But for sketching, the square palette fits the box best.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 30%;"> +<a name="illus078" id="illus078"></a> +<img src="images/illus078.jpg" width="100%" alt="Oval Palette." title="Oval Palette." /> +<span class="caption">Oval Palette.</span> +</div> + +<p>Get a palette much larger than you think you want. When you get it on +your thumb the mixing-surface is much less than there seemed to be +before it was set, for all the actual surface is between the row of +colors and the thumb. If the palette is polished it is not essentially +better; it is easier to keep clean, as far as looks go, but of no +greater real service. If the choice is between a larger unpolished and +a smaller polished one, the price being the consideration, get the +larger one.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> +Get a light wood in preference to a dark wood +for a choice of color, but not if there is better +grain or lighter weight in the darker palette. It +is an assistance in painting not to have to compare +the tint you are mixing with too dark a surface, +for the color looks lighter than it is; so the +light wood will help you to judge justly of the +color while the palette is new. When it has been +worked on a while it will come to have a sympathetic +color anyway.</p> + +<p>This bears on the cleanliness of your palette. +It is a mistake to consider that cleanliness demands +that the palette should be cleaned to the +wood and polished after every painting. On the +contrary, if a little of the paint is rubbed out over +the palette every time it is cleaned, after a few +weeks there will come a fine smooth polish of +paint, which will have a delicate light gray color, +which is a most friendly mixing surface.</p> + +<p><b>Adapting.</b>—When you get a new palette, before +you use it take a little trouble to carve out the +thumb-hole to fit your thumb. Make it large +enough to go over the ball of the thumb, and +set easily on the top of the hand. When the +hole is too small the thumb gets numb after +working a little while, which this will obviate.</p> + +<p><b>Cleanliness.</b>—The cleanliness of a palette consists in its being +always in such a condition that you can handle it without getting dirty; that the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> +mixing-surface will not foul the freshly mixed paint; and that the +paint around the edge is always so that you can pick up a fresh, clean +brushful. If you try to clean off all your color every day and polish +your palette nicely, you will not only take up more time with your +palette than you do with your painting, but the fact that some +left-over paint may be wasted will make you a little stingy in putting +on fresh paint, which is one of the worst habits a beginner can fall +into. You cannot paint well unless you have paint enough on your +palette to use freely when you need it. It is all well enough to put +on more, but nothing is more vexing than to have to squeeze out new +paint at almost every brushful. You must have paint enough when you +begin, to work with, or you waste too much time with these details.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 30%;"> +<a name="illus080" id="illus080"></a> +<img src="images/illus080.jpg" width="100%" alt="Arm Palette." title="Arm Palette." /> +<span class="caption">Arm Palette.</span> +</div> + +<p>If you are painting every day, leave the good paint where it is at +the end of your work, and scrape off all the muddy or half-used piles, +and clean carefully all the palette except those places where the +paint is still fresh and pure. Then, when you have to add more to +that, clean that place with the palette-knife before squeezing out +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> +the new color. In this way the palette will not look like a centre-table, +but it will be practically clean, have a good clear mixing-surface, and +you will neither waste paint nor be stingy with it.</p> + +<p><b>The Arm Palette.</b>—For painting large canvases, +where the largest-sized brushes are used and paint +must be mixed in greater quantities, the arm palette +is a most convenient thing if it is well balanced. +It is in the way rather than otherwise for +small pictures, and is useful only as it is particularly +called for.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2> + +<h3>OTHER TOOLS</h3> + + +<p>It remains to speak of those tools which are not +essentials, but conveniences, to painting. Even +as conveniences, however, they are of importance +enough to have an influence on your work. You +can paint without them, but you will work more +easily for the having of them; and something of +the sort, although not necessarily of the same +kind, you must have. You may improvise something, +in other words, to take the place of these, +but you would be wiser to get those which are +made for the purpose.</p> + +<p><b>The Box.</b>—First, the box. You must keep +your things together somehow, and it would be as +well that you keep them in a box which is portable +and suited to the purpose. When you sketch +you must have a proper box, and why not have +one which is equally serviceable in the house? +Those most commonly sold to amateurs are of tin, +and they are various in size and construction, and +not too expensive. The only thing against them +is the difficulty of adapting them to service different +from that they were designed for; that is, if +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> +you want to put in a different sort of panel, or if +you want to fix it in the cover for convenience, or +anything like that, you cannot readily do it, because +you cannot use tacks in them. This counts +for more than would seem on a sketching trip. +But the tin box is light, and is not easily broken, +and while it is in shape is practical.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus083" id="illus083"></a> +<img src="images/illus083.jpg" width="100%" alt="The Color Box." title="The Color Box." /> +<span class="caption">The Color Box.</span> +</div> + +<p>The box to be most recommended is the wooden +one. It costs more than the tin one,—about twice +as much; but you can always arrange it for an +emergency very readily, and if it gets broken you +can fix it yourself, or get any carpenter to do it for +you, while you may be a good many miles from a +tinner, who would be necessary to mend your tin +box.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> +You had better not get too large a box. Get +one long enough for the brushes; but if you are +going to use it out-of-doors much, get a narrow one +with a folding palette, so as to save weight. In +this way you will get a larger palette than you +could get in a smaller and wider box, which is an +important consideration.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus084" id="illus084"></a> +<img src="images/illus084.jpg" width="100%" alt="Palette Knife." title="Palette Knife." /> +<span class="caption">Palette Knife.</span> +</div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 12%;"> +<a name="illus085" id="illus085"></a> +<img src="images/illus085.jpg" width="100%" alt="The Scraper." title="The Scraper." /> +<span class="caption">The Scraper.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>The Palette-Knife.</b>—Of more immediate necessity +to your painting is the palette-knife. You +cannot keep the palette clean without it. Now +and again you may want to mix colors, or even +paint with it. But you constantly get rid of the +too much mixed color on your palette with it, +and this is essential to good painting. Take some +care to select a good knife; have the blade long +enough to be springy and flexible, but not too +long. About five inches from the wood of the +handle to the end of the blade is a good length. +And see that it bends in a true curve from one +end to the other, and is not stiff at the end and +weak in the middle. It should have the same even +elasticity that a brush should have.</p> + +<p>For painting you need a "trowel palette-knife," +which has a bent shank, making the blade and the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> +handle on different levels, so that as you press +the blade to the canvas, the fingers are kept away +from the painted surface. The shank +should be round, and the blade very fine +and flexible. The knife should balance +nicely in the hand, and turn freely in +the fingers, so that you can paint with +either face of the blade with equal balance. +It takes some care to pick out a +good trowel-knife, as a poor one is worse +than none.</p> + +<p><b>The Scraper.</b>—You frequently need to +scrape rough paint from a canvas or a +picture, and you need to scrape strongly +to get a dirty palette clean. You can +use an old razor for the first purpose, +or a piece of broken glass, if you use it +carefully, and any old knife can be used +to clean your palette. But a regular +tool is better than either. The scraper +here shown is the best.</p> + +<p><b>The Oil-Cup.</b>—Do not use oils and vehicles +very much. But when you need +them you must have something to keep +them in, convenient to the brush when +working. It should have a spring to +hold it on to the palette, and of such +form that the contents are not easily spilled by the +movement of the hand or the body when painting. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> +The form here illustrated is the best that has +been brought out so far.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus086a" id="illus086a"></a> +<img src="images/illus086a.jpg" width="100%" alt="The Oil-Cup." title="The Oil-Cup." /> +<span class="caption">The Oil-Cup.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>The Mahl-Stick.</b>—Sometimes you want to rest +the hand when painting, for steadiness. The +"mahl-" or rest-stick has a ball on the end, which +one usually covers with a wad of rag, so that it +can be placed against the canvas without injury, +and the hand rested on it. It is so light that it +can be held with the brushes in the palette hand, +and stiff enough to support the brush-hand.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 60%;"> +<a name="illus086b" id="illus086b"></a> +<img src="images/illus086b.jpg" width="100%" alt="Mahl-Sticks." title="Mahl-Sticks." /> +<span class="caption">Mahl-Sticks.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Sketching Adjuncts.</b>—Out-of-doors you must have +a seat, and you should have an umbrella. The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> +best seat for a man, because it can be folded into so small a space, +is the three-legged stool. This is not usually satisfactory for a +woman, whose skirts tip it over. The better seat for her is shown +below. The back is not very firm, but it does give support, and the +whole is light and strong.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 30%;"> +<a name="illus087a" id="illus087a"></a> +<img src="images/illus087a.jpg" width="100%" alt="Three Legged-Stool." title="Three Legged-Stool." /> +</div> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 25%;"> +<a name="illus087b" id="illus087b"></a> +<img src="images/illus087b.jpg" width="100%" alt="Sketching Chair." title="Sketching Chair." /> +</div> + +<p>The umbrella should be large and light, and one such as +the illustration, with a valve in the top to let the wind +and hot air through, will be found cooler and less easily +blown over. You should have some strong rings sewed on to it, +so that you can fasten it from four sides by strings, to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> +keep it steady if the wind blows hard. The umbrella +should be of light-colored material, preferably +white; but if it is lined with black, the +shade will be better, and give no false glow to +the color.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 35%;"> +<a name="illus088" id="illus088"></a> +<img src="images/illus088.jpg" width="100%" alt="Sketching Umbrella." title="Sketching Umbrella." /> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2> + +<h3>STUDIOS</h3> + + +<p>A painting-room is always a matter of serious +consideration, and to the beginner one of difficulty. +The arrangement of light is not easy, and +a special window is almost always out of the question; +yet in some way the light must be so managed +that the canvas is not covered with reflected +lights which prevent one from seeing what the +paint is really like.</p> + +<p><b>The North Light.</b>—The first thing to be looked +for is a steady light which will be always about +the same, and not be sunny part of the time and +in the shade the rest. A window looking to the +north for this reason is generally selected. The +sun does not come into it, and the light is diffused +and regular. The effect of the light in the +studio is cool, but colors are justly seen in it, and +the light that falls on any object or model in it +will be always the same. If there is to be a skylight, +this should be arranged in the same way. +The sash must not be flat, but must be nearly +enough to the vertical to prevent the sun's direct +rays from entering, and it must for that purpose +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> +face to the north. This makes the skylight practically +a high north light in the roof or ceiling, +and that is what it should be.</p> + +<p>Whether the sash is above the ceiling or just +below it, in the roof or in the wall, is of no particular +importance. The thing to be seen to is +that it is high enough for the light to enter above +the head of the painter, and that it be so directed +that only north light can come in.</p> + +<p>The size of the window is also to be carefully +considered. It should not be too large. Too +much light will be sure to interfere with the +proper control of light and shade on your model, +and too little will make your painting too dark. +The position of the window with reference to the +shape of the room has to do with this. The most +probable form of a room is long and narrow. For +painting it is better that the window be in the +middle of the end wall, high up, rather than in +the middle of the side wall. You will find that +you can more easily get distance from your model, +and at the same time get the light both on him +and on your canvas. But a painting-room should +not be too narrow. About one-third longer than +it is wide, with the window in one end, will give +you a good light, and the further end of the room +will not be too dark, as it would be apt to be if the +room were longer. Preferably, too, the window +should be to the left of the centre of the wall +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> +rather than to the right, as you face it; so that +when you are as near the side wall as you can get, +with the light over your left shoulder (as it should +be), the light will strike on the canvas well, and +not too directly on the front of the model. It will +give you a better lateral position to the window, +in other words. If you have to accept a window +in a side wall, this is even more to be looked for. +If the window is to the right of the centre, you +will have a strong side-light on your model; but +you will either have no light on your canvas, or +you will have to turn so that the light falls on +your canvas from the right, which is awkward, as +the paint is in the shadow of the hand and brush +which puts it on.</p> + +<p>The height of the lower part of the window +should be at least six feet from the floor, and for +ordinary purposes the proportion of window space +to floor space should be about one-tenth. It is +impossible to give a rule; but if the floor is about +twelve feet by sixteen, say, a window about five +feet by four will be enough, or six and a half by +three if it is placed horizontally. If you want +intense light with strong contrast of light and +shade on your model, have the window smaller +and squarer, and place your easel just under it, +where the light is good. The rest of the room +will be dark. Better have the window large +enough, and have it so curtained that you can cut +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> +off as much light as you need to. All this is if +you are going to make yourself a window; in which +case you will think well before you commit yourself. +More probably you will have to get along +as best you can with the ordinary room and the +ordinary window. In which case get a high room +with the window running up as close to the ceiling +as possible, and facing north, then you can +curtain it so as to control the light.</p> + +<p><b>Arrangement of Ordinary Windows.</b>—For a good +working light you should have only one window in +your room; for the light coming in from two openings +will make a crossing of rays which will not +only interfere with the simplicity of the effect of +light and shade on your model, but will make a +glare on your canvas. You can either close the +light out of the right-hand window, or, better, +arrange a curtain so the light from one window +will not fall on the same place as that from the +other.</p> + +<p>When you are working from still life or from a +model this is often an advantage, for you can have +a strong side-light on the model, and a second light +on the canvas. To arrange this, have a sort of +crane made of iron, shaped like a carpenter's square, +which will swing at right angles with the wall, the +arm reaching, say, six feet into the room. Swing +this by means of staples well up to the ceiling, so +that the light cannot get over it, and near to the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span> +right-hand window. From this arm you can hang +a thick, dark curtain, which will cover and shut out +the light from the right-hand window when swung +back over it. If you want to pose your model in +the light of that window, while you paint in that +of the other, swing the curtain out into the room +at right angles to the wall, and it will prevent a +cross light from the two windows; so that when +the model is posed back of the curtain the light +from that window will not fall on the canvas, nor +the light from the other fall on the model.</p> + +<p>The light will be best on your picture coming +from well above you as you work. There will +then be no reflections on the paint. You may find +it necessary to cover entirely the lower half of the +window which gives your painting-light. You will +find it useful to have a shade of good solid holland, +arranged with the roller at the bottom, and a string +running up through a pulley at the top; so that +you may pull the shade <i>up</i> from the bottom instead +of <i>down</i> from the top, and so cut off as much +of the lower part of the window as is necessary.</p> + +<p>If you need the light from the lower part of the +window, you may make a thin curtain of muslin +to cover the lower sash, which will let the light +through, but diffuse the rays and prevent reflection.</p> + +<p><b>The Size of the Studio.</b>—Of course a large studio +is a good thing, but it is not always at one's command. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> +But you should try to have the room large +enough to let you work freely, and have distance +enough from the model. The size that I have +mentioned, twelve feet by sixteen, is as small as +one should have, and one that you can almost +always get. If the room is smaller than that, you +cannot do much in it, and fifteen by twenty will +give ample space.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span></p> + +<h1><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a>PART II<br /><br /> +GENERAL PRINCIPLES</h1> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p> + +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2> +<h3>MENTAL ATTITUDE</h3> + + +<p>There is a theoretical and a practical side to +art. The business of the student is with the +practical. Theories are not a part of his work. +Before any theoretical work is done there is the +bald work of learning to see facts justly, in their +proper degree of relative importance; and how to +convey these facts visibly, so that they shall be +recognizable to another person.</p> + +<p>The ideals of art are for the artist; not for the +student. The student's ideal should be only to +see quickly and justly, and to render directly and +frankly.</p> + +<p>Technique is a word which includes all the +material and educational resources of representation. +The beginner need bother himself little +with what is good and what is bad technique. +Let him study facts and their representation only. +Choice of means and materials implies a knowledge +by which he can choose. The beginner can +have no such knowledge. Choice, then, is not for +him; but to work quite simply with whatever +comes to hand, intent only on training the eye to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> +see, the brain to judge, and the hand to execute. +Later, with the gaining of experience and of +knowledge, for both will surely come, the determination +of what is best suited for the individual +temperament or purpose will work itself out naturally.</p> + +<p>The student should not allow the theoretical +basis of art to interfere with the directness of his +study of the material and the actual. Nevertheless, +he should know the fact that there is something +back of the material and the actual, as well +as in a general way what that something is.</p> + +<p>Because the student's business is with the practical +is no reason why he should remain ignorant +of everything else. It is important that he should +think as a painter as well as work as a painter. +If he has no thought of what all this practical is +for, he will get a false idea of his craft. He will +see, and think of, and believe in, nothing but the +craftsmanship: that which every good workman +respects as good and necessary, but which the +wise workman knows is but the perfect means for +the expression of thought.</p> + +<p>Some consideration, then, of the theoretical side +of art is necessary in a book of this kind. A +number of considerations arise at the outset, +about which you must make up your mind:—</p> + +<p>Is judgment of a picture based on individual +liking?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> +Can you hope to paint well by following your own liking only?</p> + +<p>Is it worth your while to try to do good work?</p> + +<p>Can you hope to do good work at all?</p> + +<p>You must decide these questions for yourself, +but you must remember that it depends upon how +you decide them whether your work will be good +or bad.</p> + +<p>To take the last consideration first, you may +be sure that it is worth while to try to do good +work, and mainly because you may hope to do as +good work as you want to do. That is, precisely +as good work as you are willing to take the trouble +to learn to do. Talent is only another name +for love of a thing. If you love a thing enough to +try to find out what is good, to train your judgment; +and to train your abilities up to what that +judgment tells you is good, the good work is only +a matter of time.</p> + +<p>You will notice that you must train your judgment +as well as your ability; not all at once, of +course. But how can you hope to do good work +if you do not know what good work is when you +see it? If you have no point of view, how can +you tell what you are working for, what you are +aiming at? And if you do not know what you +are aiming at, are you likely to hit anything?</p> + +<p><b>Train Your Judgment.</b>—Let us say, then, that you +must train your critical judgment. How are you +to set about it?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> +In the first place, don't set up your own liking +as a criterion. Make up your mind that when it +comes to a choice between your personal taste +and that of some one who may be supposed to +know, between what you think and what has been +consented to by all the men who have ever had an +opinion worthy of respect, you may rest assured +that you are wrong. And when you have made +up your mind to that, when you have reached +that mental attitude, you have taken a long step +towards training your judgment; for you have +admitted a standard outside of mere opinion.</p> + +<p>Another attitude that you should place your +mind in is one of catholicity—one of openness to +the possibility of there being many ways of being +right. Don't allow yourself to take it for granted +that any one school or way of painting or looking +at things is the only right one, and that all the +other ways are wrong. That point of view may +do for a man who has studied and thought, and +finally arrived at that conclusion which suits his +mind and his nature,—but it will not do for a student. +Such an attitude is a sure bar to progress. +It results in narrowness of idea, narrowness of +perception, and narrowness of appreciation. You +should try all things, and hold fast to that which +is good. And having found what is good, and +even while holding fast to it, you should remember +that what is good and true for you is not +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> +necessarily the only good and true for some one +else. You must not only hold to your own liberty +of choice, but recognize the same right for others. +If this is not recognized, what room has originality +to work in?</p> + +<p>The range of subject, of style, and of technical +methods among acknowledged masters, should +alone be proof of the fact that there is no one +way which is the only good way; and if you would +know how to judge and like a good picture, the +study of really great pictures, without regard to +school, is the way to learn.</p> + +<p><b>How to Look at Pictures.</b>—The study of pictures +means something more than merely looking at +them and counting the figures in them. It implies +the study of the treatment of the subject in +every way. The management of light and shade; +the color; the composition and drawing; and +finally those technical processes of brush-work by +means of which the canvas gets covered, and the +idea of the artist becomes visible. All these +things are important in some degree; they all go +to the making of the complete work of art: and +you do not understand the picture, you do not +really and fully judge it, unless you know how to +appreciate the bearing on the result, of all the +means which were used to bring it about. All +this adds to your own technical knowledge as +well as to your critical judgment, both of which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> +ends are important to your becoming a good +painter.</p> + +<p><b>Why Paint Well.</b>—You see I am assuming that +you wish to be a good painter. There is no reason +why you should be a bad painter because you are +not a professional one. The better you paint the +better your appreciation will be of all good work, +the keener your appreciation of what is beautiful +in nature, and the greater your satisfaction and +pleasure in your own work. There are better +reasons for painting than the desire to "make a +picture." Painting implies making a picture, it is +true; but it means also seeing and representing +charming things, and working out problems of +beauty in the expression of color and form: and +this is something more than what is commonly +meant by a picture. The picture comes, and is +the result; but the making of it carries with it a +pleasure and joy which are in exact proportion to +the power of appreciation, perception, and expression +of the painter. This is the real reason for +painting, and it makes the desire and the attempt +to paint well a matter of course.</p> + +<p><b>Craftsmanship.</b>—The mechanical side of painting +naturally is an important part of your problem. +You cannot be too catholic in your opinion with +regard to it. It is vital that you be not narrowed +by any prejudices as to the surface effect of paint. +Whether the canvas be smooth or rough, the paint +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> +thick or thin, the details few or many,—the goodness +or badness of the picture does not depend +on any of these. They are or should be the result, +the natural outcome because the natural +means of expression, of the manner in which the +picture is conceived. One picture may demand +one way of painting and another demand a quite +different way; and each way be the best possible +for the thing expressed. It all depends on the +man; the make-up of his mind; the way he sees +things; the results he aims to attain,—all of them +controlled more or less by temperament and idiosyncrasy. +What would produce a perfect work +for one man would not do at all for another. +The works of the great masters offer the most +marked contrasts of ideal and of treatment, and +painters have varied greatly in their manner of +some painting at different periods of their lives. +Rembrandt, for instance, painted very thinly in +his early years, with transparent shadows and +carefully modelled, solidly loaded lights. Later +in life he painted most roughly; and "The Syndics" +was so heavily and roughly loaded that even +now, after two hundred years, the paint stands out +in lumps—and this is one of his masterpieces. +So again, if you will compare the manipulation in +the work of Raphael with that of Tintoretto, that +of Rubens with that of Velasquez, or most markedly, +the work of Frans Hals with that of Gerard +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> +Dou, you will see that the greatest extremes of +handling are consistent with equal greatness of +result.</p> + +<p><b>Finish.</b>—From this you may conclude that what +is generally understood by the word "finish" is +not necessarily a thing to be sought for. The +tendency of great painters is rather away from +excessive smoothness and detail than towards it. +While a picture may be a good one and be very +minute and smooth, it by no means follows that a +picture is bad because it is rough. The truth is +that the test of a picture does not lie in the character +of the pigment surface <i>in itself</i> at all, nor in +whether it be full of detail or the reverse, but in +the conception and in the harmonious relation of +the technique to the manner in which the whole is +conceived. The true "finish" is whatever surface +the picture happens to have when the idea which +is the purpose of the picture is fully expressed, +with nothing lacking to make that expression +more complete, nor with anything present which +is not needed to that completeness. This too is +the truth about "breadth," that much misunderstood +word. Breadth is not merely breadth +of brush stroke. It is breadth of idea, breadth +of perception; the power of conceiving the picture +as a whole, and the power of not putting in any +details which will interfere with the unity of effect.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> +<b>Intent.</b>—In this connection it would be well to +bear in mind the purpose of the work on which +the painter may be engaged. A man would, and +should, work very differently on canvases intended +for a study, a sketch, and a picture. The study +would contain many things which the other two +would not need. It is the work in which and by +which the painter informs himself. It is his way +of acquiring facts, or of assuring himself of what +he wants and how he wants it. And he may put +into it all sorts of things for their value as facts +which he may never care to use, but which he +wishes to have at command in case he should +want them.</p> + +<p>The sketch, on the other hand, is a note of +an effect merely, or of a general idea, and calls +for only those qualities which most successfully +show the central idea, which might sometime become +a picture, or which suggests a scheme. A +carefully worked-up sketch is a contradiction in +terms, just as a careless study would be.</p> + +<p>A picture might have more or less of the character +of either of these two types, and yet belong +to neither. It might have the sketch as its motive, +and would use as much or as little of the material +of the study as should be needed to make the +result express exactly the idea the painter wished +to impart, and no more and no less.</p> + +<p>All these things should be borne in mind, as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> +you study the characteristics of paintings to learn +what they can mean to you beyond the surface +which is obvious to any one; or as you work on +your own canvas to attain such power or proficiency, +such cleverness or facility, as you may +conclude it is worth your while to try for.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2> + +<h3>TRADITION AND INDIVIDUALITY</h3> + + +<p>A picture is made up of many elements. Certain +of them are essentially abstract. They must +be thought out by a sort of <i>mental vision without +words</i>. This is the most subtle and intimate part +of the picture. These are the means by which +the ideal is brought into the picture.</p> + +<p><b>Line, Mass, and Color.</b>—Such are the qualities of +<i>line</i>, dissociated from representation; of <i>mass</i>, not +as representing external forms; and <i>color</i>, considered +as a <i>quality</i>, not as yet expressed visibly in +pigment, nor representing the color of any <i>thing</i>. +When these elements are combined they may +make up such conceptions as proportion, rhythm, +repetition, and balance, with all the modifications +that may come from still further combination.</p> + +<p>It is because these elements are qualities in +themselves beautiful that actual objects not beautiful +may be made so in a painting, by being +treated as <i>color</i> or <i>line</i> or <i>mass</i>, and so given +place on the canvas, rather than as being of themselves +interesting. A face, for instance, may be +ugly as a <i>face</i>, yet be beautiful as color or light +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> +and shade in the picture. These qualities, I say, +do not represent—they do not necessarily even +exist, except in the mind to which they are the +terms of its thought. Nevertheless, they are +the soul of the picture. For whatever the subject, +or the objects chosen for representation, it is +by working out combinations of these elements, +through and by means of those objects, that the +picture really is made.</p> + +<p>The picture, <i>as a work of art</i>, is not the representation +of objects making up a subject, but a +fabric woven of color, line, and mass; of form, +proportion, balance, rhythm, and movement, expressed +through those actual objects in the picture +which give it visible form.</p> + +<p>I do not purpose to go deeply into these matters +here. Elsewhere, as they bear practically on the +subject in hand, as in the chapters on "Composition" +and on "Color," I shall speak of them more +fully. But I wish here to call attention to this +abstract side of painting in order to show the relation +between the two classes of things, the one +abstract and the other concrete, which together +are needed to make up a picture.</p> + +<p>The concrete, or material, part of a picture includes +all those things which you can look at or +feel on the canvas; and by seeing which you can +also see the abstract qualities, which do not <i>visibly</i> +exist until made visible through the disposition of +these tangible things, on the canvas.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> +Beyond this is included all the technical qualities +of expression; form, as <i>drawing</i>; all representations +of objects; the pigment by means of +which color is seen; and all those technical processes +which produce the various kinds of surface +in the putting on of paint, and bring about the +different effects of light and shade and color, +form or accent.</p> + +<p>In learning to paint, it is with these concrete +things that you should concern yourself mainly. +The science of painting consists in the knowledge +of how to be the master of all the practical +means of the craft. For it is with these that you +must work, with these you must express yourself. +These are the tools of your trade. They are the +words of your art language—the language itself +being the abstract elements—and the thoughts, +the combinations which you may conceive in your +brain by means of these abstract elements.</p> + +<p>You must have absolute command of these +<i>materials</i> of painting. No matter how ideal your +thought may be, no matter how fine your feeling +for line and color and composition, if you do +not know how to handle the gross material which +is the only medium by which this can all be made +visible and recognizable to another person, you +will fail of either expressing yourself, or of representing +anything else.</p> + +<p>Now you will see what I have been driving at +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> +all this time; why I have been talking in terms +which may well be called not practical. I want to +fix your attention on the fact that there are two +qualities in a picture: that one will be always +within you, mainly, and will control the character +of your picture, because it will be the expression +of your mental self; and the other the practical +part, which any one may, and all painters must +learn, because it is the only means of getting the +first into existence.</p> + +<p>The one, the abstract part, no one can tell you +how to cultivate nor how to use. If I tried to +do so, it would be my idea and not yours which +would result. I can only tell you that it is the +<i>thought of art</i>, and you must think your own +thoughts.</p> + +<p>But the other, the material, the concrete, the +practical, it is the purpose of this whole book to +help you to understand and to acquire the mastery +of, so far as may be done by words.</p> + +<p>Teaching by words is difficult, and never completely +satisfactory. But much may be done. If +you will use your own brains, so that what does +not seem clear at first may come to have a meaning +because of your thinking about it, we may accomplish +a great deal. I cannot make you paint. +I cannot make you understand. I can give you +the principles, but you must apply them and think +them out.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> +Everything I say must be in a measure general; +for the needs of every one are individual, and the +requirement of each technical problem is individual. +I must speak for all, and not to any one. +Yet I shall state principles which can always be +made to apply to each single need, and I will try +to show how the application may be made.</p> + +<p><b>Technique.</b>—The science of painting consists of +a variety of processes by means of which a canvas +is covered with pigment, and various objects +are represented thereon. The whole body of +method and means is called technique; the several +parts of technique are called by names of +their own. That part which applies to the putting +on of the paint may be generally called +<i>handling</i>, although the word <i>painting</i> is sometimes +restricted to this sense, and <i>brush-work</i> is +often used for the same thing. The other technical +means will be spoken of in their proper +place. Let me say now a few words as to <i>handling</i> +in general.</p> + +<p>Where did all this technique come from?</p> + +<p>From experiment.</p> + +<p>Ever since art began, men have been searching +for means of fixing ideas upon surfaces. But it +is only within the last four hundred years that the +processes of oil painting have been in existence—simply +because they are peculiar to the use of +pigments ground in oil as a vehicle, and the oil +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> +medium was not invented until the middle of the +fifteenth century.</p> + +<p>With the invention of this medium new possibilities +came into the world, and a continual succession +of painters have been inventing ways of +putting on paint, the result being the stock of +methods and processes of handling which are the +groundwork of the art of painting to-day.</p> + +<p>From time to time there have been groups of +artists who have used common methods, and who +have developed expression through those methods +which became characteristic of their epoch; and +because the resulting pictures were of a high degree +of perfection, their methods of handling acquired +an authority which had a very determining +effect on different periods of painting.</p> + +<p>In this way have come those ideas as to what +kind of painting or what ways of putting paint on +canvas should be accepted as "legitimate." And +the methods accepted as legitimate or condemned +as illegitimate have been varied from time to +time—those condemned by one period being advocated +by another; and the processes themselves +have been almost as varied as the periods +or groups of men using them.</p> + +<p>In the long run, methods and processes have +received such authoritative sanction from having +been each and all used by undoubted masters, +that they have become the traditional property of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> +all art, which any one is free to use as he finds +need of them. They have become the stock in +trade of the craft.</p> + +<p>The artist may use them as he will, provided +only he will take the trouble to understand them. +He must understand them, because the manipulations +which make up these different processes +accomplish different effects and different qualities; +and as the painter aims at results, if he does +not understand the result of a process when he +uses it, he will get a different one from that which +he intended.</p> + +<p>The painter should not be hampered by process; +he should not be controlled in the expression of +himself by tradition. He should feel free to use +any or all means to bring about the result he +aims at, and he should allow no tradition or point +of view to prevent him from selecting whichever +means will most surely or satisfactorily bring +about his true purpose.</p> + +<p>Of course there are many ways of using paint +which are unsafe. Some pigments are unsafe to +use because they either do not hold their own +color, or tend to destroy the color of others. +You should always bear this in mind; and if you +care for the permanence of your work, you should +not use such materials or such processes as work +against it. But beyond this, the whole range of +the experience and experiment of the workers +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> +who have gone before you are at your command, +to help you to express yourself most perfectly or +completely; to represent whatever of visible beauty +you may conceive or perceive.</p> + +<p>And this is the whole aim of the painter; to +stand for this is the whole purpose of the picture.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2> + +<h3>ORIGINALITY</h3> + + +<p>Originality is not a thing to strive for. If it +comes, it is not through striving. The search for +originality seldom results in anything worth having. +It is a quality inherent in the man; and the +best way of being original in your work is to be +natural. Perhaps the most useful advice which +you could receive is that you be always natural. +Never be artificial nor insincere; never copy another +person's subject, manner, or method, with +the intention of doing as he does. The most +original things are often the most simple, because +they have come naturally from a sincere desire to +express what has been seen or felt, in the most +direct way.</p> + +<p>If every one were content to be himself, there +would be no dearth of originality. No two people +are alike, neither are any two painters alike; they +could not be. They do not look alike, nor see +alike, nor feel alike, nor think alike. How, then, +should they paint alike? The attempt to do a +thing because another has made a success of that +sort of thing is the most fruitful source of the +commonplace in painting.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> +Paint that which appeals to you most fully. +Don't try to paint what appeals to some one else. +If you like it, then do it; and do it in the most +direct way you can find; only do it so as to fully +and completely convey just what it is that <i>you</i> +like, unaffected by anything else. And because +you have seen or felt for yourself in your own +way, and expressed that; and because you are not +another, nor like any other that ever was, what +you have done will not be like anything else that +ever was—and that is originality.</p> + +<p>But never imitate yourself, either. Be open. +Be ready to receive impressions and emotions. +And if you have done one thing well, accept that +in itself as a reason for not doing it again. There +are always plenty of things—ideas, impressions, +conceptions, appreciations—waiting to be painted; +and if you try to paint one twice, you fail once of +freshness, and lose a chance of doing a new thing.</p> + +<p>That is what a painter is for, not to cover a +canvas with paint, hang it on a wall, and call it +by a name. The painter is the eye of the people. +He sees things which they have no time to look +for, or looking, have not learned to see. The +painter serves his purpose best when he recognizes +the beautiful where it was not perceived +before, and so sets it forth that it is recognized +to be beautiful through his having seen it.</p> + +<p>There is the difference between the artist and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> +the photograph, which sees only facts as facts; +which while often distorting them does so mindlessly, +and at best, when accurate, gives the bad +with the good in unconscious impartiality. But +back of the painter's eye which sees and distinguishes +is the painter's brain which selects and +arranges, using facts as material for the expression +of beauties more important than the facts.</p> + +<p>But what is a picture? I have met some strange +though positive notions as to what is and what is +not a picture. Some persons think that a certain +(or uncertain) proportion of definite forms and objects +are necessary to make canvas a picture; that +it must contain some definite and tangible facts of +the more obvious kind. I remember one man who +asserted that a canvas in an exhibition was not a +picture, but only a sketch, because it had nothing +in it but an expanse of sea and sky. To make +a picture of it there was needed at least a moon, +and some birds, or better, a ship and some reflections. +All this sort of thing is idle. A picture +is not a picture because it has more of this or +less of that; it is a picture because it is complete +in the expression of the idea which is the +cause of its existence. And that idea may be +tangible or not. It may include many details or +none. It is an idea which is best or only expressed +by being made visible, and which is worthy +of being expressed because of its beauty; and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> +when that idea is wholly and fully visible on canvas +or other surface, that surface is a picture. +What the contents of a picture shall be is a matter +personal to the painter of it. The manner +in which it is conceived and produced is determined +by his temperament and idiosyncrasy.</p> + +<p>A picture is a visible idea expressed in terms of +color, form, and line. It is the product of perception +plus feeling, plus intent, plus knowledge, plus +temperament, plus pigment. And as all these +are differently proportioned in all persons, it is +only a matter of being natural on the part of the +painter that his picture should be original.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2> + +<h3>THE ARTIST AND THE STUDENT</h3> + + +<p>It is a mistake to make pictures too soon. The +nearest a student is likely to get to a picture is +a careful study, and he will be as successful with +this, if he makes it for the study of it, as if he +made it for the sake of making a picture—better +probably. The making of a picture for the picture's +sake is dangerous to the student. His is +less likely to be sincere. He is apt to "idealize," +to make up something according to some notion +of how a picture should be, rather than from knowledge +of how nature is. Real pictures grow from +study of nature.</p> + +<p>They are the outcome of maturity, not of the +student stage. This implies something deeper +than superficial facts, and a power of selection,—of +choice and of purpose which must rest on a +very broad and deep knowledge. The artist is always +a student, of course; but he is not a student +only. He is a student who knows what and why +he wants to study; not one who is in process of +finding out these things.</p> + +<p><b>Aims.</b>—It should be noted that the aim of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> +student and the aim of the artist are essentially +different. The student's first aim is to learn to see +and represent nature's facts; to distinguish justly +between relations. It is the training of the eye +and the judgment. Imitation is not the highest +art; but the highest art requires the ability to imitate +as a mere power of representation. The mind +must not be hampered in its expression by lack of +knowledge and control of materials, and the painter +who is constantly occupied with the problems he +should have worked out in his student days, is just +so far from being a master. He must have all his +means perfectly at his command before he can +freely express himself.</p> + +<p>The acquirement of this mastery of means is +the student's business. Everything he does which +aids him in this makes him so much nearer to +being a painter. But he must remember that he +is still a student, and as he hopes to be a painter, +must have patience with himself; must not hurry +himself, must work as a student for the ends of a +student.</p> + +<p>All the facts of nature art uses. But she uses +them as she needs them, simplifying, emphasizing, +suppressing, combining as will best meet the +necessities of the case in hand. All this requires +the utmost knowledge, for it must be done in accordance +not only with laws of art, but with the +laws of nature.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> +There are changes which can be made, and be +right—made as nature might make them. Other +changes which would be false to nature's ways, +and so false to art also. For art works through +nature always, and in accordance with her. This +is the aim of the painter, to express ideas through +nature, not to express notions about nature.</p> + +<p>The facts of nature are the material of art; the +words of the language in which the ideas of art +are to be conveyed. But there are truths more important +than these facts. The underlying sentiment +of which they are the external manifestation, +and which is the vivifying spirit of them. This is +the true fact of the picture.</p> + +<p>It is more important to give the sentiment of +the thing than to give the fact of it; not merely +because it is more truly represented so, but because +the beauty is shown in showing the character. +For the character of the fact is the beauty +of the fact.</p> + +<p>To bring out the beauty which may lie in the +fact is the aim of the artist; to acquire the ability +to do this is the aim of the student.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIV" id="CHAPTER_XIV"></a>CHAPTER XIV</h2> + +<h3>HOW TO STUDY</h3> + + +<p>There is a right and a wrong way to study, and +it all centres around the fact that what you aim to +learn is perception and expression. What you are +to express you do not learn; you grow to that. +But you must learn how to use all possible means; +all the facts of visible nature, and all the characteristics +of pigments. All qualities, color and form +and texture, are but the means of your expression, +and you must know how they may be used. +Your perception and appreciation must be trained, +and your mind stored with facts and relativities. +Then you are ready to recognize and to convey +the true inwardness you find in conditions commonplace +to others.</p> + +<p>You are to see where others see not; for it is +marvellous how little the average eye sees of the +really interesting things, how little of the visual +facts, and how rarely it sees the picture before +it is painted. All is material to the painter. It +is not that "everything that is, is beautiful," but +that everything that is has qualities and possibilities +of beauty; and these, when expressed, make +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> +the picture, in spite of the superficial or obvious +ugliness. In one sense nothing is commonplace, +for everything exists visibly by means of light and +color, and light and color are of the fundamental +beauties. So arrange or look upon the commonplace +that light and color are the most obvious +qualities, and the commonplace sinks into the +background—is lost. There is nothing like painting +to make life fascinating; for there is nothing +which brings so many charming combinations into +your perception, as the habit of looking to find the +possibilities of beauty in everything that comes +within your view.</p> + +<p>You must form the habit of looking always +from the painter's point of view. The painter +deals primarily with pigment, and what can be represented +with pigment; chiefly color and light in +the broadest sense, including form and composition, +as things which give bodily presence and +action to the possibilities of pigment. Shade, or +shadow, of course, is an actuality in painting, because +it is the foil of light and color, and furnishes +the element of relation.</p> + +<p><b>Methods.</b>—Two general methods are at the command +of the student from the first,—to study at +once from nature, or to copy. I think I may safely +claim to speak for the great body of teachers who +are also professional artists, in saying that copying +is a means of study rather for the advanced +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> +student than for the beginner. You cannot begin +too soon to study nature with your own eyes, and +to accumulate your own facts and observations +and deductions. The use of copying is not to +find out how to paint, but to see how many ways +there are of painting. The great end of all study +in painting is to train the eyes to see relations, to +see them in nature. It is not to see that there are +relations, but to see where they are; to recognize +and to measure and to judge them. Painting is +the art of perception before everything, and when +you copy you only see, accept, what some one else +has already perceived. Copying does not help you +to <i>perceive</i>, it can only help to show you how something +can be <i>expressed after</i> it has been perceived, +and that is not the vital thing in the study of +painting. Handling, composition, management of +color, technique of the brush generally, may be +studied by copying. These only—and for these +things it is useful and wise. But the beginner is +not ready for these, for they are not the alphabet, +but the grammar of painting.</p> + +<p><b>Danger.</b>—The danger of too early copying is +that the student learns to set too much value on +surface qualities rather than those to which the +surface is merely incidental. With this is the +danger (a serious one, and one hard to overcome +the results of) that the student becomes clever as +a producer of pictures before he has trained his +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> +power to see. He becomes a student of pictures +rather than a student of nature, and when in +doubt will go to art rather than to nature for +help and suggestion. Could anything be more +fatal? Consider the things that student will have +to unlearn before he can think a picture in terms +of nature—the only healthy, the only prolific +way of thinking. He sees always through other +people's eyes, and thinks with other people's +brains, and feels other people's emotions; that is +not creation; that is the attitude for the spectator, +not for the painter.</p> + +<p>These things are all useful and good, but not +for the beginner. Later, when you have found +out something for yourself, when you have ground +of your own to stand on, then you may not only +without danger, but with benefit, go to the work +of other men to see the range of possible point of +view and expression, to see the scope of technical +material and individual adaptation; and so broaden +your own mental view and sympathy, possibly reform +or educate your taste, and perhaps get some +hints which will help you in the solving of some +future problem.</p> + +<p>But rather than the undue sophistication which +can result from unwise copying,—the over-knowledge +of process and surface, and under-knowledge +of nature,—is to be preferred a frank crudeness +of work which is the result of an honest going to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> +nature for study. You should not expect a perfect +eye for color and form too soon. Better a +healthily youthful crudity of perception based on +nature, and standing for what you have yourself +studied and worked out, which represents your own +attainment, than a greater show of knowledge +which is insincere and superficial because it represents +a mere acceptance of the facts set down +by others; and not only that, but even with it an +acceptance also of the actual terms used by those +others.</p> + +<p>Often copying is the most convenient way in +which you can get help. There is really much to +be learned from it, and you can make a picture +serve as a criticism on your own work. Particularly +in the matter of color or tone, as something +to recognize the achievement of for its own sake. +If you can recognize good color as such, aside +from what it represents, if you can appreciate +tone in a picture which is the work of some one +else, you are so much the more likely to notice +the lack of those qualities in your own work. So, +too, there are qualities of brush-work which are +always good, and some which are always bad. +You can study the former positively, and the +latter negatively, in studying and copying other +pictures.</p> + +<p>I have mentioned the training of your critical +judgment as a necessity in your education. You +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> +can do it slowly in learning to paint, but you can +facilitate that training by copying and studying +really good pictures, if you do it in the right +way.</p> + +<p><b>The Right Way.</b>—So if you do copy, do it in the +right way, so as to get all the real help out of it, +and not so as to have to unlearn the greater part +of it. Don't copy "to get a picture." Don't +make a copy which at a distance has a resemblance +to the original, but which on a more careful +study shows none of the qualities which make the +original what it is. Not only see to it that the +same subtleties of perception and representation +are preserved in your copy, but that they are attained +in the same way. Use the same brush-work +or other execution. Use the same pigments +in the same places, with the same vehicles; study +the original with your brain as well as with your +eyes and hands; try to see not only how the painter +did a certain thing but why. So that as you +work, you follow him in the working out of his +problem, and make it your problem also. In this +way you will get some real good from his picture, +and not a mere canvas which has been of no use +to you, nor can be of any satisfaction to any one +else who knows a good picture (copy or original) +when he sees it.</p> + +<p><b>Why Copy.</b>—There are only two good reasons +for making a copy,—to study the original as a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> +problem, and to have something to serve as an +example of the master on a work which you like. +And in either case such a sincere manner of copying +as I urge is the only possible way to get what +you want. To "get a picture," regardless of +whether it really does justice to the original, is +the wrong way, and this leads always through +bad copying to bad painting, and you are fortunate +if you escape an entire perversion of your +point of view.</p> + +<p>You may be able to make some money now and +again by doing this sort of thing, but you will +never learn anything from it. On the contrary, +it is the surest way you could find of closing your +eyes to all that is worth seeing.</p> + +<p><b>Get to Nature.</b>—If you would really learn to +paint, to see for yourself, to represent what you +see in your own way, you cannot get to nature too +soon. Don't bother about what the thing is, so +long as it is nature herself. By nature I mean anything, +absolutely anything which exists of itself, +not painted. Whether it be the living figure, or a +cast, or a bit of landscape, or a room interior—all +things which actually exist must show themselves +by the facts of light falling upon them: the +relation of color, and the contrasts of light and +dark. Whatever you see is useful to you in this +way, for these bring about all the qualities and +conditions which you most need to study. But +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> +models are not always at command, interiors do +not easily stay a long time at your disposal, and +bits of landscape which interest you are not always +easy to get at; for a student is apt to be either +far advanced or unusually ardent who will find interest +in the first combination which falls under +his eye. Therefore the most practically useful +material for study, which is always "nature," is +what we call "still life,"—<i>"morte" nature</i>, dead +nature is the better or more descriptive name the +French give to it. By this is meant any and all +combinations of objects and backgrounds grouped +arbitrarily for representation. Bottles and jugs +and fruits, books and bric-a-brac; all sorts of +things lend themselves readily and interestingly +to this use.</p> + +<p>The great value of still life for the student lies +in the variety of combinations of color and form, +of light and shade and texture, that he can always +command. There is practically no problem possible +to in-the-house light which may not be worked +out by means of still life. The training in perception +and representation, in composition and arrangement, +and in technique, which it will give +you is invaluable; and most important of all, while +you can always make such arrangements as will +interest you, because you need place only such +things or colors as you like, you are really studying +nature herself, you are looking at the things +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> +themselves, and the result you get is the product +of your own eyes and brain. The problem is entirely +your own, both in the stating and the solving, +and what you learn is well learned, and +represents a definite progress along the right +line.</p> + +<p>You have worked for the sake of the working, +and there is nothing which you have got from it +that may not be applicable to any future work you +may do, that does not directly lead to the great +object you have in view,—to learn how to paint +well.</p> + +<p><b>Be Sincere.</b>—But, above all, be sincere with yourself; +don't do anything to be clever, nor because +it pleases some one else. Painting is difficult +enough at best. You need all the interest and fascination +that the most charming thing can have +for you to help you to do it so that it is worth the +trouble. Don't take away the whole life of it by +insincerity. A very thoughtful painter said to me +once that he believed that all really good pictures +could be shown to be good by the sole criterion +of conviction. Can you think of any painting +being good without it? Can you think of any +amount of cleverness and ability making a picture +good without that. And it is quite as important +in study as elsewhere. Never do anything except +seriously; take yourself and your work seriously; +only by serious work can serious results come.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> +<b>Joy in Your Work.</b>—Do it because you like to. +But like good work and hate bad work; and, +above all, hate half-way work. Understand yourself: +what you want to do and why you want to +do it, and then be honest enough with yourself to +work till you have honestly done what you wanted +to do, and as you wanted to do it.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span></p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III"></a>PART III<br /><br /> +TECHNICAL PRINCIPLES</h1> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XV" id="CHAPTER_XV"></a>CHAPTER XV</h2> + +<h3>TECHNICAL PRELIMINARIES</h3> + + +<p><b>Reasons.</b>—Painting is something more than laying +on paint. It implies a certain amount of +knowledge of necessary preliminaries—technical +matters which are not strictly painting, but without +which good painting is impossible.</p> + +<p>It is all well enough to put paint on canvas, but +there must be a knowledge on which to base the +where and the why of laying it on, as well as +the knowledge of how to lay it on. If anything, +the where and why are more important than the +how. There are almost infinite methods and processes +of getting the paint onto the surface. +Every painter may select or invent his own way, +and provided it accomplishes the main purpose—the +bringing about of combinations of form, relative +color and pitch, the expression of an idea—it +is all right. But there are laws which govern +the positions of the different spots of paint, and +the reasons for placing them in certain relations. +These laws are back of personal idiosyncrasy. +They are a part of the laws which control all material +things. The painter may no more go contrary +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> +to them in painting than he may go contrary to +physical laws in any of the practical matters of +life. If pigments are not used in accordance with +the laws governing their chemical composition, +they will not stand. If the laws of proportion are +not observed in composition, the picture will not +balance. The laws of color harmony are as mathematically +fixed as the law of gravity. So, too, the +relations of size, which give the impression of +nearness or distance to objects, rest on the laws +of optics. You have infinite scope for individual +expression inside of those laws, but you cannot go +outside of them.</p> + +<p><b>Scientific Knowledge not Necessary.</b>—It is not necessary +that you should have any special knowledge +of all these laws nor even of the application of +them; but you must recognize their existence, +and have some practical notions about them and +their effect on your work.</p> + +<p>You can of course carry the study as far as +you are interested to go. The farther the better. +The more you study them the more you will find +them interesting, and the easier will it be for you +to work freely within their limitations. But this +is not the place for special study. There are +books which treat particularly of these things, and +you must go to them.</p> + +<p>But a superficial consideration of these subjects +cannot be left out of any book which would be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> +really helpful to the student of painting. I can go +into the theory of things only so far as to give +you that amount of practical knowledge which is +absolutely necessary to you as a painter. What +I shall give is given only because it cannot be +wisely left out, and the form of it as well as the +substance and quantity are determined by the +same reason.</p> + +<p>As you hope to become a painter, then, do not +neglect to study and think of this part of the +book, not merely as a preliminary to the process +of painting, but as containing matter which is continually +essential to it—which is part and parcel +of it.</p> + +<p>Another reason for the careful reading of these +chapters is that any discussion of the art of painting +necessarily demands the use of words or phrases +which must be understood. To speak of technical +things presupposes the use of technical phrases, +and without a knowledge of the words there can +be no comprehension of the thought.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVI" id="CHAPTER_XVI"></a>CHAPTER XVI</h2> + +<h3>DRAWING</h3> + +<p>Drawing is basic to painting. Good painting +cannot exist without it. I do not mean that there +must be always the outline felt or seen, but that +the understanding of relative position, size, and +form must be felt; and that is drawing. Drawing +is not merely form, but implies these other things, +and painting is not legible without them. They +go to the completeness of expression. Movement, +and action, as well as composition and all that it +implies or includes, depend upon drawing, and +they are vital to a painting.</p> + +<p><b>Importance of Drawing.</b>—Much has been said and +written of drawing as being the most important +thing in a picture; so much so, as to excuse all +sorts of shortcomings in other directions. This is +a mistake. Drawing is essential because you cannot +lay on color to express anything without the +colors taking shape, and this is drawing. But still +the color itself, and other characteristics which +are not strictly a part of drawing, are quite as +important to painting, simply because the thing +without them could not be a painting at all: it +would be a drawing.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> +All painters fall into two classes,—those who +are most sensitive to the refinements of form, and +those most sensitive to refinements of color and +tone. But the great colorists, the painters <i>par +excellence</i>, the workers in pigment before everything +else, those who find their sentiment mainly +there, these are the men who have made painting +what it is, and who have brought out its possibilities. +And looking at painting from their point of +view, drawing cannot be more important than +other qualities.</p> + +<p><b>Neglect of Drawing.</b>—Great artists have sometimes +not been perfect draughtsmen. They have +been careless of exactness of form. But they +have always been strong in the great essentials of +drawing, and they have made up for such deficiencies +as they showed, by their greatness in other +directions. Delacroix, for instance, sometimes let +his temperament run him into carelessness of +form in his hurry to express his temperamental +richness of color. These things are superficial to +the greater ends he had in view, but we have to +distinctly forgive it in accepting the picture. And +a great colorist may be so forgiven; he makes up +for his fault by other things. But there is no forgiveness +for the student or the painter who is +simply a poor draughtsman.</p> + +<p>The effect of neglect of drawing is to make a +weak picture. A painter, who was also an exceptionally +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> +fine draughtsman, once spoke of work +weak in drawing as resembling "boned turkey." +Lack of firmness, indecision, characterize the painter +who cannot draw. Those firm, simple, but +effective touches which are evident somewhere in +the work of all good painters, are impossible without +draughtsmanship. They mean precision. Precision +means position. Position means drawing.</p> + +<p><b>Proportions.</b>—All good work is from the general +to the particular, from the mass to the detail. +Keep that in mind as a fundamental principle in +good work, whatever the kind. You should never +place a detail till you have placed your larger +masses. The relative importance of things depends +on the consideration of those most important +first. Let this be your first rule in drawing.</p> + +<p>Proportions next. Largest proportions, then +exactness of relative proportions. Study first in +masses. See nothing at first but the large planes. +As Hunt said, "Hang the nose on to the head, +not the head on to the nose." In getting proportions +of the great masses, let no small variations +of line or form break into your study of the whole. +Therefore, see outlines first in straight lines and +angles. If you cannot see them at first, study to +find them; look at the long lines of movement; +mass several curves into one line representing the +general direction of them. Train yourself to look +at things in this way. There is nothing which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> +will not fall into position so. This will not be +easy at first. The training of a quick perception +of these things is a part of your training in drawing—the +first essential. It is not that the straight +lines are to be sought for themselves, but that +they simplify the first breaking up of the whole +into its parts, and so makes more easy the study +of proportion. The accuracy of the general masses +makes possible a greater accuracy of the lesser +proportions which come within them.</p> + +<p>You see form more truly also, when the perception +of it is founded on a mass or a line indicating +the larger character of it. It saves time for you, +too. You do not have to rub out so much. The +great lines and planes once established, everything +else falls naturally into place. Spend much time +over this part of a drawing. Cut the time you +give to a drawing into parts, and let the part +given to the laying in of larger proportions be +from a third to a half of the whole time, and study +and correct these until they are right.</p> + +<p>Once these are right a very slight accent tells +for twice what it would otherwise, and so you +need much less detail to give the effect.</p> + +<p><b>Modelling.</b>—In the same way that you have laid +out the proportions in mass, lay out your proportions +of light and shade. Model your drawing by +avoiding the small until the large variations of +shade are in place. Avoid seeing curves in relief +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> +as you have avoided curves of outline. Try to +analyze the modelling into flat planes, each one +large enough to give a definite mass of relief. +Don't be afraid of an edge in doing this. Let +your flat tone come frankly up to the next tone +and stop. This again is not for any effect in +itself, but only for facility and exactness. Later +you can loose it as much as you see fit in breaking +up the drawing into the more delicate planes, +and these again into the most subtle.</p> + +<p>Study first the outline and then the planes. +Constantly compare them as to relation; you will +find it suggestive. Remember that your aim is +to produce a whole, not a lot of parts, and although +a whole includes the parts, the parts are +incidental.</p> + +<p><b>Measurements.</b>—You will always have to use +measurements for the sake of accuracy. Probably +you will never be able to dispense with them. +The best way would be to take them as a matter +of course, and get so that you make them almost +mechanically, without thinking of it. You will +save yourself an immense deal of time and trouble +by accepting this at once; for accuracy is impossible +without measurements, and the habit of +accuracy is the greatest time-saver.</p> + +<p>Hold your charcoal in your hand freely, so that +your thumb can slip along it and mark off parts +of the object when you sight at them across the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> +coal. Measure horizontal and vertical proportions +into themselves and into each other. Height and +breadth are checks to each other. If the height +is a certain proportion of the breadth, then the +smaller proportions of height must have equivalent +proportions to each other <i>as well as to breadth</i>. +Measure these and you are sure of being right.</p> + +<p><b>Steps.</b>—Divide your drawing into steps or +stages of work. You will find it a helpful thing +in studying. You will do it quite naturally later. +Do it deliberately at first, as a matter of training.</p> + +<p><i>First step.</i>—Measure the extreme height and +breadth of the whole group or object of your +drawing, with accuracy, and mark each extreme.</p> + +<p><i>Second step.</i>—Outline the great mass of it with +the simplest lines possible. Give the general shape +of the whole. This blocks it in.</p> + +<p><i>Third step.</i>—Measure each of the objects in the +group, or the parts most prominent, if it be a single +object. Measure its height and breadth, both +in its own proportion and in proportion to the +dimensions of the other parts and of the whole. +Enclose it in straight lines as you did with the +whole mass.</p> + +<p><i>Fourth step.</i>—Find the more important of the +lesser proportions in each object, and block them +out also. This should map out your drawing exactly +and with some completeness.</p> + +<p><i>Fifth step.</i>—Lay in simple flat tones to fill in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> +these outlines, and keep the relations of light and +dark very carefully as you do so.</p> + +<p><i>Sixth step.</i>—This should leave your paper with +a few large masses of dark and light, which can +now be cut into again with the next smaller +masses, giving more refinement to the whole. +This also should so break up the edges as to get +rid of any feeling of squareness or edginess.</p> + +<p><i>Seventh step.</i>—Put in such accents of dark, or +take out such of light, as will give necessary character +and force to the drawing.</p> + +<p>I do not say that this method produces the +most finished drawing; but it is a most excellent +way to study drawing, and, more or less modified, +is practically the basis of all methods. In practised +hands it allows of any amount of exactness +or freedom of execution. I have seen most beautiful +work done in this way.</p> + +<p><b>Home Study.</b>—It is not necessary to have a +teacher in order to draw well; but it is necessary +to find out what are the essentials of good drawing, +and to work definitely and acquire them.</p> + +<p>Good drawing is a combination of exactness +and freedom; and the exactness must come first. +The structure of the thing must be shown without +unnecessary detail. You should always look +at any really good drawing you can come at, and try to +see what there may be in it of helpful suggestion to you. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus147" id="illus147"></a> +<img src="images/illus147.jpg" width="100%" alt="Drawing of Hands." title="Drawing of Hands." /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> +<span class="caption">Drawing of Hands. <i>Dürer.</i></span> +</div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span> +<b>Study the Masters.</b>—Get photographs of drawings +by the masters of drawing, and study them. +See how they searched their model for form and +character. Do not make so much of the actual +stroke as the manner in which it is made to express +and lend itself to the meaning.</p> + +<p>In this drawing by Albrecht Dürer you have +a splendid example of exactness and feeling for +character. You could have no better type of +what to look for and how to express it. Although +it is not important that you should lay +on the lines of shading just as this is done, it +is important to notice how naturally they follow, +and conform to, the character of the surface—which +is one of the ways in which the point helps +to search out the modelling.</p> + +<p>This drawing is made with a black and a white +chalk on a gray ground; a very good way to study.</p> + +<p>A good hint is also offered in this drawing, of +the modesty of the old masters, in subject. A +hand or part of any object is enough to study +from. There is no need to always demand a +picture in everything you do.</p> + +<p><b>Materials.</b>—For all purposes which come in the +range of the painter you should use charcoal. For +purposes of study it is the most satisfactory of +materials; it is sensitive, easily controlled, and +easily corrected. For sketching or preliminary +drawing on the canvas it is equally good.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> +You should have also a plumb-line with which +to test vertical positions of parts in relation to +each other, and this, with the pencil held horizontally +for other relative positions, gives you all +you need in that direction.</p> + +<p>In drawing on the canvas it is not often necessary +to do more than place the various objects +and draw their outlines carefully and accurately. +Sometimes, however, as in faces, or in pictures +which include important figures, you will need a +shaded drawing, and this can be done perfectly +with charcoal, and fixed with fixative afterwards.</p> + +<p><b>Imitation.</b>—Perfect drawing, in the sense of exact +drawing, is not the most important thing. A +drawing may be exact, and yet not be the truer +for it. It may be inexact, and yet be true to the +greater character. So, too, the drawing may have +to change an accidental fact which is not worth +the trouble of expression or which will injure the +whole. There is something more important than +detail, and the essential characteristics can be expressed +sometimes only by a drawing which is +deliberately false in certain things in order to +be the more true to the larger fact.</p> + +<p>Then, too, there is an individuality which the +artist has to express through his representation of +the external; and he is justified in altering or +slighting facts in order to bring about that more +important self-expression. Of course the self must +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span> +be worth expressing. There is no excuse for mere +falsification nor for mere inability. But a good +workman will not be guilty of that, and the complete +picture in its unity will be his justification +for whatever means he has taken.</p> + +<p><b>Feeling.</b>—Drawing must be a matter of feeling. +A perception of essential truth of a thing, as much +as of trained observation of the facts. The good +draughtsman becomes so by training his observation +of facts first, always searching for those +most important, and emphasizing those; and with +the power which will come in time to his eye +and hand easily and quickly to grasp and express +facts, will come also the power of mind +to grasp the essential characteristics. And the +trained hand and eye will permit the most perfect +freedom of expression. This is the desideratum +of the student; this is the end to be aimed at,—the +perfect union of the trained eye and hand to +see and do, and the trained mind to feel and select, +and the freedom of expression which comes of that +perfect union.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVII" id="CHAPTER_XVII"></a>CHAPTER XVII</h2> + +<h3>VALUES</h3> + + +<p><b>The Term.</b>—The word "values" is seldom understood +by the average individual, yet it should +not be difficult to take in. It means simply the +relation between degrees of strength of light and +dark, and of color considered as light and dark. +Translate the word into "importance," and think +what it means. The relative importance, strength, +force, power, value, of a touch of color to make +itself felt in the whole—that is its value. A weak +value is a note which does not make itself felt; +a strong value is one which does. A false value +is a touch of color which has not its proper relation +to the other spots or masses of color in the +picture, <i>considered</i> as <i>light and dark</i>—<i>not as color +per se</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Importance.</b>—As soon as you grasp this idea you +see at once how important values must be to the +whole picture. It is not possible to do any good +work, either in black and white or color, without it. +In one sense it is incidental to drawing. When +you consider drawing as the expression of modelling, +the relative roundness of parts, and of relief, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> +as well as outline, values come into play to give +the relations of planes of light and dark in black +and white. In this it becomes part of drawing.</p> + +<p><b>Values and Color.</b>—As soon, however, as color becomes +a part of the picture, values become the +basis of modern painting as distinguished from the +painting of previous centuries. Values, of course, +always existed wherever good painting existed, +because you cannot paint without recognizing the +relations, the relative pitch and relative strength +of tones. But the word is never heard in relation +to old masters. It is apparently of quite modern +coinage and use, and it probably was coined because +of a new and greater importance of the fact +which it represents.</p> + +<p>The older painters in painting a picture kept +parts of a whole object—a head or a figure, say—in +relation to itself; and that was values—but +restricted values. The whole picture was arranged +on the basis of arbitrary lighting, which entered +into the scheme of composition of that picture. +This is not values, but what is generally understood +by the older writers when they speak of +"chiaroscuro." The modern painter deals little +with chiaroscuro. It is almost obsolete as a +technical word. Arbitrary arrangement of light +and shade in a picture is not usual nowadays, +and consequently the word which expressed it +has dropped somewhat into disuse.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> +<b>Basis of Modern Painting.</b>—Instead of the old +composition in arbitrary light and shade, the modern +painter accepts the actual arrangement of light as +the basis of his picture, and spreads the values +over the whole canvas. In this way the quality +of "value" becomes the very foundation of the +modern picture. For you cannot accept the ordinary +or actual condition of light, as governing the +light and shade of your picture, without extending +the same scheme of relations over the whole +canvas. Every most insignificant spot of light and +shade and color, as well as the most significant, +must keep its place, must hold its true relation to +every other spot and to all the rest. Each value +must keep its place according to the laws of fact, +or it is out of touch with the whole. The whole +picture must be either on a scheme of general +fact, or a scheme of general arbitrary arrangement. +Any one piece of arbitrary arrangement +in this connection must be backed up by other +pieces of arbitrary arrangement, or else there +must be no arbitrary arrangement at all. The +modern painter accepts the former; and the importance +of "values" is the result.</p> + +<p><b>Absolute and Relative Values.</b>—We may speak of +values as absolute or relative. This relates to the +key or pitch of a painting. It is the contribution +to the art of painting which was made by the +French painter, Manet. You may paint a picture +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> +in the same pitch as nature, or you may transpose +it to a higher or a lower pitch.</p> + +<p>The relations of the different values of the picture +will hold the same relation to each other as +the values of nature do to each other. But the +actual pitch of each, the relation of each to an +absolute light or an absolute dark, will be higher +or lower than in nature. This would be relative +values.</p> + +<p>Or the pitch, relation to absolute light and dark, +of each value may be the same, value for value, as +in nature. This would be absolute values.</p> + +<p>The attempt at absolute values was not made +at all before Manet's time. A landscape was +frankly painted down, or darker, from the pitch +of nature, and an <ins class="correction" title="original reads 'interor'">interior</ins> as frankly painted up, +or lighter. In both cases the values had to be +condensed,—telescoped, so to speak,—because +pigment would not express the highest light nor +the lowest dark in nature; and to have the same +number of gradations between the highest and lowest +notes in the picture, the amount of difference +between each value had to be diminished—but +<i>relatively</i> they were the same. The degree of variation +from the actual was the same all through.</p> + +<p>With absolute values the painter aims at giving +the <i>just note</i>,—the exact equivalent in value that +he finds in nature. He tries to paint up to out-door +light or paint down to in-door light.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> +<b>Close Values.</b>—This naturally calls for a fine distinction +of tones—the utmost subtlety of perception +of values. To paint a picture in which the +highest light may not be white nor the lowest +dark black, and yet give a great range and +variety to the values all through the picture, the +values must be <i>close</i>; must be studied so closely +as to take cognizance of the slightest possible +distinction, and to justly express it. This sort +of thing was not thought of by the older painters. +It is the distinguishing characteristic of modern +painting. It is a substitution of the study of <i>relation</i> +for the study of <i>contrast</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Study of Values.</b>—You see at once how important, +how vital, the study of values is to painting. +Even if you paint with arbitrary lighting, as is still +done by many painters, especially in portraits, you +have to consider and study them as they apply to +<i>parts</i> of your picture. You will find no good +painter of old time who did not study relations. +If you look at a Velasquez, you will find that he +knew values, even though he did not use the word.</p> + +<p>But if you are in touch with your century, if +you would paint to express the suggestion you receive +from the nature you study, or if you would +convey the idea of truth to the world around you, +as that world exists, frankly accepting the conditions +of it, you will have to make the study of +values fundamental to your work.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> +<b>"The Fourth Dimension."</b>—You study values with +your eyes only, but you cannot <i>measure</i> values. +Length, breadth, and thickness you can measure; +but values constitute what might be called a +"<i>Fourth Dimension</i>," and you must measure it +by your eye, and without any mechanical aid. +Your eye must be trained to distinguish and +judge differences of value.</p> + +<p><b>Helps.</b>—There are, however, several things +which you can use to help you in training your +eye to distinguish values. When you look for +values you do not wish to see details nor things, +you wish to see only masses and relations. You +must <i>unfocus</i> your eye. The focussed eye sees +the fact, and not the relation. Anything which +will help you to see outlines and details less distinctly +will help you to see the values more distinctly.</p> + +<p><b>Half-closed Eyes.</b>—The most common way is to +half close the eyes, which shuts out details, but +permits you to see the values. Some painters +think this falsifies pitch, and prefer to keep the +eyes wide open, but to focus them on some point +<i>beyond</i> the values they are studying. This is not +so easy to do as to half close the eyes, but becomes +less difficult with practice.</p> + +<p><b>The Blur Glass.</b>—An ordinary magnifying-glass +of about 15-inch focus, which you can get at an +optician's for fifteen or twenty cents, will blur the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> +details, and help you to see the values, because +it makes everything vague except the masses. +You can frame it for use by putting it between +two pieces of cardboard with a hole in them, or +you can do the same with two pieces of leather +sewed around the edge. Of course the glass itself +is all you need, but it will be easily broken if +unprotected.</p> + +<p>Do not try to look <i>through</i> the glass at your +subject, but <i>at</i> the glass and the image on it.</p> + +<p><b>The Claude Loraine Mirror.</b>—This is a curved mirror +with a black reflecting surface. The object +is reflected on it, <i>reduced</i> both in size and pitch. +It concentrates the masses and the color, and so +helps to distinguish the relative values.</p> + +<p>You can make a mirror of this sort for yourself +by painting the back of a piece of plate glass +black. The real Claude Loraine mirror is expensive.</p> + +<p><b>The Common Mirror</b> is also very helpful in distinguishing +values. It reduces the size of things, +and reverses the drawing so that you see your +subject under different conditions, and a fresh eye +is the result. Place the group and your painting +side by side, if you are painting still life, and look +at both at the same time in the mirror. Do the +same with a portrait and the sitter.</p> + +<p><b>Diminishing Glass.</b>—Much the same effect can be +had by using a double concave lens. The picture +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> +is not reversed, but it is reduced, and the details +eliminated.</p> + +<p>In using any of these means you must remember +that it is always the relations and not the things +you are studying; and the most useful of these +aids is the blur glass, because you cannot possibly +see anything in it but the values and color masses, +everything else being blurred.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XVIII" id="CHAPTER_XVIII"></a>CHAPTER XVIII</h2> + +<h3>PERSPECTIVE</h3> + + +<p>There are two kinds of perspective, linear and +aërial. The former has to do with the manner in +which horizontal lines appear to converge as they +recede from the foreground, and so produce the +effect of distance. The latter has to do with the +effect of distance, which is due to the successive +gradations of gray in color noticeable in objects +farther and farther away from the observer.</p> + +<p><b>Aërial Perspective.</b>—To the student, aërial is <i>color</i> +perspective, because of the modifications which +colors undergo when removed to a distance. Modifications +of tone are largely due to varying distance, +and so aërial perspective is largely a matter +of <i>values</i>. That they are due to the greater or +less thickness of the atmosphere is only a matter +of interest, not of importance, to the artist; the +important thing to him is that the careful study +of values is necessary to relief, perspective, and +particularly, atmosphere and envelopment in a +picture.</p> + +<p>To the student, aërial perspective should be +only a matter of observation and of the study of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> +relations of color and value. There are no rules. +The effect depends on greater or less density of +atmosphere. Near objects are seen through a +thin stratum of air, and farther objects through +a thicker one. All you have to do to express it +is to recognize the relative tones of color. Paint +the colors as they are, as you see them in nature, +and you need have no trouble with aërial +perspective.</p> + +<p>But though I say "this is all you have to do," +don't imagine that I mean that it is always easy, +or that it can be done without thought and study. +You will have to use all your powers of perception +if you wish to do good work in this direction. +Especially on clear days, or in those climates +where the air is so rare that objects at great distances +seem near, you will find that atmospheric +perspective is simply another name for close values. +And close values, you remember, are the +most subtle of relations of light and shade and +color.</p> + +<p>The only rule for aërial perspective is to use +your eyes, and do nothing without a previous +careful study of nature.</p> + +<p><b>Linear Perspective.</b>—For most kinds of painting, +a technical knowledge of linear perspective is not +necessary, although every painter should understand +the general principles of it. In most cases +all the exactness needed can be obtained by comparing +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> +all lines carefully with the pencil or brush +handle held horizontally or vertically, and studying +the angle any line makes with it. Apply to all +objects in perspective the same observation that +you do in any other kind of drawing, and you will +have little trouble, as long as you are drawing +from an object before you. But if you go into +perspective at all, go into it thoroughly. A little +perspective is a dangerous thing, and more likely +to mix you up by suggesting all sorts of half-understood +things than to be of any real help.</p> + +<p>There are some kinds of subjects, however, +which require a complete knowledge of all the +rules and processes of perspective. Whenever +you have to construct a picture from details stated +but not seen; when you have a complicated architectural +interior or exterior; when figures are to +be placed at certain distances or in definite positions, +and they are too numerous or the conditions +are otherwise such that you cannot pose +your models for this purpose; then you may have +to make most elaborate perspective plans, and +lay out your picture with great exactness, or the +drawing which is fundamental to such a picture +will not be true.</p> + +<p>Such men as Gérôme and Alma-Tadema plan +their pictures most carefully, and so did Paul +Veronese, and it requires a thorough and practical +knowledge of perspective.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> +But this is not the place to teach you perspective. +It is a subject which requires special +study, and whole volumes are given to the elucidation +of it. In a work of this kind anything more +than a mention of the bearings of perspective on +painting would be out of place. If you do not +care to take up seriously the study of perspective, +avoid attempting to paint any subjects which call +for it; or, if you do care to study it, get a special +work on that subject, give plenty of time to it, +and study it thoroughly.</p> + +<p><b>Foreshortening.</b>—In this connection I may speak +of something which is akin to perspective, yet the +very reverse of it. As its name implies, foreshortening +means the way in which anything +seems shortened or in modified drawing as it +projects towards you; while perspective is the +manner in which lines appear as they recede +from you. Like aërial perspective, the best way +to study foreshortening is to study nature, not +rules.</p> + +<p>Perspective can be worked out by rule, foreshortening +cannot. Pose your model, or if it be +a branch of a tree, or anything of that sort, place +yourself in the proper position with reference to +it, and then study the drawing <i>as it appears</i>, thinking +nothing of <i>how it is</i>; make your measurements, +and place your lines as if there were no +problem of foreshortening at all, but study the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> +relations of lines, of size, and of values, and the +foreshortening will take care of itself.</p> + +<p>After all, foreshortening is only good drawing, +and a good draughtsman will foreshorten well, +while a bad draughtsman will not. Therefore, +learn to draw, and don't worry about the foreshortening.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIX" id="CHAPTER_XIX"></a>CHAPTER XIX</h2> + +<h3>LIGHT AND SHADE</h3> + + +<p><b>Chiaroscuro.</b>—A few words about chiaroscuro +will be useful. This is a term of great importance +and frequent use with artists and writers up to +within the last thirty or forty years. It has of late +become almost unused. The reason for this was +explained in the chapter on "Values." Nevertheless, +it is well that the student should know +what the word meant, and still means. Although +he may hear and use it less frequently than if he +had lived earlier in the century, the pictures, certain +qualities of which no other word expresses, +still exist, and are probably as immortal as anything +in this world can be. He should know what +those qualities are, and he should understand their +relation to the work of to-day.</p> + +<p>Chiaroscuro is described by an old writer as +suggesting "a theme which is the most interesting, +perhaps, in the whole range of the art of +painting. Of vast importance, great extent, and +extreme intricacy. Chiaroscuro is an Italian compound +word whose two parts, <i>chiar</i> and <i>oscuro</i>, signify +simply <i>bright</i> and <i>obscure</i>, or <i>light</i> and <i>dark</i>. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> +Hence the art or branch of art that bears the +name regards all the relations of light and shade, +and this independently of coloring, notwithstanding +that in painting, coloring and the clair-obscure +are of their very nature inseparable. The art of +clair-obscure, therefore, teaches the painter the +disposition and arrangement in general of his +lights and darks, with all their degrees, extreme +and intermediate, of tint and shade, both in single +objects, as the parts of a picture, and in combination +as one whole, so as to produce the best representation +possible in the best manner possible; +that is, <i>so as to produce the most desirable effect +upon the senses and spirit of the observers</i>. In a +word, its end and aim are fidelity and beauty of +imitation; its means, every effect of light; chromatic +harmonies and contrasts; chromatic values, +reflections; the degradations of atmospheric perspective, +etc." The italics are mine.</p> + +<p>You see at once that this covers a pretty wide +field. But it is to be again noted that the use of +chiaroscuro by the old painters meant not only the +expression of the light and shade of nature, but +the so arranging of the objects and the way that +the light was permitted to fall on them, that certain +parts of the picture became shadow, while +the light was concentrated in some other part or +parts. In this way the arrangement of the light +and shade of a picture became a distinct element +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> +of composition, and a very important one. The +<i>quality</i> of "light" was something to be emphasized +by contrast. It is stated (whether truly or +not) that the proportion of light to dark was according +to a definite rule or principle with certain +painters, some permitting more, and some less, +space of canvas to be proportioned to light and +to dark. The gradations of light and dark were +studied of course; but the quantity of light spread +over the canvas was calculated upon, so that the +less space of light and the greater the space of +dark, the more brilliant would be the main spot of +light in the picture. They wrought with the <i>quality +of light and shade</i> as an <i>element</i>, just as they +would with the quality of line or of color, considered +apart from objects or facts they might represent.</p> + +<p><b>Arbitrary Lighting.</b>—This is the arbitrary light +and shade spoken of in the chapter on "Values"; +and although the older painters included what we +now call values in their word chiaroscuro, it is this +fact of arbitrary lighting as opposed to accepting +the light as it does fall, or selecting those places +or times where it does naturally fall as we would +like it to, that makes the difference between modern +painting generally and the older method, and +has made chiaroscuro as a word and as a quality +of painting so much a thing of the past.</p> + +<p><b>Light and Shade.</b>—But we may use the old word +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> +with a more restricted meaning. If we use it +to mean literally light and shade, the way light +falls on objects and the relief due to the light side +and the shadow side of them, we get a use which +implies a very important and practical matter for +present study.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus167" id="illus167"></a> +<img src="images/illus167.jpg" width="100%" alt="Eggs." title="Eggs." /> +<span class="caption">Eggs. White against White.</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Objects Visible by Light and Shadow.</b>—If you will +put a white egg on a piece of white paper, with +another white paper back of it, you will see that +it is only because the egg obstructs the light, the +side of it towards the light preventing the light +rays from touching the other side, and so casting +a shadow on itself and on the paper, that the egg +is visible. You will also see, if you manipulate the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span> +egg, that according as the light is concentrated +or diffused, or according to the sharpness of the +shadow and light, is the egg more or less distinct.</p> + +<p><b>Contrast.</b>—Apply these facts to other objects, +and you will see how important the principle of +contrast is to the representation of nature. Not +only contrast of light and shade, but contrast of +color. And you should make a study, both by +setting up groups of objects in different lights, +and by studying effects of lights wherever you +are, of the possibilities and combinations of light +and shadow.</p> + +<p><b>Constant Observation.</b>—The painter is constantly +studying with his eyes. It is not necessary always +to have the brush in your hand in order to be always +studying. Keep your brain active in making +observations and considering the relations in nature +around you. The amount of material you +can store up in this way is immense, to say nothing +of the training it gives you in the use of your +eyes, and in the practice of selection of motives +for work. Schemes of color or composition are +not usually deliberately invented within the painter's +brain. They are in most cases the result +of some suggestion from a chance effect noticed +and remembered or jotted down, and afterwards +worked out. Nature is the great suggester. It is +the artist's business to catch the suggestion and +make it his own. For nature seldom works out +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> +her own suggestions. The effect as nature gives +it is either not complete, or is so evanescent as to +be uncopyable. But the habit of constant receptivity +on the part of the artist makes nature an +infinite mine of possibilities to him.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus169" id="illus169"></a> +<img src="images/illus169.jpg" width="100%" alt="The Canal." title="The Canal." /> +<span class="caption">The Canal. <i>Burleigh Parkhurst.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">Effect of diffused out-door light to be compared with effect +of studio light in "Bohemian Woman," and artificial light in "Woman Sewing by Lamplight."</span> +</div> + +<p><b>Perception.</b>—Only by continually observing and +judging of contrasts and relations can the eye +be trained to perceive subtle distinctions; yet it +must be so trained, for all good work is dependent +on these distinctions.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> +<b>Effects of Light.</b>—It is important to study the +different qualities of light. Take, for instance, +the difference of character on a sunny day and on +a gray day. On the former, fine distinctions of +color are less pronounced; they are lost in the +contrasts of sunlight and shadow. On a gray +day the light is diffused; contrast is less, but the +finer distinctions are more marked. For the study +of the subtleties of color choose a gray day.</p> + +<p>So, too, is the difference marked between the +general light of out-doors and the more concentrated +light of the house. The pitch is different. +Outside, even in a dark day, the general character +of light is clearer, more full, than in-doors.</p> + +<p>There is nothing possible under the open sky +like the strong contrasts you get from a single +window in an otherwise unlighted room.</p> + +<p>Compare, for instance, the character of the light +and shade as shown in the illustrations on pages +<a href="#Page_156">156</a> and <a href="#Page_159">159</a>. +The one is the diffused, out-of-door +light, the other that from a studio window. +The character of the subject has nothing to do +with this quality. The head would have less of +sharpness and contrast in the open air, and more +reflected light.</p> + +<p>Other differences to be studied as to quality of +the light in the manner of its contrast, and also +for its color quality, are to be seen in moonlight +or nightlight as compared with daylight. Artificial +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span> +light, such as lamp- and candle-light, gives +marked effects also, which may be compared with +daylight both as it is out-of-doors and in its more +concentrated effects in the studio. Compare the +picture of the "Woman Sewing by Lamplight," by +Millet, with the "Canal" and the "Bohemian +Woman" given above. The effects of gas and +electric light also should be studied. Their characteristics +both of contrast and, particularly, of +color are worth your attention as a student, inasmuch +as the essence of some pictures lies in these +qualities.</p> + +<p>Another matter of great importance to the student, +and one which the same three illustrations +just referred to may serve to show, is the effect +on objects of the position of the point of entrance +of the light with reference to them and to the +observer. The simplest light is the side-light from +a single window. This gives broad, sharp masses +of light and shade, and makes the study of drawing +and painting more simple. With the observer +in the same relative position to the subject, as the +light swings round towards a point back of him the +contrasts become less, the relations more subtle +and difficult of recognition, and naturally the +study of them more difficult. In this position of +light the values become "close." To make the +object seen at all, it is necessary that the finest +distinctions shall be observed.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus172" id="illus172"></a> +<img src="images/illus172.jpg" width="100%" alt="Bohemian Woman." title="Bohemian Woman." /> +<span class="caption">Bohemian Woman. <i>Frans Hals.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">Effect of contrast of light and shade in studio to be compared with diffused +light of open air in the "Canal," and artificial light in "Woman Sewing by Lamplight."</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus174" id="illus174"></a> +<img src="images/illus174.jpg" width="100%" alt="Sewing by Lamplight." title="Sewing by Lamplight." /> +<span class="caption">Sewing by Lamplight. <i>Millet.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">Effect of artificial light contrast to be compared +with natural light in illustrations of "Canal" and "Bohemian Woman."</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus176" id="illus176"></a> +<img src="images/illus176.jpg" width="100%" alt="Descent from the Cross." title="Descent from the Cross." /> +<span class="caption">Descent from the Cross.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> +Portrait painters have always been fond of a top +light, which gives a direct concentrated light descending +on the sitter, very similar in character +to the side-light, but more favorable to the expression +and drawing of the face.</p> + +<p><b>Cross Lights.</b>—The most confusing and difficult +of study and representation are the "<i>cross lights</i>." +If there are several windows or other points for +the admission of light, and the sitter or object +painted is between them, the light comes from all +sides, so that the rays cross each other and there +is no single scheme of light and shade. The rays +from one side modify the shadows cast from the +other side, and a perplexing and involved arrangement +of values is the result. This is a favorite +technical problem with painters, and its solution +is splendid training; but the student who can successfully +solve it is not far from the end of his +"student days."</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XX" id="CHAPTER_XX"></a>CHAPTER XX</h2> + +<h3>COMPOSITION</h3> + + +<p><b>Importance.</b>—Composition is of the utmost importance. +It is impossible that a picture should +be good without it. You may define it as that +study by means of which the balance of the picture +comes about. But you must understand the +word balance in its broadest sense. There is +nothing in the planning of the picture which +has not to be considered in making the picture +balance.</p> + +<p>The arrangement of the lines, of the forms, +of the masses, and of the colors must all be right +if the composition be right. Composition is the +planning of the picture; and it is more or less +complicated, more or less to be carefully studied +beforehand in exact accordance with the simplicity +or complication of the scheme of the picture. +You may not need more than the consideration of +a few main facts. It may almost be done by a +few moments' deliberation in some simple studies +or even pictures. But even then there is possible +the most subtle discrimination of selection, and a +perfect gem of composition may be found in the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> +arrangement of a picture having the simplest and +fewest elements. The more complicated the materials +which are to be worked into a picture, the +more careful must be the previous planning; but, +for all that, the genius will find scope for his utmost +powers in a simple figure, just because the +fewer the means, the more each single thing can +interfere with the balance of the whole, and the +more a fine choice will tell.</p> + +<p><b>The Æsthetic.</b>—I have already mentioned briefly +the æsthetic elements of a picture. I have called +to your attention that back of the obvious facts of +a subject and the objects in the picture, and the +theme which the painter makes his picture represent; +back of the technical processes and management +of concrete material which make painting +possible, is the æsthetic purpose of the work of +art; without this it could not be a work of art at +all: it would be merely a more or less exact representation +of something, a mere prosaic description, +the interest in which would lie wholly in the +<i>fact</i>, and would perish whenever interest in the +fact should cease. It is not the <i>fact</i>, nor even +the able expression of the fact, which makes a +work of art a thing of interest and delight centuries +after the bearing of the fact has been forgotten. +The perennial interest of a work of art +lies in the way in which the artist has used his +ostensible theme, and all the facts and objects +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> +appertaining to it, as a part of the material with +which he expresses those ideas which are purely +æsthetic; which do not rest on material things. +These have to do with material things only by +rendering them beautiful, giving to them an interest +which they themselves could not otherwise +have.</p> + +<p><b>Theory.</b>—Does this sound unpractical? Well, it +is unpractical. Does it seem mere theory? It is +theory. I want to impress it on you that it is +theory. For it is the theory which underlies art, +and if you do not understand it, you only understand +art from the outside. Consciously or unconsciously +every artist works to express these +purely æsthetic qualities, and to a greater or less +extent he expresses himself through them.</p> + +<p><b>Art for Art's Sake.</b>—This is the real meaning +of the much-debated phrase, "Art for art's sake." +The mistake which leads to the misconception +and most of the discussion about it, is in confounding +"art for art's sake" with "technique for +technique's sake," which is a very different thing. +Certainly every painter will work to attain the most +perfect technique he is capable of. But not for +the sake of the technique, but for what it will do. +The better the technique the better the control +of all the means to expression. If you take technique +to mean only the understanding and knowledge +of all the manipulations of art, technique is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> +only a means, and it is so that I mean it to be understood +here. If you broaden its meaning to include +all the <i>mental</i> conceptions and means, that +is another thing, and one likely to lead to confusion +of idea. So I use the word technique in +its strictest sense.</p> + +<p><b>The Æsthetic Elements.</b>—What, then, are these æsthetic +qualities I have spoken of? Will you consider +the quality of "line"? Not <i>a</i> line, but line +as an element, excluding all the possible things +which may be done with lines in different relations +to themselves and to other elements. Now +will you consider also the other elements, "mass" +and "color"? Do you see that here are three +terms which suggest possibilities of combination +of infinite scope? and they are purely intellectual. +What may be done with them may be done, primarily, +without taking into consideration the representation +of any material fact whatsoever. Take +as the type, conventional ornament. You can +make the most exquisite combinations, in which +the only interest and charm lies in the fact of +those combinations in line and mass and color.</p> + +<p>Take architecture. Quite aside from the use +of the building is the æsthetic resultant from combinations +of line and mass and color.</p> + +<p>And so in the picture the question of <i>art</i>, the +question of æsthetic entity, lies in the intellectual +qualities of combinations of line and mass and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> +color which permeate through and through the +technical and material structure that you call the +picture, and give it whatever universal and permanent +value it has, and which make it immortal, +if immortal it ever can be.</p> + +<p><b>Composition.</b>—The bearing of all this on composition +should be obvious, for composition is the +technique of combination. In the composition of +a picture all the elements come into play. It is +in composition that the management of the abstract +results in the concrete.</p> + +<p>Let us look at it from a more practical side. +Frankly, there are qualities, which you always look +for in a picture,—good drawing, of course, and +good color. But there are such things as these: +Harmony, Balance, Rhythm, Grace, Impressiveness, +Force, Dignity. Where do they come from? +Must not every good picture have them, or some +of them, to some extent? How are you going to +get them? If you have fifteen or twenty square +feet or square yards of surface, you will not get +them onto it by unaided inspiration. Inspiration +is, like any other intellectual quality, quite logical, +only it acts more quickly and takes longer steps +between conclusions perhaps. You will get these +qualities onto your canvas only by so arranging +all the objects which make up the body of your +picture that these qualities shall be the result. +It is arrangement then.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> +<b>Arrangement.</b>—But <ins class="correction" title="original reads 'arrangemen'">arrangement</ins> of what? how? +The objects. But on some principle back of them. +Consider another set of qualities: proportion, i.e., +relative size; arrangement, relative position; contrast; +accent,—these are what you manipulate +your objects with, and your objects themselves +are only line and mass and color in the concrete. +Objects, figures, bric-a-brac, draperies, houses and +trees, skies and mountains, and every and any +other natural fact, you may consider as so many +bits of form and color with which you may work +out a scheme on canvas; and how you do it is to +consider them as pawns in your game of æsthetics.</p> + +<p>With these as materials, what you really do is +to combine mass and line and color by means of +proportion, arrangement, contrast, and accent, that +a beautiful entity of harmony, balance, rhythm, +grace, dignity, and force may result. And this is +composition.</p> + +<p><b>No Rules.</b>—Naturally in dealing with a thing +like this, which is the very essence of art, rules +are of very little use. Ability in composition may +be acquired when it is not natural, but it calls for +a continuous training of the sense of proportion +and arrangement, just as the development of any +other ability calls for training.</p> + +<p>The best thing that you can do is to study good +examples and try to appreciate, not only their +beauty, but how and why they are beautiful. Cultivate +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> +your taste in that direction; and with the +taste to like good and dislike bad composition will +come the feeling which tells you when it is good +and when it is bad, and this feeling you can apply +to your own work, and by experiment you will +gain knowledge and skill.</p> + +<p>Rules are not possible simply because they are +limitations, and the true composer will always +overstep a limitation of that kind, and with a successful +result.</p> + +<p>Principles of composition, too, must be variously +adapted, according to the kind of picture you have +in hand. The principles are the same, of course; +but as the materials differ in a figure painting and +a landscape, for instance, you must apply them to +meet that difference.</p> + +<p><b>Suggestions.</b>—The first suggestion that might +be made as a help to the study of composition is +to consider your picture as a whole always. No +matter how many figures, no matter how many +groups, they must all be considered as parts of +a <i>whole</i>, which must have no effect of being too +much broken up.</p> + +<p>If the figures are scattered, they must be scattered +in such a way that they suggest a logical +connection between them as individuals in each +group, and groups in a whole. There should usually +be a main mass, and the others subsidiary +masses. There should be a centre of interest of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> +some sort, whether it be a color, a mass, or a +thing; and this centre should be the point to +which all the other parts balance.</p> + +<p><b>Simplicity</b> is a good word to have in mind. +However complicated the composition may seem +superficially, you may treat it simply. You will +control it by not considering any part as of any importance +in itself, but only as it helps the whole; +and you may strengthen or weaken that part as +you need to. Don't cut the thing up too much. +Let a half a dozen objects count as one in the +whole. Mass things, simplify the masses, and +make the elements of the masses hold as only +parts of those masses.</p> + +<p><b>Study placing</b> of things in different sizes relative +to the size of the canvas. Make sketches which +take no note of anything but the largest masses or +the most important lines, and change them about +till they seem right; then break them up in the +same way into their details. Apply the <i>steps</i> suggested +for drawing to the study of composition, +searching for balance chiefly, or for some other +quality which is proper to composition.</p> + +<p><b>Line.</b>—Each of the main elements of composition +can be used as a problem of arrangement. +You can study <i>composition</i> in line, in mass, or in +color.</p> + +<p>"The Golden Stairs," by Burne-Jones, is almost +purely an arrangement in <i>line</i>, and beautifully illustrates +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> +the use of this element as the main æsthetic motive in a picture.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 40%;"> +<a name="illus187" id="illus187"></a> +<img src="images/illus187.jpg" width="100%" alt="The Golden Stairs." title="The Golden Stairs." /> +</div> + +<p>Compare this composition in line with the "Descent from the Cross," in +which the <i>line</i> is equally marked, but more complicated, and used in +connection with <i>mass</i> to a much greater extent, and involved with +interrelations of chiaroscuro and color. Consider the effect which each picture +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> +derives as a whole from this management of these +elements. The one emphasizing that of line, with +the resultant of rhythm and grace; the other balancing +the elements, and so gaining power and +impressiveness.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus188" id="illus188"></a> +<img src="images/illus188.jpg" width="100%" alt="The Sower." title="The Sower." /> +<span class="caption">The Sower. <i>Millet.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">To show arrangement in mass and line, in which the mass gives weight and +dignity without weakening the emphasis of rhythm in the line.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span> +Often the whole composition should be a balancing +of the elements, as in this case. But the +emphasizing of one element will always emphasize +the characteristics to which those elements tend +as the main characteristic of the picture.</p> + +<p>Grace, rhythm, movement, come most naturally +from arrangement chiefly in <i>line</i>. If <i>mass</i> comes +into the picture, the masses may be arranged to +help the <i>line</i>, or to modify it. In "The Sower" +the management of mass is such as to give great +dignity, and almost solemnity, to the picture, yet +not to take away from the rhythmic swing and +action of the figure which comes from line, but +even to emphasize it. Compare this in these respects +with the lighter grace of "The Golden +Stairs" and the less unified movement, but greater +activity, of the "Descent from the Cross."</p> + +<p>Of course masses will come into the picture; +but either the masses themselves can be arranged +into line, or there can be emphasis given to lines +which break up or modify the masses, so that the +character of the picture is governed by them.</p> + +<p><b>Mass.</b>—In the arrangement of mass, light and +shade and color are effective. Smaller groups may +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> +be made into a larger one, and individual objects +also brought together, by grouping them in light +or in shade, or by giving them a common color.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus191" id="illus191"></a> +<img src="images/illus191.jpg" width="100%" alt="Return to the Farm." title="Return to the Farm." /> +<span class="caption">Return to the Farm. <i>Millet.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">To show the effect of mass in giving qualities of "scale" and "the statuesque."</span> +</div> + +<p>Weight, dignity, the statuesque, scale, are characteristics +of <i>mass</i>. Line in this connection only +takes from the brusqueness that mass alone would +have, or helps to break up any tendency to monotony. +The "Return to the Farm," by Millet, +shows this combination, the reverse of "The +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> +Sower." In this, the <i>line</i> is used to enrich the +repose and weight, the statuesque of the <i>mass</i>. +In the other, the <i>mass</i> gives dignity and impressiveness +to the grace and rhythm of the <i>line</i>.</p> + +<p>The color scheme of course will have an equal +effect in the emphasizing or modifying of the +motive of line or mass. Color will not only have +an effect on it, but must be in sympathy with it, +or the balance will be lost.</p> + +<p><b>Color.</b>—This is mainly where composition in +color will come in. Light and shade or chiaroscuro, +as I explained in the last chapter, are necessarily +intimately connected with composition here. +And you never work in color or mass without +working in light and shade also. Of color itself I +shall speak in the next chapter. It is only necessary +to point out the fact of connection here. Of +course in painting, all the elements are most +closely related. Although it is necessary to speak +of them separately in the actual working out, you +keep them all in mind together, and so make them +continually help and modify each other.</p> + +<p><b>A Principle.</b>—There is a well-established principle +in architecture, that you must never try to +emphasize two proportions in one structure. A +hall may be long and narrow, but not both long +and wide; in which case the proportions would +neutralize each other—you would have a simple +square, characterless. You may emphasize height +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> +or breadth—not both, or you get the same negative +character.</p> + +<p>So you may apply this principle more or less +exactly to the composition of a picture. Don't +try to express too many things in one picture, or +if you do, let some one be the main thing, and all +the rest be subordinate to it. There is perhaps +no law more rigid than the one which denies success +to any attempt to scatter force, effect, and +purpose. One main idea in each picture, and +everything subordinated to lend itself to the +strengthening of that.</p> + +<p>To a certain extent this will apply to line and +mass, though not absolutely. As a rule, line or +mass, one or the other, must be the main element.</p> + +<p><b>Leverage.</b>—I have often thought that much +insight into the principles of balance of masses, +and of mass and line, could be gained by thinking +of it analogously to equilibrium in leverage. A +small mass, or a simple line or accent, may be +made to balance a very much greater mass. The +greater part of a canvas may be one mass, and be +balanced by quite a small spot. But leverage +must come in to help. Somewhere in the picture +will be the point of support, the fulcrum. And +the large mass and the small one will have an +obvious relation with reference to that point. Or +the element of apparent density will come in. +The large mass will be the least dense, the small +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> +one the most dense, and the equilibrium is established. +For composition is but the equilibrium of +the picture, and equilibrium the picture must +have.</p> + +<p>There are many rules as to placing of mass and +arrangement of line, but they are all more or less +arbitrary and limiting in influence. Individuality +must and will ignore such rules, just because composition +deals chiefly with the abstract qualities +rules will not help. A fine feeling or perception +of what is right is the only law, and the trained eye +is the only measure. As in values, so in composition +you must study relations in nature, and results +in the work of the masters, to train your eye +to see; and you must sketch and block in all sorts +of combinations with your own hand, to give you +practical experience.</p> + +<p><b>Scale.</b>—One point of great importance should +be noticed. That is the effect on the observer of +the size of any main mass or object with reference +to the size of the canvas. This is analogous +to what is called <i>scale</i> in architecture.</p> + +<p>If the mass or object is justly proportioned to +the whole surface of the canvas, and is treated in +accordance with it, it will impose its own scale on +all other objects. You can make a figure impress +the observer as being life size, although it may +really be only a few inches long. A house or +castle coming into the picture may be made to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> +give its scale to the surroundings, and make them +seem small instead of itself seeming merely an +object in a picture. This will be due to the +<i>placing</i> of it on the canvas, largely, and more +in this than in anything else. The manner of +painting will also lend importantly to it; for an +object to appear big must not be drawn nor +painted in a little manner.</p> + +<p>The placing of objects of a known size near, to +give scale, is a useless expedient in such a case. +At times it may be successful, often of use; but +if the scale of the main object is false, the other +object of known size, instead of giving size to the +main one, as it is intended to do, will be itself +dwarfed by it.</p> + +<p><b>Placing.</b>—This matter of placing is one which +you should constantly practise. Make it a regular +study when you are sketching from nature. Try +to concentrate in your sketches so as to help your +study of composition. In making a sketch, look +for one main effect, and often have that effect the +importance of some object, studying to give it +<i>scale</i> by the placing and the treatment of it, and +its relation to the things surrounding it in nature +and on the canvas. In this way you will be studying +composition in a most practical way.</p> + +<p><b>Still Life.</b>—For practical study of composition, +the most useful materials you can have are to be +found in still life. Nowhere can you have so great +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span> +freedom of arrangement in the concrete. You +can take as many actual objects as you please, and +place them in all sorts of relations to each other, +studying their effect as to grouping; and so study +most tangibly the principles as well as the practice +of bringing together line and mass and color as +elements, through the means of actual objects. +This you should constantly do, till composition is +no more an abstract thing, but a practical study in +which you may work out freely and visibly intellectual +æsthetic ideas almost unconsciously, and train +your eye to see instinctively the possibilities of +all sorts of compositions, and to correct the falsities +of accidental combinations.</p> + +<p><b>Don't Attempt too much.</b>—Don't be too ambitious. +Begin with simple arrangements, and add to them, +studying the structure of each new combination +and grouping. When you are going to paint, +remember that too much of an undertaking will +not give you any more beauty in the picture, and +may lead to discouragement.</p> + +<p>In the Chapter on "Still Life" I will explain +more practically the means you may take, and how +you may take them, to the end of making composition +a practical study to you.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXI" id="CHAPTER_XXI"></a>CHAPTER XXI</h2> + +<h3>COLOR</h3> + + +<p>The subject of color naturally divides, for the +painter, into two branches,—color as a <i>quality</i>, +and color as <i>material</i>. Considered in the former +class, it divides into an abstract a theoretical and +a scientific subject; considered in the latter, it is +a material and technical one. The material and +technical side has been treated of in the Chapter +on "Pigments." In this chapter we will have to +do with color considered as an æsthetic element.</p> + +<p><b>The Abstract.</b>—The quality of <i>color</i> is the third of +the great elements or qualities, through the management +of which the painter works æsthetically.</p> + +<p>Just as he uses all the material elements of his +picture as the means of making concrete and visible +those combinations of line and mass which +go to the making of the æsthetic structure, so he +uses these in the expression of the ideal in combinations +of color. In this relation nothing stands +to him for what it is, but for what it may be made +to do for the color-scheme of his picture. If he +wants a certain red in a certain place, he wants it +because it is red, and it makes little difference to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> +him, <i>thinking in color</i>, whether that red note is +actually made by a file of red-coated soldiers, by a +scarlet ribbon, or by a lobster. The scarlet spot +is what he is thinking of, and what object most +naturally and rightly gives it to him is a matter to +be decided by the demands of the subject of the +picture; and its fitness as to that is the only thing +which has any influence beyond the main fact that +red color is needed at that point. If he were a +designer of conventional ornament, the color problem +would be the same. At that point a spot of +red would be needed, and a spot of paint would do +it. The painter thinks in color the same way, but +he expresses himself in different materials.</p> + +<p><b>The Ideal.</b>—This is the reason that a still-life +painting is as interesting to a painter as a subject +which to another finds its great interest in the +telling of a story. To the painter the story, or +the objects which tell it, are of minor importance. +That the picture is beautiful in color is what +moves him. As composition and color the thing +is an admirable piece of æsthetic thinking and +æsthetic expression, and so gives him a purely +æsthetic delight; and the technical process is secondary +with him, interesting only because he is a +technician. The representation of the objects +incidental to the subject is as incidental to his +interest, as it is to the picture considered as an +æsthetic thought.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span> +This is what the layman finds it so impossible +to take into his mental consciousness. And it is +probable that many painters do not so distinguish +their artistic point of view from their human point +of view. But consciously or unconsciously the +painter does think in these terms of color, line, +and mass when he is working out his picture; and +whether he admits it to himself or not, these characteristics +are the great influencing facts in his +judgment of pictures, as well as in the growth and +permanency of his own fame. That is why a great +popular reputation dies so rapidly in many instances. +The æsthetic qualities of the man's work +are the only ones which can insure a permanent +reputation for that work; for the art of painting is +fundamentally æsthetic, and nothing external to +that can give it an artistic value. Without that +its popularity and fame are only matters of accidental +coincidence with popular taste.</p> + +<p>If a painter is really great in the power of +conception and of expression of any of the great +æsthetic elements, his work will be permanently +great. It will be acknowledged to be so by the +consensus of the world's opinion in the long run; +nothing else can make it so, and nothing but obliteration +can prevent it.</p> + +<p>I am explicit in stating these ideas, not because +I expect that you will learn from this book to be +a great master of the æsthetic, but because I am +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> +assured that you can never be a painter unless you +understand a painter's true problems. You must +be able to know a good picture in order to make a +good picture, and however little you try for, your +work will be the better for having a painter's way +of looking at a painter's work. The technical problems +are the control of the materials of expression. +The painter must have that control. The student's +business is to attain that control, and then +he has the means to convey his ideas. But those +ideas, if he be a true painter, are not ideas of history +or of fiction, but ideas of line and mass and +color, and of their combinations.</p> + +<p><b>The Color Sense.</b>—Therefore color is a thing to +be striven for for its own sake. Good color is a +value in itself. You may not have the genius to +be a good colorist, but you need not be a bad one; +for the color sense can be definitely acquired. +I will not say that color initiative can always be +acquired; but the power to perceive and to judge +good color can be, and it will go far towards the +making of a good painter, even of a great one.</p> + +<p>I knew one painter who came near to greatness, +and near to greatness as a colorist, who in twelve +years trained his eye and feeling from a very inferior +perception of color to the power which, as +I say, came near to greatness. He was an able +painter and a well-trained one before that; but in +this direction he was deficient, and he deliberately +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span> +set about it to educate that side of himself, with +the result I have stated. How did he do it? Simply +by recognizing where he needed training, and +working constantly from nature to perceive fine +distinctions of tone; and by careful and severe +self-criticism. Summer after summer he went out-doors +and worked with colors and canvas to study +out certain problems. Every year he set himself +mainly one problem to solve. This year it might +be luminosity; next it might be the domination of +a certain color; another year the just discrimination +of tones—and he became a most exquisite +colorist.</p> + +<p>So, as I knew his work before and after this self-training, +and as I know personally of the means he +took to attain his purpose, I think I can speak positively +of the fact that such development of the +color sense is possible.</p> + +<p><b>Taste.</b>—It is well to remember that taste in +color is not dependent on personal judgment alone; +that what is good and what is bad in color does +not rest on mere opinion. That a good colorist's +idea of color does not agree with your own is not +a matter of mere whim or liking, in which you +have quite as good a right to your opinion as he +has to his. The colorist, it is true, does not produce +or judge of color by rule. He works from +his feeling of what is right. But there is a law +back of his taste and feeling. The laws of color +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> +harmony are definite, and have been definitely +studied and definitely calculated. Color depends +for its existence on waves of vibration of rays of +light, just as sound is dependent on sound waves.</p> + +<p><b>Color Waves.</b>—These waves of light give sensations +of color which vary with the rapidity or length +of the wave, and certain combinations of wave +lengths will be harmonious (beautiful), and others +will not be. This is a matter of scientific fact; +it is not a notion. The mathematical relations of +color waves have been calculated as accurately as +the relations of sound waves have been. It is possible +to make combinations of mathematical figures +which shall represent a series of harmonious color +waves. And it is possible to measure the waves +radiated from a piece of bad coloring and prove +them, <i>mathematically</i>, to be bad color.</p> + +<p>It is a satisfaction to the artist to know that +this is so; because although he will never compose +color-schemes by the aid of mathematics, it gives +him solid ground to stand on, and it diminishes +the assurance of the man who claims the right to +assert his opinion on color because "one man's +taste is as good as another's." It is also encouraging +to the student to know it, because he then +knows that there is a definite knowledge, and not +a personal idiosyncrasy, on which he can found his +attempts to cultivate this side of his artistic life.</p> + +<p><b>Color Composition.</b>—The artist's problem in color +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> +composition is <ins class="correction" title="original reads 'analagous'">analogous</ins> to that of line and mass, +but is of course governed by conditions peculiar +to it. The qualities which derive from line and +mass are emphasized or modified by the management +of color in relation to them. The painter +in this direction uses the three elements together. +Contrast and accent are attributes of color. Dignity +and weight, as well as certain emotional qualities, +such as vivacity and sombreness, may give +the key to the picture in accordance with the arrangement +of its color-scheme.</p> + +<p>The mass may be simplified and strengthened, +or broken up and lightened, by the color of the +forms in it. By massing groups of objects in the +same color, or by introducing different colors in +the different forms in the same group, the mass +is emphasized or weakened. So in line, the same +color in repetition will carry the line through a +series of otherwise isolated forms, and effect the +emphasis of line. Masses can be strung into line, +like beads, on a thread of color. In the great compositions +of the old Venetian painters this marshalling +of color groups constituted a principal +element. The decorative unity of these great canvases +could have been possible in no other way.</p> + +<p>As I have said, the key of the color-scheme has +a direct emotional effect, so adding to the power +and dignity or the grace and lightsomeness of +the composition. The analogy between color and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span> +imagination is marked. Certain temperaments instinctively +express their ideals through color. To +the painter color may be an all-influencing power; +it is the glory of painting.</p> + +<p>Drawing appeals to the intellect, but color speaks +directly to the emotions, and conveys at a glance +the idea which is re-enforced through the slower +intellectual perception of the meaning of forms. +In some unexplained way it expresses to the observer +the temperamental mood; the joyousness, +the severity or agitation which was the cause of +its conception. In this strange but direct manner +the color note aids the expression by line and +mass of the æsthetic emotion which is the meaning +of the painter's thought.</p> + +<p><b>Key.</b>—The key, then, is an important part of +the picture. The very terms <i>warm</i> and <i>cold</i> applied +to colors suggest what may be done by color +arrangement. The <i>pitch</i> of the picture places it, +in the emotional scale.</p> + +<p><b>Tone.</b>—Tone is harmony; the perfect balance +of color in all parts of the picture. Fine color +always means the presence, in all the color of the +picture, of all the three primaries in greater or less +proportion. Leave one color out in some proportion, +and you have just so much less of a balance. +I do not mean that some touch may not be pure +color. On the contrary, the whole picture may be +built up of touches of pure color. But the balance +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> +of color must be made then by touches of the different +colors balancing each other, not only all +over the picture, but in each part of it, to avoid +crudity or over-proportion of any color. Generally +the color scheme is dominated by some one color: +which means that every touch of color on the canvas +is modified to some extent by the presence of +that color, keeping the whole in key. Each color +retains its personal quality, but the quality of the +dominant color is felt in it.</p> + +<p><b>False Tone.</b>—This is not to be attained by painting +the picture regardless of color relations, and +then glazing or scumbling some color all over the +whole. This is the false tone of some of the +older historical painters, particularly of the English +school of the earlier part of this century. +They "painted" the picture, and then just before +exhibiting it "toned" it by glazing it all over with +a large brush and some transparent pigment, generally +bitumen. This did, in fact, bring the picture +in tone after a fashion. But it is not a colorist's +method. It is the rule of thumb method of a +false technique and a vicious color sense. True +tone is not something put onto the picture after +it is painted. It is an inherent part of its color +conception, and is worked into it while the picture +is being painted, and grows to perfection with the +growth of the picture. It is of the very essence +of the picture. It is the dominant balance of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> +color qualities; the result of a perfect appreciation +of the value of every color spot which goes to +the expression of the artist's thought.</p> + +<p>In one sense it is the same as <i>atmosphere</i> in +that the tonality of the picture is the atmosphere +which pervades it. It may perhaps be best described +by saying that it is that combination of +color which gives to the picture the effect of every +object and part in it having been seen under +the same conditions of atmosphere; having been +seen at the same time, with the same modification, +and with the same degree and quality of light +vibration. Tone is <i>color value</i> as distinguished +from value as degree of power as light and shade; +and in this is the perfection of subtlety of color +feeling.</p> + +<p><b>Tone Painters and Colorists.</b>—Some painters have +been called "tone painters," while others have +been called "colorists;" not that tone painters are +not colorists, but that there is a difference. It is +a difference of aim, a difference of desire. Those +painters who are usually called colorists, like Titian +and Rubens, are in love with the richness and +power of the color gamut. They are full of the +splendor of color. They paint in full key, however +balanced the canvas. Each note of color tells for +its full power. Their stop is the open diapason, +and their harmony is the harmony of large intervals +and full chords.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> +The tone painter deals with close intervals. He +is in love with subtle harmonies. What he loves +is the essence of the color quality, and not its +splendor. With the closest range he can give all +possible half-tones and shades and modulations of +color, yet never exceed the gray note perhaps; +never once go to the full extent of his palette-power.</p> + +<p>The utmost delicacy of perception and feeling, +and the most perfect command of materials and of +values, are necessary to such a painter. Above +all, is he the "painter's painter," for the infinite +subtlety and the exquisiteness of power are his. +And yet this is the thing least appreciated by the +lay mind, the most difficult to encompass, and requiring +the most knowledge to appreciate.</p> + +<p><b>Scientific Color.</b>—To the scientist color is simply +the irritation of the nerves of the retina of the eye +by the waves of light. Different wave lengths +give different color sensations. It is the generally +accepted theory now that there are three primary +sensations; that is, that the eye is sensitive +to three kinds of color, and that all other shades +and varieties of color are the results of mingling +or overlapping of the waves which produce those +three colors, and irritating more or less the nerves +sensitive to each color simultaneously. These +three primary colors are now stated to be red, +blue, and <i>green</i>. The older idea was that they +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> +were red, blue, and <i>yellow</i>; and was based on experiments +with pigments. Pigments do give these +results; for a mixture of blue and yellow <i>pigment</i> +will give green, and a mixture of red and green +<i>pigment</i> will not give yellow, while the reverse is +the fact with <i>light</i>.</p> + +<p>White light is composed of all the colors. And +the white light may be broken up (separated by +refraction or the turning aside of light rays from +their true course) into the colors of the rainbow, +which is itself only this same decomposition of +light by atmospheric refraction. Black is the absence +of light, and consequently of color. This is +not the case with pigment, for pure pigment has +never been produced. The pigment simply reflects +light rays which fall on it; that is, pigments +have the power of absorbing, and so rendering invisible, +certain of the rays which, combined, make +up the white light which illumines them; and of +transmitting others to the eye by reflection. We +see, that is, our nerves of sight are irritated by, +those rays which are not absorbed, but which are +reflected.</p> + +<p>All pigment is more or less absorbent of color +rays, and more or less reflective of them; certain +color rays being absorbed by a pigment, and certain +other rays being reflected by it. The pigment +is named according to those rays which it +reflects. As a color-producing substance, then, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> +the pigment is practically a mirror reflecting color +rays. But a true mirror would reflect all rays +unmodified. If we could paint with mirrors, each +of which would reflect its own color <i>unsullied</i>, we +could do what the scientist does with light; but +the painter deals with an imperfect mirror which +gives no color rays back unsullied by rays of +another class, and so our results cannot be the +same as the scientist's. So that just in accordance +with the degree of purity of transmitting power of +a pigment will be the purity of the color which +we get by its use. But absolute purity of pigment +we cannot get, so we cannot deal with it as we do +with light, and we deal with a practical fact rather +than a scientific fact, as painters.</p> + +<p><b>Primaries and Secondaries.</b>—As all the other shades +of color are produced by the combinations (over-lappings) +of the waves or vibrations in the light +rays from the primary colors, we have a series of +colors called secondaries, because they are made +up of the rays of any two of the three primaries: +as purple, which is a combination of blue and red. +When dealing with <i>light</i> the secondaries are: +shades of violet and purple from red and blue; +shades of orange red, orange, orange yellow, yellow, +and yellowish green from red and green; and +bluish green and greenish blue from blue and +green—the character of the color being decided +by the proportions of the primaries in the mixture.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> +These conclusions have been reached mainly +through experiments in white light. The primaries +so obtained do not hold good with pigment, as +I have stated, but the principles do. It will avoid +confusion if I speak hereafter of the combinations +as they occur with pigment, it being borne in mind +that it is a practical fact that we are dealing with +rather than a scientific one.</p> + +<p>In dealing with <i>pigment</i> the primaries are red, +blue, and <i>yellow</i>, not <i>green</i>. Of course the secondaries +are also changed; and we have purple and +violet shades from red and blue, orange from red +and <i>yellow</i>, and green from blue and yellow—all +of which vary in shade with the proportion of +the mixture of the primaries, as is the case with +light.</p> + +<p><b>Tertiaries.</b>—Another class of shades or colors +is called <i>tertiary</i>, or third; for they are mixtures +of all the three primaries, or of a primary with a +secondary which does not result from mixture with +that primary. Tertiaries are all <i>grays</i>, and grays +are practically always tertiaries. If you keep this +in mind as a technical fact, it will help you in +management of color. Grays are, to the painter, +always combinations of color which include the +three primaries. The usual idea is that gray is +more or less of a negation of color. This is not +so. Gray is the balancing of all color, so that any +true harmony of color, however rich it may be, is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> +always quiet in effect as a whole; that is, grayish—good +color is never garish. It is very important +that the painter should understand this characteristic +of color. You cannot be too familiar with +the management of grays. If you try to make +your grays with negative colors, you will not produce +harmonious color, but negative color, and +negative color is only a shirking of the true problem. +Grays made of mixtures of pure colors, balancings +of primaries and secondaries, that is, +modifications of the tertiaries, are quite as quiet +in effect and quite as beautiful as any, but they +are also more luminous; they are <i>live</i> color instead +of <i>dead</i> color. Grays made by mixing black with +everything are the reverse, and should not be used +except when you use black as a color (which it is +in <i>pigment</i>), giving a certain color quality to the +gray that results from it.</p> + +<p><b>Complementary Colors.</b>—Two colors are said to be +complementary to each other when they together +contain the three primaries in equal strength. +Green, for instance, is the complementary of red, +for it contains yellow and blue; orange (yellow +and red) is complementary to blue; and purple +(red and blue) is complementary to yellow.</p> + +<p>The knowledge of complements of colors is very +important to the painter, for all the effects of color +contrast and color harmony are due to this. Complementary +colors, in mass, side by side, contrast. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> +The greatest possible contrast is that of the complementaries.</p> + +<p>Complementary colors mixed, or so placed that +small portions of them are side by side, as in hatching +or stippling, give the tertiaries or grays by +the mixing of the rays.</p> + +<p><b>The Law of Color Contrast.</b>—"When two dissimilar +colors are placed in contiguity, they are always +modified in such a manner as to increase their +dissimilarity."</p> + +<p><b>Warm and Cold Colors.</b>—Red and yellow are called +warm colors, and blue is called a cold color. This +is not that the color is really cold or warm, of +course, but that they convey the impression of +warmth and coldness. It is mainly due to association +probably, for those things which are warm +contain a large proportion of yellow or red, and +those which are cold contain more blue. There is +a predominance of cold color in winter and of the +warm colors in summer.</p> + +<p>From the primaries various degrees of warmth +and coldness characterize the secondaries and tertiaries, +as they contain more or less proportionately +of the warm or cold primaries.</p> + +<p>In contrasting colors these qualities have great +effect.</p> + +<p><b>Color Juxtaposition.</b>—In studying the facts of +color contrast and color juxtaposition you will find +that two pigments, if mixed in the ordinary way, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> +will have one effect; and the same pigments in the +same proportions, mixed not by stirring them into +one mass, but by laying separate spots or lines of +the pigment side by side, produce quite another. +The gain in brilliancy by the latter mode of mixing +is great, because you have mixed the <i>color rays</i>, +which are really light rays, instead of mixing the +<i>pigment</i> as in the usual way. You have really +mixed the color by mixing <i>light</i> as far as it is possible +to do it with pigment. You have taken advantage +of all the light reflecting power of the +pigment on which the color effect depends. Each +pigment, being nearly pure, reflects the rays of +color peculiar to it, unaffected by the neutralizing +effect of another color mixed with it; while the +neutralizing power of the other color being side by +side with it, the waves or vibrations of the color +rays blend by overlapping as they come side by +side to the eye; and so the color, made up of the +two waves as they blend, is so much more vibrant +and full of life.</p> + +<p><b>"Yellow and Purple."</b>—It is this principle which +is the cause of the peculiarity in the technique of +certain "Impressionist" painters. The "yellow +lights and purple shadows" is only placing by the +side of a color that color which will be most +effective in forcing its note.</p> + +<p>Brilliancy is what these men are after, and they +get it by the study of the law of color contrast +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> +and color juxtaposition. The effect of complementaries +in color contrast is what you must study +for this, for the theory of it. For the practice of +it, study carefully and faithfully the actual colors +in nature, and try to see what are the real notes, +what the really component colors, of any color +contrast or light contrast which you see. Purple +shadows and yellow light re-enforcing each other +you will find to exist constantly in nature. Refine +your color perception, and you will be able +to get the result without the obviousness of the +means which has brought down the condemnation +on it. Closer study of the relations is the way to +find the art of concealing art.</p> + +<p>But yellow and purple are not the only complementaries. +All through the range of color, the +secondaries and tertiaries as well as the primaries, +this principle of complement plays a part. There +is no color effect you can use in painting which +does not have to do, more or less, with the placing +of the complementary color in mass, to emphasize; +or mixed through to neutralize, the force of it. +Train your eyes to see what the color is which +makes the effect. Analyze it, see the parts in +the thing, so that you may get the thing in the +same way, if you would get it of the same force as +in nature.</p> + +<p><b>Practical Color.</b>—All these theoretical ideas as to +color have their relation to the actual handling of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> +pigment, which is the craft of the painter. The +facts of contrasting and harmonizing color relation +have a practical bearing on the painter's work, +both in what he is to express and how he is to do +it; as to his conception of a picture and his representation +of facts. In his conception he must +deal with the possibilities of effect of color on +color. The power of one color to strengthen the +personal hue of another, or its power to modify +that hue, is a fact bearing on whether the color +in the picture is the true image of the color he +has seen in his mind. In the same degree must +this possibility affect his representation of actual +objects.</p> + +<p>The greatest possibilities of luminosity in sunlight +or atmospheric effects come from the power +to produce vibration by cool contrasted with warm +color. You will find that a red is not so rich in +any position as when you place its complementary +near it. At times you will find it impossible to +get the snap and sparkle to a scarlet—cannot +make it carry, cannot make it felt in your picture +as you want it without placing a touch of purple, +perhaps, just beside it; to place near by a darker +note will not have the same effect. It is the contrast +of color vibration, not the contrast of light +and shade, which gives the life. And at the same +time that you enhance the brilliancy of the several +notes of color in the picture, you harmonize the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> +whole. For the mosaic of color spots all over +the canvas brings about the balance of color in +the composition, and harmony is the result.</p> + +<p><b>Study Relations.</b>—You must constantly study the +actual relations of color in nature. You will find, +if you look for it, that always, just where in art +you would need a touch of the complementary for +strength or for harmony, nature has put it there. +She does it so subtly that only a close observer +would suspect it. But the thing is there, and +it is your business to be the close observer who +sees it, both for your training as a colorist, and +your use as an interpreter of nature's beauties. +It is your business to see subtly, for nature uses +colors subtly. The note sparkles in nature, but +you do not notice the complementary color near +it. Can you not also place the complementary +color so that it is not seen, but its influence on +the important color is felt? It is by searching +out these <i>finesses</i> of nature that you train your +eye. You must actually see these colors. At +first you may only know that they must be there +because the effect is there. But your eye is capable +of actually recognizing them themselves, and +you are no painter till it can. The theoretical +knowledge is and should be a help to you, but +the actual power of sight is most important. A +painter may use theoretical knowledge to help his +self-training, but power of eye he must have as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> +the result of that training. The instantaneous +recognition of facts and relations, the immediate +and perfect union of eye and thought, are what +make that intuitive perception which is the true +feeling of the artist.</p> + +<p>Work this out with eye and palette. Study the +color and its relation in nature, and study its analogy +in the pigment touches on the canvas.</p> + +<p><b>The Palette.</b>—You try to attain nature's effects +of light with pigment. Pigment is less pure than +light. You cannot have the same scale, the same +range, but you must do the best you can, and the +arrangement of your palette will help you. As +you have not a perfect blue, a perfect red, and a +perfect yellow, you must have two colors for one. +Your paints will always be more or less impurely +primary. No one red will make a pure purple +with blue, and an equally pure orange with yellow. +Yet pure purple and pure orange you must be able +to make. Have, then, both a yellowish or orange +red and a bluish or purplish red on your palette. +Do the same with blue and yellow. In this way +you can not only get approximately pure secondaries +when you need them, but the primaries themselves +lean somewhat towards the secondaries, so +that you can make very delicate combinations +with pure colors. A bluish yellow and a yellowish +blue, for instance, will make a rather positive +green. By using a reddish yellow and a bluish or +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> +purplish red, you practically bring in the red note, +and make a grayer green while still using only +two pigments.</p> + +<p>So, too, you get similar control of effects by the +use of opaque or transparent pigments, the transparent +ones tending to richness, the opaque to dulness +of color. Various processes in the manner +of laying on paint bring about these different +qualities, and will be spoken of in the chapter on +"Processes."</p> + +<p>Classify your pigments in your mind in accordance +with these characteristics. Think of the +ochres, for instance, as mainly opaque, and as +yellows tending to the reddish. With any blue +they make gray greens because of the latter quality, +and they make gray oranges with red because +of the dulness of their opacity and body. For +richer greens think of the lighter chromes and +cadmium yellows or citrons; and for the richer +oranges, the deeper cadmiums and chromes. With +reds, work the same way, scarlet or orange vermilions +for one side of the scale, and the Chinese +or bluish vermilion on the other side. The deeper +and heavier reds fall in line the same way. Indian +red is bluish, light red and Venetian red are yellowish.</p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span></p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span></p> +<h1><a name="PART_IV" id="PART_IV"></a>PART IV<br /><br /> +PRACTICAL APPLICATION</h1> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span></p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXII" id="CHAPTER_XXII"></a>CHAPTER XXII</h2> + +<h3>REPRESENTATION</h3> + + +<p>Although much has been said about the theoretical +and abstract side of painting, and the importance +of the æsthetic elements in art have +been insisted upon, it is not to be supposed for a +moment that painting does not deal with actual +things. All painting which is not purely conventional +must deal with and represent nature and +natural facts. These are the body of the picture; +the æsthetic elements are the heart of it. I believe +that it is important that you should know +that there is that side to painting, and should have +some insight into it; that you should see that +there is something else to think of than the imitation +of natural objects. I would have you think +more nobly of painting than to believe that "the +greatest imitation is the greatest art." Beneath +the imitation of the obvious facts of nature are +the deeper facts and truths, and in and through +these may you express those qualities of intellectual +creation by means of which only, painting is +not a craft, but an art.</p> + +<p>But for all that, painting does, and always must, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> +deal with those obvious facts; and however much +you may give your mind to the problems of composition +and color, you must base it on a foundation +of ability to represent what you see. Represent +well the external objects, and you are in a position +to interpret the spirit of them. For as nature +only manifests her inner spirit through her +outward forms and facts, you must be able to +paint these well before you can do anything else.</p> + +<p>The intellectual action which perceives and constructs +is the art, the skill which represents and +reproduces is the science, of painting.</p> + +<p>Painting is the art of expression in color. The +fact of color rather than form is the fundamental +characteristic of it. The use of pigment rather +than other materials is implied in its name. +Therefore the science of painting deals with the +materials with which to produce on canvas all +manner of visible color combinations; and those +processes of manipulation which make possible +the representation of all the facts of color and +light, of substance and texture, through which +nature manifests herself.</p> + +<p>It is not enough to have the pigment, nor even +that it should get itself onto the canvas. Different +characteristics call for different management +of paint. Luminosity of light and sombreness of +shadow will not be expressed by the same color, +put on in the same way. Different forms and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> +surfaces and objects demand different treatment. +The science of painting must deal with all these.</p> + +<p>It has been said that there are as many ways +of painting as there are painters. Certainly there +are as many ways as there are men of any originality. +For however a painter has been trained, +whatever the methods which he has been taught +to use, he will always change them, more or less, +in adapting them to his own purposes. And as +the main intent of the art of an epoch or period +differs from that of a previous one, so the manner +of laying on paint will change to meet the needs +of that difference. The manner of painting to-day +is very different from that of other times. Some +of the old processes are looked upon by the modern +man as quite beneath his recognition. Yet +these same methods are necessary to certain qualities, +and if the modern man does not use or approve +of those methods, it is because he is not +especially interested in the qualities which they +are necessary to.</p> + +<p>There is probably no one statement which all +fair-minded painters will more willingly acquiesce +in, than one which affirms that the method by +which the result is attained is unimportant, provided +that the result <i>is</i> attained, and that it is one +worth attaining. Every man will, whether it is +right or not, use those methods which most surely +and completely bring about the expression of the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> +thing he wishes to express. In the face of this +fact, and of the many acknowledged masterpieces, +every one of which was painted in defiance of +some rule some time or other alleged to be the +only right one, it is not possible to prescribe or +proscribe anything in the direction of the manipulation +of colors. The result <i>must</i> be right, and +if it is, it justifies the means. If it be not right, +the thing is worthless, no matter how perfectly +according to rule the process may be. As Hunt +said, "What do I care about the grammar if +you've got something to say?" The important +thing is to say something, and if you do really +say something, and do really completely and precisely +express it, as far as a painter is concerned it +will be grammatical. If not to-day, the grammar +will come round to it to-morrow. Henry Ward +Beecher is reported to have answered to a criticism +on grammatical slips in the heat of eloquence, +"Young man, if the English language +gets in the way of the expression of my thought, +so much the worse for the English language!" +In painting, at any rate, the <i>complete</i> expression of +thought <i>is</i> grammatical, and if not, so much the +worse for the grammarians.</p> + +<p><b>Try Everything.</b>—Know, then, all you can about +all the ways of manipulating paint that have +ever been used. Use any or all of those ways as +you find them needful or helpful. There is none +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span> +which has not the authority of a master behind +it, and though another master may decry it, it is +because, being a master, he claims the very right +he denies to you.</p> + +<p>Experiment with all; but never use any method +for the sake of the method, but only for what it is +capable of doing for you in helping expression.</p> + +<p><b>Safety.</b>—The only real rule as to what to use +and what not, applies to the effect on the permanence +of your canvas. Never use pigments which +will fade; nor in such a way that they will cause +others to fade. Avoid all such using of materials +as you know will make your picture crack, or in +any other way bring about its deterioration.</p> + +<p><b>Good Painting.</b>—But for all I have just said, +there is an acknowledged basis of what is good +painting. If any man or school lays on paint in a +frank, direct way, getting the effect by sheer force +of putting on the right color in just the right +place, with no tricks nor affectations, that is good +painting; and the more simple, direct, and frank +the manner of handling, the better the painting.</p> + +<p>Let us understand what direct painting is first, +and then consider varieties of handling. For whatever +may be the subsequent manipulations, the +picture is generally "laid in" with the most direct +possible manner of laying on paint, and the other +processes are mainly to modify or to further and +strengthen the effect suggested in the first painting. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> +And generally, also, in all sketches and +studies which are preliminary preparations for the +picture, the most direct painting is used, and the +various processes are reserved for working out +more subtle effects on the final canvas.</p> + +<p><b>Old Dutch Painting.</b>—Probably there are no better +examples of frank painting than the works of the +old Dutchmen. You should study them whenever +you have a chance. Waiving all discussion as to +the æsthetic qualities of their work,—as <i>painters</i>, +as masters of the craft of laying on paint, they are +unexcelled. And in most cases, too, they possessed +the art of concealing their art. You will have to +use the closest observation to discover the exact +means they used to get the subtle tones and atmospheric +effects.</p> + +<p>The only obvious quality is the perfect understanding +and skill of their brush-work. In the +smoothest as well as in the roughest of their work, +you can note how perfectly the brush searches the +modelling, and with the most exquisite expressiveness +and perfect frankness, follows the structural +lines. No doubt there were often paintings, glazings, +and scumblings; but they always furthered +the meaning of the first painting, and never in +the least interfered with or obscured the effect of +<i>naïveté</i>, of candor of workmanship.</p> + +<p>It is, however, this simple and sincere brush-work +that you should strive to attain as the basis +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> +of your painting. Learn to express drawing with +your brush, and to place at once and without indecision +or timidity the exact tone and value of the +color you see in nature at that point. Until you +are enough of a master of your brush to get an effect +in this way, do not meddle with the more complex +methods of after-painting. You will never do +good work by subsequent manipulation, if you have +a groundwork of feebleness and indecision. Direct +painting is the fundamental process of all good +painting.</p> + +<p>Let me take the type of old Dutch painting to +represent to you this quality of direct painting. +First of all notice a basis of perfect drawing,—a +knowledge, exactness, and precision which admits +of no fumbling, no vagueness, but only of a concise +and direct recognition of structure. Note that this +drawing is as characteristic of the brush-work as +of the drawing which is under it. Observe that +the handling of the whole school, from the least to +the greatest, is founded on a similar and perfect +craftsmanship,—the same use of materials; the +same deliberateness; the same simple yet ample +palette; the same use of solid color candidly expressing +the planes of modelling, freely following +the lines of structure; the absence of affectation +or invention of individual means. Whatever the +individuality of the artist, it rests on something +else than difference of technique. From the freest +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> +and most direct of painters, Frans Hals, to the most +smooth and detailed, Gerard Dou, the directness +and ingenuousness of means to ends is the same, +and founded on the same technical basis of color +manipulation. The one is more eager, terse, the +other more deliberate and complete; but both use +the same pigments, both use the same solid color, +are simple, lucid, both occupied solely with the +thing to be expressed, and the least degree in the +world with the manner of it. That manner comes +from the same previous technical training which +each uses in the most matter-of-course way, with +only such change from the type, as his temperament +unconsciously imposes on him.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus230" id="illus230"></a> +<img src="images/illus230.jpg" width="100%" alt="The Fisher Boy." title="The Fisher Boy." /> +<span class="caption">The Fisher Boy. <i>Frans Hals.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">To show the directness and sureness of brush-stroke, and candor and simplicity +of means, always present in Dutch work, though never so free as with Hals.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span> +There is nothing like it elsewhere. Study it; +notice the unaffectedness of brush-stroke in Rembrandt. +See how it is the same as Hals, but less +perfunctory. See how the brush piles up paint +again and again along the same ridge of flesh, taking +no notice of its revelation of the insistence of +attempt at the right value, nor of its roughness +of surface. To get that drawing and that color in +the <ins class="correction" title="original reads 'freeest'">freest</ins>, frankest, most direct way: that is the +aim. The absolute conviction of it: that is the +essence of this technique of the old Dutch masters. +And whatever else it may have or may not +have, you will find in it all that you can find anywhere +of suggestion of direct and frank and sincere +painting, and nothing I can say will give you +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span> +any such clear idea of what you should strive for +as the basis of all the different sorts of brush-work +necessary or useful in the production of an oil +painting.</p> + +<p><b>Detail.</b>—The question of detail may well come +in here. How far are you to carry detail in your +painting? The Dutch painters went to both extremes. +Gerard Dou worked two weeks on a +broom-handle, and hoped to finish it in a few days +more. Frans Hals would paint a head in an hour. +The French painter Meissonier paints the high +light on every button of a trooper's coat, and De +Neuville barely paints the button at all. What +way are you to turn? Which are you to choose? +We have a great deal said nowadays against detail +in painting. Much is said of breadth and broad +painting. Which is right?</p> + +<p><b>True Breadth.</b>—The answer lies in the central +idea of the picture. There are times when detail +may be very minute, and times when the greatest +freedom is essential. True breadth is compatible +with much even minute detail in the same canvas. +For breadth does not mean merely a large brush. +It never means slap-dash. It is the just conception +of the amount of detail necessary (and the +amount necessary to be left out) in order that the +idea of the picture may be best expressed.</p> + +<p>Detail is out of place in a large canvas always, +and in proportion to its size it is allowable. A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span> +decorative canvas, a picture which is to be seen +from a distance, or is to fill a wall space, wants +effect, much justness of composition and color. +Largeness of conception and execution, and only +so much detail as shall be necessary to the best +expression compatible with that largeness. On +the other hand, a "cabinet picture," a small +panel, will admit of microscopic detail if it be +not so painted that the detail is all you can see. +And just here is the heart of the whole matter. +Whether you use much or little detail, it is not for +the sake of the detail, not for any interest which +lies in the detail itself, but for what power of +expression may lie in it. If the picture, large or +small, be largely conceived, and its main idea as +to subject and those qualities of æsthetic meaning +I have spoken of are always kept in view, and +never allowed to lose themselves in the search for +minuteness, then any amount of detail will take +its place in true relation to the whole picture. If +it does not do this it is bad.</p> + +<p>The relations of parts to the whole are the key +to the situation always.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"> +<a name="illus234" id="illus234"></a> +<img src="images/illus234.jpg" width="100%" alt="Boar-Hunt." title="Boar-Hunt." /> +<span class="caption">Boar-Hunt. <i>Snyders.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">To show relation of detail to the whole picture. The detail is carried far, yet does not interfere with emphasis +of action and life. The picture is broad in spirit and effect if detailed in execution.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> +Nothing is right which interferes with the true +relations in the picture. This is where the working +for detail is most likely to lead you astray. It +takes great ability and power to keep detail where +it belongs. Detail is always the search for small +things, and they are almost sure to obtrude themselves +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> +to the neglecting of the more important +things. Details which do not stay in their places +had better be left out of the picture. There is +such a thing as <i>values</i> in <i>facts</i> as well as other +parts of your work. And this applies to breadth +as well as to detail.</p> + +<p>Gerard Dou remains a great painter, and even +a broad painter, strange as it may sound, in spite +of his microscopic work. But only because of his +breadth of eye. The detail is not the most important +thing with him. It is in the picture, and +you can see it when you look for it. But as you +look at the picture it is not peppered all over with +pin-points of detail, until the picture itself cannot +be seen. Every detail stays back as it would in +nature; loses itself in the part to which it belongs; +modestly waits to be sought out; is not seen +until it is looked for. This is broad painting, because +the main things are emphasized; and if the +details are painted they are seen in their true +relations, and the power of the whole is not sacrificed +to them.</p> + +<p>With much or little detail, this is what is to +be aimed at. Whether with big brushes or little +ones, the expression of the main idea, of the important, +the vital things,—this is broad painting, +and this only.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXIII</h2> + +<h3>MANIPULATION</h3> + + +<p><b>Premier Coup.</b>—Something similar to what I +have spoken of as "direct painting" has long been +a much-advocated manner of painting in France, +under the name of <i>Premier Coup</i>; which means, +translated literally, "first stroke."</p> + +<p>It is taught that the painter should use no after +or overworkings at all; but that he should carefully +and deliberately select the color for his brush-stroke, +and then lay it on the canvas at one stroke, +each after-stroke being laid beside some previous +one, until the canvas has been covered by a mosaic +of color each shade representing a single "first-stroke," +with no after-stroke laid over it to modify +its effect. Such a process tends to great deliberation +of work and exactness of study. Probably +no better thing was ever devised for the training +of the eye and hand. But it has its limits, and is +not often rigidly adhered to in the painting of +pictures; although the fresh, direct effect of this +sort of work is preserved as far as possible in +much modern French work, and that quality is +held in great esteem.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> +This manner of painting is especially useful in +the making of sketches and studies, and leads to +a strong control of the brush and the resources +of the palette.</p> + +<p>In all painting of this character the color should +have body. Transparent color should not be used +alone, but only to modify the tint of the more solid +pigments; for the transparent colors used indiscriminately +are apt to crack, which characteristic +is avoided when the heavier color forms the body +of the paint.</p> + +<p><b>Solid Painting.</b>—In most cases solid painting is +the safest,—the least likely to crack, and the +most safely cleaned from varnish and dirt without +injury to the paint itself. It is firmer in character +too, and gives more solidity of effect to the +picture.</p> + +<p><b>Mixing.</b>—In mixing colors you should be careful +not to over mix. Don't stir your paint. Too +much mixing takes the life out of the color. Particles +of the pure color not too much broken +up by mixing are valuable to your work, giving +vibration and brilliancy to it. The reverse is muddiness, +which is sure to come from too much fussing +and overworking of wet paint. Don't use +more than three pigments in one tint if you can +help it, and mix them loosely. If you must use +more colors, mix still more loosely. Put all the +colors together, one beside the other, drag them +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> +together with the brush, scoop them up loosely on +the end of it, and lay the tint on freely and frankly. +Never muddle the color on the canvas. Don't put +one color over another more than you can help; +you will only get a thick mass of paint of one kind +mixing with a mass of another, and the result will +be dirty color, which of all things in painting is +most useless.</p> + +<p>Keep the color clean and fresh, and have your +brush-strokes firm and free. Never tap, tap, tap, +your paint; make up your mind what the color is, +and mix it as you want it. Decide just where +the touch is to go, and lay it on frankly and fairly, +and leave it. If it isn't right, daubing into it or +pat-patting it won't help it. Either leave it, or +mix a new color, and lay it on after having scraped +this one off.</p> + +<p>Don't try to economize on your mixing. A color +mixed for one place will never do for another, so +don't try to paint another place with it. Have +the patience to proceed slowly, and mix the color +specially for each brush-stroke. On the other +hand, don't be niggardly with your paint. Don't +use less paint than you need. Mix an ample +brushful and put it on; then mix another, and use +judgment as to how much you should use each +time. The variety of tone and value which comes +of mixing new color for every touch of the brush +is in itself a charm in a painting, aside from the +greater truth you are likely to get by it. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus240" id="illus240"></a> +<img src="images/illus240.jpg" width="100%" alt="Good Bock." title="Good Bock." /> +<span class="caption">Good Bock. <i>Manet.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">To illustrate direct and solid painting.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> +<b>Corrections.</b>—As far as you can, make corrections +by over-painting when the paint is dry, or +nearly so. When I say don't work into wet color +to correct, I do not mean that you are never to do +so, but that to do it too much is likely to get your +work muddy and pasty. Of course it is almost +impossible to avoid doing so sometimes, but when +you do, do it with deliberation. Don't lose your +head and pile wet paint on wet paint in the vain +hope of getting the color by force of piling it on. +You will only get it worse and worse. Get it as +nearly right as you can. If it is hopeless, scrape +it off clean, and mix a fresh tint. If it is as near +right as you can see to mix it now, go ahead; and +put a better color on that place to-morrow when it +is dry, if you can.</p> + +<p><b>Keep at it.</b>—But above all don't be permanently +satisfied with the almost. Don't be afraid to put +paint over dry paint till it is right. Work at it +day after day. Let the paint get thick if it will, if +only you get the thing right. The secret of getting +it right is to keep at it, and be satisfied with +nothing less than the best you can do. When +you can see nothing wrong you can do no better. +But as long as your eye will recognize a difference +between what is on the canvas and what ought to +be there, you have not done your best, and you are +shirking if you stop. Never call a thing done as +long as you can see something wrong about it. No +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> +matter what any one else says, your work must +come up <i>at least</i> to the standard of what you +yourself can see.</p> + +<p><b>Loose Painting.</b>—Sometimes it is necessary to +lay on paint very loosely in order to get vibration +of warm and cool color or of pure pigment in the +same brush-stroke, or to let the under paint show +somewhat through the loose texture of the paint +over it. Too much of this sort of thing is not to +be desired, but its effect in the right place is not +to be obtained in any other way. The paint may +be dragged over the canvas with a long brush +charged with color more or less thoroughly mixed, +as seems most effectual, or it may be flipped into +its place, or it may be hatched on with parallel +strokes. All these ways will be spoken of as they +suggest themselves in other chapters. Solid color, +generally, is used in this manner, and the effect of +body is rather strengthened by it than the reverse.</p> + +<p><b>Scumbling.</b>—Another means of modifying the +color and effect of a painting has perhaps always +been more or less commonly in use. This is called +<i>scumbling</i>, and may be considered under the head +of solid painting, as it is always done with body, +and never with transparent, color. The process +consists of rubbing a mixture of body color, without +thinning, over a surface previously painted and +dried. Generally this <i>scumble</i> is of a lighter color +than the under-painting, and is rubbed on with +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> +a stubby brush slightly charged with the paint. +As much surface as is desired may be covered in +this way, and the result is to give a hazy effect +to that part, and to reduce any sharpness of color +or of drawing. Often the effect is very successfully +obtained. Distant effects may be painted +solidly and rather frankly, and then brought into +a general indefiniteness by scumbling. Too much +scumbling will make a picture vague and soft, and +after a scumble it is best to paint into it with firm +color to avoid this.</p> + +<p>The scumble may be used with the richer and +darker colors, too, to modify towards richness the +tone of parts of the picture, or to darken the value. +Most often, however, its value lies in its use to +bring harsher and sharper parts together, and to +give the hazy effect when it is needed.</p> + +<p>Scumbling will not have a good effect when it +is not intended to varnish the picture afterwards; +for the oil in the paint is absorbed immediately, +and the rubbing of color gives a dead look to the +canvas which is very unpleasant, and decidedly +the reverse of artistic.</p> + +<p><b>Glazing.</b>—A very valuable process, the reverse +of scumbling, is glazing. It has always been in +use since the invention of the oil medium. All +the Italian painters used it; it is an essential part +of their system of coloring. The rich, deep color +of Titian, the warm flesh of Raphael, and the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span> +jewel-like quality of the early German painters are +impossible without some form of glaze. The Germans +perhaps made glazes with white of egg before +oil was used as a vehicle. But to glaze is the +only way to get the fullest effect of the quality +characteristic of the transparent paints.</p> + +<p>A glaze is a thin wash of transparent color +flowed over an under-painting to modify its tone +or to add to its effect. It is not always transparent +color, but usually it is. Sometimes opaque +or semi-opaque color may be used, and it is a glaze +by virtue of the fact that it is thinned with a vehicle +either oil or varnish, and <i>flowed</i> on. A scumble +is <i>rubbed</i> on, and is never pure transparent +color.</p> + +<p><b>Advantages of Glazing.</b>—The advantages are the +gain in harmony, in force, in brilliancy; you may +correct a color when it is wrong, or perfect it +when it is not possible to get the force or richness +required without it. These are the qualities which +have made it used by all schools more or less.</p> + +<p><b>Disadvantages.</b>—There are, however, quite as +evident and marked disadvantages. The free use +of oil as a thinning vehicle, although it makes possible +a greater degree of richness of color, is very +likely to turn the picture brown in time. Oil +will always eventually have a browning effect on +all paints, even when mixed with them as little +as is absolutely necessary. If you make a tinted +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> +varnish of oil (which is practically what a glaze is), +you add so much, to the surely darkening action +of the oil on the picture.</p> + +<p>If, again, you depend upon a glaze for the richness +of color for your picture, and you use a color +which is not permanent, your glaze fades, and +your color is not there. A glaze is particularly +liable to be injured by the cleaner if it ever gets +into his hands. He works down to fresh color, +and what with the browning of the glaze and the +fact that the cleaner is more anxious that the picture +should be cleaned than that its color should +be fine, he will, in nine cases out of ten, <i>clean</i> +off the glaze which may be the final and most +expensive color the painter has put on it.</p> + +<p>Glazing is little used nowadays, compared with +what it once was. But there are times when you +cannot get what you want in any other way, and +when you are sure that glazing is the only thing +which will give you your result, the only law for +the painter comes in,—get your result.</p> + +<p><b>Precautions.</b>—If you do glaze, however, there is +a right and a wrong way. You should not use a +glaze as a last resort. It is better to calculate +on it beforehand; for you always glaze with a +darker tint upon a lighter one, so that if you have +not allowed for this, you will get your picture +too low in tone before you know it.</p> + +<p>If you want to make your picture, or a part of it, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> +brighter and lighter, bring it up in pitch with body +color first, with solid painting, and then glaze it.</p> + +<p>Do not glaze on color which is not well dried. +The drying of the under color and the drying of +the glaze are apt to be different in point of time, +and the picture will crack. If the vehicle is the +same as was used in the under-painting, and the +drying qualities of both paintings are the same, +there is no danger. But when color dries, it shrinks +and flattens, and two kinds of colors shrinking +differently are sure to pull apart, and that causes +cracking. If the under-painting is well dry, but +not hard and glossy on the surface, and is capable +of still absorbing enough of the new color's vehicle +to bind the coats together, your glaze will +stand. But rather than have it too soft, have the +under-painting too hard, and then before you +glaze go over it with a little thin, quick-drying +varnish, and glaze into that. The varnish will +hold the two coats of paint together.</p> + +<p>Glazing, as well as scumbling, implies the obligation +to varnish your picture. Whenever you +use oil freely you will have to varnish your picture +to keep it bright and fresh in color.</p> + +<p>It would be wise never to use a glaze as a final +process. Glaze to get the tone or to modify it, +but paint into the glaze with body color, and you +keep the advantage of the glaze without many of +the disadvantages of it, and the picture has a more +solid effect of painting.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> +<b>Frottée.</b>—Closely akin to the glaze in manner, +but very different in use, is the <i>frottée</i>, or "rubbing." +This is generally used on the fresh surface +of the canvas, to "rub in" the light and shade or +the first coloring of the picture after the drawing +is done. It is one of the safest and wisest ways +of beginning your picture. You can either rub in +the picture with a <i>frottée</i> of one color, as sienna or +umber, or you can use all the colors in their proper +places, only using very little vehicle, and making +something very thin in tint, somewhat between a +glaze and a scumble. You can make a complete +drawing in monochrome in this way, or you can +lay in all the ground colors of the picture till it +has much the effect of a complete painting. Then, +as you paint and carry the picture forward, every +color you put on will be surrounded with approximately +the true relations, instead of being contrasted +by a glare of white canvas.</p> + +<p>A <i>frottée</i> is a most sympathetic ground to paint +over.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXIV</h2> + +<h3>COPYING</h3> + + +<p>Copying may well be spoken of here, as it is +in a sense a kind of manipulation. It is a means +of study to the student, and a useful, sometimes +necessary process to the painter. In the transferring +of the results of his sketches and studies to +the final canvas, the painter must be able to copy, +and to know all the conveniences of it. Before +the painting begins on a picture, the main figures +in it must be placed and drawn on the canvas with +reference to the plan of it, and their relation to that +plan. This calls for some method of exact reproduction +of the facts stored in the artist's studies +for that purpose. The process of copying is that +method.</p> + +<p>From the side of study, the copy gives the student +the most practical means of understanding +the intent and the expression of the painter whose +work he wishes to know. There is no way of +understanding the why and the how of technical +expression so sure and complete as to study with +the brush and paint, following the same method +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> +and processes as the master you copy, and trying +to comprehend the meaning and the expression at +the same time.</p> + +<p>This is not the best means of study for a beginner, +as I have said before. It trains the understanding +of processes rather than the eye; and +the training of the power of perception rather +than the understanding of methods is what the +young student needs. The processes with which +he may put on canvas the effect he sees in nature +are secondary matters to him. Let him really see +the thing and find his own way of expressing it, +clumsily, rudely most probably, it is still the best +thing for him. He may take such help as he can +find, as he needs it; get such suggestions as the +work of good painters can give to him, when he +cannot see his own way. But the searching of +nature should come first. The <i>seeing</i> of what is +must precede the <i>stating</i> of it.</p> + +<p>But when you do undertake to make a copy, +there is something more to be tried for than an +approximation of the right colors in the right +places.</p> + +<p>Certainly to get out of copying all there is to +get, one must try for something more than a recognizable +picture. When a serious student makes a +copy, he not only tries to get it like in color and +drawing, but also in manner of treatment, peculiarities +of technique, and whatever there may be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> +that goes to make up the "manner" of the original.</p> + +<p>This is not only for the sake of the copy, for +the sake of really having a picture which is more +than superficially like the original; but in this +way can be gained much real knowledge of technique +which cannot be gotten so easily otherwise.</p> + +<p>Study your original carefully before and while +working on your own canvas. See how it was +done if you can (and you can), and do it in the +same way, touch for touch, stroke for stroke, color +for color. Use a large brush when he used a large +brush; if the original was done with a palette-knife, +use yours; and particularly never use a +smaller brush than the painter used on the picture +you are copying.</p> + +<p>The same thing holds as to processes. If your +original was painted solidly, with full body of color, +do so on your copy. Never glaze nor scumble +because <i>you</i> can't get the colors without. Your +business is to try to get the same qualities <i>in the +same way</i>. And any other manipulation is not +only getting a different thing, but shirking the +problem. Because, if you can't get the effect in +the way he did, you certainly won't get the <i>same +one</i> any other way. You are not originating, you +are not painting a picture, you are copying another +man's work; and common honesty to him, as well +as what you are trying to learn, demands that you +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> +shall not belie him by stating on your canvas implicitly, +that he did the thing one way, when as +a matter of fact his canvas shows that he did it +another way.</p> + +<p>This may seem commonplace, because one would +think that as a matter of course any one would +naturally make a copy this way. But this is precisely +what the average person does not do when +copying, and I have found it constantly necessary +to insist upon these very points even to advanced +students.</p> + +<p>So in the pigments, the vehicles, the tools, and +even the canvas if you can, as well as in the +handling of the paint and the processes used, follow +absolutely and humbly, but intelligently, the +workmanship of the picture you copy, if it is +worth your while to do it at all.</p> + +<p>In making copies it is not usual to make the +preliminary drawing freehand. It takes time +that may better be given to something else, and +often it is not exact enough. When a painter has +made careful studies which he wishes to transfer +to his canvas, they may have qualities of line or +movement, or of emphasis or character which the +model may not have had. These studies, probably, +are much smaller than they will be in the +picture. The same things may be true of the +characteristics of the sketches. These are problems +which have been worked out, and to copy +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span> +them freehand makes the work to be done over +again on a larger scale on the canvas of the picture. +This would not only take too much time, +but the same result might not follow. For this +purpose a more mechanical process is commonly +made use of, which combines the qualities of exactness +with a certain freedom of hand, without +which the work would be too rigid and hard.</p> + +<p><b>"Squaring up."</b>—This process is called "squaring-up," +and consists of making a network of +squares which cut up the study, and map out its +lines and proportions, and make it possible to be +sure that any part of the original will come in the +same relative place in the copy no matter what +the size may be, and at the same time leaves the +actual laying out of the thing to freehand drawing.</p> + +<p>The process is a very simple one. You mark +off a number of points horizontally and vertically +on the study. Make as many as you think best—if +there are too few, you will have too much of +the study in one part; if too many, it makes you +more trouble. It is not necessary that there be +as many points one way as the other; make the +number to suit the lines of the study.</p> + +<p>Draw straight lines across the study from each +of the points, keeping them carefully parallel, and +seeing to it that the horizontal lines cross the +vertical ones exactly at right angles. These lines +cut the study into right-angled parallelograms, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span> +which may be squares or not according as the +vertical lines are the same distance from each +other that the horizontal ones are, or not.</p> + +<p>Number the spaces between the lines at the +top, 1, 2, 3, etc., and at one side the same.</p> + +<p>Now if you square off a part of your canvas +with the same number of spaces at the top and +the same number at the side as you have done +with the study, and keep the relation of the spaces +the same, you can make it as large or as small as +you please, and you can draw the outlines within +those squares as they fall in the study, and they +will be the same in proportion without your having +the trouble of working to scale. The squares +furnish the scale for you, and the proportion is +not of the study to the picture, but as the vertical +spaces are to the horizontal, in both the study and +the picture.</p> + +<p>By numbering the squares on the canvas to +correspond with those on the study, and noticing +in which square, and in what part of it, any line +or part of a line comes, you can, by drawing that +line in the same part of the corresponding square +on the canvas, repeat the line in the same relation +and with exactness, while still leaving the +hand free to modify it, or correct it.</p> + +<p>In this way the simplest or the most complex, +the largest or the smallest study sketch or drawing +may be accurately transferred to any surface +you please.</p> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXV" id="CHAPTER_XXV"></a>CHAPTER XXV</h2> + +<h3>KINDS OF PAINTING</h3> + + +<p>Why not recognize that conviction, intense personal +attraction to a certain sort of thing is the +life of all art. How else can life get into art than +through the love of what you paint? A man may +understand what he does not love, but he will +never infuse with life that which he does not +love. Understand it he should, if he would express +it; but love it he must, if he would have +others love it.</p> + +<p>You see it is not the thing, but the manner; +not the fact, but what you can find in it; not +the object, but what you can express by it. "<i>Un +chef d'œuvre vaut un chef d'œuvre</i>" because perfect +delight in loveliness found in a small thing is +as perfect as perfect delight in loveliness found in +a great thing. And still life uninteresting as a +fact, may be fascinating if "seen through the +medium of a temperament."</p> + +<p>Don't let the idea get into your head that one +thing is easier to do than another thing. Perhaps +it is, but it is a bad mental attitude to think so. +And even then, you may find that when you have +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> +worked out all that its easiness shows you, some +one with better knowledge or insight may come +along and point out undreamed-of beauties and +subtleties. And are they easy? To see and express +the possibilities in easy things is the hardest +of all.</p> + +<p><b>Classification.</b>—Divide paintings into two classes,—those +representing objects seen out-of-doors, +and those representing objects in-doors. This is +the most fundamental of all classifications, and it +is one which belongs practically to this century. +Before this century it was hardly thought of to +distinguish out-door light from in-door light.</p> + +<p>Some of the Dutchmen did it. But it is only +in this century that the principle has made itself +felt. It is this which makes the difference of +pitch or key so marked between the modern and +the ancient pictures. It has changed the whole +color-scheme.</p> + +<p>An out-door picture may be still painted in the +studio, but it must be painted from studies made +out-doors. It is no longer possible to pose a model +in a studio-light and paint her so into a landscape. +It was right to do it when it was done frankly, +when the world had not waked up to the fact that +things look different in diffused and in concentrated +lights. It is not right now. You cannot +go back of your century. To be born too late is +more fatal than to be born too soon.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> +Whatever kind of picture you take in hand, +remember that what distinguishes the treatment +of it from that of other pictures depends on the +inherent character of it. That the difficulties as +well as the facilities in the working of it are due +to the fact that it demands a different application +of the universal principles. Don't think that landscape +drawing is easier than that of the figure +because smudges of green and blue and brown +can be accepted as a landscape, while a smudge of +pink will not do duty for the nude figure. It is +only that the drawing of the figure is more obvious, +and variations from the more obvious right +are more easily seen.</p> + +<p>You must study the necessities, the demands of +treatment of the different sorts of subjects—see +what is peculiar to each, and what common to all. +You must find to what æsthetic qualities each +most readily lends itself, what are the subtleties +to be sought for, and what are the problems they +offer.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVI" id="CHAPTER_XXVI"></a>CHAPTER XXVI</h2> + +<h3>THE SKETCH</h3> + + +<p>The sketch is the germ of the picture. It contains +the idea which may later become the finished +work. In your sketches you gather effects and +suggestions of possibilities, of all kinds. You do +not work long over a sketch, nor do you work perfunctorily. +You do not make it because you +ought to, but because you see something in nature +which charms you; or because you have found an +idea you wish to make a note of.</p> + +<p>Understand thoroughly the use and meaning +of sketches, and you will get more good from the +making of them. For your sketching is an important +matter to your painting. You do not learn +how to paint by sketching; but you can learn a +great many things, and some of them you can learn +no other way. A sketch is not a picture; neither +is it a study. Each of these things has its special +purpose and function, and its proper character.</p> + +<p>A sketch is always a note of an idea—an idea +seen or conceived. Everything is sacrificed in +the sketch to the noting of that idea. One idea +only, in one sketch; more ideas, more sketches.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> +There are two kinds of sketches: those made +from nature to seize an effect of some sort; and +those made to work out or express tersely some +composition or scheme of color which you have +in your mind. Both are of great use to the student +as well as essential to the work of the artist.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus259" id="illus259"></a> +<img src="images/illus259.jpg" width="100%" alt="Sketch of a Hillside." title="Sketch of a Hillside." /> +<span class="caption">Sketch of a Hillside blocked in from Nature, First Suggestion of Composition, etc.</span> +</div> + +<p>The first conception of a picture is always embodied +in the form of a sketch, and the artist will +make as many sketches as he thinks of changes +in his original idea. It is in this form that he +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> +works out his picture problem. He is troubled +here by nothing but the one thing he has in mind +at this time. It may be an arrangement of line +or of mass. He changes and rearranges it as he +pleases, not troubling himself in the least with +exactness of drawing, of modelling, of color, nor +of anything but that one of composition. It may +be a scheme of color, and here again the spots of +pigment only vaguely resemble the things they +will later represent; now they are only composition +of color to the painter, and everything bends +to that. When this has been decided on, has +been successfully worked out, then it is time +enough to think of other things. And think of +other things he does, before he makes his picture; +but not in this sketch; in another sketch or +other sketches, each with its own problem, or in +studies which will furnish more material to be +used later; or in the picture itself, where the +problem is the unity of the various ideas within +the great whole in the completed painting.</p> + +<p>It is the sketch on which the picture rests for +its singleness of purpose. No picture but begins +in this way, whether it is afterwards built up on +the same canvas or not. The sketch points the +way. But all the preliminary sketches of a painting +are not problems of composition or color; are +not conceptions of the brain. There are suggestions +received from nature which the painter perceives +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> +rather than conceives. Possibilities show +themselves in these, but it is in the sketch that +they first become tangible and stable. This is the +sketch from nature, always the record of an impression, +the note of an idea hinted by one fact or +condition seen more sharply or clearly than any +or all of the thousands which surrounded it at the +moment.</p> + +<p>The painter must always sketch from nature. +Only by so doing can he be constantly in touch +with her, and receive her suggestions unaffected +by multitudinous facts. The sketch preserves for +him the evanescent effects of nature, which the +study would not so entirely, because not so simply, +grasp. The sudden storm approaches; the +fleeting cloud shadow; or the last gleam of afterglow; +these, as well as the more permanent, but +equally charming effects of mass against mass +of wood and sky, or of meadow and hill, he can +only store up for future use or reference in his +sketches.</p> + +<p><b>Main Idea Only.</b>—In the making of the sketch, +then, no problem should come in but that of the +expression of the main idea,—no problem of +drawing or of manipulation of color. To get the +idea expressed in the most direct and immediate +and convenient way, anything will do to sketch on +or with; that which presents the least difficulty is +the best. The matter of temperament, of course, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> +comes in largely, and technical facility. That +which you can use most freely, use in your sketching, +and keep for other occasions the new means +or medium. Use freely, if you can, black and +white for whatever black and white will express, +and pigment for all color effects. Oil for greatest +certainty and facility of correction.</p> + +<p><b>Quick Work.</b>—Make your sketch at one sitting, +or you will have something which is not a sketch. +Work long enough, and it may be a study; but +more than one sitting makes it neither one thing +nor the other. To say nothing of the fact that +the conditions are unlikely to be exactly the same +again, you are almost sure on the second working +to have lost the first impression,—the freshness +and directness of purpose which the first impress +gives; and this is the very heart of a sketch. +You must never lose sight of what was the original +purpose of it; never forget what it was which +first made you want to paint it. No matter what +else you get or do not get, if you lose this you +lose all that can give it life or reality.</p> + +<p>The very fact that you have limited yourself to +one working makes you concentrate on that which +first caught your attention, and that is what you +want to seize.</p> + +<p>Overworkings and after-paintings will only interfere +with the directness and force with which +this is expressed.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> +Remember that nature is never at rest. You +must catch her on the wing, and the more quickly +you do it the more vivid will be the effect.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus263" id="illus263"></a> +<img src="images/illus263.jpg" width="100%" alt="The River Bank." title="The River Bank." /> +<span class="caption">The River Bank. <i>D. Burleigh Parkhurst.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">Half-hour sunset sketch.</span> +</div> + +<p>"Nature is economical. She puts her lights +and darks only where she needs them." Do the +same, and use no more effort than will suffice to +express that which is most important. The rest +will come another time.</p> + +<p>Try to keep things simple. Keep the impression +of unity; have the sketch one thing only.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span> +Express things as they look. As they look to +<i>you</i> and at <i>this time</i>. How they seem to some +one else, or seemed at some other time, is not to +the point. What you know they are or may be +will not help you, but only hinder you in a sketch. +The more facts the worse, in sketching. Remember +always what a sketch is for. Don't be +beguiled into trying to make a picture of it, nor a +study of it. Above all, don't try to make a clever +thing of it. Make something sincere and purposeful +of it, and have it as concise, as terse, as +direct, and as expressive of one thing as you can.</p> + +<p><b>Keep Looking.</b>—Always keep your eyes open +and your mind receptive; do not be always looking +for reasons. Accept the charm as it presents +itself; note it, if you have anything handy to express +it with; if not, study it, and get something +into your mind and memory from it. The simplest +way of expressing it, and the simplest elements +which cause it, you can study without the +materials to preserve it, and you so keep your receptivity +and quicken your power of observation.</p> + +<p>Your sketch will be more quickly done, directly +and more forcefully, if you map out the thing +rather deliberately first with a few very exact +lines and masses in some way: then you have a +free mind to concentrate on the effect. A few +values and masses well placed are the things you +most want; you can almost always spare time to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> +ensure their exactness by a few measurements and +two or three rubs of color first. Of course if the +sketch is of a passing gleam you can do nothing +but get a few smudges of color. But get them +true in value and in color relation; get the glow +of it, or you will get nothing.</p> + +<p><b>Canvases of a Size.</b>—In sketching from nature, +have the habit of using always the same sized canvases +or panels. They pack better, and you learn +to know your spaces, and so you do quicker and +better work. Make them big enough to do free +work on, yet small enough to cover easily, so that +you lose no time in mere covering of surface. +Ten inches by fourteen is plenty small enough, +and fifteen by twenty large enough, for most persons. +Suit yourself as to the size, but settle on a +size, and stick to it. Nothing is more awkward +and inconvenient than to have stacks of canvases +of all sizes and shapes.</p> + +<p>Always have plenty of sketching materials on +hand. You will lose many a good effect which +will pass while you are getting your kit ready.</p> + +<p>In sketching, avoid details. When you want +them, make a study of them. In a sketch they +only interfere with frankness of expression. One +or two details for the sake of accent only, may be +admitted.</p> + +<p>Make a frame with your hand, or, better, cut +a square hole in a card, and look through it. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span> +Decide what is the essence of it, what is vital to +the effect, and do that; concentrate on that. Put +in what you need for the conveying of that, and +leave out everything else.</p> + +<p><b>Work Solidly.</b>—Work in body color, and lay on +your paint fully and freely. In getting an effect +of light, don't be afraid of contrast either of value +or of color. Paint loosely; get the vibration +which results from half-mixed color. Don't flatten +out the tone. Load the color if you want to. In +twenty years you will wonder to see how smooth +it has become.</p> + +<p>Freedom and breadth give life to a sketch. +Don't work close to your work. Don't bend over +it. Use plenty of color, large brushes, and strike +from the shoulder.</p> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVII" id="CHAPTER_XXVII"></a>CHAPTER XXVII</h2> + +<h3>THE STUDY</h3> + + +<p>The qualities which make a good study are the +reverse of those which make a good sketch. In +the sketch all is sacrificed to the effect, or to the +one thing which is its purpose. The study is +what its name implies, and its purpose is not one +thing, but many. In a study you put in everything +which may be valuable. You store it with +facts. You leave out nothing which you wish +to put in. It is all material. You can take and +leave in using it afterwards, as you could from +nature. Of course every study has some main +intention, but you must take the trouble to give +everything that goes to the making of that.</p> + +<p>A study is less of a picture than a sketch is. +For unity of effect is vital to both a sketch and a +picture. But this quality is of no essential value +in a study—unless it be a study of unity. For +you can make a <i>study</i> of anything, from a foreground +weed to a detailed interior, from a bit of +pebble to a cavalry charge.</p> + +<p>But in a study of one thing you concentrate on +that thing, you deliberately and carefully study +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> +everything in it, while in a sketch you work only +for general effect. The study is the storehouse +of facts to the painter. By it he assures himself +of the literal truths he needs, collecting them as +material in color or black and white, and as mental +material by his mental understanding of them, +only to be gained in this way.</p> + +<p>In making a study you may work as long as you +please, timing yourself by the difficulty and size +of the thing you are studying. A study of an interior +or a landscape may occupy a week or two; +one of a simple object for some detail in a picture +may be a matter of only a few hours. But in +any work of this kind you should be deliberate, +and remember that what you are doing is neither +a sketch nor a picture, but the gathering of material +which is to be useful, but which can be useful +only so far as it is accurate.</p> + +<p>In making studies, don't try for surface finish; +get the facts, and leave all other qualities for the +picture. Don't glaze and scumble, but work as +directly as you can. Study the structure and texture +of whatever you are doing. Understand it +thoroughly as you go on, and search out whatever +is not clear to you. This is no place for effects; +nor for slighting or shirking. If you do not do +work of this kind thoroughly, you might as well +not do it at all—better; for you are at least not +training yourself to be careless.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span> +There are places where you may be careless, +but the making of a study is not that place.</p> + +<p>Take plenty of trouble with preliminaries. Get +all your foundation work true. Have a good drawing, +get the groundwork well laid in, and then +build your superstructure of careful study.</p> + +<p>Don't be afraid of over-exactness, nor of hardness +and edginess here. All that is only an excess +of precision, and it is just as well to have it. You +can leave it out if you want to in your picture, but +a groundwork of exactness is not to be despised.</p> + +<p>Be exact also with your values. If your study +is not sure of its values, it will weaken the results +you should get from it later.</p> + +<p>Make your studies in the same light as that +which the picture will represent. You can paint +a picture under any light you please if your studies +give you the facts as to light and shade that +the truth to nature requires; but studies made in +one light for a picture representing another are +useless to that picture.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"> +<a name="illus270" id="illus270"></a> +<img src="images/illus270.jpg" width="100%" alt="Study of a Blooming-Mill." title="Study of a Blooming-Mill." /> +<span class="caption">Study of a Blooming-Mill. <i>D. Burleigh Parkhurst.</i></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p> + +<p>No good painting was ever made without preliminary +studies. When you are to make a picture, +therefore, take plenty of time to prepare +yourself with all the material in the form of facts +that you may require. Don't trust to building up +a picture from a sketch or two and your "general +knowledge." That sort of thing is something +which a painter of experience may do after storing +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span> +his mind for years with all sorts of knowledge; +but it will not do for most people—least of all +for a student. And it is a dangerous way for any +one to work. Even the experienced painter is apt +to do the worse work for it, and if he does so +constantly, his reputation may suffer for it. Take +time to be right.</p> + +<p>Don't be afraid of taking measurements. Every +one who did anything worth looking at took measurements. +Leonardo laid down a complete system +of proportions. You can't get your proportions +right without measurements, and if your proportions +are not right, nothing will be right. Use a +plumb-line: use it frequently, and measure horizontals +and verticals. If you are in doubt about +anything, stop a minute and measure. It takes +less time than correcting.</p> + +<p>Whatever you do, get the character first, then +the details. Character is not a conglomeration of +details. The detail is the incident of character. +See what the vital things are first, then search +farther.</p> + +<p>Use your intelligence as well as your eye and +hand. Think as you work. Don't for a moment +let your hand get ahead of your brain. Don't +work absent-mindedly, nor without purpose. If +your mind is tired, if your eye won't see, stop and +rest a while. Tired work runs your picture down +hill.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXVIII" id="CHAPTER_XXVIII"></a>CHAPTER XXVIII</h2> + +<h3>STILL LIFE</h3> + + +<p>The name of still life is used in English for all +sorts of pictures which represent groupings of inanimate +objects except flowers. The French word +for it is better than ours. They call it "<i>nature +morte</i>" or dead nature.</p> + +<p>There is no kind of painting which is more universally +useful—to the student as well as to the +painter. It furnishes the means for constant, +regular, and convenient study and practice. You +need never lack for something interesting to paint, +nor for a model who will sit quietly and steadily +without pay, if you have some pieces of drapery, +and a few articles, of whatever shape or form, +which you can group in a convenient light.</p> + +<p>You can make the group as simple or as difficult +as you wish, and make it include any phase +of study. The advantage of its possible variety, +scope, and particularly, its convenience and cheapness +and manageableness, make it the fundamental +work for the beginner.</p> + +<p><b>Materials.</b>—Practically anything and everything +is available for still life. You should be constantly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> +on the lookout for interesting objects of all kinds. +Try to get a collection which has as much variety +in form, size, and surface as you can. Old things +are generally good, but it is a mistake to suppose +old and broken things the best. An object is not +intrinsically better because of its being more or +less damaged, although it sometimes has interesting +qualities, as of color or history, because of its +age.</p> + +<p>What you should avoid is bad proportion, line, +and color in the things you get. The cost is not +of any importance at all. You can pick up things +for a few cents which will be most useful. Have +all sorts of things, tall slim vases, and short fat +jugs. Have metals and glass, and books and +plaques. They all come in, and they add to the +variety and interest of your compositions.</p> + +<p><b>Draperies.</b>—The study of drapery particularly is +facilitated by still-life study. You can arrange +your draperies so that they are an essential part +of your study, and will stay as long as you care to +paint from them, and need not be moved at all. +This fact of "staying power" in still life is one of +importance in its use, as it reduces to the minimum +the movement and change which add to the difficulties +in any other kinds of work. The value of +the antique in drawing lies in its unvarying sameness +of qualities from day to day. In still life you +have the same, with color added. You can give +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> +all your attention and time unhurriedly, with the +assurance that you can work day after day if you +want to, and find it just the same to-morrow morning +as you left it to-day. This as it applies to +drapery is only the more useful. You can hardly +have a lay figure of full size, because of its cost. +To study drapery on a model carefully and long, is +out of the question, because it is disarranged every +time the model moves, and cannot be gotten into +exactly the same lines again.</p> + +<p>Still life steps in and gives you the power to +make the drapery into any form of study, and to +have it by itself or as a part of a picture.</p> + +<p>In draperies you should try to have a considerable +variety just as you have of the more massive +objects,—variety of surface, of color, and of texture. +Do not have all velvet and silk. These are +very useful and beautiful, but you will not always +paint a model in velvet and silk. Satins and laces +are also worn by women, and cloth of all kinds by +men, and so you should study them. Sometimes +you want the drapery as a background, to give +color or line; and yet to have also marked surface +qualities (texture), would take from the effect of +those qualities in the other objects of the group.</p> + +<p>As to color, in the same way you should have +all sorts of colors; but see to it that the colors are +good,—in themselves "good color," not harsh nor +crude. It does you no good as a student to learn +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> +how to express bad color. Neither is it good training +for you, in studying how to represent what you +see, to have to change bad color in your group into +good color in your picture.</p> + +<p>Good useful drapery does not mean either large +pieces, or pieces with much variety of color in one +piece; on the contrary, you should avoid spotty or +prominent design in it. Still, the more kinds you +have, the more you can vary your work.</p> + +<p>If your drapery is a little strong in color, you +can always make it more quiet by washing or fading +it to any extent. There is very little material +which is absolutely fast color. But when it is so, +and the color is too strong, don't use it.</p> + +<p>Don't scorn old and faded cloth, especially silk +and velvet, or plush. The fact that it would look +out of place on furniture or as a dress does not +imply that it may not be beautiful as a background +or as a foreground color. These old and faded +materials furnish some of the most useful things +you can have; a fact the reverse of what is true in +general of other still-life things.</p> + +<p><b>The Use of Still Life.</b>—There is no way in which +you can better study the principles of composition +than by the use of still life. The fact that you +can bring together a large number of objects of +any color and form, and can arrange and rearrange +them, study the effect and result before painting, +and be working with actual objects and not by +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> +merely drawing them, gives a positiveness and actuality +to composition that is of the greatest service +to you. You can use (and should at times) +the whole side or corner of a room, and so practise +composition on the large scale, or you can +make a small group on a table. That you are +using furniture and drapery or vases, flowers, and +books, instead of men and women, does not affect +the seriousness and usefulness of the problem; +for the principles of composition and color do not +have to do with the materials which you use to +bring about the effect, but the effect itself.</p> + +<p>It is practically impossible for the student and +the amateur to make very advanced study of composition +in line and mass with more than one or +two living models; but with still life he may and +should get all the practical knowledge possible.</p> + +<p><b>Practical Composition.</b>—Suppose you were going +to work with still life, how would you begin? In +the first place, get a good composition. Never +work from a bad one. You must learn composition +some time, so you might as well study it every +time you have occasion to start a still-life study. +Take any number of things and put them on a +table, get a simple background to group them +against. Consider your things, and eliminate those +which are not necessary, or will not tell in the +composition. It is a law that whatever does not +help your picture (or composition) tells against +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> +it; so get rid of anything which will not help the +composition.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus278" id="illus278"></a> +<img src="images/illus278.jpg" width="100%" alt="Still Life, No. 1." title="Still Life, No. 1." /> +<span class="caption">Still Life, No. 1.</span> +</div> + +<p>For instance, here are a lot of things indiscriminately +grouped on a table. You might paint +them, but they are not arranged. There is no +composition. They would lack one commanding +characteristic of a good picture if you were to +paint them so. What do they lack as they are? +They have no logical connection with each other, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> +either in arrangement or in the placing, to begin +with. They do not help each other either in line +or mass. They are crowded, huddled together. +You could do with less of them; or, if you want +them all, you can place them better. But suppose +we take some of them away for simplicity, and rearrange +the rest.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus279" id="illus279"></a> +<img src="images/illus279.jpg" width="100%" alt="Still Life, No. 2." title="Still Life, No. 2." /> +<span class="caption">Still Life, No. 2.</span> +</div> + +<p>Here are some of the things, with others taken +away. The combination is simpler, but still it is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> +not satisfactory. There is some logical connection +among the objects, but none in the grouping. +They are still huddled; there is no line; it is too +square; no attempt at balance; they are simply +things. If you change them about a little, having +regard to size, proportion, balance, and line, you +can get something better out of these same objects.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus280" id="illus280"></a> +<img src="images/illus280.jpg" width="100%" alt="Still Life, No. 3." title="Still Life, No. 3." /> +<span class="caption">Still Life, No. 3.</span> +</div> + +<p>Here the coffee-pot is moved toward the centre, +to give height and mass, and to break up the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> +round of the plaque; the handle turned around to +give more looseness and freedom; the pitcher is +placed where it will break the line of the plaque, +yet not too obviously or awkwardly; the handle is +placed at a good angle with that of the coffee-pot, +and the relation of distance with the coffee-pot in +balancing the whole is considered. The drapery is +spread out so as to have some probability. It does +not help much in line, but it does in mass and in +color (in the original). It could be bettered, but +it will do for the present. The cup also has a reasonable +position, and helps to balance and to give +weight to the main mass, which is the coffee-pot. +There is not much light and shade in this composition, +nor much distinction. But it does balance, +and would make a good study, and is a very respectable +piece of composition,—simple, modest, and +dignified.</p> + +<p>Now if you wanted to add some of those things +which were eliminated, and make a more complicated +composition, you would look for the same +things in it when completed. We have simply +the same group, with the bottle and glass added. +The stout jug in the first group is left out because +it is not needed, and it will not mass with the rest +easily. The tall glass vase is left out because it +is too transparent to count either as line, mass, or +color, and does not in any way help, and therefore +counts against, because it does not count for, our +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> +composition. The things we have here are enough, +but they are not right as they are now. They +injure rather than help the last arrangement. The +bottle and glass are in the composition, but not of +it; a composition must be <i>one thing</i>, no matter +how many objects go to the making of it. This is +two things. Draw a line down between the bottle +and glass and the other things, and you get two +compositions, both good, instead of one, which we +must have for good arrangement.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus282" id="illus282"></a> +<img src="images/illus282.jpg" width="100%" alt="Still Life, No. 4." title="Still Life, No. 4." /> +<span class="caption">Still Life, No. 4.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> +Let's change them again. This is worse, if anything. +We have now got two groups and a thing. +The coffee-pot and cup and saucer alone, the bottle +and glass alone, and the pitcher; the drapery tries +to pull them together, but can't. The plaque has +no connection with anything. They are all pulled +apart. In the last group at least there was some +chief mass, the first complete composition. Now +every one is for himself; three up and down lines +and a circle—that's about what it amounts to.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus283" id="illus283"></a> +<img src="images/illus283.jpg" width="100%" alt="Still Life, No. 5." title="Still Life, No. 5." /> +<span class="caption">Still Life, No. 5.</span> +</div> + +<p>Let's group them,—push them together. Place +the bottle near the coffee-pot. Because they are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> +about the same height, one cannot dominate the +other in height; then make them pull together as +a mass.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus284" id="illus284"></a> +<img src="images/illus284.jpg" width="100%" alt="Still Life, No. 6." title="Still Life, No. 6." /> +<span class="caption">Still Life, No. 6.</span> +</div> + +<p>Place the cup about as before, and the mass +pretty well towards the centre of the plaque. +Put the pitcher where it will balance, and the +glass where it will count unobtrusively, and help +break the line of the bottoms of the objects. The +drapery now helps in line also, and gives more +unity, as well as mass and weight and color, to +the whole. This group is about as well placed as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span> +these objects will come. There is balance, mass, +proportion, dignity, unity.</p> + +<p>Of course you may make a paintable and interesting +composition with only two things. But +you must give them some relation both as to fact +and as to position. The same elements of unity +and balance and line come in, no matter how many +or how few are the objects which enter as elements +in your group.</p> + +<p>In this way study composition with still life. +Move things about and see how they look; use +your eye and judgment. Get to see things together, +and apply the principles spoken of in the +chapter on "Composition" to all sorts of things +in nature.</p> + +<p><b>Scope of Study.</b>—Drawing is always drawing, +whatever the objects to which it is applied, and +you can study all the problems of drawing and +values with still life. The drawing is not so +severe as that of the antique, nor so difficult as +study from the life, but you can learn to draw and +then apply it to other things, and advance as far +as you please; and as I said at first, you need +never lack an amiable model.</p> + +<p>All sorts of effects of lighting you can study +easily with still life; and of color and texture also. +The study of surface and texture is most important +to you. If you were to undertake to paint +a sheep or a cow the first time; if you were to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> +paint without previous experience a background +which contained metal and glass, or a model with +a velvet or satin dress, you would not succeed. +These all involve problems of skill and facility +of representation. When you paint a portrait or +figure picture, or a landscape with animals, you +should not have to deal with, as new, problems of +this sort. You should have arrived at some understanding +of this sort of thing in studies which are +not complicated by other problems of greater difficulty. +This is where still life comes in again to +make the study of painting easier.</p> + +<p><b>Interest.</b>—But the use of this sort of painting is +not only its practical <i>use</i>. You need not feel that +it is all drudgery—which is something that most +students do not love! You may make pictures +with a much clearer conscience along this line; +for the better the picture, and the more interesting +and charming it is, the more successful is +your work as study. You can be as interested in +the beauty and the picture of it as you please, and +it will only make you work the better. To see +the picture in a group of bottles and books is to +be the more able to see the picture in a tree and +sky. An artist's eye is sensitive to beauty of +color and line and form wherever he sees it. The +student's should be also. No artist but has found +delight in painting still life. No student should +think it beneath his serious study.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> +<b>Procedure.</b>—Study painting first in still-life +compositions. When you set up your canvas first, +and set your palette, let it be in front of a few +simple objects grouped interestingly; or, better, +set up a single jar or a book, with a simply arranged +background for color contrast. All the +problems of manipulation are there for you to +study. No processes of handling, no manner of +color effect, which you cannot use in this study.</p> + +<p>Learn here what you will need in other lines +of work.</p> + +<p><b>Beginning.</b>—The best way to make a study from +still life is to begin with a careful charcoal drawing +on the canvas. You may shade it more or +less as you please, but be most careful about proportions +and forms. The shading means the modelling +and the values in black and white; and you +can do this either in charcoal as you draw, or it +can be put in with monochrome when you begin +with paint. But you must have the drawing sure +and true first; for drawing is position, locality. +You must know <i>where</i> a value is to go before you +can justly place it. The value is the <i>how much</i>. +You must have the <i>where</i> before the <i>how much</i> +can mean anything in drawing. It would be well +to lay in some of the planes of light and shade, +because you feel proportion more naturally and +truly so than with mere outline. The outline +encloses the form, but with nothing but outline +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> +you are less apt to feel the reality of the form. +The planes of values fill in the outline and give +substance to it. They map it out so that it takes +thickness and proportion; it is more real. And +any fault of outline is more quickly seen, because +you cannot get your masses of shade of the right +form and proportion if the outline enclosing them +is not right.</p> + +<p><b>The Frottée.</b>—Make, then, a careful light-and-shade +drawing with charcoal directly on the canvas, +working in the background where it tells +against the group, but without carrying it out +to the edges of the canvas.</p> + +<p>Be accurate with your modelling and values, +and keep the planes simple and well defined. +Draw all characteristic details, but only the most +important, nearly as if it were not to be painted, +but were to remain a drawing.</p> + +<p>Fix this drawing with fixative and an atomizer.</p> + +<p>In beginning with paint go over the drawing +with a thin <i>frottée</i> which shall re-enforce the drawing +with color. You may do this with one color, +making a monochrome painting very thin, leaving +the canvas bare for the lights. Many of the best +painters lay in all pictures this way. What color +is to be used is a matter for consideration. It +should be one so sympathetic to the coloring of +the whole picture that if it is left without any +other paint over it in places it will still look all +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> +right. Raw umber is a good color, or raw umber +modified with burnt sienna and black. You can +make a mixture that seems right. This establishes +your larger values, and gives you something +better than a bare canvas, and something with +which you can have a more just idea of the effect +of each touch of color you put on.</p> + +<p>If there is much variety of color in the various +objects of your composition, it is better to make +your <i>frottée</i> suggest the different colors. Instead +of making a monochrome <i>frottée</i>, rub in each object +with a thin mixture, approximating the color and +value, but not solid, nor as strong as it will become +when painted, of course. Nevertheless, you can +get in this first rubbing in, a strong effect, which +at a distance has a very solid look, though the relations +are not so carefully studied. When you +come to put on solid color with this sort of an +under-painting, it is easy to judge pretty closely of +color as well as light-and-shade relations, and you +can work more frankly into it.</p> + +<p>Into this painting, when it is dry, you may begin +to paint with body color, beginning with the true +color and value of the lights, and working down +through the half darks into the darks. Paint the +background pretty carefully as to color and value, +but loosely as to handling. Paint slowly, deliberately, +and thoughtfully. There is no need to pile +up masses of wrong color. You should try to be +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> +sure of the color before you lay it on. Study the +color in the group, mix on the palette, and compare +them. Think at least two minutes for every +one minute of actually laying on paint. You save +time in the end by being deliberate and by working +thoughtfully. Put on color firmly and with a +full brush, but there is no need to load color for +the sake of the body of it.</p> + +<p><b>Loaded Lights.</b>—It was a principle with the older +painters to paint the shadows thinly and with +transparent color, and to load the lights. It gave +a richness to the shadows and a solidity to the +lights which was much valued. But don't think +about this; don't let it influence the frankness +of your painting. The theory is in itself largely +obsolete now, and in fact has been disregarded by +almost every able painter who ever lived, in practice, +no matter what he said about it. I only speak +of it because almost all books on painting have +laid it down as a rule, and you had better know +its true relation to painting. Like all other traditional +methods of painting it has been used by the +greatest of painters, and has also been disregarded +by the greatest of painters; and as far as you are +concerned, you may use it or not as suits your +purpose. The main thing is to get the right +color and value in the right place, in the most +direct and natural, in the least affected, manner +possible.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> +You may work into your <i>frottée</i>, then, more or +less solidly as you feel will give you the best representation +of the color you see.</p> + +<p><b>Solid Painting.</b>—Don't paint always in the same +way. It is a mistake to get too accustomed to +one manner of procedure. Different things require +different handling. Let the thing suggest how +you shall paint it. If you want to paint directly, +paint solidly from first to last instead of rubbing +in thinly first. But always have an accurate drawing +underneath.</p> + +<p>In working solidly without previous laying in, +begin where each brush-stroke will have the greatest +effect toward establishing the appearance of +reality. If the canvas is light, begin by putting in +the main darks, and if the canvas is dark, do the +reverse. You get the most immediate effect of +reality by the <i>relief</i>; the relief you get most directly +by putting in first those values which contrast +with what is already there. Establish your +most telling values first, then work from them towards +less immediately effective things.</p> + +<p><b>Color and Values.</b>—Study the color at the same +time you do the value. Put on no touch of paint +as a value or a color alone. If you do, you will +have to paint that spot twice,—once for the value, +and again for the color. You might as well paint +for the two qualities in one stroke. It takes more +thought, but it gives you more command of your +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> +work. It doesn't load your canvas with useless +paint, and it saves time in the long run.</p> + +<p><b>Relations and Directness.</b>—Study to give the true +relations of things. Try to get the just color quality. +Give it at once. Don't get it half way and +trust to luck and a subsequent painting to correct +it. You will never learn to paint that way. Paint +intensely while you paint. Use all the energy you +have. Paint with your whole strength for a half +or a whole hour, and then rest. You will accomplish +more so than by painting all day in a languid, +half-hearted way.</p> + +<p><b>Directness.</b>—Directness comes from making up +your mind just what tint of color and value is +needed, and just where it is to go, first, then putting +it there with no coaxing. Get the right color +on your brush and plenty of it; then put the brush +deliberately and firmly down in the right place, +and take it directly away, and look at the result +without touching it again till you have made up +your mind that it needs something else, and what +it is that it needs. Then do that and stop.</p> + +<p>Directness and justness of relation are the most +important things in painting. They tell for most, +result in most, both to the picture and to the student. +Whatever you do, work for that. Try to +have no vagueness in your mind as to what you +will do or why you do it, and the effect of it will +show on your canvas.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXIX" id="CHAPTER_XXIX"></a>CHAPTER XXIX</h2> + +<h3>FLOWERS</h3> + + +<p>Flower painting is the refinement of still life. +You have the same control of combination, but +you have not the same control of time. Flowers +will change, and change more rapidly than any +other models you can have; and at the same time +they are so subtle that the most exquisite truth +and justness are necessary to paint them well.</p> + +<p>People seem to think that any one can paint +flowers. On the contrary, almost no one can paint +them well. There are not a dozen painters in the +world who can really paint flowers as they ought +to be painted. Why? Because while they are so +exquisite in drawing and color, and so infinitely +delicate in value, they are also even more infinitely +subtle in substance and sentiment.</p> + +<p>When you have got the drawing and the color +and the value, you have not got the <i>quality</i>.</p> + +<p>What is the petal of a flower? It is not paper, +and it is not wax, neither is it flesh and blood, of +the most exquisite kind. All these are gross as +substance compared to the tender firmness of the +flower petal; and the whole bunch of flowers is +made up of petals.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span> +Yet you cannot paint the <i>petals</i> either, else you +lose the <i>flower</i>. You must paint the <i>quality</i> of the +petal, and the <i>character</i> of the flower.</p> + +<p>All these things make the mere perception of +facts most difficult, and it must be done with full +knowledge that in an hour it will be something +else, and you can never get it back to its original +form again. Yet you cannot paint a bunch of +flowers in an hour. What will you do?</p> + +<p><b>Mass and Value.</b>—There is something besides +the flower and the petal; there is the <i>mass</i>. The +mass is <i>one thing</i>, and it is surrounded with air, +and air goes through the interstices of it. You +must make this visible. The difference in value +in flowers is something "infinitely little," as a +great flower painter said to me once. Yet the difference +is there. The bunch has its nearer and its +farther sides, and the way the light falls on it is +the most obvious expression of it.</p> + +<p>When you begin a group of flowers, get the +<i>whole</i> first. Make up your mind that you cannot +complete your work from the flower you have +in front of you, and that you must constantly +change your models. Do not paint the little +things, the personal things first then. Paint what +is common to all the flowers in the group first. +Paint the mass and the rotundity of it, and express +most vaguely the <i>forms</i> of the accents, +and of the darks which fall between the flowers, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</a></span> +but get their values. For you will have to +change these, and you should have nothing there +which will influence you to shirk. In this way +only can you get the larger things without hampering +your future work by what may be wrong.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus295" id="illus295"></a> +<img src="images/illus295.jpg" width="100%" alt="Sweet Peas." title="Sweet Peas." /> +<span class="caption">Sweet Peas.</span> +</div> + +<p>Get the large values, and as little as possible of +the expression of the individual flowers; then as +the flowers fade and change, substitute one or +two fresh ones at a time, in this or that part of +the partially wilted group, using the same kind +of flower as that which was in that place before; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span> +then work more closely from these new flowers, +letting the whole bunch preserve for you the +mass and general relation. As you work, the +bunch will be gradually changing and constantly +renewed from part to part, and you can work +slowly from general to particular. Finally, from +new flowers, put in those more individual touches +which give the personal flowers.</p> + +<p>This is the only way you can work a long time, +and it is not easy. But it should not discourage +you. Nothing takes the place of the flower picture, +and the only way to learn to paint flowers is +to paint flowers.</p> + +<p><b>General Principles Hold Always.</b>—Still, the principles +of all painting hold here as elsewhere, and +what is said of painting in general will have its +application to flowers.</p> + +<p>Paint flowers because you love them; and if you +love them, love them enough to study patiently +to express the qualities most worth painting, even +if there be difficulties.</p> + +<p><b>Details Again.</b>—Don't make too much of unimportant +things. The whole is more than the part; +the flower than the petal. Of course you can't +paint a flower without painting the petals, but you +need not paint the petals so that you can't see +anything else. If the character of the flower as a +whole is to be seen at a glance without the emphasis +of any special petal, suggest the petals +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> +only. If the petal is important to the expression +of character, then paint it; and if you do, paint it +well. Use your judgment; make the less expressive +of the greater, or do not paint it at all.</p> + +<p><b>Colors.</b>—Colors and tints in flowers are always +more rather than less subtle than you think them. +If you have a doubt, make it more delicate—give +delicacy the benefit of the doubt. Still, flowers +are never weak in color. Subtle as they are, it is +the very subtlety of strength. Black will be the +most useless color of your palette. Make your +grays by mixing your richer colors. A gray in a +flower is shadow on rich color, and it must not be +painted by negation of color, but by refinement of +color.</p> + +<p><b>Sketches.</b>—Make sketches of flowers constantly. +Try to carry the painting of a single flower or of +a group as far as you can in an hour. Practise +getting as much of the effect of detail as possible +with as little actual painting of it, and then apply +this to your picture.</p> + +<p>Get to know your work in studies and sketches, +and you will work better in more difficult combinations.</p> + +<p>When you have, as you generally will have, still-life +accessories to your flowers, rub in quickly the +color and values of the vase or what not first, but +leave the painting of it till the flowers are done. +It will be a more patient sitter than they.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> +Apply the ways of painting spoken of with +reference to still life to the sketching of flowers. +Either rub in quickly a <i>frottée</i> and then paint solidly +into that, or work frankly and solidly but +deliberately to render the characteristic qualities. +When you sketch flowers don't take too +many at a time; calculate to work not more than +an hour and a half or two hours, and have no more +flowers in your sketch than you can complete in +that time.</p> + +<p>When you sketch, quite as much as when you +work at more ambitious canvases, get the mass +first, especially if the group is large. Then put +in the accents which do most to give the character +or type of the flower. Make studies of single +flowers and sketches of groups. In the study +search detail and modelling; in the sketch search +relations and relief, effect and large accent.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXX" id="CHAPTER_XXX"></a>CHAPTER XXX</h2> + +<h3>PORTRAITS</h3> + + +<p>Don't look upon portraits as something any one +can do. A portrait is more than a likeness, and +the painting of it gives scope for all of the great +qualities possible in art. Only a great painter +can paint a great portrait. Some great painters +rest their fame on work in this field, and others +have added by this to the fame derived from other +kinds of work.</p> + +<p>You must not think it easy to paint a portrait, +or rest satisfied with having got a likeness. Likeness +is a very commonplace thing, which almost +any one can get. If there were no other qualities +to be tried for, it would hardly be worth while +to paint a portrait. Back of the likeness, which +a few superficial lines may give, is the character, +which needs not only skill and power to express +but great perception to see, and judgment to make +use of to the best advantage.</p> + +<p><b>Character.</b>—The first requisite in a good portrait +is character,—more than likeness, more than +color or grace, before everything else, it needs +this; nothing can take the place of it and make +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> +a portrait in any real sense of the word. Everything +else may be added to this, and the picture +be only so much the greater; but this is the fundamental +beauty of the portrait. Some of the +greatest painters made pictures which were very +beautiful, yet the greatest beauty lay in the perception +and expression of character. Holbein's wonderful +work is the apotheosis of the direct, simple, +sincere expression of character in the most frank +and unaffected rectitude of drawing. There are +masterpieces of Albrecht Dürer which rest on the +same qualities, as you can see in the Portrait of +Himself by Dürer. Likeness is incidental to character; +get that, and the likeness will be there in +spite of you.</p> + +<p>Hubert Herkomer said once that he did not try +for likeness; if only he got the right values in the +right places, the likeness had to be there. The +same can hardly be said of character, for this depends +on the selection from the phases of expression +which are constantly passing on the face, those +which speak most of the personality of the man; +and the emphasis of these to the sacrifice of others. +The painting of character is interpretation of individuality +through the painting of the features, +and, like all interpretation, depends more on insight +and selection than on representation. Try +for this always. Search for it in the manner, in +the pose and occupation, of your sitter. Get likeness +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> +if you will, of course; but remember that +there is a petty likeness, which may be accident +or not, which you can always get by a little care +in drawing; and that there is a larger character +which includes this, and does not depend on exaggeration +of feature or emphasis of accidental lines, +but on the large expressiveness of the individual. +You may find it elsewhere than in the face. The +character affects the whole movement of the man. +The set of the head and the great lines of the +face, the head and shoulders alone would give it to +you even if the features were left out. Study to +see this, and to express it first, and then put in as +much detail as you see fit, only taking care never +to lose the main thing in getting those details.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus302" id="illus302"></a> +<img src="images/illus302.jpg" width="100%" alt="Dürer, by Himself." title="Dürer, by Himself." /> +<span class="caption">Dürer, <i>by Himself.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">To be studied as an example of directness and <ins class="correction" title="original reads 'näiveté'">naïveté</ins> of painting.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> +</div> + +<p><b>Qualities.</b>—There are other great qualities also +which you can get in a portrait. All the qualities +of color and tone, of course. But the simplicity of +a single figure does not preclude the qualities of +line and mass. The great things to be done with +composition may as well be done in portrait as elsewhere. +If you would see what may be done with +a single figure, study the Portrait of his Mother, by +Whistler. You could not have a better example. +It is one of the greatest portraits of the world. +Notice the character which is shown in every line +and plane in the figure. The very pose speaks of +the individuality. Notice the grace and repose of +line, and the relations of mass to mass and space—the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> +proportion. See how quiet it is and simple, +yet how just and true. Of the color you cannot +judge in a black and white, but you can see the +relations of tones, the values and the drawing. It +is these things which make a picture; not only a +portrait, but a great work of art as well.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus304" id="illus304"></a> +<img src="images/illus304.jpg" width="100%" alt="Portrait of his Mother." title="Portrait of his Mother." /> +<span class="caption">Portrait of his Mother. <i>Whistler.</i></span> +</div> + +<p><b>Drawing.</b>—Good work in portraiture depends +on good drawing, just as other work does. Don't +think that because it is only a head you can make +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> +it more easily than anything else. As in other +kinds of work, the drawing you should try for is +the drawing of the proportions and characteristic +lines. Get the masses and the more important +planes, and don't try for details. You can get +these afterwards, or leave them out altogether, and +they will not be missed if your work has been well +done.</p> + +<p>Don't undertake too much in your work. Make +up your mind how much you can do well, and +don't be too ambitious; the best painters who ever +lived have been content to work on a head and +shoulders, and have made masterpieces of such +paintings. You may be content also. See how little +Velasquez could make a picture of! and notice +also the placing of the head, and the simplicity of +mass, and of light and shade.</p> + +<p><b>Painting.</b>—Of course you can help your color +with glazing and scumbling, but work for simplicity +first. It is not necessary to use all sorts of +processes; you can get fine results and admirable +training from portrait studies, and the more +directly you do it, the better the training will be.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus306" id="illus306"></a> +<img src="images/illus306.jpg" width="100%" alt="Portrait of Himself." title="Portrait of Himself." /> +<span class="caption">Portrait of Himself. <i>Velasquez.</i></span> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span></p> +</div> + +<p>Study the Portrait of Himself, by Albrecht +Dürer. You will find no affectation here; the +most simple and direct brush-work only. You will +not be able to do this sort of thing, but that is +no reason why you should not try for it. It will +depend on the brush-stroke. It implies a precision +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> +of eye as well as of hand. It means drawing quite +as much as painting,—drawing in the painting. +You will not get this great precision; nevertheless, +try for it, and get as near it as you can. Don't +try for too much cleverness; be content with good +sincere study, and the most direct expression of +planes that you can give.</p> + +<p>Let your brush follow lines of structure. Don't +lay on paint across a cheek, for instance. Notice +the direction of the muscle fibre. It is the line of +contraction of the muscle which gives the anatomical +structure to a face. If your brush follows +those, you will find that it takes the most natural +course of direction.</p> + +<p>Do the same with the planes of the body and +of the clothing. Note the lines of action, and the +brush-stroke will naturally follow them.</p> + +<p>See that the whole form, and particularly the +head, "constructs." The head is round, more or +less; it is not flat. The planes of it cross the plane +of the canvas, recede from it, cross behind, and +return. This in all directions. You must make +your painting express this. It is not enough that +there be features, the features must be part of +a whole which is surrounded, behind as well as in +front, by the atmosphere. The hair is not just +hair, it is the outer covering of the skull, and of +necessity follows the curves of the skull; and +there is a back part to the skull which you cannot +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> +see, but which you can feel—can know the +presence of, because of the way it is connected +with the front part by the sides. All this you +must make evident in your painting, as well as +the facts which are on the side of the skull turned +toward you. How make it evident? By values +and directness of brush-stroke.</p> + +<p><b>Background.</b>—Never treat the background as +something different from the head. The whole +thing must go together. The slightest change in +the background is equivalent to that much change +of the head itself. For the change means necessarily +a different contrast, either of color or light +and shade, and it will have its effect on the color +or relief of the head.</p> + +<p>Paint the two together, then. Make the head +and all that goes with it or around it as equally +parts of the picture, which all tend to affect each +other. Your background is not something which +can be laid in after the head is finished. True +you can paint the background immediately around +the head first, and then, after painting the head, +extend the background to the edge of the canvas; +but the color, tone, and character of the background +must be decided upon at the time the +head is painted, and carried on in the same feeling.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus310" id="illus310"></a> +<img src="images/illus310.jpg" width="100%" alt="Portrait." title="Portrait." /> +<span class="caption">Portrait. <i>D. Burleigh Parkhurst.</i></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>It is never good work to paint the head and +then paint a background behind it. Particularly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> +is this true when there are windows or any objects +whatever in the background. It is most important +that the whole thing shall be seen in the +same kind of light, and in the same relation of +light. This is hardly to be done when the head +is one painting and the background another.</p> + +<p>This is not rigidly true, however, in cases when +the whole thing is planned beforehand, and studies +made for each part, as in elaborate portraits +and compositions which include several figures +or special surroundings. But the principle holds +good here also. The relation must be kept of the +head to the surroundings, and the effect of the one +upon the other always kept in mind.</p> + +<p><b>Complex Portraits.</b>—It is often possible to pose +your model so as to bring out some characteristic +occupation. This is often done in portraits of +distinguished men. Such a treatment gives opportunity +for composition both of the figure and +of the various objects which may make up the +background.</p> + +<p>In such pictures you should study arrangement +of line and mass, to make the thing æsthetically +interesting as well as interesting as a portrait. +Composition in mass,—the consideration of the +head and shoulders in relation to the space of the +canvas,—is necessary in the simplest head; but +as soon as the canvas takes in a representation of +action on the part of the figure, line and movement +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> +must be considered, as was done so beautifully +in Whistler's portrait. In this the study of +composition is your problem. You may study it +all the time and in every picture you do, but it +should be worked out before you begin to paint.</p> + +<p>Plan your canvas carefully always. Know just +where everything is coming. When you leave +things to chance, you are pretty sure to have +trouble later.</p> + +<p><b>Portraits Good Training.</b>—I would not have you +undertake to paint a portrait rashly. You should +know what you are to expect. If you are not +pretty sure of your drawing, and of the first principles +of seeing color in nature, and of representing +it on canvas, you are likely to get discouraged. +Particularly if a friend poses for you, you may +expect disappointment on both sides. Drawing +a head from the life is a very different thing from +drawing an inanimate object which will stay in +one position as long as you can pay the rent. So +in the painting of it, too, the color itself is alive. +Flesh is something very elusive to see the color +of. And when you find that just as you begin to +get things well under way, or are in a particularly +tight place, just at that moment your model must +rest, you must stop while the position is changed +and gotten back to again; then you will begin to +realize that "<i>la nature ne s'arrête pas</i>."</p> + +<p>I would have you know all this, I say, before +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> +you begin on your first portrait; but, nevertheless, +if you can get a start at it you will find it extremely +good practice. The very difficulties bring +more definitely to you the real problems of painting. +The fact that it is really the representation +of something which has life has an interest quite +of its own. The constant change of position on +the part of the model will make you more observant, +and less regardful of details; or if you do +regard the details, and forget the other things, it +will show you how inadequate those details are +to real expression, unless there is something larger +to place them on.</p> + +<p>Don't undertake the painting of a head without +considering well that you are likely to have trouble, +and that the trouble you will have is most likely to +be of a kind that you don't expect. But, having +begun, keep your head and your grit, and do the +best you can. Remember that you learn by mistakes, +and failures are a part of every man's work, +and of every painter's experience, and not only of +your own.</p> + +<p>You will save your self-esteem from considerable +bruising if you make it a point never to let +your sitter see your work till you are pretty well +over the worst of it. The knowledge that it is to +be seen will make you work less unconsciously, +and you will find yourself trying for likeness, and +all that sort of thing, when that is not what you +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> +should be thinking about; and if, after all, the +thing is a failure, it is a great consolation to know +that no one but yourself has seen it!</p> + +<p><b>Beginning a Portrait.</b>—The ways of beginning +portraits are innumerable. There is no one right +way. Some are right for one painter or subject, +and some for others; but there are some methods +which are more advisable for the beginner.</p> + +<p>You can begin and carry through your painting +entirely with body color, or you can begin it with +<i>frottées</i>, and paint solidly into that. Take these +two methods as types, and work in one or the +other, according to what are the special qualities +you want your work to have.</p> + +<p>If you have never painted a head, and have +some knowledge of the use of paint and of drawing, +I would suggest that you make a few studies +of the head and shoulders, life size, in solid color, +and on a not too large canvas, say sixteen by +twenty inches. This will leave you no extra space, +and you can devote your whole attention to the +study of the head, with only a few inches of background +around it. You will probably make the +head too large. A head looks larger than it really +is, especially when you are putting it on canvas. +If you measure them you will find that few heads +will be longer than nine inches from the top of the +hair to the bottom of the chin. Take this as the +regular size in drawing it on your canvas, and +make the other proportions according to that.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> +Make a drawing of the outlines in straight lines, +which shall give only the main proportions of the +head, neck, and shoulders. Within this, block out +the features largely. Don't draw the eyes, but +only the shape of the orbit; nor the nostril, but +only the mass of light and shade of the nose.</p> + +<p><b>Construction.</b>—In these studies avoid trying to +get anything more than what will be suggested +by this simple drawing. Use body color. Don't +think of anything but what you have to represent. +Never mind how the paint goes on, nor what +colors you use, except that it is right in value, +and as near the color as you can get. Put it on +with the full brush, and try to get first the large +masses and planes. Get it light where it is light, +and dark where it is dark, and have contrast +enough to give some relief. Don't try for any +problems. Set your model in a simple, strong +light and go ahead.</p> + +<p>No details, no eyes, only the great structural +masses. Try to feel the skull under these planes +of light and dark. Have the edges of them pronounced +and firm.</p> + +<p>Do a lot of these studies; learn structure first. +You will never be able to put an eye in its place +in the orbit till you can make the plane of dark +which expresses the bony structure of the orbit. +You will feel the edge of the brow, of the cheekbone, +and where the light falls on the temple and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> +on the side of the nose. Inside of this is the +dark of the cavity, broken for your purpose only +by the light on the upper lid. Lay these in. Do +the same with the other planes, and put your +brush down firmly where you want the color, with +no consideration but the simplest and most direct +expression of value and color.</p> + +<p>Now, when you can lay in a head in this way, so +that you can express the likeness with nothing +but these dozen or so of simple planes, you have +got some idea of what are the main things which +give character to a head. You will begin to understand +how it should "construct." Into this +you can put all the detail you want, and if the +detail is in value with this beginning it will keep +its proper relation to the whole.</p> + +<p>Always when painting a head solidly, work this +way. Get the action and character of the head as +a whole. Block in the planes of the face and the +features; and then go ahead to give the details +which express the lesser characteristics. But +always get the character, even the first look of +resemblance, with this blocking in. Details and +features will not give you the likeness, to say +nothing of the character, if you have not gotten +the character first by the representation of those +proportions which mean the structure which underlies +all the accidental positions of the detail of +feature.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> +<b>The Frottée.</b>—If you want to be more exact with +your drawing before you begin to paint, lay in +your canvas with a light-and-shade drawing in +charcoal. Then make a <i>frottée</i> in one color, and +paint into and over that, as was described in the +Chapter on "Still Life."</p> + +<p>By careful and studious use of these two +methods of work you can learn the main principles +of painting portraits, and modify the handling +as you have need; for all the various methods +of manipulation are modifications of one or the +other, or combinations of both of these fundamentally +different ways of working.</p> + +<p>If you paint more than one sitting, get as good +a drawing as you can the first day. Put in your +<i>frottée</i> the next, or make your blocking in; then +after that do your painting into the <i>frottée</i>, or the +working out of such details as you decide to put in.</p> + +<p>Titian painted solidly, probably with no details; +then worked these in and glazed, then touched rich +colors into the glaze.</p> + +<p>But you had better not bother with all these +ways of painting. When you can work well in +the simplest way, you will find yourself making all +sorts of experiments without any suggestions from +me. Work first for facts of utmost importance, +and technical methods are not such facts. Perception +and representation by any most convenient +means are the first things to be thought of, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> +and nothing else is of importance until a certain +amount of advance is made along this line.</p> + +<p>Learn to see and paint the wholeness of the +thing at once, not the details, but the <i>fact</i> of it. +Try to lay in things so that you have a solid +ground to work onto and into later.</p> + +<p>Look for the vital things. Don't try for "finish." +Finish is not worked for nor painted into +a picture; finish <i>occurs</i> when you have represented +all you have to express. When you have got +character and values and true representation of +color, you will find that the "finish" is there without +your having bothered about it.</p> + +<p>The masses you are to look for and emphasize +are the great spaces where the light strikes and +the shadows fall. Close your eyes. The lines +disappear. You only see large planes of values; +express these at once and simply.</p> + +<p>Don't be afraid of rudeness, either of handling +or of color, at first. Don't try for finesse. All +these delicacies will come later. But you must +get the important things first. Learn to be strong +<i>first</i>, or you never will be. Delicacy comes after +strength, not before.</p> + +<p>So, too, freedom comes after knowledge—is +the result of knowledge. So paint to learn. If +it is rigid at first and hard, never mind. Get the +understanding and the representation as well as +you can, and try for other things later.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"> +<a name="illus320" id="illus320"></a> +<img src="images/illus320.jpg" width="100%" alt="Haystacks in Sunshine." title="Haystacks in Sunshine." /> +<span class="caption">Haystacks in Sunshine. <i>Monet.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">To show certain characteristics of handling in "Impressionist" work.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXI" id="CHAPTER_XXXI"></a>CHAPTER XXXI</h2> + +<h3>LANDSCAPE</h3> + + +<p>From the usual rating of figures as the most +important branch of painting, it would be natural +to speak of that kind of work first. But work +from the head must come before you attempt the +figure, and there are a good many things that you +can learn from landscape which will help you in +figure-work. The manner of painting figures has +been much modified, too, of late years, owing to +certain qualities and points of view which are due +to the study of landscape and the important position +that it has come to occupy.</p> + +<p>In the old days landscape was only a secondary +thing, not only as a branch of art in itself, but particularly +as it was used by figure painters. In this +century it has so broadened in its scope that it is +now recognized to be as important a field of work +as any. But further than this, it has become the +most influential study in the whole range of painting. +From the development of the study of outdoor +nature, and particularly outdoor light, it has +come about that certain facts of nature have been +recognized which were before neglected, ignored, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span> +or unsuspected, and these facts bear quite as +much on the painting of the figure as on the +painting of landscape. So that it is no more possible +to paint the figure, in some respects, as it +was painted as a matter of course a hundred years +ago, while other ways of painting the figure, which +were undreamed of at that time, are the matters +of course now.</p> + +<p>The whole problem of light has taken a new +phase, and the treatment of color in that relation +is modified in the painting of figures as well as in +the other branches of work.</p> + +<p><b>Pitch.</b>—In no direction is this more marked +than in the matter of <i>pitch</i>, or <i>key</i>. With the +study of landscape, the range of gradation from +light to dark has broadened. A picture may now +be painted in a "high key;" the picture may be, +from the highest to the lowest note in it, far +lighter than would have been thought possible +even thirty years ago.</p> + +<p>This question of "bright pictures" is one which +demands consideration. One has only to go into +any exhibition of pictures to-day to be struck with +the fact that the key of almost every picture in it, +of whatever kind, has changed from what it would +have been in the last generation. This is not +merely the result of the spread of the "Impressionist" +idea. That influence has only been +strongly felt in this country within the last ten +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span> +years. It is not that which I am speaking of now. +I mean the fact that even the grayer pictures—those +which do not in any ordinary sense of the +word belong to Impressionist work—are light in +color, where they would once have been dark, or +at least darker. The impressionists have had a +definite influence, it is true; but the work of the +earlier "<i>plein air</i>" men—the men who posed +their models out-of-doors as a matter of principle, +who studied landscape out-of-doors—was the +first and most powerful influence, and that of the +impressionists, coming along after it, has simply +emphasized and carried it farther.</p> + +<p><b>Bright Pictures.</b>—Whatever may be thought of +the work of those painters who are called "impressionists," +it must be recognized that they have +taught us how some things may be possible. And +the present quality of brightness will necessarily +be to a certain extent a permanent one in art. +For like it or not as we may, it is true—true to a +certain great, fundamental characteristic of nature. +For outdoor light <i>is bright</i>, even on a gray day. +The luminosity of color is too great to be represented +with dark paint or lifeless color. And +once this fact is recognized, it is a fact which will +inevitably influence all kinds of work. What is +possible and right at a certain stage of knowledge +or recognition may be impossible when other +points of view have once been accepted. We see +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span> +only what we look for, and we look for only what +we expect to see or are interested to see. You +cannot go out-of-doors now and paint as you would +have painted a hundred years ago. Then you +would have painted what you saw then; but you +would not have seen nor looked for things which +you cannot help seeing now. For our eyes have +been opened to new qualities and new facts, and +once the eyes have been opened to them they can +never be closed to them again.</p> + +<p><b>Average Observation.</b>—I say we see only what we +look for, what we expect to find; anything out of +the ordinary is hard to believe at first. In looking +at nature the average observer does not even see +the obvious. Certain general facts he accepts in +the general, but as a rule there is no real recognition +of what is there; no perception of the relations +of things; no analysis; no real <i>seeing</i>, only a conventional +acceptance of a thing as a <i>thing</i>. Men +look at nature with one idea, and at a picture of +nature with an entirely different idea. Nature in +the picture is to most people just what they have +been accustomed to see in other pictures. They +get their idea of how nature looks from those pictures, +and if you show them a picture differently +conceived they have difficulty in taking it in.</p> + +<p>For this reason the "bright picture" does not +"look right." I remember being asked by a man +in a modern exhibition what I thought of "these +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span> +bright pictures." When I asked which pictures +he had reference to, I found that he meant the +work of a man whose whole aim in painting landscape +was, as he once said to me, to get "the just +note" in color and value. One would think that +the fact that the whole force of an extremely able +and sincere mind was directed to that purpose, +would produce a picture with at least truth of +observation. Yet this was not what my passing +acquaintance wanted to see. The picture he liked, +which "had some nature in it," as he pointed out +to me, was an extremely commonplace landscape +with a black tree against a garish sky, reflected in +a pool of water. The "bright picture" seemed to +me exquisitely gray and quiet, though high in key, +and the one with "nature in it," harsh and crude, +but conventional; and that was just the point. +The average observer wants to see, and does see, +in nature what he is accustomed to accept in a +picture as nature.</p> + +<p>But a painter cannot go on such a basis. He +may paint a dark picture, but he must find a subject +which is dark to do so. He may not paint +daylight with false pitch and false relations, and +say he sees it so. With every liberty for personal +seeing, there are still certain facts so established +and obvious that personality must take them and +deal with them, must use them and not ignore +them, in its self-expression.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[Pg 314]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus327" id="illus327"></a> +<img src="images/illus327.jpg" width="100%" alt="On the Race Track." title="On the Race Track." /> +<span class="caption">On the Race Track. <i>Degas.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">To show relations of pitch and contrast out-doors.</span> +</div> + +<p>The pitch of daylight is one of these facts. +Light and luminosity may not be qualities which +appeal to your temperament. You may therefore +not make them the main theme of your painting +of landscape; but you cannot paint a daylight picture +without in some way making it obvious that +luminosity is a fundamental characteristic of day +light. There is no other quality so universally +present and pervasive. In sunlight it is the most +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span> +vital quality. You might as well paint water without +recognizing the fact that water is wet, as to +paint daylight without recognizing the fact that +diffused sunlight is brilliant.</p> + +<p><b>A Help.</b>—You will find it very useful as a help +in seeing pitch as well as color to have a card +with a square hole cut in it to look through at +your landscape. Have one side covered with +black velvet and the other left white. Compare +darks with the black, and the lights with the +white, and make the picture compose in the opening +as in a frame.</p> + +<p><b>Key and Harmony.</b>—But you should remember +that the high key for out-of-door work does not +mean crude nor unsympathetic color, neither does +it mean that there is nothing but sunshine and +shadow. Your picture may be as high as you +please in pitch, and yet be harmonious and pleasing. +I have seen impressionist pictures of most +pronounced type hung in the same room with old +pictures and in perfect harmony with them. It +means that good color is always good color, and +will always be harmonious with other good color, +whatever the pitch of either. One picture is simply +a different note from the other, that is all. +The color in nature is not crude in not being +dark. The relations of spots of color are just; +you have only to be as just in observing them, +and your picture will be harmonious.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span> +Make your notes just <i>all over</i> your canvas. +Have some of them just and the rest false, and +of course it will be wrong. Or if you try to make +crudity take the place of brilliancy, you will not +get harmony. The harmony which comes from +the presence in just relation of all the colors is +none the less beautiful because more alive. You +need not try for the most contrasting and most +sparkling qualities of out-of-door color, but you +should feel for the out-of-doorness of it.</p> + +<p>The space, the breadth, lack of confines, the +largeness and movement, vibration and life,—these +are the things which the modern painter +has discovered in landscape and has emphasized; +and this is what has made modern landscape a +vital force in modern art. Whatever you do or +do not see, feel, and express in your painting, +these you must see, feel, and express; for once +these qualities are recognized and accepted they +are as universal as the law of gravity, and can be +as little ignored.</p> + +<p><b>Landscape Drawing.</b>—Landscape is more difficult +to draw than is generally thought; not only is the +character affected by the <i>scale</i> of the main masses, +but there is great probability of overdrawing. The +curves that mark the modelling of the ground +are very difficult to give justly. The altitude and +slope of mountains are almost invariably exaggerated. +The twists and windings of roadways and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span> +fences are seldom carefully drawn; yet the most +exquisite movement of line is to be gained by just +representation of them. To give the character of +a tree, too, without making out too much of the +detail of it, needs more precise observation than +it generally gets.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus330" id="illus330"></a> +<img src="images/illus330.jpg" width="100%" alt="Willow Road." title="Willow Road." /> +<span class="caption">Willow Road. <i>D. Burleigh Parkhurst.</i></span> +</div> + +<p>Get the character; get the sentiment of it. +Search for the important things here first, and +be more particular about the placing of each line +than about the number of lines.</p> + +<p>Don't draw too many lines in a landscape; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span> +don't draw too many objects. Carefully study the +scene before you till you have decided what parts +are most essential in giving the character that you +want to express, and then draw most carefully +those parts. See which are the <i>most expressive +lines</i> in it. Get the swing and movement of those +lines in the large; then study the more subtle +movement of them. Get these things on the canvas +first, and put everything else in as subsidiary +to them. Have all this well placed before you +begin to paint, and allow for little things being +painted on to this.</p> + +<p>Don't get too many things into one landscape. +The spirit of the time and place is what will make +the beauty of it, not the details nor the mere +facts. This spirit you will find in a few things, +not in many. Having found which lines and +forms, which masses and relations of color and +value, express this, the more carefully you avoid +putting in other things the more entirely you emphasize +the quality which is the real reason of +existence of your picture.</p> + +<p>In studying landscape, work for one thing at +a time. What has been said of sketching and +studies applies here. Landscape is the most bewildering +of subjects in its multiplicity of facts +and objects and colors and contrasts. If you cannot +find a way to simplify it you will neither +know where to begin nor where to leave off. I +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span> +cannot tell you just what to do or not to do, because +no two landscapes are alike. Recipes will +do nothing in helping you to paint. But there is +the general principle which you may follow, and I +try to keep it before you even at the risk of over-repetition. +In no kind of picture can you drag in +unimportant things simply because they exist in +nature. In landscape more than elsewhere, because +you cannot arrange it, but must select in +the actual presence of everything, you must learn +to concentrate on the things which mean most, +and to refuse to recognize those which will not +lend themselves to the central idea.</p> + +<p><b>Selection.</b>—When you select your subject, or +"<i>motif</i>," as the French call it, select it for something +definite. There is always something which +makes you think this particular view will make a +good picture. State to yourself what it is that +you see in it, not in detail, but in the general. Is +it the general color effect of the whole, or a contrast? +Is it a sense of largeness and space, or a +beautiful combination of line in the track of a road, +or row of trees, or a river? Perhaps it is the mass +and majesty of a mountain or a group of trees. +Something definite or definable catches you—else +you had better not do it at all; and what that +something is you must know quite precisely, or +you will not have a well-understood picture.</p> + +<p>When you have distinctly in your mind what +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span> +you want to paint it for, then see that the composition +is so placed on your canvas that that characteristic +is the main thing in evidence. With +this done it is a very easy thing to concentrate on +that characteristic, and to leave out whatever tends +to break it up or distract from it. This is the only +way you can simplify your subject. First by a +distinct conception of <i>what</i> you paint it for, then +by so much analysis of the whole field of vision as +will show you what does and what does not help +in the expression of it.</p> + +<p><b>Detail.</b>—Much detail in landscape is never good +painting. Whether big or little, your canvas must +express something larger and more important than +detail. Give detail when it is needed to express +character or to avoid slovenliness. Give as much +detail <i>where the emphasis lies</i> as will insure the +completeness of representation—not a touch more.</p> + +<p><b>Structure.</b>—Have your foreground details well +understood in drawing and value. This does not +require the drawing of leaf and twig, but it does +require <i>structure</i>. Everything requires structure. +<i>Structure is fundamental to character.</i> If you will +not take the trouble to study the character of any +least thing you put in, don't put it in at all. +Nothing is important enough to put in, if it is not +important enough to have its character and its purpose +in the picture understood.</p> + +<p>I spoke of structure in speaking of the head. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span> +If I said nothing but "structure, structure, structure" +to the end of the section, you would get the +impression of what is the most important thing in +drawing. If you will look for and find the line and +proportion expressing the anatomy which makes +the thing fulfil its particular function in the world, +you will understand its character, and that is what +is important, everywhere.</p> + +<p><b>Work in Season.</b>—Make your picture in the season +which it represents. I don't say that a good +summer picture may not be made in winter; but I +do say that you are more likely to express the +summer quality while the summer is around you. +There is too much half painting of pictures, and +then leaving them to be "finished up" afterwards.</p> + +<p>Of course you can make all your studies and +sketches, and then begin and finish the picture +from them. If you are careful to have plenty of +material, to accumulate all your facts with the +intention of working from those facts, all right; +but it would be better if you were to work your +picture in the season of it, as long as you are a +student at least. For until you have had a great +deal of experience, you will find when you come +to paint your picture that some very much needed +material you have neglected to collect, and you +cannot safely supply it from memory. If this occurs +in the time of year represented in the picture, +you can just go out and study it.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span> +<b>Out-of-door Landscapes.</b>—The most important +movement in modern art, the most important in +its effects on all kinds of work, is what I have +mentioned as the <i>plein air</i> movement. It was +thought by some clear-headed men that the best +way to paint an out-door picture was to take their +canvases out-of-doors to paint it. Instead of working +from a few color sketches and many pencil +studies, they painted the whole picture from first +to last in the open air. Working in this way, certain +qualities got into the pictures unavoidably. +Necessarily the color was fresher and truer. Necessarily +there was more breadth and frankness, +and less conventionality and mere picture-making. +The spirit of the open got onto the canvas, and +the whole type of picture was changed. For the +first time out-of-door values were studied as things +in themselves interesting and important. The +result on landscape pictures was that pictures +painted in the studio seemed unreal and insincere, +and that men looked and studied less for the making +of pictures, and more for what nature had to +reveal.</p> + +<p>It would be a good thing for you as a student +if you would do as these men did whenever you +want to do any work at landscape, whether for itself, +or for background. If you wish to pose any +kind of figure with landscape background, pose and +paint your figure out-of-doors. Make sketches as +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[Pg 323]</a></span> +much as you please, make studies as much as you +please; but make them for the suggestions and +knowledge they will give you, and not for material +to be used in painting a picture at home. For +your picture, start, and go on with, and finish it +out-doors; you will get a feeling of freshness and +truth in your work which you cannot get any other +way. You will also acquire a power of concentration +and of selection and rejection in the presence +of nature which is of the utmost importance to you.</p> + +<p><b>Impressionism.</b>—It is not possible to speak of +landscape and <i>plein air</i> without mention of the +"Impressionists." You should understand what +"impressionism" really is, and what it is not, and +what the impressionist stands for. Whether we +like it or not, this work is not to be ignored. It +has tried for certain things, and has shown that +they can be much more justly represented than +had before been believed to be possible, and fad +or no fad, that result stands.</p> + +<p>In the first place, impressionism does not mean +"purple and yellow." Any one who says "purple +and yellow" and throws the whole thing aside, is +a very superficial critic. The purple and yellow +are incidental to the impressionist, not essential. +It is only one of the ways of handling color by +means of which it was found possible to express +certain qualities of light.</p> + +<p>Before everything else the real impressionist +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[Pg 324]</a></span> +stands for the representation of the personal conception +and method as against the traditional. +He believes that if a man has anything of his +own to say, he must say it in his own way; and +that if he cannot find that nature has anything +to say to him personally, if nature cannot give +him a personal message, if he can only paint by +giving another man's ideas and another man's +method, then he had better not paint at all; so +that whatever he may see to paint, and however +he finds a way to express it, the value of it and +the truth of it lie in the fact that it is <i>his</i>, his +way of seeing, and his way of expressing,—that +it is "personal."</p> + +<p><b>Luminosity.</b>—The impressionist is imbued with +the fact that all the light by means of which +things are at all visible is luminous—that it +vibrates. He does not think that living light can +be represented by dead color. He strives to make +his color live also. This is the secret of the purple +and yellow. By the contrast of these two +colors, by the combination and contrast and juxtaposition +of the complementary colors and the +use of pure pigments, he can make his colors more +vibrant, and so give more of the pitch of real sunlight. +He actually applies on his canvas the laws +which are known to hold with light and color +scientifically. He applies practically in his work +those laws which the scientist furnishes him with +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[Pg 325]</a></span> +theoretically. The result in some hands is garish, +crude. But the best men have shown that it is +possible to use the means so as make a subtle +harmony and a luminous brilliancy that have never +before been attained. The crudity is the result +of the man, not of the method.</p> + +<p><b>The Application.</b>—The application of all this to +your own work is that when you want pitch and +sunlight you can get it through the observance of +the laws of color contrast, and such a laying on +of pigment as will bring this about. Try to study +the actual contrasts of color, not as they seem, +but as they are in nature. Study the facts which +have been observed as to colors in their effects +on each other, and then try to see these in nature +and to paint the results.</p> + +<p><b>The Luminists.</b>—This is the principle of all "loose +painting" carried out scientifically. It is the cause +of the peculiar technique of those impressionists +who paint in streaks and spots of pigment. The +manner of putting on paint does interfere with +the continuity of outline in the drawing necessarily, +but there is a marked gain in the quality +of light; and as these men are "luminists," and +light is what they want primarily, the sacrifice +is justifiable, or at any rate explicable.</p> + +<p>Now if you understand the scientific principle, +and the practical application and its result on +canvas, you have in your hands one of the main +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[Pg 326]</a></span> +instrumentalities in the rendering of one great +quality of out-of-doors. How far you adopt it is +a matter for you to decide for yourself. If the +complete adoption of it implies too much of a +sacrifice of other things of equal or greater value +to you, then modify it, or take advantage of it as +much as will give you the balance of qualities you +most want. There is one way to get light and +brilliancy and life into your color: adapt it to +your purpose if you need it.</p> + +<p>This is the application of color juxtaposition to +mixing. The placing of complementaries so as +to increase contrast is another way of adding to +the brilliancy of light. You will find this most +useful when you want to give the greatest possible +emphasis to the effect of sunlight and shadow. +If you keep your shadows cool, your lights will +be the richer and more sparkling because of that +contrast. If you want more strength in a note +of color, get its complement as near it as you can. +Look for their iridescence of edges of shadow, and +of the contours of objects. You will get greater +relief of light and shade by contrast of warm and +cool than contrast of light and dark.</p> + +<p>Do not misunderstand me. I am not advising +you to be an impressionist. I wish only that you +shall see what there is in this way of looking at +nature and of representation of certain effects of +nature, which will be of use to you in the painting +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[Pg 327]</a></span> +of landscape. I would have you know what means +are at your command, what is possible to accomplish +in certain directions, and how it is possible +to accomplish it; then I would have you make +use of whatever will most directly and completely +serve your purpose.</p> + +<p>Do not use any color or colors, any method or +point of view, because of any advocacy whatsoever. +Know first what you want to paint and +why. Let nature speak to you. Go out and look +at landscape. Study and observe; see the effect +which makes you want to paint it, and then use +the means and method which seem most entirely +adapted to it. Don't ask yourself, nor let any +one else ask you, Is this So-and-So's method? or, +Does this belong to this or that school? Don't +bother about schools or methods at all. Look +frankly to see, accept frankly, and then work to +render and convey as frankly as you have seen. +Be sincere—sincere with yourself and with your +painting: then you will surely work at whatever +you do from conviction, and not from fad; and +whether it makes you paint as an impressionist +or not is a very minor matter, because sincerity +of purpose is the most important thing in painting, +and method of representation one of the least.</p> + +<p><b>Atmosphere.</b>—A universal characteristic of nature +will be a fundamental one in landscape. A +landscape which you cannot breathe in is not a +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[Pg 328]</a></span> +perfect one. We live and breathe in atmosphere, +and the expression of atmosphere will go far to +make your landscape true. But atmosphere is not +haziness. Neither is it vagueness nor negativeness +of color. Truth of color-quality, and justness +of relation will do most in getting it. You had +better not try for atmosphere as a thing, but as a +result. Anything so universal and so indefinite +can be expressed by no one thing. If you try to +get it by any one means you will miss it. Study, +then, the subtlety of color relation and justness of +value. Try to be sensitive to the slightest variety +of tone, and be satisfied with no least falsity of +rendering, and you will find that your picture will +not lack atmosphere.</p> + +<p><b>Color of Contour.</b>—An important thing for you +to look for and to study is the color of contours. +You will not find it easy; not easy even to know +what it is that you are looking for. But consider +it as a combination of contiguous values and color +vibrations, and things will reveal themselves to you.</p> + +<p>No form is composed of unvarying color. No +combination of color surrounding it lacks variety. +All along the edge of forms and objects, of whatever +kind, the value and color relation constantly +change. The outline is not constant. Here and +there it becomes lost from identity of value and +color with what surrounds it, and again defines +itself. The edge is not sharp. The color rays +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[Pg 329]</a></span> +vibrate across each other. The inevitable variety +of tint and value, of definiteness and vagueness, +gives a never-ending play of contrasts and blendings. +These are qualities which go to the harmonizing +of color, to the expression of light, and +particularly to the feeling of atmosphere. This +constant variety of contrasting edges is the constant +movement and play of the visual rays, and +the study of it gives life and vibration to the picture, +and all the objects represented in it.</p> + +<p>Outdoors, particularly when the play of diffused +light and the movement of all the objects is continually +felt, either through their own elasticity or +because of the heat and light waves, this study +is most necessary, if you would get the feeling of +freedom, space, and air.</p> + +<p><b>Skies.</b>—In the painting of the sky there are +several points to be kept in mind. The sky, even +on the quietest day, is full of movement. Cloud +masses change continually. If there are no clouds +there is constant vibration in the blue; constant +variety in the plane of color,—a throb of color +sensation which is not to be expressed by a dead, +flat tint.</p> + +<p>Paint the sky loosely. Lay on the color as you +will, with a broad, flat brush, or with a loose, smudgy +handling; put it on with horizontal strokes, or +with criss-cross touches, but never make it a lifeless +tone. Have variety in it; keep a pulsation +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[Pg 330]</a></span> +between the warm and cool color. You can work +in the separate touches of half-mixed color, warm +and cool, all through the sky, so that the whole +tone will be flat and even, but not dense and dead. +So far as the sky is concerned, the atmosphere +is essential, and is to be represented not by dense +color, but by free, loose, vibrating color.</p> + +<p><b>Clouds.</b>—If you have clouds to paint, do not +draw them rigidly. Get the effect of the mass +and movement, and the lightness of them. As +they constantly change in form, any one form they +may assume cannot be characteristic. The type +form is what you must get, and the suggestion +of the motion and lightness. You can suggest, +too, the direction of the wind by the way they +mass and sway and flow. The direction of the +sun's rays, too, counts in the color of them. The +outline of a cloud mass is never hard, never rigid. +The pitch and luminosity and subtlety are what +give you most of the effect of it.</p> + +<p>Study the type of cloud, of course. It is a <i>cumulus</i>, +<i>cirrus</i>, <i>stratus</i>, or what not. This character +is important; but the character lies in the whole +body of the cloud form, not in the accidental outlines +or the special position of it for the moment.</p> + +<p><b>Sky Composition.</b>—The massing of cloud forms +is a very useful factor in the composition of the +landscape. The cloud bank or cloud line is capable +of giving accent or balance to the picture. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[Pg 331]</a></span> +As it is not constant in position any more than +in form, you can place it with truth to nature +pretty nearly always where it will do the most +good as an element in the composition. Make +use of them, then, and study the forms and the +possible phases of them so as to make the best +use of them.</p> + +<p><b>Diffused Light.</b>—Much of the characteristic quality +of out-door light is the result of the diffusion +of light due to both the refraction and the reflection +of the sky. The light which bathes the +landscape comes in all directions from the sky. +Necessarily, then, the sky will be in most cases +far higher in value than anything under it. Even +the blue of the sky, which looks darker than +some bit of light in the landscape, you will find, if +you can manage to get them to tell against each +other, will be the more luminous of the two, and +will look lighter. There are times when the sun +glares on a white building or a piece of white +sand, when the white tells light against the blue. +But these are exceptions, and if we could get a +blue paint which would give the intensity of color, +and also the brilliancy of the light, even these +cases would be most truly represented with the +sky as the higher value. It is a case of whether +to sacrifice value to color, or the reverse, as we +cannot have both.</p> + +<p>Sometimes, however, in a storm, the dense dark +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[Pg 332]</a></span> +of the storm sky is really lower in value than +some white object against it, especially if there +be a bit of sun breaking through on it.</p> + +<p>But in general, nevertheless, you should consider +the sky as always lighter and more luminous +than anything under it.</p> + +<p><b>Three Planes.</b>—It will help you in understanding +the way the light falls on landscape to consider +everything as in one of three planes, and these +planes taking greater or less proportions of light +according to the position of the sun with reference +to them.</p> + +<p>The position of the sun changes from a point +immediately over, to a point practically at right +angles to all objects in nature. Everything that +can exist under the sun will come in one of these +planes, and at some time in the day in each. The +vertical, the horizontal, or some sort of an oblique +between these two. If the sun is overhead exactly, +the flat ground, the tops of trees and houses, +will get the full amount of sunlight. The vertical +planes, sides of houses, depths of foliage, etc., will +get the least, some of them being lighted only +by diffused and reflected light. The planes lying +between these two extremes will get more or less, +according as they are more or less at right angles +to the direct rays of the sun. And as the sun +declines from the zenith, the vertical planes get +more and more and the horizontal planes less and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[Pg 333]</a></span> +less of the light, till in the late afternoon the +banks of trees and sides of buildings and cloud-masses +are gilded with light, and the broad horizontal +plains of land and water are in shadow.</p> + +<p>However obscured the sun may be, this principle +holds more or less; and it makes clear and helps +you to observe and notice many facts in landscape +light and shade which it is necessary to know.</p> + +<p>Millet said that all the beauty of color and +value, and the whole art of painting, rested on the +comprehension and observance of these facts.</p> + +<p>He said that as the planes of any form turned +towards or away from the light and so got more +or less of it, and as one form stood more or less +far back of another and the atmosphere came +between, the color and value changed; and in the +observance of this, and its representation as applied +to any and every object or group of objects, +lay the whole of painting. All the possible beauties +of the art rested on it. He showed a painting +of a single pear in which these things were most +subtly observed, and said that that painting was +as complete and perfect as any painting he could +do simply because in the observance of these relations +was implied the observance of everything +which was vital to painting.</p> + +<p><b>Short Sittings.</b>—This characteristic, and the +steady change of position of the sun and its effects +on all the objects which are directly lighted +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[Pg 334]</a></span> +by it, make it necessary, whenever you are painting +from nature out-of-doors, that you should not +paint at one thing very long at a time. The light +changes pretty rapidly; at high noon it only takes +a few moments to exactly reverse the light. It is +seldom that you can do any just study for more +than an hour or an hour and a half at a sitting. +Some men do work two or three hours, but they +are not studying justly all that time; for that +which was light is dark three hours later, and any +true study of value and color is impossible under +these conditions. Of course on gray days this is +less marked, but you must suit your sittings to +the time and facts.</p> + +<p>It would be better if you had more canvases, +and worked a short time on each, and many days +on all. You would have the truest work.</p> + +<p>Monet works never more than a half-hour on +one canvas; but when he starts out he takes a +half-dozen or more different canvases, and paints +on each till the light has changed. Theodore +Robinson seldom worked more than three-quarters +of an hour, or at most an hour, on one canvas; but, +he worked for twenty or thirty days on each canvas, +and sometimes had a single canvas under way +for successive seasons.</p> + +<p>Any man who would truly study for the just +value and note of color must work more or less in +this way when he works out-of-doors.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[Pg 335]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXII" id="CHAPTER_XXXII"></a>CHAPTER XXXII</h2> + +<h3>MARINES</h3> + + +<p>All that has been said on landscape painting +applies to marines. You have the same open-air +feeling and vibration of light and color. There is +no need to say the same things over again. It is +only necessary to take all these things for granted, +and emphasize certain other things which are peculiar +to the sea.</p> + +<p><b>Sea and Sky.</b>—To begin with, the relation of +the sky to what is under it is markedly different +in color from any other relations in painting. +The sea is always more or less of a perfect reflecting +surface, and always strongly influenced in +color, value, and key by the reflections of the sky +on its surface. The sky color is always modifying +the water—when and how depends on the +condition of the weather, and the degree of quiet +or movement of the water. Sometimes the water +is a perfect mirror; sometimes the mirror quality +is almost lost, but the influence is there.</p> + +<p>This relation is the most important thing, because +the sea and the sky is always the main part +of your picture; and no matter what else is there, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[Pg 336]</a></span> +or how well painted it may be, if these things are +not recognized, if they are not justly observed, +your picture is bad.</p> + +<p>I cannot tell you all about these things. The +variety of effects and relations is infinite. You +must study them, paint them in the presence of +nature, and use your eyes; only remember the +general principles of air and atmosphere and light +and color that I have spoken of elsewhere—all +have most vital importance on marine painting. +You must study these, and think of them, and in +the presence of sea or sky observe their bearings, +and apply them as well as you can.</p> + +<p><b>Movement.</b>—If "<i>la nature ne s'arrête pas</i>" ordinarily, +the fact is even more marked in marines; +for the water is the very type of ceaseless motion. +Somehow, you must not only study in spite of the +continual motion, but you must manage to make +that motion itself felt. This you will find is in +the larger modelling of the whole surface—the +"heave" of it as distinguished from the waves +themselves. The waves are a part of that motion +of course; but give the wave-drawing only, without +their relation to the great swing of the whole +body of water, and you get rigidity rather than +movement. The wave movement is in and because +of this larger motion. See that first, and +make it most evident, then let the waves themselves +cut it up and help to express it.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[Pg 337]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"> +<a name="illus350" id="illus350"></a> +<img src="images/illus350.jpg" width="100%" alt="Entrance to Zuyder Zee." title="Entrance to Zuyder Zee." /> +<span class="caption">Entrance to Zuyder Zee. <i>Clarkson Stanfield.</i></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[Pg 338]</a></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[Pg 339]</a></span> +<b>Wave Drawing.</b>—How shall you "draw" so +changeable a thing as a wave? Every wave has a +type of form, has a characteristic movement and +shape; and as it changes it comes into a new +position and shape in logical and practically identical +sequence of movement. You can only study +this by constant watching. You look at the wave, +and then turn your eyes away to fix it on your +canvas; as you look back, the wave is not there. +Well, you can only not try to make a portrait of +each wave; it isn't possible. Don't expect to. +Study the movement and type forms; think of +it; fix it in your mind; decide on the mass and +suggestive relation of it to other masses, and put +that down.</p> + +<p>There is never a recurrence of the same thing +either in exact form or color, but fix your eyes on +one place, and over and over again you will see a +succession of waves of similar kind. Or look at +a wave and follow it as it drives on; changes come +and go, but the wave form in the main keeps itself +for some time.</p> + +<p>Look over a large field of the water without +too sharply focussing the eyes, you will see the +great lines and planes of modelled surface over +and over again taking the same or similar shapes, +positions, and relations. And as you look your +eye will follow the movement in spite of yourself. +Your gaze will gradually come nearer and nearer; +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[Pg 340]</a></span> +but meanwhile, in following the wave, it will have +felt that the wave was the same in shape, but +only varied in position.</p> + +<p>In this way you will come to know the wave +forms. Jot them down, either in color or with +charcoal; but do not look for outline too much. +Try to study the forms and relations, mainly by +the broad touch, with a characteristic direction +and movement. No amount of explanation will +tell you anything. You must sit and look, think, +analyze, and suggest, then generalize as well as +you can.</p> + +<p><b>Open Sea and Coast.</b>—The open sea is all movement. +Even a ship, the most rigid thing on it, +moves with it. But you do not have to study +these things from the standpoint of invariable +movement. You can start from a stable base. +Study coast things first. You have then the relation +of the movement of the water to the rock +or land, and you can simplify the thing somewhat. +What has been said of motion holds good +still; but you can get something definite in a rock +mass, and study the changes near it, and then extend +your study as you feel strong enough.</p> + +<p>The study of coast scenery is quite as full of +changing beauty as the open sea, and it has certain +types that belong to it alone. Breakers and +surf, and the contrast of land and sea colors and +forms, give great variety of subject and problem. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[Pg 341]</a></span> +In the drawing of rocks the study of character is +quite as important, but not so evasive, as the study +of wave forms. You must try to give the feeling +of weight to them. The mass and immovability +add to the charm and character of the water about +them.</p> + +<p><b>Subject.</b>—Don't undertake too much expanse on +one canvas. Of course there are times when expanse +is itself the main theme; but aside from +that, too much expanse will make too little of other +things which you should study. Whether your +canvas be big or little, to get expanse everything +in the way of detail and form must be relatively +small, otherwise there is no room on the canvas +for the expanse. So if you would paint some surf, +or a rock and breakers, or a ship, place the main +thing in proper proportion to the canvas, and let +the expanse take care of itself, making the main +thing large enough to study it adequately. If it is +too small on the canvas, you cannot do this.</p> + +<p><b>Ships.</b>—The painting of the sea necessarily +involves more or less the painting of vessels of +different kinds. You may put the ship in so insignificant +a relation to the picture that a very +vague representation of it will do, but you must +have a thorough knowledge of all the details of +structure and type if you give any prominence to +the ship in your picture.</p> + +<p><b>Detail.</b>—You do not need to put in every rope +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[Pg 342]</a></span> +in a vessel. You do not need to follow out every +line in the standing rigging even, in order to paint +a ship properly. To do this would miss the spirit +of it, and make the thing rigid and lifeless. But +ignorance will not take the place of pedantry for all +that. Every kind of vessel has its own peculiar +structure, its own peculiar proportions, and its own +peculiar arrangement of spar and rigging. Whether +you are complete or not in the detailing of the +masts and rigging, you must know and represent +the true character of the craft you are painting. +You must take the trouble to know how, why, and +when sails are set, and what are the kinds, number, +and proportion of them, and their arrangement on +any kind of vessel or boat you may paint. There +is again only one way to know this. If you are +not especially a painter of marines, you may find +that the study of some particular vessel in its present +condition and relation to surrounding things +will serve your turn; but if you go in for the +painting of marine pictures generally, you can only +get to know vessels by being on and about them +at all seasons and places. Your regular marine +painter fills dozens and hundreds of sketch-books +with pencilled notes of details and positions and +accidents and incidents of all sorts and conditions +of ships. Ships under full sail and under reefed +canvas; ships in a squall and ships in dead calm—he +can never have too many of these facts to +refer to.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[Pg 343]</a></span> +The true marine painter is nine parts a sailor. +If he does not take, or has not taken a voyage at +sea, at least has passed and does pass a large part +of his time among vessels and sailors. He knows +them both; his details are facts that he understands. +And what he puts in or leaves out of a +painting is done with the full knowledge of its +relative importance to his picture and to the significance +of the ship.</p> + +<p>All this sounds like a good deal to undertake; +but to the man who loves the water and what sails +upon it, it is only following his liking, and any one +who does not love all this should content himself +with only the most incidental sea painting; for sea +pictures are not to be painted from recipes any +more than any other thing, and ships particularly +cannot be represented without an understanding +of them. And after all, you do not have to do all +this study at once. If you will only study well +each thing that you do, and never paint one vessel +or boat without understanding that one; if you +will study the one you are doing now, and will +do the same every time,—eventually you will have +piled up a vast deal of knowledge without having +realized how much you were doing.</p> + +<p><b>Color of Water.</b>—You must study the color of +water in the large when you paint it. Remember +that its color depends on other things than what +it is itself. The character of the bottom, whether +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[Pg 344]</a></span> +it be rocky or sandy, and the depth of the water, +will affect its color; and to one accustomed to see +these things, the picture betrays its truth or falsity +at a glance, especially as the character of the wave +and the great movement of the whole surface are +influenced by the same things.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[Pg 345]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus358" id="illus358"></a> +<img src="images/illus358.jpg" width="100%" alt="Girl Spinning." title="Girl Spinning." /> +<span class="caption">Girl Spinning. <i>Millet.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">Example of "<i>contre jour</i>" and out-of-door contrast of light and shade.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[Pg 346]</a></span> +</div> + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[Pg 347]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXIII" id="CHAPTER_XXXIII"></a>CHAPTER XXXIII</h2> + +<h3>FIGURES</h3> + + +<p>The broadest classification of figure pictures is +to consider them as of two kinds,—those painted +in an out-door or diffused light, and those painted +in an in-door or concentrated light. The painting +of figures out-of-doors you will find more difficult +if you have had no experience in painting them in +the studio. The problems of light and shade and +color are more complex in the diffused light, and +the knowledge of structure and modelling, as well +as of special values gained by studio study, will be +most helpful to you when you paint out-of-doors. +I should say, then, don't attempt any serious painting +of the human figure in the open air till you +have had some experience with its special problems +in the house.</p> + +<p><b>The Nude.</b>—No good figure-work has ever been +done which was not founded on a knowledge of +the nude. Whether the figure is draped or not, +the nude is the basis of form. The best painters +have always made their studies of pose and action +in the nude, and then drawn the draperies over +that. This insures the truth of action and structure, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[Pg 348]</a></span> +which is almost sure to be lost when the +drawing of the form is made through drapery or +clothing. The underlying structure is as essential +here as in portrait. It is the more imperative +that the body be felt within the clothes from the +fact that it cannot be seen. There must be no +ambiguity; no doubt as to the anatomy underneath; +for without this there can be no sense of +actuality.</p> + +<p>I do not say paint the nude. On the contrary, +if you want to go so far as that in the study of +the figure, you must not attempt to do it with the +aid of a book. Go to a good life class. But I +wish to emphasize the principle that when you +undertake to paint anything involving the figure, +you must know something of the structure of +what is more or less hidden, and must make allowance +for the disguising of form which the +draping of it will inevitably cause.</p> + +<p>And when you draw your figure, you should lay +in your main lines, at any rate, from the nude +figure if you can. If you cannot command a professional +model for this purpose, you can only +be more careful about your study of the underlying +lines and forms as they are suggested by the +saliencies of the draperies.</p> + +<p>If this is the case, be most accurate in those +measurements which place the proportions of the +parts which show through the covering, and try to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[Pg 349]</a></span> +trace out by the modelling where the lines would +run. By mapping out these proportions, and +drawing the lines over the drapery masses wherever +you can make them out, you can judge to a +certain extent of the truth of action in your +drawing.</p> + +<p>The use of a lay figure will help you somewhat +if you can get one which is true in proportion. It +will not help you much in the finer modelling, but +it will at least insure your structural lines being +in the right place, and that is as much as you can +hope for without the special study of the nude.</p> + +<p>A lay figure is expensive, costing about three +hundred dollars in this country. You will hardly +be apt to aspire to a full-sized one, as only professional +painters can afford to pay so much for accessories. +But small wooden ones are within the +means of most people, and will be found useful +for the purpose I have mentioned, and one should +be obtained.</p> + +<p>When you have assured yourself, as far as you +can by its use with and without special draperies, +of the right action of your drawing, you must do +your painting from the draped model.</p> + +<p><b>The Model.</b>—Never paint without nature before +you. If you paint the figure, never paint without +the model. For the sake of the study of it, it +goes without saying that you can learn to paint +the figure only by studying from the figure. But +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[Pg 350]</a></span> +beyond that, for the sake of your picture, you can +have no hope of doing good work without working +from the actual object represented. The greatest +masters have never done pictures "out of their +heads." The compositions and æsthetic qualities +came from their heads it is true, but they never +worked these things out on canvas without the +aid of nature. And the greater the master, the +more humble was he in his dependence on nature +for the truth of his facts.</p> + +<p>Much more, then, the student needs to keep +himself rigidly to the guidance of nature; and +this he can only do by the constant use of the +model.</p> + +<p><b>One Figure or Many.</b>—Whether you have one or +more figures, the problem may be kept the same. +The canvas must balance in mass and line and in +color. When you decide to make a picture with +several figures, study the composition first as if +they were not <i>figures</i>, but groups of masses and +line. Get the whole to balance and compose, then +decide your color composition. Simplify rather +than make complex. The more you have of number, +the more you should consider them as parts +of a whole. Keep the idea of grouping; combine +the figures, rather than divide them. Have every +figure in some logical relation to its group, and +then the group in relation to the other parts. +Don't string them out or spot them about. Study +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[Pg 351]</a></span> +the spaces between as well as the spaces they +occupy. And don't fill up these spaces with background +objects. That will not bind the group +together, but will separate it. Fill the spaces +with air and with values—even more important!</p> + +<p>All this arranged, paint each group and each +figure as if it were one thing instead of many. +As you treat the head, the body, the dress, and +the chair as all parts of a whole in a single sitting +figure, so treat the various heads, bodies, dresses, +etc., in a group as parts of a whole, by studying +always the relations of each to each. And then +study to keep the different groups as parts of +whole canvas in the same way.</p> + +<p><b>Simplicity of Subject.</b>—But do not be too ambitious +in your attempts. Keep your subjects simple. +Don't be in a hurry to paint many figures. +Paint one figure well before you try several.</p> + +<p>You will find plenty of scope for your knowledge +and skill in single figures. Practise with +sketches and compositions, if you will, in grouping +several figures, and try to manage them so +that the whole shall be simple in mass and effect; +but do not attempt, as a student, without experience +and skill in the painting of one figure, to +paint pictures containing several. By the time +you can really paint a single figure well, you can +dispense with a manual of painting, and branch +out as ambitiously as you please. In the meantime, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[Pg 352]</a></span> +everything that you have knowledge enough +to express well, you can express with the single +figure.</p> + +<p>With the model, the background, the pose and +occupation, the clothing and draperies, and whatever +accessories may be natural to the thing as +elements, it is possible to work out all the problems +of line and mass and color. If a really fine +thing cannot be made with one figure, more figures +will only make it worse.</p> + +<p>Look again at Whistler's portrait of his mother. +Consider it now, not as a portrait, but as a single +figure. What are the qualities of it which would +be helped if there were more in it? The very +simplicity of it makes the handling of it more +masterly.</p> + +<p>Look also at the one simple figure of Millet's +"Sower;" all the great qualities of painting that +are likely to get themselves onto one canvas you +will find in this.</p> + +<p>See what movement and dignity there are in +it. How statuesque it is! It is monumental. It +has scale; it imposes its own standard of measurement. +There are air and envelopment and light +and breadth. Are these not qualities enough for +one canvas?</p> + +<p><b>Nature the Suggester.</b>—Take your suggestions, +your ideas, for pictures from nature. Keep your +eyes open. Observe all poses which may hint of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[Pg 353]</a></span> +possible schemes of light and shade, of composition, +or of color. It is marvellous how constantly +groupings and poses and effects of all kinds occur +in every-day life. Humanity is kaleidoscopic in its +succession of changes; one after another giving +a phase new and different, but equally suggestive +of a picture if you will take the hint. The picture +which originates in a natural occurrence is +always true if it is sincerely and frankly painted. +Truth is more various than fiction. It is easier to +see than to invent. And in the arrangement of +the material which nature freely and constantly +furnishes to him there is scope for all the invention +of man.</p> + +<p><b>Action and Character.</b>—The picture comes from +the action—resides in it. The action comes +from the act, and is natural to it, expressive of +it. Any gesture or position which is the natural +and unaffected result of an essential action will +be true and vital, suggestive of nature, and beautiful +because it will inevitably have character—be +characteristic. The beauty of the picture is not +something external to the costumes, occupations, +and life which surround you, but is to be found, +contained in it, and brought out, manifested, made +visible, by the mere logical working out of the +need, the custom, or the occasion.</p> + +<p>Emphasis is only the salience of the most natural +movement.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[Pg 354]</a></span> +Daily life swarms with pictures. You do not +need to go to other places and other times for +subjects. If you are awake to what is going on +around you, if you see the essential line of the +occupation, or the mass and color which is incidental +to every least activity, you will have more +suggested to you than you have time to do justice +to. And it is your business to see the beautiful +in the commonplace. Everything is commonplace +till you see the charm in it. The artistic possibility +does not lie in the unusual in any subject, +but in the fact that the thing cannot get done +without action and grouping and color and contrast; +and these are the artist's opportunities. +Keep your eyes open for them; learn to recognize +them when you see them; look for these rather +than for the details of the accidental fact which +brings them out. See the movement of it, and +the relation of it to what surrounds it, and you +will hardly avoid seeing the picture in it.</p> + +<p>Here is a composition which is an almost literal +rendering of the movement and light and shade +effect of a position quite accidentally seen.</p> + +<p>The whole effect of lighting and of line, the +grouping and the pose, resulted purely from the +musician's desire to get a good light on his music. +There was no need to add to it. It was simply +necessary to recognize the charm of it, and to +represent that charm through it as frankly as it +could be done.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[Pg 355]</a></span></p> +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus368" id="illus368"></a> +<img src="images/illus368.jpg" width="100%" alt="Sketch of a Flute Player." title="Sketch of a Flute Player." /> +<span class="caption">Sketch of a Flute Player. <i>D. Burleigh Parkhurst.</i></span> +</div> + +<p><b>Posing the Model.</b>—Let the character of the model +suggest the pose. If you have a scheme for a picture, +choose a model whose personality will lend +itself naturally to the occupation or action natural +to that scheme. Then follow the suggestion which +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[Pg 356]</a></span> +you find in the model. Some rearrangement will +always be necessary if you do not use as a model +the same person who originally gave you the idea +for the picture. Every human being has a different +manner. You cannot hope for exactly the +same expression in one person that you found in +another. But put the model as nearly as you can +in the same situation and pose, and then when +the model eases from the unnatural muscular balance +into the one natural to him, you will find +the idea taken from your first observation translated +into the characteristics of your present +model.</p> + +<p>Never try to place a model in a pose which he +can only hold by an unnatural strain. You will +not get a satisfactory result from it. Study your +model; see what poses he most naturally falls into, +and then take advantage of one of these, and +arrange your picture with reference to it.</p> + +<p>Never attempt to represent a character in your +picture by using a model of a different class or +type from it; you will not be successful either in +painting a lady from a model who is a peasant, nor +in painting a peasant from a model who is a lady. +The life and occupation and thought common to +your model will get into your painting of her; and +if that is not in accordance to the idea in the picture, +your picture will be false. The dress, no +less than the pose and occupation, must be such +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[Pg 357]</a></span> +as is natural to your model. The accessories of +your picture must befit the character you wish to +paint; otherwise your model becomes no more +than a lay figure.</p> + +<p>Take note of the characteristics which are peculiar +to your model, and use them; do not change +them nor idealize them. Rather paint them as +they are, and make them a vital part of your study +of the subject. This is the best you can do with +these characteristics. They may be the most expressive +thing in your picture. If they are of such +a nature that you cannot use them in this way, then +do not use this model at all; you cannot get rid +of these things. In trying to obscure or idealize +them, you only lose character, or paint a character +into your model which is unnatural to him; the +result will not be satisfactory.</p> + +<p><b>Quiet Sitters.</b>—An inexperienced painter should +not use a model with too much vivacity of body +or of expression. The quiet, reposeful, thoughtful +model, who will change little in position or manner, +will simplify the problem. A model too wide +awake or too sleepy will either of them give you +trouble.</p> + +<p>Avoid very young children as models, and particularly +babies. They are never quiet, and the +problems you will have even with the best of +models will be made enormously more difficult by +their restlessness.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[Pg 358]</a></span> +For your first work choose models with well-marked +faces, and pose them in a direct light +which will give you the simplest and strongest +effect of light and shade.</p> + +<p>See that your sitter is in as comfortable a position +as you can get him into, so that the pose can +be held easily. Don't attempt difficult and unusual +attitudes. Such things require much skill +and knowledge to take advantage of, and to use +successfully. Make your effect more in the study +of composition and color than in fanciful poses. +Later, when you have gained experience, you may +do this sort of thing.</p> + +<p>If you are painting a face, see that the eyes are +in at a restful angle with the head, and that they +are not facing a too strong light, nor are obliged +to look at a blank space. Give them room to have +a restful focus, and perhaps something pleasant or +interesting to look at.</p> + +<p><b>Length of Pose.</b>—No sitter can hold a pose in +perfect motionlessness. Do not expect it. You +must learn to make allowance for certain slight +changes which are always occurring. You must +give your model plenty of rest, too, especially if +he be not a professional model. A half-hour pose +to ten minutes' rest is as much as a regular model +expects to do as a rule. If you have a friend posing +for you, particularly if it be a woman, twenty +minutes' pose and ten minutes' rest, for a couple +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[Pg 359]</a></span> +of hours, is all you should expect; and if the pose +is a standing one, this will probably be more than +she can hold—make the rests longer.</p> + +<p>An inexperienced model—and sometimes even +a trained one—is likely to faint while posing, particularly +if the room be close. Look out for this; +watch your sitter, and see that she is not looking +tired. The minute that you see the least sign of +fatigue, if she shows pallor—rest. Do not get so +absorbed in your canvas that you do not notice +your model's condition. If you are observing and +studying your model as closely as you should, you +can hardly fail to notice any change that may +occur, and you should at once give her relief.</p> + +<p><b>Distance.</b>—Don't work too near your model, nor +too near your canvas. As regards the first, be +far enough away to see the whole of the figure +you are painting, or of that part which you are +doing, entirely at one focus of the eye, and yet +near enough to see the detail clearly. If you are +too near, you see parts at a time, and do not see +it as a whole. If you are too far, you see too generally +for good study. You might make it a rule +to be away from your subject a distance of about +three or four times the extreme measurement of +it. If it is a full length, say fifteen to twenty feet, +if you can get so large a room. If it is a head +and shoulders, about six or eight feet. Never get +closer than six feet.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[Pg 360]</a></span> +As to your canvas, work at arm's length. Don't +bend over—again you see parts, and you must +treat your canvas as a whole. Never rest your +hand or arm on the canvas. Train your arm to +be steady. Sit up straight, hold your brush well +out at the end of the handle, and your arm extended; +now and then, if you need closer work, +lean forward, and if necessary use a rest-stick; but +as a rule your work will be stronger and hang together +better if you work as I have suggested. +Of course you will often get up, and walk away +from your work. Set your easel alongside the +model, and go away to a distance, and compare +them. Too intense application to the canvas forgets +that relations, effect, and wholeness of impression +are of the greatest importance, and are +only to be judged of when seen at some distance.</p> + +<p><b>Background.</b>—Under the general title of background +you may place everything which will come +in as accessory to the figure, and against or alongside +of which it stands. The picture must "hang +together"; must have envelopment; must be a +whole, not an aggregation of parts. Everything +that goes to the making up of this whole must +have a natural and logical connection with it. +From the first conception of the picture you must +consider the background as an essential part of it, +and as something which will have a vital effect +upon the figure. The color of the background +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[Pg 361]</a></span> +must be thought of as a part of, because affecting, +the figure itself. The simplicity or variety in +the background, the number of objects in it, must +be considered as to the effect on the figure also. +You cannot make the background a patchwork of +objects and colors without interfering with the +effect of the main thing in the picture.</p> + +<p>If your figure is simple and quiet, keep the +background the same. Make it a principle to treat +the background simply always. If the character +of the case demands some detail, and a variety of +objects, then treat them so that their effect is +as simple as possible; and the figure must be made +stronger, in order that the variety in the background +shall not overpower it. Control it by the +way the light or the color masses, or simplify the +painting of them. Keep the background in value +as regards prominence and relief of objects as well +as in the matter of color.</p> + +<p><b>Composition of Backgrounds.</b>—You can make the +background help the figure, not merely by the +painting of objects which help to explain,—that +is of course,—but in the placing and arranging +of them you may emphasize the composition. +Whether the background be a curtain with its +folds, or an interior with its furniture, you can and +must make every object, every fold of the drapery, +every mass of wall or object, distinctly help out in +the composition as line and mass. Your composition +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[Pg 362]</a></span> +must balance; the line and movement of the +figure must have its true relation. The way you +use whatever goes into the picture, the objects +which make up the background, the way they +group, and the spaces between them, must have +a helpful reference to that movement, and to the +balance of the whole.</p> + +<p><b>Simplicity.</b>—Lean always towards simplicity +in composition as against complexity. In backgrounds +particularly, avoid detail and over-variety. +Don't have the whole surface of the canvas spotted +with <i>things</i>. If it is necessary, put it in; if it is +not necessary, leave it out; and if there is the +slightest doubt which it is, leave it out.</p> + +<p>The most common and the most fatal mistake +is to make the picture too "interesting." The +interest in a picture does not lie in the quantity of +things expressed, but in the character of them, and +in the quality of their representation. If you cannot +treat a simple composition well, if you cannot +make a picture balance well, and make it interesting +with a quiet background, be sure a multitude +of objects will not help it. The more you put +into it the worse it will be. Learn to be master +of the less before you try to be master of the +more.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[Pg 363]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"> +<a name="illus376" id="illus376"></a> +<img src="images/illus376.jpg" width="100%" alt="Milton Dictating Paradise Lost." title="Milton Dictating Paradise Lost." /> +<span class="caption">Milton Dictating "Paradise Lost." <i>Munkacsy.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">To show use of background. Notice also the composition.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[Pg 364]</a></span> +</div> + +<p><b>Lighting.</b>—I have spoken of lighting in general +in other chapters. You must apply the principles +to your use of figures. Study the different effects +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[Pg 365]</a></span> +which you can get on the model by the different +ways of placing in reference to the window. +Whatever lighting will be difficult in one kind of +painting will be no less so in another. Avoid +cross-lights, and do not be ambitious to try unusual +and exceptional effects. If one should occur +to you as charming, of course do it, if it is not +too difficult, but don't go around hunting for the +strange and weird. There is beauty enough for +all occasions in such effects as are constantly coming +under your observation. What was said about +simplicity of subject will apply here as well, for +the light and color effect is naturally a part of +the subject. The most practical lights are those +which fall from one side, so as to give simple +masses of light and dark; they should come from +above the level of the head, so as to throw the +shadow somewhat downwards.</p> + +<p><b>"Contre Jour."</b>—One kind of posing with reference +to lighting, gives very beautiful effect, but +calls for close study of values, and is very difficult. +It is called in French, <i>contre jour</i>; that is, literally, +"against the day," or, against the light. It is a +placing of the model so that the light comes from +behind, and the figure is dark against the light. +From its difficulty it should not be taken as a +study by a beginner, for modelling and color are +difficult enough at best. When they are to be +gotten in the low key that the light behind necessitates, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[Pg 366]</a></span> +and with the close values which this implies, +the difficulty is enormously increased. But +before you attempt the human figure in the open +air, you will find it very good study to work in the +house <i>contre jour</i>. The effect of a figure out-doors +has many of the qualities of <i>contre jour</i>. The diffusion +of light and the many reflections make the +problem more complex; but the contrast, the close +values, and the subtle modelling which you must +study in <i>contre jour</i> will be good previous training +before going out-doors with a model.</p> + +<p>Look at Millet's "Shepherdess Spinning," at the +head of this chapter, as an example of <i>contre jour</i>.</p> + +<p><b>Figures Out-of-doors.</b>—In painting, an object is +always a part of its environment. So a figure +must partake of the characteristics of its surroundings. +Out-of-doors it is part of the landscape, +characterized by the qualities which are +peculiar to landscape. The diffusion of light, +the vibration and the movement of it, the brilliancy +and pitch, the cross-reflections and the +envelopment,—all these give to the figure a +quality quite different from that which it has in +the house. There is no such definiteness either +of drawing, or of light and shade, or of color. The +problem is a different one. You must treat your +figure no more as something which you can control +the effect of, but as something which, place +it in what position, in what surroundings, you will, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[Pg 367]</a></span> +it will still be affected by conditions over which +you have no control.</p> + +<p>Textures and surface qualities, local or personal +colors, lose their significance to the figure out-of-doors. +They become lost in other things. The +pose, the action, the mass, the note of color or +value,—these are what are of importance. The +more you search for the qualities which would be +a matter of course in the house, the more you will +lose the essential quality,—the quality of the fact +of out-doors.</p> + +<p>When in the house, you can have things as definite +as you wish; out-doors you will find a continual +play of varying color and light. The shadows +do not fall where you expect them to. The values +are less marked. The stillness of the pose is interfered +with by the constant movement of nature. +The color is influenced by the diffused color of the +atmosphere and the reflected color of the grass, +the trees, and the sky. The light does not fall +<i>on</i> the face so much as it falls <i>around</i> it. The +modelling is less, the planes are not precise. The +expression is as much due to the influence of +what is around it as to the face itself.</p> + +<p>All this means that you must study and paint +the figure from a new point of view. You do not +make so much of what the model is as how the +model looks in these surroundings. You must +not look for so much decision, and you must study +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[Pg 368]</a></span> +values closely. Look more for the modelling of +the mass than for the modelling of surface. Look +more for the vibration of light and air on the flesh +and drapery colors than for these colors in themselves. +Look for color of contours in the model. +Study the subtleties of values of contours, and +make your figure relieve by the contrast of value +in mass rather than by the modelling within the +outline. See how the figure "tells" as a whole +against what is behind it first, and keep all within +that first relation.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus381" id="illus381"></a> +<img src="images/illus381.jpg" width="100%" alt="Buckwheat Harvest." title="Buckwheat Harvest." /> +<span class="caption">Buckwheat Harvest. <i>Millet.</i></span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[Pg 369]</a></span> +It is possible to look for and to find many of +the qualities which distinguish the figure in the +studio light; sometimes you may want to do so. +The telling of a story, the literary side of the +picture, if you want that side, sometimes needs +help that way. But in this you lose larger characteristics, +and the picture as a whole will not have +the spirit of open air in it.</p> + +<p>What has been said of the painting of landscape +applies to the painting of figures in landscapes. +Pose your figure out-of-doors if you +would represent it out-of-doors. Then paint it +as if it were any other out-door object. If the +figure is more important to the composition than +anything else in the landscape, as it often will be, +then study that mainly, and treat the rest as +background, but as background which has an influence +which must be constantly recognized.</p> + +<p>Never finish a figure begun out-doors by painting +afterwards from a model posed in the house. +Leave the figure as you bring it in. If it is not +finished, at least it will be in keeping with itself; +and this will surely be lost if you try to work it +from a model in different conditions.</p> + +<p><b>Animals.</b>—Animals should be considered as +"figures out-of-doors." There is no essential difference +in the handling one sort of a figure or another. +The anatomy is different, and the light +falls on different textures, but the principle is not +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[Pg 370]</a></span> +changed. You must consider them as forms influenced +by diffused light and diffused color, and +paint them so. You will find that often, especially +in full sunlight, the color peculiar to the +thing itself is not to be seen at all. The character +of the light which falls on it gives the note, +and controls. In the shade the effect is less +marked, but the constant flicker makes the same +sort of variation, though not to the same extent.</p> + +<p>There is no secret of painting animals either in +the house or out-of-doors which is not the same as +the secret of painting the human figure. If you +would paint an animal, get one for a model and +study it. Work in some sort of a house-light +first, in a barn or shed, or, if it be a small animal, +in your studio. Study as you would any other +thing, from a chair to a man. The principles of +drawing do not change with the character of anatomy. +The animal may be less amiable a poser, +but you must make allowance for that.</p> + +<p>When you have got a knowledge of the form, +and the character of color and surface, take the +animal out-doors, get some one to help hold him, +and apply the same principles that would govern +your study of a rock or a tree in the open air.</p> + +<p>As for fur, and all that sort of thing, treat it as +you would any other texture-problem in still life.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[Pg 371]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXXIV"></a>CHAPTER XXXIV</h2> + +<h3>PROCEDURE IN A PICTURE</h3> + + +<p>Some pictures, particularly those begun and +finished in the open air, may be frankly commenced +immediately on the canvas from nature +as she is before the painter, and without any +special processes or methods of procedure carried +on to completion. But many pictures are of a +sort which renders this manner of work unwise +or impossible. There may be too many figures +involved. The composition, the drawing, or other +arrangement may be too complicated for it, and +then the painter has to have some methodical +and systematic way of bringing his picture into +existence. He must take preliminary measures to +ensure his work coming out as he intends, and +must proceed in an orderly and regular manner in +accordance with the planning of the work. It is +in this sort of thing that he finds sketches and +studies essential to the painting of the picture +as distinguished from their more common use as +training for him, or accumulation of general facts.</p> + +<p><b>Preliminaries.</b>—There must be made numbers +of sketches, first of the slightest and merely suggestive, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[Pg 372]</a></span> +and then of a more complete, kind, to develop +the general idea of composition from the first +and perhaps crude conception of the picture. All +the great painters have left examples of work in +these various stages. It is a part of the training +of every student in art schools to make these +composition sketches, and to develop them more +or less fully in larger work. In the French +schools there are monthly <i>concours</i>, when men +compete for prizes with work, and their success +is influenced by a previous <i>concour</i> of these composition +sketches.</p> + +<p>This preliminary sketch in its completed stage +gives the number and position and movement of +the figures and accessories, with the arrangement +of light and shade and color. There is no attempt +to give anything more than the most general kind +of drawing, such details as the features, fingers, +etc., being neglected. The light and shade on the +single figures also is not expressed, but the light +and shade effect of the whole picture is carefully +shown, and the same with the color-scheme. It is +this first sketch that establishes the character of +the future picture in everything but the details. +Sometimes this work is done on a quite large +canvas, but usually is not more than a foot or two +long, and of corresponding width.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[Pg 373]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus386" id="illus386"></a> +<img src="images/illus386.jpg" width="100%" alt="Study of Fortune." title="Study of Fortune." /> +<span class="caption">Study of Fortune. <i>Michael Angelo.</i></span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[Pg 374]</a></span> +</div> + +<p><b>Studies.</b>—After this there must be studies made +for the drawing of the single figures, and for more +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[Pg 375]</a></span> +exactness of line and action in the bringing of all +together into the whole. This work is usually +done in charcoal, from the life, and sometimes on +a piece of drawing-paper stretched over the same +canvas that the picture will be painted on, or +otherwise arranged, but of the same size. Often, +however, this work, too, is done on a smaller scale +than that of the picture, especially when the picture +is to be very large. This is based on the +preliminary sketch as composition, and is intended +to carry that idea out more in full, and perfect +the drawing of the different figures, and to harmonize +the composition. The composition and +relation of figures both as to size and position on +the final canvas depend on this study.</p> + +<p><b>Corrections.</b>—In making these studies and in +transferring them to the canvas, corrections are +of course often necessary. The correction may or +may not be satisfactory. To avoid too great confusion +from the number of corrections in the same +place, they are not made always directly on the +study or canvas, but on a curtain of tissue paper +dropped over it. The figure may be completely +drawn, and is to be modified in whole or in part. +The tissue paper receives the new drawing, and +the old drawing shows through it, and the effect +of the correction can be compared with that of +the first idea. The study itself need not then be +changed until the alteration which is satisfactory +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[Pg 376]</a></span> +is found, as the process may be repeated as many +times as necessary on the tissue paper, and the alterations +finally embodied in the completed study.</p> + +<p><b>Figure Studies.</b>—The studies for the various single +figures are now made in the nude from the +model, generally a quarter or half life size—a careful, +accurate light and shade drawing of every +figure in the picture, the model being posed in the +position determined on in the study just spoken +of. Sometimes further single studies are made +with the same models draped, and generally special +studies of drapery are made as well; these studies +are afterwards used to place the figures in position +on the canvas before the painting begins.</p> + +<p><b>Transferring.</b>—The composition study must now +be transferred to the canvas, to give the general +arrangement and relative position, size, and action +of the figures, etc. If the drawing is the same +size as the canvas it is done by tracing, if not, +then it is "squared up." In this stage of the +process mechanical exactness of proportion is the +thing required, as well as the saving of time; all +things having been planned beforehand, and freedom +of execution coming in later. This establishes +the proportions, the sizes, and positions of +the several figures on the final canvas. The drawing +is not at this stage complete. The more general +relations only are the purpose of this.</p> + +<p>Onto this preparation the studies drawn from +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[Pg 377]</a></span> +the nude model are "squared up," and the drawing +corrected again from the nude model. This +drawing is now covered with its drapery, which is +drawn from the life in charcoal, or a <i>frottée</i> of +some sort. At this stage the canvas should represent, +in monochrome, very justly, what the finished +picture will be in composition, drawing, and light +and shade. If the <i>frottée</i> of various colors (as suggested +in the chapter on "Still Life") has been +used, the general color scheme will show also. +This completes the preliminary process of the picture, +and when the painting is begun with a <i>frottée</i>, +this stage includes also the <i>first painting</i>.</p> + +<p><b>"The Ébouch."</b>—An <i>ébouch</i> is a painting which, +mainly with body color, blocks in broadly and +simply the main masses of a composition. Sometimes +an <i>ébouch</i> is used as one of the preliminary +color studies for a picture, especially if there is +some problem of drapery massing to be determined, +or other motive purely of color and mass. +Or if there is some piece of landscape detail such +as a building or what not to come in, <i>ébouches</i> for +it will be made to be used in completing the picture. +But more commonly the <i>ébouch</i> is the first +blocking-in painting of the picture, by means of +which the greater masses of color and value are +laid onto the canvas, somewhat rudely, but strongly, +so as to give a strong, firm impression of the picture, +and a solid under-painting on which future +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[Pg 378]</a></span> +work may be done. Whether this <i>ébouch</i> is rough +or smooth, just how much of it will be body or +solid color and how much transparent, just what +degree of finish this painting will have,—these +depend on the man who does it. No two men +work precisely the same way.</p> + +<p>Some men make what is practically a large and +very complete sketch. Some paint quite smoothly +or frankly, with more or less of an effect of being +finished as they go, working from one side of the +picture gradually across the whole canvas. Others +work a bit here and a bit there, and fill in between +as they feel inclined. Another way is to patch in +little spots of rather pure color, so that the <i>ébouch</i> +looks like a sort of mosaic of paint.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[Pg 379]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%;"> +<a name="illus392" id="illus392"></a> +<img src="images/illus392.jpg" width="100%" alt="Ébouch of Portrait." title="Ébouch of Portrait." /> +<span class="caption">Ébouch of Portrait. <i>Th. Robinson.</i></span><br /> +<span class="center">One sitting of one hour and a half.</span> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[Pg 380]</a></span> +</div> + +<p>In the matter of color, too, there is great difference +of method. Some men lay in the picture +with stronger color than they intend the finished +picture to have, and gray it and bring it together +with after-painting. Others go to the other extreme, +and paint grayer and lighter, depending on +glazings and full touches of color later on to richen +and deepen the color. All the way between these +two are modifications of method. The main difference +between these extremes is that when +stronger color is used in the first painting, the +process is to paint with solid color all through; +while if glazings are to be much used, the <i>ébouch</i> +must be lighter and quieter in color, to allow for +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[Pg 381]</a></span> +the results of after-painting. For you cannot +glaze <i>up</i>. You always glaze <i>down</i>. The glaze +being a transparent color, used without white, will +naturally make the color under it more brilliant in +color, but darker in value, just as it would if you +laid a piece of colored glass over it. And this +result must be calculated on beforehand.</p> + + +<p>Which of all these methods is best to use depends +altogether on which best suits the man +and his purpose in the picture or his temperament. +A rough <i>ébouch</i> will not make a smooth picture. +A mosaic gives a pure, clear basis of color to gray +down and work over, and may be scraped for a +good surface. It is a deliberate method, and will +be successful only with a thoughtful, deliberate +painter. If a man is a timid colorist, a strong, +even crude, under-painting will help to strengthen +his color. A good colorist will get color any way. +For a student, the more directly he puts down what +he sees, the less he calculates on the effect of future +after-painting, the better.</p> + +<p>But whichever way a man works as to these various +beginnings, the chief thing is, that he understand +beforehand what are the peculiar advantages +and qualities of each, and that he consider before +he begins what he expects to do, and how he purposes +to do it.</p> + +<p><b>Further Painting.</b>—The first painting may be put +in from nature with the help of the several models +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[Pg 382]</a></span> +in succession. More probably it will be put in +from the color sketch which furnishes the general +scheme, and from a number of studies and <i>ébouches</i> +which will give the principal material for each part +of the canvas. With the next painting comes the +more exact study from models and accessories +themselves. The under-painting is in, the color +relations and the contrasts of masses, but all is +more or less crude and undeveloped. Every one +thing in the picture must be gradually brought to +a further stage of completion. The background is +not as yet to be carried farther as a whole. If the +canvas is all covered, so that the background effect +is there, it is all that is needed as yet. The most +important figures are to be painted, beginning with +the heads and hands, and at the same time painting +the parts next to them, the background and drapery +close around them, so that the immediate +values shall all be true as far as it has gone.</p> + +<p>No small details are painted yet. The whole +canvas is carried forward by painting all over it, +no one thing being entirely finished; for the same +degree of progress should be kept up for the whole +picture. To finish any one part long before the +rest is done, would be to run the risk of over-painting +that part.</p> + +<p>After the heads and other flesh parts, the draperies +should be brought up, and the background +and all objects in it painted, to bring the whole +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[Pg 383]</a></span> +picture to the same degree of completion. This +finishes the second painting. It is all done from +nature direct, and is painted solidly as a rule. +Even if the first painting has been a <i>frottée</i> this +one will have been solidly painted into that <i>frottée</i>, +although the transparent rubbing may have been +left showing, whenever it was true in effect; most +probably in the shadows and broader dark masses +of the backgrounds. In this second painting no +glazings or scumblings come in. The canvas is +brought forward as far as possible with direct +frank brush-work with body color before these +other processes can be used. Glazes and such +manipulations require a solid under-painting, and +a comparative completion of the picture for safe +work. These processes are for the modifying of +color mainly; you do not draw nor represent the +more important and fundamental facts of the +picture with them. All these things are painted +first, in the most frank and direct way, and then +you can do anything you want to on a sure basis +of well-understood representation. There will be +structure underneath your future processes.</p> + +<p><b>The Third Painting.</b>—The third painting simply +goes over the picture in the same manner as the +second, but marking out more carefully the important +details and enforcing the accuracy of features, +or strengthening the accents of dark and +bringing up those of the lights. The procedure +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[Pg 384]</a></span> +will, of course, be different, according as the picture +was begun with an <i>ébouch</i> of body color or a +<i>frottée</i> of transparent color. The third painting +will, in either case, carry the picture as a whole +further toward being finished.</p> + +<p><b>Rough and Smooth.</b>—If body color has been used +pretty freely in the two first paintings, the surface +of paint will be pretty rough in places by the time +it is ready for the third painting. Whether that +roughness is a thing to be got rid of or not is something +for the painter to decide for himself. Among +the greatest of painters there have always been +men who painted smoothly and men who painted +roughly. I have considered elsewhere the subject +of detail, but the question of detail bears on that +of the roughness of the painting; for minute detail +is not possible with much roughness of surface; +the fineness of the stroke which secures +the detail is lost in the corrugations of the heavier +brush-strokes. The effect of color, and especially +luminosity, has much to do with the way the paint +is put on also, and all these things are to be considered. +As a rule, it might be well to look upon +either extreme as something not of importance in +itself. The mere quality of smoothness on the +canvas is of no consequence or value, any more +than the mere quality of roughness is. If these +things are necessary to or consequent upon the +getting of certain other qualities which are justly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[Pg 385]</a></span> +to be considered worth striving for, then these +qualities will be seen on the canvas, and will be all +right. The painter will do well to look on them +as something incidental merely to the picture. If +he will simply work quite frankly, intent on the +expression of what is true and vital to his picture, +the question of the surface quality of his canvas +will not bother him beyond the effect that it has +upon his attaining of that expression.</p> + +<p><b>Scraping.</b>—The second painting will be well +dry before the third begins, especially if the paint +be more rough and uneven than is for any reason +desirable. Almost every painter scrapes his pictures +more or less. There is pretty sure to be +some part of it in which there is roughness just +where he doesn't want it. For the third painting, +that is to say, after the main things in the +picture are practically entirely finished, there remains +to be done the strengthening and richening +and modifying of the colors, values, and +accents, and the bringing of the whole picture +together by a general overworking. Before this +begins, the picture may need scraping more or less +all over. If it does need it, you may use a regular +tool made for that purpose; or the blade of a +razor may be used, it being held firmly in such +a position that there is no danger of its cutting +the canvas.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary to scrape the paint smooth, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[Pg 386]</a></span> +but only to take off such projections and unevenness +of paint as would interfere with the proper +over-painting.</p> + +<p>The third painting represents any and all processes +that may be used to complete the picture. +There is no rule as to the number of processes or +"paintings." You may have a dozen paintings if +you want them, and after the first two they are +all modifications and subdivisions of the third +painting; for they all add to furthering the completion +of the picture. They are all done more +or less from nature, as the second painting was. +There should be very little done to any picture +without constant reference to nature.</p> + +<p>If you glaze your picture, glaze one part at a +time. Don't "tone" it with a general wash of +some color. That is not the way pictures are +"brought into tone," nor is that the purpose of +the glaze. The glaze, like any other application +of paint, is put on just where it is needed to modify +the color of that place where the color goes. The +use of a scumble is the same; and both the glaze +and the scumble will be painted into and over +with solid color, and that again modified as much +as is called for. The thing which is to be carefully +avoided is not the use of any special process, +but the ceasing from the use of some process or +other before the thing is as it should be,—don't +stop before the picture represents the best, the +completest expression of the idea of the picture.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[Pg 387]</a></span> +This completeness of expression may even go +to the elimination of what is ordinarily looked upon +as "finish." Finish is not surface, but expression; +and completeness of expression may demand +roughness and avoidance of detail and surface at +one time quite as positively as it demands more +detail and consequent smoothness at another.</p> + +<p>And this final completeness comes from the last +paintings which I group together as the "third." +Scumble and glaze and paint into them, and +glaze and scumble again. Use any process which +will help your picture to have those qualities +which are always essential to any picture being +a good one. The qualities of line and mass, composition +that is, you get from the first, or you +never can get it at all. Those qualities of character, +and truth of representation, and exactness +of meaning, you get in the first paintings, together +with the more general qualities of color and tone. +Emphasis and force of accent, such detail as you +want, and the final and more delicate perceptions +of color and tone, you get in the third or last painting, +which may be divided into several paintings.</p> + +<p><b>Between Paintings.</b>—When a painting is dry and +you begin to work on it again, you will probably +find parts of its surface covered with a kind of +bluish haze, which quite changes its color or obscures +the work altogether. It is "dried in." In +drying, some of the oil of the last painting is +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[Pg 388]</a></span> +absorbed by what is beneath it, and the dead haze +is the result. You cannot paint on it without in +some way bringing it back to its original color. +You cannot varnish it out at this stage, for this +will not have a good effect on your picture.</p> + +<p><b>"Oiling Out."</b>—You can oil it all over, and then +rub all the oil off that you can. This will bring +it out. But the oil will tend to darken the picture; +too much oil should be avoided. Turpentine +with a little oil in it will bring it out also, +but it will not stay out so long, but perhaps long +enough for you to work on it. If you put a little +siccative de Harlem in it, or use any picture varnish +thinned with turpentine, it will serve well +enough. There is a retouching varnish, <i>vernis à +retoucher</i>, which is made for this purpose, and is +perfectly safe and good.</p> + +<p>The picture must be well dried before it is +finally varnished.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[Pg 389]</a></span></p> +<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XXXV" id="CHAPTER_XXXV"></a>CHAPTER XXXV</h2> + +<h3>DIFFICULTIES OF BEGINNERS</h3> + + +<p>All painters have difficulty with their pictures, +but the trouble with the beginner is that he has +not experience enough to know how to meet it. +The solving of all difficulties is a matter of application +of fundamental principles to them; but it +is necessary to know these principles, and to have +applied them to simple problems, before one can +know how to apply them to less simple ones.</p> + +<p>I have tried to deal fully with these principles +rather than to tell how to do any one thing, and to +point out the application whenever it could be done.</p> + +<p>There are, however, some things that almost +always bother the beginner, and it may be helpful +to speak of them particularly.</p> + +<p><b>Selection of Subject.</b>—One of the chief objections +to copying as a method of beginning study is +that while it teaches a good deal about surface-work, +it gives no practical training just when it is +most needed. The student who has only copied +has no idea how to look for a composition, how to +place it on his canvas, or how to translate into +line and color the actual forms which he sees in +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[Pg 390]</a></span> +nature. These things are all done for him in the +picture he is copying, yet these are the very first +things he should have practised in. The making +of a picture begins before the drawing and painting +begins. You see something out-doors, or you +see a group of people or a single person in an interesting +position. It is one thing to see it; how +are you practically to grasp it so as to get it on +canvas? That is quite a different thing. How +much shall you take in? How much leave out? +What proportion of the canvas shall the main object +or figure take up? All these are questions +which need some experience to answer.</p> + +<p>In dealing with figures experience comes somewhat +naturally, because you will of course not +undertake more than a head and shoulders, with a +plain background, for your first work. The selecting +of subject in this is chiefly the choice of lighting +and position of head, which have been spoken +of elsewhere; and the placing of them on the +canvas should be reduced to the making of the +head as large as it will come conveniently. The +old rule was that the point of the nose should be +about the middle of the canvas, and in most cases +on the ordinary canvas this brings the head in +the right place. As you paint more you will put +in more and more of the figure, and so progress +comes very naturally.</p> + +<p>But in landscape you are more than likely to +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[Pg 391]</a></span> +be almost helpless at first. There is so much all +around you, and so little saliency, that it is hard to +say where to begin and where to leave off. Practice +in still life will help you somewhat, but still +things in nature are seldom arranged with that +centralization which makes a subject easy to see. +Even the simplicity which is sometimes obvious +is, when you come to paint it, only the more difficult +to handle because of its simplicity. The simplicity +which you should look for to make your +selection of a subject easy is not the lack of +something to draw, but the definiteness of some +marked object or effect. What is good as a +"view" is apt to be the reverse of suitable for +a picture. You want something tangible, and you +do not want too much or too little of it. A long +line of hill with a broad field beneath it, for instance, +is simple enough, but what is there for +you to take hold of? In an ordinary light it is +only a few broad planes of value and color without +an accent object to emphasize or centre on. +It can be painted, of course, and can be made a +beautiful picture, but it is a subject for a master, +not for a student. But suppose there were a tree +or a group of trees in the field; suppose a mass +of cloud obscured the sky, and a ray of sunlight +fell on and around the tree through a rift in the +clouds. Or suppose the opposite of this. Suppose +all was in broad light, and the tree was strongly +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[Pg 392]</a></span> +lighted on one side, on the other shadowed, and +that it threw a mass of shadow below and to one +side of it. Immediately there is something which +you can take hold of and make your picture around. +The field and hill alone will make a study of distance +and middle distance and foreground, but it +would not make an effective sketch. The two +effects I have supposed give the possibility for a +sketch at once, and what suggests a sketch suggests +a picture.</p> + +<p>This central object or effect which I have supposed +also clears up the matter of the placing of +your subject on the canvas. With merely the +hill and plain you might cut it off anywhere, a +mile or two one side or the other would make +little or no difference to your picture. But the +tree and the effect of light decide the thing for +you. The tree and the lighting are the central +idea of the picture. Very well, then, make them +large enough on your canvas to be of that importance. +Then what is around them is only so much +more as the canvas will hold, and you will place +the tree where, having the proper proportionate +size, it will also "compose well" and make the +canvas balance, being neither in the middle exactly +nor too much to one side.</p> + +<p>Here are two photographs taken in the same +field and of the same view, with the camera +pointed in the same direction in both. One shows +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[Pg 393]</a></span> +the lack of saliency, although the tree is there. +In the other the camera was simply carried forward +a hundred yards or so, until the tree became +large enough to be of importance in the composition. +The placing is simply a better position with +reference to the tree in this case.</p> + +<p><b>Centralize.</b>—Now, as you go about looking for +things to sketch, look always for some central object +or effect. If you find that what seems very +beautiful will not give you anything definite and +graspable,—some contrast of form, or light and +shade, or color,—don't attempt it. The thing is +beautiful, and has doubtless a picture in it, but not +for you. You are learning how to look for and to +find a subject, and you must begin with what is +readily sketched, without too much subtlety either +of form or color or value.</p> + +<p><b>Placing.</b>—Having found your subject with something +definite in it, you must place it on your canvas +so that it "tells." It will not do to put it in +haphazard, letting any part of it come anywhere +as it happens. You will not be satisfied with the +effect of this. The object of a picture is to make +visible something which you wish to call attention +to; to show something that seems to you worth +looking at. Then you must arrange it so that that +particular something is sure to be seen whether +anything else is seen or not. This is the first +thing to be thought of in placing your subject. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[Pg 394]</a></span> +<i>Where</i> is it to come on the canvas? How much +room is it to take up? If it is too large, there is +not enough surrounding it to make an interesting +whole. If it is to be emphasized, it must have +something to be emphasized with reference to. +On the other hand, if it is too small, its very size +makes it insignificant.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus407" id="illus407"></a> +<img src="images/illus407.jpg" width="100%" alt="Landscape Photo. No. 1." title="Landscape Photo. No. 1." /> +<span class="caption">Landscape Photo. No. 1.</span> +</div> + +<p>If it is a landscape, decide first the proportions +of land and sky,—where your horizon line will +come. Then, having drawn that line, make three +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[Pg 395]</a></span> +or four lines which will give the mass of the main +effect or object—a barn, a tree, a slope of hill, or +whatever it be, get merely its simplest suggestion +of outline. These two things will show you, on +considering their relation to each other and to the +rest of the canvas, about what its emphasis will +be. If it isn't right, rub it out and do it again, a +little larger or smaller, a little more to one side or +the other, higher or lower, as you find needed. +When you have done this to your satisfaction, you +have done the first important thing.</p> + +<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;"> +<a name="illus408" id="illus408"></a> +<img src="images/illus408.jpg" width="100%" alt="Landscape Photo. No. 2." title="Landscape Photo. No. 2." /> +<span class="caption">Landscape Photo. No. 2.</span> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[Pg 396]</a></span> +<b>Still Life, etc.</b>—If your subject be still life, +flowers, or an animal or other figure, go about it in +the same way. Look at it well. Try to get an +idea of its general shape, and block that out with +a few lines. You will almost always find a horizontal +line which by cutting across the mass will +help you to decide where the mass will best come. +First, the mass must be about the right size, and +then it must balance well on the canvas. Any of +the things suggested as helping about drawing and +values will of course help you here. The reducing-glass +will help you to get the size and position +of things. The card with a square hole in it will +do the same. Even a sort of little frame made +with the fingers and thumbs of your two hands +will cut off the surrounding objects, and help you +see your group as a whole with other things out +of the way.</p> + +<p><b>Walk About.</b>—A change of position of a very +few feet sometimes makes a great difference in +the looks of a subject. The first view of it is not +always the best. Walk around a little; look at it +from one point and from another. Take your +time. Better begin a little later than stop because +you don't like it and feel discouraged. Time taken +to consider well beforehand is never lost. "Well +begun is half done."</p> + +<p><b>Relief.</b>—In beginning a thing you want to have +the first few minutes' work to do the most possible +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[Pg 397]</a></span> +towards giving you something to judge by. You +want from the very first to get something recognizable. +Then every subsequent touch, having reference +to that, will be so much the more sure and +effective. Look, then, first for what will count +most.</p> + +<p><b>What to look for.</b>—Whether you lay your work +out first with black-and-white or with paint, look +to see where the greatest contrast is. Where is +there a strong light against dark and a strong dark +against light? Not the little accents, but that +which marks the contact of two great planes. Find +this first, and represent it as soon as you have got +the main values, in this way the whole thing will +tell as an actuality. It will not yet carry much +expression, but it will look like a <i>fact</i>, and it will +have established certain relations from which you +can work forward.</p> + +<p><b>Colors.</b>—It ought to go without saying that the +colors as they come from the tube are not right +for any color you see in nature however you think +they look. But beginners are very apt to think +that if they cannot get the color they want, they +can get it in another kind of tube. This is a mistake. +The tubes of color that are actually necessary +for almost every possible tint or combination +in nature are very few. But they must be used +to advantage. Now and then one finds his palette +lacking, and must add to it; but after one has experimented +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[Pg 398]</a></span> +a while he settles down to some eight +or ten colors which will do almost everything, and +two or three more that will do what remains. +When you work out-of-doors you may find that +more variety will help you and gain time for you; +that several blues and some secondaries it is well +to have in tubes besides the regular outfit. Still +even then, when you have got beyond the first +frantic gropings, you will be surprised to see yourself +constantly using certain colors and neglecting +others. These others, then, you do not need, and +you may leave them out of your box.</p> + +<p><b>Too Many Tubes.</b>—If you have too many colors, +they are a trouble rather than a help to you. You +must carry them all in your mind, and you do not +so soon get to thinking of the color in nature and +taking up the paint from different parts of your +palette instinctively—which means that you are +gaining command of it. Never put a new color on +your palette unless you feel the actual need of it, +or have a special reason for it. Better get well +acquainted with the regular colors you have, and +have only as many as you can handle well.</p> + +<p><b>Mixing.</b>—Use some system in mixing your paint. +Have your palette set the same way always, so that +your brush can find the color without having to +hunt for it. Have a reasonable way too of taking +up your color before you mix it. Don't always +begin with the same one. Is the tint light or +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[Pg 399]</a></span> +dark? strong or delicate? What is the prevailing +color in it? Let these things affect the sequence +of bringing the colors together for mixing. +Let these things have to do also with the proportionate +quantity of each. Suppose you have a +heavy dark green to mix, what will you take first? +Make a dash at the white, put it in the middle of +the palette, and then tone it down to the green? +How much paint would you have to take before +you got your color? Yet I've seen this very thing +done, and others equally senseless. What is the +green? Dark. Bluish or warm? Will reddish or +yellowish blue do it best? How much space do +you want that brushful to cover? Take enough +blue, add to it a yellow of the sort that will make +approximately the color. Don't stir them up; drag +one into the other a little—very little. The color +is crude? Another color or two will bring it into +tone. Don't mix it much. Don't smear it all +over your palette. Make a smallish dab of it, keeping +it well piled up. If you get any one color too +great in quantity, then you will have to take more +of the others again to keep it in balance. Be +careful to take as nearly the right proportions of +each at the first picking up, so as to mix but few +times; for every time you add and mix you flatten +out the tone more, and lose its vibration and +life.</p> + +<p>Now, if the color is too dark, what will you +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[Pg 400]</a></span> +lighten it with? White? Wait a minute. Think. +Will white take away the richness of it? White +always grays and flattens the color. Don't put it +into a warm, rich color unless it belongs there. +Then only as much as is needed.</p> + +<p>Treat all your tints this way. Is it a high value +on a forehead in full light? White first, then a +little modifying color, yellow first, then red; perhaps +no red: the kind of yellow may do it. When +you have a rich color to mix, get it as strong as you +can first. Then gray it as much as you need to, +never the reverse. But when you want a delicate +color, make it delicate first, and then strengthen +it cautiously.</p> + +<p>These seem but common-sense. Hardly necessary +to take the trouble to write it down? But +common-sense is not always attributed to artists, +and the beginner does not seem able always to +apply his common-sense to his painting at first. +To say it to him opens his eyes. Best be on the +safe side.</p> + +<p><b>Crude Color.</b>—The beginner is sure to get crude +color, either from lack of perception of color qualities, +or inability to mix the tints he knows he +wants. In the latter case crude color either comes +from too few colors in the mixture, or from inharmonious +colors brought together, which is only +another form of the same, for an added complementary +would make it right. For instance, Prussian +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[Pg 401]</a></span> +blue and chrome yellow mixed will make a +powerful green which you could hardly put anywhere—a +strong, crude green. Well, what is the +complementary? Red? And what does a complementary +do to a color? Neutralizes, grays. +Then add a very little red, enough to gray the +green, not enough to kill its quality.</p> + +<p>Or if you don't want the color that makes, take +a little reddish yellow, ochre say, and possibly a +little reddish blue, new blue or ultramarine; add +these, and see how it grays it and still keeps the +same kind of green. This is the principle in extreme. +Still, the best way would be not to try +to make a green of Prussian blue and chrome yellow. +It is better to know the qualities of each +tube color on your palette. Know which two +colors mix to make a crude color, and which will +be gray, more or less, without a third.</p> + +<p><b>Muddy Color.</b>—Dirty or muddy color comes +from lack of this last. You do not know how +your colors are going to affect each other. You +mix, and the color looks right on the palette, but +on the canvas it is not right. You mix again and +put it on the canvas; it mixes with the first tint +and you get—mud. Why? Both wrong. Scrape +the whole thing off. With a clean spot of canvas +mix a fresh color. Put it on frankly and freshly +and let it alone—don't dabble it. The chances +are it will be at least fresh, clean color.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[Pg 402]</a></span> +Over-mixing makes color muddy sometimes, especially +when more than three colors are used. +When you don't get the right tint with three +colors, the chances are that you have got the +wrong three. If that is not so, and you must add +a fourth, do so with some thoughtfulness, or you +will have to mix the tint again.</p> + +<p><b>Dirty Brushes and Palette.</b>—Using dirty brushes +causes muddy color. Don't be too economical +about the number of brushes you use. Keep a +good big rag at your hand, and wipe the paint out +of your brush often. If the color is getting muddy, +clean your palette and take a clean brush. Your +palette is sure to get covered with paint of all +colors when you have painted a little while. You +can't mix colors with any degree of certainty if +the palette is smeared with all sorts of tints. Use +your palette-knife—that's what it's for. Scrape +the palette clean every once in a while as it gets +crowded. Wipe it off. Take some fresh brushes. +Then, if your color is dirty, it is your fault, not the +fault of your tools.</p> + +<p><b>Out-door and In-door Colors.</b>—There is one source +of discouragement and difficulty that every one +has to contend against; that is, the difference in +the apparent key of paint when, having been put +on out-of-doors, it is seen in the house. Out-of-doors +the color looked bright and light, and when +you get it in-doors it looks dark and gray, and perhaps +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[Pg 403]</a></span> +muddy and dead. This is something you +must expect, and must learn how to control.</p> + +<p>As everything that the out-door light falls upon +looks the brighter for it, so will your paint look +brighter than it really is because of the brilliancy +of the light which you see it in. You must learn +to make allowance for that. You must learn by +experience how much the color will go down when +you take it into the house.</p> + +<p>Of course an umbrella is a most useful and necessary +thing in working out-of-doors, and if it +is lined with black so much the better for you; +for there is sure to be a good deal of light coming +through the cloth, and while it shades your +canvas, it does to some extent give a false glow to +your canvas, which a black lining counterbalances.</p> + +<p>Mere experience will give you that knowledge +more or less; but there are ways in which you can +help yourself.</p> + +<p>When you first begin to work out-doors try to +find a good solid shade in which to place your +easel, and then try to paint up to the full key, +even at the risk of a little crudeness of color. +Use colors that seem rather pure than otherwise. +You may be sure that the color will "come down" +a little anyhow, so keep the pitch well up. Then, +if the shade has been pretty even, and your canvas +has had a fair light, you will get a fairly good +color-key.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[Pg 404]</a></span> +<b>Predetermined Pitch.</b>—Another way is to determine +the pitch of the painting in some way before +you take the canvas out-of-doors. There are various +ways of doing this. The most practical is, +perhaps, to know the relative value, in the house +and out-doors, of the priming of your canvas. Have +a definite knowledge of how near to the highest +light you will want that priming is. Then, when +you put on the light paint, if you keep it light +with reference to the known pitch of the priming, +you will keep the whole painting light.</p> + +<p><b>Discouragement.</b>—We all get discouraged sometimes, +but it is something to know that the case +is not hopeless because we are. That what we +are trying to do does not get done easily is no reason +that it may not get done eventually. Often +the discouragement is not even a sign that what +we are doing is not going well. The discouragement +may be one way that fatigue shows itself, +and we may feel discouraged after a particularly +successful day's work—in consequence of it very +probably. Make it a rule not to judge of a day's +work at the end of that day. Wait till next morning, +when fresh and rested, and you will have a +much more just notion of what you have done.</p> + +<p>When you begin to get blue about your work +is the time to stop and rest. If the blues are the +result of tire, working longer will only make your +picture worse. A tired brain and eye never improved +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[Pg 405]</a></span> +a piece of painting. And in the same +spirit rest often while you are painting. If your +model rests, it is as well that you rest also. Turn +away from your work, and when you get to work +again you will look at it with a fresh eye.</p> + +<p><b>Change Your Work Often.</b>—Too continued and +concentrated work on the same picture also will +lead to discouragement. Change your work, keep +several things going at the same time, and when +you are tired of one you may work with fresh perceptions +and interest on another.</p> + +<p>Stop often to walk away from your work. Lay +down your palette and brushes, and put the canvas +at the other end of the room. Straighten +your back and look at the picture at a distance. +You get an impression of the thing as a whole. +What you have been doing will be judged of less +by itself and more in relation to the rest of the +picture, and so more justly.</p> + +<p>When things are going wrong, stop work for +the day. Take a rest. Then, before you begin +again on it to-morrow, take plenty of time to look +the picture over—consider it, compare it with +nature, and make up your mind just what it lacks, +just what it needs, just what you will do first to +make it as it should be. It is marvellous how it +drives off the blues to know just what you are +going to do next.</p> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Specimen Tints"> +<tr> + <td align="center"> + <div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"> + <a name="illus419" id="illus419"></a> + <img src="images/illus419.jpg" width="100%" alt="SPECIMEN TINTS OF ARTISTS' OIL COLOURS NO. 1." title="SPECIMEN TINTS OF ARTISTS' OIL COLOURS NO. 1." /> + </div> + </td> + <td align="center"> + <div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;"> + <a name="illus420" id="illus420"></a> + <img src="images/illus420.jpg" width="100%" alt="SPECIMEN TINTS OF ARTISTS' OIL COLOURS NO. 2." title="SPECIMEN TINTS OF ARTISTS' OIL COLOURS NO. 2." /> + </div> + </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" align="center"><span class="caption">SPECIMEN TINTS OF ARTISTS' OIL COLOURS</span></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<h4>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</h4> +<p>1. Images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest +paragraph break.</p> + +<p>2. A few typographical errors have been corrected. They have been marked +in the text with <ins class="correction" title="like this">popups</ins>. +Position mouse over the line to see an explanation.</p> + +<p>3. In the List of Illustrations, the page number for "Descent from Cross" +is corrected to 163 (original text is 165).</p> + +<p>4. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies in +spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been retained.</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's The Painter in Oil, by Daniel Burleigh Parkhurst + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PAINTER IN OIL *** + +***** This file should be named 30877-h.htm or 30877-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/8/7/30877/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Ritu Aggarwal and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +https://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH F3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at https://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +https://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at https://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit https://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including including checks, online payments and credit card +donations. To donate, please visit: https://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> |