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diff --git a/old/30756-8.txt b/old/30756-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..850cbce --- /dev/null +++ b/old/30756-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14343 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Stones of Venice, Volume III (of 3), by +John Ruskin + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Stones of Venice, Volume III (of 3) + + +Author: John Ruskin + + + +Release Date: December 31, 2009 [eBook #30756] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STONES OF VENICE, VOLUME III +(OF 3)*** + + +E-text prepared by Marius Masi, Juliet Sutherland, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations and also + the index for all three volumes of the set with links + to the other two volumes. + See 30756-h.htm or 30756-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/files/30756/30756-h/30756-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/files/30756/30756-h.zip) + + Volumes I and II are available in the Project Gutenberg + Library: + Volume I--see https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/30754 + Volume II--see https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/30755 + + +Transcriber's note: + + A few typographical errors have been corrected. They are + listed at the end of the text. + + Characters following a caret were printed as superscript + in the original. For example, "M^a,"; here the "a." is a + superscript. + + + + + +The Complete Works of John Ruskin + +Volume IX + +STONES OF VENICE + +VOLUME III + + +[Illustration: + THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS + FROM A PHOTOGRAPH] + + +Library Edition + +The Complete Works of John Ruskin + +STONES OF VENICE + +VOLUME III + +Giotto +Lectures on Architecture +Harbours of England +A Joy Forever + + + + + + + +National Library Association +New York Chicago + + + + +THE +STONES OF VENICE + +VOLUME III. + +THE FALL + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + THIRD, OR RENAISSANCE, PERIOD. + + CHAPTER I. + PAGE + Early Renaissance, 1 + + CHAPTER II. + Roman Renaissance, 32 + + CHAPTER III. + Grotesque Renaissance, 112 + + CHAPTER IV. + Conclusion, 166 + + + APPENDIX. + + 1. Architect of the Ducal Palace, 199 + 2. Theology of Spenser, 205 + 3. Austrian Government in Italy, 209 + 4. Date of the Palaces of the Byzantine + Renaissance, 211 + 5. Renaissance Side of Ducal Palace, 212 + 6. Character of the Doge Michele Morosini, 213 + 7. Modern Education, 214 + 8. Early Venetian Marriages, 222 + 9. Character of the Venetian Aristocracy, 223 + 10. Final Appendix, 224 + + + INDICES. + + I. Personal Index, 263 + II. Local Index, 268 + III. Topical Index, 271 + IV. Venetian Index, 287 + + + + +LIST OF PLATES. + + Facing Page + + PLATE 1. Temperance and Intemperance in Ornament, 6 + " 2. Gothic Capitals, 8 + " 3. Noble and Ignoble Grotesque, 125 + " 4. Mosaic of Olive Tree and Flowers, 179 + " 5. Byzantine Bases, 225 + " 6. Byzantine Jambs, 229 + " 7. Gothic Jambs, 230 + " 8. Byzantine Archivolts, 244 + " 9. Gothic Archivolts, 245 + " 10. Cornices, 248 + " 11. Tracery Bars, 252 + " 12. Capitals of Fondaco de Turchi, 304 + + + + +THE + +STONES OF VENICE. + +THIRD, OR RENAISSANCE, PERIOD. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +EARLY RENAISSANCE. + + +§ I. I trust that the reader has been enabled, by the preceding +chapters, to form some conception of the magnificence of the streets of +Venice during the course of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Yet +by all this magnificence she was not supremely distinguished above the +other cities of the middle ages. Her early edifices have been preserved +to our times by the circuit of her waves; while continual recurrences of +ruin have defaced the glory of her sister cities. But such fragments as +are still left in their lonely squares, and in the corners of their +streets, so far from being inferior to the buildings of Venice, are even +more rich, more finished, more admirable in invention, more exuberant in +beauty. And although, in the North of Europe, civilization was less +advanced, and the knowledge of the arts was more confined to the +ecclesiastical orders, so that, for domestic architecture, the period of +perfection must be there placed much later than in Italy, and considered +as extending to the middle of the fifteenth century; yet, as each city +reached a certain point in civilization, its streets became decorated +with the same magnificence, varied only in style according to the +materials at hand, and temper of the people. And I am not aware of any +town of wealth and importance in the middle ages, in which some proof +does not exist, that, at its period of greatest energy and prosperity, +its streets were inwrought with rich sculpture, and even (though in +this, as before noticed, Venice always stood supreme) glowing with color +and with gold. Now, therefore, let the reader,--forming for himself as +vivid and real a conception as he is able, either of a group of Venetian +palaces in the fourteenth century, or, if he likes better, of one of the +more fantastic but even richer street scenes of Rouen, Antwerp, Cologne, +or Nuremberg, and keeping this gorgeous image before him,--go out into +any thoroughfare, representative, in a general and characteristic way, +of the feeling for domestic architecture in modern times; let him, for +instance, if in London, walk once up and down Harley Street, or Baker +Street, or Gower Street; and then, looking upon this picture and on +this, set himself to consider (for this is to be the subject of our +following and final inquiry) what have been the causes which have +induced so vast a change in the European mind. + +§ II. Renaissance architecture is the school which has conducted men's +inventive and constructive faculties from the Grand Canal to Gower +Street; from the marble shaft, and the lancet arch, and the wreathed +leafage, and the glowing and melting harmony of gold and azure, to the +square cavity in the brick wall. We have now to consider the causes and +the steps of this change; and, as we endeavored above to investigate the +nature of Gothic, here to investigate also the nature of Renaissance. + +§ III. Although Renaissance architecture assumes very different forms +among different nations, it may be conveniently referred to three +heads:--Early Renaissance, consisting of the first corruptions +introduced into the Gothic schools: Central or Roman Renaissance, which +is the perfectly formed style: and Grotesque Renaissance, which is the +corruption of the Renaissance itself. + +§ IV. Now, in order to do full justice to the adverse cause, we will +consider the abstract _nature_ of the school with reference only to its +best or central examples. The forms of building which must be classed +generally under the term _early_ Renaissance are, in many cases, only +the extravagances and corruptions of the languid Gothic, for whose +errors the classical principle is in no wise answerable. It was stated +in the second chapter of the "Seven Lamps," that, unless luxury had +enervated and subtlety falsified the Gothic forms, Roman traditions +could not have prevailed against them; and, although these enervated and +false conditions are almost instantly colored by the classical +influence, it would be utterly unfair to lay to the charge of that +influence the first debasement of the earlier schools, which had lost +the strength of their system before they could be struck by the plague. + +§ V. The manner, however, of the debasement of all schools of art, so +far as it is natural, is in all ages the same; luxuriance of ornament, +refinement of execution, and idle subtleties of fancy, taking the place +of true thought and firm handling: and I do not intend to delay the +reader long by the Gothic sick-bed, for our task is not so much to watch +the wasting of fever in the features of the expiring king, as to trace +the character of that Hazael who dipped the cloth in water, and laid it +upon his face, Nevertheless, it is necessary to the completeness of our +view of the architecture of Venice, as well as to our understanding of +the manner in which the Central Renaissance obtained its universal +dominion, that we glance briefly at the principal forms into which +Venetian Gothic first declined. They are two in number: one the +corruption of the Gothic itself; the other a partial return to Byzantine +forms; for the Venetian mind having carried the Gothic to a point at +which it was dissatisfied, tried to retrace its steps, fell back first +upon Byzantine types, and through them passed to the first Roman. But in +thus retracing its steps, it does not recover its own lost energy. It +revisits the places through which it had passed in the morning light, +but it is now with wearied limbs, and under the gloomy shadows of +evening. + +§ VI. It has just been said that the two principal causes of natural +decline in any school, are over-luxuriance and over-refinement. The +corrupt Gothic of Venice furnishes us with a curious instance of the +one, and the corrupt Byzantine of the other. We shall examine them in +succession. + +Now, observe, first, I do not mean by _luxuriance_ of ornament, +_quantity_ of ornament. In the best Gothic in the world there is hardly +an inch of stone left unsculptured. But I mean that character of +extravagance in the ornament itself which shows that it was addressed to +jaded faculties; a violence and coarseness in curvature, a depth of +shadow, a lusciousness in arrangement of line, evidently arising out of +an incapability of feeling the true beauty of chaste form and restrained +power. I do not know any character of design which may be more easily +recognized at a glance than this over-lusciousness; and yet it seems to +me that at the present day there is nothing so little understood as the +essential difference between chasteness and extravagance, whether in +color, shade, or lines. We speak loosely and inaccurately of +"overcharged" ornament, with an obscure feeling that there is indeed +something in visible Form which is correspondent to Intemperance in +moral habits; but without any distinct detection of the character which +offends us, far less with any understanding of the most important lesson +which there can be no doubt was intended to be conveyed by the +universality of this ornamental law. + +§ VII. In a word, then, the safeguard of highest beauty, in all visible +work, is exactly that which is also the safeguard of conduct in the +soul,--Temperance, in the broadest sense; the Temperance which we have +seen sitting on an equal throne with Justice amidst the Four Cardinal +Virtues, and, wanting which, there is not any other virtue which may not +lead us into desperate error. Now, observe: Temperance, in the nobler +sense, does not mean a subdued and imperfect energy; it does not mean a +stopping short in any good thing, as in Love or in Faith; but it means +the power which governs the most intense energy, and prevents its acting +in any way but as it ought. And with respect to things in which there +may be excess, it does not mean imperfect enjoyment of them; but the +regulation of their quantity, so that the enjoyment of them shall be +greatest. For instance, in the matter we have at present in hand, +temperance in color does not mean imperfect or dull enjoyment of color; +but it means that government of color which shall bring the utmost +possible enjoyment out of all hues. A bad colorist does not _love_ +beautiful color better than the best colorist does, nor half so much. +But he indulges in it to excess; he uses it in large masses, and +unsubdued; and then it is a law of Nature, a law as universal as that of +gravitation, that he shall not be able to enjoy it so much as if he had +used it in less quantity. His eye is jaded and satiated, and the blue +and red have life in them no more. He tries to paint them bluer and +redder, in vain: all the blue has become grey, and gets greyer the more +he adds to it; all his crimson has become brown, and gets more sere and +autumnal the more he deepens it. But the great painter is sternly +temperate in his work; he loves the vivid color with all his heart; but +for a long time he does not allow himself anything like it, nothing but +sober browns and dull greys, and colors that have no conceivable beauty +in them; but these by his government become lovely: and after bringing +out of them all the life and power they possess, and enjoying them to +the uttermost,--cautiously, and as the crown of the work, and the +consummation of its music, he permits the momentary crimson and azure, +and the whole canvas is in a flame. + +§ VIII. Again, in curvature, which is the cause of loveliness in all +form; the bad designer does not enjoy it more than the great designer, +but he indulges in it till his eye is satiated, and he cannot obtain +enough of it to touch his jaded feeling for grace. But the great and +temperate designer does not allow himself any violent curves; he works +much with lines in which the curvature, though always existing, is long +before it is perceived. He dwells on all these subdued curvatures to the +uttermost, and opposes them with still severer lines to bring them out +in fuller sweetness; and, at last, he allows himself a momentary curve +of energy, and all the work is, in an instant, full of life and grace. + +The curves drawn in Plate VII. of the first volume, were chosen entirely +to show this character of dignity and restraint, as it appears in the +lines of nature, together with the perpetual changefulness of the +degrees of curvature in one and the same line; but although the purpose +of that plate was carefully explained in the chapter which it +illustrates, as well as in the passages of "Modern Painters" therein +referred to (vol. ii. pp. 43, 79), so little are we now in the habit of +considering the character of abstract lines, that it was thought by many +persons that this plate only illustrated Hogarth's reversed line of +beauty, even although the curve of the salvia leaf, which was the one +taken from that plate for future use, in architecture, was not a +reversed or serpentine curve at all. I shall now, however, I hope, be +able to show my meaning better. + +§ IX. Fig. 1 in Plate I., opposite, is a piece of ornamentation from a +Norman-French manuscript of the thirteenth century, and fig. 2 from an +Italian one of the fifteenth. Observe in the first its stern moderation +in curvature; the gradually united lines _nearly straight_, though none +quite straight, used for its main limb, and contrasted with the bold but +simple offshoots of its leaves, and the noble spiral from which it +shoots, these in their turn opposed by the sharp trefoils and thorny +cusps. And see what a reserve of resource there is in the whole; how +easy it would have been to make the curves more palpable and the foliage +more rich, and how the noble hand has stayed itself, and refused to +grant one wave of motion more. + +[Illustration: Plate I. + TEMPERANCE AND INTEMPERANCE. + IN CURVATURE.] + +§ X. Then observe the other example, in which, while the same idea is +continually repeated, excitement and interest are sought for by means of +violent and continual curvatures wholly unrestrained, and rolling hither +and thither in confused wantonness. Compare the character of the +separate lines in these two examples carefully, and be assured that +wherever this redundant and luxurious curvature shows itself in +ornamentation, it is a sign of jaded energy and failing invention. Do +not confuse it with fulness or richness. Wealth is not necessarily +wantonness: a Gothic moulding may be buried half a foot deep in thorns +and leaves, and yet will be chaste in every line; and a late Renaissance +moulding may be utterly barren and poverty-stricken, and yet will show +the disposition to luxury in every line. + +§ XI. Plate XX., in the second volume, though prepared for the special +illustration of the notices of capitals, becomes peculiarly interesting +when considered in relation to the points at present under +consideration. The four leaves in the upper row are Byzantine; the two +middle rows are transitional, all but fig. 11, which is of the formed +Gothic; fig. 12 is perfect Gothic of the finest time (Ducal Palace, +oldest part), fig. 13 is Gothic beginning to decline, fig. 14 is +Renaissance Gothic in complete corruption. + +Now observe, first, the Gothic naturalism advancing gradually from the +Byzantine severity; how from the sharp, hard, formalized conventionality +of the upper series the leaves gradually expand into more free and +flexible animation, until in fig. 12 we have the perfect living leaf as +if fresh gathered out of the dew. And then, in the last two examples and +partly in fig. 11, observe how the forms which can advance no longer in +animation, advance, or rather decline, into luxury and effeminacy as the +strength of the school expires. + +§ XII. In the second place, note that the Byzantine and Gothic schools, +however differing in degree of life, are both alike in _temperance_, +though the temperance of the Gothic is the nobler, because it consists +with entire animation. Observe how severe and subtle the curvatures are +in all the leaves from fig. 1 to fig. 12, except only in fig. 11; and +observe especially the firmness and strength obtained by the close +approximation to the straight line in the lateral ribs of the leaf, fig. +12. The longer the eye rests on these temperate curvatures the more it +will enjoy them, but it will assuredly in the end be wearied by the +morbid exaggeration of the last example. + +[Illustration: Plate II. + GOTHIC CAPITALS.] + +§ XIII. Finally, observe--and this is very important--how one and the +same character in the work may be a sign of totally different states of +mind, and therefore in one case bad, and in the other good. The +examples, fig. 3. and fig. 12., are both equally pure in line; but one +is subdivided in the extreme, the other broad in the extreme, and both +are beautiful. The Byzantine mind delighted in the delicacy of +subdivision which nature shows in the fern-leaf or parsley-leaf; and so, +also, often the Gothic mind, much enjoying the oak, thorn, and thistle. +But the builder of the Ducal Palace used great breadth in his foliage, +in order to harmonize with the broad surface of his mighty wall, and +delighted in this breadth as nature delights in the sweeping freshness +of the dock-leaf or water-lily. Both breadth and subdivision are thus +noble, when they are contemplated or conceived by a mind in health; and +both become ignoble, when conceived by a mind jaded and satiated. The +subdivision in fig. 13 as compared with the type, fig. 12, which it was +intended to improve, is the sign, not of a mind which loved intricacy, +but of one which could not relish simplicity, which had not strength +enough to enjoy the broad masses of the earlier leaves, and cut them to +pieces idly, like a child tearing the book which, in its weariness, it +cannot read. And on the other hand, we shall continually find, in other +examples of work of the same period, an unwholesome breadth or +heaviness, which results from the mind having no longer any care for +refinement or precision, nor taking any delight in delicate forms, but +making all things blunted, cumbrous, and dead, losing at the same time +the sense of the elasticity and spring of natural curves. It is as if +the soul of man, itself severed from the root of its health, and about +to fall into corruption, lost the perception of life in all things +around it; and could no more distinguish the wave of the strong +branches, full of muscular strength and sanguine circulation, from the +lax bending of a broken cord, nor the sinuousness of the edge of the +leaf, crushed into deep folds by the expansion of its living growth, +from the wrinkled contraction of its decay.[1] Thus, in morals, there +is a care for trifles which proceeds from love and conscience, and is +most holy; and a care for trifles which comes of idleness and frivolity, +and is most base. And so, also, there is a gravity proceeding from +thought, which is most noble; and a gravity proceeding from dulness and +mere incapability of enjoyment, which is most base. Now, in the various +forms assumed by the later Gothic of Venice, there are one or two +features which, under other circumstances, would not have been signs of +decline; but, in the particular manner of their occurrence here, +indicate the fatal weariness of decay. Of all these features the most +distinctive are its crockets and finials. + +§ XIV. There is not to be found a single crocket or finial upon any part +of the Ducal Palace built during the fourteenth century; and although +they occur on contemporary, and on some much earlier, buildings, they +either indicate detached examples of schools not properly Venetian, or +are signs of incipient decline. + +The reason of this is, that the finial is properly the ornament of +gabled architecture; it is the compliance, in the minor features of the +building, with the spirit of its towers, ridged roof, and spires. +Venetian building is not gabled, but horizontal in its roots and general +masses; therefore the finial is a feature contradictory to its spirit, +and adopted only in that search for morbid excitement which is the +infallible indication of decline. When it occurs earlier, it is on +fragments of true gabled architecture, as, for instance, on the porch of +the Carmini. + +In proportion to the unjustifiableness of its introduction was the +extravagance of the form it assumed; becoming, sometimes, a tuft at the +top of the ogee windows, half as high as the arch itself, and +consisting, in the richest examples, of a human figure, half emergent +out of a cup of leafage, as, for instance, in the small archway of the +Campo San Zaccaria: while the crockets, as being at the side of the +arch, and not so strictly connected with its balance and symmetry, +appear to consider themselves at greater liberty even than the finials, +and fling themselves, hither and thither, in the wildest contortions. +Fig. 4. in Plate I, is the outline of one, carved in stone, from the +later Gothic of St. Mark's; fig. 3. a crocket from the fine Veronese +Gothic; in order to enable the reader to discern the Renaissance +character better by comparison with the examples of curvature above +them, taken from the manuscripts. And not content with this exuberance +in the external ornaments of the arch, the finial interferes with its +traceries. The increased intricacy of these, as such, being a natural +process in the developement of Gothic, would have been no evil; but they +are corrupted by the enrichment of the finial at the point of the +cusp,--corrupted, that is to say, in Venice: for at Verona the finial, +in the form of a fleur-de-lis, appears long previously at the cusp +point, with exquisite effect; and in our own best Northern Gothic it is +often used beautifully in this place, as in the window from Salisbury, +Plate XII. (Vol. II.), fig. 2. But in Venice, such a treatment of it was +utterly contrary to the severe spirit of the ancient traceries; and the +adoption of a leafy finial at the extremity of the cusps in the door of +San Stefano, as opposed to the simple ball which terminates those of the +Ducal Palace, is an unmistakable indication of a tendency to decline. + +In like manner, the enrichment and complication of the jamb mouldings, +which, in other schools, might and did take place in the healthiest +periods, are, at Venice, signs of decline, owing to the entire +inconsistency of such mouldings with the ancient love of the single +square jamb and archivolt. The process of enrichment in them is shown by +the successive examples given in Plate VII., below. They are numbered, +and explained in the Appendix. + +§ XV. The date at which this corrupt form of Gothic first prevailed over +the early simplicity of the Venetian types can be determined in an +instant, on the steps of the choir of the Church of St. John and Paul. +On our left hand, as we enter, is the tomb of the Doge Marco Cornaro, +who died in 1367. It is rich and fully developed Gothic, with crockets +and finials, but not yet attaining any extravagant developement. +Opposite to it is that of the Doge Andrea Morosini, who died in 1382. +Its Gothic is voluptuous, and over-wrought; the crockets are bold and +florid, and the enormous finial represents a statue of St. Michael. +There is no excuse for the antiquaries who, having this tomb before +them, could have attributed the severe architecture of the Ducal Palace +to a later date; for every one of the Renaissance errors is here in +complete developement, though not so grossly as entirely to destroy the +loveliness of the Gothic forms. In the Porta della Carta, 1423, the vice +reaches its climax. + +§ XVI. Against this degraded Gothic, then, came up the Renaissance +armies; and their first assault was in the requirement of universal +perfection. For the first time since the destruction of Rome, the world +had seen, in the work of the greatest artists of the fifteenth +century,--in the painting of Ghirlandajo, Masaccio, Francia, Perugino, +Pinturicchio, and Bellini; in the sculpture of Mino da Fiesole, of +Ghiberti, and Verrocchio,--a perfection of execution and fulness of +knowledge which cast all previous art into the shade, and which, being +in the work of those men united with all that was great in that of +former days, did indeed justify the utmost enthusiasm with which their +efforts were, or could be, regarded. But when this perfection had once +been exhibited in anything, it was required in everything; the world +could no longer be satisfied with less exquisite execution, or less +disciplined knowledge. The first thing that it demanded in all work was, +that it should be done in a consummate and learned way; and men +altogether forgot that it was possible to consummate what was +contemptible, and to know what was useless. Imperatively requiring +dexterity of touch, they gradually forgot to look for tenderness of +feeling; imperatively requiring accuracy of knowledge, they gradually +forgot to ask for originality of thought. The thought and the feeling +which they despised departed from them, and they were left to +felicitate themselves on their small science and their neat fingering. +This is the history of the first attack of the Renaissance upon the +Gothic schools, and of its rapid results, more fatal and immediate in +architecture than in any other art, because there the demand for +perfection was less reasonable, and less consistent with the +capabilities of the workman; being utterly opposed to that rudeness or +savageness on which, as we saw above, the nobility of the elder schools +in great part depends. But inasmuch as the innovations were founded on +some of the most beautiful examples of art, and headed by some of the +greatest men that the world ever saw, and as the Gothic with which they +interfered was corrupt and valueless, the first appearance of the +Renaissance feeling had the appearance of a healthy movement. A new +energy replaced whatever weariness or dulness had affected the Gothic +mind; an exquisite taste and refinement, aided by extended knowledge, +furnished the first models of the new school; and over the whole of +Italy a style arose, generally now known as cinque-cento, which in +sculpture and painting, as I just stated, produced the noblest masters +which the world ever saw, headed by Michael Angelo, Raphael, and +Leonardo; but which failed of doing the same in architecture, because, +as we have seen above, perfection is therein not possible, and failed +more totally than it would otherwise have done, because the classical +enthusiasm had destroyed the best types of architectural form. + +§ XVII. For, observe here very carefully, the Renaissance principle, as +it consisted in a demand for universal perfection, is quite distinct +from the Renaissance principle as it consists in a demand for classical +and Roman _forms_ of perfection. And if I had space to follow out the +subject as I should desire, I would first endeavor to ascertain what +might have been the course of the art of Europe if no manuscripts of +classical authors had been recovered, and no remains of classical +architecture left, in the fifteenth century; so that the executive +perfection to which the efforts of all great men had tended for five +hundred years, and which now at last was reached, might have been +allowed to develope itself in its own natural and proper form, in +connexion with the architectural structure of earlier schools. This +refinement and perfection had indeed its own perils, and the history of +later Italy, as she sank into pleasure and thence into corruption, would +probably have been the same whether she had ever learned again to write +pure Latin or not. Still the inquiry into the probable cause of the +enervation which might naturally have followed the highest exertion of +her energies, is a totally distinct one from that into the particular +form given to this enervation by her classical learning; and it is +matter of considerable regret to me that I cannot treat these two +subjects separately: I must be content with marking them for separation +in the mind of the reader. + +§ XVIII. The effect, then, of the sudden enthusiasm for classical +literature, which gained strength during every hour of the fifteenth +century, was, as far as respected architecture, to do away with the +entire system of Gothic science. The pointed arch, the shadowy vault, +the clustered shaft, the heaven-pointing spire, were all swept away; and +no structure was any longer permitted but that of the plain cross-beam +from pillar to pillar, over the round arch, with square or circular +shafts, and a low-gabled roof and pediment: two elements of noble form, +which had fortunately existed in Rome, were, however, for that reason, +still permitted; the cupola, and, internally, the waggon vault. + +§ XIX. These changes in form were all of them unfortunate; and it is +almost impossible to do justice to the occasionally exquisite +ornamentation of the fifteenth century, on account of its being placed +upon edifices of the cold and meagre Roman outline. There is, as far as +I know, only one Gothic building in Europe, the Duomo of Florence, in +which, though the ornament be of a much earlier school, it is yet so +exquisitely finished as to enable us to imagine what might have been the +effect of the perfect workmanship of the Renaissance, coming out of the +hands of men like Verrocchio and Ghiberti, had it been employed on the +magnificent framework of Gothic structure. This is the question which, +as I shall note in the concluding chapter, we ought to set ourselves +practically to solve in modern times. + +§ XX. The changes effected in form, however, were the least part of the +evil principles of the Renaissance. As I have just said, its main +mistake, in its early stages, was the unwholesome demand for +_perfection_, at any cost. I hope enough has been advanced, in the +chapter on the Nature of Gothic, to show the reader that perfection is +_not_ to be had from the general workman, but at the cost of +everything,--of his whole life, thought, and energy. And Renaissance +Europe thought this a small price to pay for manipulative perfection. +Men like Verrocchio and Ghiberti were not to be had every day, nor in +every place; and to require from the common workman execution or +knowledge like theirs, was to require him to become their copyist. Their +strength was great enough to enable them to join science with invention, +method with emotion, finish with fire; but, in them, the invention and +the fire were first, while Europe saw in them only the method and the +finish. This was new to the minds of men, and they pursued it to the +neglect of everything else. "This," they cried, "we must have in all our +work henceforward:" and they were obeyed. The lower workman secured +method and finish, and lost, in exchange for them, his soul. + +§ XXI. Now, therefore, do not let me be misunderstood when I speak +generally of the evil spirit of the Renaissance. The reader may look +through all I have written, from first to last, and he will not find one +word but of the most profound reverence for those mighty men who could +wear the Renaissance armor of proof, and yet not feel it encumber their +living limbs,[2]--Leonardo and Michael Angelo, Ghirlandajo and Masaccio, +Titian and Tintoret. But I speak of the Renaissance as an evil time, +because, when it saw those men go burning forth into the battle, it +mistook their armor for their strength: and forthwith encumbered with +the painful panoply every stripling who ought to have gone forth only +with his own choice of three smooth stones out of the brook. + +§ XXII. This, then, the reader must always keep in mind when he is +examining for himself any examples of cinque-cento work. When it has +been done by a truly great man, whose life and strength could not be +oppressed, and who turned to good account the whole science of his day, +nothing is more exquisite. I do not believe, for instance, that there is +a more glorious work of sculpture existing in the world than that +equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleone, by Verrocchio, of which, I +hope, before these pages are printed, there will be a cast in England. +But when the cinque-cento work has been done by those meaner men, who, +in the Gothic times, though in a rough way, would yet have found some +means of speaking out what was in their hearts, it is utterly +inanimate,--a base and helpless copy of more accomplished models; or, if +not this, a mere accumulation of technical skill, in gaining which the +workman had surrendered all other powers that were in him. + +There is, therefore, of course, an infinite gradation in the art of the +period, from the Sistine Chapel down to modern upholstery; but, for the +most part, since in architecture the workman must be of an inferior +order, it will be found that this cinque-cento painting and higher +religious sculpture is noble, while the cinque-cento architecture, with +its subordinate sculpture, is universally bad; sometimes, however, +assuming forms, in which the consummate refinement almost atones for the +loss of force. + +§ XXIII. This is especially the case with that second branch of the +Renaissance which, as above noticed, was engrafted at Venice on the +Byzantine types. So soon as the classical enthusiasm required the +banishment of Gothic forms, it was natural that the Venetian mind should +turn back with affection to the Byzantine models in which the round +arches and simple shafts, necessitated by recent law, were presented +under a form consecrated by the usage of their ancestors. And, +accordingly, the first distinct school of architecture[3] which arose +under the new dynasty, was one in which the method of inlaying marble, +and the general forms of shaft and arch, were adopted from the buildings +of the twelfth century, and applied with the utmost possible refinements +of modern skill. Both at Verona and Venice the resulting architecture is +exceedingly beautiful. At Verona it is, indeed, less Byzantine, but +possesses a character of richness and tenderness almost peculiar to that +city. At Venice it is more severe, but yet adorned with sculpture which, +for sharpness of touch and delicacy of minute form, cannot be rivalled, +and rendered especially brilliant and beautiful by the introduction of +those inlaid circles of colored marble, serpentine, and porphyry, by +which Phillippe de Commynes was so much struck on his first entrance +into the city. The two most refined buildings in this style in Venice +are, the small Church of the Miracoli, and the Scuola di San Marco +beside the Church of St. John and St. Paul. The noblest is the Rio +Façade of the Ducal Palace. The Casa Dario, and Casa Manzoni, on the +Grand Canal, are exquisite examples of the school, as applied to +domestic architecture; and, in the reach of the canal between the Casa +Foscari and the Rialto, there are several palaces, of which the Casa +Contarini (called "delle Figure") is the principal, belonging to the +same group, though somewhat later, and remarkable for the association of +the Byzantine principles of color with the severest lines of the Roman +pediment, gradually superseding the round arch. The precision of +chiselling and delicacy of proportion in the ornament and general lines +of these palaces cannot be too highly praised; and I believe that the +traveller in Venice, in general, gives them rather too little attention +than too much. But while I would ask him to stay his gondola beside each +of them long enough to examine their every line, I must also warn him to +observe, most carefully, the peculiar feebleness and want of soul in the +conception of their ornament, which mark them as belonging to a period +of decline; as well as the absurd mode of introduction of their pieces +of colored marble: these, instead of being simply and naturally inserted +in the masonry, are placed in small circular or oblong frames of +sculpture, like mirrors or pictures, and are represented as suspended by +ribands against the wall; a pair of wings being generally fastened on to +the circular tablets, as if to relieve the ribands and knots from their +weight, and the whole series tied under the chin of a little cherub at +the top, who is nailed against the façade like a hawk on a barn door. + +But chiefly let him notice, in the Casa Contarini delle Figure, one most +strange incident, seeming to have been permitted, like the choice of the +subjects at the three angles of the Ducal Palace, in order to teach us, +by a single lesson, the true nature of the style in which it occurs. In +the intervals of the windows of the first story, certain shields and +torches are attached, in the form of trophies, to the stems of two trees +whose boughs have been cut off, and only one or two of their faded +leaves left, scarcely observable, but delicately sculptured here and +there, beneath the insertions of the severed boughs. + +It is as if the workman had intended to leave us an image of the +expiring naturalism of the Gothic school. I had not seen this sculpture +when I wrote the passage referring to its period, in the first volume of +this work (Chap. XX. § XXXI.):--"Autumn came,--the leaves were +shed,--and the eye was directed to the extremities of the delicate +branches. _The Renaissance frosts came, and all perished!_" + +§ XXIV. And the hues of this autumn of the early Renaissance are the +last which appear in architecture. The winter which succeeded was +colorless as it was cold; and although the Venetian painters struggled +long against its influence, the numbness of the architecture prevailed +over them at last, and the exteriors of all the latter palaces were +built only in barren stone. As at this point of our inquiry, therefore, +we must bid farewell to color, I have reserved for this place the +continuation of the history of chromatic decoration, from the Byzantine +period, when we left it in the fifth chapter of the second volume, down +to its final close. + +§ XXV. It was above stated, that the principal difference in general +form and treatment between the Byzantine and Gothic palaces was the +contraction of the marble facing into the narrow spaces between the +windows, leaving large fields of brick wall perfectly bare. The reason +for this appears to have been, that the Gothic builders were no longer +satisfied with the faint and delicate hues of the veined marble; they +wished for some more forcible and piquant mode of decoration, +corresponding more completely with the gradually advancing splendor of +chivalric costume and heraldic device. What I have said above of the +simple habits of life of the thirteenth century, in no wise refers +either to costumes of state, or of military service; and any +illumination of the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries (the great +period being, it seems to me, from 1250 to 1350), while it shows a +peculiar majesty and simplicity in the fall of the robes (often worn +over the chain armor), indicates, at the same time, an exquisite +brilliancy of color and power of design in the hems and borders, as well +as in the armorial bearings with which they are charged; and while, as +we have seen, a peculiar simplicity is found also in the _forms_ of the +architecture, corresponding to that of the folds of the robes, its +_colors_ were constantly increasing in brilliancy and decision, +corresponding to those of the quartering of the shield, and of the +embroidery of the mantle. + +§ XXVI. Whether, indeed, derived from the quarterings of the knights' +shields, or from what other source, I know not; but there is one +magnificent attribute of the coloring of the late twelfth, the whole +thirteenth, and the early fourteenth century, which I do not find +definitely in any previous work, nor afterwards in general art, though +constantly, and necessarily, in that of great colorists, namely, the +union of one color with another by reciprocal interference: that is to +say, if a mass of red is to be set beside a mass of blue, a piece of the +red will be carried into the blue, and a piece of the blue carried into +the red; sometimes in nearly equal portions, as in a shield divided into +four quarters, of which the uppermost on one side will be of the same +color as the lowermost on the other; sometimes in smaller fragments, +but, in the periods above named, always definitely and grandly, though +in a thousand various ways. And I call it a magnificent principle, for +it is an eternal and universal one, not in art only,[4] but in human +life. It is the great principle of Brotherhood, not by equality, nor by +likeness, but by giving and receiving; the souls that are unlike, and +the nations that are unlike, and the natures that are unlike, being +bound into one noble whole by each receiving something from, and of, the +others' gifts and the others' glory. I have not space to follow out this +thought,--it is of infinite extent and application,--but I note it for +the reader's pursuit, because I have long believed, and the whole second +volume of "Modern Painters" was written to prove, that in whatever has +been made by the Deity externally delightful to the human sense of +beauty, there is some type of God's nature or of God's laws; nor are any +of His laws, in one sense, greater than the appointment that the most +lovely and perfect unity shall be obtained by the taking of one nature +into another. I trespass upon too high ground; and yet I cannot fully +show the reader the extent of this law, but by leading him thus far. And +it is just because it is so vast and so awful a law, that it has rule +over the smallest things; and there is not a vein of color on the +lightest leaf which the spring winds are at this moment unfolding in the +fields around us, but it is an illustration of an ordainment to which +the earth and its creatures owe their continuance, and their Redemption. + +§ XXVII. It is perfectly inconceivable, until it has been made a subject +of special inquiry, how perpetually Nature employs this principle in the +distribution of her light and shade; how by the most extraordinary +adaptations, apparently accidental, but always in exactly the right +place, she contrives to bring darkness into light, and light into +darkness; and that so sharply and decisively, that at the very instant +when one object changes from light to dark, the thing relieved upon it +will change from dark to light, and yet so subtly that the eye will not +detect the transition till it looks for it. The secret of a great part +of the grandeur in all the noblest compositions is the doing of this +delicately in _degree_, and broadly in _mass_; in color it may be done +much more decisively than in light and shade, and, according to the +simplicity of the work, with greater frankness of confession, until, in +purely decorative art, as in the illumination, glass-painting, and +heraldry of the great periods, we find it reduced to segmental accuracy. +Its greatest masters, in high art, are Tintoret, Veronese, and Turner. + +§ XXVIII. Together with this great principle of quartering is introduced +another, also of very high value as far as regards the delight of the +eye, though not of so profound meaning. As soon as color began to be +used in broad and opposed fields, it was perceived that the mass of it +destroyed its brilliancy, and it was _tempered_ by chequering it with +some other color or colors in smaller quantities, mingled with minute +portions of pure white. The two moral principles of which this is the +type, are those of Temperance and Purity; the one requiring the fulness +of the color to be subdued, and the other that it shall be subdued +without losing either its own purity or that of the colors with which it +is associated. + +§ XXIX. Hence arose the universal and admirable system of the diapered +or chequered background of early ornamental art. They are completely +developed in the thirteenth century, and extend through the whole of +the fourteenth gradually yielding to landscape, and other pictorial +backgrounds, as the designers lost perception of the purpose of their +art, and of the value of color. The chromatic decoration of the Gothic +palaces of Venice was of course founded on these two great principles, +which prevailed constantly wherever the true chivalric and Gothic spirit +possessed any influence. The windows, with their intermediate spaces of +marble, were considered as the objects to be relieved, and variously +quartered with vigorous color. The whole space of the brick wall was +considered as a background; it was covered with stucco, and painted in +fresco, with diaper patterns. + +§ XXX. What? the reader asks in some surprise,--Stucco! and in the great +Gothic period? Even so, but _not stucco to imitate stone_. Herein lies +all the difference; it is stucco confessed and understood, and laid on +the bricks precisely as gesso is laid on canvas, in order to form them +into a ground for receiving color from the human hand,--color which, if +well laid on, might render the brick wall more precious than if it had +been built of emeralds. Whenever we wish to paint, we may prepare our +paper as we choose; the value of the ground in no wise adds to the value +of the picture. A Tintoret on beaten gold would be of no more value than +a Tintoret on coarse canvas; the gold would merely be wasted. All that +we have to do is to make the ground as good and fit for the color as +possible, by whatever means. + +§ XXXI. I am not sure if I am right in applying the term "stucco" to the +ground of fresco; but this is of no consequence; the reader will +understand that it was white, and that the whole wall of the palace was +considered as the page of a book to be illuminated: but he will +understand also that the sea winds are bad librarians; that, when once +the painted stucco began to fade or to fall, the unsightliness of the +defaced color would necessitate its immediate restoration; and that +therefore, of all the chromatic decoration of the Gothic palaces, there +is hardly a fragment left. + +Happily, in the pictures of Gentile Bellini, the fresco coloring of the +Gothic palaces is recorded, as it still remained in his time; not with +rigid accuracy, but quite distinctly enough to enable us, by comparing +it with the existing colored designs in the manuscripts and glass of the +period, to ascertain precisely what it must have been. + +§ XXXII. The walls were generally covered with chequers of very warm +color, a russet inclining to scarlet, more or less relieved with white, +black, and grey; as still seen in the only example which, having been +executed in marble, has been perfectly preserved, the front of the Ducal +Palace. This, however, owing to the nature of its materials, was a +peculiarly simple example; the ground is white, crossed with double bars +of pale red, and in the centre of each chequer there is a cross, +alternately black with a red centre and red with a black centre where +the arms cross. In painted work the grounds would be, of course, as +varied and complicated as those of manuscripts; but I only know of one +example left, on the Casa Sagredo, where, on some fragments of stucco, a +very early chequer background is traceable, composed of crimson +quatrefoils interlaced, with cherubim stretching their wings filling the +intervals. A small portion of this ground is seen beside the window +taken from the palace, Vol. II. Plate XIII. fig. 1. + +§ XXXIII. It ought to be especially noticed, that, in all chequered +patterns employed in the colored designs of these noble periods, the +greatest care is taken to mark that they are _grounds_ of design rather +than designs themselves. Modern architects, in such minor imitations as +they are beginning to attempt, endeavor to dispose the parts in the +patterns so as to occupy certain symmetrical positions with respect to +the parts of the architecture. A Gothic builder never does this: he cuts +his ground into pieces of the shape he requires with utter +remorselessness, and places his windows or doors upon it with no regard +whatever to the lines in which they cut the pattern: and, in +illuminations of manuscripts, the chequer itself is constantly changed +in the most subtle and arbitrary way, wherever there is the least chance +of its regularity attracting the eye, and making it of importance. So +_intentional_ is this, that a diaper pattern is often set obliquely to +the vertical lines of the designs, for fear it should appear in any way +connected with them. + +§ XXXIV. On these russet or crimson backgrounds the entire space of the +series of windows was relieved, for the most part, as a subdued white +field of alabaster; and on this delicate and veined white were set the +circular disks of purple and green. The arms of the family were of +course blazoned in their own proper colors, but I think generally on a +pure azure ground; the blue color is still left behind the shields in +the Casa Priuli and one or two more of the palaces which are unrestored, +and the blue ground was used also to relieve the sculptures of religious +subject. Finally, all the mouldings, capitals, cornices, cusps, and +traceries, were either entirely gilded or profusely touched with gold. + +The whole front of a Gothic palace in Venice may, therefore, be simply +described as a field of subdued russet, quartered with broad sculptured +masses of white and gold; these latter being relieved by smaller inlaid +fragments of blue, purple, and deep green. + +§ XXXV. Now, from the beginning of the fourteenth century, when painting +and architecture were thus united, two processes of change went on +simultaneously to the beginning of the seventeenth. The merely +decorative chequerings on the walls yielded gradually to more elaborate +paintings of figure-subject; first small and quaint, and then enlarging +into enormous pictures filled by figures generally colossal. As these +paintings became of greater merit and importance, the architecture with +which they were associated was less studied; and at last a style was +introduced in which the framework of the building was little more +interesting than that of a Manchester factory, but the whole space of +its walls was covered with the most precious fresco paintings. Such +edifices are of course no longer to be considered as forming an +architectural school; they were merely large preparations of artists' +panels; and Titian, Giorgione, and Veronese no more conferred merit on +the later architecture of Venice, as such, by painting on its façades, +than Landseer or Watts could confer merit on that of London by first +whitewashing and then painting its brick streets from one end to the +other. + +§ XXXVI. Contemporarily with this change in the relative values of the +color decoration and the stone-work, one equally important was taking +place in the opposite direction, but of course in another group of +buildings. For in proportion as the architect felt himself thrust aside +or forgotten in one edifice, he endeavored to make himself principal in +another; and, in retaliation for the painter's entire usurpation of +certain fields of design, succeeded in excluding him totally from those +in which his own influence was predominant. Or, more accurately +speaking, the architects began to be too proud to receive assistance +from the colorists; and these latter sought for ground which the +architect had abandoned, for the unrestrained display of their own +skill. And thus, while one series of edifices is continually becoming +feebler in design and richer in superimposed paintings, another, that of +which we have so often spoken as the earliest or Byzantine Renaissance, +fragment by fragment rejects the pictorial decoration; supplies its +place first with marbles, and then, as the latter are felt by the +architect, daily increasing in arrogance and deepening in coldness, to +be too bright for his dignity, he casts even these aside one by one: and +when the last porphyry circle has vanished from the façade, we find two +palaces standing side by side, one built, so far as mere masonry goes, +with consummate care and skill, but without the slightest vestige of +color in any part of it; the other utterly without any claim to interest +in its architectural form, but covered from top to bottom with paintings +by Veronese. At this period, then, we bid farewell to color, leaving the +painters to their own peculiar field; and only regretting that they +waste their noblest work on walls, from which in a couple of centuries, +if not before, the greater part of their labor must be effaced. On the +other hand, the architecture whose decline we are tracing, has now +assumed an entirely new condition, that of the Central or True +Renaissance, whose nature we are to examine in the next chapter. + +§ XXXVII. But before leaving these last palaces over which the Byzantine +influence extended itself, there is one more lesson to be learned from +them of much importance to us. Though in many respects debased in style, +they are consummate in workmanship, and unstained in honor; there is no +imperfection in them, and no dishonesty. That there is absolutely _no_ +imperfection, is indeed, as we have seen above, a proof of their being +wanting in the highest qualities of architecture; but, as lessons in +masonry, they have their value, and may well be studied for the +excellence they display in methods of levelling stones, for the +precision of their inlaying, and other such qualities, which in them are +indeed too principal, yet very instructive in their particular way. + +§ XXXVIII. For instance, in the inlaid design of the dove with the olive +branch, from the Casa Trevisan (Vol. I. Plate XX. p. 369), it is +impossible for anything to go beyond the precision with which the olive +leaves are cut out of the white marble; and, in some wreaths of laurel +below, the rippled edge of each leaf is as finely and easily drawn, as +if by a delicate pencil. No Florentine table is more exquisitely +finished than the façade of this entire palace; and as ideals of an +executive perfection, which, though we must not turn aside from our main +path to reach it, may yet with much advantage be kept in our sight and +memory, these palaces are most notable amidst the architecture of +Europe. The Rio Façade of the Ducal Palace, though very sparing in +color, is yet, as an example of finished masonry in a vast building, one +of the finest things, not only in Venice, but in the world. It differs +from other work of the Byzantine Renaissance, in being on a very large +scale; and it still retains one pure Gothic character, which adds not a +little to its nobleness, that of perpetual variety. There is hardly one +window of it, or one panel, that is like another; and this continual +change so increases its apparent size by confusing the eye, that, though +presenting no bold features, or striking masses of any kind, there are +few things in Italy more impressive than the vision of it overhead, as +the gondola glides from beneath the Bridge of Sighs. And lastly (unless +we are to blame these buildings for some pieces of very childish +perspective), they are magnificently honest, as well as perfect. I do +not remember even any gilding upon them; all is pure marble, and of the +finest kind.[5] + +And therefore, in finally leaving the Ducal Palace,[6] let us take with +us one more lesson, the last which we shall receive from the Stones of +Venice, except in the form of a warning. + +§ XXXIX. The school of architecture which we have just been examining +is, as we have seen above, redeemed from severe condemnation by its +careful and noble use of inlaid marbles as a means of color. From that +time forward, this art has been unknown, or despised; the frescoes of +the swift and daring Venetian painters long contended with the inlaid +marbles, outvying them with color, indeed more glorious than theirs, but +fugitive as the hues of woods in autumn; and, at last, as the art itself +of painting in this mighty manner failed from among men,[7] the modern +decorative system established itself, which united the meaninglessness +of the veined marble with the evanescence of the fresco, and completed +the harmony by falsehood. + +§ XL. Since first, in the second chapter of the "Seven Lamps," I +endeavored to show the culpableness, as well as the baseness, of our +common modes of decoration by painted imitation of various woods or +marbles, the subject has been discussed in various architectural works, +and is evidently becoming one of daily increasing interest. When it is +considered how many persons there are whose means of livelihood consist +altogether in these spurious arts, and how difficult it is, even for the +most candid, to admit a conviction contrary both to their interests and +to their inveterate habits of practice and thought, it is rather a +matter of wonder, that the cause of Truth should have found even a few +maintainers, than that it should have encountered a host of adversaries. +It has, however, been defended repeatedly by architects themselves, and +so successfully, that I believe, so far as the desirableness of this or +that method of ornamentation is to be measured by the fact of its simple +honesty or dishonesty, there is little need to add anything to what has +been already urged upon the subject. But there are some points connected +with the practice of imitating marble, which I have been unable to touch +upon until now, and by the consideration of which we may be enabled to +see something of the _policy_ of honesty in this matter, without in the +least abandoning the higher ground of principle. + +§ XLI. Consider, then, first, what marble seems to have been made for. +Over the greater part of the surface of the world, we find that a rock +has been providentially distributed, in a manner particularly pointing +it out as intended for the service of man. Not altogether a common rock, +it is yet rare enough to command a certain degree of interest and +attention wherever it is found; but not so rare as to preclude its use +for any purpose to which it is fitted. It is exactly of the consistence +which is best adapted for sculpture: that is to say, neither hard nor +brittle, nor flaky nor splintery, but uniform, and delicately, yet not +ignobly, soft,--exactly soft enough to allow the sculptor to work it +without force, and trace on it the finest lines of finished form; and +yet so hard as never to betray the touch or moulder away beneath the +steel; and so admirably crystallized, and of such permanent elements, +that no rains dissolve it, no time changes it, no atmosphere decomposes +it: once shaped, it is shaped for ever, unless subjected to actual +violence or attrition. This rock, then, is prepared by Nature for the +sculptor and architect, just as paper is prepared by the manufacturer +for the artist, with as great--nay, with greater--care, and more perfect +adaptation of the material to the requirements. And of this marble +paper, some is white and some colored; but more is colored than white, +because the white is evidently meant for sculpture, and the colored for +the covering of large surfaces. + +§ XLII. Now, if we would take Nature at her word, and use this precious +paper which she has taken so much care to provide for us (it is a long +process, the making of that paper; the pulp of it needing the subtlest +possible solution, and the pressing of it--for it is all +hot-pressed--having to be done under the saw, or under something at +least as heavy); if, I say, we use it as Nature would have us, consider +what advantages would follow. The colors of marble are mingled for us +just as if on a prepared palette. They are of all shades and hues +(except bad ones), some being united and even, some broken, mixed, and +interrupted, in order to supply, as far as possible, the want of the +painter's power of breaking and mingling the color with the brush. But +there is more in the colors than this delicacy of adaptation. There is +history in them. By the manner in which they are arranged in every piece +of marble, they record the means by which that marble has been produced, +and the successive changes through which it has passed. And in all their +veins and zones, and flame-like stainings, or broken and disconnected +lines, they write various legends, never untrue, of the former political +state of the mountain kingdom to which they belonged, of its infirmities +and fortitudes, convulsions and consolidations, from the beginning of +time. + +Now, if we were never in the habit of seeing anything but real marbles, +this language of theirs would soon begin to be understood; that is to +say, even the least observant of us would recognize such and such stones +as forming a peculiar class, and would begin to inquire where they came +from, and, at last, take some feeble interest in the main question, Why +they were only to be found in that or the other place, and how they +came to make a part of this mountain, and not of that? And in a little +while, it would not be possible to stand for a moment at a shop door, +leaning against the pillars of it, without remembering or questioning of +something well worth the memory or the inquiry, touching the hills of +Italy, or Greece, or Africa, or Spain; and we should be led on from +knowledge to knowledge, until even the unsculptured walls of our streets +became to us volumes as precious as those of our libraries. + +§ XLIII. But the moment we admit imitation of marble, this source of +knowledge is destroyed. None of us can be at the pains to go through the +work of verification. If we knew that every colored stone we saw was +natural, certain questions, conclusions, interests, would force +themselves upon us without any effort of our own; but we have none of us +time to stop in the midst of our daily business, to touch and pore over, +and decide with painful minuteness of investigation, whether such and +such a pillar be stucco or stone. And the whole field of this knowledge, +which Nature intended us to possess when we were children, is hopelessly +shut out from us. Worse than shut out, for the mass of coarse imitations +confuses our knowledge acquired from other sources; and our memory of +the marbles we have perhaps once or twice carefully examined, is +disturbed and distorted by the inaccuracy of the imitations which are +brought before us continually. + +§ XLIV. But it will be said, that it is too expensive to employ real +marbles in ordinary cases. It may be so: yet not always more expensive +than the fitting windows with enormous plate glass, and decorating them +with elaborate stucco mouldings and other useless sources of expenditure +in modern building; nay, not always in the end more expensive than the +frequent repainting of the dingy pillars, which a little water dashed +against them would refresh from day to day, if they were of true stone. +But, granting that it be so, in that very costliness, checking their +common use in certain localities, is part of the interest of marbles, +considered as history. Where they are not found, Nature has supplied +other materials,--clay for brick, or forest for timber,--in the working +of which she intends other characters of the human mind to be developed, +and by the proper use of which certain local advantages will assuredly +be attained, while the delightfulness and meaning of the precious +marbles will be felt more forcibly in the districts where they occur, or +on the occasions when they may be procured. + +§ XLV. It can hardly be necessary to add, that, as the imitation of +marbles interferes with and checks the knowledge of geography and +geology, so the imitation of wood interferes with that of botany; and +that our acquaintance with the nature, uses, and manner of growth of the +timber trees of our own and of foreign countries, would probably, in the +majority of cases, become accurate and extensive, without any labor or +sacrifice of time, were not all inquiry checked, and all observation +betrayed, by the wretched labors of the "Grainer." + +§ XLVI. But this is not all. As the practice of imitation retards +knowledge, so also it retards art. + +There is not a meaner occupation for the human mind than the imitation +of the stains and striĉ of marble and wood. When engaged in any easy and +simple mechanical occupation, there is still some liberty for the mind +to leave the literal work; and the clash of the loom or the activity of +the fingers will not always prevent the thoughts from some happy +expatiation in their own domains. But the grainer must think of what he +is doing; and veritable attention and care, and occasionally +considerable skill, are consumed in the doing of a more absolute nothing +than I can name in any other department of painful idleness. I know not +anything so humiliating as to see a human being, with arms and limbs +complete, and apparently a head, and assuredly a soul, yet into the +hands of which when you have put a brush and pallet, it cannot do +anything with them but imitate a piece of wood. It cannot color, it has +no ideas of color; it cannot draw, it has no ideas of form; it cannot +caricature, it has no ideas of humor. It is incapable of anything beyond +knots. All its achievement, the entire result of the daily application +of its imagination and immortality, is to be such a piece of texture as +the sun and dew are sucking up out of the muddy ground, and weaving +together, far more finely, in millions of millions of growing branches, +over every rood of waste woodland and shady hill. + +§ XLVII. But what is to be done, the reader asks, with men who are +capable of nothing else than this? Nay, they may be capable of +everything else, for all we know, and what we are to do with them I will +try to say in the next chapter; but meanwhile one word more touching the +higher principles of action in this matter, from which we have descended +to those of expediency. I trust that some day the language of Types will +be more read and understood by us than it has been for centuries; and +when this language, a better one than either Greek or Latin, is again +recognized amongst us, we shall find, or remember, that as the other +visible elements of the universe--its air, its water, and its flame--set +forth, in their pure energies, the life-giving, purifying, and +sanctifying influences of the Deity upon His creatures, so the earth, in +its purity, sets forth His eternity and His TRUTH. I have dwelt above on +the historical language of stones; let us not forget this, which is +their theological language; and, as we would not wantonly pollute the +fresh waters when they issue forth in their clear glory from the rock, +nor stay the mountain winds into pestilential stagnancy, nor mock the +sunbeams with artificial and ineffective light; so let us not by our own +base and barren falsehoods, replace the crystalline strength and burning +color of the earth from which we were born, and to which we must return; +the earth which, like our own bodies, though dust in its degradation, is +full of splendor when God's hand gathers its atoms; and which was for +ever sanctified by Him, as the symbol no less of His love than of His +truth, when He bade the high priest bear the names of the Children of +Israel on the clear stones of the Breastplate of Judgment. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] There is a curious instance of this in the modern imitations of + the Gothic capitals of the Casa d' Oro, employed in its + restorations. The old capitals look like clusters of leaves, the + modern ones like kneaded masses of dough with holes in them. + + [2] Not that even these men were able to wear it altogether without + harm, as we shall see in the next chapter. + + [3] Appendix 4, "Date of Palaces of Byzantine Renaissance." + + [4] In the various works which Mr. Prout has written on light and + shade, no principle will be found insisted on more strongly than + this carrying of the dark into the light, and _vice versa_. It is + curious to find the untaught instinct of a merely picturesque artist + in the nineteenth century, fixing itself so intensely on a principle + which regulated the entire sacred composition of the thirteenth. I + say "untaught" instinct, for Mr. Prout was, throughout his life, the + discoverer of his own principles; fortunately so, considering what + principles were taught in his time, but unfortunately in the + abstract, for there were gifts in him, which, had there been any + wholesome influences to cherish them, might have made him one of the + greatest men of his age. He was great, under all adverse + circumstances, but the mere wreck of what he might have been, if, + after the rough training noticed in my pamphlet on Pre-Raphaelitism, + as having fitted him for his great function in the world, he had met + with a teacher who could have appreciated his powers, and directed + them. + + [5] There may, however, be a kind of dishonesty even in the use of + marble, if it is attempted to make the marble look like something + else. See the final or Venetian Index under head "Scalzi." + + [6] Appendix 5, "Renaissance Side of Ducal Palace." + + [7] We have, as far as I _know_, at present among us, only one + painter, G. F. Watts, who is capable of design in color on a large + scale. He stands alone among our artists of the old school, in his + perception of the value of breadth in distant masses, and in the + vigor of invention by which such breadth must be sustained; and his + power of expression and depth of thought are not less remarkable + than his bold conception of color effect. Very probably some of the + Pre-Raphaelites have the gift also; I am nearly certain that Rosetti + has it, and I think also Millais; but the experiment has yet to be + tried. I wish it could be made in Mr. Hope's church in Margaret + Street. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +ROMAN RENAISSANCE. + + +§ I. Of all the buildings in Venice, later in date than the final +additions to the Ducal Palace, the noblest is, beyond all question, that +which, having been condemned by its proprietor, not many years ago, to +be pulled down and sold for the value of its materials, was rescued by +the Austrian government, and appropriated--the government officers +having no other use for it--to the business of the Post-Office; though +still known to the gondolier by its ancient name, the Casa Grimani. It +is composed of three stories of the Corinthian order, at once simple, +delicate, and sublime; but on so colossal a scale, that the +three-storied palaces on its right and left only reach to the cornice +which marks the level of its first floor. Yet it is not at first +perceived to be so vast; and it is only when some expedient is employed +to hide it from the eye, that by the sudden dwarfing of the whole reach +of the Grand Canal, which it commands, we become aware that it is to the +majesty of the Casa Grimani that the Rialto itself, and the whole group +of neighboring buildings, owe the greater part of their impressiveness. +Nor is the finish of its details less notable than the grandeur of their +scale. There is not an erring line, nor a mistaken proportion, +throughout its noble front; and the exceeding fineness of the chiselling +gives an appearance of lightness to the vast blocks of stone out of +whose perfect union that front is composed. The decoration is sparing, +but delicate: the first story only simpler than the rest, in that it has +pilasters instead of shafts, but all with Corinthian capitals, rich in +leafage, and fruited delicately; the rest of the walls flat and smooth, +and the mouldings sharp and shallow, so that the bold shafts look like +crystals of beryl running through a rock of quartz. + +§ II. This palace is the principal type at Venice, and one of the best +in Europe, of the central architecture of the Renaissance schools; that +carefully studied and perfectly executed architecture to which those +schools owe their principal claims to our respect, and which became the +model of most of the important works subsequently produced by civilized +nations. I have called it the Roman Renaissance, because it is founded, +both in its principles of superimposition, and in the style of its +ornament, upon the architecture of classic Rome at its best period. The +revival of Latin literature both led to its adoption, and directed its +form; and the most important example of it which exists is the modern +Roman basilica of St. Peter's. It had, at its Renaissance or new birth, +no resemblance either to Greek, Gothic, or Byzantine forms, except in +retaining the use of the round arch, vault, and dome; in the treatment +of all details, it was exclusively Latin; the last links of connexion +with mediĉval tradition having been broken by its builders in their +enthusiasm for classical art, and the forms of true Greek or Athenian +architecture being still unknown to them. The study of these noble Greek +forms has induced various modifications of the Renaissance in our own +times; but the conditions which are found most applicable to the uses of +modern life are still Roman, and the entire style may most fitly be +expressed by the term "Roman Renaissance." + +§ III. It is this style, in its purity and fullest form,--represented by +such buildings as the Casa Grimani at Venice (built by San Micheli), the +Town Hall at Vicenza (by Palladio), St. Peter's at Rome (by Michael +Angelo), St. Paul's and Whitehall in London (by Wren and Inigo +Jones),--which is the true antagonist of the Gothic school. The +intermediate, or corrupt conditions of it, though multiplied over +Europe, are no longer admired by architects, or made the subjects of +their study; but the finished work of this central school is still, in +most cases, the model set before the student of the nineteenth century, +as opposed to those Gothic, Romanesque, or Byzantine forms which have +long been considered barbarous, and are so still by most of the leading +men of the day. That they are, on the contrary, most noble and +beautiful, and that the antagonistic Renaissance is, in the main, +unworthy and unadmirable, whatever perfection of a certain kind it may +possess, it was my principal purpose to show, when I first undertook the +labor of this work. It has been attempted already to put before the +reader the various elements which unite in the Nature of Gothic, and to +enable him thus to judge, not merely of the beauty of the forms which +that system has produced already, but of its future applicability to the +wants of mankind, and endless power over their hearts. I would now +endeavor, in like manner, to set before the reader the Nature of +Renaissance, and thus to enable him to compare the two styles under the +same light, and with the same enlarged view of their relations to the +intellect, and capacities for the service, of man. + +§ IV. It will not be necessary for me to enter at length into any +examination of its external form. It uses, whether for its roofs of +aperture or roofs proper, the low gable or circular arch: but it differs +from Romanesque work in attaching great importance to the horizontal +lintel or architrave _above_ the arch; transferring the energy of the +principal shafts to the supporting of this horizontal beam, and thus +rendering the arch a subordinate, if not altogether a superfluous, +feature. The type of this arrangement has been given already at _c_, +Fig. XXXVI., p. 145, Vol. I.: and I might insist at length upon the +absurdity of a construction in which the shorter shaft, which has the +real weight of wall to carry, is split into two by the taller one, which +has nothing to carry at all,--that taller one being strengthened, +nevertheless, as if the whole weight of the building bore upon it; and +on the ungracefulness, never conquered in any Palladian work, of the two +half-capitals glued, as it were, against the slippery round sides of the +central shaft. But it is not the form of this architecture against which +I would plead. Its defects are shared by many of the noblest forms of +earlier building, and might have been entirely atoned for by excellence +of spirit. But it is the moral nature of it which is corrupt, and which +it must, therefore, be our principal business to examine and expose. + +§ V. The moral, or immoral, elements which unite to form the spirit of +Central Renaissance architecture are, I believe, in the main, +two,--Pride and Infidelity; but the pride resolves itself into three +main branches,--Pride of Science, Pride of State, and Pride of System: +and thus we have four separate mental conditions which must be examined +successively. + +§ VI. 1. PRIDE OF SCIENCE. It would have been more charitable, but more +confusing, to have added another element to our list, namely the _Love_ +of Science; but the love is included in the pride, and is usually so +very subordinate an element that it does not deserve equality of +nomenclature. But, whether pursued in pride or in affection (how far by +either we shall see presently), the first notable characteristic of the +Renaissance central school is its introduction of accurate knowledge +into all its work, so far as it possesses such knowledge; and its +evident conviction, that such science is necessary to the excellence of +the work, and is the first thing to be expressed therein. So that all +the forms introduced, even in its minor ornament, are studied with the +utmost care; the anatomy of all animal structure is thoroughly +understood and elaborately expressed, and the whole of the execution +skilful and practised in the highest degree. Perspective, linear and +aerial, perfect drawing and accurate light and shade in painting, and +true anatomy in all representations of the human form, drawn or +sculptured, are the first requirements in all the work of this school. + +§ VII. Now, first considering all this in the most charitable light, as +pursued from a real love of truth, and not from vanity, it would, of +course, have been all excellent and admirable, had it been regarded as +the aid of art, and not as its essence. But the grand mistake of the +Renaissance schools lay in supposing that science and art are the same +things, and that to advance in the one was necessarily to perfect the +other. Whereas they are, in reality, things not only different, but so +opposed, that to advance in the one is, in ninety-nine cases out of the +hundred, to retrograde in the other. This is the point to which I would +at present especially bespeak the reader's attention. + +§ VIII. Science and art are commonly distinguished by the nature of +their actions; the one as knowing, the other as changing, producing, or +creating. But there is a still more important distinction in the nature +of the things they deal with. Science deals exclusively with things as +they are in themselves; and art exclusively with things as they affect +the human senses and human soul.[8] Her work is to portray the +appearance of things, and to deepen the natural impressions which they +produce upon living creatures. The work of science is to substitute +facts for appearances, and demonstrations for impressions. Both, +observe, are equally concerned with truth; the one with truth of aspect, +the other with truth of essence. Art does not represent things falsely, +but truly as they appear to mankind. Science studies the relations of +things to each other: but art studies only their relations to man; and +it requires of everything which is submitted to it imperatively this, +and only this,--what that thing is to the human eyes and human heart, +what it has to say to men, and what it can become to them: a field of +question just as much vaster than that of science, as the soul is larger +than the material creation. + +§ IX. Take a single instance. Science informs us that the sun is +ninety-five millions of miles distant from, and 111 times broader than, +the earth; that we and all the planets revolve round it; and that it +revolves on its own axis in 25 days, 14 hours and 4 minutes. With all +this, art has nothing whatsoever to do. It has no care to know anything +of this kind. But the things which it does care to know, are these: that +in the heavens God hath set a tabernacle for the sun, "which is as a +bridegroom coming out of his chamber, and rejoiceth as a strong man to +run a race. His going forth is from the end of the heaven, and his +circuit unto the ends of it, and there is nothing hid from the heat +thereof." + +§ X. This, then, being the kind of truth with which art is exclusively +concerned, how is such truth as this to be ascertained and accumulated? +Evidently, and only, by perception and feeling. Never either by +reasoning, or report. Nothing must come between Nature and the artist's +sight; nothing between God and the artist's soul. Neither calculation +nor hearsay,--be it the most subtle of calculations, or the wisest of +sayings,--may be allowed to come between the universe, and the witness +which art bears to its visible nature. The whole value of that witness +depends on its being _eye_-witness; the whole genuineness, +acceptableness, and dominion of it depend on the personal assurance of +the man who utters it. All its victory depends on the veracity of the +one preceding word, "Vidi." + +The whole function of the artist in the world is to be a seeing and +feeling creature; to be an instrument of such tenderness and +sensitiveness, that no shadow, no hue, no line, no instantaneous and +evanescent expression of the visible things around him, nor any of the +emotions which they are capable of conveying to the spirit which has +been given him, shall either be left unrecorded, or fade from the book +of record. It is not his business either to think, to judge, to argue, +or to know. His place is neither in the closet, nor on the bench, nor at +the bar, nor in the library. They are for other men and other work. He +may think, in a by-way; reason, now and then, when he has nothing better +to do; know, such fragments of knowledge as he can gather without +stooping, or reach without pains; but none of these things are to be his +care. The work of his life is to be twofold only: to see, to feel. + +§ XI. Nay, but, the reader perhaps pleads with me, one of the great uses +of knowledge is to open the eyes; to make things perceivable which, +never would have been seen, unless first they had been known. + +Not so. This could only be said or believed by those who do not know +what the perceptive faculty of a great artist is, in comparison with +that of other men. There is no great painter, no great workman in any +art, but he sees more with the glance of a moment than he could learn by +the labor of a thousand hours. God has made every man fit for his work; +He has given to the man whom he means for a student, the reflective, +logical, sequential faculties; and to the man whom He means for an +artist, the perceptive, sensitive, retentive faculties. And neither of +these men, so far from being able to do the other's work, can even +comprehend the way in which it is done. The student has no understanding +of the vision, nor the painter of the process; but chiefly the student +has no idea of the colossal grasp of the true painter's vision and +sensibility. + +The labor of the whole Geological Society, for the last fifty years, has +but now arrived at the ascertainment of those truths respecting mountain +form which Turner saw and expressed with a few strokes of a camel's hair +pencil fifty years ago, when he was a boy. The knowledge of all the laws +of the planetary system, and of all the curves of the motion of +projectiles, would never enable the man of science to draw a waterfall +or a wave; and all the members of Surgeons' Hall helping each other +could not at this moment see, or represent, the natural movement of a +human body in vigorous action, as a poor dyer's son did two hundred +years ago.[9] + +§ XII. But surely, it is still insisted, granting this peculiar faculty +to the painter, he will still see more as he knows more, and the more +knowledge he obtains, therefore, the better. No; not even so. It is +indeed true, that, here and there, a piece of knowledge will enable the +eye to detect a truth which might otherwise have escaped it; as, for +instance, in watching a sunrise, the knowledge of the true nature of the +orb may lead the painter to feel more profoundly, and express more +fully, the distance between the bars of cloud that cross it, and the +sphere of flame that lifts itself slowly beyond them into the infinite +heaven. But, for one visible truth to which knowledge thus opens the +eyes, it seals them to a thousand: that is to say, if the knowledge +occur to the mind so as to occupy its powers of contemplation at the +moment when the sight work is to be done, the mind retires inward, fixes +itself upon the known fact, and forgets the passing visible ones; and a +_moment_ of such forgetfulness loses more to the painter than a day's +thought can gain. This is no new or strange assertion. Every person +accustomed to careful reflection of any kind, knows that its natural +operation is to close his eyes to the external world. While he is +thinking deeply, he neither sees nor feels, even though naturally he may +possess strong powers of sight and emotion. He who, having journeyed all +day beside the Leman Lake, asked of his companions, at evening, where it +was,[10] probably was not wanting in sensibility; but he was generally a +thinker, not a perceiver. And this instance is only an extreme one of +the effect which, in all cases, knowledge, becoming a subject of +reflection, produces upon the sensitive faculties. It must be but poor +and lifeless knowledge, if it has no tendency to force itself forward, +and become ground for reflection, in despite of the succession of +external objects. It will not obey their succession. The first that +comes gives it food enough for its day's work; it is its habit, its +duty, to cast the rest aside, and fasten upon that. The first thing that +a thinking and knowing man sees in the course of the day, he will not +easily quit. It is not his way to quit anything without getting to the +bottom of it, if possible. But the artist is bound to receive all things +on the broad, white, lucid field of his soul, not to grasp at one. For +instance, as the knowing and thinking man watches the sunrise, he sees +something in the color of a ray, or the change of a cloud, that is new +to him; and this he follows out forthwith into a labyrinth of optical +and pneumatical laws, perceiving no more clouds nor rays all the +morning. But the painter must catch all the rays, all the colors that +come, and see them all truly, all in their real relations and +succession; therefore, everything that occupies room in his mind he must +cast aside for the time, as completely as may be. The thoughtful man is +gone far away to seek; but the perceiving man must sit still, and open +his heart to receive. The thoughtful man is knitting and sharpening +himself into a two-edged sword, wherewith to pierce. The perceiving man +is stretching himself into a four-cornered sheet wherewith to catch. And +all the breadth to which he can expand himself, and all the white +emptiness into which he can blanch himself, will not be enough to +receive what God has to give him. + +§ XIII. What, then, it will be indignantly asked, is an utterly ignorant +and unthinking man likely to make the best artist? No, not so neither. +Knowledge is good for him so long as he can keep it utterly, servilely, +subordinate to his own divine work, and trample it under his feet, and +out of his way, the moment it is likely to entangle him. + +And in this respect, observe, there is an enormous difference between +knowledge and education. An artist need not be a _learned_ man, in all +probability it will be a disadvantage to him to become so; but he ought, +if possible, always to be an _educated_ man: that is, one who has +understanding of his own uses and duties in the world, and therefore of +the general nature of the things done and existing in the world; and who +has so trained himself, or been trained, as to turn to the best and most +courteous account whatever faculties or knowledge he has. The mind of an +educated man is greater than the knowledge it possesses; it is like the +vault of heaven, encompassing the earth which lives and flourishes +beneath it: but the mind of an educated and learned man is like a +caoutchouc band, with an everlasting spirit of contraction in it, +fastening together papers which it cannot open, and keeps others from +opening. + +Half our artists are ruined for want of education, and by the possession +of knowledge; the best that I have known have been educated, and +illiterate. The ideal of an artist, however, is not that he should be +illiterate, but well read in the best books, and thoroughly high bred, +both in heart and in bearing. In a word, he should be fit for the best +society, _and should keep out of it_.[11] + +§ XIV. There are, indeed, some kinds of knowledge with which an artist +ought to be thoroughly furnished; those, for instance, which enable him +to express himself; for this knowledge relieves instead of encumbering +his mind, and permits it to attend to its purposes instead of wearying +itself about means. The whole mystery of manipulation and manufacture +should be familiar to the painter from a child. He should know the +chemistry of all colors and materials whatsoever, and should prepare all +his colors himself, in a little laboratory of his own. Limiting his +chemistry to this one object, the amount of practical science necessary +for it, and such accidental discoveries as might fall in his way in the +course of his work, of better colors or better methods of preparing +them, would be an infinite refreshment to his mind; a minor subject of +interest to which it might turn when jaded with comfortless labor, or +exhausted with feverish invention, and yet which would never interfere +with its higher functions, when it chose to address itself to them. Even +a considerable amount of manual labor, sturdy color-grinding and +canvas-stretching, would be advantageous; though this kind of work ought +to be in great part done by pupils. For it is one of the conditions of +perfect knowledge in these matters, that every great master should have +a certain number of pupils, to whom he is to impart all the knowledge of +materials and means which he himself possesses, as soon as possible; so +that, at any rate, by the time they are fifteen years old, they may know +all that he knows himself in this kind; that is to say, all that the +world of artists know, and his own discoveries besides, and so never be +troubled about methods any more. Not that the knowledge even of his own +particular methods is to be of purpose confined to himself and his +pupils, but that necessarily it must be so in some degree; for only +those who see him at work daily can understand his small and +multitudinous ways of practice. These cannot verbally be explained to +everybody, nor is it needful that they should, only let them be +concealed from nobody who cares to see them; in which case, of course, +his attendant scholars will know them best. But all that can be made +public in matters of this kind should be so with all speed, every artist +throwing his discovery into the common stock, and the whole body of +artists taking such pains in this department of science as that there +shall be no unsettled questions about any known material or method: that +it shall be an entirely ascertained and indisputable matter which is the +best white, and which the best brown; which the strongest canvas, and +safest varnish; and which the shortest and most perfect way of doing +everything known up to that time: and if any one discovers a better, he +is to make it public forthwith. All of them taking care to embarrass +themselves with no theories or reasons for anything, but to work +empirically only: it not being in any wise their business to know +whether light moves in rays or in waves; or whether the blue rays of the +spectrum move slower or faster than the rest; but simply to know how +many minutes and seconds such and such a powder must be calcined, to +give the brightest blue. + +§ XV. Now it is perhaps the most exquisite absurdity of the whole +Renaissance system, that while it has encumbered the artist with every +species of knowledge that is of no use to him, this one precious and +necessary knowledge it has utterly lost. There is not, I believe, at +this moment, a single question which could be put respecting pigments +and methods, on which the body of living artists would agree in their +answers. The lives of artists are passed in fruitless experiments; +fruitless, because undirected by experience and uncommunicated in their +results. Every man has methods of his own, which he knows to be +insufficient, and yet jealously conceals from his fellow-workmen: every +colorman has materials of his own, to which it is rare that the artist +can trust: and in the very front of the majestic advance of chemical +science, the empirical science of the artist has been annihilated, and +the days which should have led us to higher perfection are passed in +guessing at, or in mourning over, lost processes; while the so-called +Dark ages, possessing no more knowledge of chemistry than a village +herbalist does now, discovered, established, and put into daily practice +such methods of operation as have made their work, at this day, the +despair of all who look upon it. + +§ XVI. And yet even this, to the painter, the safest of sciences, and in +some degree necessary, has its temptations, and capabilities of abuse. +For the simplest means are always enough for a great man; and when once +he has obtained a few ordinary colors, which he is sure will stand, and +a white surface that will not darken nor moulder, nor rend, he is master +of the world, and of his fellow-men. And, indeed, as if in these times +we were bent on furnishing examples of every species of opposite error, +while we have suffered the traditions to escape us of the simple methods +of doing simple things, which are enough for all the arts, and to all +the ages, we have set ourselves to discover fantastic modes of doing +fantastic things,--new mixtures and manipulations of metal, and +porcelain, and leather, and paper, and every conceivable condition of +false substance and cheap work, to our own infinitely multiplied +confusion,--blinding ourselves daily more and more to the great, +changeless, and inevitable truth, that there is but one goodness in art; +and that is one which the chemist cannot prepare, nor the merchant +cheapen, for it comes only of a rare human hand, and rare human soul. + +§ XVII. Within its due limits, however, here is one branch of science +which the artist may pursue; and, within limits still more strict, +another also, namely, the science of the appearances of things as they +have been ascertained and registered by his fellow-men. For no day +passes but some visible fact is pointed out to us by others, which, +without their help, we should not have noticed; and the accumulation and +generalization of visible facts have formed, in the succession of ages, +the sciences of light and shade, and perspective, linear and aerial: so +that the artist is now at once put in possession of certain truths +respecting the appearances of things, which, so pointed out to him, any +man may in a few days understand and acknowledge; but which, without +aid, he could not probably discover in his lifetime. I say, probably +could not, because the time which the history of art shows us to have +been actually occupied in the discovery and systematization of such +truth, is no measure of the time _necessary_ for such discovery. The +lengthened period which elapsed between the earliest and the perfect +developement of the science of light (if I may so call it) was not +occupied in the actual effort to ascertain its laws, but in _acquiring +the disposition to make that effort_. It did not take five centuries to +find out the appearance of natural objects; but it took five centuries +to make people care about representing them. An artist of the twelfth +century did not desire to represent nature. His work was symbolical and +ornamental. So long as it was intelligible and lovely, he had no care to +make it like nature. As, for instance, when an old painter represented +the glory round a saint's head by a burnished plate of pure gold, he had +no intention of imitating an effect of light. He meant to tell the +spectator that the figure so decorated was a saint, and to produce +splendor of effect by the golden circle. It was no matter to him what +light was like. So soon as it entered into his intention to represent +the appearance of light, he was not long in discovering the natural +facts necessary for his purpose. + +§ XVIII. But, this being fully allowed, it is still true that the +accumulation of facts now known respecting visible phenomena, is greater +than any man could hope to gather for himself, and that it is well for +him to be made acquainted with them; provided always, that he receive +them only at their true value, and do not suffer himself to be misled by +them. I say, at their true value; that is, an exceedingly small one. All +the information which men can receive from the accumulated experience of +others, is of no use but to enable them more quickly and accurately to +see for themselves. It will in no wise take the place of this personal +sight. Nothing can be done well in art, except by vision. Scientific +principles and experiences are helps to the eye, as a microscope is; and +they are of exactly as much use _without_ the eye. No science of +perspective, or of anything else, will enable us to draw the simplest +natural line accurately, unless we see it and feel it. Science is soon +at her wits' end. All the professors of perspective in Europe, could +not, by perspective, draw the line of curve of a sea beach; nay, could +not outline one pool of the quiet water left among the sand. The eye and +hand can do it, nothing else. All the rules of aerial perspective that +ever were written, will not tell me how sharply the pines on the +hill-top are drawn at this moment on the sky. I shall know if I see +them, and love them; not till then. I may study the laws of atmospheric +gradation for fourscore years and ten, and I shall not be able to draw +so much as a brick-kiln through its own smoke, unless I look at it; and +that in an entirely humble and unscientific manner, ready to see all +that the smoke, my master, is ready to show me, and expecting to see +nothing more. + +§ XIX. So that all the knowledge a man has must be held cheap, and +neither trusted nor respected, the moment he comes face to face with +Nature. If it help him, well; if not, but, on the contrary, thrust +itself upon him in an impertinent and contradictory temper, and venture +to set itself in the slightest degree in opposition to, or comparison +with, his sight, let it be disgraced forthwith. And the slave is less +likely to take too much upon herself, if she has not been bought for a +high price. All the knowledge an artist needs, will, in these days, come +to him almost without his seeking; if he has far to look for it, he may +be sure he does not want it. Prout became Prout, without knowing a +single rule of perspective to the end of his days; and all the +perspective in the Encyclopĉdia will never produce us another Prout. + +§ XX. And observe, also, knowledge is not only very often unnecessary, +but it is often _untrustworthy_. It is inaccurate, and betrays us where +the eye would have been true to us. Let us take the single instance of +the knowledge of aerial perspective, of which the moderns are so proud, +and see how it betrays us in various ways. First by the conceit of it, +which often prevents our enjoying work in which higher and better things +were thought of than effects of mist. The other day I showed a line +impression of Albert Durer's "St. Hubert" to a modern engraver, who had +never seen it nor any other of Albert Durer's works. He looked at it for +a minute contemptuously, then turned away: "Ah, I see that man did not +know much about aerial perspective!" All the glorious work and thought +of the mighty master, all the redundant landscape, the living +vegetation, the magnificent truth of line, were dead letters to him, +because he happened to have been taught one particular piece of +knowledge which Durer despised. + +§ XXI. But not only in the conceit of it, but in the inaccuracy of it, +this science betrays us. Aerial perspective, as given by the modern +artist, is, in nine cases out of ten, a gross and ridiculous +exaggeration, as is demonstrable in a moment. The effect of air in +altering the hue and depth of color is of course great in the exact +proportion of the volume of air between the observer and the object. It +is not violent within the first few yards, and then diminished +gradually, but it is equal for each foot of interposing air. Now in a +clear day, and clear climate, such as that generally presupposed in a +work of fine color, objects are completely visible at a distance of ten +miles; visible in light and shade, with gradations between the two. +Take, then, the faintest possible hue of shadow, or of any color, and +the most violent and positive possible, and set them side by side. The +interval between them is greater than the real difference (for objects +may often be seen clearly much farther than ten miles, I have seen Mont +Blanc at 120) caused by the ten miles of intervening air between any +given hue of the nearest, and most distant, objects; but let us assume +it, in courtesy to the masters of aerial perspective, to be the real +difference. Then roughly estimating a mile at less than it really is, +also in courtesy to them, or at 5000 feet, we have this difference +between tints produced by 50,000 feet of air. Then, ten feet of air +will produce the 5000th part of this difference. Let the reader take the +two extreme tints, and carefully gradate the one into the other. Let him +divide this gradated shadow or color into 5000 successive parts; and the +difference in depth between one of these parts and the next is the exact +amount of aerial perspective between one object, and another, ten feet +behind it, on a clear day. + +§ XXII. Now, in Millais' "Huguenot," the figures were standing about +three feet from the wall behind them; and the wise world of critics, +which could find no other fault with the picture, professed to have its +eyes hurt by the want of an aerial perspective, which, had it been +accurately given (as, indeed, I believe it was), would have amounted to +the 10/3-5000th, or less than the 15,000th part of the depth of any +given color. It would be interesting to see a picture painted by the +critics, upon this scientific principle. The aerial perspective usually +represented is entirely conventional and ridiculous; a mere struggle on +the part of the pretendedly well-informed, but really ignorant, artist, +to express distances by mist which he cannot by drawing. + +It is curious that the critical world is just as much offended by the +true _presence_ of aerial perspective, over distances of fifty miles, +and with definite purpose of representing mist, in the works of Turner, +as by the true _absence_ of aerial perspective, over distances of three +feet, and in clear weather, in those of Millais. + +§ XXIII. "Well but," still answers the reader, "this kind of error may +here and there be occasioned by too much respect for undigested +knowledge; but, on the whole, the gain is greater than the loss, and the +fact is, that a picture of the Renaissance period, or by a modern +master, does indeed represent nature more faithfully than one wrought in +the ignorance of old times." No, not one whit; for the most part less +faithfully. Indeed, the outside of nature is more truly drawn; the +material commonplace, which can be systematized, catalogued, and taught +to all pains-taking mankind,--forms of ribs and scapulĉ,[12] of eyebrows +and lips, and curls of hair. Whatever can be measured and handled, +dissected and demonstrated,--in a word, whatever is of the body +only,--that the schools of knowledge do resolutely and courageously +possess themselves of, and portray. But whatever is immeasurable, +intangible, indivisible, and of the spirit, that the schools of +knowledge do as certainly lose, and blot out of their sight, that is to +say, all that is worth art's possessing or recording at all; for +whatever can be arrested, measured, and systematized, we can contemplate +as much as we will in nature herself. But what we want art to do for us +is to stay what is fleeting, and to enlighten what is incomprehensible, +to incorporate the things that have no measure, and immortalize the +things that have no duration. The dimly seen, momentary glance, the +flitting shadow of faint emotion, the imperfect lines of fading thought, +and all that by and through such things as these is recorded on the +features of man, and all that in man's person and actions, and in the +great natural world, is infinite and wonderful; having in it that spirit +and power which man may witness, but not weigh; conceive, but not +comprehend; love, but not limit; and imagine, but not define;--this, the +beginning and the end of the aim of all noble art, we have, in the +ancient art, by perception; and we have _not_, in the newer art, by +knowledge. Giotto gives it us, Orcagna gives it us. Angelico, Memmi, +Pisano, it matters not who,--all simple and unlearned men, in their +measure and manner,--give it us; and the learned men that followed them +give it us not, and we, in our supreme learning, own ourselves at this +day farther from it than ever. + +§ XXIV. "Nay," but it is still answered, "this is because we have not +yet brought our knowledge into right use, but have been seeking to +accumulate it, rather than to apply it wisely to the ends of art. Let us +now do this, and we may achieve all that was done by that elder ignorant +art, and infinitely more." No, not so; for as soon as we try to put our +knowledge to good use, we shall find that we have much more than we can +use, and that what more we have is an encumbrance. All our errors in +this respect arise from a gross misconception as to the true nature of +knowledge itself. We talk of learned and ignorant men, as if there were +a certain quantity of knowledge, which to possess was to be learned, and +which not to possess was to be ignorant; instead of considering that +knowledge is infinite, and that the man most learned in human estimation +is just as far from knowing anything as he ought to know it, as the +unlettered peasant. Men are merely on a lower or higher stage of an +eminence, whose summit is God's throne, infinitely above all; and there +is just as much reason for the wisest as for the simplest man being +discontented with his position, as respects the real quantity of +knowledge he possesses. And, for both of them, the only true reasons for +contentment with the sum of knowledge they possess are these: that it is +the kind of knowledge they need for their duty and happiness in life; +that all they have is tested and certain, so far as it is in their +power; that all they have is well in order, and within reach when they +need it; that it has not cost too much time in the getting; that none of +it, once got, has been lost; and that there is not too much to be easily +taken care of. + +§ XXV. Consider these requirements a little, and the evils that result +in our education and polity from neglecting them. Knowledge is mental +food, and is exactly to the spirit what food is to the body (except that +the spirit needs several sorts of food, of which knowledge is only one), +and it is liable to the same kind of misuses. It may be mixed and +disguised by art, till it becomes unwholesome; it may be refined, +sweetened, and made palatable, until it has lost all its power of +nourishment; and, even of its best kind, it may be eaten to surfeiting, +and minister to disease and death. + +§ XXVI. Therefore, with respect to knowledge, we are to reason and act +exactly as with respect to food. We no more live to know, than we live +to eat. We live to contemplate, enjoy, act, adore; and we may know all +that is to be known in this world, and what Satan knows in the other, +without being able to do any of these. We are to ask, therefore, first, +is the knowledge we would have fit food for us, good and simple, not +artificial and decorated? and secondly, how much of it will enable us +best for our work; and will leave our hearts light, and our eyes clear? +For no more than that is to be eaten without the old Eve-sin. + +§ XXVII. Observe, also, the difference between tasting knowledge, and +hoarding it. In this respect it is also like food; since, in some +measure, the knowledge of all men is laid up in granaries, for future +use; much of it is at any given moment dormant, not fed upon or enjoyed, +but in store. And by all it is to be remembered, that knowledge in this +form may be kept without air till it rots, or in such unthreshed +disorder that it is of no use; and that, however good or orderly, it is +still only in being tasted that it becomes of use; and that men may +easily starve in their own granaries, men of science, perhaps, most of +all, for they are likely to seek accumulation of their store, rather +than nourishment from it. Yet let it not be thought that I would +undervalue them. The good and great among them are like Joseph, to whom +all nations sought to buy corn; or like the sower going forth to sow +beside all waters, sending forth thither the feet of the ox and the ass: +only let us remember that this is not all men's work. We are not +intended to be all keepers of granaries, nor all to be measured by the +filling of a storehouse; but many, nay, most of us, are to receive day +by day our daily bread, and shall be as well nourished and as fit for +our labor, and often, also, fit for nobler and more divine labor, in +feeding from the barrel of meal that does not waste, and from the cruse +of oil that does not fail, than if our barns were filled with plenty, +and our presses bursting out with new wine. + +§ XXVIII. It is for each man to find his own measure in this matter; in +great part, also, for others to find it for him, while he is yet a +youth. And the desperate evil of the whole Renaissance system is, that +all idea of measure is therein forgotten, that knowledge is thought the +one and the only good, and it is never inquired whether men are vivified +by it or paralyzed. Let us leave figures. The reader may not believe the +analogy I have been pressing so far; but let him consider the subject in +itself, let him examine the effect of knowledge in his own heart, and +see whether the trees of knowledge and of life are one now, any more +than in Paradise. He must feel that the real animating power of +knowledge is only in the moment of its being first received, when it +fills us with wonder and joy; a joy for which, observe, the previous +ignorance is just as necessary as the present knowledge. That man is +always happy who is in the presence of something which he cannot know to +the full, which he is always going on to know. This is the necessary +condition of a finite creature with divinely rooted and divinely +directed intelligence; this, therefore, its happy state,--but observe, a +state, not of triumph or joy in what it knows, but of joy rather in the +continual discovery of new ignorance, continual self-abasement, +continual astonishment. Once thoroughly our own, the knowledge ceases to +give us pleasure. It may be practically useful to us, it may be good for +others, or good for usury to obtain more; but, in itself, once let it be +thoroughly familiar, and it is dead. The wonder is gone from it, and all +the fine color which it had when first we drew it up out of the infinite +sea. And what does it matter how much or how little of it we have laid +aside, when our only enjoyment is still in the casting of that deep sea +line? What does it matter? Nay, in one respect, it matters much, and not +to our advantage. For one effect of knowledge is to deaden the force of +the imagination and the original energy of the whole man: under the +weight of his knowledge he cannot move so lightly as in the days of his +simplicity. The pack-horse is furnished for the journey, the war-horse +is armed for war; but the freedom of the field and the lightness of the +limb are lost for both. Knowledge is, at best, the pilgrim's burden or +the soldier's panoply, often a weariness to them both: and the +Renaissance knowledge is like the Renaissance armor of plate, binding +and cramping the human form; while all good knowledge is like the +crusader's chain mail, which throws itself into folds with the body, yet +it is rarely so forged as that the clasps and rivets do not gall us. All +men feel this, though they do not think of it, nor reason out its +consequences. They look back to the days of childhood as of greatest +happiness, because those were the days of greatest wonder, greatest +simplicity, and most vigorous imagination. And the whole difference +between a man of genius and other men, it has been said a thousand +times, and most truly, is that the first remains in great part a child, +seeing with the large eyes of children, in perpetual wonder, not +conscious of much knowledge,--conscious, rather, of infinite ignorance, +and yet infinite power; a fountain of eternal admiration, delight, and +creative force within him meeting the ocean of visible and governable +things around him. + +That is what we have to make men, so far as we may. All are to be men of +genius in their degree,--rivulets or rivers, it does not matter, so that +the souls be clear and pure; not dead walls encompassing dead heaps of +things known and numbered, but running waters in the sweet wilderness of +things unnumbered and unknown, conscious only of the living banks, on +which they partly refresh and partly reflect the flowers, and so pass +on. + +§ XXIX. Let each man answer for himself how far his knowledge has made +him this, or how far it is loaded upon him as the pyramid is upon the +tomb. Let him consider, also, how much of it has cost him labor and time +that might have been spent in healthy, happy action, beneficial to all +mankind; how many living souls may have been left uncomforted and +unhelped by him, while his own eyes were failing by the midnight lamp; +how many warm sympathies have died within him as he measured lines or +counted letters; how many draughts of ocean air, and steps on +mountain-turf, and openings of the highest heaven he has lost for his +knowledge; how much of that knowledge, so dearly bought, is now +forgotten or despised, leaving only the capacity of wonder less within +him, and, as it happens in a thousand instances, perhaps even also the +capacity of devotion. And let him,--if, after thus dealing with his own +heart, he can say that his knowledge has indeed been fruitful to +him,--yet consider how many there are who have been forced by the +inevitable laws of modern education into toil utterly repugnant to their +natures, and that in the extreme, until the whole strength of the young +soul was sapped away; and then pronounce with fearfulness how far, and +in how many senses, it may indeed be true that the wisdom of this world +is foolishness with God. + +§ XXX. Now all this possibility of evil, observe, attaches to knowledge +pursued for the noblest ends, if it be pursued imprudently. I have +assumed, in speaking of its effect both on men generally and on the +artist especially, that it was sought in the true love of it, and with +all honesty and directness of purpose. But this is granting far too much +in its favor. Of knowledge in general, and without qualification, it is +said by the Apostle that "it puffeth up;" and the father of all modern +science, writing directly in its praise, yet asserts this danger even in +more absolute terms, calling it a "venomousness" in the very nature of +knowledge itself. + +§ XXXI. There is, indeed, much difference in this respect between the +tendencies of different branches of knowledge; it being a sure rule that +exactly in proportion as they are inferior, nugatory, or limited in +scope, their power of feeding pride is greater. Thus philology, logic, +rhetoric, and the other sciences of the schools, being for the most part +ridiculous and trifling, have so pestilent an effect upon those who are +devoted to them, that their students cannot conceive of any higher +sciences than these, but fancy that all education ends in the knowledge +of words: but the true and great sciences, more especially natural +history, make men gentle and modest in proportion to the largeness of +their apprehension, and just perception of the infiniteness of the +things they can never know. And this, it seems to me, is the principal +lesson we are intended to be caught by the book of Job; for there God +has thrown open to us the heart of a man most just and holy, and +apparently perfect in all things possible to human nature except +humility. For this he is tried: and we are shown that no suffering, no +self-examination, however honest, however stern, no searching out of the +heart by its own bitterness, is enough to convince man of his +nothingness before God; but that the sight of God's creation will do it. +For, when the Deity himself has willed to end the temptation, and to +accomplish in Job that for which it was sent, He does not vouchsafe to +reason with him, still less does He overwhelm him with terror, or +confound him by laying open before his eyes the book of his iniquities. +He opens before him only the arch of the dayspring, and the fountains of +the deep; and amidst the covert of the reeds, and on the heaving waves, +He bids him watch the kings of the children of pride,--"Behold now +Behemoth, which I made with thee:" And the work is done. + +§ XXXII. Thus, if, I repeat, there is any one lesson in the whole book +which stands forth more definitely than another, it is this of the holy +and humbling influence of natural science on the human heart. And yet, +even here, it is not the science, but the perception, to which the good +is owing; and the natural sciences may become as harmful as any others, +when they lose themselves in classification and catalogue-making. Still, +the principal danger is with the sciences of words and methods; and it +was exactly into those sciences that the whole energy of men during the +Renaissance period was thrown. They discovered suddenly that the world +for ten centuries had been living in an ungrammatical manner, and they +made it forthwith the end of human existence to be grammatical. And it +mattered thenceforth nothing what was said, or what was done, so only +that it was said with scholarship, and done with system. Falsehood in a +Ciceronian dialect had no opposers; truth in patois no listeners. A +Roman phrase was thought worth any number of Gothic facts. The sciences +ceased at once to be anything more than different kinds of +grammars,--grammar of language, grammar of logic, grammar of ethics, +grammar of art; and the tongue, wit, and invention of the human race +were supposed to have found their utmost and most divine mission in +syntax and syllogism, perspective and five orders. + +Of such knowledge as this, nothing but pride could come; and, therefore, +I have called the first mental characteristic of the Renaissance +schools, the "pride" of science. If they had reached any science worth +the name, they might have loved it; but of the paltry knowledge they +possessed, they could only be proud. There was not anything in it +capable of being loved. Anatomy, indeed, then first made a subject of +accurate study, is a true science, but not so attractive as to enlist +the affections strongly on its side: and therefore, like its meaner +sisters, it became merely a ground for pride; and the one main purpose +of the Renaissance artists, in all their work, was to show how much they +knew. + +§ XXXIII. There were, of course, noble exceptions; but chiefly belonging +to the earliest periods of the Renaissance, when its teaching had not +yet produced its full effect. Raphael, Leonardo, and Michael Angelo were +all trained in the old school; they all had masters who knew the true +ends of art, and had reached them; masters nearly as great as they were +themselves, but imbued with the old religious and earnest spirit, which +their disciples receiving from them, and drinking at the same time +deeply from all the fountains of knowledge opened in their day, became +the world's wonders. Then the dull wondering world believed that their +greatness rose out of their new knowledge, instead of out of that +ancient religious root, in which to abide was life, from which to be +severed was annihilation. And from that day to this, they have tried to +produce Michael Angelos and Leonardos by teaching the barren sciences, +and still have mourned and marvelled that no more Michael Angelos came; +not perceiving that those great Fathers were only able to receive such +nourishment because they were rooted on the rock of all ages, and that +our scientific teaching, nowadays, is nothing more nor less than the +assiduous watering of trees whose stems are cut through. Nay, I have +even granted too much in saying that those great men were able to +receive pure nourishment from the sciences; for my own conviction is, +and I know it to be shared by most of those who love Raphael +truly,--that he painted best when he knew least. Michael Angelo was +betrayed, again and again, into such vain and offensive exhibition of +his anatomical knowledge as, to this day, renders his higher powers +indiscernible by the greater part of men; and Leonardo fretted his life +away in engineering, so that there is hardly a picture left to bear his +name. But, with respect to all who followed, there can be no question +that the science they possessed was utterly harmful; serving merely to +draw away their hearts at once from the purposes of art and the power of +nature, and to make, out of the canvas and marble, nothing more than +materials for the exhibition of petty dexterity and useless knowledge. + +§ XXXIV. It is sometimes amusing to watch the naïve and childish way in +which this vanity is shown. For instance, when perspective was first +invented, the world thought it a mighty discovery, and the greatest men +it had in it were as proud of knowing that retiring lines converge, as +if all the wisdom of Solomon had been compressed into a vanishing point. +And, accordingly, it became nearly impossible for any one to paint a +Nativity, but he must turn the stable and manger into a Corinthian +arcade, in order to show his knowledge of perspective; and half the best +architecture of the time, instead of being adorned with historical +sculpture, as of old, was set forth with bas-relief of minor corridors +and galleries, thrown into perspective. + +Now that perspective can be taught to any schoolboy in a week, we can +smile at this vanity. But the fact is, that all pride in knowledge is +precisely as ridiculous, whatever its kind, or whatever its degree. +There is, indeed, nothing of which man has any right to be proud; but +the very last thing of which, with any show of reason, he can make his +boast is his knowledge, except only that infinitely small portion of it +which he has discovered for himself. For what is there to be more proud +of in receiving a piece of knowledge from another person, than in +receiving a piece of money? Beggars should not be proud, whatever kind +of alms they receive. Knowledge is like current coin. A man may have +some right to be proud of possessing it, if he has worked for the gold +of it, and assayed it, and stamped it, so that it may be received of +all men as true; or earned it fairly, being already assayed: but if he +has done none of these things, but only had it thrown in his face by a +passer-by, what cause has he to be proud? And though, in this mendicant +fashion, he had heaped together the wealth of Croesus, would pride any +more, for this, become him, as, in some sort, it becomes the man who has +labored for his fortune, however small? So, if a man tells me the sun is +larger than the earth, have I any cause for pride in knowing it? or, if +any multitude of men tell me any number of things, heaping all their +wealth of knowledge upon me, have I any reason to be proud under the +heap? And is not nearly all the knowledge of which we boast in these +days cast upon us in this dishonorable way; worked for by other men, +proved by them, and then forced upon us, even against our wills, and +beaten into us in our youth, before we have the wit even to know if it +be good or not? (Mark the distinction between knowledge and thought.) +Truly a noble possession to be proud of! Be assured, there is no part of +the furniture of a man's mind which he has a right to exult in, but that +which he has hewn and fashioned for himself. He who has built himself a +hut on a desert heath, and carved his bed, and table, and chair out of +the nearest forest, may have some right to take pride in the appliances +of his narrow chamber, as assuredly he will have joy in them. But the +man who has had a palace built, and adorned, and furnished for him, may, +indeed, have many advantages above the other, but he has no reason to be +proud of his upholsterer's skill; and it is ten to one if he has half +the joy in his couches of ivory that the other will have in his pallet +of pine. + +§ XXXV. And observe how we feel this, in the kind of respect we pay to +such knowledge as we are indeed capable of estimating the value of. When +it is our own, and new to us, we cannot judge of it; but let it be +another's also, and long familiar to us, and see what value we set on +it. Consider how we regard a schoolboy, fresh from his term's labor. If +he begin to display his newly acquired small knowledge to us, and plume +himself thereupon, how soon do we silence him with contempt! But it is +not so if the schoolboy begins to feel or see anything. In the strivings +of his soul within him he is our equal; in his power of sight and +thought he stands separate from us, and may be a greater than we. We are +ready to hear him forthwith. "You saw that? you felt that? No matter for +your being a child; let us hear." + +§ XXXVI. Consider that every generation of men stands in this relation +to its successors. It is as the schoolboy: the knowledge of which it is +proudest will be as the alphabet to those who follow. It had better make +no noise about its knowledge; a time will come when its utmost, in that +kind, will be food for scorn. Poor fools! was that all they knew? and +behold how proud they were! But what we see and feel will never be +mocked at. All men will be thankful to us for telling them that. +"Indeed!" they will say, "they felt that in their day? saw that? Would +God we may be like them, before we go to the home where sight and +thought are not!" + +This unhappy and childish pride in knowledge, then, was the first +constituent element of the Renaissance mind, and it was enough, of +itself, to have cast it into swift decline: but it was aided by another +form of pride, which was above called the Pride of State; and which we +have next to examine. + +§ XXXVII. II. PRIDE OF STATE. It was noticed in the second volume of +"Modern Painters," p. 122, that the principle which had most power in +retarding the modern school of portraiture was its constant expression +of individual vanity and pride. And the reader cannot fail to have +observed that one of the readiest and commonest ways in which the +painter ministers to this vanity, is by introducing the pedestal or +shaft of a column, or some fragment, however simple, of Renaissance +architecture, in the background of the portrait. And this is not merely +because such architecture is bolder or grander than, in general, that of +the apartments of a private house. No other architecture would produce +the same effect in the same degree. The richest Gothic, the most massive +Norman, would not produce the same sense of exaltation as the simple +and meagre lines of the Renaissance. + +§ XXXVIII. And if we think over this matter a little, we shall soon feel +that in those meagre lines there is indeed an expression of aristocracy +in its worst characters; coldness, perfectness of training, incapability +of emotion, want of sympathy with the weakness of lower men, blank, +hopeless, haughty self-sufficiency. All these characters are written in +the Renaissance architecture as plainly as if they were graven on it in +words. For, observe, all other architectures have something in them that +common men can enjoy; some concession to the simplicities of humanity, +some daily bread for the hunger of the multitude. Quaint fancy, rich +ornament, bright color, something that shows a sympathy with men of +ordinary minds and hearts; and this wrought out, at least in the Gothic, +with a rudeness showing that the workman did not mind exposing his own +ignorance if he could please others. But the Renaissance is exactly the +contrary of all this. It is rigid, cold, inhuman; incapable of glowing, +of stooping, of conceding for an instant. Whatever excellence it has is +refined, high-trained, and deeply erudite; a kind which the architect +well knows no common mind can taste. He proclaims it to us aloud. "You +cannot feel my work unless you study Vitruvius. I will give you no gay +color, no pleasant sculpture, nothing to make you happy; for I am a +learned man. All the pleasure you can have in anything I do is in its +proud breeding, its rigid formalism, its perfect finish, its cold +tranquillity. I do not work for the vulgar, only for the men of the +academy and the court." + +§ XXXIX. And the instinct of the world felt this in a moment. In the new +precision and accurate law of the classical forms, they perceived +something peculiarly adapted to the setting forth of state in an +appalling manner: Princes delighted in it, and courtiers. The Gothic was +good for God's worship, but this was good for man's worship. The Gothic +had fellowship with all hearts, and was universal, like nature: it could +frame a temple for the prayer of nations, or shrink into the poor man's +winding stair. But here was an architecture that would not shrink, that +had in it no submission, no mercy. The proud princes and lords rejoiced +in it. It was full of insult to the poor in its every line. It would not +be built of the materials at the poor man's hand; it would not roof +itself with thatch or shingle, and black oak beams; it would not wall +itself with rough stone or brick; it would not pierce itself with small +windows where they were needed; it would not niche itself, wherever +there was room for it, in the street corners. It would be of hewn stone; +it would have its windows and its doors, and its stairs and its pillars, +in lordly order, and of stately size; it would have its wings and its +corridors, and its halls and its gardens, as if all the earth were its +own. And the rugged cottages of the mountaineers, and the fantastic +streets of the laboring burgher were to be thrust out of its way, as of +a lower species. + +§ XL. It is to be noted also, that it ministered as much to luxury as to +pride. Not to luxury of the eye, that is a holy luxury; Nature ministers +to that in her painted meadows, and sculptured forests, and gilded +heavens; the Gothic builder ministered to that in his twisted traceries, +and deep-wrought foliage, and burning casements. The dead Renaissance +drew back into its earthliness, out of all that was warm and heavenly; +back into its pride, out of all that was simple and kind; back into its +stateliness, out of all that was impulsive, reverent, and gay. But it +understood the luxury of the body; the terraced and scented and grottoed +garden, with its trickling fountains and slumbrous shades; the spacious +hall and lengthened corridor for the summer heat; the well-closed +windows, and perfect fittings and furniture, for defence against the +cold; and the soft picture, and frescoed wall and roof, covered with the +last lasciviousness of Paganism;--this is understood and possessed to +the full, and still possesses. This is the kind of domestic architecture +on which we pride ourselves, even to this day, as an infinite and +honorable advance from the rough habits of our ancestors; from the time +when the king's floor was strewn with rushes, and the tapestries swayed +before the searching wind in the baron's hall. + +§ XLI. Let us hear two stories of those rougher times. + +At the debate of King Edwin with his courtiers and priests, whether he +ought to receive the Gospel preached to him by Paulinus, one of his +nobles spoke as follows: + +"The present life, O king! weighed with the time that is unknown, seems +to me like this. When you are sitting at a feast with your earls and +thanes in winter time, and the fire is lighted, and the hall is warmed, +and it rains and snows, and the storm is loud without, there comes a +sparrow, and flies through the house. It comes in at one door and goes +out at the other. While it is within, it is not touched by the winter's +storm; but it is but for the twinkling of an eye, for from winter it +comes and to winter it returns. So also this life of man endureth for a +little space; what goes before or what follows after, we know not. +Wherefore, if this new lore bring anything more certain, it is fit that +we should follow it."[13] + +That could not have happened in a Renaissance building. The bird could +not have dashed in from the cold into the heat, and from the heat back +again into the storm. It would have had to come up a flight of marble +stairs, and through seven or eight antechambers; and so, if it had ever +made its way into the presence chamber, out again through loggias and +corridors innumerable. And the truth which the bird brought with it, +fresh from heaven, has, in like manner, to make its way to the +Renaissance mind through many antechambers, hardly, and as a despised +thing, if at all. + +§ XLII. Hear another story of those early times. + +The king of Jerusalem, Godfrey of Bouillon, at the siege of Asshur, or +Arsur, gave audience to some emirs from Samaria and Naplous. They found +him seated on the ground on a sack of straw. They expressing surprise, +Godfrey answered them: "May not the earth, out of which we came, and +which is to be our dwelling after death, serve us for a seat during +life?" + +It is long since such a throne has been set in the reception chambers +of Christendom, or such an answer heard from the lips of a king. + +Thus the Renaissance spirit became base both in its abstinence and its +indulgence. Base in its abstinence; curtailing the bright and playful +wealth of form and thought, which filled the architecture of the earlier +ages with sources of delight for their hardy spirit, pure, simple, and +yet rich as the fretwork of flowers and moss, watered by some strong and +stainless mountain stream: and base in its indulgence; as it granted to +the body what it withdrew from the heart, and exhausted, in smoothing +the pavement for the painless feet, and softening the pillow for the +sluggish brain, the powers of art which once had hewn rough ladders into +the clouds of heaven, and set up the stones by which they rested for +houses of God. + +§ XLIII. And just in proportion as this courtly sensuality lowered the +real nobleness of the men whom birth or fortune raised above their +fellows, rose their estimate of their own dignity, together with the +insolence and unkindness of its expression, and the grossness of the +flattery with which it was fed. Pride is indeed the first and the last +among the sins of men, and there is no age of the world in which it has +not been unveiled in the power and prosperity of the wicked. But there +was never in any form of slavery, or of feudal supremacy, a +forgetfulness so total of the common majesty of the human soul, and of +the brotherly kindness due from man to man, as in the aristocratic +follies in the Renaissance. I have not space to follow out this most +interesting and extensive subject; but here is a single and very curious +example of the kind of flattery with which architectural teaching was +mingled when addressed to the men of rank of the day. + +§ XLIV. In St. Mark's library there is a very curious Latin manuscript +of the twenty-five books of Averulinus, a Florentine architect, upon the +principles of his art. The book was written in or about 1460, and +translated into Latin, and richly illuminated for Corvinus, king of +Hungary, about 1483. I extract from the third book the following passage +on the nature of stones. "As there are three genera of men,--that is to +say, nobles, men of the middle classes, and rustics,--so it appears that +there are of stones. For the marbles and common stones of which we have +spoken above, set forth the rustics. The porphyries and alabasters, and +the other harder stones of mingled quality, represent the middle +classes, if we are to deal in comparisons: and by means of these the +ancients adorned their temples with incrustations and ornaments in a +magnificent manner. And after these come the chalcedonies and +sardonyxes, &c., which are so transparent that there can be seen no spot +in them.[14] Thus men endowed with nobility lead a life in which no spot +can be found." + +Canute or Coeur de Lion (I name not Godfrey or St. Louis) would have +dashed their sceptres against the lips of a man who should have dared to +utter to them flattery such as this. But in the fifteenth century it was +rendered and accepted as a matter of course, and the tempers which +delighted in it necessarily took pleasure also in every vulgar or false +means, of taking worldly superiority. And among such false means +largeness of scale in the dwelling-house was of course one of the +easiest and most direct. All persons, however senseless or dull, could +appreciate size: it required some exertion of intelligence to enter into +the spirit of the quaint carving of the Gothic times, but none to +perceive that one heap of stones was higher than another.[15] And +therefore, while in the execution and manner of work the Renaissance +builders zealously vindicated for themselves the attribute of cold and +superior learning, they appealed for such approbation as they needed +from the multitude, to the lowest possible standard of taste; and while +the older workman lavished his labor on the minute niche and narrow +casement, on the doorways no higher than the head, and the contracted +angles of the turreted chamber, the Renaissance builder spared such cost +and toil in his detail, that he might spend it in bringing larger stones +from a distance; and restricted himself to rustication and five orders, +that he might load the ground with colossal piers, and raise an +ambitious barrenness of architecture, as inanimate as it was gigantic, +above the feasts and follies of the powerful or the rich. The Titanic +insanity extended itself also into ecclesiastical design: the principal +church in Italy was built with little idea of any other admirableness +than that which was to result from its being huge; and the religious +impressions of those who enter it are to this day supposed to be +dependent, in a great degree, on their discovering that they cannot span +the thumbs of the statues which sustain the vessels for holy water. + +§ XLV. It is easy to understand how an architecture which thus appealed +not less to the lowest instincts of dulness than to the subtlest pride +of learning, rapidly found acceptance with a large body of mankind; and +how the spacious pomp of the new manner of design came to be eagerly +adopted by the luxurious aristocracies, not only of Venice, but of the +other countries of Christendom, now gradually gathering themselves into +that insolent and festering isolation, against which the cry of the poor +sounded hourly in more ominous unison, bursting at last into thunder +(mark where,--first among the planted walks and plashing fountains of +the palace wherein the Renaissance luxury attained its utmost height in +Europe, Versailles); that cry, mingling so much piteousness with its +wrath and indignation, "Our soul is filled with the scornful reproof of +the wealthy, and with the despitefulness of the proud." + +§ XLVI. But of all the evidence bearing upon this subject presented by +the various arts of the fifteenth century, none is so interesting or so +conclusive as that deduced from its tombs. For, exactly in proportion as +the pride of life became more insolent, the fear of death became more +servile; and the difference in the manner in which the men of early and +later days adorned the sepulchre, confesses a still greater difference +in their manner of regarding death. To those he came as the comforter +and the friend, rest in his right hand, hope in his left; to these as +the humiliator, the spoiler, and the avenger. And, therefore, we find +the early tombs at once simple and lovely in adornment, severe and +solemn in their expression; confessing the power, and accepting the +peace, of death, openly and joyfully; and in all their symbols marking +that the hope of resurrection lay only in Christ's righteousness; signed +always with this simple utterance of the dead, "I will lay me down in +peace, and take my rest; for it is thou, Lord, only that makest me dwell +in safety." But the tombs of the later ages are a ghastly struggle of +mean pride and miserable terror: the one mustering the statues of the +Virtues about the tomb, disguising the sarcophagus with delicate +sculpture, polishing the false periods of the elaborate epitaph, and +filling with strained animation the features of the portrait statue; and +the other summoning underneath, out of the niche or from behind the +curtain, the frowning skull, or scythed skeleton, or some other more +terrible image of the enemy in whose defiance the whiteness of the +sepulchre had been set to shine above the whiteness of the ashes. + +§ XLVII. This change in the feeling with which sepulchral monuments were +designed, from the eleventh to the eighteenth centuries, has been common +to the whole of Europe. But, as Venice is in other respects the centre +of the Renaissance system, so also she exhibits this change in the +manner of the sepulchral monument under circumstances peculiarly +calculated to teach us its true character. For the severe guard which, +in earlier times, she put upon every tendency to personal pomp and +ambition, renders the tombs of her ancient monarchs as remarkable for +modesty and simplicity as for their religious feeling; so that, in this +respect, they are separated by a considerable interval from the more +costly monuments erected at the same periods to the kings or nobles of +other European states. In later times, on the other hand, as the piety +of the Venetians diminished, their pride overleaped all limits, and the +tombs which in recent epochs, were erected for men who had lived only to +impoverish or disgrace the state, were as much more magnificent than +those contemporaneously erected for the nobles of Europe, as the +monuments for the great Doges had been humbler. When, in addition to +this, we reflect that the art of sculpture, considered as expressive of +emotion, was at a low ebb in Venice in the twelfth century, and that in +the seventeenth she took the lead in Italy in luxurious work, we shall +at once see the chain of examples through which the change of feeling is +expressed, must present more remarkable extremes here than it can in any +other city; extremes so startling that their impressiveness cannot be +diminished, while their intelligibility is greatly increased, by the +large number of intermediate types which have fortunately been +preserved. + +It would, however, too much weary the general reader if, without +illustrations, I were to endeavor to lead him step by step through the +aisles of St. John and Paul; and I shall therefore confine myself to a +slight notice of those features in sepulchral architecture generally +which are especially illustrative of the matter at present in hand, and +point out the order in which, if possible, the traveller should visit +the tombs in Venice, so as to be most deeply impressed with the true +character of the lessons they convey. + +§ XLVIII. I have not such an acquaintance with the modes of entombment +or memorial in the earliest ages of Christianity as would justify me in +making any general statement respecting them: but it seems to me that +the perfect type of a Christian tomb was not developed until toward the +thirteenth century, sooner or later according to the civilization of +each country; that perfect type consisting in the raised and perfectly +visible sarcophagus of stone, bearing upon it a recumbent figure, and +the whole covered by a canopy. Before that type was entirely developed, +and in the more ordinary tombs contemporary with it, we find the simple +sarcophagus, often with only a rough block of stone for its lid, +sometimes with a low-gabled lid like a cottage roof, derived from +Egyptian forms, and bearing, either on the sides or the lid, at least a +sculpture of the cross, and sometimes the name of the deceased, and date +of erection of the tomb. In more elaborate examples rich +figure-sculpture is gradually introduced; and in the perfect period the +sarcophagus, even when it does not bear any recumbent figure, has +generally a rich sculpture on its sides representing an angel presenting +the dead, in person and dress as he lived, to Christ or to the Madonna, +with lateral figures, sometimes of saints, sometimes--as in the tombs of +the Dukes of Burgundy at Dijon--of mourners; but in Venice almost always +representing the Annunciation, the angel being placed at one angle of +the sarcophagus, and the Madonna at the other. The canopy, in a very +simple foursquare form, or as an arch over a recess, is added above the +sarcophagus, long before the life-size recumbent figure appears resting +upon it. By the time that the sculptors had acquired skill enough to +give much expression to this figure, the canopy attains an exquisite +symmetry and richness; and, in the most elaborate examples, is +surmounted by a statue, generally small, representing the dead person in +the full strength and pride of life, while the recumbent figure shows +him as he lay in death. And, at this point, the perfect type of the +Gothic tomb is reached. + +§ XLIX. Of the simple sarcophagus tomb there are many exquisite examples +both at Venice and Verona; the most interesting in Venice are those +which are set in the recesses of the rude brick front of the Church of +St. John and Paul, ornamented only, for the most part, with two crosses +set in circles, and the legend with the name of the dead, and an "Orate +pro anima" in another circle in the centre. And in this we may note one +great proof of superiority in Italian over English tombs; the latter +being often enriched with quatrefoils, small shafts, and arches, and +other ordinary architectural decorations, which destroy their +seriousness and solemnity, render them little more than ornamental, and +have no religious meaning whatever; while the Italian sarcophagi are +kept massive, smooth, and gloomy,--heavy-lidded dungeons of stone, like +rock-tombs,--but bearing on their surface, sculptured with tender and +narrow lines, the emblem of the cross, not presumptuously nor proudly, +but dimly graven upon their granite, like the hope which the human heart +holds, but hardly perceives in its heaviness. + +§ L. Among the tombs in front of the Church of St. John and Paul there +is one which is peculiarly illustrative of the simplicity of these +earlier ages. It is on the left of the entrance, a massy sarcophagus +with low horns as of an altar, placed in a rude recess of the outside +wall, shattered and worn, and here and there entangled among wild grass +and weeds. Yet it is the tomb of two Doges, Jacopo and Lorenzo Tiepolo, +by one of whom nearly the whole ground was given for the erection of the +noble church in front of which his unprotected tomb is wasting away. The +sarcophagus bears an inscription in the centre, describing the acts of +the Doges, of which the letters show that it was added a considerable +period after the erection of the tomb: the original legend is still left +in other letters on its base, to this effect, + + "Lord James, died 1251. Lord Laurence, died 1288." + +At the two corners of the sarcophagus are two angels bearing censers; +and on its lid two birds, with crosses like crests upon their heads. For +the sake of the traveller in Venice the reader will, I think, pardon me +the momentary irrelevancy of telling the meaning of these symbols. + +§ LI. The foundation of the church of St. John and Paul was laid by the +Dominicans about 1234, under the immediate protection of the Senate and +the Doge Giacomo Tiepolo, accorded to them in consequence of a +miraculous vision appearing to the Doge; of which the following account +is given in popular tradition: + +"In the year 1226, the Doge Giacomo Tiepolo dreamed a dream; and in his +dream he saw the little oratory of the Dominicans, and, behold, the +ground all around it (now occupied by the church) was covered with +roses of the color of vermilion, and the air was filled with their +fragrance. And in the midst of the roses, there were seen flying to and +fro a crowd of white doves, with golden crosses upon their heads. And +while the Doge looked, and wondered, behold, two angels descended from +heaven with golden censers, and passing through the oratory, and forth +among the flowers, they filled the place with the smoke of their +incense. Then the Doge heard suddenly a clear and loud voice which +proclaimed, 'This is the place that I have chosen for my preachers;' and +having heard it, straightway he awoke and went to the Senate, and +declared to them the vision. Then the Senate decreed that forty paces of +ground should be given to enlarge the monastery; and the Doge Tiepolo +himself made a still larger grant afterwards." + +There is nothing miraculous in the occurrence of such a dream as this to +the devout Doge; and the fact, of which there is no doubt, that the +greater part of the land on which the church stands was given by him, is +partly a confirmation of the story. But, whether the sculptures on the +tomb were records of the vision, or the vision a monkish invention from +the sculptures on the tomb, the reader will not, I believe, look upon +its doves and crosses, or rudely carved angels, any more with disdain; +knowing how, in one way or another, they were connected with a point of +deep religious belief. + +§ LII. Towards the beginning of the fourteenth century, in Venice, the +recumbent figure begins to appear on the sarcophagus, the first dated +example being also one of the most beautiful; the statue of the prophet +Simeon, sculptured upon the tomb which was to receive his relics in the +church dedicated to him under the name of San Simeone Grande. So soon as +the figure appears, the sarcophagus becomes much more richly sculptured, +but always with definite religious purpose. It is usually divided into +two panels, which are filled with small bas-reliefs of the acts or +martyrdom of the patron saints of the deceased: between them, in the +centre, Christ, or the Virgin and Child, are richly enthroned, under a +curtained canopy; and the two figures representing the Annunciation are +almost always at the angles; the promise of the Birth of Christ being +taken as at once the ground and the type of the promise of eternal life +to all men. + +§ LIII. These figures are always in Venice most rudely chiselled; the +progress of figure sculpture being there comparatively tardy. At Verona, +where the great Pisan school had strong influence, the monumental +sculpture is immeasurably finer; and, so early as about the year +1335,[16] the consummate form of the Gothic tomb occurs in the monument +of Can Grande della Scala at Verona. It is set over the portal of the +chapel anciently belonging to the family. The sarcophagus is sculptured +with shallow bas-reliefs, representing (which is rare in the tombs with +which I am acquainted in Italy, unless they are those of saints) the +principal achievements of the warrior's life, especially the siege of +Vicenza and battle of Placenza; these sculptures, however, form little +more than a chased and roughened groundwork for the fully relieved +statues representing the Annunciation, projecting boldly from the front +of the sarcophagus. Above, the Lord of Verona is laid in his long robe +of civil dignity, wearing the simple bonnet, consisting merely of a +fillet bound round the brow, knotted and falling on the shoulder. He is +laid as asleep; his arms crossed upon his body, and his sword by his +side. Above him, a bold arched canopy is sustained by two projecting +shafts, and on the pinnacle of its roof is the statue of the knight on +his war-horse; his helmet, dragon-winged and crested with the dog's +head, tossed back behind his shoulders, and the broad and blazoned +drapery floating back from his horse's breast,--so truly drawn by the +old workman from the life, that it seems to wave in the wind, and the +knight's spear to shake, and his marble horse to be evermore quickening +its pace, and starting into heavier and hastier charge, as the silver +clouds float past behind it in the sky. + +§ LIV. Now observe, in this tomb, as much concession is made to the +pride of man as may ever consist with honor, discretion, or dignity. I +do not enter into any question respecting the character of Can Grande, +though there can be little doubt that he was one of the best among the +nobles of his time; but that is not to our purpose. It is not the +question whether his wars were just, or his greatness honorably +achieved; but whether, supposing them to have been so, these facts are +well and gracefully told upon his tomb. And I believe there can be no +hesitation in the admission of its perfect feeling and truth. Though +beautiful, the tomb is so little conspicuous or intrusive, that it +serves only to decorate the portal of the little chapel, and is hardly +regarded by the traveller as he enters. When it is examined, the history +of the acts of the dead is found subdued into dim and minute ornament +upon his coffin; and the principal aim of the monument is to direct the +thoughts to his image as he lies in death, and to the expression of his +hope of resurrection; while, seen as by the memory far away, diminished +in the brightness of the sky, there is set the likeness of his armed +youth, stately, as it stood of old, in the front of battle, and meet to +be thus recorded for us, that we may now be able to remember the dignity +of the frame, of which those who once looked upon it hardly remembered +that it was dust. + +§ LV. This, I repeat, is as much as may ever be granted, but this ought +always to be granted, to the honor and the affection of men. The tomb +which stands beside that of Can Grande, nearest it in the little field +of sleep, already shows the traces of erring ambition. It is the tomb of +Mastino the Second, in whose reign began the decline of his family. It +is altogether exquisite as a work of art; and the evidence of a less +wise or noble feeling in its design is found only in this, that the +image of a virtue, Fortitude, as belonging to the dead, is placed on the +extremity of the sarcophagus, opposite to the Crucifixion. But for this +slight circumstance, of which the significance will only be appreciated +as we examine the series of later monuments, the composition of this +monument of Can Mastino would have been as perfect as its decoration is +refined. It consists, like that of Can Grande, of the raised +sarcophagus, bearing the recumbent statue, protected by a noble +foursquare canopy, sculptured with ancient Scripture history. On one +side of the sarcophagus is Christ enthroned, with Can Mastino kneeling +before Him; on the other, Christ is represented in the mystical form, +half-rising from the tomb, meant, I believe, to be at once typical of +His passion and resurrection. The lateral panels are occupied by statues +of saints. At one extremity of the sarcophagus is the Crucifixion; at +the other, a noble statue of Fortitude, with a lion's skin thrown over +her shoulders, its head forming a shield upon her breast, her flowing +hair bound with a narrow fillet, and a three-edged sword in her +gauntleted right hand, drawn back sternly behind her thigh, while, in +her left, she bears high the shield of the Scalas. + +§ LVI. Close to this monument is another, the stateliest and most +sumptuous of the three; it first arrests the eye of the stranger, and +long detains it,--a many-pinnacled pile surrounded by niches with +statues of the warrior saints. + +It is beautiful, for it still belongs to the noble time, the latter part +of the fourteenth century; but its work is coarser than that of the +other, and its pride may well prepare us to learn that it was built for +himself, in his own lifetime, by the man whose statue crowns it, Can +Signorio della Scala. Now observe, for this is infinitely significant. +Can Mastino II. was feeble and wicked, and began the ruin of his house; +his sarcophagus is the first which bears upon it the image of a virtue, +but he lays claim only to Fortitude. Can Signorio was twice a +fratricide, the last time when he lay upon his death-bed: _his_ tomb +bears upon its gables the images of six virtues,--Faith, Hope, Charity, +Prudence, and (I believe) Justice and Fortitude. + +§ LVII. Let us now return to Venice, where, in the second chapel +counting from right to left, at the west end of the Church of the Frari, +there is a very early fourteenth, or perhaps late thirteenth, century +tomb, another exquisite example of the perfect Gothic form. It is a +knight's; but there is no inscription upon it, and his name is unknown. +It consists of a sarcophagus, supported on bold brackets against the +chapel wall, bearing the recumbent figure, protected by a simple canopy +in the form of a pointed arch, pinnacled by the knight's crest; beneath +which the shadowy space is painted dark blue, and strewn with stars. The +statue itself is rudely carved; but its lines, as seen from the intended +distance, are both tender and masterly. The knight is laid in his mail, +only the hands and face being bare. The hauberk and helmet are of +chain-mail, the armor for the limbs of jointed steel; a tunic, fitting +close to the breast, and marking the noble swell of it by two narrow +embroidered lines, is worn over the mail; his dagger is at his right +side; his long cross-belted sword, not seen by the spectator from below, +at his left. His feet rest on a hound (the hound being his crest), which +looks up towards its master. In general, in tombs of this kind, the face +of the statue is slightly turned towards the spectator; in this +monument, on the contrary, it is turned away from him, towards the depth +of the arch: for there, just above the warrior's breast, is carved a +small image of St. Joseph bearing the infant Christ, who looks down upon +the resting figure; and to this image its countenance is turned. The +appearance of the entire tomb is as if the warrior had seen the vision +of Christ in his dying moments, and had fallen back peacefully upon his +pillow, with his eyes still turned to it, and his hands clasped in +prayer. + +§ LVIII. On the opposite side of this chapel is another very lovely +tomb, to Duccio degli Alberti, a Florentine ambassador at Venice; +noticeable chiefly as being the first in Venice on which any images of +the Virtues appear. We shall return to it presently, but some account +must first be given of the more important among the other tombs in +Venice belonging to the perfect period. Of these, by far the most +interesting, though not the most elaborate, is that of the great Doge +Francesco Dandolo, whose ashes, it might have been thought, were +honorable enough to have been permitted to rest undisturbed in the +chapter-house of the Frari, where they were first laid. But, as if there +were not room enough, nor waste houses enough in the desolate city to +receive a few convent papers, the monks, wanting an "archivio," have +separated the tomb into three pieces: the canopy, a simple arch +sustained on brackets, still remains on the blank walls of the +desecrated chamber; the sarcophagus has been transported to a kind of +museum of antiquities, established in what was once the cloister of +Santa Maria della Salute; and the painting which filled the lunette +behind it is hung far out of sight, at one end of the sacristy of the +same church. The sarcophagus is completely charged with bas-reliefs: at +its two extremities are the types of St. Mark and St. John; in front, a +noble sculpture of the death of the Virgin; at the angles, angels +holding vases. The whole space is occupied by the sculpture; there are +no spiral shafts or panelled divisions; only a basic plinth below, and +crowning plinth above, the sculpture being raised from a deep concave +field between the two, but, in order to give piquancy and +picturesqueness to the mass of figures, two small trees are introduced +at the head and foot of the Madonna's couch, an oak and a stone pine. + +§ LIX. It was said above,[17] in speaking of the frequent disputes of +the Venetians with the Pontifical power, which in their early days they +had so strenuously supported, that "the humiliation of Francesco Dandolo +blotted out the shame of Barbarossa." It is indeed well that the two +events should be remembered together. By the help of the Venetians, +Alexander III. was enabled, in the twelfth century, to put his foot upon +the neck of the emperor Barbarossa, quoting the words of the Psalm, +"Thou shalt tread upon the lion and the adder." A hundred and fifty +years later, the Venetian ambassador, Francesco Dandolo, unable to +obtain even an audience from the Pope, Clement V., to whom he had been +sent to pray for a removal of the sentence of excommunication pronounced +against the republic, concealed himself (according to the common +tradition) beneath the Pontiff's dining-table; and thence coming out as +he sat down to meat, embraced his feet, and obtained, by tearful +entreaties, the removal of the terrible sentence. + +I say, "according to the common tradition;" for there are some doubts +cast upon the story by its supplement. Most of the Venetian historians +assert that Francesco Dandolo's surname of "Dog" was given him first on +this occasion, in insult, by the cardinals; and that the Venetians, in +remembrance of the grace which his humiliation had won for them, made it +a title of honor to him and to his race. It has, however, been +proved[18] that the surname was borne by the ancestors of Francesco +Dandolo long before; and the falsity of this seal of the legend renders +also its circumstances doubtful. But the main fact of grievous +humiliation having been undergone, admits of no dispute; the existence +of such a tradition at all is in itself a proof of its truth; it was not +one likely to be either invented or received without foundation: and it +will be well, therefore, that the reader should remember, in connection +with the treatment of Barbarossa at the door of the Church of St. +Mark's, that in the Vatican, one hundred and fifty years later, a +Venetian noble, a future Doge, submitted to a degradation, of which the +current report among his people was, that he had crept on his hands and +knees from beneath the Pontiff's table to his feet, and had been spurned +as a "dog" by the cardinals present. + +§ LX. There are two principal conclusions to be drawn from this: the +obvious one respecting the insolence of the Papal dominion in the +thirteenth century; the second, that there were probably most deep piety +and humility in the character of the man who could submit to this +insolence for the sake of a benefit to his country. Probably no motive +would have been strong enough to obtain such a sacrifice from most men, +however unselfish; but it was, without doubt, made easier to Dandolo by +his profound reverence for the Pontifical office; a reverence which, +however _we_ may now esteem those who claimed it, could not but have +been felt by nearly all good and faithful men at the time of which we +are speaking. This is the main point which I wish the reader to remember +as we look at his tomb, this, and the result of it,--that, some years +afterwards, when he was seated on the throne which his piety had saved, +"there were sixty princes' ambassadors in Venice at the same time, +requesting the judgment of the Senate on matters of various concernment, +_so great was the fame of the uncorrupted justice of the Fathers_."[19] + +Observe, there are no virtues on this tomb. Nothing but religious +history or symbols; the Death of the Virgin in front, and the types of +St. Mark and St. John at the extremities. + +§ LXI. Of the tomb of the Doge Andrea Dandolo, in St. Mark's, I have +spoken before. It is one of the first in Venice which presents, in a +canopy, the Pisan idea of angels withdrawing curtains, as of a couch, to +look down upon the dead. The sarcophagus is richly decorated with +flower-work; the usual figures of the Annunciation are at the sides; an +enthroned Madonna in the centre; and two bas-reliefs, one of the +martyrdom of the Doge's patron saint, St. Andrew, occupy the +intermediate spaces. All these tombs have been richly colored; the hair +of the angels has here been gilded, their wings bedropped with silver, +and their garments covered with the most exquisite arabesques. This +tomb, and that of St. Isidore in another chapel of St. Mark's, which was +begun by this very Doge, Andrea Dandolo, and completed after his death +in 1354, are both nearly alike in their treatment, and are, on the +whole, the best existing examples of Venetian monumental sculpture. + +§ LXII. Of much ruder workmanship, though still most precious, and +singularly interesting from its quaintness, is a sarcophagus in the +northernmost chapel, beside the choir of St. John and Paul, charged with +two bas-reliefs and many figures, but which bears no inscription. It +has, however, a shield with three dolphins on its brackets; and as at +the feet of the Madonna in its centre there is a small kneeling figure +of a Doge, we know it to be the tomb of the Doge Giovanni Dolfino, who +came to the throne in 1356. + +He was chosen Doge while, as provveditore, he was in Treviso, defending +the city against the King of Hungary. The Venetians sent to the +besiegers, praying that their newly elected Doge might be permitted to +pass the Hungarian lines. Their request was refused, the Hungarians +exulting that they held the Doge of Venice prisoner in Treviso. But +Dolfino, with a body of two hundred horse, cut his way through their +lines by night, and reached Mestre (Malghera) in safety, where he was +met by the Senate. His bravery could not avert the misfortunes which +were accumulating on the republic. The Hungarian war was ignominiously +terminated by the surrender of Dalmatia: the Doge's heart was broken, +his eyesight failed him, and he died of the plague four years after he +had ascended the throne. + +§ LXIII. It is perhaps on this account, perhaps in consequence of later +injuries, that the tomb has neither effigy nor inscription: that it has +been subjected to some violence is evident from the dentil which once +crowned its leaf-cornice being now broken away, showing the whole front. +But, fortunately, the sculpture of the sarcophagus itself is little +injured. + +There are two saints, male and female, at its angles, each in a little +niche; a Christ, enthroned in the centre, the Doge and Dogaressa +kneeling at his feet; in the two intermediate panels, on one side the +Epiphany, on the other the Death of the Virgin; the whole supported, as +well as crowned, by an elaborate leaf-plinth. The figures under the +niches are rudely cut, and of little interest. Not so the central group. +Instead of a niche, the Christ is seated under a square tent, or +tabernacle, formed by curtains running on rods; the idea, of course, as +usual, borrowed from the Pisan one, but here ingeniously applied. The +curtains are opened in front, showing those at the back of the tent, +behind the seated figure; the perspective of the two retiring sides +being very tolerably suggested. Two angels, of half the size of the +seated figure, thrust back the near curtains, and look up reverently to +the Christ; while again, at their feet, about one third of _their_ size, +and half-sheltered, as it seems, by their garments, are the two kneeling +figures of the Doge and Dogaressa, though so small and carefully cut, +full of life. The Christ raising one hand as to bless, and holding a +book upright and open on the knees, does not look either towards them or +to the angels, but forward; and there is a very noticeable effort to +represent Divine abstraction in the countenance: the idea of the three +magnitudes of spiritual being,--the God, the Angel, and the Man,--is +also to be observed, aided as it is by the complete subjection of the +angelic power to the Divine; for the angels are in attitudes of the most +lowly watchfulness of the face of Christ, and appear unconscious of the +presence of the human beings who are nestled in the folds of their +garments. + +§ LXIV. With this interesting but modest tomb of one of the kings of +Venice, it is desirable to compare that of one of her senators, of +exactly the same date, which is raised against the western wall of the +Frari, at the end of the north aisle. It bears the following remarkable +inscription: + + "ANNO MCCCLX. prima die Julii Sepultura . Domini . Simonii Dandolo . + amador . de . Justisia . e . desiroso . de . acrese . el . ben . + chomum." + +The "Amador de Justitia" has perhaps some reference to Simon Dandolo's +having been one of the Giunta who condemned the Doge Faliero. The +sarcophagus is decorated merely by the Annunciation group, and an +enthroned Madonna with a curtain behind her throne, sustained by four +tiny angels, who look over it as they hold it up; but the workmanship of +the figures is more than usually beautiful. + +§ LXV. Seven years later, a very noble monument was placed on the north +side of the choir of St. John and Paul, to the Doge Marco Cornaro, +chiefly, with respect to our present subject, noticeable for the absence +of religious imagery from the sarcophagus, which is decorated with +roses only; three very beautiful statues of the Madonna and two saints +are, however, set in the canopy above. Opposite this tomb, though about +fifteen years later in date, is the richest monument of the Gothic +period in Venice; that of the Doge Michele Morosini, who died in 1382. +It consists of a highly florid canopy,--an arch crowned by a gable, with +pinnacles at the flanks, boldly crocketed, and with a huge finial at the +top representing St. Michael,--a medallion of Christ set in the gable; +under the arch, a mosaic, representing the Madonna presenting the Doge +to Christ upon the cross; beneath, as usual, the sarcophagus, with a +most noble recumbent figure of the Doge, his face meagre and severe, and +sharp in its lines, but exquisite in the form of its small and princely +features. The sarcophagus is adorned with elaborate wrinkled leafage, +projecting in front of it into seven brackets, from which the statues +are broken away; but by which, for there can be no doubt that these last +statues represented the theological and cardinal Virtues, we must for a +moment pause. + +§ LXVI. It was noticed above, that the tomb of the Florentine +ambassador, Duccio, was the first in Venice which presented images of +the Virtues. Its small lateral statues of Justice and Temperance are +exquisitely beautiful, and were, I have no doubt, executed by a +Florentine sculptor; the whole range of artistical power and religious +feeling being, in Florence, full half a century in advance of that of +Venice. But this is the first truly Venetian tomb which has the Virtues; +and it becomes of importance, therefore, to know what was the character +of Morosini. + +The reader must recollect, that I dated the commencement of the fall of +Venice from the death of Carlo Zeno, considering that no state could be +held as in decline, which numbered such a man amongst its citizens. +Carlo Zeno was a candidate for the Ducal bonnet together with Michael +Morosini; and Morosini was chosen. It might be anticipated, therefore, +that there was something more than usually admirable or illustrious in +his character. Yet it is difficult to arrive at a just estimate of it, +as the reader will at once understand by comparing the following +statements: + + § LXVI. 1. "To him (Andrea Contarini) succeeded Morosini, at the age + of seventy-four years; a most learned and prudent man, who also + reformed several laws."--_Sansovino_, Vite de' Principi. + + 2. "It was generally believed that, if his reign had been longer, he + would have dignified the state by many noble laws and institutes; but + by so much as his reign was full of hope, by as much was it short in + duration, for he died when he had been at the head of the republic + but four months."--_Sabellico_, lib. viii. + + 3. "He was allowed but a short time to enjoy this high dignity, which + he had so well deserved by his rare virtues, for God called him to + Himself on the 15th of October."--_Muratori_, Annali de' Italia. + + 4. "Two candidates presented themselves; one was Zeno, the other that + Michael Morosini who, during the war, had tripled his fortune by his + speculations. The suffrages of the electors fell upon him, and he was + proclaimed Doge on the 10th of June."--_Daru_, Histoire de Venise, + lib. x. + + 5. "The choice of the electors was directed to Michele Morosini, a + noble of illustrious birth, derived from a stock which, coeval with + the republic itself, had produced the conqueror of Tyre, given a + queen to Hungary, and more than one Doge to Venice. The brilliancy of + this descent was tarnished in the present chief representative of the + family by the most base and grovelling avarice; for at that moment, + in the recent war, at which all other Venetians were devoting their + whole fortunes to the service of the state, Morosini sought in the + distresses of his country an opening for his own private enrichment, + and employed his ducats, not in the assistance of the national wants, + but in speculating upon houses which were brought to market at a + price far beneath their real value, and which, upon the return of + peace, insured the purchaser a fourfold profit. 'What matters the + fall of Venice to me, so as I fall not together with her?' was his + selfish and sordid reply to some one who expressed surprise at the + transaction."--_Sketches of Venetian History_. Murray, 1831. + +§ LXVIII. The writer of the unpretending little history from which the +last quotation is taken has not given his authority for this statement, +and I could not find it, but believed, from the general accuracy of the +book, that some authority might exist better than Daru's. Under these +circumstances, wishing if possible to ascertain the truth, and to clear +the character of this great Doge from the accusation, if it proved +groundless, I wrote to the Count Carlo Morosini, his descendant, and one +of the few remaining representatives of the ancient noblesse of Venice; +one, also, by whom his great ancestral name is revered, and in whom it +is exalted. His answer appears to me altogether conclusive as to the +utter fallacy of the reports of Daru and the English history. I have +placed his letter in the close of this volume (Appendix 6), in order +that the reader may himself be the judge upon this point; and I should +not have alluded to Daru's report, except for the purpose of +contradicting it, but that it still appears to me impossible that any +modern historian should have gratuitously invented the whole story, and +that, therefore, there must have been a trace in the documents which +Daru himself possessed, of some scandal of this kind raised by +Morosini's enemies, perhaps at the very time of the disputed election +with Carlo Zeno. The occurrence of the Virtues upon his tomb, for the +first time in Venetian monumental work, and so richly and conspicuously +placed, may partly have been in public contradiction of such a floating +rumor. But the face of the statue is a more explicit contradiction +still; it is resolute, thoughtful, serene, and full of beauty; and we +must, therefore, for once, allow the somewhat boastful introduction of +the Virtues to have been perfectly just: though the whole tomb is most +notable, as furnishing not only the exact intermediate condition in +style between the pure Gothic and its final Renaissance corruption, but, +at the same time, the exactly intermediate condition of _feeling_ +between the pure calmness of early Christianity, and the boastful pomp +of the Renaissance faithlessness; for here we have still the religious +humility remaining in the mosaic of the canopy, which shows the Doge +kneeling before the cross, while yet this tendency to self-trust is +shown in the surrounding of the coffin by the Virtues. + +§ LXIX. The next tomb by the side of which they appear is that of Jacopo +Cavalli, in the same chapel of St. John and Paul which contains the tomb +of the Doge Delfin. It is peculiarly rich in religious imagery, adorned +by boldly cut types of the four evangelists, and of two saints, while, +on projecting brackets in front of it, stood three statues of Faith, +Hope, and Charity, now lost, but drawn in Zanotto's work. It is all rich +in detail, and its sculptor has been proud of it, thus recording his +name below the epitaph: + + "QST OPERA DINTALGIO E FATTO IN PIERA, + UNVENICIAN LAFE CHANOME POLO, + NATO DI JACHOMEL CHATAIAPIERA." + + This work of sculpture is done in stone; + A Venetian did it, named Paul, + Son of Jachomel the stone-cutter. + +Jacopo Cavalli died in 1384. He was a bold and active Veronese soldier, +did the state much service, was therefore ennobled by it, and became the +founder of the house of the Cavalli; but I find no especial reason for +the images of the Virtues, especially that of Charity, appearing at his +tomb, unless it be this: that at the siege of Feltre, in the war against +Leopold of Austria, he refused to assault the city, because the senate +would not grant his soldiers the pillage of the town. The feet of the +recumbent figure, which is in full armor, rest on a dog, and its head on +two lions; and these animals (neither of which form any part of the +knight's bearings) are said by Zanotto to be intended to symbolize his +bravery and fidelity. If, however, the lions are meant to set forth +courage, it is a pity they should have been represented as howling. + +§ LXX. We must next pause for an instant beside the tomb of Michael +Steno, now in the northern aisle of St. John and Paul, having been +removed there from the destroyed church of the Servi: first, to note its +remarkable return to the early simplicity, the sarcophagus being +decorated only with two crosses in quatrefoils, though it is of the +fifteenth century, Steno dying in 1413; and, in the second place, to +observe the peculiarity of the epitaph, which eulogises Steno as having +been "amator justitie, pacis, et ubertatis," "a lover of justice, peace, +and plenty." In the epitaphs of this period, the virtues which are made +most account of in public men are those which were most useful to their +country. We have already seen one example in the epitaph on Simon +Dandolo; and similar expressions occur constantly in laudatory mentions +of their later Doges by the Venetian writers. Thus Sansovino of Marco +Cornaro, "Era savio huomo, eloquente, e amava molto la pace e l' +abbondanza della citta;" and of Tomaso Mocenigo, "Huomo oltre modo +desideroso della pace." + +Of the tomb of this last-named Doge mention has before been made. Here, +as in Morosini's, the images of the Virtues have no ironical power, +although their great conspicuousness marks the increase of the boastful +feeling in the treatment of monuments. For the rest, this tomb is the +last in Venice which can be considered as belonging to the Gothic +period. Its mouldings are already rudely classical, and it has +meaningless figures in Roman armor at the angles; but its tabernacle +above is still Gothic, and the recumbent figure is very beautiful. It +was carved by two Florentine sculptors in 1423. + +§ LXXI. Tomaso Mocenigo was succeeded by the renowned Doge, Francesco +Foscari, under whom, it will be remembered, the last additions were made +to the Gothic Ducal Palace; additions which, in form only, not in +spirit, corresponded to the older portions; since, during his reign, the +transition took place which permits us no longer to consider the +Venetian architecture as Gothic at all. He died in 1457, and his tomb is +the first important example of Renaissance art. + +Not, however, a good characteristic example. It is remarkable chiefly as +introducing all the faults of the Renaissance at an early period, when +its merits, such as they are, were yet undeveloped. Its claim to be +rated as a classical composition is altogether destroyed by the remnants +of Gothic feeling which cling to it here and there in their last forms +of degradation; and of which, now that we find them thus corrupted, the +sooner we are rid the better. Thus the sarcophagus is supported by a +species of trefoil arches; the bases of the shafts have still their +spurs; and the whole tomb is covered by a pediment, with crockets and a +pinnacle. We shall find that the perfect Renaissance is at least pure in +its insipidity, and subtle in its vice; but this monument is remarkable +as showing the refuse of one style encumbering the embryo of another, +and all principles of life entangled either in the swaddling clothes or +the shroud. + +§ LXXII. With respect to our present purpose, however, it is a monument +of enormous importance. We have to trace, be it remembered, the pride of +state in its gradual intrusion upon the sepulchre; and the consequent +and correlative vanishing of the expressions of religious feeling and +heavenly hope, together with the more and more arrogant setting forth of +the virtues of the dead. Now this tomb is the largest and most costly we +have yet seen; but its means of religious expression are limited to a +single statue of Christ, small and used merely as a pinnacle at the top. +The rest of the composition is as curious as it is vulgar. The conceit, +so often noticed as having been borrowed from the Pisan school, of +angels withdrawing the curtains of the couch to look down upon the dead, +was brought forward with increasing prominence by every succeeding +sculptor; but, as we draw nearer to the Renaissance period, we find that +the _angels_ become of less importance, and the _curtains_ of more. With +the Pisans, the curtains are introduced as a motive for the angels; with +the Renaissance sculptors, the angels are introduced merely as a motive +for the curtains, which become every day more huge and elaborate. In the +monument of Mocenigo, they have already expanded into a tent, with a +pole in the centre of it: and in that of Foscari, for the first time, +the _angels are absent altogether_; while the curtains are arranged in +the form of an enormous French tent-bed, and are sustained at the flanks +by two diminutive figures in Roman armor; substituted for the angels, +merely that the sculptor might _show his knowledge_ of classical +costume. And now observe how often a fault in feeling induces also a +fault in style. In the old tombs, the angels used to stand on or by the +side of the sarcophagus; but their places are here to be occupied by the +Virtues, and therefore, to sustain the diminutive Roman figures at the +necessary height, each has a whole Corinthian pillar to himself, a +pillar whose shaft is eleven feet high, and some three or four feet +round: and because this was not high enough, it is put on a pedestal +four feet and a half high; and has a spurred base besides of its own, a +tall capital, then a huge bracket above the capital, and then another +pedestal above the bracket, and on the top of all the diminutive figure +who has charge of the curtains. + +§ LXXIII. Under the canopy, thus arranged, is placed the sarcophagus +with its recumbent figure. The statues of the Virgin and the saints have +disappeared from it. In their stead, its panels are filled with +half-length figures of Faith, Hope, and Charity; while Temperance and +Fortitude are at the Doge's feet, Justice and Prudence at his head, +figures now the size of life, yet nevertheless recognizable only by +their attributes: for, except that Hope raises her eyes, there is no +difference in the character or expression of any of their faces,--they +are nothing more than handsome Venetian women, in rather full and +courtly dresses, and tolerably well thrown into postures for effect from +below. Fortitude could not of course be placed in a graceful one without +some sacrifice of her character, but that was of no consequence in the +eyes of the sculptors of this period, so she leans back languidly, and +nearly overthrows her own column; while Temperance, and Justice opposite +to her, as neither the left hand of the one nor the right hand of the +other could be seen from below, have been _left with one hand each_. + +§ LXXIV. Still these figures, coarse and feelingless as they are, have +been worked with care, because the principal effect of the tomb depends +on them. But the effigy of the Doge, of which nothing but the side is +visible, has been utterly neglected; and the ingenuity of the sculptor +is not so great, at the best, as that he can afford to be slovenly. +There is, indeed, nothing in the history of Foscari which would lead us +to expect anything particularly noble in his face; but I trust, +nevertheless, it has been misrepresented by this despicable carver; for +no words are strong enough to express the baseness of the portraiture. A +huge, gross, bony clown's face, with the peculiar sodden and sensual +cunning in it which is seen so often in the countenances of the worst +Romanist priest; a face part of iron and part of clay, with the +immobility of the one, and the foulness of the other, double chinned, +blunt-mouthed, bony-cheeked, with its brows drawn down into meagre lines +and wrinkles over the eyelids; the face of a man incapable either of joy +or sorrow, unless such as may be caused by the indulgence of passion, or +the mortification of pride. Even had he been such a one, a noble workman +would not have written it so legibly on his tomb; and I believe it to be +the image of the carver's own mind that is there hewn in the marble, not +that of the Doge Foscari. For the same mind is visible enough +throughout, the traces of it mingled with those of the evil taste of the +whole time and people. There is not anything so small but it is shown in +some portion of its treatment; for instance, in the placing of the +shields at the back of the great curtain. In earlier times, the shield, +as we have seen, was represented as merely suspended against the tomb by +a thong, or if sustained in any other manner, still its form was simple +and undisguised. Men in those days used their shields in war, and +therefore there was no need to add dignity to their form by external +ornament. That which, through day after day of mortal danger, had borne +back from them the waves of battle, could neither be degraded by +simplicity, nor exalted by decoration. By its rude leathern thong it +seemed to be fastened to their tombs, and the shield of the mighty was +not cast away, though capable of defending its master no more. + +§ LXXV. It was otherwise in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The +changed system of warfare was rapidly doing away with the practical +service of the shield; and the chiefs who directed the battle from a +distance, or who passed the greater part of their lives in the +council-chamber, soon came to regard the shield as nothing more than a +field for their armorial bearings. It then became a principal object of +their Pride of State to increase the conspicuousness of these marks of +family distinction by surrounding them with various and fantastic +ornament, generally scroll or flower work, which of course deprived the +shield of all appearance of being intended for a soldier's use. Thus the +shield of the Foscari is introduced in two ways. On the sarcophagus, +the bearings are three times repeated, enclosed in circular disks, which +are sustained each by a couple of naked infants. Above the canopy, two +shields of the usual form are set in the centre of circles filled by a +radiating ornament of shell flutings, which give them the effect of +ventilators; and their circumference is farther adorned by gilt rays, +undulating to represent a glory. + +§ LXXVI. We now approach that period of the early Renaissance which was +noticed in the preceding chapter as being at first a very visible +improvement on the corrupted Gothic. The tombs executed during the +period of the Byzantine Renaissance exhibit, in the first place, a +consummate skill in handling the chisel, perfect science of drawing and +anatomy, high appreciation of good classical models, and a grace of +composition and delicacy of ornament derived, I believe, principally +from the great Florentine sculptors. But, together with this science, +they exhibit also, for a short time, some return to the early religious +feeling, forming a school of sculpture which corresponds to that of the +school of the Bellini in painting; and the only wonder is that there +should not have been more workmen in the fifteenth century doing in +marble what Perugino, Francia, and Bellini did on canvas. There are, +indeed, some few, as I have just said, in whom the good and pure temper +shows itself: but the sculptor was necessarily led sooner than the +painter to an exclusive study of classical models, utterly adverse to +the Christian imagination; and he was also deprived of the great +purifying and sacred element of color, besides having much more of +merely mechanical and therefore degrading labor to go through in the +realization of his thought. Hence I do not know any example in sculpture +at this period, at least in Venice, which has not conspicuous faults +(not faults of imperfection, as in early sculpture, but of purpose and +sentiment), staining such beauties as it may possess; and the whole +school soon falls away, and merges into vain pomp and meagre metaphor. + +§ LXXVII. The most celebrated monument of this period is that to the +Doge Andrea Vendramin, in the Church of St. John and Paul, sculptured +about 1480, and before alluded to in the first chapter of the first +volume. It has attracted public admiration, partly by its costliness, +partly by the delicacy and precision of its chiselling; being otherwise +a very base and unworthy example of the school, and showing neither +invention nor feeling. It has the Virtues, as usual, dressed like +heathen goddesses, and totally devoid of expression, though graceful and +well studied merely as female figures. The rest of its sculpture is all +of the same kind; perfect in workmanship, and devoid of thought. Its +dragons are covered with marvellous scales, but have no terror nor sting +in them; its birds are perfect in plumage, but have no song in them; its +children lovely of limb, but have no childishness in them. + +§ LXXVIII. Of far other workmanship are the tombs of Pietro and Giovanni +Mocenigo, in St. John and Paul, and of Pietro Bernardo in the Frari; in +all which the details are as full of exquisite fancy, as they are +perfect in execution; and in the two former, and several others of +similar feeling, the old religious symbols return; the Madonna is again +seen enthroned under the canopy, and the sarcophagus is decorated with +legends of the saints. But the fatal errors of sentiment are, +nevertheless, always traceable. In the first place, the sculptor is +always seen to be intent upon the exhibition of his skill, more than on +producing any effect on the spectator's mind; elaborate backgrounds of +landscape, with tricks of perspective, imitations of trees, clouds, and +water, and various other unnecessary adjuncts, merely to show how marble +could be subdued; together with useless under-cutting, and over-finish +in subordinate parts, continually exhibiting the same cold vanity and +unexcited precision of mechanism. In the second place, the figures have +all the peculiar tendency to posture-making, which, exhibiting itself +first painfully in Perugino, rapidly destroyed the veracity of +composition in all art. By posture-making I mean, in general, that +action of figures which results from the painter's considering, in the +first place, not how, under the circumstances, they would actually have +walked, or stood, or looked, but how they may most gracefully and +harmoniously walk or stand. In the hands of a great man, posture, like +everything else, becomes noble, even when over-studied, as with Michael +Angelo, who was, perhaps, more than any other, the cause of the +mischief; but, with inferior men, this habit of composing attitudes ends +necessarily in utter lifelessness and abortion. Giotto was, perhaps, of +all painters, the most free from the infection of the poison, always +conceiving an incident naturally, and drawing it unaffectedly; and the +absence of posture-making in the works of the Pre-Raphaelites, as +opposed to the Attitudinarianism of the modern school, has been both one +of their principal virtues, and of the principal causes of outcry +against them. + +§ LXXIX. But the most significant change in the treatment of these +tombs, with respect to our immediate object, is in the form of the +sarcophagus. It was above noted, that, exactly in proportion to the +degree of the pride of life expressed in any monument, would be also the +fear of death; and therefore, as these tombs increase in splendor, in +size, and beauty of workmanship, we perceive a gradual desire to _take +away from the definite character of the sarcophagus_. In the earliest +times, as we have seen, it was a gloomy mass of stone; gradually it +became charged with religious sculpture; but never with the slightest +desire to disguise its form, until towards the middle of the fifteenth +century. It then becomes enriched with flower-work and hidden by the +Virtues; and, finally, losing its foursquare form, it is modelled on +graceful types of ancient vases, made as little like a coffin as +possible, and refined away in various elegancies, till it becomes, at +last, a mere pedestal or stage for the portrait statue. This statue, in +the meantime, has been gradually coming back to life, through a curious +series of transitions. The Vendramin monument is one of the last which +shows, or pretends to show, the recumbent figure laid in death. A few +years later, this idea became disagreeable to polite minds; and, lo! the +figures which before had been laid at rest upon the tomb pillow, raised +themselves on their elbows, and began to look round them. The soul of +the sixteenth century dared not contemplate its body in death. + +§ LXXX. The reader cannot but remember many instances of this form of +monument, England being peculiarly rich in examples of them; although, +with her, tomb sculpture, after the fourteenth century, is altogether +imitative, and in no degree indicative of the temper of the people. It +was from Italy that the authority for the change was derived; and in +Italy only, therefore, that it is truly correspondent to the change in +the national mind. There are many monuments in Venice of this +semi-animate type, most of them carefully sculptured, and some very +admirable as portraits, and for the casting of the drapery, especially +those in the Church of San Salvador; but I shall only direct the reader +to one, that of Jacopo Pesaro, Bishop of Paphos, in the Church of the +Frari; notable not only as a very skilful piece of sculpture, but for +the epitaph, singularly characteristic of the period, and confirmatory +of all that I have alleged against it: + + "James Pesaro, Bishop of Paphos, who conquered the Turks in war, + himself in peace, transported from a noble family among the Venetians + to a nobler among the angels, laid here, expects the noblest crown, + which the just Judge shall give to him in that day. He lived the + years of Plato. He died 24th March, 1547."[20] + +The mingled classicism and carnal pride of this epitaph surely need no +comment. The crown is expected as a right from the justice of the judge, +and the nobility of the Venetian family is only a little lower than that +of the angels. The quaint childishness of the "Vixit annos Platonicos" +is also very notable. + +§ LXXXI. The statue, however, did not long remain in this partially +recumbent attitude. Even the expression of peace became painful to the +frivolous and thoughtless Italians, and they required the portraiture to +be rendered in a manner that should induce no memory of death. The +statue rose up, and presented itself in front of the tomb, like an actor +upon a stage, surrounded now not merely, or not at all, by the Virtues, +but by allegorical figures of Fame and Victory, by genii and muses, by +personifications of humbled kingdoms and adoring nations, and by every +circumstance of pomp, and symbol of adulation, that flattery could +suggest, or insolence could claim. + +§ LXXXII. As of the intermediate monumental type, so also of this, the +last and most gross, there are unfortunately many examples in our own +country; but the most wonderful, by far, are still at Venice. I shall, +however, particularize only two; the first, that of the Doge John +Pesaro, in the Frari. It is to be observed that we have passed over a +considerable interval of time; we are now in the latter half of the +seventeenth century; the progress of corruption has in the meantime been +incessant, and sculpture has here lost its taste and learning as well as +its feeling. The monument is a huge accumulation of theatrical scenery +in marble: four colossal negro caryatides, grinning and horrible, with +faces of black marble and white eyes, sustain the first story of it; +above this, two monsters, long-necked, half dog and half dragon, sustain +an ornamental sarcophagus, on the top of which the full-length statue of +the Doge in robes of state stands forward with its arms expanded, like +an actor courting applause, under a huge canopy of metal, like the roof +of a bed, painted crimson and gold; on each side of him are sitting +figures of genii, and unintelligible personifications gesticulating in +Roman armor; below, between the negro caryatides, are two ghastly +figures in bronze, half corpse, half skeleton, carrying tablets on which +is written the eulogium: but in large letters graven in gold, the +following words are the first and last that strike the eye; the first +two phrases, one on each side, on tablets in the lower story, the last +under the portrait statue above: + + VIXIT ANNOS LXX. DEVIXIT ANNO MDCLIX. + "HIC REVIXIT ANNO MDCLXIX." + +We have here, at last, the horrible images of death in violent contrast +with the defiant monument, which pretends to bring the resurrection +down to earth, "Hic revixit;" and it seems impossible for false taste +and base feeling to sink lower. Yet even this monument is surpassed by +one in St. John and Paul. + +§ LXXXIII. But before we pass to this, the last with which I shall +burden the reader's attention, let us for a moment, and that we may feel +the contrast more forcibly, return to a tomb of the early times. + +In a dark niche in the outer wall of the outer corridor of St. +Mark's--not even in the church, observe, but in the atrium or porch of +it, and on the north side of the church,--is a solid sarcophagus of +white marble, raised only about two feet from the ground on four stunted +square pillars. Its lid is a mere slab of stone; on its extremities are +sculptured two crosses; in front of it are two rows of rude figures, the +uppermost representing Christ with the Apostles: the lower row is of six +figures only, alternately male and female, holding up their hands in the +usual attitude of benediction; the sixth is smaller than the rest, and +the midmost of the other five has a glory round its head. I cannot tell +the meaning of these figures, but between them are suspended censers +attached to crosses; a most beautiful symbolic expression of Christ's +mediatorial function. The whole is surrounded by a rude wreath of vine +leaves, proceeding out of the foot of a cross. + +On the bar of marble which separates the two rows of figures are +inscribed these words: + + "Here lies the Lord Marin Morosini, Duke." + +It is the tomb of the Doge Marino Morosini, who reigned from 1249 to +1252. + +§ LXXXIV. From before this rude and solemn sepulchre let us pass to the +southern aisle of the church of St. John and Paul; and there, towering +from the pavement to the vaulting of the church, behold a mass of +marble, sixty or seventy feet in height, of mingled yellow and white, +the yellow carved into the form of an enormous curtain, with ropes, +fringes, and tassels, sustained by cherubs; in front of which, in the +now usual stage attitudes, advance the statues of the Doge Bertuccio +Valier, his son the Doge Silvester Falier, and his son's wife, +Elizabeth. The statues of the Doges, though mean and Polonius-like, are +partly redeemed by the Ducal robes; but that of the Dogaressa is a +consummation of grossness, vanity, and ugliness,--the figure of a large +and wrinkled woman, with elaborate curls in stiff projection round her +face, covered from her shoulders to her feet with ruffs, furs, lace, +jewels, and embroidery. Beneath and around are scattered Virtues, +Victories, Fames, genii,--the entire company of the monumental stage +assembled, as before a drop scene,--executed by various sculptors, and +deserving attentive study as exhibiting every condition of false taste +and feeble conception. The Victory in the centre is peculiarly +interesting; the lion by which she is accompanied, springing on a +dragon, has been intended to look terrible, but the incapable sculptor +could not conceive any form of dreadfulness, could not even make the +lion look angry. It looks only lachrymose; and its lifted forepaws, +there being no spring nor motion in its body, give it the appearance of +a dog begging. The inscriptions under the two principal statues are as +follows: + + "Bertucius Valier, Duke, + Great in wisdom and eloquence, + Greater in his Hellespontic victory, + Greatest in the Prince his son. + Died in the year 1658." + + "Elisabeth Quirina, + The wife of Silvester, + Distinguished by Roman virtue, + By Venetian piety, + And by the Ducal crown, + Died 1708." + +The writers of this age were generally anxious to make the world aware +that they understood the degrees of comparison, and a large number of +epitaphs are principally constructed with this object (compare, in the +Latin, that of the Bishop of Paphos, given above): but the latter of +these epitaphs is also interesting from its mention, in an age now +altogether given up to the pursuit of worldly honor, of that "Venetian +piety" which once truly distinguished the city from all others; and of +which some form and shadow, remaining still, served to point an epitaph, +and to feed more cunningly and speciously the pride which could not be +satiated with the sumptuousness of the sepulchre. + +§ LXXXV. Thus far, then, of the second element of the Renaissance spirit, +the Pride of State; nor need we go farther to learn the reason of the +fall of Venice. She was already likened in her thoughts, and was +therefore to be likened in her ruin, to the Virgin of Babylon. The Pride +of State and the Pride of Knowledge were no new passions: the sentence +against them had gone forth from everlasting. "Thou saidst, I shall be a +lady for ever; so that thou didst not lay these things to thine heart ... +_Thy wisdom and thy knowledge, it hath perverted thee_; and thou hast +said in thine heart, I am, and none else beside me. Therefore shall evil +come upon thee ...; thy merchants from thy youth, they shall wander every +one to his quarter; none shall save thee."[21] + +§ LXXXVI. III. PRIDE OF SYSTEM. I might have illustrated these evil +principles from a thousand other sources, but I have not time to pursue +the subject farther, and must pass to the third element above named, the +Pride of System. It need not detain us so long as either of the others, +for it is at once more palpable and less dangerous. The manner in which +the pride of the fifteenth century corrupted the sources of knowledge, +and diminished the majesty, while it multiplied the trappings, of state, +is in general little observed; but the reader is probably already well +and sufficiently aware of the curious tendency to formulization and +system which, under the name of philosophy, encumbered the minds of the +Renaissance schoolmen. As it was above stated, grammar became the first +of sciences; and whatever subject had to be treated, the first aim of +the philosopher was to subject its principles to a code of laws, in the +observation of which the merit of the speaker, thinker, or worker, in +or on that subject, was thereafter to consist; so that the whole mind of +the world was occupied by the exclusive study of Restraints. The sound +of the forging of fetters was heard from sea to sea. The doctors of all +the arts and sciences set themselves daily to the invention of new +varieties of cages and manacles; they themselves wore, instead of gowns, +a chain mail, whose purpose was not so much to avert the weapon of the +adversary as to restrain the motions of the wearer; and all the acts, +thoughts, and workings of mankind,--poetry, painting, architecture, and +philosophy,--were reduced by them merely to so many different forms of +fetter-dance. + +§ LXXXVII. Now, I am very sure that no reader who has given any +attention to the former portions of this work, or the tendency of what +else I have written, more especially the last chapter of the "Seven +Lamps," will suppose me to underrate the importance, or dispute the +authority, of law. It has been necessary for me to allege these again +and again, nor can they ever be too often or too energetically alleged, +against the vast masses of men who now disturb or retard the advance of +civilization; heady and high-minded, despisers of discipline, and +refusers of correction. But law, so far as it can be reduced to form and +system, and is not written upon the heart,--as it is, in a Divine +loyalty, upon the hearts of the great hierarchies who serve and wait +about the throne of the Eternal Lawgiver,--this lower and formally +expressible law has, I say, two objects. It is either for the definition +and restraint of sin, or the guidance of simplicity; it either explains, +forbids, and punishes wickedness, or it guides the movements and actions +both of lifeless things and of the more simple and untaught among +responsible agents. And so long, therefore, as sin and foolishness are +in the world, so long it will be necessary for men to submit themselves +painfully to this lower law, in proportion to their need of being +corrected, and to the degree of childishness or simplicity by which they +approach more nearly to the condition of the unthinking and inanimate +things which are governed by law altogether; yet yielding, in the manner +of their submission to it, a singular lesson to the pride of +man,--being obedient more perfectly in proportion to their +greatness.[22] But, so far as men become good and wise, and rise above +the state of children, so far they become emancipated from this written +law, and invested with the perfect freedom which consists in the fulness +and joyfulness of compliance with a higher and unwritten law; a law so +universal, so subtle, so glorious, that nothing but the heart can keep +it. + +§ LXXXVIII. Now pride opposes itself to the observance of this Divine +law in two opposite ways: either by brute resistance, which is the way +of the rabble and its leaders, denying or defying law altogether; or by +formal compliance, which is the way of the Pharisee, exalting himself +while he pretends to obedience, and making void the infinite and +spiritual commandment by the finite and lettered commandment. And it is +easy to know which law we are obeying: for any law which we magnify and +keep through pride, is always the law of the letter; but that which we +love and keep through humility, is the law of the Spirit: And the letter +killeth, but the Spirit giveth life. + +§ LXXXIX. In the appliance of this universal principle to what we have +at present in hand, it is to be noted, that all written or writable law +respecting the arts is for the childish and ignorant: that in the +beginning of teaching, it is possible to say that this or that must or +must not be done; and laws of color and shade may be taught, as laws of +harmony are to the young scholar in music. But the moment a man begins +to be anything deserving the name of an artist, all this teachable law +has become a matter of course with him; and if, thenceforth, he boast +himself anywise in the law, or pretend that he lives and works by it, it +is a sure sign that he is merely tithing cummin, and that there is no +true art nor religion in him. For the true artist has that inspiration +in him which is above all law, or rather, which is continually working +out such magnificent and perfect obedience to supreme law, as can in no +wise be rendered by line and rule. There are more laws perceived and +fulfilled in the single stroke of a great workman, than could be written +in a volume. His science is inexpressibly subtle, directly taught him by +his Maker, not in any wise communicable or imitable.[23] Neither can any +written or definitely observable laws enable us to do any great thing. +It is possible, by measuring and administering quantities of color, to +paint a room wall so that it shall not hurt the eye; but there are no +laws by observing which we can become Titians. It is possible so to +measure and administer syllables, as to construct harmonious verse; but +there are no laws by which we can write Iliads. Out of the poem or the +picture, once produced, men may elicit laws by the volume, and study +them with advantage, to the better understanding of the existing poem or +picture; but no more write or paint another, than by discovering laws of +vegetation they can make a tree to grow. And therefore, wheresoever we +find the system and formality of rules much dwelt upon, and spoken of as +anything else than a help for children, there we may be sure that noble +art is not even understood, far less reached. And thus it was with all +the common and public mind in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The +greater men, indeed, broke through the thorn hedges; and, though much +time was lost by the learned among them in writing Latin verses and +anagrams, and arranging the framework of quaint sonnets and dexterous +syllogisms, still they tore their way through the sapless thicket by +force of intellect or of piety; for it was not possible that, either in +literature or in painting, rules could be received by any strong mind, +so as materially to interfere with its originality: and the crabbed +discipline and exact scholarship became an advantage to the men who +could pass through and despise them; so that in spite of the rules of +the drama we had Shakspeare, and in spite of the rules of art we had +Tintoret,--both of them, to this day, doing perpetual violence to the +vulgar scholarship and dim-eyed proprieties of the multitude. + +§ XC. But in architecture it was not so; for that was the art of the +multitude, and was affected by all their errors; and the great men who +entered its field, like Michael Angelo, found expression for all the +best part of their minds in sculpture, and made the architecture merely +its shell. So the simpletons and sophists had their way with it: and the +reader can have no conception of the inanities and puerilities of the +writers, who, with the help of Vitruvius, re-established its "five +orders," determined the proportions of each, and gave the various +recipes for sublimity and beauty, which have been thenceforward followed +to this day, but which may, I believe, in this age of perfect machinery, +be followed out still farther. If, indeed, there are only five perfect +forms of columns and architraves, and there be a fixed proportion to +each, it is certainly possible, with a little ingenuity, so to regulate +a stonecutting machine, as that it shall furnish pillars and friezes to +the size ordered, of any of the five orders, on the most perfect Greek +models, in any quantity; an epitome, also, of Vitruvius, may be made so +simple, as to enable any bricklayer to set them up at their proper +distances, and we may dispense with our architects altogether. + +§ XCI. But if this be not so, and there be any truth in the faint +persuasion which still lurks in men's minds that architecture _is_ an +art, and that it requires some gleam of intellect to practise it, then +let the whole system of the orders and their proportions be cast out and +trampled down as the most vain, barbarous, and paltry deception that was +ever stamped on human prejudice; and let us understand this plain truth, +common to all work of man, that, if it be good work, it is not a copy, +nor anything done by rule, but a freshly and divinely imagined thing. +Five orders! There is not a side chapel in any Gothic cathedral but it +has fifty orders, the worst of them better than the best of the Greek +ones, and all new; and a single inventive human soul could create a +thousand orders in an hour.[24] And this would have been discovered even +in the worst times, but that, as I said, the greatest men of the age +found expression for their invention in the other arts, and the best of +those who devoted themselves to architecture were in great part occupied +in adapting the construction of buildings to new necessities, such as +those developed by the invention of gunpowder (introducing a totally new +and most interesting science of fortification, which directed the +ingenuity of Sanmicheli and many others from its proper channel), and +found interest of a meaner kind in the difficulties of reconciling the +obsolete architectural laws they had consented to revive, and the forms +of Roman architecture which they agreed to copy, with the requirements +of the daily life of the sixteenth century. + +§ XCII. These, then, were the three principal directions in which the +Renaissance pride manifested itself, and its impulses were rendered +still more fatal by the entrance of another element, inevitably +associated with pride. For, as it is written, "He that trusteth in his +own heart is a fool," so also it is written, "The fool hath said in his +heart, There is no God;" and the self-adulation which influenced not +less the learning of the age than its luxury, led gradually to the +forgetfulness of all things but self, and to an infidelity only the more +fatal because it still retained the form and language of faith. + +§ XCIII. IV. INFIDELITY. In noticing the more prominent forms in which +this faithlessness manifested itself, it is necessary to distinguish +justly between that which was the consequence of respect for Paganism, +and that which followed from the corruption of Catholicism. For as the +Roman architecture is not to be made answerable for the primal +corruption of the Gothic, so neither is the Roman philosophy to be made +answerable for the primal corruption of Christianity. Year after year, +as the history of the life of Christ sank back into the depths of time, +and became obscured by the misty atmosphere of the history of the +world,--as intermediate actions and incidents multiplied in number, and +countless changes in men's modes of life, and tones of thought, rendered +it more difficult for them to imagine the facts of distant time,--it +became daily, almost hourly, a greater effort for the faithful heart to +apprehend the entire veracity and vitality of the story of its Redeemer; +and more easy for the thoughtless and remiss to deceive themselves as to +the true character of the belief they had been taught to profess. And +this must have been the case, had the pastors of the Church never failed +in their watchfulness, and the Church itself never erred in its practice +or doctrine. But when every year that removed the truths of the Gospel +into deeper distance, added to them also some false or foolish +tradition; when wilful distortion was added to natural obscurity, and +the dimness of memory was disguised by the fruitfulness of fiction; +when, moreover, the enormous temporal power granted to the clergy +attracted into their ranks multitudes of men who, but for such +temptation, would not have pretended to the Christian name, so that +grievous wolves entered in among them, not sparing the flock; and when, +by the machinations of such men, and the remissness of others, the form +and administrations of Church doctrine and discipline had become little +more than a means of aggrandizing the power of the priesthood, it was +impossible any longer for men of thoughtfulness or piety to remain in an +unquestioning serenity of faith. The Church had become so mingled with +the world that its witness could no longer be received; and the +professing members of it, who were placed in circumstances such as to +enable them to become aware of its corruptions, and whom their interest +or their simplicity did not bribe or beguile into silence, gradually +separated themselves into two vast multitudes of adverse energy, one +tending to Reformation, and the other to Infidelity. + +§ XCIV. Of these, the last stood, as it were, apart, to watch the course +of the struggle between Romanism and Protestantism; a struggle which, +however necessary, was attended with infinite calamity to the Church. +For, in the first place, the Protestant movement was, in reality, not +_reformation_ but _reanimation_. It poured new life into the Church, but +it did not form or define her anew. In some sort it rather broke down +her hedges, so that all they who passed by might pluck off her grapes. +The reformers speedily found that the enemy was never far behind the +sower of good seed; that an evil spirit might enter the ranks of +reformation as well as those of resistance; and that though the deadly +blight might be checked amidst the wheat, there was no hope of ever +ridding the wheat itself from the tares. New temptations were invented +by Satan wherewith to oppose the revived strength of Christianity: as +the Romanist, confiding in his human teachers, had ceased to try whether +they were teachers sent from God, so the Protestant, confiding in the +teaching of the Spirit, believed every spirit, and did not try the +spirits whether they were of God. And a thousand enthusiasms and +heresies speedily obscured the faith and divided the force of the +Reformation. + +§ XCV. But the main evils rose out of the antagonism of the two great +parties; primarily, in the mere fact of the existence of an antagonism. +To the eyes of the unbeliever the Church of Christ, for the first time +since its foundation, bore the aspect of a house divided against itself. +Not that many forms of schism had not before arisen in it; but either +they had been obscure and silent, hidden among the shadows of the Alps +and the marshes of the Rhine; or they had been outbreaks of visible and +unmistakable error, cast off by the Church, rootless, and speedily +withering away, while, with much that was erring and criminal, she still +retained within her the pillar and ground of the truth. But here was at +last a schism in which truth and authority were at issue. The body that +was cast off withered away no longer. It stretched out its boughs to the +sea and its branches to the river, and it was the ancient trunk that +gave signs of decrepitude. On one side stood the reanimated faith, in +its right hand the book open, and its left hand lifted up to heaven, +appealing for its proof to the Word of the Testimony and the power of +the Holy Ghost. On the other stood, or seemed to stand, all beloved +custom and believed tradition; all that for fifteen hundred years had +been closest to the hearts of men, or most precious for their help. +Long-trusted legend; long-reverenced power; long-practised discipline; +faiths that had ruled the destiny, and sealed the departure, of souls +that could not be told or numbered for multitude; prayers, that from the +lips of the fathers to those of the children had distilled like sweet +waterfalls, sounding through the silence of ages, breaking themselves +into heavenly dew to return upon the pastures of the wilderness; hopes, +that had set the face as a flint in the torture, and the sword as a +flame in the battle, that had pointed the purposes and ministered the +strength of life, brightened the last glances and shaped the last +syllables of death; charities, that had bound together the brotherhoods +of the mountain and the desert, and had woven chains of pitying or +aspiring communion between this world and the unfathomable beneath and +above; and, more than these, the spirits of all the innumerable, +undoubting, dead, beckoning to the one way by which they had been +content to follow the things that belonged unto their peace;--these all +stood on the other side: and the choice must have been a bitter one, +even at the best; but it was rendered tenfold more bitter by the +natural, but most sinful animosity of the two divisions of the Church +against each other. + +§ XCVI. On one side this animosity was, of course, inevitable. The +Romanist party, though still including many Christian men, necessarily +included, also, all the worst of those who called themselves Christians. +In the fact of its refusing correction, it stood confessed as the Church +of the unholy; and, while it still counted among its adherents many of +the simple and believing,--men unacquainted with the corruption of the +body to which they belonged, or incapable of accepting any form of +doctrine but that which they had been taught from their youth,--it +gathered together with them whatever was carnal and sensual in +priesthood or in people, all the lovers of power in the one, and of ease +in the other. And the rage of these men was, of course, unlimited +against those who either disputed their authority, reprehended their +manner of life, or cast suspicion upon the popular methods of lulling +the conscience in the lifetime, or purchasing salvation on the +death-bed. + +§ XCVII. Besides this, the reassertion and defence of various tenets +which before had been little more than floating errors in the popular +mind, but which, definitely attacked by Protestantism, it became +necessary to fasten down with a band of iron and brass, gave a form at +once more rigid, and less rational, to the whole body of Romanist +Divinity. Multitudes of minds which in other ages might have brought +honor and strength to the Church, preaching the more vital truths which +it still retained, were now occupied in pleading for arraigned +falsehoods, or magnifying disused frivolities; and it can hardly be +doubted by any candid observer, that the nascent or latent errors which +God pardoned in times of ignorance, became unpardonable when they were +formally defined and defended; that fallacies which were forgiven to the +enthusiasm of a multitude, were avenged upon the stubbornness of a +Council; that, above all, the great invention of the age, which rendered +God's word accessible to every man, left all sins against its light +incapable of excuse or expiation; and that from the moment when Rome set +herself in direct opposition to the Bible, the judgment was pronounced +upon her, which made her the scorn and the prey of her own children, and +cast her down from the throne where she had magnified herself against +heaven, so low, that at last the unimaginable scene of the Bethlehem +humiliation was mocked in the temples of Christianity. Judea had seen +her God laid in the manger of the beasts of burden; it was for +Christendom to stable the beasts of burden by the altar of her God. + +§ XCVIII. Nor, on the other hand, was the opposition of Protestantism to +the Papacy less injurious to itself. That opposition was, for the most +part, intemperate, undistinguishing, and incautious. It could indeed +hardly be otherwise. Fresh bleeding from the sword of Rome, and still +trembling at her anathema, the reformed churches were little likely to +remember any of her benefits, or to regard any of her teaching. Forced +by the Romanist contumely into habits of irreverence, by the Romanist +fallacies into habits of disbelief, the self-trusting, rashly-reasoning +spirit gained ground among them daily. Sect branched out of sect, +presumption rose over presumption; the miracles of the early Church +were denied and its martyrs forgotten, though their power and palm were +claimed by the members of every persecuted sect; pride, malice, wrath, +love of change, masked themselves under the thirst for truth, and +mingled with the just resentment of deception, so that it became +impossible even for the best and truest men to know the plague of their +own hearts; while avarice and impiety openly transformed reformation +into robbery, and reproof into sacrilege. Ignorance could as easily lead +the foes of the Church, as lull her slumber; men who would once have +been the unquestioning recipients, were now the shameless inventors of +absurd or perilous superstitions; they who were of the temper that +walketh in darkness, gained little by having discovered their guides to +be blind; and the simplicity of the faith, ill understood and +contumaciously alleged, became an excuse for the rejection of the +highest arts and most tried wisdom of mankind: while the learned +infidel, standing aloof, drew his own conclusions, both from the rancor +of the antagonists, and from their errors; believed each in all that he +alleged against the other; and smiled with superior humanity, as he +watched the winds of the Alps drift the ashes of Jerome, and the dust of +England drink the blood of King Charles. + +§ XCIX. Now all this evil was, of course, entirely independent of the +renewal of the study of Pagan writers. But that renewal found the faith +of Christendom already weakened and divided; and therefore it was itself +productive of an effect tenfold greater than could have been apprehended +from it at another time. It acted first, as before noticed, in leading +the attention of all men to words instead of things; for it was +discovered that the language of the middle ages had been corrupt, and +the primal object of every scholar became now to purify his style. To +this study of words, that of forms being added, both as of matters of +the first importance, half the intellect of the age was at once absorbed +in the base sciences of grammar, logic, and rhetoric; studies utterly +unworthy of the serious labor of men, and necessarily rendering those +employed upon them incapable of high thoughts or noble emotion. Of the +debasing tendency of philology, no proof is needed beyond once reading +a grammarian's notes on a great poet: logic is unnecessary for men who +can reason; and about as useful to those who cannot, as a machine for +forcing one foot in due succession before the other would be to a man +who could not walk: while the study of rhetoric is exclusively one for +men who desire to deceive or be deceived; he who has the truth at his +heart need never fear the want of persuasion on his tongue, or, if he +fear it, it is because the base rhetoric of dishonesty keeps the truth +from being heard. + +§ C. The study of these sciences, therefore, naturally made men shallow +and dishonest in general; but it had a peculiarly fatal effect with +respect to religion, in the view which men took of the Bible. Christ's +teaching was discovered not to be rhetorical, St. Paul's preaching not +to be logical, and the Greek of the New Testament not to be grammatical. +The stern truth, the profound pathos, the impatient period, leaping from +point to point and leaving the intervals for the hearer to fill, the +comparatively Hebraized and unelaborate idiom, had little in them of +attraction for the students of phrase and syllogism; and the chief +knowledge of the age became one of the chief stumbling-blocks to its +religion. + +§ CI. But it was not the grammarian and logician alone who was thus +retarded or perverted; in them there had been small loss. The men who +could truly appreciate the higher excellences of the classics were +carried away by a current of enthusiasm which withdrew them from every +other study. Christianity was still professed as a matter of form, but +neither the Bible nor the writings of the Fathers had time left for +their perusal, still less heart left for their acceptance. The human +mind is not capable of more than a certain amount of admiration or +reverence, and that which was given to Horace was withdrawn from David. +Religion is, of all subjects, that which will least endure a second +place in the heart or thoughts, and a languid and occasional study of it +was sure to lead to error or infidelity. On the other hand, what was +heartily admired and unceasingly contemplated was soon brought nigh to +being believed; and the systems of Pagan mythology began gradually to +assume the places in the human mind from which the unwatched +Christianity was wasting. Men did not indeed openly sacrifice to +Jupiter, or build silver shrines for Diana, but the ideas of Paganism +nevertheless became thoroughly vital and present with them at all times; +and it did not matter in the least, as far as respected the power of +true religion, whether the Pagan image was believed in or not, so long +as it entirely occupied the thoughts. The scholar of the sixteenth +century, if he saw the lightning shining from the east unto the west, +thought forthwith of Jupiter, not of the coming of the Son of Man; if he +saw the moon walking in brightness, he thought of Diana, not of the +throne which was to be established for ever as a faithful witness in +heaven; and though his heart was but secretly enticed, yet thus he +denied the God that is above.[25] + +And, indeed, this double creed, of Christianity confessed and Paganism +beloved, was worse than Paganism itself, inasmuch as it refused +effective and practical belief altogether. It would have been better to +have worshipped Diana and Jupiter at once, than to have gone on through +the whole of life naming one God, imagining another, and dreading none. +Better, a thousandfold, to have been "a Pagan suckled in some creed +outworn," than to have stood by the great sea of Eternity and seen no +God walking on its waves, no heavenly world on its horizon. + +§ CII. This fatal result of an enthusiasm for classical literature was +hastened and heightened by the misdirection of the powers of art. The +imagination of the age was actively set to realize these objects of +Pagan belief; and all the most exalted faculties of man, which, up to +that period, had been employed in the service of Faith, were now +transferred to the service of Fiction. The invention which had formerly +been both sanctified and strengthened by laboring under the command of +settled intention, and on the ground of assured belief, had now the +reins laid upon its neck by passion, and all ground of fact cut from +beneath its feet; and the imagination which formerly had helped men to +apprehend the truth, now tempted them to believe a falsehood. The +faculties themselves wasted away in their own treason; one by one they +fell in the potter's field; and the Raphael who seemed sent and inspired +from heaven that he might paint Apostles and Prophets, sank at once into +powerlessness at the feet of Apollo and the Muses. + +§ CIII. But this was not all. The habit of using the greatest gifts of +imagination upon fictitious subjects, of course destroyed the honor and +value of the same imagination used in the cause of truth. Exactly in the +proportion in which Jupiters and Mercuries were embodied and believed, +in that proportion Virgins and Angels were disembodied and disbelieved. +The images summoned by art began gradually to assume one average value +in the spectator's mind; and incidents from the Iliad and from the +Exodus to come within the same degrees of credibility. And, farther, +while the powers of the imagination were becoming daily more and more +languid, because unsupported by faith, the manual skill and science of +the artist were continually on the increase. When these had reached a +certain point, they began to be the principal things considered in the +picture, and its story or scene to be thought of only as a theme for +their manifestation. Observe the difference. In old times, men used +their powers of painting to show the objects of faith; in later times, +they used the objects of faith that they might show their powers of +painting. The distinction is enormous, the difference incalculable as +irreconcilable. And thus, the more skilful the artist, the less his +subject was regarded; and the hearts of men hardened as their handling +softened, until they reached a point when sacred, profane, or sensual +subjects were employed, with absolute indifference, for the display of +color and execution; and gradually the mind of Europe congealed into +that state of utter apathy,--inconceivable, unless it had been +witnessed, and unpardonable, unless by us, who have been infected by +it,--which permits us to place the Madonna and the Aphrodite side by +side in our galleries, and to pass, with the same unmoved inquiry into +the manner of their handling, from a Bacchanal to a Nativity. + +Now all this evil, observe, would have been merely the necessary and +natural operation of an enthusiasm for the classics, and of a delight in +the mere science of the artist, on the most virtuous mind. But this +operation took place upon minds enervated by luxury, and which were +tempted, at the very same period, to forgetfulness or denial of all +religious principle by their own basest instincts. The faith which had +been undermined by the genius of Pagans, was overthrown by the crimes of +Christians; and the ruin which was begun by scholarship, was completed +by sensuality. The characters of the heathen divinities were as suitable +to the manners of the time as their forms were agreeable to its taste; +and Paganism again became, in effect, the religion of Europe. That is to +say, the civilized world is at this moment, collectively, just as Pagan +as it was in the second century; a small body of believers being now, as +they were then, representative of the Church of Christ in the midst of +the faithless: but there is just this difference, and this very fatal +one, between the second and nineteenth centuries, that the Pagans are +nominally and fashionably Christians, and that there is every +conceivable variety and shade of belief between the two; so that not +only is it most difficult theoretically to mark the point where +hesitating trust and failing practice change into definite infidelity, +but it has become a point of politeness not to inquire too deeply into +our neighbor's religious opinions; and, so that no one be offended by +violent breach of external forms, to waive any close examination into +the tenets of faith. The fact is, we distrust each other and ourselves +so much, that we dare not press this matter; we know that if, on any +occasion of general intercourse, we turn to our next neighbor, and put +to him some searching or testing question, we shall, in nine cases out +of ten, discover him to be only a Christian in his own way, and as far +as he thinks proper, and that he doubts of many things which we +ourselves do not believe strongly enough to hear doubted without danger. +What is in reality cowardice and faithlessness, we call charity; and +consider it the part of benevolence sometimes to forgive men's evil +practice for the sake of their accurate faith, and sometimes to forgive +their confessed heresy for the sake of their admirable practice. And +under this shelter of charity, humility, and faintheartedness, the +world, unquestioned by others or by itself, mingles with and overwhelms +the small body of Christians, legislates for them, moralizes for them, +reasons for them; and, though itself of course greatly and beneficently +influenced by the association, and held much in check by its pretence to +Christianity, yet undermines, in nearly the same degree, the sincerity +and practical power of Christianity itself, until at last, in the very +institutions of which the administration may be considered as the +principal test of the genuineness of national religion, those devoted to +education, the Pagan system is completely triumphant; and the entire +body of the so-called Christian world has established a system of +instruction for its youth, wherein neither the history of Christ's +Church, nor the language of God's law, is considered a study of the +smallest importance; wherein, of all subjects of human inquiry, his own +religion is the one in which a youth's ignorance is most easily +forgiven;[26] and in which it is held a light matter that he should be +daily guilty of lying, or debauchery, or of blasphemy, so only that he +write Latin verses accurately, and with speed. + +I believe that in few years more we shall wake from all these errors in +astonishment, as from evil dreams; having been preserved, in the midst +of their madness, by those hidden roots of active and earnest +Christianity which God's grace has bound in the English nation with iron +and brass. But in the Venetian, those roots themselves had withered; +and, from the palace of their ancient religion, their pride cast them +forth hopelessly to the pasture of the brute. From pride to infidelity, +from infidelity to the unscrupulous and insatiable pursuit of pleasure, +and from this to irremediable degradation, the transitions were swift, +like the falling of a star. The great palaces of the haughtiest nobles +of Venice were stayed, before they had risen far above their +foundations, by the blast of a penal poverty; and the wild grass, on the +unfinished fragments of their mighty shafts, waves at the tide-mark +where the power of the godless people first heard the "Hitherto shalt +thou come." And the regeneration in which they had so vainly +trusted,--the new birth and clear dawning, as they thought it, of all +art, all knowledge, and all hope,--became to them as that dawn which +Ezekiel saw on the hills of Israel: "Behold the day; behold, it is come. +The rod hath blossomed, pride hath budded, violence is risen up into a +rod of wickedness. None of them shall remain, nor of their multitude; +let not the buyer rejoice, nor the seller mourn, for wrath is upon all +the multitude thereof." + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [8] Or, more briefly, science has to do with facts, art with + phenomena. To science, phenomena are of use only as they lead to + facts; and to art facts are of use only as they lead to phenomena. I + use the word "art" here with reference to the fine arts only, for + the lower arts of mechanical production I should reserve the word + "manufacture." + + [9] Tintoret. + + [10] St. Bernard. + + [11] Society always has a destructive influence upon an artist: + first by its sympathy with his meanest powers; secondly, by its + chilling want of understanding of his greatest; and, thirdly, by its + vain occupation of his time and thoughts. Of course a painter of men + must be _among_ men; but it ought to be as a watcher, not as a + companion. + + [12] I intended in this place to have introduced some special + consideration of the science of anatomy, which I believe to have + been in great part the cause of the decline of modern art; but I + have been anticipated by a writer better able to treat the subject. + I have only glanced at his book; and there is something in the + spirit of it which I do not like, and some parts of it are assuredly + wrong; but, respecting anatomy, it seems to me to settle the + question indisputably, more especially as being written by a master + of the science. I quote two passages, and must refer the reader to + the sequel. + + "_The scientific men of forty centuries_ have failed to describe so + accurately, so beautifully, so artistically, as Homer did, the + organic elements constituting the emblems of youth and beauty, and + the waste and decay which these sustain by time and age. All these + Homer understood better, and has described more truthfully than the + scientific men of forty centuries.... + + "Before I approach this question, permit me to make a few remarks on + the pre-historic period of Greece; that era which seems to have + produced nearly all the great men. + + "On looking attentively at the statues within my observation, I + cannot find the slightest foundation for the assertion that their + sculptors must have dissected the human frame and been well + acquainted with the human anatomy. They, like Homer, had discovered + Nature's secret, and bestowed their whole attention on the exterior. + The exterior they read profoundly, and studied deeply--the _living + exterior_ and the _dead_. Above all, they avoided displaying the + dead and dissected interior, through the exterior. They had + discovered that the interior presents hideous shapes, but not forms. + Men during the philosophic era of Greece saw all this, each reading + the antique to the best of his abilities. The man of genius + rediscovered the canon of the ancient masters, and wrought on its + principles. The greater number, as now, unequal to this step, merely + imitated and copied those who preceded them."--_Great Artists and + Great Anatomists_. By R. Knox, M.D. London, Van Voorst, 1852. + + Respecting the value of literary knowledge in general as regards + art, the reader will also do well to meditate on the following + sentences from Hallam's "Literature of Europe;" remembering at the + same time what I have above said, that "the root of all great art in + Europe is struck in the thirteenth century," and that the great time + is from 1250 to 1350: + + "In Germany the tenth century, Leibnitz declares, was a golden age + of learning compared with the thirteenth." + + "The writers of the thirteenth century display an incredible + ignorance, not only of pure idiom, but of common grammatical rules." + + The fourteenth century was "not superior to the thirteenth in + learning.... We may justly praise Richard of Bury for his zeal in + collecting books. But his erudition appears crude, his style + indifferent, and his thoughts superficial." + + I doubt the superficialness of the _thoughts_: at all events, this + is not a character of the time, though it may be of the writer; for + this would affect art more even than literature. + + [13] Churton's "Early English Church." London, 1840. + + [14] "Quibus nulla macula inest quĉ non cernatur. Ita viri nobilitate + prĉditi eam vitam peragant cui nulla nota possit inviri." The first + sentence is literally, "in which there is no spot that may not be + seen." But I imagine the writer meant it as I have put it in the + text, else his comparison does not hold. + + [15] Observe, however, that the magnitude spoken of here and in the + following passages, is the finished and polished magnitude sought + for the sake of pomp: not the rough magnitude sought for the sake of + sublimity: respecting which see the "Seven Lamps," chap. iii. § 5, + 6, and 8. + + [16] Can Grande died in 1329: we can hardly allow more than five + years for the erection of his tomb. + + [17] Vol. I. Chap. I. + + [18] Sansovino, lib. xiii. + + [19] Tentori, vi. 142, i. 157. + + [20] "Jacobus Pisaurius Paphi Episcopus qui Turcos bello, se ipsum + pace vincebat, ex nobili inter Venetas, ad nobiliorem inter Angelos + familiam delatus, nobilissimam in illa die Coronam justo Judice + reddente, hic situs expectat Vixit annos Platonicos. Obijt MDXLVII. + IX. Kal. Aprilis." + + [21] Isaiah xlvii. 7, 10, 11, 15. + + [22] Compare "Seven Lamps," chap. vii. § 3. + + [23] See the farther remarks on Inspiration, in the fourth chapter. + + [24] That is to say, orders separated by such distinctions as the old + Greek ones: considered with reference to the bearing power of the + capital, all orders may be referred to two, as long ago stated; just + as trees may be referred to the two great classes, monocotyledonous + and dicotyledonous. + + [25] Job xxi: 26-28; Psalm lxxxix. 37. + + [26] I shall not forget the impression made upon me at Oxford, when, + going up for my degree, and mentioning to one of the authorities + that I had not had time enough to read the Epistles properly, I was + told, that "the Epistles were separate sciences, and I need not + trouble myself about them." + + The reader will find some farther notes on this subject in Appendix + 7, "Modern Education." + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +GROTESQUE RENAISSANCE. + + +§ I. In the close of the last chapter it was noted that the phases of +transition in the moral temper of the falling Venetians, during their +fall, were from pride to infidelity, and from infidelity to the +unscrupulous _pursuit of pleasure_. During the last years of the +existence of the state, the minds both of the nobility and the people +seem to have been set simply upon the attainment of the means of +self-indulgence. There was not strength enough in them to be proud, nor +forethought enough to be ambitious. One by one the possessions of the +state were abandoned to its enemies; one by one the channels of its +trade were forsaken by its own languor, or occupied and closed against +it by its more energetic rivals; and the time, the resources, and the +thoughts of the nation were exclusively occupied in the invention of +such fantastic and costly pleasures as might best amuse their apathy, +lull their remorse, or disguise their ruin. + +§ II. The architecture raised at Venice during this period is amongst +the worst and basest ever built by the hands of men, being especially +distinguished by a spirit of brutal mockery and insolent jest, which, +exhausting itself in deformed and monstrous sculpture, can sometimes be +hardly otherwise defined than as the perpetuation in stone of the +ribaldries of drunkenness. On such a period, and on such work, it is +painful to dwell, and I had not originally intended to do so; but I +found that the entire spirit of the Renaissance could not be +comprehended unless it was followed to its consummation; and that there +were many most interesting questions arising out of the study of this +particular spirit of jesting, with reference to which I have called it +the _Grotesque_ Renaissance. For it is not this period alone which is +distinguished by such a spirit. There is jest--perpetual, careless, and +not unfrequently obscene--in the most noble work of the Gothic periods; +and it becomes, therefore, of the greatest possible importance to +examine into the nature and essence of the Grotesque itself, and to +ascertain in what respect it is that the jesting of art in its highest +flight, differs from its jesting in its utmost degradation. + +§ III. The place where we may best commence our inquiry is one renowned +in the history of Venice, the space of ground before the Church of Santa +Maria Formosa; a spot which, after the Rialto and St. Mark's Place, +ought to possess a peculiar interest in the mind of the traveller, in +consequence of its connexion with the most touching and true legend of +the Brides of Venice. That legend is related at length in every Venetian +history, and, finally, has been told by the poet Rogers, in a way which +renders it impossible for any one to tell it after him. I have only, +therefore, to remind the reader that the capture of the brides took +place in the cathedral church, St. Pietro di Castello; and that this of +Santa Maria Formosa is connected with the tale, only because it was +yearly visited with prayers by the Venetian maidens, on the anniversary +of their ancestors' deliverance. For that deliverance, their thanks were +to be rendered to the Virgin; and there was no church then dedicated to +the Virgin, in Venice, except this.[27] + +Neither of the cathedral church, nor of this dedicated to St. Mary the +Beautiful, is one stone left upon another. But, from that which has been +raised on the site of the latter, we may receive a most important +lesson, introductory to our immediate subject, if first we glance back +to the traditional history of the church which has been destroyed. + +§ IV. No more honorable epithet than "traditional" can be attached to +what is recorded concerning it, yet I should grieve to lose the legend +of its first erection. The Bishop of Uderzo, driven by the Lombards from +his Bishopric, as he was praying, beheld in a vision the Virgin Mother, +who ordered him to found a church in her honor, in the place where he +should see a white cloud rest. And when he went out, the white cloud +went before him; and on the place where it rested he built a church, and +it was called the Church of St. Mary the Beautiful, from the loveliness +of the form in which she had appeared in the vision.[28] + +The first church stood only for about two centuries. It was rebuilt in +864, and enriched with various relics some fifty years later; relics +belonging principally to St. Nicodemus, and much lamented when they and +the church were together destroyed by fire in 1105. + +It was then rebuilt in "magnifica forma," much resembling, according to +Corner, the architecture of the chancel of St. Mark;[29] but the +information which I find in various writers, as to the period at which +it was reduced to its present condition, is both sparing and +contradictory. + +§ V. Thus, by Corner, we are told that this church, resembling St. +Mark's, "remained untouched for more than four centuries," until, in +1689, it was thrown down by an earthquake, and restored by the piety of +a rich merchant, Turrin Toroni, "in ornatissima forma;" and that, for +the greater beauty of the renewed church, it had added to it two façades +of marble. With this information that of the Padre dell' Oratoria +agrees, only he gives the date of the earlier rebuilding of the church +in 1175, and ascribes it to an architect of the name of Barbetta. But +Quadri, in his usually accurate little guide, tells us that this +Barbetta rebuilt the church in the fourteenth century; and that of the +two façades, so much admired by Corner, one is of the sixteenth century, +and its architect unknown; and the rest of the church is of the +seventeenth, "in the style of Sansovino." + +§ VI. There is no occasion to examine, or endeavor to reconcile, these +conflicting accounts. All that is necessary for the reader to know is, +that every vestige of the church in which the ceremony took place was +destroyed _at least_ as early as 1689; and that the ceremony itself, +having been abolished in the close of the fourteenth century, is only to +be conceived as taking place in that more ancient church, resembling St. +Mark's, which, even according to Quadri, existed until that period. I +would, therefore, endeavor to fix the reader's mind, for a moment, on +the contrast between the former and latter aspect of this plot of +ground; the former, when it had its Byzantine church, and its yearly +procession of the Doge and the Brides; and the latter, when it has its +Renaissance church "in the style of Sansovino," and its yearly honoring +is done away. + +§ VII. And, first, let us consider for a little the significance and +nobleness of that early custom of the Venetians, which brought about the +attack and the rescue of the year 943: that there should be but one +marriage day for the nobles of the whole nation,[30] so that all might +rejoice together; and that the sympathy might be full, not only of the +families who that year beheld the alliance of their children, and prayed +for them in one crowd, weeping before the altar, but of all the families +of the state, who saw, in the day which brought happiness to others, the +anniversary of their own. Imagine the strong bond of brotherhood thus +sanctified among them, and consider also the effect on the minds of the +youth of the state; the greater deliberation and openness necessarily +given to the contemplation of marriage, to which all the people were +solemnly to bear testimony; the more lofty and unselfish tone which it +would give to all their thoughts. It was the exact contrary of stolen +marriage. It was marriage to which God and man were taken for witnesses, +and every eye was invoked for its glance, and every tongue for its +prayers.[31] + +§ VIII. Later historians have delighted themselves in dwelling on the +pageantry of the marriage day itself, but I do not find that they have +authority for the splendor of their descriptions. I cannot find a word +in the older Chronicles about the jewels or dress of the brides, and I +believe the ceremony to have been more quiet and homely than is usually +supposed. The only sentence which gives color to the usual accounts of +it is one of Sansovino's, in which he says that the magnificent dress of +the brides in his day was founded "on ancient custom."[32] However this +may have been, the circumstances of the rite were otherwise very simple. +Each maiden brought her dowry with her in a small "cassetta," or chest; +they went first to the cathedral, and waited for the youths, who having +come, they heard mass together, and the bishop preached to them and +blessed them: and so each bridegroom took his bride and her dowry and +bore her home. + +§ IX. It seems that the alarm given by the attack of the pirates put an +end to the custom of fixing one day for all marriages: but the main +objects of the institution were still attained by the perfect publicity +given to the marriages of all the noble families; the bridegroom +standing in the Court of the Ducal Palace to receive congratulations on +his betrothal, and the whole body of the nobility attending the +nuptials, and rejoicing, "as at some personal good fortune; since, by +the constitution of the state, they are for ever incorporated together, +as if of one and the same family."[33] But the festival of the 2nd of +February, after the year 943, seems to have been observed only in memory +of the deliverance of the brides, and no longer set apart for public +nuptials. + +§ X. There is much difficulty in reconciling the various accounts, or +distinguishing the inaccurate ones, of the manner of keeping this +memorable festival. I shall first give Sansovino's, which is the popular +one, and then note the points of importance in the counter-statements. +Sansovino says that the success of the pursuit of the pirates was owing +to the ready help and hard fighting of the men of the district of Sta. +Maria Formosa, for the most part trunkmakers; and that they, having been +presented after the victory to the Doge and the Senate, were told to ask +some favor for their reward. "The good men then said that they desired +the Prince, with his wife and the Signory, to visit every year the +church of their district, on the day of its feast. And the Prince asking +them, 'Suppose it should rain?' they answered, 'We will give you hats to +cover you; and if you are thirsty, we will give you to drink.' Whence is +it that the Vicar, in the name of the people, presents to the Doge, on +his visit, two flasks of malvoisie[34] and two oranges; and presents to +him two gilded hats, bearing the arms of the Pope, of the Prince, and of +the Vicar. And thus was instituted the Feast of the Maries, which was +called noble and famous because the people from all round came together +to behold it. And it was celebrated in this manner:...." The account +which follows is somewhat prolix; but its substance is, briefly, that +twelve maidens were elected, two for each division of the city; and that +it was decided by lot which contrade, or quarters of the town, should +provide them with dresses. This was done at enormous expense, one +contrada contending with another, and even the jewels of the treasury of +St. Mark being lent for the occasion to the "Maries," as the twelve +damsels were called. They, being thus dressed with gold, and silver, and +jewels, went in their galley to St. Mark's for the Doge, who joined them +with the Signory, and went first to San Pietro di Castello to hear mass +on St. Mark's day, the 31st of January, and to Santa Maria Formosa on +the 2nd of February, the intermediate day being spent in passing in +procession through the streets of the city; "and sometimes there arose +quarrels about the places they should pass through, for every one wanted +them to pass by his house." + +§ XI. Nearly the same account is given by Corner, who, however, does not +say anything about the hats or the malvoisie. These, however, we find +again in the Matricola de' Casseleri, which, of course, sets the +services of the trunkmakers and the privileges obtained by them in the +most brilliant light. The quaintness of the old Venetian is hardly to be +rendered into English. "And you must know that the said trunkmakers were +the men who were the cause of such victory, and of taking the galley, +and of cutting all the Triestines to pieces, because, at that time, they +were valiant men and well in order. The which victory was on the 2nd +February, on the day of the Madonna of candles. And at the request and +entreaties of the said trunkmakers, it was decreed that the Doge, every +year, as long as Venice shall endure, should go on the eve of the said +feast to vespers in the said church, with the Signory. And be it noted, +that the vicar is obliged to give to the Doge two flasks of malvoisie, +with two oranges besides. And so it is observed, and will be observed +always." The reader must observe the continual confusion between St. +Mark's day the 31st of January, and Candlemas the 2nd of February. The +fact appears to be, that the marriage day in the old republic was St. +Mark's day, and the recovery of the brides was the same day at evening; +so that, as we are told by Sansovino, the commemorative festival began +on that day, but it was continued to the day of the Purification, that +especial thanks might be rendered to the Virgin; and, the visit to Sta. +Maria Formosa being the most important ceremony of the whole festival, +the old chroniclers, and even Sansovino, got confused, and asserted the +victory itself to have taken place on the day appointed for that +pilgrimage. + +§ XII. I doubt not that the reader who is acquainted with the beautiful +lines of Rogers is as much grieved as I am at the interference of the +"casket-makers" with the achievement which the poet ascribes to the +bridegrooms alone; an interference quite as inopportune as that of old +Le Balafré with the victory of his nephew, in the unsatisfactory +conclusion of "Quentin Durward." I am afraid I cannot get the +casket-makers quite out of the way; but it may gratify some of my +readers to know that a chronicle of the year 1378, quoted by +Galliciolli, denies the agency of the people of Sta. Maria Formosa +altogether, in these terms: "Some say that the people of Sta. M. Formosa +were those who recovered the _spoil_ ("predra;" I may notice, in +passing, that most of the old chroniclers appear to consider the +recovery of the _caskets_ rather more a subject of congratulation than +that of the brides), and that, for their reward, they asked the Doge and +Signory to visit Sta. M. Formosa; but _this is false_. The going to Sta. +M. Formosa was because the thing had succeeded on that day, and because +this was then the only church in Venice in honor of the Virgin." But +here is again the mistake about the day itself; and besides if we get +rid altogether of the trunkmakers, how are we to account for the +ceremony of the oranges and hats, of which the accounts seem authentic? +If, however, the reader likes to substitute "carpenters" or +"house-builders" for casket-makers, he may do so with great reason (vide +Galliciolli, lib. ii. § 1758); but I fear that one or the other body of +tradesmen must be allowed to have had no small share in the honor of the +victory. + +§ XIII. But whatever doubt attaches to the particular circumstances of +its origin, there is none respecting the splendor of the festival +itself, as it was celebrated for four centuries afterwards. We find that +each contrada spent from 800 to 1000 zecchins in the dress of the +"Maries" entrusted to it; but I cannot find among how many contrade the +twelve Maries were divided; it is also to be supposed that most of the +accounts given refer to the later periods of the celebration of the +festival. In the beginning of the eleventh century, the good Doge Pietro +Orseolo II. left in his will the third of his entire fortune "per la +Festa della Marie;" and, in the fourteenth century, so many people came +from the rest of Italy to see it, that special police regulations were +made for it, and the Council of Ten were twice summoned before it took +place.[35] The expense lavished upon it seems to have increased till the +year 1379, when all the resources of the republic were required for the +terrible war of Chiozza, and all festivity was for that time put an end +to. The issue of the war left the Venetians with neither the power nor +the disposition to restore the festival on its ancient scale, and they +seem to have been ashamed to exhibit it in reduced splendor. It was +entirely abolished. + +§ XIV. As if to do away even with its memory, every feature of the +surrounding scene which was associated with that festival has been in +succeeding ages destroyed. With one solitary exception,[36] there is not +a house left in the whole Piazza of Santa Maria Formosa from whose +windows the festa of the Maries has ever been seen: of the church in +which they worshipped, not a stone is left, even the form of the ground +and direction of the neighboring canals are changed; and there is now +but one landmark to guide the steps of the traveller to the place where +the white cloud rested, and the shrine was built to St. Mary the +Beautiful. Yet the spot is still worth his pilgrimage, for he may +receive a lesson upon it, though a painful one. Let him first fill his +mind with the fair images of the ancient festival, and then seek that +landmark the tower of the modern church, built upon the place where the +daughters of Venice knelt yearly with her noblest lords; and let him +look at the head that is carved on the base of the tower,[37] still +dedicated to St. Mary the Beautiful. + +§ XV. A head,--huge, inhuman, and monstrous,--leering in bestial +degradation, too foul to be either pictured or described, or to be +beheld for more than an instant: yet let it be endured for that instant; +for in that head is embodied the type of the evil spirit to which Venice +was abandoned in the fourth period of her decline; and it is well that +we should see and feel the full horror of it on this spot, and know what +pestilence it was that came and breathed upon her beauty, until it +melted away like the white cloud from the ancient fields of Santa Maria +Formosa. + +§ XVI. This head is one of many hundreds which disgrace the latest +buildings of the city, all more or less agreeing in their expression of +sneering mockery, in most cases enhanced by thrusting out the tongue. +Most of them occur upon the bridges, which were among the very last +works undertaken by the republic, several, for instance, upon the Bridge +of Sighs; and they are evidences of a delight in the contemplation of +bestial vice, and the expression of low sarcasm, which is, I believe, +the most hopeless state into which the human mind can fall. This spirit +of idiotic mockery is, as I have said, the most striking characteristic +of the last period of the Renaissance, which, in consequence of the +character thus imparted to its sculpture, I have called grotesque; but +it must be our immediate task, and it will be a most interesting one, to +distinguish between this base grotesqueness, and that magnificent +condition of fantastic imagination, which was above noticed as one of +the chief elements of the Northern Gothic mind. Nor is this a question +of interesting speculation merely: for the distinction between the true +and false grotesque is one which the present tendencies of the English +mind have rendered it practically important to ascertain; and that in a +degree which, until he has made some progress in the consideration of +the subject, the reader will hardly anticipate. + +§ XVII. But, first, I have to note one peculiarity in the late +architecture of Venice, which will materially assist us in understanding +the true nature of the spirit which is to be the subject of our inquiry; +and this peculiarity, singularly enough, is first exemplified in the +very façade of Santa Maria Formosa which is flanked by the grotesque +head to which our attention has just been directed. This façade, whose +architect is unknown, consists of a pediment, sustained on four +Corinthian pilasters, and is, I believe, the earliest in Venice which +appears _entirely destitute of every religious symbol, sculpture, or +inscription_; unless the Cardinal's hat upon the shield in the centre of +the impediment be considered a religious symbol. The entire façade is +nothing else than a monument to the Admiral Vincenzo Cappello. Two +tablets, one between each pair of flanking pillars, record his acts and +honors; and, on the corresponding spaces upon the base of the church, +are two circular trophies, composed of halberts, arrows, flags, +tridents, helmets, and lances: sculptures which are just as valueless in +a military as in an ecclesiastical point of view; for, being all copied +from the forms of Roman arms and armor, they cannot even be referred to +for information respecting the costume of the period. Over the door, as +the chief ornament of the façade, exactly in the spot which in the +"barbarous" St. Mark's is occupied by the figure of Christ, is the +statue of Vincenzo Cappello, in Roman armor. He died in 1542; and we +have, therefore, the latter part of the sixteenth century fixed as the +period when, in Venice, churches were first built to the glory of man, +instead of the glory of God. + +§ XVIII. Throughout the whole of Scripture history, nothing is more +remarkable than the close connection of punishment with the sin of +vain-glory. Every other sin is occasionally permitted to remain, for +lengthened periods, without definite chastisement; but the forgetfulness +of God, and the claim of honor by man, as belonging to himself, are +visited at once, whether in Hezekiah, Nebuchadnezzar, or Herod, with the +most tremendous punishment. We have already seen, that the first reason +for the fall of Venice was the manifestation of such a spirit; and it is +most singular to observe the definiteness with which it is here +marked,--as if so appointed, that it might be impossible for future ages +to miss the lesson. For, in the long inscriptions[38] which record the +acts of Vincenzo Cappello, it might, at least, have been anticipated +that some expressions would occur indicative of remaining pretence to +religious feeling, or formal acknowledgement of Divine power. But there +are none whatever. The name of God does not once occur; that of St. Mark +is found only in the statement that Cappello was a procurator of the +church: there is no word touching either on the faith or hope of the +deceased; and the only sentence which alludes to supernatural powers at +all, alludes to them under the heathen name of _fates_, in its +explanation of what the Admiral Cappello _would_ have accomplished, +"nisi fata Christianis adversa vetuissent." + +§ XIX. Having taken sufficient note of all the baseness of mind which +these facts indicate in the people, we shall not be surprised to find +immediate signs of dotage in the conception of their architecture. The +churches raised throughout this period are so grossly debased, that even +the Italian critics of the present day, who are partially awakened to +the true state of art in Italy, though blind, as yet, to its true cause, +exhaust their terms of reproach upon these last efforts of the +Renaissance builders. The two churches of San Moisè and Santa Maria +Zobenigo, which are among the most remarkable in Venice for their +manifestation of insolent atheism, are characterized by Lazari, the one +as "culmine d'ogni follia architettonica," the other as "orrido ammasso +di pietra d'Istria," with added expressions of contempt, as just as it +is unmitigated. + +§ XX. Now both these churches, which I should like the reader to visit +in succession, if possible, after that of Sta. Maria Formosa, agree with +that church, and with each other, in being totally destitute of +religious symbols, and entirely dedicated to the honor of two Venetian +families. In San Moisè, a bust of Vincenzo Fini is set on a tall narrow +pyramid, above the central door, with this marvellous inscription: + + "OMNE FASTIGIVM + VIRTVTE IMPLET + VINCENTIVS FINI." + +It is very difficult to translate this; for fastigium, besides its +general sense, has a particular one in architecture, and refers to the +part of the building occupied by the bust; but the main meaning of it is +that "Vincenzo Fini fills all height with his virtue." The inscription +goes on into farther praise, but this example is enough. Over the two +lateral doors are two other laudatory inscriptions of younger members of +the Fini family, the dates of death of the three heroes being 1660, +1685, and 1726, marking thus the period of consummate degradation. + +[Illustration: Plate III. + NOBLE AND IGNOBLE GROTESQUE.] + +§ XXI. In like manner, the Church of Santa Maria Zobenigo is entirely +dedicated to the Barbaro family; the only religious symbols with which +it is invested being statues of angels blowing brazen trumpets, intended +to express the spreading of the fame of the Barbaro family in heaven. At +the top of the church is Venice crowned, between Justice and Temperance, +Justice holding a pair of grocer's scales, of iron, swinging in the +wind. There is a two-necked stone eagle (the Barbaro crest), with a +copper crown, in the centre of the pediment. A huge statue of a Barbaro +in armor, with a fantastic head-dress, over the central door; and four +Barbaros in niches, two on each side of it, strutting statues, in the +common stage postures of the period,--Jo. Maria Barbaro, sapiens +ordinum; Marinus Barbaro, Senator (reading a speech in a Ciceronian +attitude); Franc. Barbaro, legatus in classe (in armor, with high-heeled +boots, and looking resolutely fierce); and Carolus Barbaro, sapiens +ordinum: the decorations of the façade being completed by two trophies, +consisting of drums, trumpets, flags and cannon; and six plans, +sculptured in relief, of the towns of Zara, Candia, Padua, Rome, Corfu, +and Spalatro. + +§ XXII. When the traveller has sufficiently considered the meaning of +this façade, he ought to visit the Church of St. Eustachio, remarkable +for the dramatic effect of the group of sculpture on its façade, and +then the Church of the Ospedaletto (see Index, under head Ospedaletto); +noticing, on his way, the heads on the foundations of the Palazzo Corner +della Regina, and the Palazzo Pesaro, and any other heads carved on the +modern bridges, closing with those on the Bridge of Sighs. + +He will then have obtained a perfect idea of the style and feeling of +the Grotesque Renaissance. I cannot pollute this volume by any +illustration of its worst forms, but the head turned to the front, on +the right-hand in the opposite Plate, will give the general reader an +idea of its most graceful and refined developments. The figure set +beside it, on the left, is a piece of noble grotesque, from fourteenth +century Gothic; and it must be our present task to ascertain the nature +of the difference which exists between the two, by an accurate inquiry +into the true essence of the grotesque spirit itself. + +§ XXIII. First, then, it seems to me that the grotesque is, in almost +all cases, composed of two elements, one ludicrous, the other fearful; +that, as one or other of these elements prevails, the grotesque falls +into two branches, sportive grotesque and terrible grotesque; but that +we cannot legitimately consider it under these two aspects, because +there are hardly any examples which do not in some degree combine both +elements; there are few grotesques so utterly playful as to be overcast +with no shade of fearfulness, and few so fearful as absolutely to +exclude all ideas of jest. But although we cannot separate the grotesque +itself into two branches, we may easily examine separately the two +conditions of mind which it seems to combine; and consider successively +what are the kinds of jest, and what the kinds of fearfulness, which may +be legitimately expressed in the various walks of art, and how their +expressions actually occur in the Gothic and Renaissance schools. + +First, then, what are the conditions of playfulness which we may fitly +express in noble art, or which (for this is the same thing) are +consistent with nobleness in humanity? In other words, what is the +proper function of play, with respect not to youth merely, but to all +mankind? + +§ XXIV. It is a much more serious question than may be at first +supposed; for a healthy manner of play is necessary in order to a +healthy manner of work: and because the choice of our recreation is, in +most cases, left to ourselves, while the nature of our work is generally +fixed by necessity or authority, it may be well doubted whether more +distressful consequences may not have resulted from mistaken choice in +play than from mistaken direction in labor. + +§ XXV. Observe, however, that we are only concerned, here, with that +kind of play which causes laughter or implies recreation, not with that +which consists in the excitement of the energies whether of body or +mind. Muscular exertion is, indeed, in youth, one of the conditions of +recreation; "but neither the violent bodily labor which children of all +ages agree to call play," nor the grave excitement of the mental +faculties in games of skill or chance, are in anywise connected with the +state of feeling we have here to investigate, namely, that sportiveness +which man possesses in common with many inferior creatures, but to which +his higher faculties give nobler expression in the various +manifestations of wit, humor, and fancy. + +With respect to the manner in which this instinct of playfulness is +indulged or repressed, mankind are broadly distinguishable into four +classes: the men who play wisely; who play necessarily; who play +inordinately; and who play not at all. + +§ XXVI. First: Those who play wisely. It is evident that the idea of any +kind of play can only be associated with the idea of an imperfect, +childish, and fatigable nature. As far as men can raise that nature, so +that it shall no longer be interested by trifles or exhausted by toils, +they raise it above play; he whose heart is at once fixed upon heaven, +and open to the earth, so as to apprehend the importance of heavenly +doctrines, and the compass of human sorrow, will have little disposition +for jest; and exactly in proportion to the breadth and depth of his +character and intellect, will be, in general, the incapability of +surprise, or exuberant and sudden emotion, which must render play +impossible. It is, however, evidently not intended that many men should +even reach, far less pass their lives in, that solemn state of +thoughtfulness, which brings them into the nearest brotherhood with +their Divine Master; and the highest and healthiest state which is +competent to ordinary humanity appears to be that which, accepting the +necessity of recreation, and yielding to the impulses of natural delight +springing out of health and innocence, does, indeed, condescend often to +playfulness, but never without such deep love of God, of truth, and of +humanity, as shall make even its slightest words reverent, its idlest +fancies profitable, and its keenest satire indulgent. Wordsworth and +Plato furnish us with, perhaps, the finest and highest examples of this +playfulness: in the one case, unmixed with satire, the perfectly simple +effusion of that spirit--in + + "Which gives to all the self-same bent, + Whose life is wise, and innocent;" + +Plato, and, by the by, in a very wise book of our own times, not +unworthy of being named in such companionship, "Friends in Council," +mingled with an exquisitely tender and loving satire. + +§ XXVII. Secondly: The men who play necessarily. That highest species of +playfulness, which we have just been considering, is evidently the +condition of a mind, not only highly cultivated, but so habitually +trained to intellectual labor that it can bring a considerable force of +accurate thought into its moments even of recreation. This is not +possible, unless so much repose of mind and heart are enjoyed, even at +the periods of greatest exertion, that the rest required by the system +is diffused over the whole life. To the majority of mankind, such a +state is evidently unattainable. They must, perforce, pass a large part +of their lives in employments both irksome and toilsome, demanding an +expenditure of energy which exhausts the system, and yet consuming that +energy upon subjects incapable of interesting the nobler faculties. When +such employments are intermitted, those noble instincts, fancy, +imagination, and curiosity, are all hungry for the food which the labor +of the day has denied to them, while yet the weariness of the body, in a +great degree, forbids their application to any serious subject. They +therefore exert themselves without any determined purpose, and under no +vigorous restraint, but gather, as best they may, such various +nourishment, and put themselves to such fantastic exercise, as may +soonest indemnify them for their past imprisonment, and prepare them to +endure their recurrence. This sketching of the mental limbs as their +fetters fall away,--this leaping and dancing of the heart and intellect, +when they are restored to the fresh air of heaven, yet half paralyzed by +their captivity, and unable to turn themselves to any earnest +purpose,--I call necessary play. It is impossible to exaggerate its +importance, whether in polity, or in art. + +§ XXVIII. Thirdly: The men who play inordinately. The most perfect state +of society which, consistently with due understanding of man's nature, +it may be permitted us to conceive, would be one in which the whole +human race were divided, more or less distinctly, into workers and +thinkers; that is to say, into the two classes, who only play wisely, or +play necessarily. But the number and the toil of the working class are +enormously increased, probably more than doubled, by the vices of the +men who neither play wisely nor necessarily, but are enabled by +circumstances, and permitted by their want of principle, to make +amusement the object of their existence. There is not any moment of the +lives of such men which is not injurious to others; both because they +leave the work undone which was appointed for them, and because they +necessarily think wrongly, whenever it becomes compulsory upon them to +think at all. The greater portion of the misery of this world arises +from the false opinions of men whose idleness has physically +incapacitated them from forming true ones. Every duty which we omit +obscures some truth which we should have known; and the guilt of a life +spent in the pursuit of pleasure is twofold, partly consisting in the +perversion of action, and partly in the dissemination of falsehood. + +§ XXIX. There is, however, a less criminal, though hardly less dangerous +condition of mind; which, though not failing in its more urgent duties, +fails in the finer conscientiousness which regulates the degree, and +directs the choice, of amusement, at those times when amusement is +allowable. The most frequent error in this respect is the want of +reverence in approaching subjects of importance or sacredness, and of +caution in the expression of thoughts which may encourage like +irreverence in others: and these faults are apt to gain upon the mind +until it becomes habitually more sensible to what is ludicrous and +accidental, than to what is grave and essential, in any subject that is +brought before it; or even, at last, desires to perceive or to know +nothing but what may end in jest. Very generally minds of this +character are active and able; and many of them are so far +conscientious, that they believe their jesting forwards their work. But +it is difficult to calculate the harm they do, by destroying the +reverence which is our best guide into all truth; for weakness and evil +are easily visible, but greatness and goodness are often latent; and we +do infinite mischief by exposing weakness to eyes which cannot +comprehend greatness. This error, however, is more connected with abuses +of the satirical than of the playful instinct; and I shall have more to +say of it presently. + +§ XXX. Lastly: The men who do not play at all: those who are so dull or +so morose as to be incapable of inventing or enjoying jest, and in whom +care, guilt, or pride represses all healthy exhilaration of the fancy; +or else men utterly oppressed with labor, and driven too hard by the +necessities of the world to be capable of any species of happy +relaxation. + +§ XXXI. We have now to consider the way in which the presence or absence +of joyfulness, in these several classes, is expressed in art. + +1. Wise play. The first and noblest class hardly ever speak through art, +except seriously; they feel its nobleness too profoundly, and value the +time necessary for its production too highly, to employ it in the +rendering of trivial thoughts. The playful fancy of a moment may +innocently be expressed by the passing word; but he can hardly have +learned the preciousness of life, who passes days in the elaboration of +a jest. And, as to what regards the delineation of human character, the +nature of all noble art is to epitomize and embrace so much at once, +that its subject can never be altogether ludicrous; it must possess all +the solemnities of the whole, not the brightness of the partial, truth. +For all truth that makes us smile is partial. The novelist amuses us by +his relation of a particular incident; but the painter cannot set any +one of his characters before us without giving some glimpse of its whole +career. That of which the historian informs us in successive pages, it +is the task of the painter to inform us of at once, writing upon the +countenance not merely the expression of the moment, but the history of +the life: and the history of a life can never be a jest. + +Whatever part, therefore, of the sportive energy of these men of the +highest class would be expressed in verbal wit or humor finds small +utterance through their art, and will assuredly be confined, if it occur +there at all, to scattered and trivial incidents. But so far as their +minds can recreate themselves by the imagination of strange, yet not +laughable, forms, which, either in costume, in landscape, or in any +other accessaries, may be combined with those necessary for their more +earnest purposes, we find them delighting in such inventions; and a +species of grotesqueness thence arising in all their work, which is +indeed one of its most valuable characteristics, but which is so +intimately connected with the sublime or terrible form of the grotesque, +that it will be better to notice it under that head. + +§ XXXII. 2. Necessary play. I have dwelt much in a former portion of +this work, on the justice and desirableness of employing the minds of +inferior workmen, and of the lower orders in general, in the production +of objects of art of one kind or another. So far as men of this class +are compelled to hard manual labor for their daily bread, so far forth +their artistical efforts must be rough and ignorant, and their +artistical perceptions comparatively dull. Now it is not possible, with +blunt perceptions and rude hands, to produce works which shall be +pleasing by their beauty; but it is perfectly possible to produce such +as shall be interesting by their character or amusing by their satire. +For one hard-working man who possesses the finer instincts which decide +on perfection of lines and harmonies of color, twenty possess dry humor +or quaint fancy; not because these faculties were originally given to +the human race, or to any section of it, in greater degree than the +sense of beauty, but because these are exercised in our daily +intercourse with each other, and developed by the interest which we take +in the affairs of life, while the others are not. And because, +therefore, a certain degree of success will probably attend the effort +to express this humor or fancy, while comparative failure will +assuredly result from an ignorant struggle to reach the forms of solemn +beauty, the working-man, who turns his attention partially to art, will +probably, and wisely, choose to do that which he can do best, and +indulge the pride of an effective satire rather than subject himself to +assured mortification in the pursuit of beauty; and this the more, +because we have seen that his application to art is to be playful and +recreative, and it is not in recreation that the conditions of +perfection can be fulfilled. + +§ XXXIII. Now all the forms of art which result from the comparatively +recreative exertion of minds more or less blunted or encumbered by other +cares and toils, the art which we may call generally art of the wayside, +as opposed to that which is the business of men's lives, is, in the best +sense of the word, Grotesque. And it is noble or inferior, first, +according to the tone of the minds which have produced it, and in +proportion to their knowledge, wit, love of truth, and kindness; +secondly, according to the degree of strength they have been able to +give forth; but yet, however much we may find in it needing to be +forgiven, always delightful so long as it is the work of good and +ordinarily intelligent men. And its delightfulness ought mainly to +consist _in those very imperfections_ which mark it for work done in +times of rest. It is not its own merit so much as the enjoyment of him +who produced it, which is to be the source of the spectator's pleasure; +it is to the strength of his sympathy, not to the accuracy of his +criticism, that it makes appeal; and no man can indeed be a lover of +what is best in the higher walks of art, who has not feeling and charity +enough to rejoice with the rude sportiveness of hearts that have escaped +out of prison, and to be thankful for the flowers which men have laid +their burdens down to sow by the wayside. + +§ XXXIV. And consider what a vast amount of human work this right +understanding of its meaning will make fruitful and admirable to us, +which otherwise we could only have passed by with contempt. There is +very little architecture in the world which is, in the full sense of the +words, good and noble. A few pieces of Italian Gothic and Romanesque, a +few scattered fragments of Gothic cathedrals, and perhaps two or three +of Greek temples, are all that we possess approaching to an ideal of +perfection. All the rest--Egyptian, Norman, Arabian, and most Gothic, +and, which is very noticeable, for the most part all the strongest and +mightiest--depend for their power on some developement of the grotesque +spirit; but much more the inferior domestic architecture of the middle +ages, and what similar conditions remain to this day in countries from +which the life of art has not yet been banished by its laws. The +fantastic gables, built up in scroll-work and steps, of the Flemish +street; the pinnacled roofs set with their small humorist double +windows, as if with so many ears and eyes, of Northern France; the +blackened timbers, crossed and carved into every conceivable waywardness +of imagination, of Normandy and old England; the rude hewing of the pine +timbers of the Swiss cottage; the projecting turrets and bracketed +oriels of the German street; these, and a thousand other forms, not in +themselves reaching any high degree of excellence, are yet admirable, +and most precious, as the fruits of a rejoicing energy in uncultivated +minds. It is easier to take away the energy, than to add the +cultivation; and the only effect of the better knowledge which civilized +nations now possess, has been, as we have seen in a former chapter, to +forbid their being happy, without enabling them to be great. + +§ XXXV. It is very necessary, however, with respect to this provincial +or rustic architecture, that we should carefully distinguish its truly +grotesque from its picturesque elements. In the "Seven Lamps" I defined +the picturesque to be "parasitical sublimity," or sublimity belonging to +the external or accidental characters of a thing, not to the thing +itself. For instance, when a highland cottage roof is covered with +fragments of shale instead of slates, it becomes picturesque, because +the irregularity and rude fractures of the rocks, and their grey and +gloomy color, give to it something of the savageness, and much of the +general aspect, of the slope of a mountain side. But as a mere cottage +roof, it cannot be sublime, and whatever sublimity it derives from the +wildness or sternness which the mountains have given it in its covering, +is, so far forth, parasitical. The mountain itself would have been +grand, which is much more than picturesque; but the cottage cannot be +grand as such, and the parasitical grandeur which it may possess by +accidental qualities, is the character for which men have long agreed to +use the inaccurate word "Picturesque." + +§ XXXVI. On the other hand, beauty cannot be parasitical. There is +nothing so small or so contemptible, but it may be beautiful in its own +right. The cottage may be beautiful, and the smallest moss that grows on +its roof, and the minutest fibre of that moss which the microscope can +raise into visible form, and all of them in their own right, not less +than the mountains and the sky; so that we use no peculiar term to +express their beauty, however diminutive, but only when the sublime +element enters, without sufficient worthiness in the nature of the thing +to which it is attached. + +§ XXXVII. Now this picturesque element, which is always given, if by +nothing else, merely by ruggedness, adds usually very largely to the +pleasurableness of grotesque work, especially to that of its inferior +kinds; but it is not for this reason to be confounded with the +grotesqueness itself. The knots and rents of the timbers, the irregular +lying of the shingles on the roofs, the vigorous light and shadow, the +fractures and weather-stains of the old stones, which were so deeply +loved and so admirably rendered by our lost Prout, are the picturesque +elements of the architecture: the grotesque ones are those which are not +produced by the working of nature and of time, but exclusively by the +fancy of man; and, as also for the most part by his indolent and +uncultivated fancy, they are always, in some degree, wanting in +grandeur, unless the picturesque element be united with them. + +§ XXXVIII. 3. Inordinate play. The reader will have some difficulty, I +fear, in keeping clearly in his mind the various divisions of our +subject; but, when he has once read the chapter through, he will see +their places and coherence. We have next to consider the expression +throughout of the minds of men who indulge themselves in unnecessary +play. It is evident that a large number of these men will be more +refined and more highly educated than those who only play necessarily; +the power of pleasure-seeking implies, in general, fortunate +circumstances of life. It is evident also that their play will not be so +hearty, so simple, or so joyful; and this deficiency of brightness will +affect it in proportion to its unnecessary and unlawful continuance, +until at last it becomes a restless and dissatisfied indulgence in +excitement, or a painful delving after exhausted springs of pleasure. + +The art through which this temper is expressed will, in all probability, +be refined and sensual,--therefore, also, assuredly feeble; and because, +in the failure of the joyful energy of the mind, there will fail, also, +its perceptions and its sympathies, it will be entirely deficient in +expression of character, and acuteness of thought, but will be +peculiarly restless, manifesting its desire for excitement in idle +changes of subject and purpose. Incapable of true imagination, it will +seek to supply its place by exaggerations, incoherencies, and +monstrosities; and the form of the grotesque to which it gives rise will +be an incongruous chain of hackneyed graces, idly thrown +together,--prettinesses or sublimities, not of its own invention, +associated in forms which will be absurd without being fantastic, and +monstrous without being terrible. And because, in the continual pursuit +of pleasure, men lose both cheerfulness and charity, there will be small +hilarity, but much malice, in this grotesque; yet a weak malice, +incapable of expressing its own bitterness, not having grasp enough of +truth to become forcible, and exhausting itself in impotent or +disgusting caricature. + +§ XXXIX. Of course, there are infinite ranks and kinds of this +grotesque, according to the natural power of the minds which originate +it, and to the degree in which they have lost themselves. Its highest +condition is that which first developed itself among the enervated +Romans, and which was brought to the highest perfection of which it was +capable, by Raphael, in the arabesques of the Vatican. It may be +generally described as an elaborate and luscious form of nonsense. Its +lower conditions are found in the common upholstery and decorations +which, over the whole of civilized Europe, have sprung from this +poisonous root; an artistical pottage, composed of nymphs, cupids, and +satyrs, with shreddings of heads and paws of meek wild beasts, and +nondescript vegetables. And the lowest of all are those which have not +even graceful models to recommend them, but arise out of the corruption +of the higher schools, mingled with clownish or bestial satire, as is +the case in the latter Renaissance of Venice, which we were above +examining. It is almost impossible to believe the depth to which the +human mind can be debased in following this species of grotesque. In a +recent Italian garden, the favorite ornaments frequently consist of +stucco images, representing, in dwarfish caricature, the most disgusting +types of manhood and womanhood which can be found amidst the dissipation +of the modern drawingroom; yet without either veracity or humor, and +dependent, for whatever interest they possess, upon simple grossness of +expression and absurdity of costume. Grossness, of one kind or another, +is, indeed, an unfailing characteristic of the style; either latent, as +in the refined sensuality of the more graceful arabesques, or, in the +worst examples, manifested in every species of obscene conception and +abominable detail. In the head, described in the opening of this +chapter, at Santa Maria Formosa, the _teeth_ are represented as +_decayed_. + +§ XL. 4. The minds of the fourth class of men who do not play at all, +are little likely to find expression in any trivial form of art, except +in bitterness of mockery; and this character at once stamps the work in +which it appears, as belonging to the class of terrible, rather than of +playful, grotesque. We have, therefore, now to examine the state of mind +which gave rise to this second and more interesting branch of +imaginative work. + +§ XLI. Two great and principal passions are evidently appointed by the +Deity to rule the life of man; namely, the love of God, and the fear of +sin, and of its companion--Death. How many motives we have for Love, how +much there is in the universe to kindle our admiration and to claim our +gratitude, there are, happily, multitudes among us who both feel and +teach. But it has not, I think, been sufficiently considered how +evident, throughout the system of creation, is the purpose of God that +we should often be affected by Fear; not the sudden, selfish, and +contemptible fear of immediate danger, but the fear which arises out of +the contemplation of great powers in destructive operation, and +generally from the perception of the presence of death. Nothing appears +to me more remarkable than the array of scenic magnificence by which the +imagination is appalled, in myriads of instances, when the actual danger +is comparatively small; so that the utmost possible impression of awe +shall be produced upon the minds of all, though direct suffering is +inflicted upon few. Consider, for instance, the moral effect of a single +thunder-storm. Perhaps two or three persons may be struck dead within +the space of a hundred square miles; and their deaths, unaccompanied by +the scenery of the storm, would produce little more than a momentary +sadness in the busy hearts of living men. But the preparation for the +Judgment by all that mighty gathering of clouds; by the questioning of +the forest leaves, in their terrified stillness, which way the winds +shall go forth; by the murmuring to each other, deep in the distance, of +the destroying angels before they draw forth their swords of fire; by +the march of the funeral darkness in the midst of the noon-day, and the +rattling of the dome of heaven beneath the chariot-wheels of death;--on +how many minds do not these produce an impression almost as great as the +actual witnessing of the fatal issue! and how strangely are the +expressions of the threatening elements fitted to the apprehension of +the human soul! The lurid color, the long, irregular, convulsive sound, +the ghastly shapes of flaming and heaving cloud, are all as true and +faithful in their appeal to our instinct of danger, as the moaning or +wailing of the human voice itself is to our instinct of pity. It is not +a reasonable calculating terror which they awake in us; it is no matter +that we count distance by seconds, and measure probability by averages. +That shadow of the thunder-cloud will still do its work upon our hearts, +and we shall watch its passing away as if we stood upon the +threshing-floor of Araunah. + +§ XLII. And this is equally the case with respect to all the other +destructive phenomena of the universe. From the mightiest of them to the +gentlest, from the earthquake to the summer shower, it will be found +that they are attended by certain aspects of threatening, which strike +terror into the hearts of multitudes more numerous a thousandfold than +those who actually suffer from the ministries of judgment; and that, +besides the fearfulness of these immediately dangerous phenomena, there +is an occult and subtle horror belonging to many aspects of the creation +around us, calculated often to fill us with serious thought, even in our +times of quietness and peace. I understand not the most dangerous, +because most attractive form of modern infidelity, which, pretending to +exalt the beneficence of the Deity, degrades it into a reckless +infinitude of mercy, and blind obliteration of the work of sin; and +which does this chiefly by dwelling on the manifold appearances of God's +kindness on the face of creation. Such kindness is indeed everywhere and +always visible; but not alone. Wrath and threatening are invariably +mingled with the love; and in the utmost solitudes of nature, the +existence of Hell seems to me as legibly declared by a thousand +spiritual utterances, as that of Heaven. It is well for us to dwell with +thankfulness on the unfolding of the flower, and the falling of the dew, +and the sleep of the green fields in the sunshine; but the blasted +trunk, the barren rock, the moaning of the bleak winds, the roar of the +black, perilous, merciless whirlpools of the mountain streams, the +solemn solitudes of moors and seas, the continual fading of all beauty +into darkness, and of all strength into dust, have these no language for +us? We may seek to escape their teaching by reasonings touching the good +which is wrought out of all evil; but it is vain sophistry. The good +succeeds to the evil as day succeeds the night, but so also the evil to +the good. Gerizim and Ebal, birth and death, light and darkness, heaven +and hell, divide the existence of man, and his Futurity.[39] + +§ XLIII. And because the thoughts of the choice we have to make between +these two, ought to rule us continually, not so much in our own actions +(for these should, for the most part, be governed by settled habit and +principle) as in our manner of regarding the lives of other men, and our +own responsibilities with respect to them; therefore, it seems to me +that the healthiest state into which the human mind can be brought is +that which is capable of the greatest love, and the greatest awe: and +this we are taught even in our times of rest; for when our minds are +rightly in tone, the merely pleasurable excitement which they seek with +most avidity is that which rises out of the contemplation of beauty or +of terribleness. We thirst for both, and, according to the height and +tone of our feeling, desire to see them in noble or inferior forms. Thus +there is a Divine beauty, and a terribleness or sublimity coequal with +it in rank, which are the subjects of the highest art; and there is an +inferior or ornamental beauty, and an inferior terribleness coequal with +it in rank, which are the subjects of grotesque art. And the state of +mind in which the terrible form of the grotesque is developed, is that +which in some irregular manner, dwells upon certain conditions of +terribleness, into the complete depth of which it does not enter for the +time. + +§ XLIV. Now the things which are the proper subjects of human fear are +twofold; those which have the power of Death, and those which have the +nature of Sin. Of which there are many ranks, greater or less in power +and vice, from the evil angels themselves down to the serpent which is +their type, and which though of a low and contemptible class, appears +to unite the deathful and sinful natures in the most clearly visible and +intelligible form; for there is nothing else which we know, of so small +strength and occupying so unimportant a place in the economy of +creation, which yet is so mortal and so malignant. It is, then, on these +two classes of objects that the mind fixes for its excitement, in that +mood which gives rise to the terrible grotesque; and its subject will be +found always to unite some expression of vice and danger, but regarded +in a peculiar temper; sometimes (A) of predetermined or involuntary +apathy, sometimes (B) of mockery, sometimes (C) of diseased and +ungoverned imaginativeness. + +§ XLV. For observe, the difficulty which, as I above stated, exists in +distinguishing the playful from the terrible grotesque arises out of +this cause; that the mind, under certain phases of excitement, _plays_ +with _terror_, and summons images which, if it were in another temper, +would be awful, but of which, either in weariness or in irony, it +refrains for the time to acknowledge the true terribleness. And the mode +in which this refusal takes place distinguishes the noble from the +ignoble grotesque. For the master of the noble grotesque knows the depth +of all at which he seems to mock, and would feel it at another time, or +feels it in a certain undercurrent of thought even while he jests with +it; but the workman of the ignoble grotesque can feel and understand +nothing, and mocks at all things with the laughter of the idiot and the +cretin. + +To work out this distinction completely is the chief difficulty in our +present inquiry; and, in order to do so, let us consider the above-named +three conditions of mind in succession, with relation to objects of +terror. + +§ _XLVI_. (A). Involuntary or predetermined apathy. We saw above that +the grotesque was produced, chiefly in subordinate or ornamental art, by +rude, and in some degree uneducated men, and in their times of rest. At +such times, and in such subordinate work, it is impossible that they +should represent any solemn or terrible subject with a full and serious +entrance into its feeling. It is not in the languor of a leisure hour +that a man will set his whole soul to conceive the means of representing +some important truth, nor to the projecting angle of a timber bracket +that he would trust its representation, if conceived. And yet, in this +languor, and in this trivial work, he must find some expression of the +serious part of his soul, of what there is within him capable of awe, as +well as of love. The more noble the man is, the more impossible it will +be for him to confine his thoughts to mere loveliness, and that of a low +order. Were his powers and his time unlimited, so that, like Frà +Angelico, he could paint the Seraphim, in that order of beauty he could +find contentment, bringing down heaven to earth. But by the conditions +of his being, by his hard-worked life, by his feeble powers of +execution, by the meanness of his employment and the languor of his +heart, he is bound down to earth. It is the world's work that he is +doing, and world's work is not to be done without fear. And whatever +there is of deep and eternal consciousness within him, thrilling his +mind with the sense of the presence of sin and death around him, must be +expressed in that slight work, and feeble way, come of it what will. He +cannot forget it, among all that he sees of beautiful in nature; he may +not bury himself among the leaves of the violet on the rocks, and of the +lily in the glen, and twine out of them garlands of perpetual gladness. +He sees more in the earth than these,--misery and wrath, and +discordance, and danger, and all the work of the dragon and his angels; +this he sees with too deep feeling ever to forget. And though when he +returns to his idle work,--it may be to gild the letters upon the page, +or to carve the timbers of the chamber, or the stones of the +pinnacle,--he cannot give his strength of thought any more to the woe or +to the danger, there is a shadow of them still present with him: and as +the bright colors mingle beneath his touch, and the fair leaves and +flowers grow at his bidding, strange horrors and phantasms rise by their +side; grisly beasts and venomous serpents, and spectral fiends and +nameless inconsistencies of ghastly life, rising out of things most +beautiful, and fading back into them again, as the harm and the horror +of life do out of its happiness. He has seen these things; he wars with +them daily; he cannot but give them their part in his work, though in a +state of comparative apathy to them at the time. He is but carving and +gilding, and must not turn aside to weep; but he knows that hell is +burning on, for all that, and the smoke of it withers his oak-leaves. + +§ XLVII. Now, the feelings which give rise to the false or ignoble +grotesque, are exactly the reverse of these. In the true grotesque, a +man of naturally strong feeling is accidentally or resolutely apathetic; +in the false grotesque, a man naturally apathetic is forcing himself +into temporary excitement. The horror which is expressed by the one, +comes upon him whether he will or not; that which is expressed by the +other, is sought out by him, and elaborated by his art. And therefore, +also, because the fear of the one is true, and of true things, however +fantastic its expression may be, there will be reality in it, and force. +It is not a manufactured terribleness, whose author, when he had +finished it, knew not if it would terrify any one else or not: but it is +a terribleness taken from the life; a spectre which the workman indeed +saw, and which, as it appalled him, will appal us also. But the other +workman never felt any Divine fear; he never shuddered when he heard the +cry from the burning towers of the earth, + + "Venga Medusa; sì lo farem di smalto." + +He is stone already, and needs no gentle hand laid upon his eyes to save +him. + +§ XLVIII. I do not mean what I say in this place to apply to the +creations of the imagination. It is not as the creating but as the +_seeing_ man, that we are here contemplating the master of the true +grotesque. It is because the dreadfulness of the universe around him +weighs upon his heart, that his work is wild; and therefore through the +whole of it we shall find the evidence of deep insight into nature. His +beasts and birds, however monstrous, will have profound relations with +the true. He may be an ignorant man, and little acquainted with the laws +of nature; he is certainly a busy man, and has not much time to watch +nature; but he never saw a serpent cross his path, nor a bird flit +across the sky, nor a lizard bask upon a stone, without learning so much +of the sublimity and inner nature of each as will not suffer him +thenceforth to conceive them coldly. He may not be able to carve plumes +or scales well; but his creatures will bite and fly, for all that. The +ignoble workman is the very reverse of this. He never felt, never looked +at nature; and if he endeavor to imitate the work of the other, all his +touches will be made at random, and all his extravagances will be +ineffective; he may knit brows, and twist lips, and lengthen beaks, and +sharpen teeth, but it will be all in vain. He may make his creatures +disgusting, but never fearful. + +§ XLIX. There is, however, often another cause of difference than this. +The true grotesque being the expression of the _repose_ or play of a +_serious_ mind, there is a false grotesque opposed to it, which is the +result of the _full exertion_ of a _frivolous_ one. There is much +grotesque which is wrought out with exquisite care and pains, and as +much labor given to it as if it were of the noblest subject; so that the +workman is evidently no longer apathetic, and has no excuse for +unconnectedness of thought, or sudden unreasonable fear. If he awakens +horror now, it ought to be in some truly sublime form. His strength is +in his work; and he must not give way to sudden humor, and fits of +erratic fancy. If he does so, it must be because his mind is naturally +frivolous, or is for the time degraded into the deliberate pursuit of +frivolity. And herein lies the real distinction between the base +grotesque of Raphael and the Renaissance, above alluded to, and the true +Gothic grotesque. Those grotesques or arabesques of the Vatican, and +other such work, which have become the patterns of ornamentation in +modern times, are the fruit of great minds degraded to base objects. The +care, skill, and science, applied to the distribution of the leaves, and +the drawing of the figures, are intense, admirable, and accurate; +therefore, they ought to have produced a grand and serious work, not a +tissue of nonsense. If we can draw the human head perfectly, and are +masters of its expression and its beauty, we have no business to cut it +off, and hang it up by the hair at the end of a garland. If we can draw +the human body in the perfection of its grace and movement, we have no +business to take away its limbs, and terminate it with a bunch of +leaves. Or rather our doing so will imply that there is something wrong +with us; that, if we can consent to use our best powers for such base +and vain trifling, there must be something wanting in the powers +themselves; and that, however skilful we may be, or however learned, we +are wanting both in the earnestness which can apprehend a noble truth, +and in the thoughtfulness which can feel a noble fear. No Divine terror +will ever be found in the work of the man who wastes a colossal strength +in elaborating toys; for the first lesson which that terror is sent to +teach us, is the value of the human soul, and the shortness of mortal +time. + +§ L. And are we never, then, it will be asked, to possess a refined or +perfect ornamentation? Must all decoration be the work of the ignorant +and the rude? Not so; but exactly in proportion as the ignorance and +rudeness diminish, must the ornamentation become rational, and the +grotesqueness disappear. The noblest lessons may be taught in +ornamentation, the most solemn truths compressed into it. The Book of +Genesis, in all the fulness of its incidents, in all the depth of its +meaning, is bound within the leaf-borders of the gates of Ghiberti. But +Raphael's arabesque is mere elaborate idleness. It has neither meaning +nor heart in it; it is an unnatural and monstrous abortion. + +§ LI. Now, this passing of the grotesque into higher art, as the mind of +the workman becomes informed with better knowledge, and capable of more +earnest exertion, takes place in two ways. Either, as his power +increases, he devotes himself more and more to the beauty which he now +feels himself able to express, and so the grotesqueness expands, and +softens into the beautiful, as in the above-named instance of the gates +of Ghiberti; or else, if the mind of the workman be naturally inclined +to gloomy contemplation, the imperfection or apathy of his work rises +into nobler terribleness, until we reach the point of the grotesque of +Albert Durer, where, every now and then, the playfulness or apathy of +the painter passes into perfect sublime. Take the Adam and Eve, for +instance. When he gave Adam a bough to hold, with a parrot on it, and a +tablet hung to it, with "Albertus Durer Noricus faciebat, 1504," +thereupon, his mind was not in Paradise. He was half in play, half +apathetic with respect to his subject, thinking how to do his work well, +as a wise master-graver, and how to receive his just reward of fame. But +he rose into the true sublime in the head of Adam, and in the profound +truthfulness of every creature that fills the forest. So again in that +magnificent coat of arms, with the lady and the satyr, as he cast the +fluttering drapery hither and thither around the helmet, and wove the +delicate crown upon the woman's forehead, he was in a kind of play; but +there is none in the dreadful skull upon the shield. And in the "Knight +and Death," and in the dragons of the illustrations to the Apocalypse, +there is neither play nor apathy; but their grotesque is of the ghastly +kind which best illustrates the nature of death and sin. And this leads +us to the consideration of the second state of mind out of which the +noble grotesque is developed; that is to say, the temper of mockery. + +§ LII. (B). Mockery, or Satire. In the former part of this chapter, when +I spoke of the kinds of art which were produced in the recreation of the +lower orders, I only spoke of forms of ornament, not of the expression +of satire or humor. But it seems probable, that nothing is so refreshing +to the vulgar mind as some exercise of this faculty, more especially on +the failings of their superiors; and that, wherever the lower orders are +allowed to express themselves freely, we shall find humor, more or less +caustic, becoming a principal feature in their work. The classical and +Renaissance manufacturers of modern times having silenced the +independent language of the operative, his humor and satire pass away in +the word-wit which has of late become the especial study of the group of +authors headed by Charles Dickens; all this power was formerly thrown +into noble art, and became permanently expressed in the sculptures of +the cathedral. It was never thought that there was anything discordant +or improper in such a position: for the builders evidently felt very +deeply a truth of which, in modern times, we are less cognizant; that +folly and sin are, to a certain extent, synonymous, and that it would be +well for mankind in general, if all could be made to feel that +wickedness is as contemptible as it is hateful. So that the vices were +permitted to be represented under the most ridiculous forms, and all the +coarsest wit of the workman to be exhausted in completing the +degradation of the creatures supposed to be subjected to them. + +§ LIII. Nor were even the supernatural powers of evil exempt from this +species of satire. For with whatever hatred or horror the evil angels +were regarded, it was one of the conditions of Christianity that they +should also be looked upon as vanquished; and this not merely in their +great combat with the King of Saints, but in daily and hourly combats +with the weakest of His servants. In proportion to the narrowness of the +powers of abstract conception in the workman, the nobleness of the idea +of spiritual nature diminished, and the traditions of the encounters of +men with fiends in daily temptations were imagined with less terrific +circumstances, until the agencies which in such warfare were almost +always represented as vanquished with disgrace, became, at last, as much +the objects of contempt as of terror. + +The superstitions which represented the devil as assuming various +contemptible forms of disguises in order to accomplish his purposes +aided this gradual degradation of conception, and directed the study of +the workman to the most strange and ugly conditions of animal form, +until at last, even in the most serious subjects, the fiends are oftener +ludicrous than terrible. Nor, indeed, is this altogether avoidable, for +it is not possible to express intense wickedness without some condition +of degradation. Malice, subtlety, and pride, in their extreme, cannot be +written upon noble forms; and I am aware of no effort to represent the +Satanic mind in the angelic form, which has succeeded in painting. +Milton succeeds only because he separately describes the movements of +the mind, and therefore leaves himself at liberty to make the form +heroic; but that form is never distinct enough to be painted. Dante, who +will not leave even external forms obscure, degrades them before he can +feel them to be demoniacal; so also John Bunyan: both of them, I think, +having firmer faith than Milton's in their own creations, and deeper +insight into the nature of sin. Milton makes his fiends too noble, and +misses the foulness, inconstancy, and fury of wickedness. His Satan +possesses some virtues, not the less virtues for being applied to evil +purpose. Courage, resolution, patience, deliberation in council, this +latter being eminently a wise and holy character, as opposed to the +"Insania" of excessive sin: and all this, if not a shallow and false, is +a smooth and artistical, conception. On the other hand, I have always +felt that there was a peculiar grandeur in the indescribable, +ungovernable fury of Dante's fiends, ever shortening its own powers, and +disappointing its own purposes; the deaf, blind, speechless, unspeakable +rage, fierce as the lightning, but erring from its mark or turning +senselessly against itself, and still further debased by foulness of +form and action. Something is indeed to be allowed for the rude feelings +of the time, but I believe all such men as Dante are sent into the world +at the time when they can do their work best; and that, it being +appointed for him to give to mankind the most vigorous realization +possible both of Hell and Heaven, he was born both in the country and at +the time which furnished the most stern opposition of Horror and Beauty, +and permitted it to be written in the clearest terms. And, therefore, +though there are passages in the "Inferno" which it would be impossible +for any poet now to write, I look upon it as all the more perfect for +them. For there can be no question but that one characteristic of +excessive vice is indecency, a general baseness in its thoughts and acts +concerning the body,[40] and that the full portraiture of it cannot be +given without marking, and that in the strongest lines, this tendency to +corporeal degradation; which, in the time of Dante, could be done +frankly, but cannot now. And, therefore, I think the twenty-first and +twenty-second books of the "Inferno" the most perfect portraitures of +fiendish nature which we possess; and at the same time, in their +mingling of the extreme of horror (for it seems to me that the silent +swiftness of the first demon, "con l'ali aperte e sovra i pie leggiero," +cannot be surpassed in dreadfulness) with ludicrous actions and images, +they present the most perfect instances with which I am acquainted of +the terrible grotesque. But the whole of the "Inferno" is full of this +grotesque, as well as the "Faërie Queen;" and these two poems, together +with the works of Albert Durer, will enable the reader to study it in +its noblest forms, without reference to Gothic cathedrals. + +§ LIV. Now, just as there are base and noble conditions of the apathetic +grotesque, so also are there of this satirical grotesque. The condition +which might be mistaken for it is that above described as resulting from +the malice of men given to pleasure, and in which the grossness and +foulness are in the workman as much as in his subject, so that he +chooses to represent vice and disease rather than virtue and beauty, +having his chief delight in contemplating them; though he still mocks at +them with such dull wit as may be in him, because, as Young has said +most truly, + + "'Tis not in folly not to scorn a fool." + +§ LV. Now it is easy to distinguish this grotesque from its noble +counterpart, by merely observing whether any forms of beauty or dignity +are mingled with it or not; for, of course, the noble grotesque is only +employed by its master for good purposes, and to contrast with beauty: +but the base workman cannot conceive anything but what is base; and +there will be no loveliness in any part of his work, or, at the best, a +loveliness measured by line and rule, and dependent on legal shapes of +feature. But, without resorting to this test, and merely by examining +the ugly grotesque itself, it will be found that, if it belongs to the +base school, there will be, first, no Horror in it; secondly, no Nature +in it; and, thirdly, no Mercy in it. + +§ LVI. I say, first, no Horror. For the base soul has no fear of sin, +and no hatred of it: and, however it may strive to make its work +terrible, there will be no genuineness in the fear; the utmost it can do +will be to make its work disgusting. + +Secondly, there will be no Nature in it. It appears to be one of the +ends proposed by Providence in the appointment of the forms of the brute +creation, that the various vices to which mankind are liable should be +severally expressed in them so distinctly and clearly as that men could +not but understand the lesson; while yet these conditions of vice might, +in the inferior animal, be observed without the disgust and hatred which +the same vices would excite, if seen in men, and might be associated +with features of interest which would otherwise attract and reward +contemplation. Thus, ferocity, cunning, sloth, discontent, gluttony, +uncleanness, and cruelty are seen, each in its extreme, in various +animals; and are so vigorously expressed, that when men desire to +indicate the same vices in connexion with human forms, they can do it no +better than by borrowing here and there the features of animals. And +when the workman is thus led to the contemplation of the animal kingdom, +finding therein the expressions of vice which he needs, associated with +power, and nobleness, and freedom from disease, if his mind be of right +tone he becomes interested in this new study; and all noble grotesque +is, therefore, full of the most admirable rendering of animal character. +But the ignoble workman is capable of no interest of this kind; and, +being too dull to appreciate, and too idle to execute, the subtle and +wonderful lines on which the expression of the lower animal depends, he +contents himself with vulgar exaggeration, and leaves his work as false +as it is monstrous, a mass of blunt malice and obscene ignorance. + +§ LVII. Lastly, there will be no Mercy in it. Wherever the satire of the +noble grotesque fixes upon human nature, it does so with much sorrow +mingled amidst its indignation: in its highest forms there is an +infinite tenderness, like that of the fool in Lear; and even in its more +heedless or bitter sarcasm, it never loses sight altogether of the +better nature of what it attacks, nor refuses to acknowledge its +redeeming or pardonable features. But the ignoble grotesque has no pity: +it rejoices in iniquity, and exists only to slander. + +§ LVIII. I have not space to follow out the various forms of transition +which exist between the two extremes of great and base in the satirical +grotesque. The reader must always remember, that, although there is an +infinite distance between the best and worst, in this kind the interval +is filled by endless conditions more or less inclining to the evil or +the good; impurity and malice stealing gradually into the nobler forms, +and invention and wit elevating the lower, according to the countless +minglings of the elements of the human soul. + +§ LIX. (C). Ungovernableness of the imagination. The reader is always to +keep in mind that if the objects of horror, in which the terrible +grotesque finds its materials, were contemplated in their true light, +and with the entire energy of the soul, they would cease to be +grotesque, and become altogether sublime; and that therefore it is some +shortening of the power, or the will, of contemplation, and some +consequent distortion of the terrible image in which the grotesqueness +consists. Now this distortion takes place, it was above asserted, in +three ways: either through apathy, satire, or ungovernableness of +imagination. It is this last cause of the grotesque which we have +finally to consider; namely, the error and wildness of the mental +impressions, caused by fear operating upon strong powers of imagination, +or by the failure of the human faculties in the endeavor to grasp the +highest truths. + +§ LX. The grotesque which comes to all men in a disturbed dream is the +most intelligible example of this kind, but also the most ignoble; the +imagination, in this instance, being entirely deprived of all aid from +reason, and incapable of self-government. I believe, however, that the +noblest forms of imaginative power are also in some sort ungovernable, +and have in them something of the character of dreams; so that the +vision, of whatever kind, comes uncalled, and will not submit itself to +the seer, but conquers him, and forces him to speak as a prophet, +having no power over his words or thoughts.[41] Only, if the whole man +be trained perfectly, and his mind calm, consistent and powerful, the +vision which comes to him is seen as in a perfect mirror, serenely, and +in consistence with the rational powers; but if the mind be imperfect +and ill trained, the vision is seen as in a broken mirror, with strange +distortions and discrepancies, all the passions of the heart breathing +upon it in cross ripples, till hardly a trace of it remains unbroken. So +that, strictly speaking, the imagination is never governed; it is always +the ruling and Divine power: and the rest of the man is to it only as an +instrument which it sounds, or a tablet on which it writes; clearly and +sublimely if the wax be smooth and the strings true, grotesquely and +wildly if they are stained and broken. And thus the "Iliad," the +"Inferno," the "Pilgrim's Progress," the "Faërie Queen," are all of them +true dreams; only the sleep of the men to whom they came was the deep, +living sleep which God sends, with a sacredness in it, as of death, the +revealer of secrets. + +§ LXI. Now, observe in this matter, carefully, the difference between a +dim mirror and a distorted one; and do not blame me for pressing the +analogy too far, for it will enable me to explain my meaning every way +more clearly. Most men's minds are dim mirrors, in which all truth is +seen, as St. Paul tells us, darkly: this is the fault most common and +most fatal; dulness of the heart and mistiness of sight, increasing to +utter hardness and blindness; Satan breathing upon the glass, so that if +we do not sweep the mist laboriously away, it will take no image. But, +even so far as we are able to do this, we have still the distortion to +fear, yet not to the same extent, for we can in some sort allow for the +distortion of an image, if only we can see it clearly. And the fallen +human soul, at its best, must be as a diminishing glass, and that a +broken one, to the mighty truths of the universe round it; and the wider +the scope of its glance, and the vaster the truths into which it obtains +an insight, the more fantastic their distortion is likely to be, as the +winds and vapors trouble the field of the telescope most when it reaches +farthest. + +§ LXII. Now, so far as the truth is seen by the imagination[42] in its +wholeness and quietness, the vision is sublime; but so far as it is +narrowed and broken by the inconsistencies of the human capacity, it +becomes grotesque; and it would seem to be rare that any very exalted +truth should be impressed on the imagination without some grotesqueness +in its aspect, proportioned to the degree of _diminution of breadth_ in +the grasp which is given of it. Nearly all the dreams recorded in the +Bible,--Jacob's, Joseph's, Pharaoh's, Nebuchadnezzar's,--are grotesques; +and nearly the whole of the accessary scenery in the books of Ezekiel +and the Apocalypse. Thus, Jacob's dream revealed to him the ministry of +angels; but because this ministry could not be seen or understood by him +in its fulness, it was narrowed to him into a ladder between heaven and +earth, which was a grotesque. Joseph's two dreams were evidently +intended to be signs of the steadfastness of the Divine purpose towards +him, by possessing the clearness of special prophecy; yet were couched +in such imagery, as not to inform him prematurely of his destiny, and +only to be understood after their fulfilment. The sun, and moon, and +stars were at the period, and are indeed throughout the Bible, the +symbols of high authority. It was not revealed to Joseph that he should +be lord over all Egypt; but the representation of his family by symbols +of the most magnificent dominion, and yet as subject to him, must have +been afterwards felt by him as a distinctly prophetic indication of his +own supreme power. It was not revealed to him that the occasion of his +brethren's special humiliation before him should be their coming to buy +corn; but when the event took place, must he not have felt that there +was prophetic purpose in the form of the sheaves of wheat which first +imaged forth their subjection to him? And these two images of the sun +doing obeisance, and the sheaves bowing down,--narrowed and imperfect +intimations of great truth which yet could not be otherwise +conveyed,--are both grotesque. The kine of Pharaoh eating each other, +the gold and clay of Nebuchadnezzar's image, the four beasts full of +eyes, and other imagery of Ezekiel and the Apocalypse, are grotesques of +the same kind, on which I need not further insist. + +§ LXIII. Such forms, however, ought perhaps to have been arranged under +a separate head, as Symbolical Grotesque; but the element of awe enters +into them so strongly, as to justify, for all our present purposes, +their being classed with the other varieties of terrible grotesque. For +even if the symbolic vision itself be not terrible, the sense of what +may be veiled behind it becomes all the more awful in proportion to the +insignificance or strangeness of the sign itself; and, I believe, this +thrill of mingled doubt, fear, and curiosity lies at the very root of +the delight which mankind take in symbolism. It was not an accidental +necessity for the conveyance of truth by pictures instead of words, +which led to its universal adoption wherever art was on the advance; but +the Divine fear which necessarily follows on the understanding that a +thing is other and greater than it seems; and which, it appears +probable, has been rendered peculiarly attractive to the human heart, +because God would have us understand that this is true not of invented +symbols merely, but of all things amidst which we live; that there is a +deeper meaning within them than eye hath seen, or ear hath heard; and +that the whole visible creation is a mere perishable symbol of things +eternal and true. It cannot but have been sometimes a subject of wonder +with thoughtful men, how fondly, age after age, the Church has cherished +the belief that the four living creatures which surrounded the +Apocalyptic throne were symbols of the four Evangelists, and rejoiced +to use those forms in its picture-teaching; that a calf, a lion, an +eagle, and a beast with a man's face, should in all ages have been +preferred by the Christian world, as expressive of Evangelistic power +and inspiration, to the majesty of human forms; and that quaint +grotesques, awkward and often ludicrous caricatures even of the animals +represented, should have been regarded by all men, not only with +contentment, but with awe, and have superseded all endeavors to +represent the characters and persons of the Evangelistic writers +themselves (except in a few instances, confined principally to works +undertaken without a definite religious purpose);--this, I say, might +appear more than strange to us, were it not that we ourselves share the +awe, and are still satisfied with the symbol, and that justly. For, +whether we are conscious of it or not, there is in our hearts, as we +gaze upon the brutal forms that have so holy a signification, an +acknowledgment that it was not Matthew, nor Mark, nor Luke, nor John, in +whom the Gospel of Christ was unsealed: but that the invisible things of +Him from the beginning of the creation are clearly seen, being +understood by the things that are made; that the whole world, and all +that is therein, be it low or high, great or small, is a continual +Gospel; and that as the heathen, in their alienation from God, changed +His glory into an image made like unto corruptible man, and to birds, +and four-footed boasts, the Christian, in his approach to God, is to +undo this work, and to change the corruptible things into the image of +His glory; believing that there is nothing so base in creation, but that +our faith may give it wings which shall raise us into companionship with +heaven; and that, on the other hand, there is nothing so great or so +goodly in creation, but that it is a mean symbol of the Gospel of +Christ, and of the things He has prepared for them that love Him. + +§ LXIV. And it is easy to understand, if we follow out this thought, +how, when once the symbolic language was familiarized to the mind, and +its solemnity felt in all its fulness, there was no likelihood of +offence being taken at any repulsive or feeble characters in execution +or conception. There was no form so mean, no incident so commonplace, +but, if regarded in this light, it might become sublime; the more +vigorous the fancy and the more faithful the enthusiasm, the greater +would be the likelihood of their delighting in the contemplation of +symbols whose mystery was enhanced by apparent insignificance, or in +which the sanctity and majesty of meaning were contrasted with the +utmost uncouthness of external form: nor with uncouthness merely, but +even with every appearance of malignity or baseness; the beholder not +being revolted even by this, but comprehending that, as the seeming evil +in the framework of creation did not invalidate its Divine authorship, +so neither did the evil or imperfection in the symbol invalidate its +Divine message. And thus, sometimes, the designer at last became wanton +in his appeal to the piety of his interpreter, and recklessly poured out +the impurity and the savageness of his own heart, for the mere pleasure +of seeing them overlaid with the fine gold of the sanctuary, by the +religion of their beholder. + +§ LXV. It is not, however, in every symbolical subject that the fearful +grotesque becomes embodied to the full. The element of distortion which +affects the intellect when dealing with subjects above its proper +capacity, is as nothing compared with that which it sustains from the +direct impressions of terror. It is the trembling of the human soul in +the presence of death which most of all disturbs the images on the +intellectual mirror, and invests them with the fitfulness and +ghastliness of dreams. And from the contemplation of death, and of the +pangs which follow his footsteps, arise in men's hearts the troop of +strange and irresistible superstitions which, more or less melancholy or +majestic according to the dignity of the mind they impress, are yet +never without a certain grotesqueness, following on the paralysis of the +reason and over-excitement of the fancy. I do not mean to deny the +actual existence of spiritual manifestations; I have never weighed the +evidence upon the subject; but with these, if such exist, we are not +here concerned. The grotesque which we are examining arises out of that +condition of mind which appears to follow naturally upon the +contemplation of death, and in which the fancy is brought into morbid +action by terror, accompanied by the belief in spiritual presence, and +in the possibility of spiritual apparition. Hence are developed its most +sublime, because its least voluntary, creations, aided by the +fearfulness of the phenomena of nature which are in any wise the +ministers of death, and primarily directed by the peculiar ghastliness +of expression in the skeleton, itself a species of terrible grotesque in +its relation to the perfect human frame. + +§ LXVI. Thus, first born from the dusty and dreadful whiteness of the +charnel house, but softened in their forms by the holiest of human +affections, went forth the troop of wild and wonderful images, seen +through tears, that had the mastery over our Northern hearts for so many +ages. The powers of sudden destruction lurking in the woods and waters, +in the rocks and clouds;--kelpie and gnome, Lurlei and Hartz spirits; +the wraith and foreboding phantom; the spectra of second sight; the +various conceptions of avenging or tormented ghost, haunting the +perpetrator of crime, or expiating its commission; and the half +fictitious and contemplative, half visionary and believed images of the +presence of death itself, doing its daily work in the chambers of +sickness and sin, and waiting for its hour in the fortalices of strength +and the high places of pleasure;--these, partly degrading us by the +instinctive and paralyzing terror with which they are attended, and +partly ennobling us by leading our thoughts to dwell in the eternal +world, fill the last and the most important circle in that great kingdom +of dark and distorted power, of which we all must be in some sort the +subjects until mortality shall be swallowed up of life; until the waters +of the last fordless river cease to roll their untransparent volume +between us and the light of heaven, and neither death stand between us +and our brethren, nor symbols between us and our God. + +§ LXVII. We have now, I believe, obtained a view approaching to +completeness of the various branches of human feeling which are +concerned in the developement of this peculiar form of art. It remains +for us only to note, as briefly as possible, what facts in the actual +history of the grotesque bear upon our immediate subject. + +From what we have seen to be its nature, we must, I think, be led to one +most important conclusion; that wherever the human mind is healthy and +vigorous in all its proportions, great in imagination and emotion no +less than in intellect, and not overborne by an undue or hardened +preëminence of the mere reasoning faculties, there the grotesque will +exist in full energy. And, accordingly, I believe that there is no test +of greatness in periods, nations, or men, more sure than the +developement, among them or in them, of a noble grotesque, and no test +of comparative smallness or limitation, of one kind or another, more +sure than the absence of grotesque invention, or incapability of +understanding it. I think that the central man of all the world, as +representing in perfect balance the imaginative, moral, and intellectual +faculties, all at their highest, is Dante; and in him the grotesque +reaches at once the most distinct and the most noble developement to +which it was ever brought in the human mind. The two other greatest men +whom Italy has produced, Michael Angelo and Tintoret, show the same +element in no less original strength, but oppressed in the one by his +science, and in both by the spirit of the age in which they lived; +never, however, absent even in Michael Angelo, but stealing forth +continually in a strange and spectral way, lurking in folds of raiment +and knots of wild hair, and mountainous confusions of craggy limb and +cloudy drapery; and, in Tintoret, ruling the entire conceptions of his +greatest works to such a degree that they are an enigma or an offence, +even to this day, to all the petty disciples of a formal criticism. Of +the grotesque in our own Shakspeare I need hardly speak, nor of its +intolerableness to his French critics; nor of that of Ĉschylus and +Homer, as opposed to the lower Greek writers; and so I believe it will +be found, at all periods, in all minds of the first order. + +§ LXVIII. As an index of the greatness of nations, it is a less certain +test, or, rather, we are not so well agreed on the meaning of the term +"greatness" respecting them. A nation may produce a great effect, and +take up a high place in the world's history, by the temporary enthusiasm +or fury of its multitudes, without being truly great; or, on the other +hand, the discipline of morality and common sense may extend its +physical power or exalt its well-being, while yet its creative and +imaginative powers are continually diminishing. And again: a people may +take so definite a lead over all the rest of the world in one direction, +as to obtain a respect which is not justly due to them if judged on +universal grounds. Thus the Greeks perfected the sculpture of the human +body; threw their literature into a disciplined form, which has given it +a peculiar power over certain conditions of modern mind; and were the +most carefully educated race that the world has seen; but a few years +hence, I believe, we shall no longer think them a greater people than +either the Egyptians or Assyrians. + +§ LXIX. If, then, ridding ourselves as far as possible of prejudices +owing merely to the school-teaching which remains from the system of the +Renaissance, we set ourselves to discover in what races the human soul, +taken all in all, reached its highest magnificence, we shall find, I +believe, two great families of men, one of the East and South, the other +of the West and North: the one including the Egyptians, Jews, Arabians, +Assyrians, and Persians; the other, I know not whence derived, but +seeming to flow forth from Scandinavia, and filling the whole of Europe +with its Norman and Gothic energy. And in both these families, wherever +they are seen in their utmost nobleness, there the grotesque is +developed in its utmost energy; and I hardly know whether most to admire +the winged bulls of Nineveh, or the winged dragons of Verona. + +§ LXX. The reader who has not before turned his attention to this +subject may, however, at first have some difficulty in distinguishing +between the noble grotesque of these great nations, and the barbarous +grotesque of mere savages, as seen in the work of the Hindoo and other +Indian nations; or, more grossly still, in that of the complete savage +of the Pacific islands; or if, as is to be hoped, he instinctively +feels the difference, he may yet find difficulty in determining wherein +that difference consists. But he will discover, on consideration, that +the noble grotesque _involves the true appreciation of beauty_, though +the mind may wilfully turn to other images or the hand resolutely stop +short of the perfection which it must fail, if it endeavored, to reach; +while the grotesque of the Sandwich islander involves no perception or +imagination of anything above itself. He will find that in the exact +proportion in which the grotesque results from an incapability of +perceiving beauty, it becomes savage or barbarous; and that there are +many stages of progress to be found in it even in its best times, much +truly savage grotesque occurring in the fine Gothic periods, mingled +with the other forms of the ignoble grotesque resulting from vicious +inclinations or base sportiveness. Nothing is more mysterious in the +history of the human mind, than the manner in which gross and ludicrous +images are mingled with the most solemn subjects in the work of the +middle ages, whether of sculpture or illumination; and although, in +great part, such incongruities are to be accounted for on the various +principles which I have above endeavored to define, in many instances +they are clearly the result of vice and sensuality. The general +greatness of seriousness of an age does not effect the restoration of +human nature; and it would be strange, if, in the midst of the art even +of the best periods, when that art was entrusted to myriads of workmen, +we found no manifestations of impiety, folly, or impurity. + +§ LXXI. It needs only to be added that in the noble grotesque, as it is +partly the result of a morbid state of the imaginative power, that power +itself will be always seen in a high degree; and that therefore our +power of judging of the rank of a grotesque work will depend on the +degree in which we are in general sensible of the presence of invention. +The reader may partly test this power in himself by referring to the +Plate given in the opening of this chapter, in which, on the left, is a +piece of noble and inventive grotesque, a head of the lion-symbol of St. +Mark, from the Veronese Gothic; the other is a head introduced as a +boss on the foundation of the Palazzo Corner della Regina at Venice, +utterly devoid of invention, made merely monstrous by exaggerations of +the eyeballs and cheeks, and generally characteristic of that late +Renaissance grotesque of Venice, with which we are at present more +immediately concerned.[43] + +§ LXXII. The developement of that grotesque took place under different +laws from those which regulate it in any other European city. For, great +as we have seen the Byzantine mind show itself to be in other +directions, it was marked as that of a declining nation by the absence +of the grotesque element; and, owing to its influence, the early +Venetian Gothic remained inferior to all other schools in this +particular character. Nothing can well be more wonderful than its +instant failure in any attempt at the representation of ludicrous or +fearful images, more especially when it is compared with the magnificent +grotesque of the neighboring city of Verona, in which the Lombard +influence had full sway. Nor was it until the last links of connexion +with Constantinople had been dissolved, that the strength of the +Venetian mind could manifest itself in this direction. But it had then a +new enemy to encounter. The Renaissance laws altogether checked its +imagination in architecture; and it could only obtain permission to +express itself by starting forth in the work of the Venetian painters, +filling them with monkeys and dwarfs, even amidst the most serious +subjects, and leading Veronese and Tintoret to the most unexpected and +wild fantasies of form and color. + +§ LXXIII. We may be deeply thankful for this peculiar reserve of the +Gothic grotesque character to the last days of Venice. All over the rest +of Europe it had been strongest in the days of imperfect art; +magnificently powerful throughout the whole of the thirteenth century, +tamed gradually in the fourteenth and fifteenth, and expiring in the +sixteenth amidst anatomy and laws of art. But at Venice, it had not been +received when it was elsewhere in triumph, and it fled to the lagoons +for shelter when elsewhere it was oppressed. And it was arrayed by the +Venetian painters in robes of state, and advanced by them to such honor +as it had never received in its days of widest dominion; while, in +return, it bestowed upon their pictures that fulness, piquancy, decision +of parts, and mosaic-like intermingling of fancies, alternately +brilliant and sublime, which were exactly what was most needed for the +developement of their unapproachable color-power. + +§ LXXIV. Yet, observe, it by no means follows that because the grotesque +does not appear in the art of a nation, the sense of it does not exist +in the national mind. Except in the form of caricature, it is hardly +traceable in the English work of the present day; but the minds of our +workmen are full of it, if we would only allow them to give it shape. +They express it daily in gesture and gibe, but are not allowed to do so +where it would be useful. In like manner, though the Byzantine influence +repressed it in the early Venetian architecture, it was always present +in the Venetian mind, and showed itself in various forms of national +custom and festival; _acted_ grotesques, full of wit, feeling, and +good-humor. The ceremony of the hat and the orange, described in the +beginning of this chapter, is one instance out of multitudes. Another, +more rude, and exceedingly characteristic, was that instituted in the +twelfth century in memorial of the submission of Woldaric, the patriarch +of Aquileia, who, having taken up arms against the patriarch of Grado, +and being defeated and taken prisoner by the Venetians, was sentenced, +not to death, but to send every year on "Fat Thursday" sixty-two large +loaves, twelve fat pigs, and a bull, to the Doge; the bull being +understood to represent the patriarch, and the twelve pigs his clergy: +and the ceremonies of the day consisting in the decapitation of these +representatives, and a distribution of their joints among the senators; +together with a symbolic record of the attack upon Aquileia, by the +erection of a wooden castle in the rooms of the Ducal Palace, which the +_Doge and the Senate_ attacked and demolished with clubs. As long as the +Doge and the Senate were truly kingly and noble, they were content to +let this ceremony be continued; but when they became proud and selfish, +and were destroying both themselves and the state by their luxury, they +found it inconsistent with their dignity, and it was abolished, as far +as the Senate was concerned, in 1549.[44] + +§ LXXV. By these and other similar manifestations, the grotesque spirit +is traceable through all the strength of the Venetian people. But again: +it is necessary that we should carefully distinguish between it and the +spirit of mere levity. I said, in the fifth chapter, that the Venetians +were distinctively a serious people, serious, that is to say, in the +sense in which the English are a more serious people than the French; +though the habitual intercourse of our lower classes in London has a +tone of humor in it which I believe is untraceable in that of the +Parisian populace. It is one thing to indulge in playful rest, and +another to be devoted to the pursuit of pleasure: and gaiety of heart +during the reaction after hard labor, and quickened by satisfaction in +the accomplished duty or perfected result, is altogether compatible +with, nay, even in some sort arises naturally out of, a deep internal +seriousness of disposition; this latter being exactly the condition of +mind which, as we have seen, leads to the richest developements of the +playful grotesque; while, on the contrary, the continual pursuit of +pleasure deprives the soul of all alacrity and elasticity, and leaves it +incapable of happy jesting, capable only of that which is bitter, base, +and foolish. Thus, throughout the whole of the early career of the +Venetians, though there is much jesting, there is no levity; on the +contrary there is an intense earnestness both in their pursuit of +commercial and political successes, and in their devotion to +religion,[45] which led gradually to the formation of that highly +wrought mingling of immovable resolution with secret thoughtfulness, +which so strangely, sometimes so darkly, distinguishes the Venetian +character at the time of their highest power, when the seriousness was +left, but the conscientiousness destroyed. And if there be any one sign +by which the Venetian countenance, as it is recorded for us, to the very +life, by a school of portraiture which has never been equalled (chiefly +because no portraiture ever had subjects so noble),--I say, if there be +one thing more notable than another in the Venetian features, it is this +deep pensiveness and solemnity. In other districts of Italy, the dignity +of the heads which occur in the most celebrated compositions is clearly +owing to the feeling of the painter. He has visibly raised or idealized +his models, and appears always to be veiling the faults or failings of +the human nature around him, so that the best of his work is that which +has most perfectly taken the color of his own mind; and the least +impressive, if not the least valuable, that which appears to have been +unaffected and unmodified portraiture. But at Venice, all is exactly the +reverse of this. The tone of mind in the painter appears often in some +degree frivolous or sensual; delighting in costume, in domestic and +grotesque incident, and in studies of the naked form. But the moment he +gives himself definitely to portraiture, all is noble and grave; the +more literally true his work, the more majestic; and the same artist who +will produce little beyond what is commonplace in painting a Madonna or +an apostle, will rise into unapproachable sublimity when his subject is +a member of the Forty, or a Master of the Mint. + +Such, then, were the general tone and progress of the Venetian mind, up +to the close of the seventeenth century. First, serious, religious, and +sincere; then, though serious still, comparatively deprived of +conscientiousness, and apt to decline into stern and subtle policy: in +the first case, the spirit of the noble grotesque not showing itself in +art at all, but only in speech and action; in the second case, +developing itself in painting, through accessories and vivacities of +composition, while perfect dignity was always preserved in portraiture. +A third phase rapidly developed itself. + +§ LXXVI. Once more, and for the last time, let me refer the reader to +the important epoch of the death of the Doge Tomaso Mocenigo in 1423, +long ago indicated as the commencement of the decline of the Venetian +power. That commencement is marked, not merely by the words of the dying +Prince, but by a great and clearly legible sign. It is recorded, that on +the accession of his successor, Foscari, to the throne, "SI FESTEGGIO +DALLA CITTA UNO ANNO INTERO:" "The city kept festival for a whole year." +Venice had in her childhood sown, in tears, the harvest she was to reap +in rejoicing. She now sowed in laughter the seeds of death. + +Thenceforward, year after year, the nation drank with deeper thirst from +the fountains of forbidden pleasure, and dug for springs, hitherto +unknown, in the dark places of the earth. In the ingenuity of +indulgence, in the varieties of vanity, Venice surpassed the cities of +Christendom, as of old she surpassed them in fortitude and devotion; and +as once the powers of Europe stood before her judgment-seat, to receive +the decisions of her justice, so now the youth of Europe assembled in +the halls of her luxury, to learn from her the arts of delight. + +It is as needless, as it is painful, to trace the steps of her final +ruin. That ancient curse was upon her, the curse of the cities of the +plain, "Pride, fulness of bread, and abundance of idleness." By the +inner burning of her own passions, as fatal as the fiery reign of +Gomorrah, she was consumed from her place among the nations; and her +ashes are choking the channels of the dead salt sea. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [27] Mutinelli, Annali Urbani, lib. i. p. 24; and the Chronicle of + 1738, quoted by Galliciolli: "attrovandosi allora la giesia de Sta. + Maria Formosa sola giesia del nome della gloriosa Vergine Maria." + + [28] Or from the brightness of the cloud, according to the Padre who + arranged the "Memorie delle Chiese di Venezia," vol. iii. p. 7. + Compare Corner, p. 42. This first church was built in 639. + + [29] Perhaps both Corner and the Padre founded their diluted + information on the short sentence of Sansovino: "Finalmente, l'anno + 1075, fu ridotta a perfezione da Paolo Barbetta, sul modello del + corpo di mezzo della chiesa di S. Marco." Sansovino, however, gives + 842, instead of 864, as the date of the first rebuilding. + + [30] Or at least for its principal families. Vide Appendix 8, "Early + Venetian Marriages." + + [31] "Nazionale quasi la ceremonia, perciocche per essa nuovi + difensori ad acquistar andava la patria, sostegni nuovi le leggi, la + Liberta."--_Mutinelli._ + + [32] "Vestita, _per antico uso_, di bianco, e con chiome sparse giù + per le spalle, conteste con fila d'oro." "Dressed according to + ancient usage in white, and with her hair thrown down upon her + shoulders, interwoven with threads of gold." This was when she was + first brought out of her chamber to be seen by the guests invited to + the espousals. "And when the form of the espousal has been gone + through, she is led, to the sound of pipes and trumpets, and other + musical instruments, round the room, _dancing serenely all the time, + and bowing herself before the guests_ (ballando placidamente, e + facendo inchini ai convitati); and so she returns to her chamber: + and when other guests have arrived, she again comes forth, and makes + the circuit of the chamber. And this is repeated for an hour or + somewhat more; and then, accompanied by many ladies who wait for + her, she enters a gondola without its felze (canopy), and, seated on + a somewhat raised seat covered with carpets, with a great number of + gondolas following her, she goes to visit the monasteries and + convents, wheresoever she has any relations." + + [33] Sansovino. + + [34] English, "Malmsey." The reader will find a most amusing account + of the negotiations between the English and Venetians, touching the + supply of London with this wine, in Mr. Brown's translation of the + Giustiniani papers. See Appendix IX. + + [35] "XV. diebus et octo diebus ante festum Mariarum omni + anno."--_Galliciolli._ The same precautions were taken before the + feast of the Ascension. + + [36] Casa Vittura. + + [37] The keystone of the arch on its western side, facing the canal. + + [38] The inscriptions are as follows: + + To the left of the reader. + + "VINCENTIUS CAPELLUS MARITIMARUM + RERUM PERITISSIMUS ET ANTIQUORUM + LAUDIBUS PAR, TRIREMIUM ONERARIA + RUM PRĈFECTUS, AB HENRICO VII. BRI + TANNIĈ REGE INSIGNE DONATUS CLAS + SIS LEGATUS V. IMP. DESIG. TER CLAS + SEM DEDUXIT, COLLAPSAM NAVALEM DIS + CIPLINAM RESTITUIT, AD ZACXINTHUM + AURIĈ CĈSARIS LEGATO PRISCAM + VENETAM VIRTUTEM OSTENDIT." + + To the right of the reader. + + "IN AMBRACIO SINU BARBARUSSUM OTTHO + MANICĈ CLASSIS DUCEM INCLUSIT + POSTRIDIE AD INTERNITIONEM DELETU + RUS NISI FATA CHRISTIANIS ADVERSA + VETUISSENT. IN RYZONICO SINU CASTRO NOVO + EXPUGNATO DIVI MARCI PROCUR + UNIVERSO REIP CONSENSU CREATUS + IN PATRIA MORITUR TOTIUS CIVITATIS + MOERORE, ANNO ĈTATIS LXXIV. MDCXLII. XIV. KAL SEPT." + + [39] The Love of God is, however, always shown by the predominance, + or greater sum, of good, in the end; but never by the annihilation + of evil. The modern doubts of eternal punishment are not so much the + consequence of benevolence as of feeble powers of reasoning. Every + one admits that God brings finite good out of finite evil. Why not, + therefore, infinite good out of infinite evil? + + [40] Let the reader examine, with special reference to this subject, + the general character of the language of Iago. + + [41] This opposition of art to inspiration is long and gracefully + dwelt upon by Plato, in his "Phĉdrus," using, in the course of his + argument, almost the words of St Paul: [Greek: kallion marturousin + oi palaioi manian sôphrosynês tên ek Theou tês par anthrôpôn + gignomenês]: "It is the testimony of the ancients, that _the madness + which is of God is a nobler thing than the wisdom which is of men_;" + and again, "He who sets himself to any work with which the Muses + have to do," (i. e. to any of the fine arts,) "without madness, + thinking that by art alone he can do his work sufficiently, will be + found vain and incapable, and the work of temperance and rationalism + will be thrust aside and obscured by that of inspiration." The + passages to the same effect, relating especially to poetry, are + innumerable in nearly all ancient writers; but in this of Plato, the + entire compass of the fine arts is intended to be embraced. + + No one acquainted with other parts of my writings will suppose me to + be an advocate of idle trust in the imagination. But it is in these + days just as necessary to allege the supremacy of genius as the + necessity of labor; for there never was, perhaps, a period in which + the peculiar gift of the painter was so little discerned, in which + so many and so vain efforts have been made to replace it by study + and toil. This has been peculiarly the case with the German school, + and there are few exhibitions of human error more pitiable than the + manner in which the inferior members of it, men originally and for + ever destitute of the painting faculty, force themselves into an + unnatural, encumbered, learned fructification of tasteless fruit, + and pass laborious lives in setting obscurely and weakly upon canvas + the philosophy, if such it be, which ten minutes' work of a strong + man would have put into healthy practice, or plain words. I know not + anything more melancholy than the sight of the huge German cartoon, + with its objective side, and subjective side; and mythological + division, and symbolical division, and human and Divine division; + its allegorical sense, and literal sense; and ideal point of view, + and intellectual point of view; its heroism of well-made armor and + knitted brows; its heroinism of graceful attitude and braided hair; + its inwoven web of sentiment, and piety, and philosophy, and + anatomy, and history, all profound: and twenty innocent dashes of + the hand of one God-made painter, poor old Bassan or Bonifazio, were + worth it all, and worth it ten thousand times over. + + Not that the sentiment or the philosophy is base in itself. They + will make a good man, but they will not make a good painter,--no, + nor the millionth part of a painter. They would have been good in + the work and words of daily life; but they are good for nothing in + the cartoon, if they are there alone. And the worst result of the + system is the intense conceit into which it cultivates a weak mind. + Nothing is so hopeless, so intolerable, as the pride of a foolish + man who has passed through a process of thinking, so as actually to + have found something out. He believes there is nothing else to be + found out in the universe. Whereas the truly great man, on whom the + Revelations rain till they bear him to the earth with their weight, + lays his head in the dust, and speaks thence--often in broken + syllables. Vanity is indeed a very equally divided inheritance among + mankind; but I think that among the first persons, no emphasis is + altogether so strong as that on the German _Ich_. I was once + introduced to a German philosopher-painter before Tintoret's + "Massacre of the Innocents." He looked at it superciliously, and + said it "wanted to be restored." He had been himself several years + employed in painting a "Faust" in a red jerkin and blue fire; which + made Tintoret appear somewhat dull to him. + + [42] I have before stated ("Modern Painters" vol. ii.) that the + first function of the imagination is the apprehension of ultimate + truth. + + [43] Note especially, in connexion with what was advanced in Vol. II. + respecting our English neatness of execution, how the base workman + has cut the lines of the architecture neatly and precisely round the + abominable head: but the noble workman has used his chisel like a + painter's pencil, and sketched the glory with a few irregular lines, + anything rather than circular; and struck out the whole head in the + same frank and fearless way, leaving the sharp edges of the stone as + they first broke, and flinging back the crest of hair from the + forehead with half a dozen hammer-strokes, while the poor wretch who + did the other was half a day in smoothing its vapid and vermicular + curls. + + [44] The decree is quoted by Mutinelli, lib. i. p. 46. + + [45] See Appendix 9. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +CONCLUSION. + + +§ I. I fear this chapter will be a rambling one, for it must be a kind +of supplement to the preceding pages, and a general recapitulation of +the things I have too imperfectly and feebly said. + +The grotesques of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the nature +of which we examined in the last chapter, close the career of the +architecture of Europe. They were the last evidences of any feeling +consistent with itself, and capable of directing the efforts of the +builder to the formation of anything worthy the name of a style or +school. From that time to this, no resuscitation of energy has taken +place, nor does any for the present appear possible. How long this +impossibility may last, and in what direction with regard to art in +general, as well as to our lifeless architecture, our immediate efforts +may most profitably be directed, are the questions I would endeavor +briefly to consider in the present chapter. + +§ II. That modern science, with all its additions to the comforts of +life, and to the fields of rational contemplation, has placed the +existing races of mankind on a higher platform than any that preceded +them, none can doubt for an instant; and I believe the position in which +we find ourselves is somewhat analogous to that of thoughtful and +laborious youth succeeding a restless and heedless infancy. Not long +ago, it was said to me by one of the masters of modern science: "When +men invented the locomotive, the child was learning to go; when they +invented the telegraph, it was learning to speak." He looked forward to +the manhood of mankind, as assuredly the nobler in proportion to the +slowness of its developement. What might not be expected from the prime +and middle strength of the order of existence whose infancy had lasted +six thousand years? And, indeed, I think this the truest, as well as the +most cheering, view that we can take of the world's history. Little +progress has been made as yet. Base war, lying policy, thoughtless +cruelty, senseless improvidence,--all things which, in nations, are +analogous to the petulance, cunning, impatience, and carelessness of +infancy,--have been, up to this hour, as characteristic of mankind as +they were in the earliest periods; so that we must either be driven to +doubt of human progress at all, or look upon it as in its very earliest +stage. Whether the opportunity is to be permitted us to redeem the hours +that we have lost; whether He, in whose sight a thousand years are as +one day, has appointed us to be tried by the continued possession of the +strange powers with which He has lately endowed us; or whether the +periods of childhood and of probation are to cease together, and the +youth of mankind is to be one which shall prevail over death, and bloom +for ever in the midst of a new heaven and a new earth, are questions +with which we have no concern. It is indeed right that we should look +for, and hasten, so far as in us lies, the coming of the Day of God; but +not that we should check any human efforts by anticipations of its +approach. We shall hasten it best by endeavoring to work out the tasks +that are appointed for us here; and, therefore, reasoning as if the +world were to continue under its existing dispensation, and the powers +which have just been granted to us were to be continued through myriads +of future ages. + +§ III. It seems to me, then, that the whole human race, so far as their +own reason can be trusted, may at present be regarded as just emergent +from childhood; and beginning for the first time to feel their strength, +to stretch their limbs, and explore the creation around them. If we +consider that, till within the last fifty years, the nature of the +ground we tread on, of the air we breathe, and of the light by which we +see, were not so much as conjecturally conceived by us; that the +duration of the globe, and the races of animal life by which it was +inhabited, are just beginning to be apprehended; and that the scope of +the magnificent science which has revealed them, is as yet so little +received by the public mind, that presumption and ignorance are still +permitted to raise their voices against it unrebuked; that perfect +veracity in the representation of general nature by art has never been +attempted until the present day, and has in the present day been +resisted with all the energy of the popular voice;[46] that the simplest +problems of social science are yet so little understood, as that +doctrines of liberty and equality can be openly preached, and so +successfully as to affect the whole body of the civilized world with +apparently incurable disease; that the first principles of commerce were +acknowledged by the English Parliament only a few months ago, in its +free trade measures, and are still so little understood by the million, +that no nation dares to abolish its custom-houses;[47] that the simplest +principles of policy are still not so much as stated, far less received, +and that civilized nations persist in the belief that the subtlety and +dishonesty which they know to be ruinous in dealings between man and +man, are serviceable in dealings between multitude and multitude; +finally, that the scope of the Christian religion, which we have been +taught for two thousand years, is still so little conceived by us, that +we suppose the laws of charity and of self-sacrifice bear upon +individuals in all their social relations, and yet do not bear upon +nations in any of their political relations;--when, I say, we thus +review the depth of simplicity in which the human race are still +plunged with respect to all that it most profoundly concerns them to +know, and which might, by them, with most ease have been ascertained, we +can hardly determine how far back on the narrow path of human progress +we ought to place the generation to which we belong, how far the +swaddling clothes are unwound from us, and childish things beginning to +be put away. + +On the other hand, a power of obtaining veracity in the representation +of material and tangible things, which, within certain limits and +conditions, is unimpeachable, has now been placed in the hands of all +men,[48] almost without labor. The foundation of every natural science +is now at last firmly laid, not a day passing without some addition of +buttress and pinnacle to their already magnificent fabric. Social +theorems, if fiercely agitated, are therefore the more likely to be at +last determined, so that they never can be matters of question more. +Human life has been in some sense prolonged by the increased powers of +locomotion, and an almost limitless power of converse. Finally, there is +hardly any serious mind in Europe but is occupied, more or less, in the +investigation of the questions which have so long paralyzed the strength +of religious feeling, and shortened the dominion of religious faith. And +we may therefore at least look upon ourselves as so far in a definite +state of progress, as to justify our caution in guarding against the +dangers incident to every period of change, and especially to that from +childhood into youth. + +§ IV. Those dangers appear, in the main, to be twofold; consisting +partly in the pride of vain knowledge, partly in the pursuit of vain +pleasure. A few points are still to be noticed with respect to each of +these heads. + +Enough, it might be thought, had been said already, touching the pride +of knowledge; but I have not yet applied the principles, at which we +arrived in the third chapter, to the practical questions of modern art. +And I think those principles, together with what were deduced from the +consideration of the nature of Gothic in the second volume, so necessary +and vital, not only with respect to the progress of art, but even to the +happiness of society, that I will rather run the risk of tediousness +than of deficiency, in their illustration and enforcement. + +In examining the nature of Gothic, we concluded that one of the chief +elements of power in that, and in _all good_ architecture, was the +acceptance of uncultivated and rude energy in the workman. In examining +the nature of Renaissance, we concluded that its chief element of +weakness was that pride of knowledge which not only prevented all +rudeness in expression, but gradually quenched all energy which could +only be rudely expressed; nor only so, but, for the motive and matter of +the work itself, preferred science to emotion, and experience to +perception. + +§ V. The modern mind differs from the Renaissance mind in that its +learning is more substantial and extended, and its temper more humble; +but its errors, with respect to the cultivation of art, are precisely +the same,--nay, as far as regards execution, even more aggravated. We +require, at present, from our general workmen, more perfect finish than +was demanded in the most skilful Renaissance periods, except in their +very finest productions; and our leading principles in teaching, and in +the patronage which necessarily gives tone to teaching, are, that the +goodness of work consists primarily in firmness of handling and accuracy +of science, that is to say, in hand-work and head-work; whereas +heart-work, which is the _one_ work we want, is not only independent of +both, but often, in great degree, inconsistent with either. + +§ VI. Here, therefore, let me finally and firmly enunciate the great +principle to which all that has hitherto been stated is +subservient:--that art is valuable or otherwise, only as it expresses +the personality, activity, and living perception of a good and great +human soul; that it may express and contain this with little help from +execution, and less from science; and that if it have not this, if it +show not the vigor, perception, and invention of a mighty human spirit, +it is worthless. Worthless, I mean, as _art_; it may be precious in some +other way, but, as art, it is nugatory. Once let this be well understood +among us, and magnificent consequences will soon follow. Let me repeat +it in other terms, so that I may not be misunderstood. All art is great, +and good, and true, only so far as it is distinctively the work of +_manhood_ in its entire and highest sense; that is to say, not the work +of limbs and fingers, but of the soul, aided, according to her +necessities, by the inferior powers; and therefore distinguished in +essence from all products of those inferior powers unhelped by the soul. +For as a photograph is not a work of art, though it requires certain +delicate manipulations of paper and acid, and subtle calculations of +time, in order to bring out a good result; so, neither would a drawing +_like_ a photograph, made directly from nature, be a work of art, +although it would imply many delicate manipulations of the pencil and +subtle calculations of effects of color and shade. It is no more art[49] +to manipulate a camel's hair pencil, than to manipulate a china tray and +a glass vial. It is no more art to lay on color delicately, than to lay +on acid delicately. It is no more art to use the cornea and retina for +the reception of an image, than to use a lens and a piece of silvered +paper. But the moment that inner part of the man, or rather that entire +and only being of the man, of which cornea and retina, fingers and +hands, pencils and colors, are all the mere servants and +instruments;[50] that manhood which has light in itself, though the +eyeball be sightless, and can gain in strength when the hand and the +foot are hewn off and cast into the fire; the moment this part of the +man stands forth with its solemn "Behold, it is I," then the work +becomes art indeed, perfect in honor, priceless in value, boundless in +power. + +§ VII. Yet observe, I do not mean to speak of the body and soul as +separable. The man is made up of both: they are to be raised and +glorified together, and all art is an expression of the one, by and +through the other. All that I would insist upon is, the necessity of the +whole man being in his work; the body _must_ be in it. Hands and habits +must be in it, whether we will or not; but the nobler part of the man +may often not be in it. And that nobler part acts principally in love, +reverence, and admiration, together with those conditions of thought +which arise out of them. For we usually fall into much error by +considering the intellectual powers as having dignity in themselves, and +separable from the heart; whereas the truth is, that the intellect +becomes noble and ignoble according to the food we give it, and the kind +of subjects with which it is conversant. It is not the reasoning power +which, of itself, is noble, but the reasoning power occupied with its +proper objects. Half of the mistakes of metaphysicians have arisen from +their not observing this; namely, that the intellect, going through the +same processes, is yet mean or noble according to the matter it deals +with, and wastes itself away in mere rotatory motion, if it be set to +grind straws and dust. If we reason only respecting words, or lines, or +any trifling and finite things, the reason becomes a contemptible +faculty; but reason employed on holy and infinite things, becomes +herself holy and infinite. So that, by work of the soul, I mean the +reader always to understand the work of the entire immortal creature, +proceeding from a quick, perceptive, and eager heart, perfected by the +intellect, and finally dealt with by the hands, under the direct +guidance of these higher powers. + +§ VIII. And now observe, the first important consequence of our fully +understanding this preëminence of the soul, will be the due +understanding of that subordination of knowledge respecting which so +much has already been said. For it must be felt at once, that the +increase of knowledge, merely as such, does not make the soul larger or +smaller; that, in the sight of God, all the knowledge man can gain is as +nothing: but that the soul, for which the great scheme of redemption was +laid, be it ignorant or be it wise, is all in all; and in the activity, +strength, health, and well-being of this soul, lies the main difference, +in His sight, between one man and another. And that which is all in all +in God's estimate is also, be assured, all in all in man's labor; and to +have the heart open, and the eyes clear, and the emotions and thoughts +warm and quick, and not the knowing of this or the other fact, is the +state needed for all mighty doing in this world. And therefore finally, +for this, the weightiest of all reasons, let us take no pride in our +knowledge. We may, in a certain sense, be proud of being immortal; we +may be proud of being God's children; we may be proud of loving, +thinking, seeing, and of all that we are by no human teaching: but not +of what we have been taught by rote; not of the ballast and freight of +the ship of the spirit, but only of its pilotage, without which all the +freight will only sink it faster, and strew the sea more richly with +its ruin. There is not at this moment a youth of twenty, having received +what we moderns ridiculously call education, but he knows more of +everything, except the soul, than Plato or St. Paul did; but he is not +for that reason a greater man, or fitter for his work, or more fit to be +heard by others, than Plato or St. Paul. There is not at this moment a +junior student in our schools of painting, who does not know fifty times +as much about the art as Giotto did; but he is not for that reason +greater than Giotto; no, nor his work better, nor fitter for our +beholding. Let him go on to know all that the human intellect can +discover and contain in the term of a long life, and he will not be one +inch, one line, nearer to Giotto's feet. But let him leave his academy +benches, and, innocently, as one knowing nothing, go out into the +highways and hedges, and there rejoice with them that rejoice, and weep +with them that weep; and in the next world, among the companies of the +great and good, Giotto will give his hand to him, and lead him into +their white circle, and say, "This is our brother." + +§ IX. And the second important consequence of our feeling the soul's +preëminence will be our understanding the soul's language, however +broken, or low, or feeble, or obscure in its words; and chiefly that +great symbolic language of past ages, which has now so long been +unspoken. It is strange that the same cold and formal spirit which the +Renaissance teaching has raised amongst us, should be equally dead to +the languages of imitation and of symbolism; and should at once disdain +the faithful rendering of real nature by the modern school of the +Pre-Raphaelites, and the symbolic rendering of imagined nature in the +work of the thirteenth century. But so it is; and we find the same body +of modern artists rejecting Pre-Raphaelitism because it is not ideal! +and thirteenth century work, because it is not real!--their own practice +being at once false and un-ideal, and therefore equally opposed to both. + +§ X. It is therefore, at this juncture, of much importance to mark for +the reader the exact relation of healthy symbolism and of healthy +imitation; and, in order to do so, let us return to one of our Venetian +examples of symbolic art, to the central cupola of St. Mark's. On that +cupola, as has been already stated, there is a mosaic representing the +Apostles on the Mount of Olives, with an olive-tree separating each from +the other; and we shall easily arrive at our purpose, by comparing the +means which would have been adopted by a modern artist bred in the +Renaissance schools,--that is to say, under the influence of Claude and +Poussin, and of the common teaching of the present day,--with those +adopted by the Byzantine mosaicist to express the nature of these trees. + +§ XI. The reader is doubtless aware that the olive is one of the most +characteristic and beautiful features of all Southern scenery. On the +slopes of the northern Apennines, olives are the usual forest timber; +the whole of the Val d'Arno is wooded with them, every one of its +gardens is filled with them, and they grow in orchard-like ranks out of +its fields of maize, or corn, or vine; so that it is physically +impossible, in most parts of the neighborhood of Florence, Pistoja, +Lucca, or Pisa, to choose any site of landscape which shall not owe its +leading character to the foliage of these trees. What the elm and oak +are to England, the olive is to Italy; nay, more than this, its presence +is so constant, that, in the case of at least four fifths of the +drawings made by any artist in North Italy, he must have been somewhat +impeded by branches of olive coming between him and the landscape. Its +classical associations double its importance in Greece; and in the Holy +Land the remembrances connected with it are of course more touching than +can ever belong to any other tree of the field. Now, for many years +back, at least one third out of all the landscapes painted by English +artists have been chosen from Italian scenery; sketches in Greece and in +the Holy Land have become as common as sketches on Hampstead Heath; our +galleries also are full of sacred subjects, in which, if any background +be introduced at all, the foliage of the olive ought to have been a +prominent feature. + +And here I challenge the untravelled English reader to tell me what an +olive-tree is like? + +§ XII. I know he cannot answer my challenge. He has no more idea of an +olive-tree than if olives grew only in the fixed stars. Let him meditate +a little on this one fact, and consider its strangeness, and what a +wilful and constant closing of the eyes to the most important truths it +indicates on the part of the modern artist. Observe, a want of +perception, not of science. I do not want painters to tell me any +scientific facts about olive-trees. But it had been well for them to +have felt and seen the olive-tree; to have loved it for Christ's sake, +partly also for the helmed Wisdom's sake which was to the heathen in +some sort as that nobler Wisdom which stood at God's right hand, when He +founded the earth and established the heavens. To have loved it, even to +the hoary dimness of its delicate foliage, subdued and faint of hue, as +if the ashes of the Gethsemane agony had been cast upon it for ever; and +to have traced, line by line, the gnarled writhing of its intricate +branches, and the pointed fretwork of its light and narrow leaves, +inlaid on the blue field of the sky, and the small rosy-white stars of +its spring blossoming, and the beads of sable fruit scattered by autumn +along its topmost boughs--the right, in Israel, of the stranger, the +fatherless, and the widow,--and, more than all, the softness of the +mantle, silver grey, and tender like the down on a bird's breast, with +which, far away, it veils the undulation of the mountains;--these it had +been well for them to have seen and drawn, whatever they had left +unstudied in the gallery. + +§ XIII. And if the reader would know the reason why this has not been +done (it is one instance only out of the myriads which might be given of +sightlessness in modern art), and will ask the artists themselves, he +will be informed of another of the marvellous contradictions and +inconsistencies in the base Renaissance art; for it will be answered +him, that it is not right, nor according to law, to draw trees so that +one should be known from another, but that trees ought to be generalized +into a universal idea of a tree: that is to say, that the very school +which carries its science in the representation of man down to the +dissection of the most minute muscle, refuses so much science to the +drawing of a tree as shall distinguish one species from another; and +also, while it attends to logic, and rhetoric, and perspective, and +atmosphere, and every other circumstance which is trivial, verbal, +external, or accidental, in what it either says or sees, it will _not_ +attend to what is essential and substantial,--being intensely +solicitous, for instance, if it draws two trees, one behind the other, +that the farthest off shall be as much smaller as mathematics show that +it should be, but totally unsolicitous to show, what to the spectator is +a far more important matter, whether it is an apple or an orange tree. + +§ XIV. This, however, is not to our immediate purpose. Let it be granted +that an idea of an olive-tree is indeed to be given us in a special +manner; how, and by what language, this idea is to be conveyed, are +questions on which we shall find the world of artists again divided; and +it was this division which I wished especially to illustrate by +reference to the mosaics of St. Mark's. + +Now the main characteristics of an olive-tree are these. It has sharp +and slender leaves of a greyish green, nearly grey on the under surface, +and resembling, but somewhat smaller than, those of our common willow. +Its fruit, when ripe, is black and lustrous; but of course so small, +that, unless in great quantity, it is not conspicuous upon the tree. Its +trunk and branches are peculiarly fantastic in their twisting, showing +their fibres at every turn; and the trunk is often hollow, and even rent +into many divisions like separate stems, but the extremities are +exquisitely graceful, especially in the setting on of the leaves; and +the notable and characteristic effect of the tree in the distance is of +a rounded and soft mass or ball of downy foliage. + +§ XV. Supposing a modern artist to address himself to the rendering of +this tree with his best skill: he will probably draw accurately the +twisting of the branches, but yet this will hardly distinguish the tree +from an oak: he will also render the color and intricacy of the foliage, +but this will only confuse the idea of an oak with that of a willow. The +fruit, and the peculiar grace of the leaves at the extremities, and the +fibrous structure of the stems, will all be too minute to be rendered +consistently with his artistical feeling of breadth, or with the amount +of labor which he considers it dexterous and legitimate to bestow upon +the work: but, above all, the rounded and monotonous form of the head of +the tree will be at variance with his ideas of "composition;" he will +assuredly disguise or break it, and the main points of the olive-tree +will all at last remain untold. + +§ XVI. Now observe, the old Byzantine mosaicist begins his work at +enormous disadvantage. It is to be some one hundred and fifty feet above +the eye, in a dark cupola; executed not with free touches of the pencil, +but with square pieces of glass; not by his own hand, but by various +workmen under his superintendence; finally, not with a principal purpose +of drawing olive-trees, but mainly as a decoration of the cupola. There +is to be an olive-tree beside each apostle, and their stems are to be +the chief lines which divide the dome. He therefore at once gives up the +irregular twisting of the boughs hither and thither, but he will not +give up their fibres. Other trees have irregular and fantastic branches, +but the knitted cordage of fibres is the olive's own. Again, were he to +draw the leaves of their natural size, they would be so small that their +forms would be invisible in the darkness; and were he to draw them so +large as that their shape might be seen, they would look like laurel +instead of olive. So he arranges them in small clusters of five each, +nearly of the shape which the Byzantines give to the petals of the lily, +but elongated so as to give the idea of leafage upon a spray; and these +clusters,--his object always, be it remembered, being _decoration_ not +less than _representation_,--he arranges symmetrically on each side of +his branches, laying the whole on a dark ground most truly suggestive of +the heavy rounded mass of the tree, which, in its turn, is relieved +against the gold of the cupola. Lastly, comes the question respecting +the fruit. The whole power and honor of the olive is in its fruit; and, +unless that be represented, nothing is represented. But if the berries +were colored black or green, they would be totally invisible; if of +any other color, utterly unnatural, and violence would be done to the +whole conception. There is but one conceivable means of showing them, +namely to represent them as golden. For the idea of golden fruit of +various kinds was already familiar to the mind, as in the apples of the +Hesperides, without any violence to the distinctive conception of the +fruit itself.[51] So the mosaicist introduced small round golden berries +into the dark ground between each leaf, and his work was done. + +[Illustration: Plate IV. + Mosaics of Olive-tree and Flowers.] + +§ XVII. On the opposite plate, the uppermost figure on the left is a +tolerably faithful representation of the general effect of one of these +decorative olive-trees; the figure on the right is the head of the tree +alone, showing the leaf clusters, berries, and _interlacing_ of the +boughs as they leave the stem. Each bough is connected with a separate +line of fibre in the trunk, and the junctions of the arms and stem are +indicated, down to the very root of the tree, with a truth in structure +which may well put to shame the tree anatomy of modern times. + +§ XVIII. The white branching figures upon the serpentine band below are +two of the clusters of flowers which form the foreground of a mosaic in +the atrium. I have printed the whole plate in blue, because that color +approaches more nearly than black to the distant effect of the mosaics, +of which the darker portions are generally composed of blue, in greater +quantity than any other color. But the waved background in this +instance, is of various shades of blue and green alternately, with one +narrow black band to give it force; the whole being intended to +represent the distant effect and color of deep grass, and the wavy line +to _express its bending motion_, just as the same symbol is used to +represent the waves of water. Then the two white clusters are +representative of the distinctly visible herbage close to the +spectator, having buds and flowers of two kinds, springing in one case +out of the midst of twisted grass, and in the other out of their own +proper leaves; the clusters being kept each so distinctly symmetrical, +as to form, when set side by side, an ornamental border of perfect +architectural severity; and yet each cluster different from the next, +and every flower, and bud, and knot of grass, varied in form and +thought. The way the mosaic tesserĉ are arranged, so as to give the +writhing of the grass blades round the stalks of the flowers, is +exceedingly fine. + +The tree circles below are examples of still more severely conventional +forms, adopted, on principle, when the decoration is to be in white and +gold, instead of color; these ornaments being cut in white marble on the +outside of the church, and the ground laid in with gold, though +necessarily here represented, like the rest of the plate, in blue. And +it is exceedingly interesting to see how the noble workman, the moment +he is restricted to more conventional materials, retires into more +conventional forms, and reduces his various leafage into symmetry, now +nearly perfect; yet observe, in the central figure, where the symbolic +meaning of the vegetation beside the cross required it to be more +distinctly indicated, he has given it life and growth by throwing it +into unequal curves on the opposite sides. + +§ XIX. I believe the reader will now see, that in these mosaics, which +the careless traveller is in the habit of passing by with contempt, +there is a depth of feeling and of meaning greater than in most of the +best sketches from nature of modern times; and, without entering into +any question whether these conventional representations are as good as, +under the required limitations, it was possible to render them, they are +at all events good enough completely to illustrate that mode of +symbolical expression which appeals altogether to thought, and in no +wise trusts to realization. And little as, in the present state of our +schools, such an assertion is likely to be believed, the fact is that +this kind of expression is the _only one allowable in noble art_. + +§ XX. I pray the reader to have patience with me for a few moments. I do +not mean that no art is noble but Byzantine mosaic; but no art is noble +which in any wise depends upon direct imitation for its effect upon the +mind. This was asserted in the opening chapters of "Modern Painters," +but not upon the highest grounds; the results at which we have now +arrived in our investigation of early art, will enable me to place it on +a loftier and firmer foundation. + +§ XXI. We have just seen that all great art is the work of the whole +living creature, body and soul, and chiefly of the soul. But it is not +only _the work_ of the whole creature, it likewise _addresses_ the whole +creature. That in which the perfect being speaks, must also have the +perfect being to listen. I am not to spend my utmost spirit, and give +all my strength and life to my work, while you, spectator or hearer, +will give me only the attention of half your soul. You must be all mine, +as I am all yours; it is the only condition on which we can meet each +other. All your faculties, all that is in you of greatest and best, must +be awake in you, or I have no reward. The painter is not to cast the +entire treasure of his human nature into his labor, merely to please a +part of the beholder: not merely to delight his senses, not merely to +amuse his fancy, not merely to beguile him into emotion, not merely to +lead him into thought, but to do _all_ this. Senses, fancy, feeling, +reason, the whole of the beholding spirit, must be stilled in attention +or stirred with delight; else the laboring spirit has not done its work +well. For observe, it is not merely its _right_ to be thus met, face to +face, heart to heart; but it is its _duty_ to evoke its answering of the +other soul; its trumpet call must be so clear, that though the challenge +may by dulness or indolence be unanswered, there shall be no error as to +the meaning of the appeal; there must be a summons in the work, which it +shall be our own fault if we do not obey. We require this of it, we +beseech this of it. Most men do not know what is in them, till they +receive this summons from their fellows: their hearts die within them, +sleep settles upon them, the lethargy of the world's miasmata; there is +nothing for which they are so thankful as for that cry, "Awake, thou +that sleepest." And this cry must be most loudly uttered to their +noblest faculties; first of all to the imagination, for that is the most +tender, and the soonest struck into numbness by the poisoned air; so +that one of the main functions of art in its service to man, is to +arouse the imagination from its palsy, like the angel troubling the +Bethesda pool; and the art which does not do this is false to its duty, +and degraded in its nature. It is not enough that it be well imagined, +it must task the beholder also to imagine well; and this so +imperatively, that if he does not choose to rouse himself to meet the +work, he shall not taste it, nor enjoy it in any wise. Once that he is +well awake, the guidance which the artist gives him should be full and +authoritative: the beholder's imagination must not be suffered to take +its own way, or wander hither and thither; but neither must it be left +at rest; and the right point of realization, for any given work of art, +is that which will enable the spectator to complete it for himself, in +the exact way the artist would have him, but not that which will save +him the trouble of effecting the completion. So soon as the idea is +entirely conveyed, the artist's labor should cease; and every touch +which he adds beyond the point when, with the help of the beholder's +imagination, the story ought to have been told, is a degradation to his +work. So that the art is wrong, which either realizes its subject +completely, or fails in giving such definite aid as shall enable it to +be realized by the beholding imagination. + +§ XXII. It follows, therefore, that the quantity of finish or detail +which may rightly be bestowed upon any work, depends on the number and +kind of ideas which the artist wishes to convey, much more than on the +amount of realization necessary to enable the imagination to grasp them. +It is true that the differences of judgment formed by one or another +observer are in great degree dependent on their unequal imaginative +powers, as well as their unequal efforts in following the artist's +intention; and it constantly happens that the drawing which appears +clear to the painter in whose mind the thought is formed, is slightly +inadequate to suggest it to the spectator. These causes of false +judgment, or imperfect achievement, must always exist, but they are of +no importance. For, in nearly every mind, the imaginative power, however +unable to act independently, is so easily helped and so brightly +animated by the most obscure suggestion, that there is no form of +artistical language which will not readily be seized by it, if once it +set itself intelligently to the task; and even without such effort there +are few hieroglyphics of which, once understanding that it is to take +them as hieroglyphics, it cannot make itself a pleasant picture. + +§ XXIII. Thus, in the case of all sketches, etchings, unfinished +engravings, &c., no one ever supposes them to be imitations. Black +outlines on white paper cannot produce a deceptive resemblance of +anything; and the mind, understanding at once that it is to depend on +its own powers for great part of its pleasure, sets itself so actively +to the task that it can completely enjoy the rudest outline in which +meaning exists. Now, when it is once in this temper, the artist is +infinitely to be blamed who insults it by putting anything into his work +which is not suggestive: having summoned the imaginative power, he must +turn it to account and keep it employed, or it will run against him in +indignation. Whatever he does merely to realize and substantiate an idea +is impertinent; he is like a dull story-teller, dwelling on points which +the hearer anticipates or disregards. The imagination will say to him: +"I knew all that before; I don't want to be told that. Go on; or be +silent, and let me go on in my own way. I can tell the story better than +you." + +Observe, then, whenever finish is given for the sake of realization, it +is wrong; whenever it is given for the sake of adding ideas it is right. +All true finish consists in the addition of ideas, that is to say, in +giving the imagination more food; for once well awaked, it is ravenous +for food: but the painter who finishes in order to substantiate takes +the food out of its mouth, and it will turn and rend him. + +§ XXIV. Let us go back, for instance, to our olive grove,--or, lest the +reader should be tired of olives, let it be an oak copse,--and consider +the difference between the substantiating and the imaginative methods of +finish in such a subject. A few strokes of the pencil, or dashes of +color, will be enough to enable the imagination to conceive a tree; and +in those dashes of color Sir Joshua Reynolds would have rested, and +would have suffered the imagination to paint what more it liked for +itself, and grow oaks, or olives, or apples, out of the few dashes of +color at its leisure. On the other hand, Hobbima, one of the worst of +the realists, smites the imagination on the mouth, and bids it be +silent, while he sets to work to paint his oak of the right green, and +fill up its foliage laboriously with jagged touches, and furrow the bark +all over its branches, so as, if possible, to deceive us into supposing +that we are looking at a real oak; which, indeed, we had much better do +at once, without giving any one the trouble to deceive us in the matter. + +§ XXV. Now, the truly great artist neither leaves the imagination to +itself, like Sir Joshua, nor insults it by realization, like Hobbima, +but finds it continual employment of the happiest kind. Having summoned +it by his vigorous first touches, he says to it: "Here is a tree for +you, and it is to be an oak. Now I know that you can make it green and +intricate for yourself, but that is not enough: an oak is not only green +and intricate, but its leaves have most beautiful and fantastic forms +which I am very sure you are not quite able to complete without help; so +I will draw a cluster or two perfectly for you, and then you can go on +and do all the other clusters. So far so good: but the leaves are not +enough; the oak is to be full of acorns, and you may not be quite able +to imagine the way they grow, nor the pretty contrast of their glossy +almond-shaped nuts with the chasing of their cups; so I will draw a +bunch or two of acorns for you, and you can fill up the oak with others +like them. Good: but that is not enough; it is to be a bright day in +summer, and all the outside leaves are to be glittering in the sunshine +as if their edges were of gold: I cannot paint this, but you can; so I +will really gild some of the edges nearest you,[52] and you can turn +the gold into sunshine, and cover the tree with it. Well done: but still +this is not enough; the tree is so full foliaged and so old that the +wood birds come in crowds to build there; they are singing, two or three +under the shadow of every bough. I cannot show you them all; but here is +a large one on the outside spray, and you can fancy the others inside." + +§ XXVI. In this way the calls upon the imagination are multiplied as a +great painter finishes; and from these larger incidents he may proceed +into the most minute particulars, and lead the companion imagination to +the veins in the leaves and the mosses on the trunk, and the shadows of +the dead leaves upon the grass, but always multiplying thoughts, or +subjects of thought, never working for the sake of realization; the +amount of realization actually reached depending on his space, his +materials, and the nature of the thoughts he wishes to suggest. In the +sculpture of an oak-tree, introduced above an Adoration of the Magi on +the tomb of the Doge Marco Dolfino (fourteenth century), the sculptor +has been content with a few leaves, a single acorn, and a bird; while, +on the other hand, Millais' willow-tree with the robin, in the +background of his "Ophelia," or the foreground of Hunt's "Two Gentlemen +of Verona," carries the appeal to the imagination into particulars so +multiplied and minute, that the work nearly reaches realization. But it +does not matter how near realization the work may approach in its +fulness, or how far off it may remain in its slightness, so long as +realization is not the end proposed, but the informing one spirit of the +thoughts of another. And in this greatness and simplicity of purpose all +noble art is alike, however slight its means, or however perfect, from +the rudest mosaics of St. Mark's to the most tender finishing of the +"Huguenot" or the "Ophelia." + +§ XXVII. Only observe, in this matter, that a greater degree of +realization is often allowed, for the sake of color, than would be right +without it. For there is not any distinction between the artists of the +inferior and the nobler schools more definite than this; that the first +_color for the sake of realization_, and the second _realize for the +sake of color_. I hope that, in the fifth chapter, enough has been said +to show the nobility of color, though it is a subject on which I would +fain enlarge whenever I approach it: for there is none that needs more +to be insisted upon, chiefly on account of the opposition of the persons +who have no eye for color, and who, being therefore unable to understand +that it is just as divine and distinct in its power as music (only +infinitely more varied in its harmonies), talk of it as if it were +inferior and servile with respect to the other powers of art;[53] +whereas it is so far from being this, that wherever it enters it must +take the mastery, and, whatever else is sacrificed for its sake, _it_, +at least, must be right. This is partly the case even with music: it is +at our choice, whether we will accompany a poem with music, or not; but, +if we do, the music _must_ be right, and neither discordant nor +inexpressive. The goodness and sweetness of the poem cannot save it, if +the music be harsh or false; but, if the music be right, the poem may be +insipid or inharmonious, and still saved by the notes to which it is +wedded. But this is far more true of color. If that be wrong, all is +wrong. No amount of expression or invention can redeem an ill-colored +picture; while, on the other hand, if the color be right, there is +nothing it will not raise or redeem; and, therefore, wherever color +enters at all, anything _may_ be sacrificed to it, and, rather than it +should be false or feeble, everything _must_ be sacrificed to it: so +that, when an artist touches color, it is the same thing as when a poet +takes up a musical instrument; he implies, in so doing, that he is a +master, up to a certain point, of that instrument, and can produce sweet +sound from it, and is able to fit the course and measure of his words to +its tones, which, if he be not able to do, he had better not have +touched it. In like manner, to add color to a drawing is to undertake +for the perfection of a visible music, which, if it be false, will +utterly and assuredly mar the whole work; if true, proportionately +elevate it, according to its power and sweetness. But, in no case ought +the color to be added in order to increase the realization. The drawing +or engraving is all that the imagination needs. To "paint" the subject +merely to make it more real, is only to insult the imaginative power and +to vulgarize the whole. Hence the common, though little understood +feeling, among men of ordinary cultivation, that an inferior sketch is +always better than a bad painting; although, in the latter, there may +verily be more skill than in the former. For the painter who has +presumed to touch color without perfectly understanding it, not for the +color's sake, nor because he loves it, but for the sake of completion +merely, has committed two sins against us; he has dulled the imagination +by not trusting it far enough, and then, in this languid state, he +oppresses it with base and false color; for all color that is not +lovely, is discordant; there is no mediate condition. So, therefore, +when it is permitted to enter at all, it must be with the +predetermination that, cost what it will, the color shall be right and +lovely: and I only wish that, in general, it were better understood that +a _painter's_ business is _to paint_, primarily; and that all +expression, and grouping, and conceiving, and what else goes to +constitute design, _are of less importance than color, in a colored +work_. And so they were always considered in the noble periods; and +sometimes all resemblance to nature whatever (as in painted windows, +illuminated manuscripts, and such other work) is sacrificed to the +brilliancy of color; sometimes distinctness of form to its richness, as +by Titian, Turner, and Reynolds; and, which is the point on which we are +at present insisting, sometimes, in the pursuit of its utmost +refinements on the surfaces of objects, an amount of realization becomes +consistent with noble art, which would otherwise be altogether +inadmissible, that is to say, which no great mind could otherwise have +either produced or enjoyed. The extreme finish given by the +Pre-Raphaelites is rendered noble chiefly by their love of color. + +§ XXVIII. So then, whatever may be the means, or whatever the more +immediate end of any kind of art, all of it that is good agrees in this, +that it is the expression of one soul talking to another, and is +precious according to the greatness of the soul that utters it. And +consider what mighty consequences follow from our acceptance of this +truth! what a key we have herein given us for the interpretation of the +art of all time! For, as long as we held art to consist in any high +manual skill, or successful imitation of natural objects, or any +scientific and legalized manner of performance whatever, it was +necessary for us to limit our admiration to narrow periods and to few +men. According to our own knowledge and sympathies, the period chosen +might be different, and our rest might be in Greek statues, or Dutch +landscapes, or Italian Madonnas; but, whatever our choice, we were +therein captive, barred from all reverence but of our favorite masters, +and habitually using the language of contempt towards the whole of the +human race to whom it had not pleased Heaven to reveal the arcana of the +particular craftsmanship we admired, and who, it might be, had lived +their term of seventy years upon the earth, and fitted themselves +therein for the eternal world, without any clear understanding, +sometimes even with an insolent disregard, of the laws of perspective +and chiaroscuro. + +But let us once comprehend the holier nature of the art of man, and +begin to look for the meaning of the spirit, however syllabled, and the +scene is changed; and we are changed also. Those small and dexterous +creatures whom once we worshipped, those fur-capped divinities with +sceptres of camel's hair, peering and poring in their one-windowed +chambers over the minute preciousness of the labored canvas; how are +they swept away and crushed into unnoticeable darkness! And in their +stead, as the walls of the dismal rooms that enclosed them, and us, are +struck by the four winds of Heaven, and rent away, and as the world +opens to our sight, lo! far back into all the depths of time, and forth +from all the fields that have been sown with human life, how the harvest +of the dragon's teeth is springing! how the companies of the gods are +ascending out of the earth! The dark stones that have so long been the +sepulchres of the thoughts of nations, and the forgotten ruins wherein +their faith lay charnelled, give up the dead that were in them; and +beneath the Egyptian ranks of sultry and silent rock, and amidst the dim +golden lights of the Byzantine dome, and out of the confused and cold +shadows of the Northern cloister, behold, the multitudinous souls come +forth with singing, gazing on us with the soft eyes of newly +comprehended sympathy, and stretching their white arms to us across the +grave, in the solemn gladness of everlasting brotherhood. + +§ XXIX. The other danger to which, it was above said, we were primarily +exposed under our present circumstances of life, is the pursuit of vain +pleasure, that is to say, false pleasure; delight, which is not indeed +delight; as knowledge vainly accumulated, is not indeed knowledge. And +this we are exposed to chiefly in the fact of our ceasing to be +children. For the child does not seek false pleasure; its pleasures are +true, simple, and instinctive: but the youth is apt to abandon his early +and true delight for vanities,--seeking to be like men, and sacrificing +his natural and pure enjoyments to his pride. In like manner, it seems +to me that modern civilization sacrifices much pure and true pleasure to +various forms of ostentation from which it can receive no fruit. +Consider, for a moment, what kind of pleasures are open to human nature, +undiseased. Passing by the consideration of the pleasures of the higher +affections, which lie at the root of everything, and considering the +definite and practical pleasures of daily life, there is, first, the +pleasure of doing good; the greatest of all, only apt to be despised +from not being often enough tasted: and then, I know not in what order +to put them, nor does it matter,--the pleasure of gaining knowledge; the +pleasure of the excitement of imagination and emotion (or poetry and +passion); and, lastly, the gratification of the senses, first of the +eye, then of the ear, and then of the others in their order. + +§ XXX. All these we are apt to make subservient to the desire of praise; +nor unwisely, when the praise sought is God's and the conscience's: but +if the sacrifice is made for man's admiration, and knowledge is only +sought for praise, passion repressed or affected for praise, and the +arts practised for praise, we are feeding on the bitterest apples of +Sodom, suffering always ten mortifications for one delight. And it seems +to me, that in the modern civilized world we make such sacrifice doubly: +first, by laboring for merely ambitious purposes; and secondly, which is +the main point in question, by being ashamed of simple pleasures, more +especially of the pleasure in sweet color and form, a pleasure evidently +so necessary to man's perfectness and virtue, that the beauty of color +and form has been given lavishly throughout the whole of creation, so +that it may become the food of all, and with such intricacy and subtlety +that it may deeply employ the thoughts of all. If we refuse to accept +the natural delight which the Deity has thus provided for us, we must +either become ascetics, or we must seek for some base and guilty +pleasures to replace those of Paradise, which we have denied ourselves. + +Some years ago, in passing through some of the cells of the Grand +Chartreuse, noticing that the window of each apartment looked across the +little garden of its inhabitant to the wall of the cell opposite, and +commanded no other view, I asked the monk beside me, why the window was +not rather made on the side of the cell whence it would open to the +solemn fields of the Alpine valley. "We do not come here," he replied, +"to look at the mountains." + +§ XXXI. The same answer is given, practically, by the men of this +century, to every such question; only the walls with which they enclose +themselves are those of pride, not of prayer. But in the middle ages it +was otherwise. Not, indeed, in landscape itself, but in the art which +can take the place of it, in the noble color and form with which they +illumined, and into which they wrought, every object around them that +was in any wise subjected to their power, they obeyed the laws of their +inner nature, and found its proper food. The splendor and fantasy even +of dress, which in these days we pretend to despise, or in which, if we +even indulge, it is only for the sake of vanity, and therefore to our +infinite harm, were in those early days studied for love of their true +beauty and honorableness, and became one of the main helps to dignity of +character, and courtesy of bearing. Look back to what we have been told +of the dress of the early Venetians, that it was so invented "that in +clothing themselves with it, they might clothe themselves also with +modesty and honor;"[54] consider what nobleness of expression there is +in the dress of any of the portrait figures of the great times, nay, +what perfect beauty, and more than beauty, there is in the folding of +the robe round the imagined form even of the saint or of the angel; and +then consider whether the grace of vesture be indeed a thing to be +despised. We cannot despise it if we would; and in all our highest +poetry and happiest thought we cling to the magnificence which in daily +life we disregard. The essence of modern romance is simply the return of +the heart and fancy to the things in which they naturally take pleasure; +and half the influence of the best romances, of Ivanhoe, or Marmion, or +the Crusaders, or the Lady of the Lake, is completely dependent upon the +accessaries of armor and costume. Nay, more than this, deprive the Iliad +itself of its costume, and consider how much of its power would be lost. +And that delight and reverence which we feel in, and by means of, the +mere imagination of these accessaries, the middle ages had in the vision +of them; the nobleness of dress exercising, as I have said, a perpetual +influence upon character, tending in a thousand ways to increase +dignity and self-respect, and together with grace of gesture, to induce +serenity of thought. + +§ XXXII. I do not mean merely in its magnificence; the most splendid +time was not the best time. It was still in the thirteenth +century,--when, as we have seen, simplicity and gorgeousness were justly +mingled, and the "leathern girdle and clasp of bone" were worn, as well +as the embroidered mantle,--that the manner of dress seems to have been +noblest. The chain mail of the knight, flowing and falling over his form +in lapping waves of gloomy strength, was worn under full robes of one +color in the ground, his crest quartered on them, and their borders +enriched with subtle illumination. The women wore first a dress close to +the form in like manner, and then long and flowing robes, veiling them +up to the neck, and delicately embroidered around the hem, the sleeves, +and the girdle. The use of plate armor gradually introduced more +fantastic types; the nobleness of the form was lost beneath the steel; +the gradually increasing luxury and vanity of the age strove for +continual excitement in more quaint and extravagant devices; and in the +fifteenth century, dress reached its point of utmost splendor and fancy, +being in many cases still exquisitely graceful, but now, in its morbid +magnificence, devoid of all wholesome influence on manners. From this +point, like architecture, it was rapidly degraded; and sank through the +buff coat, and lace collar, and jack-boot, to the bag-wig, tailed coat, +and high-heeled shoes; and so to what it is now. + +§ XXXIII. Precisely analogous to this destruction of beauty in dress, +has been that of beauty in architecture; its color, and grace, and +fancy, being gradually sacrificed to the base forms of the Renaissance, +exactly as the splendor of chivalry has faded into the paltriness of +fashion. And observe the form in which the necessary reaction has taken +place; necessary, for it was not possible that one of the strongest +instincts of the human race could be deprived altogether of its natural +food. Exactly in the degree that the architect withdrew from his +buildings the sources of delight which in early days they had so richly +possessed, demanding, in accordance with the new principles of taste, +the banishment of all happy color and healthy invention, in that degree +the minds of men began to turn to landscape as their only resource. The +picturesque school of art rose up to address those capacities of +enjoyment for which, in sculpture, architecture, or the higher walks of +painting, there was employment no more; and the shadows of Rembrandt, +and savageness of Salvator, arrested the admiration which was no longer +permitted to be rendered to the gloom or the grotesqueness of the Gothic +aisle. And thus the English school of landscape, culminating in Turner, +is in reality nothing else than a healthy effort to fill the void which +the destruction of Gothic architecture has left. + +§ XXXIV. But the void cannot thus be completely filled; no, nor filled +in any considerable degree. The art of landscape-painting will never +become thoroughly interesting or sufficing to the minds of men engaged +in active life, or concerned principally with practical subjects. The +sentiment and imagination necessary to enter fully into the romantic +forms of art are chiefly the characteristics of youth; so that nearly +all men as they advance in years, and some even from their childhood +upwards, must be appealed to, if at all, by a direct and substantial +art, brought before their daily observation and connected with their +daily interests. No form of art answers these conditions so well as +architecture, which, as it can receive help from every character of mind +in the workman, can address every character of mind in the spectator; +forcing itself into notice even in his most languid moments, and +possessing this chief and peculiar advantage, that it is the property of +all men. Pictures and statues may be jealously withdrawn by their +possessors from the public gaze, and to a certain degree their safety +requires them to be so withdrawn; but the outsides of our houses belong +not so much to us as to the passer-by, and whatever cost and pains we +bestow upon them, though too often arising out of ostentation, have at +least the effect of benevolence. + +§ XXXV. If, then, considering these things, any of my readers should +determine, according to their means, to set themselves to the revival +of a healthy school of architecture in England, and wish to know in few +words how this may be done, the answer is clear and simple. First, let +us cast out utterly whatever is connected with the Greek, Roman, or +Renaissance architecture, in principle or in form. We have seen above, +that the whole mass of the architecture, founded on Greek and Roman +models, which we have been in the habit of building for the last three +centuries, is utterly devoid of all life, virtue, honorableness, or +power of doing good. It is base, unnatural, unfruitful, unenjoyable, and +impious. Pagan in its origin, proud and unholy in its revival, paralyzed +in its old age, yet making prey in its dotage of all the good and living +things that were springing around it in their youth, as the dying and +desperate king, who had long fenced himself so strongly with the towers +of it, is said to have filled his failing veins with the blood of +children;[55] an architecture invented, as it seems, to make plagiarists +of its architects, slaves of its workmen, and Sybarites of its +inhabitants; an architecture in which intellect is idle, invention +impossible, but in which all luxury is gratified, and all insolence +fortified;--the first thing we have to do is to cast it out, and shake +the dust of it from our feet for ever. Whatever has any connexion with +the five orders, or with any one of the orders,--whatever is Doric, or +Ionic, or Tuscan, or Corinthian, or Composite, or in any way Grecized or +Romanized; whatever betrays the smallest respect for Vitruvian laws, or +conformity with Palladian work,--that we are to endure no more. To +cleanse ourselves of these "cast clouts and rotten rags" is the first +thing to be done in the court of our prison. + +§ XXXVI. Then, to turn our prison into a palace is an easy thing. We +have seen above, that exactly in the degree in which Greek and Roman +architecture is lifeless, unprofitable, and unchristian, in that same +degree our own ancient Gothic is animated, serviceable, and faithful. We +have seen that it is flexible to all duty, enduring to all time, +instructive to all hearts, honorable and holy in all offices. It is +capable alike of all lowliness and all dignity, fit alike for cottage +porch or castle gateway; in domestic service familiar, in religious, +sublime; simple, and playful, so that childhood may read it, yet clothed +with a power that can awe the mightiest, and exalt the loftiest of human +spirits: an architecture that kindles every faculty in its workman, and +addresses every emotion in its beholder; which, with every stone that is +laid on its solemn walls, raises some human heart a step nearer heaven, +and which from its birth has been incorporated with the existence, and +in all its form is symbolical of the faith, of Christianity. In this +architecture let us henceforward build, alike the church, the palace, +and the cottage; but chiefly let us use it for our civil and domestic +buildings. These once ennobled, our ecclesiastical work will be exalted +together with them: but churches are not the proper scenes for +experiments in untried architecture, nor for exhibitions of unaccustomed +beauty. It is certain that we must often fail before we can again build +a natural and noble Gothic: let not our temples be the scenes of our +failures. It is certain that we must offend many deep-rooted prejudices, +before ancient Christian architecture[56] can be again received by all +of us: let not religion be the first source of such offence. We shall +meet with difficulties in applying Gothic architecture to churches, +which would in no wise affect the designs of civil buildings, for the +most beautiful forms of Gothic chapels are not those which are best +fitted for Protestant worship. As it was noticed in the second volume, +when speaking of the Cathedral of Torcello it seems not unlikely, that +as we study either the science of sound, or the practice of the early +Christians, we may see reason to place the pulpit generally at the +extremity of the apse or chancel; an arrangement entirely destructive of +the beauty of a Gothic church, as seen in existing examples, and +requiring modifications of its design in other parts with which we +should be unwise at present to embarrass ourselves; besides, that the +effort to introduce the style exclusively for ecclesiastical purposes, +excites against it the strong prejudices of many persons who might +otherwise be easily enlisted among its most ardent advocates. I am quite +sure, for instance, that if such noble architecture as has been employed +for the interior of the church just built in Margaret Street[57] had +been seen in a civil building, it would have decided the question with +many men at once; whereas, at present, it will be looked upon with fear +and suspicion, as the expression of the ecclesiastical principles of a +particular party. But, whether thus regarded or not, this church +assuredly decides one question conclusively, that of our present +capability of Gothic design. It is the first piece of architecture I +have seen, built in modern days, which is free from all signs of +timidity or incapacity. In general proportion of parts, in refinement +and piquancy of mouldings, above all, in force, vitality, and grace of +floral ornament, worked in a broad and masculine manner, it challenges +fearless comparison with the noblest work of any time. Having done this, +we may do anything; there need be no limits to our hope or our +confidence; and I believe it to be possible for us, not only to equal, +but far to surpass, in some respects, any Gothic yet seen in Northern +countries. In the introduction of figure-sculpture, we must, indeed, for +the present, remain utterly inferior, for we have no figures to study +from. No architectural sculpture was ever good for anything which did +not represent the dress and persons of the people living at the time; +and our modern dress will _not_ form decorations for spandrils and +niches. But in floral sculpture we may go far beyond what has yet been +done, as well as in refinement of inlaid work and general execution. +For, although the glory of Gothic architecture is to receive the rudest +work, it refuses not the best; and, when once we have been content to +admit the handling of the simplest workman, we shall soon be rewarded by +finding many of our simple workmen become cunning ones: and, with the +help of modern wealth and science, we may do things like Giotto's +campanile, instead of like our own rude cathedrals; but better than +Giotto's campanile, insomuch as we may adopt the pure and perfect forms +of the Northern Gothic, and work them out with the Italian refinement. +It is hardly possible at present to imagine what may be the splendor of +buildings designed in the forms of English and French thirteenth century +_surface_ Gothic, and wrought out with the refinement of Italian art in +the details, and with a deliberate resolution, since we cannot have +figure sculpture, to display in them the beauty of every flower and herb +of the English fields, each by each; doing as much for every tree that +roots itself in our rocks, and every blossom that drinks our summer +rains, as our ancestors did for the oak, the ivy, and the rose. Let this +be the object of our ambition, and let us begin to approach it, not +ambitiously, but in all humility, accepting help from the feeblest +hands; and the London of the nineteenth century may yet become as Venice +without her despotism, and as Florence without her dispeace. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [46] In the works of Turner and the Pre-Raphaelites. + + [47] Observe, I speak of these various principles as self-evident, + only under the present circumstances of the world, not as if they + had always been so; and I call them now self-evident, not merely + because they seem so to myself, but because they are felt to be so + likewise by all the men in whom I place most trust. But granting + that they are not so, then their very disputability proves the state + of infancy above alleged, as characteristic of the world. For I do + not suppose that any Christian reader will doubt the first great + truth, that whatever facts or laws are important to mankind, God has + made ascertainable by mankind; and that as the decision of all these + questions is of vital importance to the race, that decision must + have been long ago arrived at, unless they were still in a state of + childhood. + + [48] I intended to have given a sketch in this place (above referred + to) of the probable results of the daguerreotype and calotype within + the next few years, in modifying the application of the engraver's + art, but I have not had time to complete the experiments necessary + to enable me to speak with certainty. Of one thing, however, I have + little doubt, that an infinite service will soon be done to a large + body of our engravers; namely, the making them draughtsmen (in black + and white) on paper instead of steel. + + [49] I mean art in its highest sense. All that men do ingeniously is + art, in one sense. In fact, we want a definition of the word "art" + much more accurate than any in our minds at present. For, strictly + speaking, there is no such thing as "fine" or "high" art. All _art_ + is a low and common thing, and what we indeed respect is not art at + all, but _instinct_ or _inspiration_ expressed by the help of art. + + [50] "_Socrates_. This, then, was what I asked you; whether that + which puts anything else to service, and the thing which is put to + service by it, are always two different things? + + _Alcibiades._ I think so. + + _Socrates._ What shall we then say of the leather-cutter? Does he + cut his leather with his instruments only, or with his hands also? + + _Alcibiades._ With his hands also. + + _Socrates._ Does he not use his eyes as well as his hands? + + _Alcibiades._ Yes. + + _Socrates._ And we agreed that the thing which uses and the thing + which is used, were different things? + + _Alcibiades._ Yes. + + _Socrates._ Then the leather-cutter is not the same thing as his + eyes or hands? + + _Alcibiades._ So it appears. + + _Socrates._ Does not, then, man make use of his whole body? + + _Alcibiades._ Assuredly. + + _Socrates._ Then the man is not the same thing as his body? + + _Alcibiades._ It seems so. + + _Socrates._ What, then, _is_ the man? + + _Alcibiades._ I know not." + + _Plato_, Alcibiades I. + + [51] Thus the grapes pressed by Excesse are partly golden (Spenser, + book ii. cant. 12.): + + "Which did themselves amongst the leaves enfold, + As lurking from the view of covetous guest, + That the weake boughes, with so rich load opprest + Did bow adowne as overburdened." + + [52] The reader must not suppose that the use of gold, in this manner, + is confined to early art. Tintoret, the greatest master of pictorial + effect that ever existed, has gilded the ribs of the fig-leaves in + his "Resurrection," in the Scuola di San Rocco. + + [53] Nothing is more wonderful to me than to hear the pleasure of the + eye, in color, spoken of with disdain as "sensual," while people + exalt that of the ear in music. Do they really suppose the eye is a + less noble bodily organ than the ear,--that the organ by which + nearly all our knowledge of the external universe is communicated to + us, and through which we learn the wonder and the love, can be less + exalted in its own peculiar delight than the ear, which is only for + the communication of the ideas which owe to the eye their very + existence? I do not mean to depreciate music: let it be loved and + reverenced as is just; only let the delight of the eye be reverenced + more. The great power of music over the multitude is owing, not to + its being less but _more_ sensual than color; it is so distinctly + and so richly sensual, that it can be idly enjoyed; it is exactly at + the point where the lower and higher pleasures of the senses and + imagination are balanced; so that pure and great minds love it for + its invention and emotion, and lower minds for its sensual power. + + [54] Vol. II. Appendix 7. + + [55] Louis the Eleventh. "In the month of March, 1481, Louis was + seized with a fit of apoplexy at _St. Bénoit-du-lac-mort_, near + Chinon. He remained speechless and bereft of reason three days; and + then but very imperfectly restored, he languished in a miserable + state.... To cure him," says a contemporary historian, "wonderful + and terrible medicines were compounded. It was reported among the + people that his physicians opened the veins of little children, and + made him drink their blood, to correct the poorness of his + own."--_Bussey's History of France._ London, 1850. + + [56] Observe, I call Gothic "Christian" architecture, not + "ecclesiastical." There is a wide difference. I believe it is the + only architecture which Christian men should build, but not at all + an architecture necessarily connected with the services of their + church. + + [57] Mr. Hope's Church, in Margaret Street, Portland Place. I do not + altogether like the arrangements of color in the brickwork; but + these will hardly attract the eye, where so much has been already + done with precious and beautiful marble, and is yet to be done in + fresco. Much will depend, however, upon the coloring of this latter + portion. I wish that either Holman Hunt or Millais could be + prevailed upon to do at least some of these smaller frescoes. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +1. ARCHITECT OF THE DUCAL PALACE. + +Popular tradition and a large number of the chroniclers ascribe the +building of the Ducal Palace to that Filippo Calendario who suffered +death for his share in the conspiracy of Faliero. He was certainly one +of the leading architects of the time, and had for several years the +superintendence of the works of the Palace; but it appears, from the +documents collected by the Abbé Cadorin, that the first designer of the +Palace, the man to whom we owe the adaptation of the Frari traceries to +civil architecture, was Pietro Baseggio, who is spoken of expressly as +"formerly the Chief Master of our New Palace,"[58] in the decree of +1361, quoted by Cadorin, and who, at his death, left Calendario his +executor. Other documents collected by Zanotto, in his work on "Venezia +e le sue Lagune," show that Calendario was for a long time at sea, under +the commands of the Signory, returning to Venice only three or four +years before his death; and that therefore the entire management of the +works of the Palace, in the most important period, must have been +entrusted to Baseggio. + +It is quite impossible, however, in the present state of the Palace, to +distinguish one architect's work from another in the older parts; and I +have not in the text embarrassed the reader by any attempt at close +definition of epochs before the great junction of the Piazzetta Façade +with the older palace in the fifteenth century. Here, however, it is +necessary that I should briefly state the observations I was able to +make on the relative dates of the earlier portions. + +In the description of the Fig-tree angle, given in the eighth chapter of +Vol. II., I said that it seemed to me somewhat earlier than that of the +Vine, and the reader might be surprised at the apparent opposition of +this statement to my supposition that the Palace was built gradually +round from the Rio Façade to the Piazzetta. But in the two great open +arcades there is no succession of work traceable; from the Vine angle to +the junction with the fifteenth century work, above and below, all seems +nearly of the same date, the only question being of the accidental +precedence of workmanship of one capital or another; and I think, from +its style, that the Fig-tree angle must have been first completed. But +in the upper stories of the Palace there are enormous differences of +style. On the Rio Façade, in the upper story, are several series of +massive windows of the third order, corresponding exactly in mouldings +and manner of workmanship to those of the chapter-house of the Frari, +and consequently carrying us back to a very early date in the fourteenth +century: several of the capitals of these windows, and two richly +sculptured string-courses in the wall below, are of Byzantine +workmanship, and in all probability fragments of the Ziani Palace. The +traceried windows on the Rio Façade, and the two eastern windows on the +Sea Façade, are all of the finest early fourteenth century work, +masculine and noble in their capitals and bases to the highest degree, +and evidently contemporary with the very earliest portions of the lower +arcades. But the moment we come to the windows of the Great Council +Chamber the style is debased. The mouldings are the same, but they are +coarsely worked, and the heads set amidst the leafage of the capitals +quite valueless and vile. + +I have not the least doubt that these window-jambs and traceries were +restored after the great fire;[59] and various other restorations have +taken place since, beginning with the removal of the traceries from all +the windows except the northern one of the Sala del Scrutinio, behind +the Porta della Carta, where they are still left. I made out four +periods of restoration among these windows, each baser than the +preceding. It is not worth troubling the reader about them, but the +traveller who is interested in the subject may compare two of them in +the same window; the one nearer the sea of the two belonging to the +little room at the top of the Palace on the Piazzetta Façade, between +the Sala del Gran Consiglio and that of the Scrutinio. The seaward jamb +of that window is of the first, and the opposite jamb of the second, +period of these restorations. These are all the points of separation in +date which I could discover by internal evidence. But much more might be +made out by any Venetian antiquary whose time permitted him thoroughly +to examine any existing documents which allude to or describe the parts +of the Palace spoken of in the important decrees of 1340, 1342, and +1344; for the first of these decrees speaks of certain "columns looking +towards the Canal"[60] or sea, as then existing, and I presume these +columns to have been part of the Ziani Palace, corresponding to the part +of that palace on the Piazzetta where were the "red columns" between +which Calendario was executed; and a great deal more might be determined +by any one who would thoroughly unravel the obscure language of those +decrees. + +Meantime, in order to complete the evidence respecting the main dates +stated in the text, I have collected here such notices of the building +of the Ducal Palace as appeared to me of most importance in the various +chronicles I examined. I could not give them all in the text, as they +repeat each other, and would have been tedious; but they will be +interesting to the antiquary, and it is to be especially noted in all of +them how the Palazzo _Vecchio_ is invariably distinguished, either +directly or by implication, from the Palazzo Nuovo. I shall first +translate the piece of the Zancarol Chronicle given by Cadorin, which +has chiefly misled the Venetian antiquaries. I wish I could put the rich +old Italian into old English, but must be content to lose its raciness, +as it is necessary that the reader should be fully acquainted with its +facts. + +"It was decreed that none should dare to propose to the Signory of +Venice to ruin the _old_ palace and rebuild it new and more richly, and +there was a penalty of one thousand ducats against any one who should +break it. Then the Doge, wishing to set forward the public good, said to +the Signory, ... that they ought to rebuild the façades of the _old_ +palace, and that it ought to be restored, to do honor to the nation: and +so soon as he had done speaking, the Avogadori demanded the penalty from +the Doge, for having disobeyed the law; and the Doge with ready mind +paid it, remaining in his opinion that the said fabric ought to be +built. And so, in the year 1422, on the 20th day of September, it was +passed in the Council of the Pregadi that the said new palace should be +begun, and the expense should be borne by the Signori del Sal; and so, +on the 24th day of March, 1424, it was begun to throw down the _old_ +palace, and to build it anew."--_Cadorin_, p. 129. + +The day of the month, and the council in which the decree was passed, +are erroneously given by this Chronicle. Cadorin has printed the words +of the decree itself, which passed in the Great Council on the 27th +September: and these words are, fortunately, much to our present +purpose. For as more than one façade is spoken of in the above extract, +the Marchese Selvatico was induced to believe that both the front to the +sea and that to the Piazzetta had been destroyed; whereas, the "façades" +spoken of are evidently those of the Ziani Palace. For the words of the +decree (which are much more trustworthy than those of the Chronicle, +even if there were any inconsistency between them) run thus: "Palatium +nostrum fabricetur et fiat in forma decora et convenienti, quod +respondeat _solemnissimo principio palatii nostri novi_." Thus the new +council chamber and façade to the sea are called the "most venerable +beginning of our _New_ Palace;" and the rest was ordered to be designed +in accordance with these, as was actually the case as far as the Porta +della Carta. But the Renaissance architects who thenceforward proceeded +with the fabric, broke through the design, and built everything else +according to their own humors. + +The question may be considered as set at rest by these words of the +decree, even without any internal or any farther documentary evidence. +But rather for the sake of impressing the facts thoroughly on the +reader's mind, than of any additional proof, I shall quote a few more of +the best accredited Chronicles. + +The passage given by Bettio, from the Sivos Chronicle, is a very +important parallel with that from the Zancarol above: + +"Essendo molto vecchio, e quasi rovinoso el Palazzo sopra la piazza, fo +deliberato di far quella parte tutta da novo, et continuarla com' è +quella della Sala grande, et cosi il Lunedi 27 Marzo 1424 fu dato +principio a ruinare detto Palazzo vecchio dalla parte, ch' è verso +panateria cioè della Giustizia, ch' è nelli occhi di sopra le colonne +fino alla Chiesa et fo fatto anco la porta grande, com' è al presente, +con la sala che si addimanda la Libraria."[61] + +We have here all the facts told us in so many words: the "old palace" is +definitely stated to have been "on the piazza," and it is to be rebuilt +"like the part of the great saloon." The very point from which the newer +buildings commenced is told us; but here the chronicler has carried his +attempt at accuracy too far. The point of junction is, as stated above, +at the third pillar beyond the medallion of Venice; and I am much at a +loss to understand what could have been the disposition of these three +pillars where they joined the Ziani Palace, and how they were connected +with the arcade of the inner cortile. But with these difficulties, as +they do not bear on the immediate question, it is of no use to trouble +the reader. + +The next passage I shall give is from a Chronicle in the Marcian +Library, bearing title, "Supposta di Zancaruol;" but in which I could +not find the passage given by Cadorin from, I believe, a manuscript of +this Chronicle at Vienna. There occurs instead of it the following thus +headed:-- + +"Come _la parte nova_ del Palazzo fuo hedificata _novamente_. + +"El Palazzo novo de Venesia quella parte che xe verso la Chiesia de S. +Marcho fuo prexo chel se fesse del 1422 e fosse pagado la spexa per li +officiali del sal. E fuo fatto per sovrastante G. Nicolo Barberigo cum +provision de ducati X doro al mexe e fuo fabricado e fatto nobelissimo. +Come fin ancho di el sta e fuo grande honor a la Signoria de Venesia e a +la sua Citta." + +This entry, which itself bears no date, but comes between others dated +22nd July and 27th December, is interesting, because it shows the first +transition of the idea of _newness_, from the Grand Council Chamber to +the part built under Foscari. For when Mocenigo's wishes had been +fulfilled, and the old palace of Ziani had been destroyed, and another +built in its stead, the Great Council Chamber, which was "the new +palace" compared with Ziani's, became "the old palace" compared with +Foscari's; and thus we have, in the body of the above extract, the whole +building called "the new palace of Venice;" but in the heading of it, we +have "the new _part_ of the palace" applied to the part built by +Foscari, in contradistinction to the Council Chamber. + +The next entry I give is important, because the writing of the MS. in +which it occurs, No. 53 in the Correr Museum, shows it to be probably +not later than the end of the fifteenth century: + +"El palazo nuovo de Venixia zoe quella parte che se sora la piazza verso +la giesia di Miss. San Marcho del 1422 fo principiado, el qual fo fato e +finito molto belo, chome al presente se vede nobilissimo, et a la +fabricha de quello fo deputado Miss. Nicolo Barberigo, soprastante con +ducati dieci doro al mexe." + +We have here the part built by Foscari distinctly called the Palazzo +Nuovo, as opposed to the Great Council Chamber, which had now completely +taken the position of the Palazzo Vecchio, and is actually so called by +Sansovino. In the copy of the Chronicle of Paolo Morosini, and in the +MSS. numbered respectively 57, 59, 74, and 76 in the Correr Museum, the +passage above given from No. 53 is variously repeated with slight +modifications and curtailments; the entry in the Morosini Chronicle +being headed, "Come fu principiato il palazo che guarda sopra la piaza +grande di S. Marco," and proceeding in the words, "El Palazo Nuovo di +Venetia, cioè quella parte che e sopra la piaza," &c., the writers being +cautious, in all these instances, to _limit their statement_ to the part +facing the Piazza, that no reader might suppose the Council Chamber to +have been built or begun at the same time; though, as long as to the end +of the sixteenth century, we find the Council Chamber still included in +the expression "Palazzo Nuovo." Thus, in the MS. No. 75 in the Correr +Museum, which is about that date, we have "Del 1422, a di 20 Settembre +fu preso nel consegio grando de dover _compir_ el Palazo Novo, e dovesen +fare la spessa li officialli del Sal (61. M. 2. B.)." And, so long as +this is the case, the "Palazzo Vecchio" always means the Ziani Palace. +Thus, in the next page of this same MS. we have "a di 27 Marzo (1424 by +context) fo principia a butar zosso, el _Palazzo Vecchio_ per refarlo da +novo, e poi se he" (and so it is done); and in the MS. No. 81, "Del +1424, fo gittado zoso el _Palazzo Vecchio_ per refarlo de nuovo, a di 27 +Marzo." But in the time of Sansovino the Ziani Palace was quite +forgotten; the Council Chamber was then the _old_ palace, and Foscari's +part was the new. His account of the "Palazzo Publico" will now be +perfectly intelligible; but, as the work itself is easily accessible, I +shall not burden the reader with any farther extracts, only noticing +that the chequering of the façade with red and white marbles, which he +ascribes to Foscari, may or may not be of so late a date, as there is +nothing in the style of the work which can be produced as evidence. + + +2. THEOLOGY OF SPENSER. + +The following analysis of the first books of the "Faërie Queen," may be +interesting to readers who have been in the habit of reading the noble +poem too hastily to connect its parts completely together; and may +perhaps induce them to more careful study of the rest of the poem. + +The Redcrosse Knight is Holiness,--the "Pietas" of St. Mark's, the +"Devotio" of Orcagna,--meaning, I think, in general, Reverence and Godly +Fear. + +This Virtue, in the opening of the book, has Truth (or Una) at its side, +but presently enters the Wandering Wood, and encounters the serpent +Error; that is to say, Error in her universal form, the first enemy of +Reverence and Holiness; and more especially Error as founded on +learning; for when Holiness strangles her, + + "Her vomit _full of bookes and papers was_, + With loathly frogs and toades, which eyes did lacke." + +Having vanquished this first open and palpable form of Error, as +Reverence and Religion must always vanquish it, the Knight encounters +Hypocrisy, or Archimagus; Holiness cannot detect Hypocrisy, but +believes him, and goes home with him; whereupon Hypocrisy succeeds in +separating Holiness from Truth; and the Knight (Holiness) and Lady +(Truth) go forth separately from the house of Archimagus. + +Now observe: the moment Godly Fear, or Holiness, is separated from +Truth, he meets Infidelity, or the Knight Sans Foy; Infidelity having +Falsehood, or Duesa, riding behind him. The instant the Redcrosse Knight +is aware of the attack of Infidelity, he + + "Gan fairly couch his speare, and towards ride." + +He vanquishes and slays Infidelity; but is deceived by his companion, +Falsehood, and takes her for his lady: thus showing the condition of +Religion, when, after being attacked by Doubt, and remaining victorious, +it is nevertheless seduced, by any form of Falsehood, to pay reverence +where it ought not. This, then, is the first fortune of Godly Fear +separated from Truth. The poet then returns to Truth, separated from +Godly Fear. She is immediately attended by a lion, or Violence, which +makes her dreaded wherever she comes; and when she enters the mart of +Superstition, this Lion tears Kirkrapine in pieces: showing how Truth, +separated from Godliness, does indeed put an end to the abuses of +Superstition, but does so violently and desperately. She then meets +again with Hypocrisy, whom she mistakes for her own lord, or Godly Fear, +and travels a little way under his guardianship (Hypocrisy thus not +unfrequently appearing to defend the Truth), until they are both met by +Lawlessness, or the Knight Sans Loy, whom Hypocrisy cannot resist. +Lawlessness overthrows Hypocrisy, and seizes upon Truth, first slaying +her lion attendant: showing that the first aim of licence is to destroy +the force and authority of Truth. Sans Loy then takes Truth captive, and +bears her away. Now this Lawlessness is the "unrighteousness," or +"adikia," of St. Paul; and his bearing Truth away captive, is a type of +those "who hold the truth in unrighteousness,"--that is to say, +generally, of men who, knowing what is true, make the truth give way to +their own purposes, or use it only to forward them, as is the case with +so many of the popular leaders of the present day. Una is then delivered +from Sans Loy by the satyrs, to show that Nature, in the end, must work +out the deliverance of the truth, although, where it has been captive to +Lawlessness, that deliverance can only be obtained through Savageness, +and a return to barbarism. Una is then taken from among the satyrs by +Satyrane, the son of a satyr and a "lady myld, fair Thyamis," (typifying +the early steps of renewed civilization, and its rough and hardy +character "nousled up in life and manners wilde,") who, meeting again +with Sans Loy, enters instantly into rough and prolonged combat with +him: showing how the early organization of a hardy nation must be +wrought out through much discouragement from Lawlessness. This contest +the poet leaving for the time undecided, returns to trace the adventures +of the Redcrosse Knight, or Godly Fear, who, having vanquished +Infidelity, presently is led by Falsehood to the house of Pride: thus +showing how religion, separated from truth, is first tempted by doubts +of God, and then by the pride of life. The description of this house of +Pride is one of the most elaborate and noble pieces in the poem; and +here we begin to get at the proposed system of Virtues and Vices. For +Pride, as queen, has six other vices yoked in her chariot; namely, +first, Idleness, then Gluttony, Lust, Avarice, Envy, and Anger, all +driven on by "Sathan, with a smarting whip in hand." From these lower +vices and their company, Godly Fear, though lodging in the house of +Pride, holds aloof; but he is challenged, and has a hard battle to fight +with Sans Joy, the brother of Sans Foy: showing, that though he has +conquered Infidelity, and does not give himself up to the allurements of +Pride, he is yet exposed, so long as he dwells in her house, to distress +of mind and loss of his accustomed rejoicing before God. He, however, +having partly conquered Despondency, or Sans Joy, Falsehood goes down to +Hades, in order to obtain drugs to maintain the power or life of +Despondency; but, meantime, the Knight leaves the house of Pride: +Falsehood pursues and overtakes him, and finds him by a fountain side, +of which the waters are + + "Dull and slow, + And all that drinke thereof do faint and feeble grow." + +Of which the meaning is, that Godly Fear, after passing through the +house of Pride, is exposed to drowsiness and feebleness of watch; as, +after Peter's boast, came Peter's sleeping, from weakness of the flesh, +and then, last of all, Peter's fall. And so it follows: for the +Redcrosse Knight, being overcome with faintness by drinking of the +fountain, is thereupon attacked by the giant Orgoglio, overcome and +thrown by him into a dungeon. This Orgoglio is Orgueil, or Carnal Pride; +not the pride of life, spiritual and subtle, but the common and vulgar +pride in the power of this world: and his throwing the Redcrosse Knight +into a dungeon, is a type of the captivity of true religion under the +temporal power of corrupt churches, more especially of the Church of +Rome; and of its gradually wasting away in unknown places, while carnal +pride has the preëminence over all things. That Spenser means, +especially, the pride of the Papacy, is shown by the 16th stanza of the +book; for there the giant Orgoglio is said to have taken Duessa, or +Falsehood, for his "deare," and to have set upon her head a triple +crown, and endowed her with royal majesty, and made her to ride upon a +seven-headed beast. + +In the meantime, the dwarf, the attendant of the Redcrosse Knight, takes +his arms, and finding Una tells her of the captivity of her lord. Una, +in the midst of her mourning, meets Prince Arthur, in whom, as Spenser +himself tells us, is set forth generally Magnificence; but who, as is +shown by the choice of the hero's name, is more especially the +magnificence, or literally, "great doing" of the kingdom of England. +This power of England, going forth with Truth, attacks Orgoglio, or the +Pride of Papacy, slays him; strips Duessa, or Falsehood, naked; and +liberates the Redcrosse Knight. The magnificent and well-known +description of Despair follows, by whom the Redcrosse Knight is hard +bested, on account of his past errors and captivity, and is only saved +by Truth, who, perceiving him to be still feeble, brings him to the +house of Coelia, called, in the argument of the canto, Holiness, but +properly, Heavenly Grace, the mother of the Virtues. Her "three +daughters, well up-brought," are Faith, Hope, and Charity. Her porter is +Humility; because Humility opens the door of Heavenly Grace. Zeal and +Reverence are her chamberlains, introducing the new comers to her +presence; her groom, or servant, is Obedience; and her physician, +Patience. Under the commands of Charity, the matron Mercy rules over +her hospital, under whose care the Knight is healed of his sickness; and +it is to be especially noticed how much importance Spenser, though never +ceasing to chastise all hypocrisies and mere observances of form, +attaches to true and faithful _penance_ in effecting this cure. Having +his strength restored to him, the Knight is trusted to the guidance of +Mercy, who, leading him forth by a narrow and thorny way, first +instructs him in the seven works of Mercy, and then leads him to the +hill of Heavenly Contemplation; whence, having a sight of the New +Jerusalem, as Christian of the Delectable Mountains, he goes forth to +the final victory over Satan, the old serpent, with which the book +closes. + + +3. AUSTRIAN GOVERNMENT IN ITALY. + +I cannot close these volumes without expressing my astonishment and +regret at the facility with which the English allow themselves to be +misled by any representations, however openly groundless or ridiculous, +proceeding from the Italian Liberal party, respecting the present +administration of the Austrian Government. I do not choose here to enter +into any political discussion, or express any political opinion; but it +is due to justice to state the simple facts which came under my notice +during my residence in Italy. I was living at Venice through two entire +winters, and in the habit of familiar association both with Italians and +Austrians, my own antiquarian vocations rendering such association +possible without exciting the distrust of either party. During this +whole period, I never once was able to ascertain, from any liberal +Italian, that he had a single _definite_ ground of complaint against the +Government. There was much general grumbling and vague discontent; but I +never was able to bring one of them to the point, or to discover what it +was that they wanted, or in what way they felt themselves injured; nor +did I ever myself witness an instance of oppression on the part of the +Government, though several of much kindness and consideration. The +indignation of those of my own countrymen and countrywomen whom I +happened to see during their sojourn in Venice was always vivid, but by +no means large in its grounds. English ladies on their first arrival +invariably began the conversation with the same remark: "What a +dreadful thing it was to be ground under the iron heel of despotism!" +Upon closer inquiries it always appeared that being "ground under the +heel of despotism" was a poetical expression for being asked for one's +passport at San Juliano, and required to fetch it from San Lorenzo, full +a mile and a quarter distant. In like manner, travellers, after two or +three days' residence in the city, used to return with pitiful +lamentations over "the misery of the Italian people." Upon inquiring +what instances they had met with of this misery, it invariably turned +out that their gondoliers, after being paid three times their proper +fare, had asked for something to drink, and had attributed the fact of +their being thirsty to the Austrian Government. The misery of the +Italians consists in having three festa days a week, and doing in their +days of exertion about one fourth as much work as an English laborer. + +There is, indeed, much true distress occasioned by the measures which +the Government is sometimes compelled to take in order to repress +sedition; but the blame of this lies with those whose occupation is the +excitement of sedition. So also there is much grievous harm done to +works of art by the occupation of the country by so large an army; but +for the mode in which that army is quartered, the Italian municipalities +are answerable, not the Austrians. Whenever I was shocked by finding, as +above-mentioned at Milan, a cloister, or a palace, occupied by soldiery, +I always discovered, on investigation, that the place had been given by +the municipality; and that, beyond requiring that lodging for a certain +number of men should be found in such and such a quarter of the town, +the Austrians had nothing to do with the matter. This does not, however, +make the mischief less: and it is strange, if we think of it, to see +Italy, with all her precious works of art, made a continual +battle-field; as if no other place for settling their disputes could be +found by the European powers, than where every random shot may destroy +what a king's ransom cannot restore.[62] It is exactly as if the +tumults in Paris could he settled no otherwise than by fighting them out +in the Gallery of the Louvre. + + +4. DATE OF THE PALACES OF THE BYZANTINE RENAISSANCE. + +In the sixth article of the Appendix to the first volume, the question +of the date of the Casa Dario and Casa Trevisan was deferred until I +could obtain from my friend Mr. Rawdon Brown, to whom the former palace +once belonged, some more distinct data respecting this subject than I +possessed myself. + +Speaking first of the Casa Dario, he says: "Fontana dates it from about +the year 1450, and considers it the earliest specimen of the +architecture founded by Pietro Lombardo, and followed by his sons, +Tullio and Antonio. In a Sanuto autograph miscellany, purchased by me +long ago, and which I gave to St. Mark's Library, are two letters from +Giovanni Dario, dated 10th and 11th July, 1485, in the neighborhood of +Adrianople; where the Turkish camp found itself, and Bajazet II. +received presents from the Soldan of Egypt, from the Schah of the Indies +(query Grand Mogul), and from the King of Hungary: of these matters, +Dario's letters give many curious details. Then, in the _printed_ +Malipiero Annals, page 136 (which err, I think, by a year), the +Secretary Dario's negotiations at the Porte are alluded to; and in date +of 1484 he is stated to have returned to Venice, having quarrelled with +the Venetian bailiff at Constantinople: the annalist adds, that +'Giovanni Dario was a native of Candia, and that the Republic was so +well satisfied with him for having concluded peace with Bajazet, that he +received, as a gift from his country, an estate at Noventa, in the +Paduan territory, worth 1500 ducats, and 600 ducats in cash for the +dower of one of his daughters.' These largesses probably enabled him to +build his house about the year 1486, and are doubtless hinted at in the +inscription, which I restored A.D. 1837; _it had no date_, and ran thus, +URBIS . GENIO . JOANNES . DARIVS. In the Venetian history of Paolo +Morosini, page 594, it is also mentioned, that Giovanni Dario was, +moreover, the Secretary who concluded the peace between Mahomet, the +conqueror of Constantinople, and Venice, A.D. 1478; but, unless he build +his house by proxy, that date has nothing to do with it; and in my mind, +the fact of the present, and the inscription, warrant one's dating it +1486, and not 1450. + +"The Trevisan-Cappello House, in Canonica, was once the property (A.D. +1578) of a Venetian dame, fond of cray-fish, according to a letter of +hers in the archives, whereby she thanks one of her lovers for some +which he had sent her from Treviso to Florence, of which she was then +Grand Duchess. Her name has perhaps found its way into the English +annuals. Did you ever hear of Bianca Cappello? She bought that house of +the Trevisana family, by whom Selva (in Cicognara) and Fontana +(following Selva) say it was ordered of the Lombardi, at the +commencement of the sixteenth century: but the inscription on its +façade, thus, + + SOLI | | HONOR. ET + DEO | | GLORIA. + +reminding one both of the Dario House, and of the words NON NOBIS DOMINE +inscribed on the façade of the Loredano Vendramin Palace at S. Marcuola +(now the property of the Duchess of Berri), of which Selva found proof +in the Vendramin Archives that it was commenced by Sante Lombardo, A.D. +1481, is in favor of its being classed among the works of the fifteenth +century." + + +5. RENAISSANCE SIDE OF DUCAL PALACE. + +In passing along the Rio del Palazzo the traveller ought especially to +observe the base of the Renaissance building, formed by alternately +depressed and raised pyramids, the depressed portions being _casts_ of +the projecting ones, which are truncated on the summits. The work cannot +be called rustication, for it is cut as sharply and delicately as a +piece of ivory, but it thoroughly answers the end which rustication +proposes, and misses: it gives the base of the building a look of +crystalline hardness, actually resembling, and that very closely, the +appearance presented by the fracture of a piece of cap quartz; while yet +the light and shade of its alternate recesses and projections are so +varied as to produce the utmost possible degree of delight to the eye, +attainable by a geometrical pattern so simple. Yet, with all this high +merit, it is not a base which could be brought into general use. Its +brilliancy and piquancy are here set off with exquisite skill by its +opposition to mouldings, in the upper part of the building, of an almost +effeminate delicacy, and its complexity is rendered delightful by its +contrast with the ruder bases of the other buildings of the city; but it +would look meagre if it were employed to sustain bolder masses above, +and would become wearisome if the eye were once thoroughly familiarized +with it by repetition. + + +6. CHARACTER OF THE DOGE MICHELE MOROSINI. + +The following extracts from the letter of Count Charles Morosini, above +mentioned, appear to set the question at rest. + +"It is our unhappy destiny that, during the glory of the Venetian +republic, no one took the care to leave us a faithful and conscientious +history: but I hardly know whether this misfortune should be laid to the +charge of the historians themselves, or of those commentators who have +destroyed their trustworthiness by new accounts of things, invented by +themselves. As for the poor Morosini, we may perhaps save his honor by +assembling a conclave of our historians, in order to receive their +united sentence; for, in this case, he would have the absolute majority +on his side, nearly all the authors bearing testimony to his love for +his country and to the magnanimity of his heart. I must tell you that +the history of Daru is not looked upon with esteem by well-informed men; +and it is said that he seems to have no other object in view than to +obscure the glory of all actions. I know not on what authority the +English writer depends; but he has, perhaps, merely copied the statement +of Daru.... I have consulted an ancient and authentic MS. belonging to +the Venieri family, a MS. well known, and certainly better worthy of +confidence than Daru's history, and it says nothing of M. Morosini but +that he was elected Doge to the delight and joy of all men. Neither do +the Savina or Dolfin Chronicles say a word of the shameful speculation; +and our best informed men say that the reproach cast by some historians +against the Doge perhaps arose from a mistaken interpretation of the +words pronounced by him, and reported by Marin Sanuto, that 'the +speculation would sooner or later have been advantageous to the +country.' But this single consideration is enough to induce us to form a +favorable conclusion respecting the honor of this man, namely, that he +was not elected Doge until after he had been entrusted with many +honorable embassies to the Genoese and Carrarese, as well as to the King +of Hungary and Amadeus of Savoy; and if in these embassies he had not +shown himself a true lover of his country, the republic not only would +not again have entrusted him with offices so honorable, but would never +have rewarded him with the dignity of Doge, therein to succeed such a +man as Andrea Contarini; and the war of Chioggia, during which it is +said that he tripled his fortune by speculations, took place during the +reign of Contarini, 1379, 1380, while Morosini was absent on foreign +embassies." + + +7. MODERN EDUCATION. + +The following fragmentary notes on this subject have been set down at +different times. I have been accidentally prevented from arranging them +properly for publication, but there are one or two truths in them which +it is better to express insufficiently than not at all. + + * * * * * + +By a large body of the people of England and of Europe a man is called +educated if he can write Latin verses and construe a Greek chorus. By +some few more enlightened persons it is confessed that the construction +of hexameters is not in itself an important end of human existence; but +they say, that the general discipline which a course of classical +reading gives to the intellectual powers, is the final object of our +scholastical institutions. + +But it seems to me, there is no small error even in this last and more +philosophical theory. I believe, that what it is most honorable to know, +it is also most profitable to learn; and that the science which it is +the highest power to possess, it is also the best exercise to acquire. + +And if this be so, the question as to what should be the materiel of +education, becomes singularly simplified. It might be matter of dispute +what processes have the greatest effect in developing the intellect; but +it can hardly be disputed what facts it is most advisable that a man +entering into life should accurately know. + +I believe, in brief, that he ought to know three things: + + First. Where he is. + Secondly. Where he is going. + Thirdly. What he had best do, under those circumstances. + +First. Where he is.--That is to say, what sort of a world he has got +into; how large it is; what kind of creatures live in it, and how; what +it is made of, and what may be made of it. + +Secondly. Where he is going.--That is to say, what chances or reports +there are of any other world besides this; what seems to be the nature +of that other world; and whether, for information respecting it, he had +better consult the Bible, Koran, or Council of Trent. + +Thirdly. What he had best do under those circumstances.--That is to say, +what kind of faculties he possesses; what are the present state and +wants of mankind; what is his place in society; and what are the +readiest means in his power of attaining happiness and diffusing it. The +man who knows these things, and who has had his will so subdued in the +learning them, that he is ready to do what he knows he ought, I should +call educated; and the man who knows them not,--uneducated, though he +could talk all the tongues of Babel. + +Our present European system of so-called education ignores, or despises, +not one, nor the other, but all the three, of these great branches of +human knowledge. + +First: It despises Natural History.--Until within the last year or two, +the instruction in the physical sciences given at Oxford consisted of a +course of twelve or fourteen lectures on the Elements of Mechanics or +Pneumatics, and permission to ride out to Shotover with the Professor of +Geology. I do not know the specialties of the system pursued in the +academies of the Continent; but their practical result is, that unless a +man's natural instincts urge him to the pursuit of the physical sciences +too strongly to be resisted, he enters into life utterly ignorant of +them. I cannot, within my present limits, even so much as count the +various directions in which this ignorance does evil. But the main +mischief of it is, that it leaves the greater number of men without the +natural food which God intended for their intellects. For one man who is +fitted for the study of words, fifty are fitted for the study of things, +and were intended to have a perpetual, simple, and religious delight in +watching the processes, or admiring the creatures, of the natural +universe. Deprived of this source of pleasure, nothing is left to them +but ambition or dissipation; and the vices of the upper classes of +Europe are, I believe, chiefly to be attributed to this single cause. + +Secondly: It despises Religion.--I do not say it despises "Theology," +that is to say, _Talk_ about God. But it despises "Religion;" that is to +say, the "binding" or training to God's service. There is much talk and +much teaching in all our academies, of which the effect is not to bind, +but to loosen, the elements of religious faith. Of the ten or twelve +young men who, at Oxford, were my especial friends, who sat with me +under the same lectures on Divinity, or were punished with me for +missing lecture by being sent to evening prayers,[63] four are now +zealous Romanists,--a large average out of twelve; and while thus our +own universities profess to teach Protestantism, and do not, the +universities on the Continent profess to teach Romanism, and do +not,--sending forth only rebels and infidels. During long residence on +the Continent, I do not remember meeting with above two or three young +men, who either believed in revelation, or had the grace to hesitate in +the assertion of their infidelity. + +Whence, it seems to me, we may gather one of two things; either that +there is nothing in any European form of religion so reasonable or +ascertained, as that it can be taught securely to our youth, or fastened +in their minds by any rivets of proof which they shall not be able to +loosen the moment they begin to think; or else, that no means are taken +to train them in such demonstrable creeds. + +It seems to me the duty of a rational nation to ascertain (and to be at +some pains in the matter) which of these suppositions is true; and, if +indeed no proof can be given of any supernatural fact, or Divine +doctrine, stronger than a youth just out of his teens can overthrow in +the first stirrings of serious thought, to confess this boldly; to get +rid of the expense of an Establishment, and the hypocrisy of a Liturgy; +to exhibit its cathedrals as curious memorials of a by-gone +superstition, and, abandoning all thoughts of the next world, to set +itself to make the best it can of this. + +But if, on the other hand, there _does_ exist any evidence by which the +probability of certain religious facts may be shown, as clearly, even, +as the probabilities of things not absolutely ascertained in +astronomical or geological science, let this evidence be set before all +our youth so distinctly, and the facts for which it appears inculcated +upon them so steadily, that although it may be possible for the evil +conduct of after life to efface, or for its earnest and protracted +meditation to modify, the impressions of early years, it may not be +possible for our young men, the instant they emerge from their +academies, to scatter themselves like a flock of wild fowl risen out of +a marsh, and drift away on every irregular wind of heresy and apostasy. + +Lastly: Our system of European education despises Politics.--That is to +say, the science of the relations and duties of men to each other. One +would imagine, indeed, by a glance at the state of the world, that there +was no such science. And, indeed, it is one still in its infancy. + +It implies, in its full sense, the knowledge of the operations of the +virtues and vices of men upon themselves and society; the understanding +of the ranks and offices of their intellectual and bodily powers in +their various adaptations to art, science, and industry; the +understanding of the proper offices of art, science, and labor +themselves, as well as of the foundations of jurisprudence, and broad +principles of commerce; all this being coupled with practical knowledge +of the present state and wants of mankind. + +What, it will be said, and is all this to be taught to schoolboys? No; +but the first elements of it, all that are necessary to be known by an +individual in order to his acting wisely in any station of life, might +be taught, not only to every schoolboy, but to every peasant. The +impossibility of equality among men; the good which arises from their +inequality; the compensating circumstances in different states and +fortunes; the honorableness of every man who is worthily filling his +appointed place in society, however humble; the proper relations of poor +and rich, governor and governed; the nature of wealth, and mode of its +circulation; the difference between productive and unproductive labor; +the relation of the products of the mind and hand; the true value of +works of the higher arts, and the possible amount of their production; +the meaning of "Civilization," its advantages and dangers; the meaning +of the term "Refinement;" the possibilities of possessing refinement in +a low station, and of losing it in a high one; and, above all, the +significance of almost every act of a man's daily life, in its ultimate +operation upon himself and others;--all this might be, and ought to be, +taught to every boy in the kingdom, so completely, that it should be +just as impossible to introduce an absurd or licentious doctrine among +our adult population, as a new version of the multiplication table. Nor +am I altogether without hope that some day it may enter into the heads +of the tutors of our schools to try whether it is not as easy to make an +Eton boy's mind as sensitive to falseness in policy, as his ear is at +present to falseness in prosody. + +I know that this is much to hope. That English ministers of religion +should ever come to desire rather to make a youth acquainted with the +powers of nature and of God, than with the powers of Greek particles; +that they should ever think it more useful to show him how the great +universe rolls upon its course in heaven, than how the syllables are +fitted in a tragic metre; that they should hold it more advisable for +him to be fixed in the principles of religion than in those of syntax; +or, finally, that they should ever come to apprehend that a youth likely +to go straight out of college into parliament, might not unadvisably +know as much of the Peninsular as of the Peloponnesian War, and be as +well acquainted with the state of Modern Italy as of old Etruria;--all +this however unreasonably, I _do_ hope, and mean to work for. For though +I have not yet abandoned all expectation of a better world than this, I +believe this in which we live is not so good as it might be. I know +there are many people who suppose French revolutions, Italian +insurrections, Caffre wars, and such other scenic effects of modern +policy, to be among the normal conditions of humanity. I know there are +many who think the atmosphere of rapine, rebellion, and misery which +wraps the lower orders of Europe more closely every day, is as natural a +phenomenon as a hot summer. But God forbid! There are ills which flesh +is heir to, and troubles to which man is born; but the troubles which he +is born to are as sparks which fly _upward_, not as flames burning to +the nethermost Hell. The Poor we must have with us always, and sorrow is +inseparable from any hour of life; but we may make their poverty such as +shall inherit the earth, and the sorrow, such as shall be hallowed by +the hand of the Comforter, with everlasting comfort. We _can_, if we +will but shake off this lethargy and dreaming that is upon us, and take +the pains to think and act like men, we can, I say, make kingdoms to be +like well-governed households, in which, indeed, while no care or +kindness can prevent occasional heart-burnings, nor any foresight or +piety anticipate all the vicissitudes of fortune, or avert every stroke +of calamity, yet the unity of their affection and fellowship remains +unbroken, and their distress is neither embittered by division, +prolonged by imprudence, nor darkened by dishonor. + + * * * * * + +The great leading error of modern times is the mistaking erudition for +education. I call it the leading error, for I believe that, with little +difficulty, nearly every other might be shown to have root in it; and, +most assuredly, the worst that are fallen into on the subject of art. + +Education then, briefly, is the leading human souls to what is best, and +making what is best out of them; and these two objects are always +attainable together, and by the same means; the training which makes men +happiest in themselves, also makes them most serviceable to others. True +education, then, has respect, first to the ends which are proposable to +the man, or attainable by him; and, secondly, to the material of which +the man is made. So far as it is able, it chooses the end according to +the material: but it cannot always choose the end, for the position of +many persons in life is fixed by necessity; still less can it choose +the material; and, therefore, all it can do, is to fit the one to the +other as wisely as may be. + +But the first point to be understood, is that the material is as various +as the ends; that not only one man is unlike another, but _every_ man is +essentially different from _every_ other, so that no training, no +forming, nor informing, will ever make two persons alike in thought or +in power. Among all men, whether of the upper or lower orders, the +differences are eternal and irreconcilable, between one individual and +another, born under absolutely the same circumstances. One man is made +of agate, another of oak; one of slate, another of clay. The education +of the first is polishing; of the second, seasoning; of the third, +rending; of the fourth, moulding. It is of no use to season the agate; +it is vain to try to polish the slate; but both are fitted, by the +qualities they possess, for services in which they may be honored. + +Now the cry for the education of the lower classes, which is heard every +day more widely and loudly, is a wise and a sacred cry, provided it be +extended into one for the education of _all_ classes, with definite +respect to the work each man has to do, and the substance of which he is +made. But it is a foolish and vain cry, if it be understood, as in the +plurality of cases it is meant to be, for the expression of mere craving +after knowledge, irrespective of the simple purposes of the life that +now is, and blessings of that which is to come. + +One great fallacy into which men are apt to fall when they are reasoning +on this subject is: that light, as such, is always good; and darkness, +as such, always evil. Far from it. Light untempered would be +annihilation. It is good to them that sit in darkness and in the shadow +of death; but, to those that faint in the wilderness, so also is the +shadow of the great rock in a weary land. If the sunshine is good, so +also the cloud of the latter rain. Light is only beautiful, only +available for life, when it is tempered with shadow; pure light is +fearful, and unendurable by humanity. And it is not less ridiculous to +say that the light, as such, is good in itself, than to say that the +darkness is good in itself. Both are rendered safe, healthy, and useful +by the other; the night by the day, the day by the night; and we could +just as easily live without the dawn as without the sunset, so long as +we are human. Of the celestial city we are told there shall be "no night +there," and then we shall know even as also we are known: but the night +and the mystery have both their service here; and our business is not to +strive to turn the night into day, but to be sure that we are as they +that watch for the morning. + +Therefore, in the education either of lower or upper classes, it matters +not the least how much or how little they know, provided they know just +what will fit them to do their work, and to be happy in it. What the sum +or the nature of their knowledge ought to be at a given time or in a +given case, is a totally different question: the main thing to be +understood is, that a man is not educated, in any sense whatsoever, +because he can read Latin, or write English, or can behave well in a +drawingroom; but that he is only educated if he is happy, busy, +beneficent, and effective in the world; that millions of peasants are +therefore at this moment better educated than most of those who call +themselves gentlemen; and that the means taken to "educate" the lower +classes in any other sense may very often be productive of a precisely +opposite result. + +Observe: I do not say, nor do I believe, that the lower classes ought +not to be better educated, in millions of ways, than they are. I believe +_every man in a Christian kingdom ought to be equally well educated_. +But I would have it education to purpose; stern, practical, +irresistible, in moral habits, in bodily strength and beauty, in all +faculties of mind capable of being developed under the circumstances of +the individual, and especially in the technical knowledge of his own +business; but yet, infinitely various in its effort, directed to make +one youth humble, and another confident; to tranquillize this mind, to +put some spark of ambition into that; now to urge, and now to restrain: +and in the doing of all this, considering knowledge as one only out of +myriads of means in its hands, or myriads of gifts at its disposal; and +giving it or withholding it as a good husbandman waters his garden, +giving the full shower only to the thirsty plants, and at times when +they are thirsty, whereas at present we pour it upon the heads of our +youth as the snow falls on the Alps, on one and another alike, till they +can bear no more, and then take honor to ourselves because here and +there a river descends from their crests into the valleys, not +observing that we have made the loaded hills themselves barren for ever. + +Finally: I hold it for indisputable, that the first duty of a state is +to see that every child born therein shall be well housed, clothed, fed, +and educated, till it attain years of discretion. But in order to the +effecting this, the government must have an authority over the people of +which we now do not so much as dream; and I cannot in this place pursue +the subject farther. + + +8. EARLY VENETIAN MARRIAGES. + +Galliciolli, lib. ii. § 1757, insinuates a doubt of the general custom, +saying "it would be more reasonable to suppose that only twelve maidens +were married in public on St. Mark's day;" and Sandi also speaks of +twelve only. All evidence, however, is clearly in favor of the popular +tradition; the most curious fact connected with the subject being the +mention, by Herodotus, of the mode of marriage practised among the +Illyrian "Veneti" of his time, who presented their maidens for marriage +on one day in each year; and, with the price paid for those who were +beautiful, gave dowries to those who had no personal attractions. + +It is very curious to find the traces of this custom existing, though in +a softened form, in Christian times. Still, I admit that there is little +confidence to be placed in the mere concurrence of the Venetian +Chroniclers, who, for the most part, copied from each other: but the +best and most complete account I have read, is that quoted by +Galliciolli from the "Matricola de' Casseleri," written in 1449; and, in +that account, the words are quite unmistakable. "It was anciently the +custom of Venice, that _all the brides_ (novizze) of Venice, when they +married, should be married by the bishop, in the Church of S. Pietro di +Castello, on St. Mark's day, which is the 31st of January." Rogers quotes +Navagiero to the same effect; and Sansovino is more explicit still. "It +was the custom to contract marriages openly; and when the deliberations +were completed, the damsels assembled themselves in St. Pietro di +Castello, for the feast of St. Mark, in February." + + +9. CHARACTER OF THE VENETIAN ARISTOCRACY. + +The following noble answer of a Venetian ambassador, Giustiniani, on the +occasion of an insult offered him at the court of Henry the Eighth, is +as illustrative of the dignity which there yet remained in the character +and thoughts of the Venetian noble, as descriptive, in few words, of the +early faith and deeds of his nation. He writes thus to the Doge, from +London, on the 15th of April, 1516: + +"By my last, in date of the 30th ult., I informed you that the +countenances of some of these lords evinced neither friendship nor +goodwill, and that much language had been used to me of a nature +bordering not merely on arrogance, but even on outrage; and not having +specified this in the foregoing letters, I think fit now to mention it +in detail. Finding myself at the court, and talking familiarly about +other matters, two lay lords, great personages in this kingdom, inquired +of me 'whence it came that your Excellency was of such slippery faith, +now favoring one party and then the other?' Although these words ought +to have irritated me, I answered them with all discretion, 'that you did +keep, and ever had kept your faith; the maintenance of which has placed +you in great trouble, and subjected you to wars of longer duration than +you would otherwise have experienced; descending to particulars in +justification of your Sublimity.' Whereupon one of them replied, '_Isti +Veneti sunt piscatores._'[64] Marvellous was the command I then had over +myself in not giving vent to expressions which might have proved +injurious to your Signory; and with extreme moderation I rejoined, 'that +had he been at Venice, and seen our Senate, and the Venetian nobility, +he perhaps would not speak thus; and moreover, were he well read in our +history, both concerning the origin of our city and the grandeur of your +Excellency's feats, neither the one nor the other would seem to him +those of fishermen; yet,' said I, 'did fishermen found the Christian +faith, and we have been those fishermen who defended it against the +forces of the Infidel, our fishing-boats being galleys and ships, our +hooks the treasure of St. Mark, and our bait the life-blood of our +citizens, who died for the Christian faith.'" + +I take this most interesting passage from a volume of despatches +addressed from London to the Signory of Venice, by the ambassador +Giustiniani, during the years 1516-1519; despatches not only full of +matters of historical interest, but of the most delightful every-day +description of all that went on at the English court. They were +translated by Mr. Brown from the original letters, and will, I believe, +soon be published, and I hope also, read and enjoyed: for I cannot close +these volumes without expressing a conviction, which has long been +forcing itself upon my mind, that _restored_ history is of little more +value than restored painting or architecture; that the only history +worth reading is that written at the time of which it treats, the +history of what was done and seen, heard out of the mouths of the men +who did and saw. One fresh draught of such history is worth more than a +thousand volumes of abstracts, and reasonings, and suppositions, and +theories; and I believe that, as we get wiser, we shall take little +trouble about the history of nations who have left no distinct records +of themselves, but spend our time only in the examination of the +faithful documents which, in any period of the world, have been left, +either in the form of art or literature, portraying the scenes, or +recording the events, which in those days were actually passing before +the eyes of men. + + +10. FINAL APPENDIX. + +The statements respecting the dates of Venetian buildings made +throughout the preceding pages, are founded, as above stated, on careful +and personal examination of all the mouldings, or other features +available as evidence, of every palace of importance in the city. Three +parts, at least, of the time occupied in the completion of the work have +been necessarily devoted to the collection of these evidences, of which +it would be quite useless to lay the mass before the reader; but of +which the leading points must be succinctly stated, in order to show the +nature of my authority for any of the conclusions expressed in the text. + +I have therefore collected in the plates which illustrate this article +of the Appendix, for the examination of any reader who may be interested +by them, as many examples of the evidence-bearing details as are +sufficient for the proof required, especially including all the +exceptional forms; so that the reader may rest assured that if I had +been able to lay before him all the evidence in my possession, it would +have been still more conclusive than the portion now submitted to him. + +[Illustration: Plate V. + BYZANTINE BASES.] + +We must examine in succession the Bases, Doorways and Jambs, Capitals, +Archivolts, Cornices, and Tracery Bars, of Venetian architecture. + + + _I. Bases._ + +The principal points we have to notice are the similarity and simplicity +of the Byzantine bases in general, and the distinction between those of +Torcello and Murano, and of St. Mark's, as tending to prove the early +dates attributed in the text to the island churches. I have sufficiently +illustrated the forms of the Gothic bases in Plates X., XI., and XIII. +of the first volume, so that I here note chiefly the Byzantine or +Romanesque ones, adding two Gothic forms for the sake of comparison. + +The most characteristic examples, then, are collected in Plate V. +opposite; namely: + + 1, 2, 3, 4. In the upper gallery of apse of Murano. + 5. Lower shafts of apse. Murano. + 6. Casa Falier. + 7. Small shafts of panels. Casa Farsetti. + 8. Great shafts and plinth. Casa Farsetti. + 9. Great lower shafts. Fondaco de' Turchi. + 10. Ducal Palace, upper arcade. + PLATE V. 11. General late Gothic form. + Vol. III. 12. Tomb of Dogaressa Vital Michele, in St. Mark's atrium. + 13. Upper arcade of Madonnetta House. + 14. Rio-Foscari House. + 15. Upper arcade. Terraced House. + 16, 17, 18. Nave. Torcello. + 19, 20. Transepts. St. Mark's. + 21. Nave. St. Mark's. + 22. External pillars of northern portico. St. Mark's. + 23, 24. Clustered pillars of northern portico. St. Mark's. + 25, 26. Clustered pillars of southern portico. St. Mark's. + +Now, observe, first, the enormous difference in style between the bases +1 to 5, and the rest in the upper row, that is to say, between the bases +of Murano and the twelfth and thirteenth century bases of Venice; and, +secondly, the difference between the bases 16 to 20 and the rest in the +lower row, that is to say, between the bases of Torcello (with those of +St. Mark's which belong to the nave, and which may therefore be supposed +to be part of the earlier church), and the later ones of the St. Mark's +Façade. + +Secondly: Note the fellowship between 5 and 6, one of the evidences of +the early date of the Casa Falier. + +Thirdly: Observe the slurring of the upper roll into the cavetto, in 13, +14, and 15, and the consequent relationship established between three +most important buildings, the Rio-Foscari House, Terraced House, and +Madonnetta House. + +Fourthly: Byzantine bases, if they have an incision between the upper +roll and cavetto, are very apt to approach the form of fig. 23, in which +the upper roll is cut out of the flat block, and the ledge beneath it is +sloping. Compare Nos. 7, 8, 9, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26. On the other +hand, the later Gothic base, 11, has always its upper roll well +developed, and, generally, the fillet between it and the cavetto +vertical. The sloping fillet is indeed found down to late periods; and +the vertical fillet, as in No. 12, in Byzantine ones; but still, when a +base has such a sloping fillet and peculiarly graceful sweeping cavetto, +as those of No. 10, looking as if they would run into one line with each +other, it is strong presumptive evidence of its belonging to an early, +rather than a late period. + +The base 12 is the boldest example I could find of the exceptional form +in early times; but observe, in this, that the upper roll is larger than +the lower. This is _never_ the case in late Gothic, where the proportion +is always as in fig. 11. Observe that in Nos. 8 and 9 the upper rolls +are at least as large as the lower, an important evidence of the dates +of the Casa Farsetti and Fondaco de' Turchi. + +Lastly: Note the peculiarly steep profile of No. 22, with reference to +what is said of this base in Vol. II. Appendix 9. + + + _II. Doorways and Jambs._ + +The entrances to St. Mark's consist, as above mentioned, of great +circular or ogee porches; underneath which the real open entrances, in +which the valves of the bronze doors play, are square headed. + +[Illustration: Fig. I.] + +The mouldings of the jambs of these doors are highly curious, and the +most characteristic are therefore represented in one view. The outsides +of the jambs are lowest. + + _a_. Northern lateral door. + _b_. First northern door of the façade. + _c_. Second door of the façade. + _d_. Fourth door of the façade. + _e_. Central door of the façade. + +I wish the reader especially to note the arbitrary character of the +curves and incisions; all evidently being drawn by hand, none being +segments of circles, none like another, none influenced by any visible +law. I do not give these mouldings as beautiful; they are, for the most +part, very poor in effect, but they are singularly characteristic of the +free work of the time. + +The kind of door to which these mouldings belong, is shown, with the +other groups of doors, in Plate XIV. Vol. II. fig. 6 _a_. Then 6 _b_, 6 +_c_, 6 _d_ represent the groups of doors in which the Byzantine +influence remained energetic, admitting slowly the forms of the pointed +Gothic; 7 _a_, with the gable above, is the intermediate group between +the Byzantine and Gothic schools; 7 _b_, 7 _c_, 7 _d_, 7 _e_ are the +advanced guards of the Gothic and Lombardic invasions, representative of +a large number of thirteenth century arcades and doors. Observe that 6 +_d_ is shown to be of a late school by its finial, and 6 _e_ of the +latest school by its finial, complete ogee arch (instead of round or +pointed), and abandonment of the lintel. + +These examples, with the exception of 6 _a_, which is a general form, +are all actually existing doors; namely: + + 6 _b._ In the Fondamenta Venier, near St. Maria della Salute. + 6 _c._ In the Calle delle Botteri, between the Rialto and San Cassan. + 6 _d._ Main door of San Gregorio. + 6 _e._ Door of a palace in Rio San Paternian. + 7 _a._ Door of a small courtyard near house of Marco Polo. + 7 _b._ Arcade in narrow canal, at the side of Casa Barbaro. + 7 _c._ At the turn of the canal, close to the Ponte dell' Angelo. + 7 _d._ In Rio San Paternian (a ruinous house). + 7 _e._ At the turn of the canal on which the Sotto Portico della Stua + opens, near San Zaccaria. + +If the reader will take a magnifying glass to the figure 6 _d_, he will +see that its square ornaments, of which, in the real door, each contains +a rose, diminish to the apex of the arch; a very interesting and +characteristic circumstance, showing the subtle feeling of the Gothic +builders. They must needs diminish the ornamentation, in order to +sympathize with the delicacy of the point of the arch. The magnifying +glass will also show the Bondumieri shield in No. 7 _d_, and the Leze +shield in No. 7 _e_, both introduced on the keystones in the grand early +manner. The mouldings of these various doors will be noticed under the +head Archivolt. + +[Illustration: Plate VI. + BYZANTINE JAMBS.] + +Now, throughout the city we find a number of doors resembling the square +doors of St. Mark, and occurring with rare exceptions either in +buildings of the Byzantine period, or imbedded in restored houses; +never, in a single instance, forming a connected portion of any late +building; and they therefore furnish a most important piece of evidence, +wherever they are part of the original structure of a _Gothic_ building, +that such building is one of the advanced guards of the Gothic school, +and belongs to its earliest period. + +On Plate VI., opposite, are assembled all the important examples I could +find in Venice of these mouldings. The reader will see at a glance their +peculiar character, and unmistakable likeness to each other. The +following are the references: + + 1. Door in Calle Mocenigo. + 2. Angle of tomb of Dogaressa Vital Michele. + 3. Door in Sotto Portico, St. Apollonia (near Ponte di + Canonica). + 4. Door in Calle della Verona (another like it is close by). + 5. Angle of tomb of Doge Marino Morosini. + 6, 7. Door in Calle Mocenigo. + 8. Door in Campo S. Margherita. + Plate VI. 9. Door at Traghetto San Samuele, on south side of Grand + Vol. III. Canal. + 10. Door at Ponte St. Toma. + 11. Great door of Church of Servi. + 12. In Calle della Chiesa, Campo San Filippo e Giacomo. + 13. Door of house in Calle di Rimedio (Vol. II.). + 14. Door in Fondaco de' Turchi. + 15. Door in Fondamenta Malcanton, near Campo S. Margherita. + 16. Door in south side of Canna Reggio. + 17, 18. Doors in Sotto Portico dei Squellini. + +The principal points to be noted in these mouldings are their curious +differences of level, as marked by the dotted lines, more especially in +14, 15, 16, and the systematic projection of the outer or lower +mouldings in 16, 17, 18. Then, as points of evidence, observe that 1 is +the jamb and 6 the archivolt (7 the angle on a larger scale) of the +brick door given in my folio work from Ramo di rimpetto Mocenigo, one of +the evidences of the early date of that door; 8 is the jamb of the door +in Campo Santa Margherita (also given in my folio work), fixing the +early date of that also; 10 is from a Gothic door opening off the Ponte +St. Toma; and 11 is also from a Gothic building. All the rest are from +Byzantine work, or from ruins. The angle of the tomb of Marino Morosini +(5) is given for comparison only. + +The doors with the mouldings 17, 18, are from the two ends of a small +dark passage, called the Sotto Portico dei Squellini, opening near Ponte +Cappello, on the Rio-Marin: 14 is the outside one, arranged as usual, +and at _a_, in the rough stone, are places for the staples of the door +valve; 15, at the other end of the passage, opening into the little +Corte dei Squellini, is set with the part _a_ outwards, it also having +places for hinges; but it is curious that the rich moulding should be +set in towards the dark passage, though natural that the doors should +both open one way. + +[Illustration: Plate VII. + GOTHIC JAMBS.] + +The next Plate, VII., will show the principal characters of the Gothic +jambs, and the total difference between them and the Byzantine ones. Two +more Byzantine forms, 1 and 2, are given here for the sake of +comparison; then 3, 4, and 5 are the common profiles of simple jambs of +doors in the Gothic period; 6 is one of the jambs of the Frari windows, +continuous into the archivolt, and meeting the traceries, where the line +is set upon it at the extremity of its main slope; 7 and 8 are jambs of +the Ducal Palace windows, in which the great semicircle is the half +shaft which sustains the traceries, and the rest of the profile is +continuous in the archivolt; 17, 18, and 19 are the principal piers of +the Ducal Palace; and 20, from St. Fermo of Verona, is put with them in +order to show the step of transition from the Byzantine form 2 to the +Gothic chamfer, which is hardly represented at Venice. The other +profiles on the plate are all late Gothic, given to show the gradual +increase of complexity without any gain of power. The open lines in 12, +14, 16, etc., are the parts of the profile cut into flowers or cable +mouldings; and so much incised as to show the constant outline of the +cavetto or curve beneath them. The following are the references: + + 1. Door in house of Marco Polo. + 2. Old door in a restored church of St. Cassan. + 3, 4, 5. Common jambs of Gothic doors. + 6. Frari windows. + 7, 8. Ducal Palace windows. + 9. Casa Priuli, great entrance. + 10. San Stefano, great door. + PLATE VII. 11. San Gregorio, door opening to the water. + Vol. III. 12. Lateral door, Frari. + 13. Door of Campo San Zaccaria. + 14. Madonna dell'Orto. + 15. San Gregorio, door in the façade. + 16. Great lateral door, Frari. + 17. Pilaster at Vine angle, Ducal Palace. + 18. Pier, inner cortile, Ducal Palace. + 19. Pier, under the medallion of Venice, on the Piazetta + façade of the Ducal Palace. + + + _III. Capitals._ + +I shall here notice the various facts I have omitted in the text of the +work. + +First, with respect to the Byzantine Capitals represented in Plate VII. +Vol. II., I omitted to notice that figs. 6 and 7 represent two sides of +the same capital at Murano (though one is necessarily drawn on a smaller +scale than the other). Fig. 7 is the side turned to the light, and fig. +6 to the shade, the inner part, which is quite concealed, not being +touched at all. + +We have here a conclusive proof that these capitals were cut for their +place in the apse; therefore I have always considered them as tests of +Venetian workmanship, and, on the strength of that proof, have +occasionally spoken of capitals as of true Venetian work, which M. +Lazari supposes to be of the Lower Empire. No. 11, from St. Mark's, was +not above noticed. The way in which the cross is gradually left in +deeper relief as the sides slope inwards and away from it, is highly +picturesque and curious. + +No. 9 has been reduced from a larger drawing, and some of the life and +character of the curves lost in consequence. It is chiefly given to show +the irregular and fearless freedom of the Byzantine designers, no two +parts of the foliage being correspondent; in the original it is of white +marble, the ground being colored blue. + +Plate X. Vol. II. represents the four principal orders of Venetian +capitals in their greatest simplicity, and the profiles of the most +interesting examples of each. The figures 1 and 4 are the two great +concave and convex groups, and 2 and 3 the transitional. Above each type +of form I have put also an example of the group of flowers which +represent it in nature: fig. 1 has a lily; fig. 2 a variety of the +Tulipa sylvestris; figs. 3 and 4 forms of the magnolia. I prepared this +plate in the early spring, when I could not get any other examples,[65] +or I would rather have had two different species for figs. 3 and 4; but +the half-open magnolia will answer the purpose, showing the beauty of +the triple curvature in the sides. + +I do not say that the forms of the capitals are actually taken from +flowers, though assuredly so in some instances, and partially so in the +decoration of nearly all. But they were designed by men of pure and +natural feeling for beauty, who therefore instinctively adopted the +forms represented, which are afterwards proved to be beautiful by their +frequent occurrence in common flowers. + +The convex forms, 3 and 4, are put lowest in the plate only because they +are heaviest; they are the earliest in date, and have already been +enough examined. + +I have added a plate to this volume (Plate XII.), which should have +appeared in illustration of the fifth chapter of Vol. II., but was not +finished in time. It represents the central capital and two of the +lateral ones of the Fondaco de' Turchi, the central one drawn very +large, in order to show the excessive simplicity of its chiselling, +together with the care and sharpness of it, each leaf being expressed by +a series of sharp furrows and ridges. Some slight errors in the large +tracings from which the engraving was made have, however, occasioned a +loss of spring in the curves, and the little fig. 4 of Plate X. Vol. II. +gives a truer idea of the distant effect of the capital. + +The profiles given in Plate X. Vol. II. are the following: + + 1. _a._ Main capitals, upper arcade, Madonnetta House. + _b._ Main capitals, upper arcade, Casa Falier. + _c._ Lateral capitals, upper arcade, Fondaco de' Turchi. + _d._ Small pillars of St. Mark's Pulpit. + _e._ Casa Farsetti. + _f._ Inner capitals of arcade of Ducal Palace. + _g._ Plinth of the house[66] at Apostoli. + _h._ Main capitals of house at Apostoli. + _i._ Main capitals, upper arcade, Fondaco de' Turchi. + 2. _a._ Lower arcade, Fondaco de' Turchi. + _b, c._ Lower pillars, house at Apostoli. + _d._ San Simeon Grande. + PLATE X. _e._ Restored house on Grand Canal. Three of the old arches left. + vol. II. _f._ Upper arcade, Ducal Palace. + _g._ Windows of third order, central shaft, Ducal Palace. + _h._ Windows of third order, lateral shaft, Ducal Palace. + _i._ Ducal Palace, main shafts. + _k._ Piazzetta shafts. + 3. _a._ St. Mark's Nave. + _b, c._ Lily capitals, St. Mark's. + 4. _a._ Fondaco de' Turchi, central shaft, upper arcade. + _b._ Murano, upper arcade. + _c._ Murano, lower arcade. + _d._ Tomb of St. Isidore. + _e._ General late Gothic profile. + +The last two sections are convex in effect, though not in reality; the +bulging lines being carved into bold flower-work. + +The capitals belonging to the groups 1 and 2, in the Byzantine times, +have already been illustrated in Plate VIII. Vol. II.; we have yet to +trace their succession in the Gothic times. This is done in Plate II. of +this volume, which we will now examine carefully. The following are the +capitals represented in that plate: + + 1. Small shafts of St. Mark's Pulpit. + 2. From the transitional house in the Calle di Rimedio (conf. + Vol. II.). + 3. General simplest form of the middle Gothic capital. + 4. Nave of San Giacomo de Lorio. + 5. Casa Falier. + 6. Early Gothic house in Campo Sta. M^a. Mater Domini. + PLATE II. 7. House at the Apostoli. + Vol. III. 8. Piazzetta shafts. + 9. Ducal Palace, upper arcade. + 10. Palace of Marco Querini. + 11. Fondaco de' Turchi. + 12. Gothic palaces in Campo San Polo. + 13. Windows of fourth order, Plate XVI. Vol. II. + 14. Nave of Church of San Stefano. + 15. Late Gothic Palace at the Miracoli. + +The two lateral columns form a consecutive series: the central column is +a group of exceptional character, running parallel with both. We will +take the lateral ones first. 1. Capital of pulpit of St. Mark's +(representative of the simplest concave forms of the Byzantine period). +Look back to Plate VIII. Vol. II., and observe that while all the forms +in that plate are contemporaneous, we are now going to follow a series +_consecutive_ in time, which begins from fig. 1, either in that plate or +in this; that is to say, with the simplest possible condition to be +found at the time; and which proceeds to develope itself into gradually +increasing richness, while the _already rich_ capitals of the old school +die at its side. In the forms 14 and 15 (Plate VIII.) the Byzantine +school expired; but from the Byzantine simple capital (1, Plate II. +above) which was coexistent with them, sprang another hardy race of +capitals, whose succession we have now to trace. + +The form 1, Plate II. is evidently the simplest conceivable condition of +the truncated capital, long ago represented generally in Vol. I., being +only rounded a little on its side to fit it to the shaft. The next step +was to place a leaf beneath each of the truncations (fig. 4, Plate II., +San Giacomo de Lorio), the end of the leaf curling over at the top in a +somewhat formal spiral, partly connected with the traditional volute of +the Corinthian capital. The sides are then enriched by the addition of +some ornament, as a shield (fig. 7) or rose (fig. 10), and we have the +formed capital of the early Gothic. Fig. 10, being from the palace of +Marco Querini, is certainly not later than the middle of the thirteenth +century (see Vol. II.), and fig. 7, is, I believe, of the same date; it +is one of the bearing capitals of the lower story of the palace at the +Apostoli, and is remarkably fine in the treatment of its angle leaves, +which are not deeply under-cut, but show their magnificent sweeping +under surface all the way down, not as a leaf surface, but treated like +the gorget of a helmet, with a curved line across it like that where the +gorget meets the mail. I never saw anything finer in simple design. Fig. +10 is given chiefly as a certification of date, and to show the +treatment of the capitals of this school on a small scale. Observe the +more expansive head in proportion to the diameter of the shaft, the +leaves being drawn from the angles, as if gathered in the hand, till +their edges meet; and compare the rule given in Vol. I. Chap. IX. § XIV. +The capitals of the remarkable house, of which a portion is represented +in Fig. XXXI. Vol. II., are most curious and pure examples of this +condition; with experimental trefoils, roses, and leaves introduced +between their volutes. When compared with those of the Querini Palace, +they form one of the most important evidences of the date of the +building. + +Fig. 13. One of the bearing capitals, already drawn on a small scale in +the windows represented in Plate XVI. Vol. II. + +Now, observe. The capital of the form of fig. 10 appeared sufficient to +the Venetians for all ordinary purposes; and they used it in common +windows to the latest Gothic periods, but yet with certain differences +which at once show the lateness of the work. In the first place, the +rose, which at first was flat and quatrefoiled, becomes, after some +experiments, a round ball dividing into three leaves, closely resembling +our English ball flower, and probably derived from it; and, in other +cases, forming a bold projecting bud in various degrees of contraction +or expansion. In the second place, the extremities of the angle leaves +are wrought into rich flowing lobes, and bent back so as to lap against +their own breasts; showing lateness of date in exact proportion to the +looseness of curvature. Fig. 3 represents the general aspect of these +later capitals, which may be conveniently called the rose capitals of +Venice; two are seen on service, in Plate VIII. Vol. I., showing +comparatively early date by the experimental form of the six-foiled +rose. But for elaborate edifices this form was not sufficiently rich; +and there was felt to be something awkward in the junction of the leaves +at the bottom. Therefore, four other shorter leaves were added at the +sides, as in fig. 13, Plate II., and as generally represented in Plate +X. Vol. II. fig. 1. This was a good and noble step, taken very early in +the thirteenth century; and all the best Venetian capitals were +thenceforth of this form. Those which followed, and rested in the common +rose type, were languid and unfortunate: I do not know a single good +example of them after the first half of the thirteenth century. + +But the form reached in fig. 13 was quickly felt to be of great value +and power. One would have thought it might have been taken straight from +the Corinthian type; but it is clearly the work of men who were making +experiments for themselves. For instance, in the central capital of Fig. +XXXI. Vol. II., there is a trial condition of it, with the intermediate +leaf set behind those at the angles (the reader had better take a +magnifying glass to this woodcut; it will show the character of the +capitals better). Two other experimental forms occur in the Casa Cicogna +(Vol. II.), and supply one of the evidences which fix the date of that +palace. But the form soon was determined as in fig. 13, and then means +were sought of recommending it by farther decoration. + +The leaves which are used in fig. 13, it will be observed, have lost +the Corinthian volute, and are now pure and plain leaves, such as were +used in the Lombardic Gothic of the early thirteenth century all over +Italy. Now in a round-arched gateway at Verona, certainly not later than +1300; the pointed leaves of this pure form are used in one portion of +the mouldings, and in another are enriched by having their surfaces +carved each into a beautiful ribbed and pointed leaf. The capital, fig. +6, Plate II., is nothing more than fig. 13 so enriched; and the two +conditions are quite contemporary, fig. 13 being from a beautiful series +of fourth order windows in Campo Sta. M^a. Mater Domini, already drawn +in my folio work. + +Fig. 13 is representative of the richest conditions of Gothic capital +which existed at the close of the thirteenth century. The builder of the +Ducal Palace amplified them into the form of fig. 9, but varying the +leafage in disposition and division of lobes in every capital; and the +workmen trained under him executed many noble capitals for the Gothic +palaces of the early fourteenth century, of which fig. 12, from a palace +in the Campo St. Polo, is one of the most beautiful examples. In figs. 9 +and 12 the reader sees the Venetian Gothic capital in its noblest +developement. The next step was to such forms as fig. 15, which is +generally characteristic of the late fourteenth and early fifteenth +century Gothic, and of which I hope the reader will at once perceive the +exaggeration and corruption. + +This capital is from a palace near the Miracoli, and it is remarkable +for the delicate, though corrupt, ornament on its abacus, which is +precisely the same as that on the pillars of the screen of St. Mark's. +That screen is a monument of very great value, for it shows the entire +corruption of the Gothic power, and the style of the later palaces +accurately and completely defined in all its parts, and is dated 1380; +thus at once furnishing us with a limiting date, which throws all the +noble work of the early Ducal Palace, and all that is like it in Venice, +thoroughly back into the middle of the fourteenth century at the latest. + +Fig. 2 is the simplest condition of the capital universally employed in +the windows of the second order, noticed above, Vol. II., as belonging +to a style of great importance in the transitional architecture of +Venice. Observe, that in all the capitals given in the lateral columns +in Plate II., the points of the leaves _turn over_. But in this central +group they lie _flat_ against the angle of the capital, and form a +peculiarly light and lovely succession of forms, occurring only in their +purity in the windows of the second order, and in some important +monuments connected with them. + +In fig. 2 the leaf at the angle is cut, exactly in the manner of an +Egyptian bas-relief, _into_ the stone, with a raised edge round it, and +a raised rib up the centre; and this mode of execution, seen also in +figs. 4 and 7, is one of the collateral evidences of early date. But in +figs. 5 and 8, where more elaborate effect was required, the leaf is +thrown out boldly with an even edge from the surface of the capital, and +enriched on its own surface: and as the treatment of fig. 2 corresponds +with that of fig. 4, so that of fig. 5 corresponds with that of fig. 6; +2 and 5 having the upright leaf, 4 and 6 the bending leaves; but all +contemporary. + +Fig. 5 is the central capital of the windows of Casa Falier, drawn in +Plate XV. Vol. II.; and one of the leaves set on its angles is drawn +larger at fig. 7, Plate XX. Vol. II. It has no rib, but a sharp raised +ridge down its centre; and its lobes, of which the reader will observe +the curious form,--round in the middle one, truncated in the sides,--are +wrought with a precision and care which I have hardly ever seen +equalled: but of this more presently. + +The next figure (8, Plate II.) is the most important capital of the +whole transitional period, that employed on the two columns of the +Piazzetta. These pillars are said to have been _raised_ in the close of +the twelfth century, but I cannot find even the most meagre account of +their bases, capitals, or, which seems to me most wonderful, of that +noble winged lion, one of the grandest things produced by mediĉval art, +which all men admire, and none can draw. I have never yet seen a +faithful representation of his firm, fierce, and fiery strength. I +believe that both he and the capital which bears him are late thirteenth +century work. I have not been up to the lion, and cannot answer for it; +but if it be not thirteenth century work, it is as good; and respecting +the capitals, there can be small question. They are of exactly the date +of the oldest tombs, bearing crosses, outside of St. John and Paul; and +are associated with all the other work of the transitional period, from +1250 to 1300 (the bases of these pillars, representing the trades of +Venice, ought, by the by, to have been mentioned as among the best early +efforts of Venetian grotesque); and, besides, their abaci are formed by +four reduplications of the dentilled mouldings of St. Mark's, which +never occur after the year 1300. + +Nothing can be more beautiful or original than the adaptation of these +broad bearing abaci; but as they have nothing to do with the capital +itself, and could not easily be brought into the space, they are omitted +in Plate II., where fig. 8 shows the bell of the capital only. Its +profile is curiously subtle,--apparently concave everywhere, but in +reality concave (all the way down) only on the angles, and slightly +convex at the sides (the profile through the side being 2 _k_, Plate X. +Vol. II.); in this subtlety of curvature, as well as in the simple +cross, showing the influence of early times. + +The leaf on the angle, of which more presently, is fig. 5, Plate XX. +Vol. II. + +Connected with this school of transitional capitals we find a form in +the later Gothic, such as fig. 14, from the Church of San Stefano; but +which appears in part derived from an old and rich Byzantine type, of +which fig. 11, from the Fondaco de' Turchi, is a characteristic example. + +I must now take the reader one step farther, and ask him to examine, +finally, the treatment of the leaves, down to the cutting of their most +minute lobes, in the series of capitals of which we have hitherto only +sketched the general forms. + +In all capitals with nodding leaves, such as 6 and 9 in Plate II., the +real form of the leaf is not to be seen, except in perspective; but, in +order to render the comparison more easy, I have in Plate XX. Vol. II. +opened all the leaves out, as if they were to be dried in a herbarium, +only leaving the furrows and sinuosities of surface, but laying the +outside contour nearly flat upon the page, except for a particular +reason in figs. 2, 10, 11, and 15. + +I shall first, as usual, give the references, and then note the points +of interest. + + 1, 2, 3. Fondaco de' Turchi, upper arcade. + 4. Greek pillars brought from St. Jean d'Acre. + 5. Piazzetta shafts. + 6. Madonnetta House. + PLATE XX. 7. Casa Falier. + Vol. II. 8. Palace near St. Eustachio. + 9. Tombs, outside of St. John and Paul. + 10. Tomb of Giovanni Soranzo. + 11. Tomb of Andrea Dandolo. + 12, 13, 14. Ducal Palace. + +N.B. The upper row, 1 to 4, is Byzantine, the next transitional, the +last two Gothic. + +Fig. 1. The leaf of the capital No. 6, Plate VIII. Vol. II. Each lobe of +the leaf has a sharp furrow up to its point, from its root. + +Fig. 2. The leaf of the capital on the right hand, at the top of Plate +XII. in this volume. The lobes worked in the same manner, with deep +black drill holes between their points. + +Fig. 3. One of the leaves of fig. 14, Plate VIII. Vol. II. fully +unfolded. The lobes worked in the same manner, but left shallow, so as +not to destroy the breadth of light; the central line being drawn by +drill holes, and the interstices between lobes cut black and deep. + +Fig. 4. Leaf with flower; pure Byzantine work, showing whence the +treatment of all the other leaves has been derived. + +Fig. 6. For the sake of symmetry, this is put in the centre: it is the +earliest of the three in this row; taken from the Madonnetta House, +where the capitals have leaves both at their sides and angles. The tall +angle leaf, with its two lateral ones, is given in the plate; and there +is a remarkable distinction in the mode of workmanship of these leaves, +which, though found in a palace of the Byzantine period, is indicative +of a tendency to transition; namely, that the sharp furrow is now drawn +_only to the central lobe_ of each division of the leaf, and the rest of +the surface of the leaf is left nearly flat, a slight concavity only +marking the division of the extremities. At the base of these leaves +they are perfectly flat, only cut by the sharp and narrow furrow, as an +elevated table-land is by ravines. + +Fig. 5. A more advanced condition; the fold at the recess, between each +division of the leaf, carefully expressed, and the concave or depressed +portions of the extremities marked more deeply, as well as the central +furrow, and a rib added in the centre. + +Fig. 7. A contemporary, but more finished form; the sharp furrows +becoming softer, and the whole leaf more flexible. + +Fig. 8. An exquisite form of the same period, but showing still more +advanced naturalism, from a very early group of third order windows, +near the Church of St. Eustachio on the Grand Canal. + +Fig. 9. Of the same time, from a small capital of an angle shaft of the +sarcophagi at the _side_ of St. John and Paul, in the little square +which is adorned by the Colleone statue. This leaf is very quaint and +pretty in giving its midmost lateral divisions only two lobes each, +instead of the usual three or four. + +Fig. 10. Leaf employed in the cornice of the tomb of the Doge Giovanni +Soranzo, who died in 1312. It nods over, and has three ribs on its upper +surface; thus giving us the completed ideal form of the leaf, but its +execution is still very archaic and severe. + +Now the next example, fig. 11, is from the tomb of the Doge Andrea +Dandolo, and therefore executed between 1354 and 1360; and this leaf +shows the Gothic naturalism and refinement of curvature fully developed. +In this forty years' interval, then, the principal advance of Gothic +sculpture is to be placed. + +I had prepared a complete series of examples, showing this advance, and +the various ways in which the separations of the ribs, a most +characteristic feature, are more and more delicately and scientifically +treated, from the beginning to the middle of the fourteenth century, but +I feared that no general reader would care to follow me into these +minutiĉ, and have cancelled this portion of the work, at least for the +present, the main point being, that the reader should feel the full +extent of the change, which he can hardly fail to do in looking from +fig. 10 to figs. 11 and 12. I believe that fig. 12 is the earlier of the +two; and it is assuredly the finer, having all the elasticity and +simplicity of the earliest forms, with perfect flexibility added. In +fig. 11 there is a perilous element beginning to develope itself into +one feature, namely, the extremities of the leaves, which, instead of +merely nodding over, now curl completely round into a kind of ball. This +occurs early, and in the finest Gothic work, especially in cornices and +other running mouldings: but it is a fatal symptom, a beginning of the +intemperance of the later Gothic, and it was followed out with singular +avidity; the ball of coiled leafage increasing in size and complexity, +and at last becoming the principal feature of the work; the light +striking on its vigorous projection, as in fig. 14. Nearly all the +Renaissance Gothic of Venice depends upon these balls for effect, a late +capital being generally composed merely of an upper and lower range of +leaves terminating in this manner. + +It is very singular and notable how, in this loss of _temperance_, there +is loss of _life_. For truly healthy and living leaves do not bind +themselves into knots at the extremities. They bend, and wave, and nod, +but never curl. It is in disease, or in death, by blight, or frost, or +poison only, that leaves in general assume this ingathered form. It is +the flame of autumn that has shrivelled them, or the web of the +caterpillar that has bound them: and thus the last forms of the Venetian +leafage set forth the fate of Venetian pride; and, in their utmost +luxuriance and abandonment, perish as if eaten of worms. + +And now, by glancing back to Plate X. Vol. II, the reader will see in a +moment the kind of evidence which is found of the date of capitals in +their profiles merely. Observe: we have seen that the treatment of the +leaves in the Madonnetta House seemed "indicative of a tendency to +transition." Note their profile, 1_a_, and its close correspondence with +1 _h_, which is actually of a transitional capital from the upper arcade +of second order windows in the Apostoli Palace; yet both shown to be +very close to the Byzantine period, if not belonging to it, by their +fellowship with the profile _i_, from the Fondaco de' Turchi. Then note +the close correspondence of all the other profiles in that line, which +belong to the concave capitals or plinths of the Byzantine palaces, and +note their composition, the abacus being, in idea, merely an echo or +reduplication of the capital itself; as seen in perfect simplicity in +the profile _f_, which is a roll under a _tall_ concave curve forming +the bell of the capital, with a roll and _short_ concave curve for its +abacus. This peculiar abacus is an unfailing test of early date; and our +finding this simple profile used for the Ducal Palace (_f_), is strongly +confirmatory of all our former conclusions. + +Then the next row, 2, are the Byzantine and early Gothic semi-convex +curves, in their pure forms, having no roll below; but often with a roll +added, as at _f_, and in certain early Gothic conditions curiously fused +into it, with a cavetto between, as _b_, _c_, _d_. But the more archaic +form is as at _f_ and _k_; and as these two profiles are from the Ducal +Palace and Piazzetta shafts, they join again with the rest of the +evidence of their early date. The profiles _i_ and _k_ are both most +beautiful; _i_ is that of the great capitals of the Ducal Palace, and +the small profiles between it and _k_ are the varieties used on the +fillet at its base. The profile _i_ should have had leaves springing +from it, as 1 _h_ has, only more boldly, but there was no room for them. + +The reader cannot fail to discern at a glance the fellowship of the +whole series of profiles, 2 _a_ to _k_, nor can he but with equal ease +observe a marked difference in 4 _d_ and 4 _e_ from any others in the +plate; the bulging outlines of leafage being indicative of the luxuriant +and flowing masses, no longer expressible with a simple line, but to be +considered only as confined within it, of the later Gothic. Now _d_ is a +dated profile from the tomb of St. Isidore, 1355, which by its dog-tooth +abacus and heavy leafage distinguishes itself from all the other +profiles, and therefore throws them back into the first half of the +century. But, observe, it still retains the noble swelling root. This +character soon after vanishes; and, in 1380, the profile _e_, at once +heavy, feeble, and ungraceful, with a meagre and valueless abacus hardly +discernible, is characteristic of all the capitals of Venice. + +Note, finally, this contraction of the abacus. Compare 4 _c_, which is +the earliest form in the plate, from Murano, with 4 _e_, which is the +latest. The other profiles show the gradual process of change; only +observe, in 3_a_ the abacus is not drawn; it is so bold that it would +not come into the plate without reducing the bell curve to too small a +scale. + +So much for the evidence derivable from the capitals; we have next to +examine that of the archivolts or arch mouldings. + +[Illustration: Plate VIII. + BYZANTINE ARCHIVOLTS.] + + + _IV. Archivolts._ + +In Plate VIII., opposite, are arranged in one view all the conditions of +Byzantine archivolt employed in Venice, on a large scale. It will be +seen in an instant that there can be no mistaking the manner of their +masonry. The soffit of the arch is the horizontal line at the bottom of +all these profiles, and each of them (except 13, 14) is composed of two +slabs of marble, one for the soffit, another for the face of the arch; +the one on the soffit is worked on the edge into a roll (fig. 10) or +dentil (fig. 9), and the one on the face is bordered on the other side +by another piece let edgeways into the wall, and also worked into a roll +or dentil: in the richer archivolts a cornice is added to this roll, as +in figs. 1 and 4, or takes its place, as in figs. 1, 3, 5, and 6; and in +such richer examples the facestone, and often the soffit, are +sculptured, the sculpture being cut into their surfaces, as indicated in +fig. 11. The concavities cut in the facestones of 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 are all +indicative of sculpture in effect like that of Fig. XXVI. Vol. II., of +which archivolt fig. 5, here, is the actual profile. The following are +the references to the whole: + + 1. Rio-Foscari House. + 2. Terraced House, entrance door. + 3. Small Porticos of St. Mark's, external arches. + 4. Arch on the canal at Ponte St. Toma. + 5. Arch of Corte del Remer. + 6. Great outermost archivolt of central door, St. Mark's. + PLATE VIII. 7. Inner archivolt of southern porch, St. Mark's Façade. + Vol. III. 8. Inner archivolt of central entrance, St. Mark's. + 9. Fondaco de' Turchi, main arcade. + 10. Byzantine restored house on Grand Canal, lower arcade. + 11. Terraced House, upper arcade. + 12. Inner archivolt of northern porch of façade, St. Mark's. + 13 and 14. Transitional forms. + +[Illustration: Plate IX. + GOTHIC ARCHIVOLTS.] + +There is little to be noted respecting these forms, except that, in fig. +1, the two lower rolls, with the angular projections between, represent +the fall of the mouldings of two proximate arches on the abacus of the +bearing shaft; their two cornices meeting each other, and being +gradually narrowed into the little angular intermediate piece, their +sculptures being slurred into the contracted space, a curious proof of +the earliness of the work. The real archivolt moulding is the same as +fig. 4 _c c_, including only the midmost of the three rolls in fig. 1. + +It will be noticed that 2, 5, 6, and 8 are sculptured on the soffits as +well as the faces; 9 is the common profile of arches decorated only with +colored marble, the facestone being colored, the soffit white. The +effect of such a moulding is seen in the small windows at the right hand +of Fig. XXVI. Vol. II. + +The reader will now see that there is but little difficulty in +identifying Byzantine work, the archivolt mouldings being so similar +among themselves, and so unlike any others. We have next to examine the +Gothic forms. + +Figs. 13 and 14 in Plate VIII. represent the first brick mouldings of +the transitional period, occurring in such instances as Fig. XXIII. or +Fig. XXXIII. Vol. II. (the soffit stone of the Byzantine mouldings being +taken away), and this profile, translated into solid stone, forms the +almost universal moulding of the windows of the second order. These two +brick mouldings are repeated, for the sake of comparison, at the top of +Plate IX. opposite; and the upper range of mouldings which they +commence, in that plate, are the brick mouldings of Venice in the early +Gothic period. All the forms below are in stone; and the moulding 2, +translated into stone, forms the universal archivolt of the early +pointed arches of Venice, and windows of second and third orders. The +moulding 1 is much rarer, and used for the most part in doors only. + +The reader will see at once the resemblance of character in the various +flat brick mouldings, 3 to 11. They belong to such arches as 1 and 2 in +Plate XVII. Vol. II.; or 6 _b_, 6 _c_, in Plate XIV. Vol. II., 7 and 8 +being actually the mouldings of those two doors; the whole group being +perfectly defined, and separate from all the other Gothic work in +Venice, and clearly the result of an effort to imitate, in brickwork, +the effect of the flat sculptured archivolts of the Byzantine times. +(See Vol. II. Chap. VII. § XXXVII.) + +Then comes the group 14 to 18 in stone, derived from the mouldings 1 and +2; first by truncation, 14; then by beading the truncated angle, 15, 16. +The occurrence of the profile 16 in the three beautiful windows +represented in the uppermost figure of Plate XVIII. Vol. I. renders that +group of peculiar interest, and is strong evidence of its antiquity. +Then a cavetto is added, 17; first shallow and then deeper, 18, which is +the common archivolt moulding of the central Gothic door and window: +but, in the windows of the early fourth order, this moulding is +complicated by various additions of dog-tooth mouldings under the +dentil, as in 20; or the _gabled_ dentil (see fig. 20, Plate IX. Vol. +I), as fig. 21; or both, as figs 23, 24. All these varieties expire in +the advanced period, and the established moulding for windows is 29. The +intermediate group, 25 to 28, I found only in the high windows of the +third order in the Ducal Palace, or in the Chapter-house of the Frari, +or in the arcades of the Ducal Palace; the great outside lower arcade of +the Ducal Palace has the profile 31, the left-hand side being the +innermost. + +Now observe, all these archivolts, without exception, assume that the +spectator looks from the outside only: none are complete on both sides; +they are essentially _window_ mouldings, and have no resemblance to +those of our perfect Gothic arches prepared for traceries. If they were +all completely drawn in the plate, they should be as fig. 25, having a +great depth of wall behind the mouldings, but it was useless to +represent this in every case. The Ducal Palace begins to show mouldings +on both sides, 28, 31; and 35 is a _complete_ arch moulding from the +apse of the Frari. That moulding, though so perfectly developed, is +earlier than the Ducal Palace, and with other features of the building, +indicates the completeness of the Gothic system, which made the +architect of the Ducal Palace found his work principally upon that +church. + +The other examples in this plate show the various modes of combination +employed in richer archivolts. The triple change of slope in 38 is very +curious. The references are as follows: + + 1. Transitional to the second order. + 2. Common second order. + 3. Brick, at Corte del Forno, Round arch. + 4. Door at San Giovanni Grisostomo. + 5. Door at Sotto Portico della Stua. + 6. Door in Campo St. Luca, of rich brickwork. + 7. Round door at Fondamenta Venier. + 8. Pointed door. Fig. 6_c_, Plate XIV. Vol. II. + 9. Great pointed arch, Salizzada San Lio. + 10. Round door near Fondaco de' Turchi. + 11. Door with Lion, at Ponte della Corona. + 12. San Gregorio, Façade. + 13. St. John and Paul, Nave. + 14. Rare early fourth order, at San Cassan. + 15. General early Gothic archivolt. + 16. Same, from door in Rio San G. Grisostomo. + 17. Casa Vittura. + 18. Casa Sagredo, Unique thirds. Vol. II. + 19. Murano Palace, Unique fourths.[67] + PLATE IX. 20. Pointed door of Four-Evangelist House.[68] + Vol. III. 21. Keystone door in Campo St. M. Formosa. + 22. Rare fourths, at St. Pantaleon. + 23. Rare fourths, Casa Papadopoli. + 24. Rare fourths, Chess house.[69] + 25. Thirds of Frari Cloister. + 26. Great pointed arch of Frari Cloister. + 27. Unique thirds, Ducal Palace. + 28. Inner Cortile, pointed arches, Ducal Palace. + 29. Common fourth and fifth order Archivolt. + 30. Unique thirds, Ducal Palace. + 31. Ducal Palace, lower arcade. + 32. Casa Priuli, arches in the inner court. + 33. Circle above the central window, Ducal Palace. + 34. Murano apse. + 35. Acute-pointed arch, Frari. + 36. Door of Accademia delle belle Arti. + 37. Door in Calle Tiossi, near Four-Evangelist House. + 38. Door in Campo San Polo. + 39. Door of palace at Ponte Marcello. + 40. Door of a palace close to the Church of the Miracoli. + + + _V. Cornices._ + +Plate X. represents, in one view, the cornices or string-courses of +Venice, and the abaci of its capitals, early and late; these two +features being inseparably connected, as explained in Vol. I. + +The evidence given by these mouldings is exceedingly clear. The two +upper lines in the Plate, 1-11, 12-24, are all plinths from Byzantine +buildings. The reader will at once observe their unmistakable +resemblances. The row 41 to 50 are contemporary abaci of capitals; 52, +53, 54, 56, are examples of late Gothic abaci; and observe, especially, +these are all rounded at the _top_ of the cavetto, but the Byzantine +abaci are rounded, if at all, at the _bottom_ of the cavetto (see 7, 8, +9, 10, 20, 28, 46). Consider what a valuable test of date this is, in +any disputable building. + +Again, compare 28, 29, one from St. Mark's, the other from the Ducal +Palace, and observe the close resemblance, giving farther evidence of +early date in the palace. + +25 and 50 are drawn to the same scale. The former is the wall-cornice, +the latter the abacus of the great shafts, in the Casa Loredan; the one +passing into the other, as seen in Fig. XXVIII. Vol. I. It is curious to +watch the change in proportion, while the moulding, all but the lower +roll, remains the same. + +[Illustration: Plate X. + CORNICES AND ABACI.] + +The following are the references: + + 1. Common plinth of St. Mark's. + 2. Plinth above lily capitals, St. Mark's. + 3, 4. Plinths in early surface Gothic. + 5. Plinth of door in Campo St. Luca. + 6. Plinth of treasury door, St. Mark's. + 7. Archivolts of nave, St. Mark's. + 8. Archivolts of treasury door, St. Mark's. + 9. Moulding of circular window in St. John and Paul. + 10. Chief decorated narrow plinth, St. Mark's. + 11. Plinth of door, Campo St. Margherita. + 12. Plinth of tomb of Doge Vital Falier. + 13. Lower plinth, Fondaco de' Turchi, and Terraced House. + 14. Running plinth of Corte del Remer. + 15. Highest plinth at top of Fondaco de' Turchi. + 16. Common Byzantine plinth. + 17. Running plinth of Casa Falier. + 18. Plinth of arch at Ponte St. Toma. + 19, 20, 21. Plinths of tomb of Doge Vital Falier. + 22. Plinth of window in Calle del Pistor. + 23. Plinth of tomb of Dogaressa Vital Michele. + 24. Archivolt in the Frari. + 25. Running plinth, Casa Loredan. + 26. Running plinth, under pointed arch, in Salizzada San Lio. + 27. Running plinth, Casa Erizzo. + PLATE X. 28. Circles in portico of St. Mark's. + Vol. III. 29. Ducal Palace cornice, lower arcade. + 30. Ducal Palace cornice, upper arcade. + 31. Central Gothic plinth. + 32. Late Gothic plinth. + 33. Late Gothic plinth, Casa degli Ambasciatori. + 34. Late Gothic plinth, Palace near the Jesuiti. + 35, 36. Central balcony cornice. + 37. Plinth of St. Mark's balustrade. + 38. Cornice of the Frari, in brick, cabled. + 39. Central balcony plinth. + 40. Uppermost cornice, Ducal Palace. + 41. Abacus of lily capitals, St. Mark's. + 42. Abacus, Fondaco de' Turchi. + 43. Abacus, large capital of Terraced House. + 44. Abacus, Fondaco de' Turchi. + 45. Abacus, Ducal Palace, upper arcade. + 46. Abacus, Corte del Remer. + 47. Abacus, small pillars, St. Mark's pulpit. + 48. Abacus, Murano and Torcello. + 49. Abacus, Casa Farsetti. + 50. Abacus, Casa Loredan, lower story. + 51. Abacus, capitals of Frari. + 52. Abacus, Casa Cavalli (plain). + 53. Abacus, Casa Priuli (flowered). + 54. Abacus, Casa Foscari (plain). + 55. Abacus, Casa Priuli (flowered). + 56. Abacus, Plate II. fig. 15. + 57. Abacus, St. John and Paul. + 58. Abacus, St. Stefano. + +It is only farther to be noted, that these mouldings are used in various +proportions, for all kinds of purposes: sometimes for true cornices; +sometimes for window-sills; sometimes, 3 and 4 (in the Gothic time) +especially, for dripstones of gables: 11 and such others form little +plinths or abaci at the spring of arches, such as those shown at _a_, +Fig. XXIII. Vol. II. Finally, a large number of superb Byzantine +cornices occur, of the form shown at the top of the arch in Plate V. +Vol. II., having a profile like 16 or 19 here; with nodding leaves of +acanthus thrown out from it, being, in fact, merely one range of the +leaves of a Byzantine capital unwrapped, and formed into a continuous +line. I had prepared a large mass of materials for the illustration of +these cornices, and the Gothic ones connected with them; but found the +subject would take up another volume, and was forced, for the present, +to abandon it. The lower series of profiles, 7 to 12 in Plate XV. Vol. +I, shows how the leaf-ornament is laid on the simple early cornices. + + + _VI. Traceries._ + +We have only one subject more to examine, the character of the early and +late Tracery Bars. + +The reader may perhaps have been surprised at the small attention given +to traceries in the course of the preceding volumes: but the reason is, +that there are no _complicated_ traceries at Venice belonging to the +good Gothic time, with the single exception of those of the Casa +Cicogna; and the magnificent arcades of the Ducal Palace Gothic are so +simple as to require little explanation. + +There are, however, two curious circumstances in the later traceries; +the first, that they are universally considered by the builder (as the +old Byzantines considered sculptured surfaces of stone) as material out +of which a certain portion is _to be cut_, to fill his window. A fine +Northern Gothic tracery is a complete and systematic arrangement of +arches and foliation, _adjusted_ to the form of the window; but a +Venetian tracery is a piece of a larger composition, cut to the shape of +the window. In the Porta della Carta, in the Church of the Madonna +dell'Orto, in the Casa Bernardo on the Grand Canal, in the old Church of +the Misericordia, and wherever else there are rich traceries in Venice, +it will always be found that a certain arrangement of quatrefoils and +other figures has been planned as if it were to extend indefinitely into +miles of arcade; and out of this colossal piece of marble lace, a piece +in the shape of a window is cut, mercilessly and fearlessly: whatever +fragments and odd shapes of interstice, remnants of this or that figure +of the divided foliation, may occur at the edge of the window, it +matters not; all are cut across, and shut in by the great outer +archivolt. + +It is very curious to find the Venetians treating what in other +countries became of so great individual importance, merely as a kind of +diaper ground, like that of their chequered colors on the walls. There +is great grandeur in the idea, though the system of their traceries was +spoilt by it: but they always treated their buildings as masses of color +rather than of line; and the great traceries of the Ducal Palace itself +are not spared any more than those of the minor palaces. They are cut +off at the flanks in the middle of the quatrefoils, and the terminal +mouldings take up part of the breadth of the poor half of a quatrefoil +at the extremity. + +One other circumstance is notable also. In good Northern Gothic the +tracery bars are of a constant profile, the same on both sides; and if +the plan of the tracery leaves any interstices so small that there is +not room for the full profile of the tracery bar all round them, those +interstices are entirely closed, the tracery bars being supposed to have +met each other. But in Venice, if an interstice becomes anywhere +inconveniently small, the tracery bar is sacrificed; cut away, or in +some way altered in profile, in order to afford more room for the light, +especially in the early traceries, so that one side of a tracery bar is +often quite different from the other. For instance, in the bars 1 and 2, +Plate XI., from the Frari and St. John and Paul, the uppermost side is +towards a great opening, and there was room for the bevel or slope to +the cusp; but in the other side the opening was too small, and the bar +falls vertically to the cusp. In 5 the uppermost side is to the narrow +aperture, and the lower to the small one; and in fig. 9, from the Casa +Cicogna, the uppermost side is to the apertures of the tracery, the +lowermost to the arches beneath, the great roll following the design of +the tracery; while 13 and 14 are left without the roll at the base of +their cavettos on the uppermost sides, which are turned to narrow +apertures. The earliness of the Casa Cicogna tracery is seen in a moment +by its being moulded on the face only. It is in fact nothing more than a +series of quatrefoiled apertures in the solid wall of the house, with +mouldings on their faces, and magnificent arches of pure pointed fifth +order sustaining them below. + +[Illustration: Plate XI. + TRACERY BARS.] + +The following are the references to the figures in the plate: + + 1. Frari. + 2. Apse, St. John and Paul. + 3. Frari. + 4. Ducal Palace, inner court, upper window. + 5. Madonna dell'Orto. + 6. St. John and Paul. + 7. Casa Bernardo. + 8. Casa Contarini Fasan. + 9. Casa Cicogna. + 10. 11. Frari. + 12. Murano Palace (see note, p. 265). + PLATE XI. 13. Misericordia. + Vol. III. 14. Palace of the younger Foscari.[70] + 15. Casa d'Oro; great single windows. + 16. Hotel Danieli. + 17. Ducal Palace. + 18. Casa Erizzo, on Grand Canal. + 19. Main story, Casa Cavalli. + 20. Younger Foscari. + 21. Ducal Palace, traceried windows. + 22. Porta della Carta. + 23. Casa d'Oro. + 24. Casa d'Oro, upper story. + 25. Casa Facanon. + 26. Casa Cavalli, near Post-Office. + +It will be seen at a glance that, except in the very early fillet +traceries of the Frari and St. John and Paul, Venetian work consists of +roll traceries of one general pattern. It will be seen also, that 10 and +11 from the Frari, furnish the first examples of the form afterwards +completely developed in 17, the tracery bar of the Ducal Palace; but +that this bar differs from them in greater strength and squareness, and +in adding a recess between its smaller roll and the cusp. Observe, that +this is done for strength chiefly; as, in the contemporary tracery (21) +of the upper windows, no such additional thickness is used. + +Figure 17 is slightly inaccurate. The little curved recesses behind the +smaller roll are not equal on each side; that next the cusp is smallest, +being about 5/8 of an inch, while that next the cavetto is about 7/8; to +such an extent of subtlety did the old builders carry their love of +change. + +The return of the cavetto in 21, 23, and 26, is comparatively rare, and +is generally a sign of later date. + +[Illustration: Fig. II.] + +[Illustration: Fig. III.] + +The reader must observe that the great sturdiness of the form of the +bars, 5, 9, 17, 24, 25, is a consequence of the peculiar office of +Venetian traceries in supporting the mass of the building above, already +noticed in Vol. II.; and indeed the forms of the Venetian Gothic are, +in many other ways, influenced by the difficulty of obtaining stability +on sandy foundations. One thing is especially noticeable in all their +arrangements of traceries; namely, the endeavor to obtain equal and +horizontal pressure along the whole breadth of the building, not the +divided and local pressures of Northern Gothic. This object is +considerably aided by the structure of the balconies, which are of great +service in knitting the shafts together, forming complete tie-beams of +marble, as well as a kind of rivets, at their bases. For instance, at +_b_, Fig. II., is represented the masonry of the base of the upper +arcade of the Ducal Palace, showing the root of one of its main shafts, +with the binding balconies. The solid stones which form the foundation +are much broader than the balcony shafts, so that the socketed +arrangement is not seen: it is shown as it would appear in a +longitudinal section. The balconies are not let into the circular +shafts, but fitted to their circular curves, so as to grasp them, and +riveted with metal; and the bars of stone which form the tops of the +balconies are of great strength and depth, the small trefoiled arches +being cut out of them as in Fig. III., so as hardly to diminish their +binding power. In the lighter independent balconies they are often cut +deeper; but in all cases the bar of stone is nearly independent of the +small shafts placed beneath it, and would stand firm though these were +removed, as at _a_, Fig. II., supported either by the main shafts of +the traceries, or by its own small pilasters with semi-shafts at their +sides, of the plan _d_, Fig. II., in a continuous balcony, and _e_ at +the angle of one. + +There is one more very curious circumstance illustrative of the Venetian +desire to obtain horizontal pressure. In all the Gothic staircases with +which I am acquainted, out of Venice, in which vertical shafts are used +to support an inclined line, those shafts are connected by arches rising +each above the other, with a little bracket above the capitals, on the +side where it is necessary to raise the arch; or else, though less +gracefully, with a longer curve to the lowest side of the arch. + +But the Venetians seem to have had a morbid horror of arches which were +not _on a level_. They could not endure the appearance of the roof of +one arch bearing against the side of another; and rather than introduce +the idea of obliquity into bearing curves, they abandoned the arch +principle altogether; so that even in their richest Gothic staircases, +where trefoiled arches, exquisitely decorated, are used on the landings, +they ran the shafts on the sloping stair simply into the bar of stone +above them, and used the excessively ugly and valueless arrangement of +Fig. II., rather than sacrifice the sacred horizontality of their arch +system. + +[Illustration: Fig. IV.] + +It will be noted, in Plate XI., that the form and character of the +tracery bars themselves are independent of the position or projection of +the cusps on their flat sides. In this respect, also, Venetian traceries +are peculiar, the example 22 of the Porta della Carta being the only one +in the plate which is subordinated according to the Northern system. In +every other case the form of the aperture is determined, either by a +flat and solid cusp as in 6, or by a pierced cusp as in 4. The effect of +the pierced cusp is seen in the uppermost figure, Plate XVIII. Vol. II.; +and its derivation from the solid cusp will be understood, at once, from +the woodcut Fig. IV., which represents a series of the flanking stones +of any arch of the fifth order, such as _f_ in Plate III. Vol. I. + +[Illustration: Fig. V.] + +The first on the left shows the condition of cusp in a perfectly simple +and early Gothic arch, 2 and 3 are those of common arches of the fifth +order, 4 is the condition in more studied examples of the Gothic +advanced guard, and 5 connects them all with the system of traceries. +Introducing the common archivolt mouldings on the projecting edge of 2 +and 3, we obtain the bold and deep fifth order window, used down to the +close of the fourteenth century or even later, and always grand in its +depth of cusp, and consequently of shadow; but the narrow cusp 4 occurs +also in very early work, and is piquant when set beneath a bold flat +archivolt, as in Fig. V., from the Corte del Forno at Santa Marina. The +pierced cusp gives a peculiar lightness and brilliancy to the window, +but is not so sublime. In the richer buildings the surface of the flat +and solid cusp is decorated with a shallow trefoil (see Plate VIII. Vol. +I.), or, when the cusp is small, with a triangular incision only, as +seen in figs. 7 and 8, Plate XI. The recesses on the sides of the other +cusps indicate their single or double lines of foliation. The cusp of +the Ducal Palace has a fillet only round its edge, and a ball of red +marble on its truncated point, and is perfect in its grand simplicity; +but in general the cusps of Venice are far inferior to those of Verona +and of the other cities of Italy, chiefly because there was always some +confusion in the mind of the designer between true cusps and the mere +bending inwards of the arch of the fourth order. The two series, 4 _a_ +to 4 _e_, and 5 _a_ to 5 _e_, in Plate XIV. Vol. II., are arranged so as +to show this connexion, as well as the varieties of curvature in the +trefoiled arches of the fourth and fifth orders, which, though +apparently slight on so small a scale, are of enormous importance in +distant effect; a house in which the joints of the cusps project as much +as in 5 _c_, being quite piquant and grotesque when compared with one in +which the cusps are subdued to the form 5 _b_. 4 _d_ and 4 _e_ are +Veronese forms, wonderfully effective and spirited; the latter occurs at +Verona only, but the former at Venice also. 5 _d_ occurs in Venice, but +is very rare; and 5 _e_ I found only once, on the narrow canal close to +the entrance door of the Hotel Danieli. It was partly walled up, but I +obtained leave to take down the brickwork and lay open one side of the +arch, which may still be seen. + + * * * * * + +The above particulars are enough to enable the reader to judge of the +distinctness of evidence which the details of Venetian architecture bear +to its dates. Farther explanation of the plates would be vainly tedious: +but the architect who uses these volumes in Venice will find them of +value, in enabling him instantly to class the mouldings which may +interest him; and for this reason I have given a larger number of +examples than would otherwise have been sufficient for my purpose. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [58] "Olim _magistri_ prothi palatii nostri novi."--_Cadorin_, p. 127. + + [59] A print, dated 1585, barbarously inaccurate, as all prints were + at that time, but still in some respects to be depended upon, + represents all the windows on the façade full of traceries; and the + circles above, between them, occupied by quatrefoils. + + [60] "Lata tanto, quantum est ambulum existens super columnis versus + canale respicientibus." + + [61] Bettio, p. 28. + + [62] In the bombardment of Venice in 1848, hardly a single palace + escaped without three or four balls through its roof: three came + into the Scuola di San Rocco, tearing their way through the pictures + of Tintoret, of which the ragged fragments were still hanging from + the ceiling in 1851; and the shells had reached to within a hundred + yards of St. Mark's Church itself, at the time of the capitulation. + + [63] A _Mohammedan_ youth is punished, I believe, for such + misdemeanors, by being _kept away_ from prayers. + + [64] "Those Venetians are fishermen." + + [65] I am afraid that the kind friend, Lady Trevelyan, who helped me + to finish this plate, will not like to be thanked here; but I cannot + let her send into Devonshire for magnolias, and draw them for me, + _without_ thanking her. + + [66] That is, the house in the parish of the Apostoli, on the Grand + Canal, noticed in Vol. II.; and see also the Venetian Index, under + head "Apostoli." + + [67] Close to the bridge over the main channel through Murano is a + massive foursquare Gothic palace, containing some curious traceries, + and many _unique_ transitional forms of window, among which these + windows of the fourth order occur, with a roll within their dentil + band. + + [68] Thus, for the sake of convenience, we may generally call the + palace with the emblems of the Evangelists on its spandrils, Vol. + II. + + [69] The house with chequers like a chess-board on its spandrils, + given in my folio work. + + [70] The palace next the Casa Foscari, on the Grand Canal, sometimes + said to have belonged to the son of the Doge. + + + + +INDICES. + + I. PERSONAL INDEX. | III. TOPICAL INDEX. + II. LOCAL INDEX. | IV. VENETIAN INDEX. + +The first of the following Indices contains the names of persons; the +second those of places (not in Venice) alluded to in the body of the +work. The third Index consists of references to the subjects touched +upon. In the fourth, called the Venetian Index, I have named every +building of importance in the city of Venice itself, or near it; +supplying, for the convenience of the traveller, short notices of those +to which I had no occasion to allude in the text of the work; and making +the whole as complete a guide as I could, with such added directions as +I should have given to any private friend visiting the city. As, +however, in many cases, the opinions I have expressed differ widely from +those usually received; and, in other instances, subjects which may be +of much interest to the traveller have not come within the scope of my +inquiry; the reader had better take Lazari's small Guide in his hand +also, as he will find in it both the information I have been unable to +furnish, and the expression of most of the received opinions upon any +subject of art. + +Various inconsistencies will be noticed in the manner of indicating the +buildings, some being named in Italian, some in English, and some half +in one, and half in the other. But these inconsistencies are permitted +in order to save trouble, and make the Index more practically useful. +For instance, I believe the traveller will generally look for "Mark," +rather than for "Marco," when he wishes to find the reference to St. +Mark's Church; but I think he will look for Rocco, rather than for Roch, +when he is seeking for the account of the Scuola di San Rocco. So also I +have altered the character in which the titles of the plates are +printed, from the black letter in the first volume, to the plain Roman +in the second and third; finding experimentally that the former +character was not easily legible, and conceiving that the book would be +none the worse for this practical illustration of its own principles, in +a daring sacrifice of symmetry to convenience. + +These alphabetical Indices will, however, be of little use, unless +another, and a very different kind of Index, be arranged in the mind of +the reader; an Index explanatory of the principal purposes and contents +of the various parts of this essay. It is difficult to analyze the +nature of the reluctance with which either a writer or painter takes it +upon him to explain the meaning of his own work, even in cases where, +without such explanation, it must in a measure remain always disputable: +but I am persuaded that this reluctance is, in most instances, carried +too far; and that, wherever there really is a serious purpose in a book +or a picture, the author does wrong who, either in modesty or vanity +(both feelings have their share in producing the dislike of personal +interpretation), trusts entirely to the patience and intelligence of the +readers or spectators to penetrate into their significance. At all +events, I will, as far as possible, spare such trouble with respect to +these volumes, by stating here, finally and clearly, both what they +intend and what they contain; and this the rather because I have lately +noticed, with some surprise, certain reviewers announcing as a +discovery, what I thought had lain palpably on the surface of the book, +namely, that "if Mr. Ruskin be right, all the architects, and all the +architectural teaching of the last three hundred years, must have been +wrong." That is indeed precisely the fact; and the very thing I meant to +say, which indeed I thought I had said over and over again. I believe +the architects of the last three centuries to have been wrong; wrong +without exception; wrong totally, and from the foundation. This is +exactly the point I have been endeavoring to prove, from the beginning +of this work to the end of it. But as it seems not yet to have been +stated clearly enough, I will here try to put my entire theorem into an +unmistakable form. + +The various nations who attained eminence in the arts before the time of +Christ, each of them, produced forms of architecture which in their +various degrees of merit were almost exactly indicative of the degrees +of intellectual and moral energy of the nations which originated them; +and each reached its greatest perfection at the time when the true +energy and prosperity of the people who had invented it were at their +culminating point. Many of these various styles of architecture were +good, considered in relation to the times and races which gave birth to +them; but none were absolutely good or perfect, or fitted for the +practice of all future time. + +The advent of Christianity for the first time rendered possible the full +development of the soul of man, and therefore the full development of +the arts of man. + +Christianity gave birth to a new architecture, not only immeasurably +superior to all that had preceded it, but demonstrably the best +architecture that _can_ exist; perfect in construction and decoration, +and fit for the practice of all time. + +This architecture, commonly called "Gothic," though in conception +perfect, like the theory of a Christian character, never reached an +actual perfection, having been retarded and corrupted by various adverse +influences; but it reached its highest perfection, hitherto manifested, +about the close of the thirteenth century, being then indicative of a +peculiar energy in the Christian mind of Europe. + +In the course of the fifteenth century, owing to various causes which I +have endeavored to trace in the preceding pages, the Christianity of +Europe was undermined; and a Pagan architecture was introduced, in +imitation of that of the Greeks and Romans. + +The architecture of the Greeks and Romans themselves was not good, but +it was natural; and, as I said before, good in some respects, and for a +particular time. + +But the imitative architecture introduced first in the fifteenth +century, and practised ever since, was neither good nor natural. It was +good in no respect, and for no time. All the architects who have built +in that style have built what was worthless; and therefore the greater +part of the architecture which has been built for the last three hundred +years, and which we are now building, is worthless. We must give up this +style totally, despise it and forget it, and build henceforward only in +that perfect and Christian style hitherto called Gothic, which is +everlastingly the best. + +This is the theorem of these volumes. + +In support of this theorem, the first volume contains, in its first +chapter, a sketch of the actual history of Christian architecture, up to +the period of the Reformation; and, in the subsequent chapters, an +analysis of the entire system of the laws of architectural construction +and decoration, deducing from those laws positive conclusions as to the +best forms and manners of building for all time. + +The second volume contains, in its first five chapters, an account of +one of the most important and least known forms of Christian +architecture, as exhibited in Venice, together with an analysis of its +nature in the fourth chapter; and, which is a peculiarly important part +of this section, an account of the power of color over the human mind. + +The sixth chapter of the second volume contains an analysis of the +nature of Gothic architecture, properly so called, and shows that in its +external form it complies precisely with the abstract laws of structure +and beauty, investigated in the first volume. The seventh and eighth +chapters of the second volume illustrate the nature of Gothic +architecture by various Venetian examples. The third volume +investigates, in its first chapter, the causes and manner of the +corruption of Gothic architecture; in its second chapter, defines the +nature of the Pagan architecture which superseded it; in the third +chapter, shows the connexion of that Pagan architecture with the various +characters of mind which brought about the destruction of the Venetian +nation; and, in the fourth chapter, points out the dangerous tendencies +in the modern mind which the practice of such an architecture indicates. + +Such is the intention of the preceding pages, which I hope will no more +be doubted or mistaken. As far as regards the manner of its fulfilment, +though I hope, in the course of other inquiries, to add much to the +elucidation of the points in dispute, I cannot feel it necessary to +apologize for the imperfect handling of a subject which the labor of a +long life, had I been able to bestow it, must still have left +imperfectly treated. + + + + +I. + +PERSONAL INDEX. + + + A + + Alberti, Duccio degli, his tomb, iii. 74, 80. + Alexander III., his defence by Venetians, i. 7. + Ambrose, St., his verbal subtleties, ii. 320. + Angelico, Frà, artistical power of, i. 400; his influence on + Protestants, ii. 105; his coloring, ii. 145. + Aristotle, his evil influence on the modern mind, ii. 319. + Averulinus, his book on architecture, iii. 63. + + + B + + Barbaro, monuments of the family, iii. 125. + Barbarossa, Emperor, i. 7, 9. + Baseggio, Pietro, iii. 199. + Bellini, John, i. 11; his kindness to Albert Durer, i. 383; general + power of, see Venetian Index, under head "Giovanni Grisostomo;" + Gentile, his brother, iii. 21. + Berti, Bellincion, ii. 263. + Browning, Elizabeth B., her poetry, ii. 206. + Bunsen, Chevalier, his work on Romanesque Churches, ii. 381. + Bunyan, John, his portraiture of constancy, ii. 333; of patience, ii. + 334; of vanity, ii. 346; of sin, iii. 147. + + + C + + Calendario, Filippo, iii. 199. + Canaletto, i. 24; and see Venetian Index under head "Carità." + Canova, i. 217; and see Venetian Index under head "Frari." + Cappello, Vincenzo, his tomb, iii. 122. + Caracci, school of the, i. 24. + Cary, his translation of Dante, ii. 264. + Cavalli, Jacopo, his tomb, iii. 82. + Cicero, influence of his philosophy, ii. 317, 318. + Claude Lorraine, i. 24. + Comnenus, Manuel, ii. 263. + Cornaro, Marco, his tomb, iii. 79. + Correggio, ii. 192. + Crabbe, naturalism in his poetry, ii. 195. + + + D + + Dandolo, Andrea, tomb of, ii. 70; Francesco, tomb of, iii. 74; + character of, iii. 76; Simon, tomb of, iii. 79. + Dante, his central position, ii. 340, iii. 158; his system of virtue, + ii. 323; his portraiture of sin, iii. 147. + Daru, his character as a historian, iii. 213. + Dolci, Carlo, ii. 105. + Dolfino, Giovanni, tomb of, iii. 78. + Durer, Albert, his rank as a landscape painter, i. 383; his power in + grotesque, iii. 145. + + + E + + Edwin, King, his conversion, iii. 62. + + + F + + Faliero, Bertuccio, his tomb, iii. 94; Marino, his house, ii. 254; + Vitale, miracle in his time, ii. 61. + Fergusson, James, his system of beauty, i. 388. + Foscari, Francesco, his reign, i. 4, iii. 165; his tomb, iii. 84; his + countenance, iii. 86. + + + G + + Garbett, answer to Mr., i. 403. + Ghiberti, his sculpture, i. 217. + Giotto, his system of the virtues, ii. 323, 329, 341; his rank as a + painter, ii. 188, iii. 172. + Giulio Romano, i. 23. + Giustiniani, Marco, his tomb, i. 315; Sebastian, ambassador to + England, iii. 224. + Godfrey of Bouillon, his piety, iii. 62. + Gozzoli, Benozzo, ii. 195. + Gradenigo, Pietro, ii. 290. + Grande, Can, della Scala, his tomb, i. 268 (the cornice _g_ in Plate + XVI. is taken from it), iii. 71. + Guariento, his Paradise, ii. 296. + Guercino, ii. 105. + + + H + + Hamilton, Colonel, his paper on the Serapeum, ii. 220. + Hobbima, iii. 184. + Hunt, William, his painting of peasant boys, ii. 192; of still life, + ii. 394. + Hunt, William Holman, relation of his works to modern and ancient + art, iii. 185. + + + K + + Knight, Gally, his work on Architecture, i. 378. + + + L + + Leonardo da Vinci, ii. 171. + Louis XI., iii. 194. + + + M + + Martin, John, ii. 104. + Mastino, Can, della Scala, his tomb, ii. 224, iii. 72. + Maynard, Miss, her poems, ii. 397. + Michael Angelo, ii. 134, 188, iii. 56, 90, 99, 158. + Millais, John E., relation of his works to older art, iii. 185; + aerial perspective in his "Huguenot," iii. 47. + Milton, how inferior to Dante, iii. 147. + Mocenigo, Tomaso, his character, i. 4; his speech on rebuilding the + Ducal Palace, ii. 299; his tomb, i. 26, iii. 84. + Morosini, Carlo, Count, note on Daru's History by, iii. 213. + Morosini, Marino, his tomb, iii. 93. + Morosini, Michael, his character, iii. 213; + his tomb, iii. 80. + Murillo, his sensualism, ii. 192. + + + N + + Napoleon, his genius in civil administration, i. 399. + Niccolo Pisano, i. 215. + + + O + + Orcagna, his system of the virtues, ii. 329. + Orseolo, Pietro (Doge), iii. 120. + Otho the Great, his vow at Murano, ii. 32. + + + P + + Palladio, i. 24, 146; and see Venetian Index, under head "Giorgio + Maggiore." + Participazio, Angelo, founds the Ducal Palace, ii. 287. + Pesaro, Giovanni, tomb of, iii. 92; Jacopo, tomb of, iii. 91. + Philippe de Commynes, i. 12. + Plato, influence of his philosophy, ii. 317, 338; his playfulness, + iii. 127. + Poussin, Nicolo and Gaspar, i. 23. + Procaccini, Camillo, ii. 188. + Prout, Samuel, his style, i. 250, iii. 19, 134. + Pugin, Welby, his rank as an architect, i. 385. + + + Q + + Querini, Marco, his palace, ii. 255. + + + R + + Raffaelle, ii. 188, iii. 56, 108, 136. + Reynolds, Sir J., his painting at New College, ii. 323; his general + manner, iii. 184. + Rogers, Samuel, his works, ii. 195, iii. 113. + Rubens, intellectual rank of, i. 400; + coarseness of, ii. 145. + + + S + + Salvator Rosa, i. 24, ii. 105, 145, 188. + Scaligeri, tombs of, at Verona; see "Grande," "Mastino," "Signorio;" + palace of, ii. 257. + Scott, Sir W., his feelings of romance, iii. 191. + Shakspeare, his "Seven Ages," whence derived, ii. 361. + Sharpe, Edmund, his works, i. 342, 408. + Signorio, Can, della Scala, his tomb, character, i. 268, iii. 73. + Simplicius, St., ii. 356. + Spenser, value of his philosophy, ii. 327, 341; his personifications + of the months, ii. 272; his system of the virtues, ii. 326; scheme of + the first book of the Faërie Queen, iii. 205. + Steno, Michael, ii. 306; his tomb, ii. 296. + Stothard (the painter), his works, ii. 187, 195. + Symmachus, St., ii. 357. + + + T + + Teniers, David, ii. 188. + Tiepolo, Jacopo and Lorenzo, their tombs, iii. 69; Bajamonte, ii. + 255. + Tintoret, i. 12; his genius and function, ii. 149; his Paradise, ii. + 304, 372; his rank among the men of Italy, iii. 158. + Titian, i. 12; his function and fall, ii. 149, 187. + Turner, his rank as a landscape painter, i. 382, ii. 187. + + + U + + Uguccione, Benedetto, destroys Giotto's façade at Florence, i. 197. + + + V + + Vendramin, Andrea (Doge), his tomb, i. 27, iii. 88. + Verocchio, Andrea, iii. 11, 13. + Veronese, Paul, artistical rank of, i. 400; his designs of + balustrades, ii. 247; and see in Venetian Index, "Ducal Palace," + "Pisani," "Sebastian," "Redentore," "Accademia." + + + W + + West, Benjamin, ii. 104. + Wordsworth, his observation of nature, i. 247 (note). + + + Z + + Zeno, Carlo, i. 4, iii. 80. + Ziani, Sebastian (Doge), builds Ducal Palace, ii. 289. + + + + +II. + +LOCAL INDEX. + + + A + + Abbeville, door of church at, ii. 225; parapet at, ii. 245. + Alexandria, Church at, i. 381. + Alhambra, ornamentation of, i. 429. + Alps, how formed for distant effect, i. 247; how seen from Venice, + ii. 2, 28. + Amiens, pillars of Cathedral at, i. 102. + Arqua, hills of, how seen from Venice, ii. 2. + Assisi, Giotto's paintings at, ii. 323. + + + B + + Beauvais, piers of Cathedral at, i. 93; grandeur of its buttress + structure, i. 170. + Bergamo, Duomo at, i. 275. + Bologna, Palazzo Pepoli at, i. 275. + Bourges, Cathedral at, i. 43, 102, 228, 271, 299; ii. 92, 186; house + of Jacques Coeur at, i. 346. + + + C + + Chamouni, glacier forms at, i. 222. + Como, Broletto of, i. 141, 339. + + + D + + Dijon, pillars in Church of Notre Dame at, i. 102; tombs of Dukes of + Burgundy, iii. 68. + + + E + + Edinburgh, college at, i. 207. + + + F + + Falaise (St. Gervaise at), piers of, i. 103. + Florence, Cathedral of, i. 197, iii. 13. + + + G + + Gloucester, Cathedral of, i. 192. + + + L + + Lombardy, geology of, ii. 5. + London, Church in Margaret Street, Portland Place, iii. 196; Temple + Church, i. 412; capitals in Belgrave and Grosvenor Squares, i. 330; + Bank of England, base of, i. 283; wall of, typical of accounts, i. + 295; statue in King William Street, i. 210; shops in Oxford Street, + i. 202; Arthur Club-house, i. 295; Athenĉum Club-house, i. 157, 283; + Duke of York's Pillar, i. 283; Treasury, i. 205; Whitehall, i. 205; + Westminster, fall of houses at, ii. 268; Monument, i. 82, 283; Nelson + Pillar, i. 216; Wellington Statue, i. 257. + Lucca, Cathedral of, ii. 275; San Michele at, i. 375. + Lyons, porch of cathedral at, i. 379. + + + M + + Matterhorn (Mont Cervin), structure of, i. 58; lines of, applied to + architecture, i. 308, 310, 332. + Mestre, scene in street of, i. 355. + Milan, St. Ambrogio, piers of, i. 102; capital of, i. 324; St. + Eustachio, tomb of St. Peter Martyr, i. 218. + Moulins, brickwork at, i. 296. + Murano, general aspect of, ii. 29; Duomo of, ii. 32; balustrades of, + ii. 247; inscriptions at, ii. 384. + + + N + + Nineveh, style of its decorations, i. 234, 239; iii. 159. + + + O + + Orange (South France), arch at, i. 250. + Orleans, Cathedral of, i. 95. + + + P + + Padua, Arena chapel at, ii. 324; St. Antonio at, i. 135; St. Sofia + at, i. 327; Eremitani, Church of, at, i. 135. + Paris, Hotel des Invalides, i. 214; Arc de l'Etoile, i. 291; Colonne + Vendome, i. 212. + Pavia, St. Michele at, piers of, i. 102, 337; ornaments of, i. 376. + Pisa, Baptistery of, ii. 275. + Pistoja, San Pietro at, i. 295. + + + R + + Ravenna, situation of, ii. 6. + Rouen, Cathedral, piers of, i. 103, 153; pinnacles of, ii. 213; St. + Maclou at, sculptures of, ii. 197. + + + S + + Salisbury Cathedral, piers of, i. 102; windows at, ii. 224. + Sens, Cathedral of, i. 135. + Switzerland, cottage architecture of, i. 156, 203, iii. 133. + + + V + + Verona, San Fermo at, i. 136, ii. 259; Sta. Anastasia at, i. 142; + Duomo of, i. 373; St. Zeno at, i. 373; balconies at, ii. 247; + archivolt at, i. 335; tombs at, see in Personal Index, "Grande," + "Mastino," "Signorio." + Vevay, architecture of, i. 136. + Vienne (South France), Cathedral of, i. 274. + + + W + + Warwick, Guy's tower at, i. 168. + Wenlock (Shropshire), Abbey of, i. 270. + Winchester, Cathedral of, i. 192. + + + Y + + York, Minster of, i. 205, 313. + + + + +III. + +TOPICAL INDEX. + + + A + + Abacus, defined, i. 107; law of its proportion, i. 111-115; its + connection with cornices, i. 116; its various profiles, i. 319-323; + iii. 243-248. + Acanthus, leaf of, its use in architecture, i. 233; how treated at + Torcello, ii. 15. + Alabaster, use of, in incrustation, ii. 86. + Anachronism, necessity of, in the best art, ii. 198. + Anatomy, a disadvantageous study for artists, iii. 47. + Angels, use of their images in Venetian heraldry, ii. 278; statues + of, on the Ducal Palace, ii. 311. + Anger, how symbolically represented, ii. 344. + Angles, decoration of, i. 260; ii. 305; of Gothic Palaces, ii. 238; + of Ducal Palace, ii. 307. + Animal character in northern and southern climates, ii. 156; in + grotesque art, iii. 149. + Apertures, analysis of their structure, i. 50; general forms of, i. + 174. + Apse, forms of, in southern and northern churches compared, i. 170. + Arabesques of Raffaelle, their baseness, iii. 136. + Arabian architecture, i. 18, 234, 235, 429; ii. 135. + Arches, general structure of, i. 122; moral characters of, i. 126; + lancet, round, and depressed, i. 129; four-centred, i. 130; ogee, i. + 131; non-concentric, i. 133, 341; masonry of, i. 133, ii. 218; load + of, i. 144; are not derived from vegetation, ii. 201. + Architects, modern, their unfortunate position, i. 404, 407. + Architecture, general view of its divisions, i. 47-51; how to judge + of it, ii. 173; adaptation of, to requirements of human mind, iii. + 192; richness of early domestic, ii. 100, iii. 2; manner of its + debasement in general, iii. 3. + Archivolts, decoration of, i. 334; general families of, i. 335; of + Murano, ii. 49; of St. Mark's, ii. 95; in London, ii. 97; Byzantine, + ii. 138; profiles of, iii. 244. + Arts, relative dignity of, i. 395; how represented in Venetian + sculpture, ii. 355; what relation exists between them and their + materials, ii. 394; art divided into the art of facts, of design, and + of both, ii. 183; into purist, naturalist, and sensualist, ii. 187; + art opposed to inspiration, iii. 151; defined, iii. 170; + distinguished from science, iii. 35; how to enjoy that of the + ancients, iii. 188. + Aspiration, not the primal motive of Gothic work, i. 151. + Astrology, judicial, representation of its doctrines in Venetian + sculpture, ii. 352. + Austrian government in Italy, iii. 209. + Avarice, how represented figuratively, ii. 344. + + + B + + Backgrounds, diapered, iii. 20. + Balconies, of Venice, ii. 243; general treatment of, iii. 254; of + iron, ii. 247. + Ballflower, its use in ornamentation, i. 279. + Balustrades. See "Balconies." + Bases, general account of, iii. 225; of walls, i. 55; of piers, i. + 73; of shafts, i. 84; decoration of, i. 281; faults of Gothic + profiles of, i. 285; spurs of, i. 286; beauty of, in St. Mark's, i. + 290; Lombardie, i. 292; ought not to be richly decorated, i. 292; + general effect of, ii. 387. + Battlements, i. 162; abuse of, in ornamentation, i. 219. + Beauty and ornament, relation of the terms, i. 404. + Bellstones of capitals defined, i. 108. + Birds, use of in ornamentation, i. 234, ii. 140. + Bishops, their ancient authority, ii. 25. + Body, its relation to the soul, i. 41, 395. + Brackets, division of, i. 161; ridiculous forms of, i. 161. + Breadth in Byzantine design, ii. 133. + Brickwork, ornamental, i. 296; in general, ii. 241, 260, 261. + Brides of Venice, legend of the, iii. 113, 116. + Buttresses, general structure of, i. 166; flying, i. 192; supposed + sanctity of, i. 173. + Bull, symbolical use of, in representing rivers, i. 418, 421, 424. + Byzantine style, analysis of, ii. 75; ecclesiastical fitness of, ii. + 97; centralization in, ii. 236; palaces built in, ii. 118; sculptures + in, ii. 137, 140. + + + C + + Candlemas, ancient symbols of, ii. 272. + Capitals, general structure of, i. 105; bells of, i. 107; just + proportions of, i. 114; various families of, i. 13, 65, 324, ii. 129, + iii. 231; are necessary to shafts in good architecture, i. 119; + Byzantine, ii. 131, iii. 231; Lily, of St. Mark's, ii. 137; of + Solomon's temple, ii. 137. + Care, how symbolized, ii. 348. See "Sorrow." + Caryatides, i. 302. + Castles, English, entrances of, i. 177. + Cathedrals, English, effect of, ii. 63. + Ceilings, old Venetian, ii. 280. + Centralization in design, ii. 237. + Chalet of Switzerland, its character, i. 203. + Chamfer defined, i. 263; varieties of, i. 262, 429. + Changefulness, an element of Gothic, ii. 172. + Charity, how symbolized, ii. 327, 339. + Chartreuse, Grande, morbid life in, iii. 190. + Chastity, how symbolized, ii. 328. + Cheerfulness, how symbolized, ii. 326, 348; virtue of, ii. 326. + Cherries, cultivation of, at Venice, ii. 361. + Christianity, how mingled with worldliness, iii. 109; how imperfectly + understood, iii. 168; influence of, in liberating workmen, ii. 159, + i. 243; influence of, on forms, i. 99. + Churches, wooden, of the North, i. 381; considered as ships, ii. 25; + decoration of, how far allowable, ii. 102. + Civilization, progress of, iii. 168; twofold danger of, iii. 169. + Classical literature, its effect on the modern mind, iii. 12. + Climate, its influence on architecture, i. 151, ii. 155, 203. + Color, its importance in early work, ii. 38, 40, 78, 91; its + spirituality, ii. 145, 396; its relation to music, iii. 186; + quartering of, iii. 20; how excusing realization, iii. 186. + Commerce, how regarded by Venetians, i. 6. + Composition, definition of the term, ii. 182. + Constancy, how symbolized, ii. 333. + Construction, architectural, how admirable, i. 36. + Convenience, how consulted by Gothic architecture, ii. 179. + Cornices, general divisions of, i. 63, iii. 248; of walls, i. 60; of + roofs, i. 149; ornamentation of, i. 305; curvatures of, i. 310; + military, i. 160; Greek, i. 157. + Courses in walls, i. 60. + Crockets, their use in ornamentation, i. 346; their abuse at Venice, + iii. 109. + Crosses, Byzantine, ii. 139. + Crusaders, character of the, ii. 263. + Crystals, architectural appliance of, i. 225. + Cupid, representation of, in early and later art, ii. 342. + Curvature, on what its beauty depends, i. 222, iii. 5. + Cusps, definition of, i. 135; groups of, i. 138; relation of, to + vegetation, ii. 219; general treatment of, iii. 255; earliest + occurrence of, ii. 220. + + + D + + Daguerreotype, probable results of, iii. 169. + Darkness, a character of early churches, ii. 18; not an abstract + evil, iii. 220. + Death, fear of, in Renaissance times, iii. 65, 90, 92; how anciently + regarded, iii. 139, 156. + Decoration, true nature of, i. 405; how to judge of, i. 44, 45. See + "Ornament." + Demons, nature of, how illustrated by Milton and Dante, iii. 147. + Dentil, Venetian, defined, i. 273, 275. + Design, definition of the term, ii. 183; its relations to naturalism, + ii. 184. + Despair, how symbolized, ii. 334. + Diaper patterns in brick, i. 296; in color, iii. 21, 22. + Discord, how symbolized, ii. 333. + Discs, decoration by means of, i. 240, 416; ii. 147, 264. + Division of labor, evils of, ii. 165. + Doge of Venice, his power, i. 3, 360. + Dogtooth moulding defined, i. 269. + Dolphins, moral disposition of, i. 230; use of, in symbolic + representation of sea, i. 422, 423. + Domestic architecture, richness of, in middle ages, ii. 99. + Doors, general structure of, i. 174, 176; smallness of in English + cathedrals, i. 176; ancient Venetian, ii. 277, iii. 227. + Doric architecture, i. 157, 301, 307; Christian Doric, i. 308, 315. + Dragon, conquered by St. Donatus, ii. 33; use of, in ornamentation, + ii. 219. + Dreams, how resembled by the highest arts, iii. 153; prophetic, in + relation to the Grotesque, iii. 156. + Dress, its use in ornamentation, i. 212; early Venetian, ii. 383; + dignity of, iii. 191; changes in modern dress, iii. 192. + Duties of buildings, i. 47. + + + E + + Earthquake of 1511, ii. 242. + Eastern races, their power over color, ii. 147. + Eaves, construction of, i. 156. + Ecclesiastical architecture in Venice, i. 20; no architecture + exclusively ecclesiastical, ii. 99. + Edge decoration, i. 268. + Education, University, i. 391; iii. 110; evils of, with respect to + architectural workmen, ii. 107; how to be successfully undertaken, + ii. 165, 214; modern education in general, how mistaken, iii. 110, + 234; system of, in Plato, ii. 318; of Persian kings, ii. 318; not to + be mistaken for erudition, iii. 219; ought to be universal, iii. 220. + Egg and arrow mouldings, i. 314. + Egyptian architecture, i. 99, 239; ii. 203. + Elgin marbles, ii. 171. + Encrusted architecture, i. 271, 272; general analysis of, ii. 76. + Energy of Northern Gothic, i. 371; ii. 16, 204. + English (early) capitals, faults of, i. 100, 411; English mind, its + mistaken demands of perfection, ii. 160. + Envy, how set forth, ii. 346. + Evangelists, types of, how explicable, iii. 155. + + + F + + Faërie Queen, Spenser's, value of, theologically, ii. 328. + Faith, influence of on art, ii. 104, 105; Titian's picture of, i. 11; + how symbolized, ii. 337. + Falsehood, how symbolized, ii. 349. + Fatalism, how expressed in Eastern architecture, ii. 205. + Fear, effect of, on human life, iii. 137; on Grotesque art, iii. 142. + Feudalism, healthy effects of, i. 184. + Fig-tree, sculpture of, on Ducal Palace, ii. 307. + Fillet, use of, in ornamentation, i. 267. + Finials, their use in ornamentation, i. 346; a sign of decline in + Venetian architecture, iii. 109. + Finish in workmanship, when to be required, ii. 165; dangers of, iii. + 170, ii. 162. + Fir, spruce, influence of, on architecture, i. 152. + Fire, forms of, in ornamentation, i. 228. + Fish, use of, in ornamentation, i. 229. + Flamboyant Gothic, i. 278, ii. 225. + Flattery, common in Renaissance times, iii. 64. + Flowers, representation of, how desirable, i. 340; how represented in + mosaic, iii. 179. + Fluting of columns, a mistake, i. 301. + Foils, definition of, ii. 221. + Foliage, how carved in declining periods, iii. 8, 17. See "Vegetation." + Foliation defined, ii. 219; essential to Gothic architecture, ii. 222. + Folly, how symbolized, ii. 325, 348. + Form of Gothic, defined, ii. 209. + Fortitude, how symbolized, ii. 337. + Fountains, symbolic representations of, i. 427. + French architecture, compared with Italian, ii. 226. + Frivolity, how exhibited in Grotesque art, iii. 143. + Fruit, its use in ornamentation, i. 232. + + + G + + Gable, general structure of, i. 124; essential to Gothic, ii. 210, 217. + Gardens, Italian, iii. 136. + Generalization, abuses of, iii. 176. + Geology of Lombardy, ii. 5. + Glass, its capacities in architecture, i. 409; manufacture of, ii. + 166; true principles of working in, ii. 168, 395. + Gluttony, how symbolized, ii. 343. + Goldsmiths' work, a high form of art, ii. 166. + Gondola, management of, ii. 375. + Gothic architecture, analysis of, ii. 151; not derived from vegetable + structure, i. 121; convenience of, ii. 178; divisions of, ii. 215; + surface and linear, ii. 226; Italian and French, ii. 226; flamboyant, + i. 278, ii. 225; perpendicular, i. 192, ii. 223, 227; early English, + i. 109; how to judge of it, ii. 228; how fitted for domestic + purposes, ii. 269, iii. 195; how first corrupted, iii. 3; how to be + at present built, iii. 196; early Venetian, ii. 248; ecclesiastical + Venetian, i. 21; central Venetian, ii. 231; how adorned by color in + Venice, iii. 23. + Government of Venice, i. 2, ii. 366. + Grammar, results of too great study of it, iii. 55, 106. + Greek architecture, general character of, i. 240, ii. 215, iii. 159. + Grief. See "Sorrow." + Griffins, Lombardic, i. 292, 387. + Grotesque, analysis of, iii. 132; in changes of form, i. 317; in + Venetian painting, iii. 162; symbolical, iii. 155; its character in + Renaissance work, iii. 113, 121, 136, 143. + Gutters of roofs, i. 151. + + + H + + Heathenism, typified in ornament, i. 317. See "Paganism." + Heaven and Hell, proofs of their existence in natural phenomena, iii. + 138. + History, how to be written and read, iii. 224. + Hobbima, iii. 184. + Honesty, how symbolized, ii. 349. + Hope, how symbolized, ii. 341. + Horseshoe arches, i. 129, ii. 249, 250. + Humanity, spiritual nature of, i. 41; divisions of, with respect to + art, i. 394. + Humility, how symbolized, ii. 339. + + + I + + Idleness, how symbolized, ii. 345. + Idolatry, proper sense of the term, ii. 388; is no encourager of art, + ii. 110. See "Popery." + Imagination, its relation to art, iii. 182. + Imitation of precious stones, &c., how reprehensible, iii. 26, 30. + Imposts, continuous, i. 120. + Infidelity, how symbolized, ii. 335; an element of the Renaissance + spirit, iii. 100. + Injustice, how symbolized, ii. 349. + Inlaid ornamentation, i. 369; perfection of, in early Renaissance, + iii. 26. + Inscriptions at Murano, ii. 47, 54; use of, in early times, ii. 111. + Insects, use of, in ornamentation, i. 230. + Inspiration, how opposed to art, iii. 151, 171. + Instinct, its dignity, iii. 171. + Intellect, how variable in dignity, iii. 173. + Involution, delightfulness of, in ornament, ii. 136. + Iron, its use in architecture, i. 184, 410. + Italians, modern character of, iii. 209. + Italy, how ravaged by recent war, iii. 209. + + + J + + Jambs, Gothic, iii. 137. + Jesting, evils of, iii. 129. + Jesuits, their restricted power in Venice, i. 366. + Jewels, their cutting, a bad employment, ii. 166. + Judgments, instinctive, i. 399. + Job, book of, its purpose, iii. 53. + + + K + + Keystones, how mismanaged in Renaissance work. See Venetian Index, + under head "Libreria." + Knowledge, its evil consequences, iii. 40; how to be received, iii. + 50, &c. See "Education." + + + L + + Labor, manual, ornamental value of, i. 407; evils of its division, + ii. 165; is not a degradation, ii. 168. + Labyrinth, in Venetian streets, its clue, ii. 254. + Lagoons, Venetian, nature of, ii. 7, 8. + Landscape, lower schools of, i. 24; Venetian, ii. 149; modern love + of, ii. 175, iii. 123. + Laws of right in architecture, i. 32; laws in general, how + permissibly violated, i. 255, ii. 210; their position with respect to + art, iii. 96; and to religion, iii. 205. + Leaves, use of, in ornamentation, i. 232 (see "Vegetation"); + proportion of, ii. 128. + Liberality, how symbolized, ii. 333. + Life in Byzantine architecture, ii. 133. + Lilies, beautiful proportions of, ii. 128; used for parapet + ornaments, ii. 242; lily capitals, ii. 137. + Limitation of ornament, i. 254. + Lines, abstract use of, in ornament, i. 221. + Lintel, its structure, i. 124, 126. + Lion, on piazzetta shafts, iii. 238. + Load, of arches, i. 133. + Logic, a contemptible science, iii. 105. + Lombardic architecture, i. 17. + Lotus leaf, its use in architecture, i. 233. + Love, its power over human life, iii. 137. + Lusts, their power over human nature, how symbolized by Spenser, ii. + 328. + Luxury, how symbolized, ii. 342; how traceable in ornament, iii. 4; + of Renaissance schools, iii. 61. + + + M + + Madonna, Byzantine representations of, ii. 53. + Magnitude, vulgar admiration of, iii. 64. + Malmsey, use of, in Feast of the Maries, iii. 117. + Marble, its uses, iii. 27. + Maries, Feast of the, iii. 117. + Mariolatry, ancient and modern, ii. 55. + Marriages of Venetians, iii. 116. + Masonry, Mont-Cenisian, i. 132; of walls, i. 61; of arches, i. 133. + Materials, invention of new, how injurious to art, iii. 42. + Misery, how symbolized, ii. 347. + Modesty, how symbolized, ii. 335. + Monotony, its place in art, ii. 176. + Months, personifications of, in ancient art, ii. 272. + Moroseness, its guilt, iii. 130. + Mosaics at Torcello, ii. 18, 19; at St. Mark's, ii. 70, 112; early + character of, ii. 110, iii. 175, 178. + Music, its relation to color, iii. 186. + Mythology of Venetian painters, ii. 150; ancient, how injurious to + the Christian mind, iii. 107. + + + N + + Natural history, how necessary a study, iii. 54. + Naturalism, general analysis of it with respect to art, ii. 181, 190; + its advance in Gothic art, iii. 6; not to be found in the encrusted + style, ii. 89; its presence in the noble Grotesque, iii. 144. + Nature (in the sense of material universe) not improvable by art, i. + 350; its relation to architecture, i. 351. + Niches, use of, in Northern Gothic, i. 278; in Venetian, ii. 240; in + French and Veronese, ii. 227. + Norman hatchet-work, i. 297; zigzag, i. 339. + Novelty, its necessity to the human mind, ii. 176. + + + O + + Oak-tree, how represented in symbolical art, iii. 185. + Obedience, how symbolized, ii. 334. + Oligarchical government, its effect on the Venetians, i. 5. + Olive-tree, neglect of, by artists, iii. 175; general expression of, + iii. 176, 177; representations of, in mosaic, iii. 178. + Order, uses and disadvantages of, ii. 172. + Orders, Doric and Corinthian, i. 13; ridiculous divisions of, i. 157, + 370; ii. 173, 249; iii. 99. + Ornament, material of, i. 211; the best, expresses man's delight in + God's work, i. 220; not in his own, i. 211; general treatment of, i. + 236; is necessarily imperfect, i. 237, 240; divided into servile, + subordinate, and insubordinate, i. 242, ii. 158; distant effect of, + i. 248; arborescent, i. 252; restrained within limits, i. 255; cannot + be overcharged if good, i. 406. + Oxford, system of education at, i. 391. + + + P + + Paganism, revival of its power in modern times, iii. 105, 107, 122. + Painters, their power of perception, iii. 37; influence of society + on, iii. 41; what they should know, iii. 41; what is their business, + iii. 187. + Palace, the Crystal, merits of, i. 409. + Palaces, Byzantine, ii. 118, 391; Gothic, ii. 231. + Papacy. See "Popery." + Parapets, i. 162, ii. 240. + Parthenon, curves of, ii. 127. + Patience, how symbolized, ii. 334. + Pavements, ii. 52. + Peacocks, sculpture of, i. 240. + Pedestals of shafts, i. 82; and see Venetian Index under head + "Giorgio Maggiore." + Perception opposed to knowledge, iii. 37. + Perfection, inordinate desire of, destructive of art, i. 237; ii. + 133, 158, 169. + Perpendicular style, i. 190, 253; ii. 223, 227. + Personification, evils of, ii. 322. + Perspective, aerial, ridiculous exaggerations of, iii. 45; ancient + pride in, iii. 57; absence of, in many great works, see in Venetian + Index the notice of Tintoret's picture of the Pool of Bethesda, under + head "Rocco." + Phariseeism and Liberalism, how opposed, iii. 97. + Philology, a base science, iii. 54. + Piazzetta at Venice, plan of, ii. 283; shafts of, ii. 233. + Pictures, judgment of, how formed, ii. 371; neglect of, in Venice, + ii. 372; how far an aid to religion, ii. 104, 110. + Picturesque, definition of term, iii. 134. + Piers, general structure of, i. 71, 98, 118. + Pilgrim's Progress. See "Bunyan." + Pine of Italy, its effect on architecture, i. 152; of Alps, effect in + distance, i. 245. See "Fir." + Pinnacles are of little practical service, i. 170; their effect on + common roofs, i. 347. + Play, its relation to Grotesque art, iii. 126. + Pleasure, its kinds and true uses, iii. 189. + Popery, how degraded in contest with Protestantism, i. 34, iii. 103; + its influence on art, i. 23, 34, 35, 384, 432, ii. 51; typified in + ornament, i. 316; power of Pope in Venice, i. 362; arts used in + support of Popery, ii. 74. + Porches, i. 195. + Portraiture, power of, in Venice, iii. 164. + Posture-making in Renaissance art, iii. 90. + Prayers, ancient and modern, difference between, ii. 315, 390. + Pre-Raphaelitism, iii. 90; present position of, iii. 168, 174, 188. + Pride, how symbolized, ii. 343, iii. 207; of knowledge, iii. 35; of + state, iii. 59; of system, iii. 95. + Priests, restricted power of, in Venice, i. 366. + Proportions, subtlety of, in early work, ii. 38, 121, 127. + Protestantism, its influence on art, i. 23; typified in ornament, i. + 316; influence of, on prosperity of nations, i. 368; expenditure in + favor of, i. 434; is incapable of judging of art, ii. 105; how + expressed in art, ii. 205; its errors in opposing Romanism, iii, 102, + 103, 104; its shame of religious confession, ii. 278. + Prudence, how symbolized, ii. 340. + Pulpits, proper structure of, ii. 22, 380. + Purism in art, its nature and definition, ii. 189. + Purity, how symbolized, iii. 20. + + + Q + + Quadrupeds, use of in ornamentation, i. 234. + Quantity of ornament, its regulation, i. 23. + + + R + + Rationalism, its influence on art, i. 23. + Realization, how far allowable in noble art, iii. 182, 186. + Recesses, decoration of, i. 278. + Recumbent statues, iii. 72. + Redundance, an element of Gothic, ii. 206. + Religion, its influence on Venetian policy, i. 6; how far aided by + pictorial art, ii. 104, 109; contempt of, in Renaissance times, iii. + 122. + Renaissance architecture, nature of, iii. 33; early, iii. 1; + Byzantine, iii. 15; Roman, iii. 32; Grotesque, iii. 112; + inconsistencies of, iii. 42, etc. + Reptiles, how used in ornamentation, i. 230. + Resistance, line of, in arches, i. 126. + Restraint, ornamental, value of, i. 255. + Reverence, how ennobling to humanity, ii. 163. + Rhetoric, a base study, iii. 106. + Rigidity, an element of Gothic, ii. 203. + Rivers, symbolical representation of, i. 419, 420. + Rocks, use of, in ornamentation, i. 224; organization of, i. 246; + curvatures of, i. 58, 224. + Roll-mouldings, decoration of, i. 276. + Romance, modern errors of, ii. 4; how connected with dress, iii. 192. + Romanesque style, i. 15, 19, 145; ii. 215. See "Byzantine," and + "Renaissance." + Romanism. See "Popery." + Roofs, analysis of, i. 46, 148; ii. 212, 216; domed, i. 149; Swiss, + i. 149, 345; steepness of, conducive to Gothic character, i. 151, ii. + 209; decoration of, i. 343. + Rustication, is ugly and foolish, i. 65; natural objects of which it + produces a resemblance, i. 296. + + + S + + Salvia, its leaf applied to architecture, i. 287, 306. + Sarcophagi, Renaissance treatment of, iii. 90; ancient, iii. 69, 93. + Satellitic shafts, i. 95. + Satire in Grotesque art, iii. 126, 145. + Savageness, the first element of Gothic, ii. 155; in Grotesque art, + iii. 159. + Science opposed to art, iii. 36. + Sculpture, proper treatment of, i. 216, &c. + Sea, symbolical representations of, i. 352, 421; natural waves of, i. + 351. + Sensualism in art, its nature and definition, ii. 189; how redeemed + by color, ii. 145. + Serapeum at Memphis, cusps of, ii. 220. + Sermons, proper manner of regarding them, ii. 22; mode of their + delivery in Scotch church, ii. 381. + Serrar del Consiglio, ii. 291. + Shafts, analysis of, i. 84; vaulting shafts, i. 145; ornamentation + of, i. 300; twisted, by what laws regulated, i. 303; strength of, i. + 402; laws by which they are regulated in encrusted style, ii. 82. + Shields, use of, on tombs, ii. 224, iii. 87. + Shipping, use of, in ornamentation, i. 215. + Shops in Venice, ii. 65. + Sight, how opposed to thought, iii. 39. + Simplicity of life in thirteenth century, ii. 263. + Sin, how symbolized in Grotesque art, iii. 141. + Slavery of Greeks and Egyptians, ii. 158; of English workmen, ii. + 162, 163. + Society, unhealthy state of, in modern times, ii. 163. + Sorrow, how sinful, ii. 325; how symbolized, ii. 347. + Soul, its development in art, iii. 173, 188; its connection with the + body, i. 41, 395. + Spandrils, structure of, i. 146; decoration of, i. 297. + Spirals, architectural value of, i. 222, ii. 16. + Spurs of bases, i. 79. + Staircases, i. 208; of Gothic palaces, ii. 280. + Stucco, when admissible, iii. 21. + Subordination of ornament, i. 240. + Superimposition of buildings, i. 200; ii. 386. + Surface-Gothic, explanation of term, ii. 225, 227. + Symbolism, i. 417; how opposed to personification, ii. 322. + System, pride of, how hurtful, iii. 95, 99. + + + T + + Temperance, how symbolized, ii. 338; temperance in color and + curvature, iii. 420. + Theology, opposed to religion, iii. 216; of Spencer, iii. 205. + Thirteenth century, its high position with respect to art, ii. 263. + Thought, opposed to sight, iii. 39. + Tombs at Verona, i. 142, 412; at Venice, ii. 69; early Christian, + iii. 67; Gothic, iii. 71; Renaissance treatment of, iii. 84. + Towers, proper character of, i. 204; of St. Mark's, i 207. + Traceries, structure of, i. 184, 185; flamboyant, i. 189; stump, i. + 189; English perpendicular, i 190, ii. 222; general character of, ii. + 220; strength of, in Venetian Gothic, ii. 234, iii. 253; general + forms of tracery bars, iii. 250. + Treason, how detested by Dante, ii. 327. + Trees, use of, in ornamentation, i. 231. + Trefoil, use of, in ornamentation, ii. 42. + Triangles, used for ornaments at Murano, ii. 43. + Tribune at Torcello, ii. 24. + Triglyphs, ugliness of, i, 43. + Trunkmakers, their share in recovery of Brides of Venice, iii. 117, 118. + Truth, relation of, to religion, in Spenser's "Faërie Queen," iii, + 205; typified by stones, iii. 31. + Tympanum, decoration of, i. 299. + + + U + + Unity of Venetian nobility, i. 10. + + + V + + Vain glory, speedy punishment of, iii. 122. + Vanity, how symbolized, ii. 346. + Variety in ornamental design, importance of, ii. 43, 133, 142, 172. + Vegetation, use of, in ornamentation, i. 232; peculiar meaning of, in + Gothic, ii. 199; how connected with cusps, ii. 219. + Veil (wall veil), construction of, i. 58; decoration of, i. 294. + Vine, Lombardic sculpture of, i. 375; at Torcello, ii. 15; use of, in + ornamentation, ii. 141; in symbolism, ii. 143; sculpture of, on Ducal + Palace, ii. 308. + Virtues, how symbolized in sepulchral monuments, iii. 82, 86; systems + of, in Pagan and Christian philosophy, ii. 312; cardinal, ii. 317, + 318, 320; of architecture, i. 36, 44. + Voussoirs defined, i. 125; contest between them and architraves, i. + 336. + + + W + + Walls, general analysis of their structure, i. 48; bases of, i. 52, + 53; cornices of, i. 63; rustication of, i. 61, 338; decoration of, i. + 294; courses in, i. 61, 295. + Water, its use in ornamentation, i. 226; ancient representations of, + i. 417. + Weaving, importance of associations connected with, ii. 136. + Wells, old Venetian, ii. 279. + Windows, general forms of, i. 179; Arabian, i. 180, ii. 135; + square-headed, ii. 211, 269; development of, in Venice, ii. 235; + orders of, in Venice, ii. 248; advisable form of, in modern + buildings, ii. 269. + Winds, how symbolized at Venice, ii. 367. + Wooden architecture, i. 381. + Womanhood, virtues of, as given by Spenser, ii. 326. + + + Z + + Zigzag, Norman, i. 339. + + + + +IV. + +VENETIAN INDEX. + + +I have endeavored to make the following index as useful as possible to +the traveller, by indicating only the objects which are really worth his +study. A traveller's interest, stimulated as it is into strange vigor by +the freshness of every impression, and deepened by the sacredness of the +charm of association which long familiarity with any scene too fatally +wears away,[71] is too precious a thing to be heedlessly wasted; and as +it is physically impossible to see and to understand more than a certain +quantity of art in a given time, the attention bestowed on second-rate +works, in such a city as Venice, is not merely lost, but actually +harmful,--deadening the interest and confusing the memory with respect +to those which it is a duty to enjoy, and a disgrace to forget. The +reader need not fear being misled by any omissions; for I have +conscientiously pointed out every characteristic example, even of the +styles which I dislike, and have referred to Lazari in all instances in +which my own information failed: but if he is in any wise willing to +trust me, I should recommend him to devote his principal attention, if +he is fond of paintings, to the works of Tintoret, Paul Veronese, and +John Bellini; not of course neglecting Titian, yet remembering that +Titian can be well and thoroughly studied in almost any great European +gallery, while Tintoret and Bellini can be judged of _only_ in Venice, +and Paul Veronese, though gloriously represented by the two great +pictures in the Louvre, and many others throughout Europe, is yet not to +be fully estimated until he is seen at play among the fantastic chequers +of the Venetian ceilings. + +I have supplied somewhat copious notices of the pictures of Tintoret, +because they are much injured, difficult to read, and entirely neglected +by other writers on art. I cannot express the astonishment and +indignation I felt on finding, in Kugler's handbook, a paltry cenacolo, +painted probably in a couple of hours for a couple of zecchins, for the +monks of St. Trovaso, quoted as characteristic of this master; just as +foolish readers quote separate stanzas of Peter Bell or the Idiot Boy, +as characteristic of Wordsworth. Finally, the reader is requested to +observe, that the dates assigned to the various buildings named in the +following index, are almost without exception conjectural; that is to +say, founded exclusively on the internal evidence of which a portion has +been given in the Final Appendix. It is likely, therefore, that here and +there, in particular instances, further inquiry may prove me to have +been deceived; but such occasional errors are not of the smallest +importance with respect to the general conclusions of the preceding +pages, which will be found to rest on too broad a basis to be disturbed. + + + A + + ACCADEMIA DELLE BELLE ARTI. Notice above the door the two bas-reliefs + of St. Leonard and St. Christopher, chiefly remarkable for their rude + cutting at so late a date as 1377; but the niches under which they + stand are unusual in their bent gables, and in little crosses within + circles which fill their cusps. The traveller is generally too much + struck by Titian's great picture of the "Assumption," to be able to + pay proper attention to the other works in this gallery. Let him, + however, ask himself candidly, how much of his admiration is + dependent merely upon the picture being larger than any other in the + room, and having bright masses of red and blue in it: let him be + assured that the picture is in reality not one whit the better for + being either large, or gaudy in color; and he will then be better + disposed to give the pains necessary to discover the merit of the more + profound and solemn works of Bellini and Tintoret. One of the most + wonderful works in the whole gallery is Tintoret's "Death of Abel," on + the left of the "Assumption;" the "Adam and Eve," on the right of it, + is hardly inferior; and both are more characteristic examples of the + master, and in many respects better pictures, than the much vaunted + "Miracle of St. Mark." All the works of Bellini in this room are of + great beauty and interest. In the great room, that which contains + Titian's "Presentation of the Virgin," the traveller should examine + carefully all the pictures by Vittor Carpaccio and Gentile Bellini, + which represent scenes in ancient Venice; they are full of interesting + architecture and costume. Marco Basaiti's "Agony in the Garden" is a + lovely example of the religious school. The Tintorets in this room are + all second rate, but most of the Veronese are good, and the large ones + are magnificent. + + ALIGA. See GIORGIO. + + ALVISE, CHURCH OF ST. I have never been in this church, but Lazari + dates its interior, with decision, as of the year 1388, and it may be + worth a glance, if the traveller has time. + + ANDREA, CHURCH OF ST. Well worth visiting for the sake of the + peculiarly sweet and melancholy effect of its little grass-grown + campo, opening to the lagoon and the Alps. The sculpture over the + door, "St. Peter walking on the Water," is a quaint piece of + Renaissance work. Note the distant rocky landscape, and the oar of the + existing gondola floating by St. Andrew's boat. The church is of the + later Gothic period, much defaced, but still picturesque. The lateral + windows are bluntly trefoiled, and good of their time. + + ANGELI, CHURCH DELGLI, at Murano. The sculpture of the "Annunciation" + over the entrance-gate is graceful. In exploring Murano, it is worth + while to row up the great canal thus far for the sake of the opening + to the lagoon. + + ANTONINO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + APOLLINARE, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + APOSTOLI, CHURCH OF THE. The exterior is nothing. There is said to be + a picture by Veronese in the interior, "The Fall of the Manna." I have + not seen it; but, if it be of importance, the traveller should compare + it carefully with Tintoret's, in the Scuola di San Rocco, and San + Giorgio Maggiore. + + APOSTOLI, PALACE AT, II. 253, on the Grand Canal, near the Rialto, + opposite the fruit-market. A most important transitional palace. Its + sculpture in the first story is peculiarly rich and curious; I think + Venetian, in imitation of Byzantine. The sea story and first floor are + of the first half of the thirteenth century, the rest modern. Observe + that only one wing of the sea story is left, the other half having + been modernized. The traveller should land to look at the capital + drawn in Plate II. of Vol. III. fig. 7. + + ARSENAL. Its gateway is a curiously picturesque example of Renaissance + workmanship, admirably sharp and expressive in its ornamental + sculpture; it is in many parts like some of the best Byzantine work. + The Greek lions in front of it appear to me to deserve more praise + than they have received; though they are awkwardly balanced between + conventional and imitative representation, having neither the severity + proper to the one, nor the veracity necessary for the other. + + + B + + BADOER, PALAZZO, in the Campo San Giovanni in Bragola. A magnificent + example of the fourteenth century Gothic, circa 1310-1320, anterior to + the Ducal Palace, and showing beautiful ranges of the fifth order + window, with fragments of the original balconies, and the usual + lateral window larger than any of the rest. In the centre of its + arcade on the first floor is the inlaid ornament drawn in Plate VIII. + Vol. I. The fresco painting on the walls is of later date; and I + believe the heads which form the finials have been inserted afterwards + also, the original windows having been pure fifth order. + + The building is now a ruin, inhabited by the lowest orders; the first + floor, when I was last in Venice, by a laundress. + + BAFFO, PALAZZO, in the Campo St. Maurizio. The commonest late + Renaissance. A few olive leaves and vestiges of two figures still + remain upon it, of the frescoes by Paul Veronese, with which it was + once adorned. + + BALBI, PALAZZO, in Volta di Canal. Of no importance. + + BARBARIGO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, next the Casa Pisani. Late + Renaissance; noticeable only as a house in which some of the best + pictures of Titian were allowed to be ruined by damp, and out of which + they were then sold to the Emperor of Russia. + + BARBARO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, next the Palazzo Cavalli. These + two buildings form the principal objects in the foreground of the view + which almost every artist seizes on his first traverse of the Grand + Canal, the Church of the Salute forming a most graceful distance. + Neither is, however, of much value, except in general effect; but the + Barbaro is the best, and the pointed arcade in its side wall, seen + from the narrow canal between it and the Cavalli, is good Gothic, of + the earliest fourteenth century type. + + BARNABA, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + BARTOLOMEO, CHURCH OF ST. I did not go to look at the works of + Sebastian del Piombo which it contains, fully crediting M. Lazari's + statement, that they have been "Barbaramente sfigurati da mani + imperite, che pretendevano ristaurarli." Otherwise the church is of no + importance. + + BASSO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + BATTAGIA, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no importance. + + BECCHERIE. See QUERINI. + + BEMBO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, next the Casa Manin. A noble + Gothic pile, circa 1350-1380, which, before it was painted by the + modern Venetians with the two most valuable colors of Tintoret, Bianco + e Nero, by being whitewashed above, and turned into a coal warehouse + below, must have been among the most noble in effect on the whole + Grand Canal. It still forms a beautiful group with the Rialto, some + large shipping being generally anchored at its quay. Its sea story and + entresol are of earlier date, I believe, than the rest; the doors of + the former are Byzantine (see above, Final Appendix, under head + "Jambs"); and above the entresol is a beautiful Byzantine cornice, + built into the wall, and harmonizing well with the Gothic work. + + BEMBO, PALAZZO, in the Calle Magno, at the Campo de' due Pozzi, close + to the Arsenal. Noticed by Lazari and Selvatico as having a very + interesting staircase. It is early Gothic, circa 1330, but not a whit + more interesting than many others of similar date and design. See + "Contarini Porta de Ferro," "Morosini," "Sanudo," and "Minelli." + + BENEDETTO, CAMPO OF ST. Do not fail to see the superb, though + partially ruinous, Gothic palace fronting this little square. It is + very late Gothic, just passing into Renaissance; unique in Venice, in + masculine character, united with the delicacy of the incipient style. + Observe especially the brackets of the balconies, the flower-work on + the cornices, and the arabesques on the angles of the balconies + themselves. + + BENEDETTO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + BERNARDO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. A very noble pile of early + fifteenth century Gothic, founded on the Ducal Palace. The traceries + in its lateral windows are both rich and unusual. + + BERNARDO, PALAZZO, at St. Polo. A glorious palace, on a narrow canal, + in a part of Venice now inhabited by the lower orders only. It is + rather late Central Gothic, circa 1380-1400, but of the finest kind, + and superb in its effect of color when seen from the side. A capital + in the interior court is much praised by Selvatico and Lazari, because + its "foglie d'acanto" (anything by the by, _but_ acanthus), "quasi + agitate de vento si attorcigliano d'intorno alla campana, _concetto + non indegno della bell'epoca greca_!" Does this mean "epoca + Bisantina?" The capital is simply a translation into Gothic sculpture + of the Byzantine ones of St. Mark's and the Fondaco de' Turchi (see + Plate VIII. Vol. I. fig. 14), and is far inferior to either. But, + taken as a whole, I think that, after the Ducal Palace, this is the + noblest in effect of all in Venice. + + BRENTA, Banks of the, I. 354. Villas on the, I. 354. + + BUSINELLO, CASA, II. 391. + + BYZANTINE PALACES generally, II. 118. + + + C + + CAMERLENGHI, PALACE OF THE, beside the Rialto. A graceful work of the + early Renaissance (1525) passing into Roman Renaissance. Its details + are inferior to most of the work of the school. The "Camerlenghi," + properly "Camerlenghi di Comune," were the three officers or ministers + who had care of the administration of public expenses. + + CANCELLARIA, II. 293. + + CANCIANO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + CAPPELLO, PALAZZO, at St. Aponal. Of no interest. Some say that Bianca + Cappello fled from it; but the tradition seems to fluctuate between + the various houses belonging to her family. + + CARITÀ, CHURCH OF THE. Once an interesting Gothic church of the + fourteenth century, lately defaced, and applied to some of the usual + important purposes of the modern Italians. The effect of its ancient + façade may partly be guessed at from the pictures of Canaletto, but + only guessed at; Canaletto being less to be trusted for renderings of + details, than the rudest and most ignorant painter of the thirteenth + century. + + CARMINI, CHURCH OF THE. A most interesting church of late thirteenth + century work, but much altered and defaced. Its nave, in which the + early shafts and capitals of the pure truncate form are unaltered, is + very fine in effect; its lateral porch is quaint and beautiful, + decorated with Byzantine circular sculptures (of which the central one + is given in Vol. II. Plate XI. fig. 5), and supported on two shafts + whose capitals are the most archaic examples of the pure Rose form + that I know in Venice. + + There is a glorious Tintoret over the first altar on the right in + entering; the "Circumcision of Christ." I do not know an aged head + either more beautiful or more picturesque than that of the high + priest. The cloister is full of notable tombs, nearly all dated; one, + of the fifteenth century, to the left on entering, is interesting from + the color still left on the leaves and flowers of its sculptured + roses. + + CASSANO, CHURCH OF ST. This church must on no account be missed, as it + contains three Tintorets, of which one, the "Crucifixion," is among + the finest in Europe. There is nothing worth notice in the building + itself, except the jamb of an ancient door (left in the Renaissance + buildings, facing the canal), which has been given among the examples + of Byzantine jambs; and the traveller may, therefore, devote his + entire attention to the three pictures in the chancel. + + 1. _The Crucifixion._ (On the left of the high altar.) It is + refreshing to find a picture taken care of, and in a bright though not + a good light, so that such parts of it as are seen at all are seen + well. It is also in a better state than most pictures in galleries, + and most remarkable for its new and strange treatment of the subject. + It seems to have been painted more for the artist's own delight, than + with any labored attempt at composition; the horizon is so low that + the spectator must fancy himself lying at full length on the grass, or + rather among the brambles and luxuriant weeds, of which the foreground + is entirely composed. Among these, the seamless robe of Christ has + fallen at the foot of the cross; the rambling briars and wild grasses + thrown here and there over its folds of rich, but pale, crimson. + Behind them, and seen through them, the heads of a troop of Roman + soldiers are raised against the sky; and, above them, their spears and + halberds form a thin forest against the horizontal clouds. The three + crosses are put on the extreme right of the picture, and its centre is + occupied by the executioners, one of whom, standing on a ladder, + receives from the other at once the sponge and the tablet with the + letters INRI. The Madonna and St. John are on the extreme left, + superbly painted, like all the rest, but quite subordinate. In fact, + the whole mind of the painter seems to have been set upon making the + principals accessary, and the accessaries principal. We look first at + the grass, and then at the scarlet robe; and then at the clump of + distant spears, and then at the sky, and last of all at the cross. As + a piece of color, the picture is notable for its extreme modesty. + There is not a single very full or bright tint in any part, and yet + the color is delighted in throughout; not the slightest touch of it + but is delicious. It is worth notice also, and especially, because + this picture being in a fresh state we are sure of one fact, that, + like nearly all other great colorists, Tintoret was afraid of light + greens in his vegetation. He often uses dark blue greens in his + shadowed trees, but here where the grass is in full light, it is all + painted with various hues of sober brown, more especially where it + crosses the crimson robe. The handling of the whole is in his noblest + manner; and I consider the picture generally quite beyond all price. + It was cleaned, I believe, some years ago, but not injured, or at + least as little injured as it is possible for a picture to be which + has undergone any cleaning process whatsoever. + + 2. _The Resurrection._ (Over the high altar.) The lower part of this + picture is entirely concealed by a miniature temple, about five feet + high, on the top of the altar; certainly an insult little expected by + Tintoret, as, by getting on steps, and looking over the said temple, + one may see that the lower figures of the picture are the most + labored. It is strange that the painter never seemed able to conceive + this subject with any power, and in the present work he is + marvellously hampered by various types and conventionalities. It is + not a painting of the Resurrection, but of Roman Catholic saints, + _thinking_ about the Resurrection. On one side of the tomb is a bishop + in full robes, on the other a female saint, I know not who; beneath + it, an angel playing on an organ, and a cherub blowing it; and other + cherubs flying about the sky, with flowers; the whole conception being + a mass of Renaissance absurdities. It is, moreover, heavily painted, + over-done, and over-finished; and the forms of the cherubs utterly + heavy and vulgar. I cannot help fancying the picture has been restored + in some way or another, but there is still great power in parts of it. + If it be a really untouched Tintoret, it is a highly curious example + of failure from over-labor on a subject into which his mind was not + thrown: the color is hot and harsh, and felt to be so more painfully, + from its opposition to the grand coolness and chastity of the + "Crucifixion." The face of the angel playing the organ is highly + elaborated; so, also, the flying cherubs. + + 3. _The Descent into Hades._ (On the right-hand side of the high + altar.) Much injured and little to be regretted. I never was more + puzzled by any picture, the painting being throughout careless, and in + some places utterly bad, and yet not like modern work; the principal + figure, however, of Eve, has either been redone, or is scholar's work + altogether, as, I suspect, most of the rest of the picture. It looks + as if Tintoret had sketched it when he was ill, left it to a bad + scholar to work on with, and then finished it in a hurry; but he has + assuredly had something to do with it; it is not likely that anybody + else would have refused all aid from the usual spectral company with + which common painters fill the scene. Bronzino, for instance, covers + his canvas with every form of monster that his sluggish imagination + could coin. Tintoret admits only a somewhat haggard Adam, a graceful + Eve, two or three Venetians in court dress, seen amongst the smoke, + and a Satan represented as a handsome youth, recognizable only by the + claws on his feet. The picture is dark and spoiled, but I am pretty + sure there are no demons or spectres in it. This is quite in + accordance with the master's caprice, but it considerably diminishes + the interest of a work in other ways unsatisfactory. There may once + have been something impressive in the shooting in of the rays at the + top of the cavern, as well as in the strange grass that grows in the + bottom, whose infernal character is indicated by its all being knotted + together; but so little of these parts can be seen, that it is not + worth spending time on a work certainly unworthy of the master, and in + great part probably never seen by him. + + CATTARINA, CHURCH OF ST., said to contain a _chef-d'oeuvre_ of Paul + Veronese, the "Marriage of St. Catherine." I have not seen it. + + CAVALLI, PALAZZO, opposite the Academy of Arts. An imposing pile, on + the Grand Canal, of Renaissance Gothic, but of little merit in the + details; and the effect of its traceries has been of late destroyed by + the fittings of modern external blinds. Its balconies are good, of the + later Gothic type. See "BARBARO." + + CAVALLI, PALAZZO, next the Casa Grimani (or Post-Office), but on the + other side of the narrow canal. Good Gothic, founded on the Ducal + Palace, circa 1380. The capitals of the first story are remarkably + rich in the deep fillets at the necks. The crests, heads of + sea-horses, inserted between the windows, appear to be later, but are + very fine of their kind. + + CICOGNA, PALAZZO, at San Sebastiano, II. 265. + + CLEMENTE, CHURCH OF ST. On an island to the south of Venice, from + which the view of the city is peculiarly beautiful. See "SCALZI." + + CONTARINI PORTA DI FERRO, PALAZZO, near the Church of St. John and + Paul, so called from the beautiful ironwork on a door, which was some + time ago taken down by the proprietor and sold. Mr. Rawdon Brown + rescued some of the ornaments from the hands of the blacksmith, who + had bought them for old iron. The head of the door is a very + interesting stone arch of the early thirteenth century, already drawn + in my folio work. In the interior court is a beautiful remnant of + staircase, with a piece of balcony at the top, circa 1350, and one of + the most richly and carefully wrought in Venice. The palace, judging + by these remnants (all that are now left of it, except a single + traceried window of the same date at the turn of the stair), must once + have been among the most magnificent in Venice. + + CONTARINI (DELLE FIGURE), PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, III. 17. + + CONTARINI DAI SCRIGNI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. A Gothic building, + founded on the Ducal Palace. Two Renaissance statues in niches at the + sides give it its name. + + CONTARINI FASAN, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, II. 244. The richest + work of the fifteenth century domestic Gothic in Venice, but notable + more for richness than excellence of design. In one respect, however, + it deserves to be regarded with attention, as showing how much beauty + and dignity may be bestowed on a very small and unimportant + dwelling-house by Gothic sculpture. Foolish criticisms upon it have + appeared in English accounts of foreign buildings, objecting to it on + the ground of its being "ill-proportioned;" the simple fact being, + that there was no room in this part of the canal for a wider house, + and that its builder made its rooms as comfortable as he could, and + its windows and balconies of a convenient size for those who were to + see through them, and stand on them, and left the "proportions" + outside to take care of themselves; which, indeed, they have very + sufficiently done; for though the house thus honestly confesses its + diminutiveness, it is nevertheless one of the principal ornaments of + the very noblest reach of the Grand Canal, and would be nearly as + great a loss, if it were destroyed, as the Church of La Salute itself. + + CONTARINI, PALAZZO, at St. Luca. Of no importance. + + CORNER DELLA CA' GRANDE, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. One of the worst + and coldest buildings of the central Renaissance, It is on a grand + scale, and is a conspicuous object, rising over the roofs of the + neighboring houses in the various aspects of the entrance of the Grand + Canal, and in the general view of Venice from San Clemente. + + CORNER DELLA REGINA, PALAZZO. A late Renaissance building of no merit + or interest. + + CORNER MOCENIGO, PALAZZO, at St. Polo. Of no interest. + + CORNER SPINELLI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. A graceful and + interesting example of the early Renaissance, remarkable for its + pretty circular balconies. + + CORNER, RACCOLTA. I must refer the reader to M. Lazari's Guide for an + account of this collection, which, however, ought only to be visited + if the traveller is not pressed for time. + + + D + + DANDOLO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Between the Casa Loredan and + Casa Bembo is a range of modern buildings, some of which occupy, I + believe, the site of the palace once inhabited by the Doge Henry + Dandolo. Fragments of early architecture of the Byzantine school may + still be traced in many places among their foundations, and two doors + in the foundation of the Casa Bembo itself belong to the same group. + There is only one existing palace, however, of any value, on this + spot, a very small but rich Gothic one of about 1300, with two groups + of fourth order windows in its second and third stories, and some + Byzantine circular mouldings built into it above. This is still + reported to have belonged to the family of Dandolo, and ought to be + carefully preserved, as it is one of the most interesting and ancient + Gothic palaces which yet remain. + + DANIELI, ALBERGO. See Nani. + + DA PONTE, PALAZZO. Of no interest. + + DARIO, PALAZZO, I. 370; III. 211. + + DOGANA DI MARE, at the separation of the Grand Canal from the Giudecca. + A barbarous building of the time of the Grotesque Renaissance (1676), + rendered interesting only by its position. The statue of Fortune, + forming the weathercock, standing on the world, is alike + characteristic of the conceits of the time, and of the hopes and + principles of the last days of Venice. + + DONATO, CHURCH OF ST., at Murano, II. 31. + + DONA', PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. I believe the palace described under + this name as of the twelfth century, by M. Lazari, is that which I + have called the Braided House, II. 132, 392. + + D'ORO CASA. A noble pile of very quaint Gothic, once superb in general + effect, but now destroyed by restorations. I saw the beautiful slabs + of red marble, which formed the bases of its balconies, and were + carved into noble spiral mouldings of strange sections, half a foot + deep, dashed to pieces when I was last in Venice; its glorious + interior staircase, by far the most interesting Gothic monument of the + kind in Venice, had been carried away, piece by piece, and sold for + waste marble, two years before. Of what remains, the most beautiful + portions are, or were, when I last saw them, the capitals of the + windows in the upper story, most glorious sculpture of the fourteenth + century. The fantastic window traceries are, I think, later; but the + rest of the architecture of this palace is anomalous, and I cannot + venture to give any decided opinion respecting it. Parts of its + mouldings are quite Byzantine in character, but look somewhat like + imitations. + + DUCAL PALACE, I. 29; history of, II. 282, etc.; III. 199; plan and + section of, II. 282, 283; description of, II. 304, etc.; series of its + capitals, II. 332, etc.; spandrils of, I. 299, 415; shafts of, I. 413; + traceries of, derived from those of the Frari, II. 234; angles of, II. + 239; main balcony of, II. 245; base of, III. 212; Rio Façade of, III. + 25; paintings in, II. 372. The multitude of works by various masters, + which cover the walls of this palace is so great, that the traveller + is in general merely wearied and confused by them. He had better + refuse all attention except to the following works: + + 1. _Paradise_, by Tintoret; at the extremity of the Great Council + chamber. I found it impossible to count the number of figures in this + picture, of which the grouping is so intricate, that at the upper part + it is not easy to distinguish one figure from another; but I counted + 150 important figures in one half of it alone; so that, as there are + nearly as many in subordinate position, the total number cannot be + under 500. I believe this is, on the whole, Tintoret's + _chef-d'oeuvre_; though it is so vast that no one takes the trouble + to read it, and therefore less wonderful pictures are preferred to it. + I have not myself been able to study except a few fragments of it, all + executed in his finest manner; but it may assist a hurried observer to + point out to him that the whole composition is divided into concentric + zones, represented one above another like the stories of a cupola, + round the figures of Christ and the Madonna, at the central and + highest point: both these figures are exceedingly dignified and + beautiful. Between each zone or belt of the nearer figures, the white + distances of heaven are seen filled with floating spirits. The picture + is, on the whole, wonderfully preserved, and the most precious thing + that Venice possesses. She will not possess it long; for the Venetian + academicians, finding it exceedingly unlike their own works, declare + it to want harmony, and are going to retouch it to their own ideas of + perfection. + + 2. _Siege of Zara_; the first picture on the right on entering the + Sala del Scrutinio. It is a mere battle piece, in which the figures, + like the arrows, are put in by the score. There are high merits in the + thing, and so much invention that it is possible Tintoret may have + made the sketch for it; but, if executed by him at all, he has done it + merely in the temper in which a sign-painter meets the wishes of an + ambitious landlord. He seems to have been ordered to represent all the + events of the battle at once; and to have felt that, provided he gave + men, arrows, and ships enough, his employers would be perfectly + satisfied. The picture is a vast one, some thirty feet by fifteen. + + Various other pictures will be pointed out by the custode, in these + two rooms, as worthy of attention, but they are only historically, not + artistically, interesting. The works of Paul Veronese on the ceiling + have been repainted; and the rest of the pictures on the walls are by + second-rate men. The traveller must, once for all, be warned against + mistaking the works of Domenico Robusti (Domenico Tintoretto), a very + miserable painter, for those of his illustrious father, Jacopo. + + 3. _The Doge Grimani kneeling before Faith_, by Titian; in the Sala + delle quattro Porte. To be observed with care, as one of the most + striking examples of Titian's want of feeling and coarseness of + conception. (See above, Vol. I. p. 12.) As a work of mere art, it is, + however, of great value. The traveller who has been accustomed to + deride Turner's indistinctness of touch, ought to examine carefully + the mode of painting the Venice in the distance at the bottom of this + picture. + + 4. _Frescoes on the Roof of the Sala delle quattro Porte_, by + Tintoret. Once magnificent beyond description, now mere wrecks (the + plaster crumbling away in large flakes), but yet deserving of the most + earnest study. + + 5. _Christ taken down from the Cross_, by Tintoret; at the upper end + of the Sala dei Pregadi. One of the most interesting mythic pictures + of Venice, two doges being represented beside the body of Christ, and + a most noble painting; executed, however, for distant effect, and seen + best from the end of the room. + + 6. _Venice, Queen of the Sea_, by Tintoret. Central compartment of the + ceiling, in the Sala dei Pregadi. Notable for the sweep of its vast + green surges, and for the daring character of its entire conception, + though it is wild and careless, and in many respects unworthy of the + master. Note the way in which he has used the fantastic forms of the + sea weeds, with respect to what was above stated (III. 158), as to his + love of the grotesque. + + 7. _The Doge Loredano in Prayer to the Virgin_, by Tintoret; in the + same room. Sickly and pale in color, yet a grand work; to be studied, + however, more for the sake of seeing what a great man does "to order," + when he is wearied of what is required from him, than for its own + merit. + + 8. _St. George and the Princess._ There are, besides the "Paradise," + only six pictures in the Ducal Palace, as far as I know, which + Tintoret painted carefully, and those are all exceedingly fine: the + most finished of these are in the Anti-Collegio; but those that are + most majestic and characteristic of the master are two oblong ones, + made to fill the panels of the walls in the Anti-Chiesetta; these two, + each, I suppose, about eight feet by six, are in his most quiet and + noble manner. There is excessively little color in them, their + prevalent tone being a greyish brown opposed with grey, black, and a + very warm russet. They are thinly painted, perfect in tone, and quite + untouched. The first of them is "St. George and the Dragon," the + subject being treated in a new and curious way. The principal figure + is the princess, who sits astride on the dragon's neck, holding him by + a bridle of silken riband; St. George stands above and behind her, + holding his hands over her head as if to bless her, or to keep the + dragon quiet by heavenly power; and a monk stands by on the right, + looking gravely on. There is no expression or life in the dragon, + though the white flashes in its eye are very ghastly: but the whole + thing is entirely typical; and the princess is not so much represented + riding on the dragon, as supposed to be placed by St. George in an + attitude of perfect victory over her chief enemy. She has a full rich + dress of dull red, but her figure is somewhat ungraceful. St. George + is in grey armor and grey drapery, and has a beautiful face; his + figure entirely dark against the distant sky. There is a study for + this picture in the Manfrini Palace. + + 9. _St. Andrew and St. Jerome._ This, the companion picture, has even + less color than its opposite. It is nearly all brown and grey; the + fig-leaves and olive-leaves brown, the faces brown, the dresses brown, + and St. Andrew holding a great brown cross. There is nothing that can + be called color, except the grey of the sky, which approaches in some + places a little to blue, and a single piece of dirty brick-red in St. + Jerome's dress; and yet Tintoret's greatness hardly ever shows more + than in the management of such sober tints. I would rather have these + two small brown pictures, and two others in the Academy perfectly + brown also in their general tone--the "Cain and Abel" and the "Adam + and Eve,"--than all the other small pictures in Venice put together, + which he painted in bright colors, for altar pieces; but I never saw + two pictures which so nearly approached grisailles as these, and yet + were delicious pieces of color. I do not know if I am right in calling + one of the saints St. Andrew. He stands holding a great upright wooden + cross against the sky. St. Jerome reclines at his feet, against a + rock, over which some glorious fig leaves and olive branches are + shooting; every line of them studied with the most exquisite care, and + yet cast with perfect freedom. + + 10. _Bacchus and Ariadne._ The most beautiful of the four careful + pictures by Tintoret, which occupy the angles of the Anti-Collegio. + Once one of the noblest pictures in the world, but now miserably + faded, the sun being allowed to fall on it all day long. The design of + the forms of the leafage round the head of the Bacchus, and the + floating grace of the female figure above, will, however, always give + interest to this picture, unless it be repainted. + + The other three Tintorets in this room are careful and fine, but far + inferior to the "Bacchus;" and the "Vulcan and the Cyclops" is a + singularly meagre and vulgar study of common models. + + 11. _Europa_, by Paul Veronese: in the same room. One of the very few + pictures which both possess and deserve a high reputation. + + 12. _Venice enthroned_, by Paul Veronese; on the roof of the same + room. One of the grandest pieces of frank color in the Ducal Palace. + + 13. _Venice, and the Doge Sebastian Venier_; at the upper end of the + Sala del Collegio. An unrivalled Paul Veronese, far finer even than + the "Europa." + + 14. _Marriage of St. Catherine_, by Tintoret; in the same room. An + inferior picture, but the figure of St. Catherine is quite exquisite. + Note how her veil falls over her form, showing the sky through it, as + an alpine cascade falls over a marble rock. + + There are three other Tintorets on the walls of this room, but all + inferior, though full of power. Note especially the painting of the + lion's wings, and of the colored carpet, in the one nearest the + throne, the Doge Alvise Mocenigo adoring the Redeemer. + + The roof is entirely by Paul Veronese, and the traveller who really + loves painting, ought to get leave to come to this room whenever he + chooses; and should pass the sunny summer mornings there again and + again, wandering now and then into the Anti-Collegio and Sala dei + Pregadi, and coming back to rest under the wings of the couched lion + at the feet of the "Mocenigo." He will no otherwise enter so deeply + into the heart of Venice. + + + E + + EMO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no interest. + + ERIZZO, PALAZZO, near the Arsenal, II. 262. + + ERIZZO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, nearly opposite the Fondaco + de'Turchi. A Gothic palace, with a single range of windows founded on + the Ducal traceries, and bold capitals. It has been above referred to + in the notice of tracery bars. + + EUFEMIA, CHURCH OF ST. A small and defaced, but very curious, early + Gothic church on the Giudecca. Not worth visiting, unless the + traveller is seriously interested in architecture. + + EUROPA, ALBERGO, ALL'. Once a Giustiniani Palace. Good Gothic, circa + 1400, but much altered. + + EVANGELISTI, CASA DEGLI, II. 265. + + [Illustration: Plate XII. + CAPITALS OF FONDACO DE' TURCHI.] + + + F + + FACANON, PALAZZO (ALLA FAVA). A fair example of the fifteenth century + Gothic, founded on Ducal Palace. + + FALIER, PALAZZO, at the Apostoli. Above, II. 253. + + FANTINO, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a John Bellini, otherwise of no + importance. + + FARSETTI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, II. 124, 393. + + FAVA, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + FELICE, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a Tintoret, which, if untouched, + I should conjecture, from Lazari's statement of its subject, St. + Demetrius armed, with one of the Ghisi family in prayer, must be very + fine. Otherwise the church is of no importance. + + FERRO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Fifteenth century Gothic, very + hard and bad. + + FLANGINI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no importance. + + FONDACO DE' TURCHI, I. 328; II. 120, 121, 236. The opposite plate, + representing three of its capitals, has been several times referred + to. + + FONDACO DE' TEDESCHI. A huge and ugly building near the Rialto, + rendered, however, peculiarly interesting by remnants of the frescoes + by Giorgione with which it was once covered. See Vol. II. 80, and III. + 23. + + FORMOSA, CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA, III. 113, 122, + + FOSCA, CHURCH OF ST. Notable for its exceedingly picturesque + campanile, of late Gothic, but uninjured by restorations, and + peculiarly Venetian in being crowned by the cupola instead of the + pyramid, which would have been employed at the same period in any + other Italian city. + + FOSCARI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. The noblest example in Venice of + the fifteenth century Gothic, founded on the Ducal Palace, but lately + restored and spoiled, all but the stone-work of the main windows. The + restoration was necessary, however: for, when I was in Venice in 1845, + this palace was a foul ruin; its great hall a mass of mud, used as a + back receptacle of a stone-mason's yard; and its rooms whitewashed, + and scribbled over with indecent caricatures. It has since been + partially strengthened and put in order; but as the Venetian + municipality have now given it to the Austrians to be used as + barracks, it will probably soon be reduced to its former condition. + The lower palaces at the side of this building are said by some to + have belonged to the younger Foscari. See "GIUSTINIANI." + + FRANCESCO DELLA VIGNA, CHURCH OF ST. Base Renaissance, but must be + visited in order to see the John Bellini in the Cappella Santa. The + late sculpture, in the Cappella Giustiniani, appears from Lazari's + statement to be deserving of careful study. This church is said also + to contain two pictures by Paul Veronese. + + FRARI, CHURCH OF THE. Founded in 1250, and continued at various + subsequent periods. The apse and adjoining chapels are the earliest + portions, and their traceries have been above noticed (II. 234) as the + origin of those of the Ducal Palace. The best view of the apse, which + is a very noble example of Italian Gothic, is from the door of the + Scuola di San Rocco. The doors of the church are all later than any + other portion of it, very elaborate Renaissance Gothic. The interior + is good Gothic, but not interesting, except in its monuments. Of + these, the following are noticed in the text of this volume: + + That of Duccio degli Alberti, at pages 74, 80; of the unknown Knight, + opposite that of Duccio, III. 74; of Francesco Foscari, III. 84; of + Giovanni Pesaro, 91; of Jacopo Pesaro, 92. + + Besides these tombs, the traveller ought to notice carefully that of + Pietro Bernardo, a first-rate example of Renaissance work; nothing can + be more detestable or mindless in general design, or more beautiful in + execution. Examine especially the griffins, fixed in admiration of + bouquets, at the bottom. The fruit and flowers which arrest the + attention of the griffins may well arrest the traveller's also; + nothing can be finer of their kind. The tomb of Canova, _by_ Canova, + cannot be missed; consummate in science, intolerable in affectation, + ridiculous in conception, null and void to the uttermost in invention + and feeling. The equestrian statue of Paolo Savelli is spirited; the + monument of the Beato Pacifico, a curious example of Renaissance + Gothic with wild crockets (all in terra cotta). There are several good + Vivarini's in the church, but its chief pictorial treasure is the John + Bellini in the sacristy, the most finished and delicate example of the + master in Venice. + + + G + + GEREMIA, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + GESUATI, CHURCH OF THE. Of no importance. + + GIACOMO DE LORIO, CHURCH OF ST., a most interesting church, of the early + thirteenth century, but grievously restored. Its capitals have been + already noticed as characteristic of the earliest Gothic; and it is + said to contain four works of Paul Veronese, but I have not examined + them. The pulpit is admired by the Italians, but is utterly worthless. + The verdantique pillar, in the south transept, is a very noble example + of the "Jewel Shaft." See the note at p. 83, Vol. II. + + GIACOMO DI RIALTO, CHURCH OF ST. A picturesque little church, on the + Piazza di Rialto. It has been grievously restored, but the pillars and + capitals of its nave are certainly of the eleventh century; those of + its portico are of good central Gothic; and it will surely not be left + unvisited, on this ground, if on no other, that it stands on the site, + and still retains the name, of the first church ever built on that + Rialto which formed the nucleus of future Venice, and became + afterwards the mart of her merchants. + + GIOBBE, CHURCH OF ST., near the Cana Reggio. Its principal entrance is + a very fine example of early Renaissance sculpture. Note in it, + especially, its beautiful use of the flower of the convolvulus. There + are said to be still more beautiful examples of the same period, in + the interior. The cloister, though much defaced, is of the Gothic + period, and worth a glance. + + GIORGIO DE' GRECI, CHURCH OF ST. The Greek Church. It contains no + valuable objects of art, but its service is worth attending by those + who have never seen the Greek ritual. + + GIORGIO DE' SCHIAVONI, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a very precious + series of paintings by Victor Carpaccio. Otherwise of no interest. + + GIORGIO IN ALIGA (St. George in the seaweed), Church of St. Unimportant + in itself, but the most beautiful view of Venice at sunset is from a + point at about two thirds of the distance from the city to the island. + + GIORGIO MAGGIORE, CHURCH OF ST. A building which owes its interesting + effect chiefly to its isolated position, being seen over a great space + of lagoon. The traveller should especially notice in its façade the + manner in which the central Renaissance architects (of whose style + this church is a renowned example) endeavored to fit the laws they had + established to the requirements of their age. Churches were required + with aisles and clerestories, that is to say, with a high central nave + and lower wings; and the question was, how to face this form with + pillars of one proportion. The noble Romanesque architects built story + above story, as at Pisa and Lucca; but the base Palladian architects + dared not do this. They must needs retain some image of the Greek + temple; but the Greek temple was all of one height, a low gable roof + being borne on ranges of equal pillars. So the Palladian builders + raised first a Greek temple with pilasters for shafts; and, _through + the middle of its roof, or horizontal beam_, that is to say, of the + cornice which externally represented this beam, they lifted another + temple on pedestals, adding these barbarous appendages to the shafts, + which otherwise would not have been high enough; fragments of the + divided cornice or tie-beam being left between the shafts, and the + great door of the church thrust in between the pedestals. It is + impossible to conceive a design more gross, more barbarous, more + childish in conception, more servile in plagiarism, more insipid in + result, more contemptible under every point of rational regard. + + Observe, also, that when Palladio had got his pediment at the top of + the church, he did not know what to do with it; he had no idea of + decorating it except by a round hole in the middle. (The traveller + should compare, both in construction and decoration, the Church of the + Redentore with this of San Giorgio.) Now, a dark penetration is often + a most precious assistance to a building dependent upon color for its + effect; for a cavity is the only means in the architect's power of + obtaining certain and vigorous shadow; and for this purpose, a + circular penetration, surrounded by a deep russet marble moulding, is + beautifully used in the centre of the white field on the side of the + portico of St. Mark's. But Palladio had given up color, and pierced + his pediment with a circular cavity, merely because he had not wit + enough to fill it with sculpture. The interior of the church is like a + large assembly room, and would have been undeserving of a moment's + attention, but that it contains some most precious pictures, namely: + + 1. _Gathering the Manna._ (On the left hand of the high altar.) One of + Tintoret's most remarkable landscapes. A brook flowing through a + mountainous country, studded with thickets and palm trees; the + congregation have been long in the Wilderness, and are employed in + various manufactures much more than in gathering the manna. One group + is forging, another grinding manna in a mill, another making shoes, + one woman making a piece of dress, some washing; the main purpose of + Tintoret being evidently to indicate the _continuity_ of the supply of + heavenly food. Another painter would have made the congregation + hurrying to gather it, and wondering at it; Tintoret at once makes us + remember that they have been fed with it "by the space of forty + years." It is a large picture, full of interest and power, but + scattered in effect, and not striking except from its elaborate + landscape. + + 2. _The Last Supper._ (Opposite the former.) These two pictures have + been painted for their places, the subjects being illustrative of the + sacrifice of the mass. This latter is remarkable for its entire + homeliness in the general treatment of the subject; the entertainment + being represented like any large supper in a second-rate Italian inn, + the figures being all comparatively uninteresting; but we are reminded + that the subject is a sacred one, not only by the strong light shining + from the head of Christ, but because the smoke of the lamp which hangs + over the table turns, as it rises, into a multitude of angels, all + painted in grey, the color of the smoke; and so writhed and twisted + together that the eye hardly at first distinguishes them from the + vapor out of which they are formed, ghosts of countenances and filmy + wings filling up the intervals between the completed heads. The idea + is highly characteristic of the master. The picture has been + grievously injured, but still shows miracles of skill in the + expression of candle-light mixed with twilight; variously reflected + rays, and half tones of the dimly lighted chamber, mingled with the + beams of the lantern and those from the head of Christ, flashing along + the metal and glass upon the table, and under it along the floor, and + dying away into the recesses of the room. + + 3. _Martyrdom of various Saints._ (Altar piece of the third altar in + the South aisle.) A moderately sized picture, and now a very + disagreeable one, owing to the violent red into which the color that + formed the glory of the angel at the top is changed. It has been + hastily painted, and only shows the artist's power in the energy of + the figure of an executioner drawing a bow, and in the magnificent + ease with which the other figures are thrown together in all manner of + wild groups and defiances of probability. Stones and arrows are flying + about in the air at random. + + 4. _Coronation of the Virgin._ (Fourth altar in the same aisle.) + Painted more for the sake of the portraits at the bottom, than of the + Virgin at the top. A good picture, but somewhat tame for Tintoret, and + much injured. The principal figure, in black, is still, however, very + fine. + + 5. _Resurrection of Christ._ (At the end of the north aisle, in the + chapel beside the choir.) Another picture painted chiefly for the sake + of the included portraits, and remarkably cold in general conception; + its color has, however, been gay and delicate, lilac, yellow, and blue + being largely used in it. The flag which our Saviour bears in his + hand, has been once as bright as the sail of a Venetian fishing-boat, + but the colors are now all chilled, and the picture is rather crude + than brilliant; a mere wreck of what it was, and all covered with + droppings of wax at the bottom. + + 6. _Martyrdom of St. Stephen._ (Altar piece in the north transept.) + The Saint is in a rich prelate's dress, looking as if he had just been + saying mass, kneeling in the foreground, and perfectly serene. The + stones are flying about him like hail, and the ground is covered with + them as thickly as if it were a river bed. But in the midst of them, + at the saint's right hand, there is a book lying, crushed but open, + two or three stones which have torn one of its leaves lying upon it. + The freedom and ease with which the leaf is crumpled is just as + characteristic of the master as any of the grander features; no one + but Tintoret could have so crushed a leaf; but the idea is still more + characteristic of him, for the book is evidently meant for the Mosaic + History which Stephen had just been expounding, and its being crushed + by the stones shows how the blind rage of the Jews was violating their + own law in the murder of Stephen. In the upper part of the picture are + three figures,--Christ, the Father, and St. Michael. Christ of course + at the right hand of the Father, as Stephen saw him standing; but + there is little dignity in this part of the conception. In the middle + of the picture, which is also the middle distance, are three or four + men throwing stones, with Tintoret's usual vigor of gesture, and + behind them an immense and confused crowd; so that, at first, we + wonder where St. Paul is; but presently we observe that, in the front + of this crowd, and _almost exactly in the centre of the picture_, + there is a figure seated on the ground, very noble and quiet, and with + some loose garments thrown across its knees. It is dressed in vigorous + black and red. The figure of the Father in the sky above is dressed in + black and red also, and these two figures are the centres of color to + the whole design. It is almost impossible to praise too highly the + refinement of conception which withdrew the unconverted St. Paul into + the distance, so as entirely to separate him from the immediate + interest of the scene, and yet marked the dignity to which he was + afterward to be raised, by investing him with the colors which + occurred nowhere else in the picture except in the dress which veils + the form of the Godhead. It is also to be noted as an interesting + example of the value which the painter put upon color only; another + composer would have thought it necessary to exalt the future apostle + by some peculiar dignity of action or expression. The posture of the + figure is indeed grand, but inconspicuous; Tintoret does not depend + upon it, and thinks that the figure is quite ennobled enough by being + made a key-note of color. + + It is also worth observing how boldly imaginative is the treatment + which covers the ground with piles of stones, and yet leaves the + martyr apparently unwounded. Another painter would have covered him + with blood, and elaborated the expression of pain upon his + countenance. Tintoret leaves us under no doubt as to what manner of + death he is dying; he makes the air hurtle with the stones, but he + does not choose to make his picture disgusting, or even painful. The + face of the martyr is serene, and exulting; and we leave the picture, + remembering only how "he fell asleep." + + GIOVANELLI, PALAZZO, at the Ponte di Noale. A fine example of + fifteenth century Gothic, founded on the Ducal Palace. + + GIOVANNI E PAOLO, CHURCH OF ST.[72] Foundation of, III. 69. An + impressive church, though none of its Gothic is comparable with that + of the North, or with that of Verona. The Western door is interesting + as one of the last conditions of Gothic design passing into + Renaissance, very rich and beautiful of its kind, especially the + wreath of fruit and flowers which forms its principal molding. The + statue of Bartolomeo Colleone, in the little square beside the church, + is certainly one of the noblest works in Italy. I have never seen + anything approaching it in animation, in vigor of portraiture, or + nobleness of line. The reader will need Lazari's Guide in making the + circuit of the church, which is full of interesting monuments: but I + wish especially to direct his attention to two pictures, besides the + celebrated Peter Martyr: namely, + + 1. _The Crucifixion_, by Tintoret; on the wall of the left-hand aisle, + just before turning into the transept. A picture fifteen feet long by + eleven or twelve high. I do not believe that either the "Miracle of + St. Mark," or the great "Crucifixion" in the Scuola di San Rocco, cost + Tintoret more pains than this comparatively small work, which is now + utterly neglected, covered with filth and cobwebs, and fearfully + injured. As a piece of color, and light and shade, it is altogether + marvellous. Of all the fifty figures which the picture contains, there + is not one which in any way injures or contends with another; nay, + there is not a single fold of garment or touch of the pencil which + could be spared; every virtue of Tintoret, as a painter, is there in + its highest degree,--color at once the most intense and the most + delicate, the utmost decision in the arrangement of masses of light, + and yet half tones and modulations of endless variety; and all + executed with a magnificence of handling which no words are energetic + enough to describe. I have hardly ever seen a picture in which there + was so much decision, and so little impetuosity, and in which so + little was conceded to haste, to accident, or to weakness. It is too + infinite a work to be describable; but among its minor passages of + extreme beauty, should especially be noticed the manner in which the + accumulated forms of the human body, which fill the picture from end + to end, are prevented from being felt heavy, by the grace and + elasticity of two or three sprays of leafage which spring from a + broken root in the foreground, and rise conspicuous in shadow against + an interstice filled by the pale blue, grey, and golden light in which + the distant crowd is invested, the office of this foliage being, in an + artistical point of view, correspondent to that of the trees set by + the sculptors of the Ducal Palace on its angles. But they have a far + more important meaning in the picture than any artistical one. If the + spectator will look carefully at the root which I have called broken, + he will find that in reality, it is not broken, but cut; the other + branches of the young tree having _lately been cut away_. When we + remember that one of the principal incidents in great San Rocco + Crucifixion is the ass feeding on withered palm leaves, we shall be at + no loss to understand the great painter's purpose in lifting the + branch of this mutilated olive against the dim light of the distant + sky; while, close beside it, St. Joseph of Arimathea drags along the + dust a white garment--observe, the principal light of the + picture,--stained with the blood of that King before whom, five days + before, his crucifiers had strewn their own garments in the way. + + 2. _Our Lady with the Camerlenghi._ (In the centre chapel of the three + on the right of the choir.) A remarkable instance of the theoretical + manner of representing Scriptural facts, which, at this time, as noted + in the second chapter of this volume, was undermining the belief of + the facts themselves. Three Venetian chamberlains desired to have + their portraits painted, and at the same time to express their + devotion to the Madonna; to that end they are painted kneeling before + her, and in order to account for their all three being together, and + to give a thread or clue to the story of the picture, they are + represented as the Three Magi; but lest the spectator should think it + strange that the Magi should be in the dress of Venetian chamberlains, + the scene is marked as a mere ideality, by surrounding the person of + the Virgin with saints who lived five hundred years after her. She has + for attendants St. Theodore, St. Sebastian, and St. Carlo (query St. + Joseph). One hardly knows whether most to regret the spirit which was + losing sight of the verities of religious history in imaginative + abstractions, or to praise the modesty and piety which desired rather + to be represented as kneeling before the Virgin than in the discharge + or among the insignia of important offices of state. + + As an "Adoration of the Magi," the picture is, of course, sufficiently + absurd: the St. Sebastian leans back in the corner to be out of the + way; the three Magi kneel, without the slightest appearance of + emotion, to a Madonna seated in a Venetian loggia of the fifteenth + century, and three Venetian servants behind bear their offerings in a + very homely sack, tied up at the mouth. As a piece of portraiture and + artistical composition, the work is altogether perfect, perhaps the + best piece of Tintoret's portrait-painting in existence. It is very + carefully and steadily wrought, and arranged with consummate skill on + a difficult plan. The canvas is a long oblong, I think about eighteen + or twenty feet long, by about seven high; one might almost fancy the + painter had been puzzled to bring the piece into use, the figures + being all thrown into positions which a little diminish their height. + The nearest chamberlain is kneeling, the two behind him bowing + themselves slightly, the attendants behind bowing lower, the Madonna + sitting, the St. Theodore sitting still lower on the steps at her + feet, and the St. Sebastian leaning back, so that all the lines of the + picture incline more or less from right to left as they ascend. This + slope, which gives unity to the detached groups, is carefully + exhibited by what a mathematician would call coordinates,--the upright + pillars of the loggia and the horizontal clouds of the beautiful sky. + The color is very quiet, but rich and deep, the local tones being + brought out with intense force, and the cast shadows subdued, the + manner being much more that of Titian than of Tintoret. The sky + appears full of light, though it is as dark as the flesh of the faces; + and the forms of its floating clouds, as well as of the hills over + which they rise, are drawn with a deep remembrance of reality. There + are hundreds of pictures of Tintoret's more amazing than this, but I + hardly know one that I more love. + + The reader ought especially to study the sculpture round the altar of + the Capella del Rosario, as an example of the abuse of the sculptor's + art; every accessory being labored out with as much ingenuity and + intense effort to turn sculpture into painting, the grass, trees, and + landscape being as far realized as possible, and in alto-relievo. + These bas-reliefs are by various artists, and therefore exhibit the + folly of the age, not the error of an individual. + + The following alphabetical list of the tombs in this church which are + alluded to as described in the text, with references to the pages + where they are mentioned, will save some trouble: + + Cavalli, Jacopo, III. 82. | Mocenigo, Pietro, III. 89. + Cornaro, Marco, III. 11. | Mocenigo, Tomaso, I. 8, 26, III. 84. + Dolfin, Giovanni, III. 78. | Morosini, Michele, III. 80. + Giustiniani, Marco, I. 315. | Steno, Michele, III. 83. + Mocenigo, Giovanni, III. 89. | Vendramin, Andrea, I. 27, III. 88. + + GIOVANNI GRISOSTOMO, CHURCH OF ST. One of the most important in + Venice. It is early Renaissance, containing some good sculpture, but + chiefly notable as containing a noble Sebastian del Piombo, and a John + Bellini, which a few years hence, unless it be "restored," will be + esteemed one of the most precious pictures in Italy, and among the + most perfect in the world. John Bellini is the only artist who appears + to me to have united, in equal and magnificent measures, justness of + drawing, nobleness of coloring, and perfect manliness of treatment, + with the purest religious feeling. He did, as far as it is possible to + do it, instinctively and unaffectedly, what the Caracci only pretended + to do. Titian colors better, but has not his piety. Leonardo draws + better, but has not his color. Angelico is more heavenly, but has not + his manliness, far less his powers of art. + + GIOVANNI ELEMOSINARIO, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a Titian and a + Bonifazio. Of no other interest. + + GIOVANNI IN BRAGOLA, CHURCH OF ST. A Gothic church of the fourteenth + century, small, but interesting, and said to contain some precious + works by Cima da Conegliano, and one by John Bellini. + + GIOVANNI NOVO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + GIOVANNI, S., SCUOLA DI. A fine example of the Byzantine Renaissance, + mixed with remnants of good late Gothic. The little exterior cortile + is sweet in feeling, and Lazari praises highly the work of the + interior staircase. + + GIUDECCA. The crescent-shaped island (or series of islands), which + forms the most northern extremity of the city of Venice, though + separated by a broad channel from the main city. Commonly said to + derive its name from the number of Jews who lived upon it; but Lazari + derives it from the word "Judicato," in Venetian dialect "Zudegà," it + having been in old time "adjudged" as a kind of prison territory to + the more dangerous and turbulent citizens. It is now inhabited only by + the poor, and covered by desolate groups of miserable dwellings, + divided by stagnant canals. + + Its two principal churches, the Redentore and St. Eufemia, are named + in their alphabetical order. + + GIULIANO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + GIUSEPPE DI CASTELLO, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a Paul Veronese: + otherwise of no importance. + + GIUSTINA, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + GIUSTINIANI PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, now Albergo all' Europa. Good + late fourteenth century Gothic, but much altered. + + GIUSTINIANI, PALAZZO, next the Casa Foscari, on the Grand Canal. + Lazari, I know not on what authority, says that this palace was built + by the Giustiniani family before 1428. It is one of those founded + directly on the Ducal Palace, together with the Casa Foscari at its + side: and there could have been no doubt of their date on this ground; + but it would be interesting, after what we have seen of the progress + of the Ducal Palace, to ascertain the exact year of the erection of + any of these imitations. + + This palace contains some unusually rich detached windows, full of + tracery, of which the profiles are given in the Appendix, under the + title of the Palace of the Younger Foscari, it being popularly + reported to have belonged to the son of the Doge. + + GIUSTINIAN LOLIN, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no importance. + + GRASSI PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, now Albergo all' Imperator d' + Austria. Of no importance. + + GREGORIO, CHURCH OF ST., on the Grand Canal. An important church of + the fourteenth century, now desecrated, but still interesting. Its + apse is on the little canal crossing from the Grand Canal to the + Giudecca, beside the Church of the Salute, and is very characteristic + of the rude ecclesiastical Gothic contemporary with the Ducal Palace. + The entrance to its cloisters, from the Grand Canal, is somewhat + later; a noble square door, with two windows on each side of it, the + grandest examples in Venice of the late window of the fourth order. + + The cloister, to which this door gives entrance, is exactly + contemporary with the finest work of the Ducal Palace, circa 1350. It + is the loveliest cortile I know in Venice; its capitals consummate in + design and execution; and the low wall on which they stand showing + remnants of sculpture unique, as far as I know, in such application. + + GRIMANI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, III. 32. + + There are several other palaces in Venice belonging to this family, + but none of any architectural interest. + + + J + + JESUITI, CHURCH OF THE. The basest Renaissance; but worth a visit in + order to examine the imitations of curtains in white marble inlaid + with green. + + It contains a Tintoret, "The Assumption," which I have not examined; + and a Titian, "The Martyrdom of St. Lawrence," originally, it seems to + me, of little value, and now, having been restored, of none. + + + L + + LABIA PALAZZO, on the Canna Reggio. Of no importance. + + LAZZARO DE' MENDICANTI, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + LIBRERIA VECCHIA. A graceful building of the central Renaissance, + designed by Sansovino, 1536, and much admired by all architects of the + school. It was continued by Scamozzi, down the whole side of St. + Mark's Place, adding another story above it, which modern critics + blame as destroying the "eurithmia;" never considering that had the + two low stories of the Library been continued along the entire length + of the Piazza, they would have looked so low that the entire dignity + of the square would have been lost. As it is, the Library is left in + its originally good proportions, and the larger mass of the Procuratie + Nuove forms a more majestic, though less graceful, side for the great + square. + + But the real faults of the building are not in its number of stories, + but in the design of the parts. It is one of the grossest examples of + the base Renaissance habit of turning _keystones_ into _brackets_, + throwing them out in bold projection (not less than a foot and a half) + beyond the mouldings of the arch; a practice utterly barbarous, + inasmuch as it evidently tends to dislocate the entire arch, if any + real weight were laid on the extremity of the keystone; and it is also + a very characteristic example of the vulgar and painful mode of + filling spandrils by naked figures in alto-relievo, leaning against + the arch on each side, and appearing as if they were continually in + danger of slipping off. Many of these figures have, however, some + merit in themselves; and the whole building is graceful and effective + of its kind. The continuation of the Procuratie Nuove, at the western + extremity of St. Mark's Place (together with various apartments in the + great line of the Procuratie Nuove) forms the "Royal Palace," the + residence of the Emperor when at Venice. This building is entirely + modern, built in 1810, in imitation of the Procuratie Nuove, and on + the site of Sansovino's Church of San Geminiano. + + In this range of buildings, including the Royal Palace, the Procuratie + Nuove, the old Library, and the "Zecca" which is connected with them + (the latter being an ugly building of very modern date, not worth + notice architecturally), there are many most valuable pictures, among + which I would especially direct attention, first to those in the + Zecca, namely, a beautiful and strange Madonna, by Benedetto Diana; + two noble Bonifazios; and two groups, by Tintoret, of the Provveditori + della Zecca, by no means to be missed, whatever may be sacrificed to + see them, on account of the quietness and veracity of their unaffected + portraiture, and the absolute freedom from all vanity either in the + painter or in his subjects. + + Next, in the "Antisala" of the old Library, observe the "Sapienza" of + Titian, in the centre of the ceiling; a most interesting work in the + light brilliancy of its color, and the resemblance to Paul Veronese. + Then, in the great hall of the old Library, examine the two large + Tintorets, "St. Mark saving a Saracen from Drowning," and the + "Stealing of his Body from Constantinople," both rude, but great (note + in the latter the dashing of the rain on the pavement, and running of + the water about the feet of the figures): then in the narrow spaces + between the windows, there are some magnificent single figures by + Tintoret, among the finest things of the kind in Italy, or in Europe. + Finally, in the gallery of pictures in the Palazzo Reale, among other + good works of various kinds, are two of the most interesting + Bonifazios in Venice, the "Children of Israel in their journeyings," + in one of which, if I recollect right, the quails are coming in flight + across a sunset sky, forming one of the earliest instances I know of a + thoroughly natural and Turneresque effect being felt and rendered by + the old masters. The picture struck me chiefly from this circumstance; + but, the note-book in which I had described it and its companion + having been lost on my way home, I cannot now give a more special + account of them, except that they are long, full of crowded figures, + and peculiarly light in color and handling as compared with + Bonifazio's work in general. + + LIO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance, but said to contain a spoiled + Titian. + + LIO, SALIZZADA DI ST., windows in, II. 252, 257. + + LOREDAN, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, near the Rialto, II. 123, 393. + Another palace of this name, on the Campo St. Stefano, is of no + importance. + + LORENZO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + LUCA, CHURCH OF ST. Its campanile is of very interesting and quaint + early Gothic, and it is said to contain a Paul Veronese, "St Luke and + the Virgin." In the little Campiello St. Luca, close by, is a very + precious Gothic door, rich in brickwork, of the thirteenth century; + and in the foundations of the houses on the same side of the square, + but at the other end of it, are traceable some shafts and arches + closely resembling the work of the Cathedral of Murano, and evidently + having once belonged to some most interesting building. + + LUCIA, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + + M + + MADDALENA, CHURCH OF STA. MARIA. Of no importance. + + MALIPIERO, PALAZZO, on the Campo St. M. Formosa, facing the canal at its + extremity. A very beautiful example of the Byzantine Renaissance. Note + the management of color in its inlaid balconies. + + MANFRINI, PALAZZO. The architecture is of no interest; and as it is in + contemplation to allow the collection of pictures to be sold, I shall + take no note of them. But even if they should remain, there are few of + the churches in Venice where the traveller had not better spend his + time than in this gallery; as, with the exception of Titian's + "Entombment," one or two Giorgiones, and the little John Bellini (St. + Jerome), the pictures are all of a kind which may be seen elsewhere. + + MANGILI VALMARANA, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no importance. + + MANIN, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no importance. + + MANZONI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, near the Church of the Carità. A + perfect and very rich example of Byzantine Renaissance: its warm + yellow marbles are magnificent. + + MARCILIAN, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a Titian, "Tobit and the + Angel:" otherwise of no importance. + + MARIA, CHURCHES OF STA. See FORMOSA, MATER DOMINI, MIRACOLI, ORTO, + SALUTE, and ZOBENIGO. + + MARCO, SCUOLA DI SAN, III. 16. + + MARK, CHURCH OF ST., history of, II. 57; approach to, II. 71; general + teaching of, II. 112, 116; measures of façade of, II. 126; balustrades + of, II. 244, 247; cornices of, I. 311; horseshoe arches of, II. 249; + entrances of, II. 271, III. 245; shafts of, II. 384; base in + baptistery of, I. 290; mosaics in atrium of, II. 112; mosaics in + cupola of, II. 114, III. 192; lily capitals of, II. 137; Plates + illustrative of (Vol. II.), VI. VII. figs. 9, 10, 11, VIII. figs. 8, + 9, 12, 13, 15, IX. XI. fig. 1, and Plate III. Vol. III. + + MARK, SQUARE OF ST. (Piazza di San Marco), anciently a garden, II. 58; + general effect of, II. 66, 116; plan of, II. 282. + + MARTINO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + MATER DOMINI, CHURCH OF ST. MARIA. It contains two important pictures: + one over the second altar on the right, "St. Christina," by Vincenzo + Catena, a very lovely example of the Venetian religious school; and, + over the north transept door, the "Finding of the Cross," by Tintoret, + a carefully painted and attractive picture, but by no means a good + specimen of the master, as far as regards power of conception. He does + not seem to have entered into his subject. There is no wonder, no + rapture, no entire devotion in any of the figures. They are only + interested and pleased in a mild way; and the kneeling woman who hands + the nails to a man stooping forward to receive them on the right hand, + does so with the air of a person saying, "You had better take care of + them; they may be wanted another time." This general coldness in + expression is much increased by the presence of several figures on the + right and left, introduced for the sake of portraiture merely; and + the reality, as well as the feeling, of the scene is destroyed by our + seeing one of the youngest and weakest of the women with a huge cross + lying across her knees, the whole weight of it resting upon her. As + might have been expected, where the conception is so languid, the + execution is little delighted in; it is throughout steady and + powerful, but in no place affectionate, and in no place impetuous. If + Tintoret had always painted in this way, he would have sunk into a + mere mechanist. It is, however, a genuine and tolerably well preserved + specimen, and its female figures are exceedingly graceful; that of St. + Helena very queenly, though by no means agreeable in feature. Among + the male portraits on the left there is one different from the usual + types which occur either in Venetian paintings or Venetian populace; + it is carefully painted, and more like a Scotch Presbyterian minister, + than a Greek. The background is chiefly composed of architecture, + white, remarkably uninteresting in color, and still more so in form. + This is to be noticed as one of the unfortunate results of the + Renaissance teaching at this period. Had Tintoret backed his Empress + Helena with Byzantine architecture, the picture might have been one of + the most gorgeous he ever painted. + + MATER DOMINI, CAMPO DI STA. MARIA, II. 261. A most interesting little + piazza, surrounded by early Gothic houses, once of singular beauty; + the arcade at its extremity, of fourth order windows, drawn in my + folio work, is one of the earliest and loveliest of its kind in + Venice; and in the houses at the side is a group of second order + windows with their intermediate crosses, all complete, and well worth + careful examination. + + MICHELE IN ISOLA, CHURCH OF ST. On the island between Venice and + Murano. The little Cappella Emiliana at the side of it has been much + admired, but it would be difficult to find a building more feelingless + or ridiculous. It is more like a German summer-house, or angle turret, + than a chapel, and may be briefly described as a bee-hive set on a low + hexagonal tower, with dashes of stone-work about its windows like the + flourishes of an idle penman. + + The cloister of this church is pretty; and the attached cemetery is + worth entering, for the sake of feeling the strangeness of the quiet + sleeping ground in the midst of the sea. + + MICHIEL DALLE COLONNE, PALAZZO. Of no importance. + + MINELLI, PALAZZO. In the Corte del Maltese, at St. Paternian. It has a + spiral external staircase, very picturesque, but of the fifteenth + century and without merit. + + MIRACOLI, CHURCH OF STA. MARIA DEI. The most interesting and finished + example in Venice of the Byzantine Renaissance, and one of the most + important in Italy of the cinque-cento style. All its sculptures + should be examined with great care, as the best possible examples of a + bad style. Observe, for instance, that in spite of the beautiful work + on the square pillars which support the gallery at the west end, they + have no more architectural effect than two wooden posts. The same kind + of failure in boldness of purpose exists throughout; and the building + is, in fact, rather a small museum of unmeaning, though refined + sculpture, than a piece of architecture. + + Its grotesques are admirable examples of the base Raphaelesque design + examined above, III. 136. Note especially the children's heads tied up + by the hair, in the lateral sculptures at the top of the altar steps. + A rude workman, who could hardly have carved the head at all, might + have allowed this or any other mode of expressing discontent with his + own doings; but the man who could carve a child's head so perfectly + must have been wanting in all human feeling, to cut it off, and tie it + by the hair to a vine leaf. Observe, in the Ducal Palace, though far + ruder in skill, the heads always _emerge_ from the leaves, they are + never _tied_ to them. + + MISERICORDIA, CHURCH OF. The church itself is nothing, and contains + nothing worth the traveller's time; but the Albergo de' Confratelli + della Misericordia at its side is a very interesting and beautiful + relic of the Gothic Renaissance. Lazari says, "del secolo xiv.;" but I + believe it to be later. Its traceries are very curious and rich, and + the sculpture of its capitals very fine for the late time. Close to + it, on the right-hand side of the canal which is crossed by the wooden + bridge, is one of the richest Gothic doors in Venice, remarkable for + the appearance of antiquity in the general design and stiffness of its + figures, though it bears its date 1505. Its extravagant crockets are + almost the only features which, but for this written date, would at + first have confessed its lateness; but, on examination, the figures + will be found as bad and spiritless as they are apparently archaic, + and completely exhibiting the Renaissance palsy of imagination. + + The general effect is, however, excellent, the whole arrangement + having been borrowed from earlier work. + + The action of the statue of the Madonna, who extends her robe to + shelter a group of diminutive figures, representative of the Society + for whose house the sculpture was executed, may be also seen in most + of the later Venetian figures of the Virgin which occupy similar + situations. The image of Christ is placed in a medallion on her + breast, thus fully, though conventionally, expressing the idea of + self-support which is so often partially indicated by the great + religious painters in their representations of the infant Jesus. + + MOISÈ, CHURCH OF ST., III. 124. Notable as one of the basest examples + of the basest school of the Renaissance. It contains one important + picture, namely "Christ washing the Disciples' Feet," by Tintoret; on + the left side of the chapel, north of the choir. This picture has been + originally dark, is now much faded--in parts, I believe, altogether + destroyed--and is hung in the worst light of a chapel, where, on a + sunny day at noon, one could not easily read without a candle. I + cannot, therefore, give much information respecting it; but it is + certainly one of the least successful of the painter's works, and both + careless and unsatisfactory in its composition as well as its color. + One circumstance is noticeable, as in a considerable degree detracting + from the interest of most of Tintoret's representations of our Saviour + with his disciples. He never loses sight of the fact that all were + poor, and the latter ignorant; and while he never paints a senator, or + a saint once thoroughly canonized, except as a gentleman, he is very + careful to paint the Apostles, in their living intercourse with the + Saviour, in such a manner that the spectator may see in an instant, as + the Pharisee did of old, that they were unlearned and ignorant men; + and, whenever we find them in a room, it is always such a one as would + be inhabited by the lower classes. There seems some violation of this + practice in the dais, or flight of steps, at the top of which the + Saviour is placed in the present picture; but we are quickly reminded + that the guests' chamber or upper room ready prepared was not likely + to have been in a palace, by the humble furniture upon the floor, + consisting of a tub with a copper saucepan in it, a coffee-pot, and a + pair of bellows, curiously associated with a symbolic cup with a + wafer, which, however, is in an injured part of the canvas, and may + have been added by the priests. I am totally unable to state what the + background of the picture is or has been; and the only point farther + to be noted about it is the solemnity, which, in spite of the familiar + and homely circumstances above noticed, the painter has given to the + scene, by placing the Saviour, in the act of washing the feet of + Peter, at the top of a circle of steps, on which the other Apostles + kneel in adoration and astonishment. + + MORO, PALAZZO. See OTHELLO. + + MOROSINI, PALAZZO, near the Ponte dell' Ospedaletto, at San Giovannie + Paolo. Outside it is not interesting, though the gateway shows remains + of brickwork of the thirteenth century. Its interior court is + singularly beautiful; the staircase of early fourteenth century Gothic + has originally been superb, and the window in the angle above is the + most perfect that I know in Venice of the kind; the lightly sculptured + coronet is exquisitely introduced at the top of its spiral shaft. + + This palace still belongs to the Morosini family, to whose present + representative, the Count Carlo Morosini, the reader is indebted for + the note on the character of his ancestors, above, III. 213. + + MOROSINI, PALAZZO, at St. Stefano. Of no importance. + + + N + + NANI-MOCENIGO, PALAZZO. (Now Hotel Danieli.) A glorious example of the + central Gothic, nearly contemporary with the finest part of the Ducal + Palace. Though less impressive in effect than the Casa Foscari or Casa + Bernardo, it is of purer architecture than either: and quite unique in + the delicacy of the form of the cusps in the central group of windows, + which are shaped like broad scimitars, the upper foil of the windows + being very small. If the traveller will compare these windows with + the neighboring traceries of the Ducal Palace, he will easily perceive + the peculiarity. + + NICOLO DEL LIDO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + NOME DI GESU, CHURCH OF THE. Of no importance. + + + O + + ORFANI, CHURCH OF THE. Of no importance. + + ORTO, CHURCH OF STA. MARIA, DELL'. An interesting example of Renaissance + Gothic, the traceries of the windows being very rich and quaint. + + It contains four most important Tintorets: "The Last Judgment," "The + Worship of the Golden Calf," "The Presentation of the Virgin," and + "Martyrdom of St. Agnes." The first two are among his largest and + mightiest works, but grievously injured by damp and neglect; and + unless the traveller is accustomed to decipher the thoughts in a + picture patiently, he need not hope to derive any pleasure from them. + But no pictures will better reward a resolute study. The following + account of the "Last Judgment," given in the second volume of "Modern + Painters," will be useful in enabling the traveller to enter into the + meaning of the picture, but its real power is only to be felt by + patient examination of it. + + "By Tintoret only has this unimaginable event (the Last Judgment) been + grappled with in its Verity; not typically nor symbolically, but as + they may see it who shall not sleep, but be changed. Only one + traditional circumstance he has received, with Dante and Michael + Angelo, the Boat of the Condemned; but the impetuosity of his mind + bursts out even in the adoption of this image; he has not stopped at + the scowling ferryman of the one, nor at the sweeping blow and demon + dragging of the other, but, seized Hylas like by the limbs, and + tearing up the earth in his agony, the victim is dashed into his + destruction; nor is it the sluggish Lethe, nor the fiery lake, that + bears the cursed vessel, but the oceans of the earth and the waters of + the firmament gathered into one white, ghastly cataract; the river of + the wrath of God, roaring down into the gulf where the world has + melted with its fervent heat, choked with the ruins of nations, and + the limbs of its corpses tossed out of its whirling, like + water-wheels. Bat-like, out of the holes and caverns and shadows of + the earth, the bones gather, and the clay heaps heave, rattling and + adhering into half-kneaded anatomies, that crawl, and startle, and + struggle up among the putrid weeds, with the clay clinging to their + clotted hair, and their heavy eyes sealed by the earth darkness yet, + like his of old who went his way unseeing to the Siloam Pool; shaking + off one by one the dreams of the prison-house, hardly hearing the + clangor of the trumpets of the armies of God, blinded yet more, as + they awake, by the white light of the new Heaven, until the great + vortex of the four winds bears up their bodies to the judgment seat; + the Firmament is all full of them, a very dust of human souls, that + drifts, and floats, and falls into the interminable, inevitable light; + the bright clouds are darkened with them as with thick snow, currents + of atom life in the arteries of heaven, now soaring up slowly, and + higher and higher still, till the eye and the thought can follow no + farther, borne up, wingless, by their inward faith and by the angel + powers invisible, now hurled in countless drifts of horror before the + breath of their condemnation." + + Note in the opposite picture the way the clouds are wrapped about in + the distant Sinai. + + The figure of the little Madonna in the "Presentation" should be + compared with Titian's in his picture of the same subject in the + Academy. I prefer Tintoret's infinitely: and note how much finer is + the feeling with which Tintoret has relieved the glory round her head + against the pure sky, than that which influenced Titian in encumbering + his distance with architecture. + + The "Martyrdom of St. Agnes" _was_ a lovely picture. It has been + "restored" since I saw it. + + OSPEDALETTO, CHURCH OF THE. The most monstrous example of the + Grotesque Renaissance which there is in Venice; the sculptures on its + façade representing masses of diseased figures and swollen fruit. + + It is almost worth devoting an hour to the successive examination of + five buildings, as illustrative of the last degradation of the + Renaissance. San Moisè is the most clumsy, Santa Maria Zobenigo the + most impious, St. Eustachio the most ridiculous, the Ospedaletto the + most monstrous, and the head at Santa Maria Formosa the most foul. + + OTHELLO, HOUSE OF, at the Carmini. The researches of Mr. Brown into + the origin of the play of "Othello" have, I think, determined that + Shakspeare wrote on definite historical grounds; and that Othello may + be in many points identified with Christopher Moro, the lieutenant of + the republic at Cyprus, in 1508. See "Ragguagli su Maria Sanuto," i. + 252. + + His palace was standing till very lately, a Gothic building of the + fourteenth century, of which Mr. Brown possesses a drawing. It is now + destroyed, and a modern square-windowed house built on its site. A + statue, said to be a portrait of Moro, but a most paltry work, is set + in a niche in the modern wall. + + + P + + PANTALEONE, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a Paul Veronese; otherwise of + no importance. + + PATERNIAN, CHURCH OF ST. Its little leaning tower forms an interesting + object as the traveller sees it from the narrow canal which passes + beneath the Porte San Paternian. The two arched lights of the belfry + appear of very early workmanship, probably of the beginning of the + thirteenth century. + + PESARO PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. The most powerful and impressive + in effect of all the palaces of the Grotesque Renaissance. The heads + upon its foundation are very characteristic of the period, but there + is more genius in them than usual. Some of the mingled expressions of + faces and grinning casques are very clever. + + PIAZZETTA, pillars of, see Final Appendix under head "Capital." The + two magnificent blocks of marble brought from St. Jean d'Acre, which + form one of the principal ornaments of the Piazzetta, are Greek + sculpture of the sixth century, and will be described in my folio + work. + + PIETA, CHURCH OF THE. Of no importance. + + PIETRO, CHURCH OF ST., at Murano. Its pictures, once valuable, are now + hardly worth examination, having been spoiled by neglect. + + PIETRO, DI CASTELLO, CHURCH OF ST., I. 7, 361. It is said to contain + a Paul Veronese, and I suppose the so-called "Chair of St. Peter" must + be worth examining. + + PISANI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. The latest Venetian Gothic, just + passing into Renaissance. The capitals of the first floor windows are, + however, singularly spirited and graceful, very daringly under-cut, + and worth careful examination. The Paul Veronese, once the glory of + this palace, is, I believe, not likely to remain in Venice. The other + picture in the same room, the "Death of Darius," is of no value. + + PISANI, PALAZZO, at St. Stefano. Late Renaissance, and of no merit, + but grand in its colossal proportions, especially when seen from the + narrow canal at its side, which terminated by the apse of the Church + of San Stefano, is one of the most picturesque and impressive little + pieces of water scenery in Venice. + + POLO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance, except as an example of the + advantages accruing from restoration. M. Lazari says of it, "Before + this church was modernized, its principal chapel was adorned with + Mosaics, and possessed a pala of silver gilt, of Byzantine + workmanship, which is now lost." + + POLO, SQUARE OF ST. (Campo San Polo.) A large and important square, + rendered interesting chiefly by three palaces on the side of it + opposite the church, of central Gothic (1360), and fine of their time, + though small. One of their capitals has been given in Plate II. of + this volume, fig. 12. They are remarkable as being decorated with + sculptures of the Gothic time, in imitation of Byzantine ones; the + period being marked by the dog-tooth and cable being used instead of + the dentil round the circles. + + POLO, PALAZZO, at San G. Grisostomo (the house of Marco Polo), II. 139. + Its interior court is full of interest, showing fragments of the old + building in every direction, cornices, windows, and doors, of almost + every period, mingled among modern rebuilding and restoration of all + degrees of dignity. + + PORTA DELLA CARTA, II. 302. + + PRIULI, PALAZZO. A most important and beautiful early Gothic Palace, + at San Severo; the main entrance is from the Fundamento San Severo, + but the principal façade is on the other side, towards the canal. The + entrance has been grievously defaced, having had winged lions filling + the spandrils of its pointed arch, of which only feeble traces are now + left, the façade has very early fourth order windows in the lower + story, and above, the beautiful range of fifth order windows drawn at + the bottom of Plate XVIII. Vol. II., where the heads of the fourth + order range are also seen (note their inequality, the larger one at + the flank). This Palace has two most interesting traceried angle + windows also, which, however, I believe are later than those on the + façade; and finally, a rich and bold interior staircase. + + PROCURATIE NUOVE, see "LIBRERIA" VECCHIA: A graceful series buildings, + of late fifteenth century design, forming the northern side of St. + Mark's Place, but of no particular interest. + + + Q + + QUERINI, PALAZZO, now the Beccherie, II. 255, III. 234. + + + R + + RAFFAELLE, CHIESA DELL'ANGELO. Said to contain a Bonifazio, otherwise of + no importance. + + REDENTORE, CHURCH OF THE, II. 378. It contains three interesting John + Bellinis, and also, in the sacristy, a most beautiful Paul Veronese. + + REMER, CORTE DEL, house in. II. 251. + + REZZONICO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of the Grotesque Renaissance + time, but less extravagant than usual. + + RIALTO, BRIDGE OF THE. The best building raised in the time of the + Grotesque Renaissance; very noble in its simplicity, in its + proportions, and in its masonry. Note especially the grand way in + which the oblique archstones rest on the butments of the bridge, safe, + palpably both to the sense and eye: note also the sculpture of the + Annunciation on the southern side of it; how beautifully arranged, so + as to give more lightness and a grace to the arch--_the dove, flying + towards the Madonna, forming the keystone_,--and thus the whole action + of the figures being parallel to the curve of the arch, while all the + masonry is at right angles to it. Note, finally, one circumstance + which gives peculiar firmness to the figure of the angel, and + associates itself with the general expression of strength in the + whole building; namely that the sole of the advanced foot is set + perfectly level, as if placed on the ground, instead of being thrown + back behind like a heron's, as in most modern figures of this kind. + + The sculptures themselves are not good; but these pieces of feeling in + them are very admirable. The two figures on the other side, St. Mark + and St. Theodore, are inferior, though all by the same sculptor, + Girolamo Campagna. + + The bridge was built by Antonio da Ponte, in 1588. It was anciently of + wood, with a drawbridge in the centre, a representation of which may + be seen in one of Carpaccio's pictures at the Accademia delle Belle + Arti: and the traveller should observe that the interesting effect, + both of this and the Bridge of Sighs, depends in great part on their + both being _more_ than bridges; the one a covered passage, the other a + row of shops, sustained on an arch. No such effect can be produced + merely by the masonry of the roadway itself. + + RIO DEL PALAZZO, II. 282. + + ROCCO, CAMPIELLO DI SAN, windows in, II. 258. + + ROCCO, CHURCH OF ST. Notable only for the most interesting pictures by + Tintoret which it contains, namely: + + 1. _San Rocco before the Pope._ (On the left of the door as we enter.) + A delightful picture in his best manner, but not much labored; and, + like several other pictures in this church, it seems to me to have + been executed at some period of the painter's life when he was either + in ill health, or else had got into a mechanical way of painting, from + having made too little reference to nature for a long time. There is + something stiff and forced in the white draperies on both sides, and a + general character about the whole which I can feel better than I can + describe; but which, if I had been the painter's physician, would have + immediately caused me to order him to shut up his painting-room, and + take a voyage to the Levant, and back again. The figure of the Pope + is, however, extremely beautiful, and is not unworthy, in its jewelled + magnificence, here dark against the sky, of comparison with the figure + of the high priest in the "Presentation," in the Scuola di San Rocco. + + 2. _Annunciation._ (On the other side of the door, on entering.) A + most disagreeable and dead picture, having all the faults of the age, + and none of the merits of the painter. It must be a matter of future + investigation to me, what could cause the fall of his mind from a + conception so great and so fiery as that of the "Annunciation" in the + Scuola di San Rocco, to this miserable reprint of an idea worn out + centuries before. One of the most inconceivable things in it, + considered as the work of Tintoret, is that where the angel's robe + drifts away behind his limb, one cannot tell by the character of the + outline, or by the tones of the color, whether the cloud comes in + before the robe, or whether the robe cuts upon the cloud. The Virgin + is uglier than that of the Scuola, and not half so real; and the + draperies are crumpled in the most commonplace and ignoble folds. It + is a picture well worth study, as an example of the extent to which + the greatest mind may be betrayed by the abuse of its powers, and the + neglect of its proper food in the study of nature. + + 3. _Pool of Bethesda._ (On the right side of the church, in its + centre, the lowest of the two pictures which occupy the wall.) A noble + work, but eminently disagreeable, as must be all pictures of this + subject; and with the same character in it of undefinable want, which + I have noticed in the two preceding works. The main figure in it is + the cripple, who has taken up his bed; but the whole effect of this + action is lost by his not turning to Christ, but flinging it on his + shoulder like a triumphant porter with a huge load; and the corrupt + Renaissance architecture, among which the figures are crowded, is both + ugly in itself, and much too small for them. It is worth noticing, for + the benefit of persons who find fault with the perspective of the + Pre-Raphaelites, that the perspective of the brackets beneath these + pillars is utterly absurd; and that, in fine, the presence or absence + of perspective has nothing to do with the merits of a great picture: + not that the perspective of the Pre-Raphaelites _is_ false in any case + that I have examined, the objection being just as untenable as it is + ridiculous. + + 4. _San Rocco in the Desert._ (Above the last-named picture.) A single + recumbent figure in a not very interesting landscape, deserving less + attention than a picture of St. Martin just opposite to it,--a noble + and knightly figure on horseback by Pordenone, to which I cannot pay a + greater compliment than by saying that I was a considerable time in + doubt whether or not it was another Tintoret. + + 5. _San Rocco in the Hospital._ (On the right-hand side of the altar.) + There are four vast pictures by Tintoret in the dark choir of this + church, not only important by their size (each being some twenty-five + feet long by ten feet high), but also elaborate compositions; and + remarkable, one for its extraordinary landscape, and the other as the + most studied picture in which the painter has introduced horses in + violent action. In order to show what waste of human mind there is in + these dark churches of Venice, it is worth recording that, as I was + examining these pictures, there came in a party of eighteen German + tourists, not hurried, nor jesting among themselves as large parties + often do, but patiently submitting to their cicerone, and evidently + desirous of doing their duty as intelligent travellers. They sat down + for a long time on the benches of the nave, looked a little at the + "Pool of Bethesda," walked up into the choir and there heard a lecture + of considerable length from their _valet-de-place_ upon some subject + connected with the altar itself, which, being in German, I did not + understand; they then turned and went slowly out of the church, not + one of the whole eighteen ever giving a single glance to any of the + four Tintorets, and only one of them, as far as I saw, even raising + his eyes to the walls on which they hung, and immediately withdrawing + them, with a jaded and _nonchalant_ expression easily interpretable + into "Nothing but old black pictures." The two Tintorets above + noticed, at the end of the church, were passed also without a glance; + and this neglect is not because the pictures have nothing in them + capable of arresting the popular mind, but simply because they are + totally in the dark, or confused among easier and more prominent + objects of attention. This picture, which I have called "St. Rocco in + the Hospital," shows him, I suppose, in his general ministrations at + such places, and is one of the usual representations of a disgusting + subject from which neither Orcagna nor Tintoret seems ever to have + shrunk. It is a very noble picture, carefully composed and highly + wrought; but to me gives no pleasure, first, on account of its + subject, secondly, on account of its dull brown tone all over,--it + being impossible, or nearly so, in such a scene, and at all events + inconsistent with its feeling, to introduce vivid color of any kind. + So it is a brown study of diseased limbs in a close room. + + 6. _Cattle Piece._ (Above the picture last described.) I can give no + other name to this picture, whose subject I can neither guess nor + discover, the picture being in the dark, and the guide-books leaving + me in the same position. All I can make out of it is, that there is a + noble landscape with cattle and figures. It seems to me the best + landscape of Tintoret's in Venice, except the "Flight into Egypt;" and + is even still more interesting from its savage character, the + principal trees being pines, something like Titian's in his "St. + Francis receiving the Stigmata," and chestnuts on the slopes and in + the hollows of the hills; the animals also seem first-rate. But it is + too high, too much faded, and too much in the dark to be made out. It + seems never to have been rich in color, rather cool and grey, and very + full of light. + + 7. _Finding of Body of San Rocco._ (On the left-hand side of the + altar.) An elaborate, but somewhat confused picture, with a flying + angel in a blue drapery; but it seemed to me altogether uninteresting, + or perhaps requiring more study than I was able to give it. + + 8. _San Rocco in Campo d' Armata._ So this picture is called by the + sacristan. I could see no San Rocco in it; nothing but a wild group of + horses and warriors in the most magnificent confusion of fall and + flight ever painted by man. They seem all dashed different ways as if + by a whirlwind; and a whirlwind there must be, or a thunderbolt, + behind them, for a huge tree is torn up and hurled into the air beyond + the central figure, as if it were a shivered lance. Two of the horses + meet in the midst, as if in a tournament; but in madness of fear, not + in hostility; on the horse to the right is a standard-bearer, who + stoops as from some foe behind him, with the lance laid across his + saddle-bow, level, and the flag stretched out behind him as he flies, + like the sail of a ship drifting from its mast; the central horseman, + who meets the shock, of storm, or enemy, whatever it be, is hurled + backwards from his seat, like a stone from a sling; and this figure + with the shattered tree trunk behind it, is the most noble part of the + picture. There is another grand horse on the right, however, also in + full action. Two gigantic figures on foot, on the left, meant to be + nearer than the others, would, it seems to me, have injured the + picture, had they been clearly visible; but time has reduced them to + perfect subordination. + + + ROCCO, SCUOLA DI SAN, bases of, I. 291, 431; soffit ornaments of, I. + 337. An interesting building of the early Renaissance (1517), passing + into Roman Renaissance. The wreaths of leafage about its shafts are + wonderfully delicate and fine, though misplaced. + + As regards the pictures which it contains, it is one of the three most + precious buildings in Italy; buildings, I mean, consistently decorated + with a series of paintings at the time of their erection, and still + exhibiting that series in its original order. I suppose there can be + little question, but that the three most important edifices of this + kind in Italy are the Sistine Chapel, the Campo Santo of Pisa, and the + Scuola di San Rocco at Venice: the first is painted by Michael Angelo; + the second by Orcagna, Benozzo Gozzoli, Pietro Laurati, and several + other men whose works are as rare as they are precious; and the third + by Tintoret. + + Whatever the traveller may miss in Venice, he should therefore give + unembarrassed attention and unbroken time to the Scuola di San Rocco; + and I shall, accordingly, number the pictures, and note in them, one + by one, what seemed to me most worthy of observation. + + There are sixty-two in all, but eight of these are merely of children + or children's heads, and two of unimportant figures. The number of + valuable pictures is fifty-two; arranged on the walls and ceilings of + three rooms, so badly lighted, in consequence of the admirable + arrangements of the Renaissance architect, that it is only in the + early morning that some of the pictures can be seen at all, nor can + they ever be seen but imperfectly. They were all painted, however, for + their places in the dark, and, as compared with Tintoret's other + works, are therefore, for the most part, nothing more than vast + sketches, made to produce, under a certain degree of shadow, the + effect of finished pictures. Their treatment is thus to be considered + as a kind of scene-painting; differing from ordinary scene-painting + only in this, that the effect aimed at is not _that of a natural + scene_ but _a perfect picture_. They differ in this respect from all + other existing works; for there is not, as far as I know, any other + instance in which a great master has consented to work for a room + plunged into almost total obscurity. It is probable that none but + Tintoret would have undertaken the task, and most fortunate that he + was forced to it. For in this magnificent scene-painting we have, of + course, more wonderful examples, both of his handling, and knowledge + of effect, than could ever have been exhibited in finished pictures; + while the necessity of doing much with few strokes keeps his mind so + completely on the stretch throughout the work (while yet the velocity + of production prevented his being wearied), that no other series of + his works exhibits powers so exalted. On the other hand, owing to the + velocity and coarseness of the painting, it is more liable to injury + through drought or damp; and, as the walls have been for years + continually running down with rain, and what little sun gets into the + place contrives to fall all day right on one or other of the pictures, + they are nothing but wrecks of what they were; and the ruins of + paintings originally coarse are not likely ever to be attractive to + the public mind. Twenty or thirty years ago they were taken down to be + retouched; but the man to whom the task was committed providentially + died, and only one of them was spoiled. I have found traces of his + work upon another, but not to an extent very seriously destructive. + The rest of the sixty-two, or, at any rate, all that are in the upper + room, appear entirely intact. + + Although, as compared with his other works, they are all very scenic + in execution, there are great differences in their degrees of finish; + and, curiously enough, some on the ceilings and others in the darkest + places in the lower room are very nearly finished pictures, while the + "Agony in the Garden," which is in one of the best lights in the upper + room, appears to have been painted in a couple of hours with a broom + for a brush. + + For the traveller's greater convenience, I shall give a rude plan of + the arrangement, and list of the subjects, of each group of pictures + before examining them in detail. + + First Group. On the walls of the room on the ground floor. + + [Illustration: + + 1. Annunciation. 5. The Magdalen. + 2. Adoration of Magi. 6. St. Mary of Egypt. + 3. Flight into Egypt. 7. Circumcision. + 4. Massacre of Innocents. 8. Assumption of Virgin. + + At the turn of the stairs leading to the upper room: + 9. Visitation.] + + 1. _The Annunciation._ This, which first strikes the eye, is a very + just representative of the whole group, the execution being carried to + the utmost limits of boldness consistent with completion. It is a + well-known picture, and need not therefore be specially described, but + one or two points in it require notice. The face of the Virgin is very + disagreeable to the spectator from below, giving the idea of a woman + about thirty, who had never been handsome. If the face is untouched, + it is the only instance I have ever seen of Tintoret's failing in an + intended effect, for, when seen near, the face is comely and youthful, + and expresses only surprise, instead of the pain and fear of which it + bears the aspect in the distance. I could not get near enough to see + whether it had been retouched. It looks like Tintoret's work, though + rather hard; but, as there are unquestionable marks in the retouching + of this picture, it is possible that some slight restoration of lines + supposed to be faded, entirely alter the distant expression of the + face. One of the evident pieces of repainting is the scarlet of the + Madonna's lap, which is heavy and lifeless. A far more injurious one + is the strip of sky seen through the doorway by which the angel + enters, which has originally been of the deep golden color of the + distance on the left, and which the blundering restorer has daubed + over with whitish blue, so that it looks like a bit of the wall; + luckily he has not touched the outlines of the angel's black wings, on + which the whole expression of the picture depends. This angel and the + group of small cherubs above form a great swinging chain, of which the + dove representing the Holy Spirit forms the bend. The angels in their + flight seem to be attached to this as the train of fire is to a + rocket; all of them appearing to have swooped down with the swiftness + of a falling star. + + 2. _Adoration of the Magi._ The most finished picture in the Scuola, + except the "Crucifixion," and perhaps the most delightful of the + whole. It unites every source of pleasure that a picture can possess: + the highest elevation of principal subject, mixed with the lowest + detail of picturesque incident; the dignity of the highest ranks of + men, opposed to the simplicity of the lowest; the quietness and + serenity of an incident in cottage life, contrasted with the + turbulence of troops of horsemen and the spiritual power of angels. + The placing of the two doves as principal points of light in the front + of the picture, in order to remind the spectator of the poverty of the + mother whose child is receiving the offerings and adoration of three + monarchs, is one of Tintoret's master touches; the whole scene, + indeed, is conceived in his happiest manner. Nothing can be at once + more humble or more dignified than the bearing of the kings; and there + is a sweet reality given to the whole incident by the Madonna's + stooping forward and lifting her hand in admiration of the vase of + gold which has been set before the Christ, though she does so with + such gentleness and quietness that her dignity is not in the least + injured by the simplicity of the action. As if to illustrate the means + by which the Wise men were brought from the East, the whole picture is + nothing but a large star, of which Christ is the centre; all the + figures, even the timbers of the roof, radiate from the small bright + figure on which the countenances of the flying angels are bent, the + star itself, gleaming through the timbers above, being quite + subordinate. The composition would almost be too artificial were it + not broken by the luminous distance where the troop of horsemen are + waiting for the kings. These, with a dog running at full speed, at + once interrupt the symmetry of the lines, and form a point of relief + from the over concentration of all the rest of the action. + + 3. _Flight into Egypt._ One of the principal figures here is the + donkey. I have never seen any of the nobler animals--lion, or leopard, + or horse, or dragon--made so sublime as this quiet head of the + domestic ass, chiefly owing to the grand motion in the nostril and + writhing in the ears. The space of the picture is chiefly occupied by + lovely landscape, and the Madonna and St. Joseph are pacing their way + along a shady path upon the banks of a river at the side of the + picture. I had not any conception, until I got near, how much pains + had been taken with the Virgin's head; its expression is as sweet and + as intense as that of any of Raffaelle's, its reality far greater. The + painter seems to have intended that everything should be subordinate + to the beauty of this single head; and the work is a wonderful proof + of the way in which a vast field of canvas may be made conducive to + the interest of a single figure. This is partly accomplished by + slightness of painting, so that on close examination, while there is + everything to astonish in the masterly handling and purpose, there is + not much perfect or very delightful painting; in fact, the two figures + are treated like the living figures in a scene at the theatre, and + finished to perfection, while the landscape is painted as hastily as + the scenes, and with the same kind of opaque size color. It has, + however, suffered as much as any of the series, and it is hardly fair + to judge of its tones and colors in its present state. + + 4. _Massacre of the Innocents._ The following account of this picture, + given in "Modern Painters," may be useful to the traveller, and is + therefore here repeated. "I have before alluded to the painfulness of + Raffaelle's treatment of the Massacre of the Innocents. Fuseli affirms + of it, that, 'in dramatic gradation he disclosed all the mother + through every image of pity and terror.' If this be so, I think the + philosophical spirit has prevailed over the imaginative. The + imagination never errs; it sees all that is, and all the relations + and bearings of it; but it would not have confused the mortal frenzy + of maternal terror, with various development of maternal character. + Fear, rage, and agony, at their utmost pitch, sweep away all + character: humanity itself would be lost in maternity, the woman would + become the mere personification of animal fury or fear. For this + reason all the ordinary representations of this subject are, I think, + false and cold: the artist has not heard the shrieks, nor mingled with + the fugitives; he has sat down in his study to convulse features + methodically, and philosophize over insanity. Not so Tintoret. + Knowing, or feeling, that the expression of the human face was, in + such circumstances, not to be rendered, and that the effort could only + end in an ugly falsehood, he denies himself all aid from the features, + he feels that if he is to place himself or us in the midst of that + maddened multitude, there can be no time allowed for watching + expression. Still less does he depend on details of murder or + ghastliness of death; there is no blood, no stabbing or cutting, but + there is an awful substitute for these in the chiaroscuro. The scene + is the outer vestibule of a palace, the slippery marble floor is + fearfully barred across by sanguine shadows, so that our eyes seem to + become bloodshot and strained with strange horror and deadly vision; a + lake of life before them, like the burning seen of the doomed Moabite + on the water that came by the way of Edom: a huge flight of stairs, + without parapet, descends on the left; down this rush a crowd of women + mixed with the murderers; the child in the arms of one has been seized + by the limbs, _she hurls herself over the edge, and falls head + downmost, dragging the child out of the grasp by her weight_;--she + will be dashed dead in a second:--close to us is the great struggle; a + heap of the mothers, entangled in one mortal writhe with each other + and the swords; one of the murderers dashed down and crushed beneath + them, the sword of another caught by the blade and dragged at by a + woman's naked hand; the youngest and fairest of the women, her child + just torn away from a death grasp, and clasped to her breast with the + grip of a steel vice, falls backwards, helpless over the heap, right + on the sword points; all knit together and hurled down in one + hopeless, frenzied, furious abandonment of body and soul in the + effort to save. Far back, at the bottom of the stairs, there is + something in the shadow like a heap of clothes. It is a woman, sitting + quiet,--quite quiet,--still as any stone; she looks down steadfastly + on her dead child, laid along on the floor before her, and her hand is + pressed softly upon her brow." + + I have nothing to add to the above description of this picture, except + that I believe there may have been some change in the color of the + shadow that crosses the pavement. The chequers of the pavements are, + in the light, golden white and pale grey; in the shadow, red and dark + grey, the white in the sunshine becoming red in the shadow. I formerly + supposed that this was meant to give greater horror to the scene, and + it is very like Tintoret if it be so; but there is a strangeness and + discordance in it which makes me suspect the colors may have changed. + + 5. _The Magdalen._ This and the picture opposite to it, "St. Mary of + Egypt," have been painted to fill up narrow spaces between the windows + which were not large enough to receive compositions, and yet in which + single figures would have looked awkwardly thrust into the corner. + Tintoret has made these spaces as large as possible by filling them + with landscapes, which are rendered interesting by the introduction of + single figures of very small size. He has not, however, considered his + task, of making a small piece of wainscot look like a large one, worth + the stretch of his powers, and has painted these two landscapes just + as carelessly and as fast as an upholsterer's journeyman finishing a + room at a railroad hotel. The color is for the most part opaque, and + dashed or scrawled on in the manner of a scene-painter; and as during + the whole morning the sun shines upon the one picture, and during the + afternoon upon the other, hues, which were originally thin and + imperfect, are now dried in many places into mere dirt upon the + canvas. With all these drawbacks the pictures are of very high + interest, for although, as I said, hastily and carelessly, they are + not languidly painted; on the contrary, he has been in his hottest and + grandest temper; and in this first one ("Magdalen") the laurel tree, + with its leaves driven hither and thither among flakes of fiery cloud, + has been probably one of the greatest achievements that his hand + performed in landscape: its roots are entangled in underwood; of which + every leaf seems to be articulated, yet all is as wild as if it had + grown there instead of having been painted; there has been a mountain + distance, too, and a sky of stormy light, of which I infinitely regret + the loss, for though its masses of light are still discernible, its + variety of hue is all sunk into a withered brown. There is a curious + piece of execution in the striking of the light upon a brook which + runs under the roots of the laurel in the foreground: these roots are + traced in shadow against the bright surface of the water; another + painter would have drawn the light first, and drawn the dark roots + over it. Tintoret has laid in a brown ground which he has left for the + roots, and painted the water through their interstices with a few + mighty rolls of his brush laden with white. + + 6. _St. Mary of Egypt._ This picture differs but little in the plan, + from the one opposite, except that St. Mary has her back towards us, + and the Magdalen her face, and that the tree on the other side of the + brook is a palm instead of a laurel. The brook (Jordan?) is, however, + here much more important; and the water painting is exceedingly fine. + Of all painters that I know, in old times, Tintoret is the fondest of + running water; there was a sort of sympathy between it and his own + impetuous spirit. The rest of the landscape is not of much interest, + except so far as it is pleasant to see trunks of trees drawn by single + strokes of the brush. + + 7. _The Circumcision of Christ._ The custode has some story about this + picture having been painted in imitation of Paul Veronese. I much + doubt if Tintoret ever imitated any body; but this picture is the + expression of his perception of what Veronese delighted in, the + nobility that there may be in mere golden tissue and colored drapery. + It is, in fact, a picture of the moral power of gold and color; and + the chief use of the attendant priest is to support upon his shoulders + the crimson robe, with its square tablets of black and gold; and yet + nothing is withdrawn from the interest or dignity of the scene. + Tintoret has taken immense pains with the head of the high-priest. I + know not any existing old man's head so exquisitely tender, or so + noble in its lines. He receives the Infant Christ in his arms + kneeling, and looking down upon the Child with infinite veneration and + love; and the flashing of golden rays from its head is made the centre + of light, and all interest. The whole picture is like a golden charger + to receive the Child; the priest's dress is held up behind him, that + it may occupy larger space; the tables and floor are covered with + chequer-work; the shadows of the temple are filled with brazen lamps; + and above all are hung masses of curtains, whose crimson folds are + strewn over with golden flakes. Next to the "Adoration of the Magi" + this picture is the most laboriously finished of the Scuola di San + Rocco, and it is unquestionably the highest existing type of the + sublimity which may be thrown into the treatment of accessaries of + dress and decoration. + + 8. _Assumption of the Virgin._ On the tablet or panel of stone which + forms the side of the tomb out of which the Madonna rises, is this + inscription, in large letters, REST. ANTONIUS FLORIAN, 1834. Exactly + in proportion to a man's idiocy, is always the size of the letters in + which he writes his name on the picture that he spoils. The old + mosaicists in St. Mark's have not, in a single instance, as far as I + know, signed their names; but the spectator who wishes to know who + destroyed the effect of the nave, may see his name inscribed, twice + over, in letters half a foot high, BARTOLOMEO BOZZA. I have never seen + Tintoret's name signed, except in the great "Crucifixion;" but this + Antony Florian, I have no doubt, repainted the whole side of the tomb + that he might put his name on it. The picture is, of course, ruined + wherever he touched it; that is to say, half over; the circle of + cherubs in the sky is still pure; and the design of the great painter + is palpable enough yet in the grand flight of the horizontal angel, on + whom the Madonna half leans as she ascends. It has been a noble + picture, and is a grievous loss; but, happily, there are so many pure + ones, that we need not spend time in gleaning treasures out of the + ruins of this. + + 9. _Visitation._ A small picture, painted in his very best manner; + exquisite in its simplicity, unrivalled in vigor, well preserved, and, + as a piece of painting, certainly one of the most precious in Venice. + Of course it does not show any of his high inventive powers; nor can a + picture of four middle-sized figures be made a proper subject of + comparison with large canvases containing forty or fifty; but it is, + for this very reason, painted with such perfect ease, and yet with no + slackness either of affection or power, that there is no picture that + I covet so much. It is, besides, altogether free from the Renaissance + taint of dramatic effect. The gestures are as simple and natural as + Giotto's, only expressed by grander lines, such as none but Tintoret + ever reached. The draperies are dark, relieved against a light sky, + the horizon being excessively low, and the outlines of the drapery so + severe, that the intervals between the figures look like ravines + between great rocks, and have all the sublimity of an Alpine valley at + twilight. This precious picture is hung about thirty feet above the + eye, but by looking at it in a strong light, it is discoverable that + the Saint Elizabeth is dressed in green and crimson, the Virgin in the + peculiar red which all great colorists delight in--a sort of glowing + brick-color or brownish scarlet, opposed to rich golden brownish + black; and both have white kerchiefs, or drapery, thrown over their + shoulders. Zacharias leans on his staff behind them in a black dress + with white sleeves. The stroke of brilliant white light, which + outlines the knee of Saint Elizabeth, is a curious instance of the + habit of the painter to relieve his dark forms by a sort of halo of + more vivid light, which, until lately, one would have been apt to + suppose a somewhat artificial and unjustifiable means of effect. The + daguerreotype has shown, what the naked eye never could, that the + instinct of the great painter was true, and that there is actually + such a sudden and sharp line of light round the edges of dark objects + relieved by luminous space. + + Opposite this picture is a most precious Titian, the "Annunciation," + full of grace and beauty. I think the Madonna one of the sweetest + figures he ever painted. But if the traveller has entered at all into + the spirit of Tintoret, he will immediately feel the comparative + feebleness and conventionality of the Titian. Note especially the mean + and petty folds of the angel's drapery, and compare them with the + draperies of the opposite picture. The larger pictures at the sides of + the stairs by Zanchi and Negri, are utterly worthless. + + [Illustration: Second Group. On the walls of the upper room. + + 10. Adoration of Shepherds. 17. Resurrection of Lazarus. + 11. Baptism. 18. Ascension. + 12. Resurrection. 19. Pool of Bethesda. + 13. Agony in Garden. 20. Temptation. + 14. Last Supper. 21. St. Rocco. + 15. Altar Piece: St. Rocco. 22. St. Sebastian. + 16. Miracle of Loaves.] + + 10. _The Adoration of the Shepherds._ This picture commences the + series of the upper room, which, as already noticed, is painted with + far less care than that of the lower. It is one of the painter's + inconceivable caprices that the only canvases that are in good light + should be covered in this hasty manner, while those in the dungeon + below, and on the ceiling above, are all highly labored. It is, + however, just possible that the covering of these walls may have been + an after-thought, when he had got tired of his work. They are also, + for the most part, illustrative of a principle of which I am more and + more convinced every day, that historical and figure pieces ought not + to be made vehicles for effects of light. The light which is fit for a + historical picture is that tempered semi-sunshine of which, in + general, the works of Titian are the best examples, and of which the + picture we have just passed, "The Visitation," is a perfect example + from the hand of one greater than Titian; so also the three + "Crucifixions" of San Rocco, San Cassano, and St. John and Paul; the + "Adoration of the Magi" here; and, in general, the finest works of + the master; but Tintoret was not a man to work in any formal or + systematic manner; and, exactly like Turner, we find him recording + every effect which Nature herself displays. Still he seems to regard + the pictures which deviate from the great general principle of + colorists rather as "tours de force" than as sources of pleasure; and + I do not think there is any instance of his having worked out one of + these tricky pictures with thorough affection, except only in the case + of the "Marriage of Cana." By tricky pictures, I mean those which + display light entering in different directions, and attract the eye to + the effects rather than to the figure which displays them. Of this + treatment, we have already had a marvellous instance in the + candle-light picture of the "Last Supper" in San Giorgio Maggiore. + This "Adoration of the Shepherds" has probably been nearly as + wonderful when first painted: the Madonna is seated on a kind of + hammock floor made of rope netting, covered with straw; it divides the + picture into two stories, of which the uppermost contains the Virgin, + with two women who are adoring Christ, and shows light entering from + above through the loose timbers of the roof of the stable, as well as + through the bars of a square window; the lower division shows this + light falling behind the netting upon the stable floor, occupied by a + cock and a cow, and against this light are relieved the figures of the + shepherds, for the most part in demi-tint, but with flakes of more + vigorous sunshine falling here and there upon them from above. The + optical illusion has originally been as perfect as one of Hunt's best + interiors; but it is most curious that no part of the work seems to + have been taken any pleasure in by the painter; it is all by his hand, + but it looks as if he had been bent only on getting over the ground. + It is literally a piece of scene-painting, and is exactly what we + might fancy Tintoret to have done, had he been forced to paint scenes + at a small theatre at a shilling a day. I cannot think that the whole + canvas, though fourteen feet high and ten wide, or thereabouts, could + have taken him more than a couple of days to finish: and it is very + noticeable that exactly in proportion to the brilliant effects of + light is the coarseness of the execution, for the figures of the + Madonna and of the women above, which are not in any strong effect, + are painted with some care, while the shepherds and the cow are alike + slovenly; and the latter, which is in full sunshine, is recognizable + for a cow more by its size and that of its horns, than by any care + given to its form. It is interesting to contrast this slovenly and + mean sketch with the ass's head in the "Flight into Egypt," on which + the painter exerted his full power; as an effect of light, however, + the work is, of course, most interesting. One point in the treatment + is especially noticeable: there is a peacock in the rack beyond the + cow; and under other circumstances, one cannot doubt that Tintoret + would have liked a peacock in full color, and would have painted it + green and blue with great satisfaction. It is sacrificed to the light, + however, and is painted in warm grey, with a dim eye or two in the + tail: this process is exactly analogous to Turner's taking the colors + out of the flags of his ships in the "Gosport." Another striking point + is the litter with which the whole picture is filled in order more to + confuse the eye: there is straw sticking from the roof, straw all over + the hammock floor, and straw struggling hither and thither all over + the floor itself; and, to add to the confusion, the glory around the + head of the infant, instead of being united and serene, is broken into + little bits, and is like a glory of chopped straw. But the most + curious thing, after all, is the want of delight in any of the + principal figures, and the comparative meanness and commonplaceness of + even the folds of the drapery. It seems as if Tintoret had determined + to make the shepherds as uninteresting as possible; but one does not + see why their very clothes should be ill painted, and their + disposition unpicturesque. I believe, however, though it never struck + me until I had examined this picture, that this is one of the + painter's fixed principles: he does not, with German sentimentality, + make shepherds and peasants graceful or sublime, but he purposely + vulgarizes them, not by making their actions or their faces boorish or + disagreeable, but rather by painting them ill, and composing their + draperies tamely. As far as I recollect at present, the principle is + universal with him; exactly in proportion to the dignity of character + is the beauty of the painting. He will not put out his strength upon + any man belonging to the lower classes; and, in order to know what the + painter is, one must see him at work on a king, a senator, or a + saint. The curious connexion of this with the aristocratic tendencies + of the Venetian nation, when we remember that Tintoret was the + greatest man whom that nation produced, may become very interesting, + if followed out. I forgot to note that, though the peacock is painted + with great regardlessness of color, there is a feature in it which no + common painter would have observed,--the peculiar flatness of the + back, and undulation of the shoulders: the bird's body is all there, + though its feathers are a good deal neglected; and the same thing is + noticeable in a cock who is pecking among the straw near the + spectator, though in other respects a shabby cock enough. The fact is, + I believe, he had made his shepherds so commonplace that he dare not + paint his animals well, otherwise one would have looked at nothing in + the picture but the peacock, cock, and cow. I cannot tell what the + shepherds are offering; they look like milk bowls, but they are + awkwardly held up, with such twistings of body as would have certainly + spilt the milk. A woman in front has a basket of eggs; but this I + imagine to be merely to keep up the rustic character of the scene, and + not part of the shepherd's offerings. + + 11. _Baptism._ There is more of the true picture quality in this work + than in the former one, but still very little appearance of enjoyment + or care. The color is for the most part grey and uninteresting, and + the figures are thin and meagre in form, and slightly painted; so much + so, that of the nineteen figures in the distance, about a dozen are + hardly worth calling figures, and the rest are so sketched and + flourished in that one can hardly tell which is which. There is one + point about it very interesting to a landscape painter: the river is + seen far into the distance, with a piece of copse bordering it; the + sky beyond is dark, but the water nevertheless receives a brilliant + reflection from some unseen rent in the clouds, so brilliant, that + when I was first at Venice, not being accustomed to Tintoret's slight + execution, or to see pictures so much injured, I took this piece of + water for a piece of sky. The effect as Tintoret has arranged it, is + indeed somewhat unnatural, but it is valuable as showing his + recognition of a principle unknown to half the historical painters of + the present day,--that the reflection seen in the water is totally + different from the object seen above it, and that it is very possible + to have a bright light in reflection where there appears nothing but + darkness to be reflected. The clouds in the sky itself are round, + heavy, and lightless, and in a great degree spoil what would otherwise + be a fine landscape distance. Behind the rocks on the right, a single + head is seen, with a collar on the shoulders: it seems to be intended + for a portrait of some person connected with the picture. + + 12. _Resurrection._ Another of the "effect of light" pictures, and not + a very striking one, the best part of it being the two distant figures + of the Maries seen in the dawn of the morning. The conception of the + Resurrection itself is characteristic of the worst points of Tintoret. + His impetuosity is here in the wrong place; Christ bursts out of the + rock like a thunderbolt, and the angels themselves seem likely to be + crushed under the rent stones of the tomb. Had the figure of Christ + been sublime, this conception might have been accepted; but, on the + contrary, it is weak, mean, and painful; and the whole picture is + languidly or roughly painted, except only the fig-tree at the top of + the rock, which, by a curious caprice, is not only drawn in the + painter's best manner, but has golden ribs to all its leaves, making + it look like one of the beautiful crossed or chequered patterns, of + which he is so fond in his dresses; the leaves themselves being a dark + olive brown. + + 13. _The Agony in the Garden._ I cannot at present understand the + order of these subjects; but they may have been misplaced. This, of + all the San Rocco pictures, is the most hastily painted, but it is + not, like those we have been passing, _clodly_ painted; it seems to + have been executed altogether with a hearth-broom, and in a few hours. + It is another of the "effects," and a very curious one; the Angel who + bears the cup to Christ is surrounded by a red halo; yet the light + which falls upon the shoulders of the sleeping disciples, and upon the + leaves of the olive-trees, is cool and silvery, while the troop coming + up to seize Christ are seen by torch-light. Judas, who is the second + figure, points to Christ, but turns his head away as he does so, as + unable to look at him. This is a noble touch; the foliage is also + exceedingly fine, though what kind of olive-tree bears such leaves I + know not, each of them being about the size of a man's hand. If there + be any which bear such foliage, their olives must be the size of + cocoa-nuts. This, however, is true only of the underwood, which is, + perhaps, not meant for olive. There are some taller trees at the top + of the picture, whose leaves are of a more natural size. On closely + examining the figures of the troops on the left, I find that the + distant ones are concealed, all but the limbs, by a sort of arch of + dark color, which is now so injured, that I cannot tell whether it was + foliage or ground: I suppose it to have been a mass of close foliage, + through which the troop is breaking its way; Judas rather showing them + the path, than actually pointing to Christ, as it is written, "Judas, + who betrayed him, knew the place." St. Peter, as the most zealous of + the three disciples, the only one who was to endeavor to defend his + Master, is represented as awakening and turning his head toward the + troop, while James and John are buried in profound slumber, laid in + magnificent languor among the leaves. The picture is singularly + impressive, when seen far enough off, as an image of thick forest + gloom amidst the rich and tender foliage of the South; the leaves, + however, tossing as in disturbed night air, and the flickering of the + torches, and of the branches, contrasted with the steady flame which + from the Angel's presence is spread over the robes of the disciples. + The strangest feature in the whole is that the Christ also is + represented as sleeping. The angel seems to appear to him in a dream. + + 14. _The Last Supper._ A most unsatisfactory picture; I think about + the worst I know of Tintoret's, where there is no appearance of + retouching. He always makes the disciples in this scene too vulgar; + they are here not only vulgar, but diminutive, and Christ is at the + end of the table, the smallest figure of them all. The principal + figures are two mendicants sitting on steps in front; a kind of + supporters, but I suppose intended to be waiting for the fragments; a + dog, in still more earnest expectation, is watching the movements of + the disciples, who are talking together, Judas having just gone out. + Christ is represented as giving what one at first supposes is the sop + to Judas, but as the disciple who received it has a glory, and there + are only eleven at table, it is evidently the Sacramental bread. The + room in which they are assembled is a sort of large kitchen, and the + host is seen employed at a dresser in the background. This picture has + not only been originally poor, but is one of those exposed all day to + the sun, and is dried into mere dusty canvas: where there was once + blue, there is now nothing. + + 15. _Saint Rocco in Glory._ One of the worst order of Tintorets, with + apparent smoothness and finish, yet languidly painted, as if in + illness or fatigue; very dark and heavy in tone also; its figures, for + the most part, of an awkward middle size, about five feet high, and + very uninteresting. St. Rocco ascends to heaven, looking down upon a + crowd of poor and sick persons who are blessing and adoring him. One + of these, kneeling at the bottom, is very nearly a repetition, though + a careless and indolent one, of that of St. Stephen, in St. Giorgio + Maggiore, and of the central figure in the "Paradise" of the Ducal + Palace. It is a kind of lay figure, of which he seems to have been + fond; its clasped hands are here shockingly painted--I should think + unfinished. It forms the only important light at the bottom, relieved + on a dark ground; at the top of the picture, the figure of St. Rocco + is seen in shadow against the light of the sky, and all the rest is in + confused shadow. The commonplaceness of this composition is curiously + connected with the languor of thought and touch throughout the work. + + 16. _Miracle of the Loaves._ Hardly anything but a fine piece of + landscape is here left; it is more exposed to the sun than any other + picture in the room, and its draperies having been, in great part, + painted in blue, are now mere patches of the color of starch; the + scene is also very imperfectly conceived. The twenty-one figures, + including Christ and his Disciples, very ill represent a crowd of + seven thousand; still less is the marvel of the miracle expressed by + perfect ease and rest of the reclining figures in the foreground, who + do not so much as look surprised; considered merely as reclining + figures, and as pieces of effect in half light, they have once been + fine. The landscape, which represents the slope of a woody hill, has a + very grand and far-away look. Behind it is a great space of streaky + sky, almost prismatic in color, rosy and golden clouds covering up its + blue, and some fine vigorous trees thrown against it; painted in about + ten minutes each, however, by curly touches of the brush, and looking + rather more like seaweed than foliage. + + 17. _Resurrection of Lazarus._ Very strangely, and not impressively + conceived. Christ is half reclining, half sitting, at the bottom of + the picture, while Lazarus is disencumbered of his grave-clothes at + the top of it; the scene being the side of a rocky hill, and the mouth + of the tomb probably once visible in the shadow on the left; but all + that is now discernible is a man having his limbs unbound, as if + Christ were merely ordering a prisoner to be loosed. There appears + neither awe nor agitation, nor even much astonishment, in any of the + figures of the group; but the picture is more vigorous than any of the + three last mentioned, and the upper part of it is quite worthy of the + master, especially its noble fig-tree and laurel, which he has + painted, in one of his usual fits of caprice, as carefully as that in + the "Resurrection of Christ," opposite. Perhaps he has some meaning in + this; he may have been thinking of the verse, "Behold the fig-tree, + and all the trees; when they now shoot forth," &c. In the present + instance, the leaves are dark only, and have no golden veins. The + uppermost figures also come dark against the sky, and would form a + precipitous mass, like a piece of the rock itself, but that they are + broken in upon by one of the limbs of Lazarus, bandaged and in full + light, which, to my feeling, sadly injures the picture, both as a + disagreeable object, and a light in the wrong place. The grass and + weeds are, throughout, carefully painted, but the lower figures are of + little interest, and the face of the Christ a grievous failure. + + 18. _The Ascension._ I have always admired this picture, though it is + very slight and thin in execution, and cold in color; but it is + remarkable for its thorough effect of open air, and for the sense of + motion and clashing in the wings of the Angels which sustain the + Christ: they owe this effect a good deal to the manner in which they + are set, edge on; all seem like sword-blades cutting the air. It is + the most curious in conception of all the pictures in the Scuola, for + it represents, beneath the Ascension, a kind of epitome of what took + place before the Ascension. In the distance are two Apostles walking, + meant, I suppose, for the two going to Emmaus; nearer are a group + round a table, to remind us of Christ appearing to them as they sat at + meat; and in the foreground is a single reclining figure of, I + suppose, St. Peter, because we are told that "he was seen of Cephas, + then of the twelve:" but this interpretation is doubtful; for why + should not the vision by the Lake of Tiberias be expressed also? And + the strange thing of all is the scene, for Christ ascended from the + Mount of Olives; but the Disciples are walking, and the table is set, + in a little marshy and grassy valley, like some of the bits near + Maison Neuve on the Jura, with a brook running through it, so + capitally expressed, that I believe it is this which makes me so fond + of the picture. The reflections are as scientific in the diminution, + in the image, of large masses of bank above, as any of Turner's, and + the marshy and reedy ground looks as if one would sink into it; but + what all this has to do with the Ascension I cannot see. The figure of + Christ is not undignified, but by no means either interesting or + sublime. + + 19. _Pool of Bethesda._ I have no doubt the principal figures have + been repainted; but as the colors are faded, and the subject + disgusting, I have not paid this picture sufficient attention to say + how far the injury extends; nor need any one spend time upon it, + unless after having first examined all the other Tintorets in Venice. + All the great Italian painters appear insensible to the feeling of + disgust at disease; but this study of the population of an hospital is + without any points of contrast, and I wish Tintoret had not + condescended to paint it. This and the six preceding paintings have + all been uninteresting,--I believe chiefly owing to the observance in + them of Sir Joshua's rule for the heroic, "that drapery is to be mere + drapery, and not silk, nor satin, nor brocade." However wise such a + rule may be when applied to works of the purest religious art, it is + anything but wise as respects works of color. Tintoret is never quite + himself unless he has fur or velvet, or rich stuff of one sort or the + other, or jewels, or armor, or something that he can put play of color + into, among his figures, and not dead folds of linsey-woolsey; and I + believe that even the best pictures of Raffaelle and Angelico are not + a little helped by their hems of robes, jewelled crowns, priests' + copes, and so on; and the pictures that have nothing of this kind in + them, as for instance the "Transfiguration," are to my mind not a + little dull. + + 20. _Temptation._ This picture singularly illustrates what has just + been observed; it owes great part of its effect to the lustre of the + jewels in the armlet of the evil angel, and to the beautiful colors of + his wings. These are slight accessaries apparently, but they enhance + the value of all the rest, and they have evidently been enjoyed by the + painter. The armlet is seen by reflected light, its stones shining by + inward lustre; this occult fire being the only hint given of the real + character of the Tempter, who is otherways represented in the form of + a beautiful angel, though the face is sensual: we can hardly tell how + far it was intended to be therefore expressive of evil; for Tintoret's + good angels have not always the purest features; but there is a + peculiar subtlety in this telling of the story by so slight a + circumstance as the glare of the jewels in the darkness. It is curious + to compare this imagination with that of the mosaics in St. Mark's, in + which Satan is a black monster, with horns, and head, and tail, + complete. The whole of the picture is powerfully and carefully + painted, though very broadly; it is a strong effect of light, and + therefore, as usual, subdued in color. The painting of the stones in + the foreground I have always thought, and still think, the best piece + of rock drawing before Turner, and the most amazing instance of + Tintoret's perceptiveness afforded by any of his pictures. + + 21. _St. Rocco._ Three figures occupy the spandrils of the window + above this and the following picture, painted merely in light and + shade, two larger than life, one rather smaller. I believe these to be + by Tintoret; but as they are quite in the dark, so that the execution + cannot be seen, and very good designs of the kind have been furnished + by other masters, I cannot answer for them. The figure of St. Rocco, + as well as its companion, St. Sebastian, is colored; they occupy the + narrow intervals between the windows, and are of course invisible + under ordinary circumstances. By a great deal of straining of the + eyes, and sheltering them with the hand from the light, some little + idea of the design may be obtained. The "St. Rocco" is a fine figure, + though rather coarse, but, at all events, worth as much light as would + enable us to see it. + + 22. _St. Sebastian._ This, the companion figure, is one of the finest + things in the whole room, and assuredly the most majestic Saint + Sebastian in existence; as far as mere humanity can be majestic, for + there is no effort at any expression of angelic or saintly + resignation; the effort is simply to realize the fact of the + martyrdom, and it seems to me that this is done to an extent not even + attempted by any other painter. I never saw a man die a violent death, + and therefore cannot say whether this figure be true or not, but it + gives the grandest and most intense impression of truth. The figure is + dead, and well it may be, for there is one arrow through the forehead + and another through the heart; but the eyes are open, though glazed, + and the body is rigid in the position in which it last stood, the left + arm raised and the left limb advanced, something in the attitude of a + soldier sustaining an attack under his shield, while the dead eyes are + still turned in the direction from which the arrows came: but the most + characteristic feature is the way these arrows are fixed. In the + common martyrdoms of St. Sebastian they are stuck into him here and + there like pins, as if they had been shot from a great distance and + had come faltering down, entering the flesh but a little way, and + rather bleeding the saint to death than mortally wounding him; but + Tintoret had no such ideas about archery. He must have seen bows drawn + in battle, like that of Jehu when he smote Jehoram between the + harness: all the arrows in the saint's body lie straight in the same + direction, broad-feathered and strong-shafted, and sent apparently + with the force of thunderbolts; every one of them has gone through him + like a lance, two through the limbs, one through the arm, one through + the heart, and the last has crashed through the forehead, nailing the + head to the tree behind as if it had been dashed in by a + sledge-hammer. The face, in spite of its ghastliness, is beautiful, + and has been serene; and the light which enters first and glistens on + the plumes of the arrows, dies softly away upon the curling hair, and + mixes with the glory upon the forehead. There is not a more remarkable + picture in Venice, and yet I do not suppose that one in a thousand of + the travellers who pass through the Scuola so much as perceives there + is a picture in the place which it occupies. + + [Illustration: Third Group. On the roof of the upper room. + + 23. Moses striking the Rock. 29. Elijah. + 24. Plague of Serpents. 30. Jonah. + 25. Fall of Manna. 31. Joshua. + 26. Jacob's Dream. 32. Sacrifice of Isaac. + 27. Ezekiel's Vision. 33. Elijah at the Brook. + 28. Fall of Man. 34. Paschal Feast. + 35. Elisha feeding the People.] + + 23. _Moses striking the Rock._ We now come to the series of pictures + upon which the painter concentrated the strength he had reserved for + the upper room; and in some sort wisely, for, though it is not + pleasant to examine pictures on a ceiling, they are at least + distinctly visible without straining the eyes against the light. They + are carefully conceived and thoroughly well painted in proportion to + their distance from the eye. This carefulness of thought is apparent + at a glance: the "Moses striking the Rock" embraces the whole of the + seventeenth chapter of Exodus, and even something more, for it is not + from that chapter, but from parallel passages that we gather the facts + of the impatience of Moses and the wrath of God at the waters of + Meribah; both which facts are shown by the leaping of the stream out + of the rock half-a-dozen ways at once, forming a great arch over the + head of Moses, and by the partial veiling of the countenance of the + Supreme Being. This latter is the most painful part of the whole + picture, at least as it is seen from below; and I believe that in some + repairs of the roof this head must have been destroyed and repainted. + It is one of Tintoret's usual fine thoughts that the lower part of the + figure is veiled, not merely by clouds, but in a kind of watery + sphere, showing the Deity coming to the Israelites at that particular + moment as the Lord of the Rivers and of the Fountain of the Waters. + The whole figure, as well as that of Moses and the greater number of + those in the foreground, is at once dark and warm, black and red being + the prevailing colors, while the distance is bright gold touched with + blue, and seems to open into the picture like a break of blue sky + after rain. How exquisite is this expression, by mere color, of the + main force of the fact represented! that is to say, joy and + refreshment after sorrow and scorching heat. But, when we examine of + what this distance consists, we shall find still more cause for + admiration. The blue in it is not the blue of sky, it is obtained by + blue stripes upon white tents glowing in the sunshine; and in front of + these tents is seen that great battle with Amalek of which the account + is given in the remainder of the chapter, and for which the Israelites + received strength in the streams which ran out of the rock in Horeb. + Considered merely as a picture, the opposition of cool light to warm + shadow is one of the most remarkable pieces of color in the Scuola, + and the great mass of foliage which waves over the rocks on the left + appears to have been elaborated with his highest power and his most + sublime invention. But this noble passage is much injured, and now + hardly visible. + + 24. _Plague of Serpents._ The figures in the distance are remarkably + important in this picture, Moses himself being among them; in fact, + the whole scene is filled chiefly with middle-sized figures, in order + to increase the impression of space. It is interesting to observe the + difference in the treatment of this subject by the three great + painters, Michael Angelo, Rubens, and Tintoret. The first two, equal + to the latter in energy, had less love of liberty: they were fond of + binding their compositions into knots, Tintoret of scattering his far + and wide: they all alike preserve the unity of composition, but the + unity in the first two is obtained by binding, and that of the last by + springing from one source; and, together with this feeling, comes his + love of space, which makes him less regard the rounding and form of + objects themselves, than their relations of light and shade and + distance. Therefore Rubens and Michael Angelo made the fiery serpents + huge boa constrictors, and knotted the sufferers together with them. + Tintoret does not like to be so bound; so he makes the serpents little + flying and fluttering monsters like lampreys with wings; and the + children of Israel, instead of being thrown into convulsed and + writhing groups, are scattered, fainting in the fields, far away in + the distance. As usual, Tintoret's conception, while thoroughly + characteristic of himself, is also truer to the words of Scripture. We + are told that "the Lord sent fiery serpents among the people, and they + _bit_ the people;" we are not told that they crushed the people to + death. And while thus the truest, it is also the most terrific + conception. M. Angelo's would be terrific if one could believe in it: + but our instinct tells us that boa constrictors do not come in armies; + and we look upon the picture with as little emotion as upon the handle + of a vase, or any other form worked out of serpents, where there is no + probability of serpents actually occurring. But there is a probability + in Tintoret's conception. We feel that it is not impossible that there + should come up a swarm of these small winged reptiles: and their + horror is not diminished by their smallness: not that they have any of + the grotesque terribleness of German invention; they might have been + made infinitely uglier with small pains, but it is their + _veritableness_ which makes them awful. They have triangular heads + with sharp beaks or muzzle; and short, rather thick bodies, with bony + processes down the back like those of sturgeons; and small wings + spotted with orange and black; and round glaring eyes, not very large, + but very ghastly, with an intense delight in biting expressed in them. + (It is observable, that the Venetian painter has got his main idea of + them from the sea-horses and small reptiles of the Lagoons.) These + monsters are fluttering and writhing about everywhere, fixing on + whatever they come near with their sharp venomous heads; and they are + coiling about on the ground, and all the shadows and thickets are full + of them, so that there is no escape anywhere: and, in order to give + the idea of greater extent to the plague, Tintoret has not been + content with one horizon; I have before mentioned the excessive + strangeness of this composition, in having a cavern open in the right + of the foreground, through which is seen another sky and another + horizon. At the top of the picture, the Divine Being is seen borne by + angels, apparently passing over the congregation in wrath, involved in + masses of dark clouds; while, behind, an Angel of mercy is descending + toward Moses, surrounded by a globe of white light. This globe is + hardly seen from below; it is not a common glory, but a transparent + sphere, like a bubble, which not only envelopes the angel, but crosses + the figure of Moses, throwing the upper part of it into a subdued pale + color, as if it were crossed by a sunbeam. Tintoret is the only + painter who plays these tricks with transparent light, the only man + who seems to have perceived the effects of sunbeams, mists, and + clouds, in the far away atmosphere; and to have used what he saw on + towers, clouds, or mountains, to enhance the sublimity of his figures. + The whole upper part of this picture is magnificent, less with respect + to individual figures, than for the drift of its clouds, and + originality and complication of its light and shade; it is something + like Raffaelle's "Vision of Ezekiel," but far finer. It is difficult + to understand how any painter, who could represent floating clouds so + nobly as he has done here, could ever paint the odd, round, pillowy + masses which so often occur in his more carelessly designed sacred + subjects. The lower figures are not so interesting, and the whole is + painted with a view to effect from below, and gains little by close + examination. + + 25. _Fall of Manna._ In none of these three large compositions has the + painter made the slightest effort at expression in the human + countenance; everything is done by gesture, and the faces of the + people who are drinking from the rock, dying from the serpent-bites, + and eating the manna, are all alike as calm as if nothing was + happening; in addition to this, as they are painted for distant + effect, the heads are unsatisfactory and coarse when seen near, and + perhaps in this last picture the more so, and yet the story is + exquisitely told. We have seen in the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore + another example of his treatment of it, where, however, the gathering + of manna is a subordinate employment, but here it is principal. Now, + observe, we are told of the manna, that it was found in the morning; + that then there lay round about the camp a small round thing like the + hoar-frost, and that "when the sun waxed hot it melted." Tintoret has + endeavored, therefore, first of all, to give the idea of coolness; the + congregation are reposing in a soft green meadow, surrounded by blue + hills, and there are rich trees above them, to the branches of one of + which is attached a great grey drapery to catch the manna as it comes + down. In any other picture such a mass of drapery would assuredly have + had some vivid color, but here it is grey; the fields are cool frosty + green, the mountains cold blue, and, to complete the expression and + meaning of all this, there is a most important point to be noted in + the form of the Deity, seen above, through an opening in the clouds. + There are at least ten or twelve other pictures in which the form of + the Supreme Being occurs, to be found in the Scuola di San Rocco + alone; and in every one of these instances it is richly colored, the + garments being generally red and blue, but in this picture of the + manna the figure is _snow white_. Thus the painter endeavors to show + the Deity as the giver of bread, just as in the "Striking of the Rock" + we saw that he represented Him as the Lord of the rivers, the + fountains, and the waters. There is one other very sweet incident at + the bottom of the picture; four or five sheep, instead of pasturing, + turn their heads aside to catch the manna as it comes down, or seem to + be licking it off each other's fleeces. The tree above, to which the + drapery is tied, is the most delicate and delightful piece of leafage + in all the Scuola; it has a large sharp leaf, something like that of a + willow, but five times the size. + + 26. _Jacob's Dream._ A picture which has good effect from below, but + gains little when seen near. It is an embarrassing one for any + painter, because angels always look awkward going up and down stairs; + one does not see the use of their wings. Tintoret has thrown them into + buoyant and various attitudes, but has evidently not treated the + subject with delight; and it is seen to all the more disadvantage + because just above the painting of the "Ascension," in which the full + fresh power of the painter is developed. One would think this latter + picture had been done just after a walk among hills, for it is full of + the most delicate effects of transparent cloud, more or less veiling + the faces and forms of the angels, and covering with white light the + silvery sprays of the palms, while the clouds in the "Jacob's Dream" + are the ordinary rotundities of the studio. + + 27. _Ezekiel's Vision._ I suspect this has been repainted, it is so + heavy and dead in color; a fault, however, observable in many of the + small pictures on the ceiling, and perhaps the natural result of the + fatigue of such a mind as Tintoret's. A painter who threw such intense + energy into some of his works can hardly but have been languid in + others in a degree never experienced by the more tranquil minds of + less powerful workmen; and when this languor overtook him whilst he + was at work on pictures where a certain space had to be covered by + mere force of arm, this heaviness of color could hardly but have been + the consequence: it shows itself chiefly in reds and other hot hues, + many of the pictures in the Ducal Palace also displaying it in a + painful degree. This "Ezekiel's Vision" is, however, in some measure + worthy of the master, in the wild and horrible energy with which the + skeletons are leaping up about the prophet; but it might have been + less horrible and more sublime, no attempt being made to represent the + space of the Valley of Dry Bones, and the whole canvas being occupied + only by eight figures, of which five are half skeletons. It it is + strange that, in such a subject, the prevailing hues should be red and + brown. + + 28. _Fall of Man._ The two canvases last named are the most + considerable in size upon the roof, after the centre pieces. We now + come to the smaller subjects which surround the "Striking the Rock;" + of these this "Fall of Man" is the best, and I should think it very + fine anywhere but in the Scuola di San Rocco; there is a grand light + on the body of Eve, and the vegetation is remarkably rich, but the + faces are coarse, and the composition uninteresting. I could not get + near enough to see what the grey object is upon which Eve appears to + be sitting, nor could I see any serpent. It is made prominent in the + picture of the Academy of this same subject, so that I suppose it is + hidden in the darkness, together with much detail which it would be + necessary to discover in order to judge the work justly. + + 29. _Elijah (?)._ A prophet holding down his face, which is covered + with his hand. God is talking with him, apparently in rebuke. The + clothes on his breast are rent, and the action of the figures might + suggest the idea of the scene between the Deity and Elijah at Horeb: + but there is no suggestion of the past magnificent scenery,--of the + wind, the earthquake, or the fire; so that the conjecture is good for + very little. The painting is of small interest; the faces are vulgar, + and the draperies have too much vapid historical dignity to be + delightful. + + 30. _Jonah._ The whale here occupies fully one-half of the canvas; + being correspondent in value with a landscape background. His mouth is + as large as a cavern, and yet, unless the mass of red color in the + foreground be a piece of drapery, his tongue is too large for it. He + seems to have lifted Jonah out upon it, and not yet drawn it back, so + that it forms a kind of crimson cushion for him to kneel upon in his + submission to the Deity. The head to which this vast tongue belongs is + sketched in somewhat loosely, and there is little remarkable about it + except its size, nor much in the figures, though the submissiveness of + Jonah is well given. The great thought of Michael Angelo renders one + little charitable to any less imaginative treatment of this subject. + + 31. _Joshua (?)._ This is a most interesting picture, and it is a + shame that its subject is not made out, for it is not a common one. + The figure has a sword in its hand, and looks up to a sky full of + fire, out of which the form of the Deity is stooping, represented as + white and colorless. On the other side of the picture there is seen + among the clouds a pillar apparently falling, and there is a crowd at + the feet of the principal figure, carrying spears. Unless this be + Joshua at the fall of Jericho, I cannot tell what it means; it is + painted with great vigor, and worthy of a better place. + + 32. _Sacrifice of Isaac._ In conception, it is one of the least worthy + of the master in the whole room, the three figures being thrown into + violent attitudes, as inexpressive as they are strained and + artificial. It appears to have been vigorously painted, but vulgarly; + that is to say, the light is concentrated upon the white beard and + upturned countenance of Abraham, as it would have been in one of the + dramatic effects of the French school, the result being that the head + is very bright and very conspicuous, and perhaps, in some of the late + operations upon the roof, recently washed and touched. In consequence, + every one who comes into the room, is first invited to observe the + "bella testa di Abramo." The only thing characteristic of Tintoret is + the way in which the pieces of ragged wood are tossed hither and + thither in the pile upon which Isaac is bound, although this + scattering of the wood is inconsistent with the Scriptural account of + Abraham's deliberate procedure, for we are told of him that "he set + the wood in order." But Tintoret had probably not noticed this, and + thought the tossing of the timber into the disordered heap more like + the act of the father in his agony. + + 33. _Elijah at the Brook Cherith (?)._ I cannot tell if I have rightly + interpreted the meaning of this picture, which merely represents a + noble figure couched upon the ground, and an angel appearing to him; + but I think that between the dark tree on the left, and the recumbent + figure, there is some appearance of a running stream, at all events + there is of a mountainous and stony place. The longer I study this + master, the more I feel the strange likeness between him and Turner, + in our never knowing what subject it is that will stir him to + exertion. We have lately had him treating Jacob's Dream, Ezekiel's + Vision, Abraham's Sacrifice, and Jonah's Prayer, (all of them subjects + on which the greatest painters have delighted to expend their + strength,) with coldness, carelessness, and evident absence of + delight; and here, on a sudden, in a subject so indistinct that one + cannot be sure of its meaning, and embracing only two figures, a man + and an angel, forth he starts in his full strength. I believe he must + somewhere or another, the day before, have seen a kingfisher; for this + picture seems entirely painted for the sake of the glorious downy + wings of the angel,--white clouded with blue, as the bird's head and + wings are with green,--the softest and most elaborate in plumage that + I have seen in any of his works: but observe also the general + sublimity obtained by the mountainous lines of the drapery of the + recumbent figure, dependent for its dignity upon these forms alone, as + the face is more than half hidden, and what is seen of it + expressionless. + + 34. _The Paschal Feast._ I name this picture by the title given in the + guide-books; it represents merely five persons watching the increase + of a small fire lighted on a table or altar in the midst of them. It + is only because they have all staves in their hands that one may + conjecture this fire to be that kindled to consume the Paschal + offering. The effect is of course a fire light; and, like all mere + fire lights that I have ever seen, totally devoid of interest. + + 35. _Elisha feeding the People._ I again guess at the subject: the + picture only represents a figure casting down a number of loaves + before a multitude; but, as Elisha has not elsewhere occurred, I + suppose that these must be the barley loaves brought from + Baalshalisha. In conception and manner of painting, this picture and + the last, together with the others above-mentioned, in comparison with + the "Elijah at Cherith," may be generally described as "dregs of + Tintoret:" they are tired, dead, dragged out upon the canvas + apparently in the heavy-hearted state which a man falls into when he + is both jaded with toil and sick of the work he is employed upon. They + are not hastily painted; on the contrary, finished with considerably + more care than several of the works upon the walls; but those, as, for + instance, the "Agony in the Garden," are hurried sketches with the + man's whole heart in them, while these pictures are exhausted + fulfilments of an appointed task. Whether they were really amongst the + last painted, or whether the painter had fallen ill at some + intermediate time, I cannot say; but we shall find him again in his + utmost strength in the room which we last enter. + + [Illustration: Fourth Group. Inner room on the upper floor. + + On the Roof. + + 36 to 39. Children's Heads. 41 to 44. Children. + 40. St. Rocco in Heaven. 45 to 56. Allegorical Figures. + + On the Walls. + + 57. Figure in Niche. 60. Ecce Homo. + 58. Figure in Niche. 61. Christ bearing his Cross. + 59. Christ before Pilate. 62. CRUCIFIXION.] + + 36 to 39. _Four Children's Heads_, which it is much to be regretted + should be thus lost in filling small vacuities of the ceiling. + + 40. _St. Rocco in Heaven._ The central picture of the roof, in the + inner room. From the well-known anecdote respecting the production of + this picture, whether in all its details true or not, we may at least + gather that having been painted in competition with Paul Veronese and + other powerful painters of the day, it was probably Tintoret's + endeavor to make it as popular and showy as possible. It is quite + different from his common works; bright in all its tints and tones; + the faces carefully drawn, and of an agreeable type; the outlines + firm, and the shadows few; the whole resembling Correggio more than + any Venetian painter. It is, however, an example of the danger, even + to the greatest artist, of leaving his own style; for it lacks all the + great virtues of Tintoret, without obtaining the lusciousness of + Correggio. One thing, at all events, is remarkable in it,--that, + though painted while the competitors were making their sketches, it + shows no sign of haste or inattention. + + 41 to 44. _Figures of Children_, merely decorative. + + 45 to 56. _Allegorical Figures on the Roof._ If these were not in the + same room with the "Crucifixion," they would attract more public + attention than any works in the Scuola, as there are here no black + shadows, nor extravagances of invention, but very beautiful figures + richly and delicately colored, a good deal resembling some of the best + works of Andrea del Sarto. There is nothing in them, however, + requiring detailed examination. The two figures between the windows + are very slovenly, if they are his at all; and there are bits of + marbling and fruit filling the cornices, which may or may not be his: + if they are, they are tired work, and of small importance. + + 59. _Christ before Pilate._ A most interesting picture, but, which is + unusual, best seen on a dark day, when the white figure of Christ + alone draws the eye, looking almost like a spirit; the painting of the + rest of the picture being both somewhat thin and imperfect. There is a + certain meagreness about all the minor figures, less grandeur and + largeness in the limbs and draperies, and less solidity, it seems, + even in the color, although its arrangements are richer than in many + of the compositions above described. I hardly know whether it is owing + to this thinness of color, or on purpose, that the horizontal clouds + shine through the crimson flag in the distance; though I should think + the latter, for the effect is most beautiful. The passionate action of + the Scribe in lifting his hand to dip the pen into the ink-horn is, + however, affected and overstrained, and the Pilate is very mean; + perhaps intentionally, that no reverence might be withdrawn from the + person of Christ. In work of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, + the figures of Pilate and Herod are always intentionally made + contemptible. + + _Ecce Homo._ As usual, Tintoret's own peculiar view of the subject. + Christ is laid fainting on the ground, with a soldier standing on one + side of him; while Pilate, on the other, withdraws the robe from the + scourged and wounded body, and points it out to the Jews. Both this + and the picture last mentioned resemble Titian more than Tintoret in + the style of their treatment. + + 61. _Christ bearing his Cross._ Tintoret is here recognizable again in + undiminished strength. He has represented the troops and attendants + climbing Calvary by a winding path, of which two turns are seen, the + figures on the uppermost ledge, and Christ in the centre of them, + being relieved against the sky; but, instead of the usual simple + expedient of the bright horizon to relieve the dark masses, there is + here introduced, on the left, the head of a white horse, which blends + itself with the sky in one broad mass of light. The power of the + picture is chiefly in effect, the figure of Christ being too far off + to be very interesting, and only the malefactors being seen on the + nearer path; but for this very reason it seems to me more impressive, + as if one had been truly present at the scene, though not exactly in + the right place for seeing it. + + 62. _The Crucifixion._ I must leave this picture to work its will on + the spectator; for it is beyond all analysis, and above all praise. + + + S + + SAGREDO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, II. 256. Much defaced, but full + of interest. Its sea story is restored; its first floor has a most + interesting arcade of the early thirteenth century third order + windows; its upper windows are the finest fourth and fifth orders of + early fourteenth century; the group of fourth orders in the centre + being brought into some resemblance to the late Gothic traceries by + the subsequent introduction of the quatrefoils above them. + + SALUTE, CHURCH OF STA. MARIA DELLA, on the Grand Canal, II. 378. One + of the earliest buildings of the Grotesque Renaissance, rendered + impressive by its position, size, and general proportions. These + latter are exceedingly good; the grace of the whole building being + chiefly dependent on the inequality of size in its cupolas, and pretty + grouping of the two campaniles behind them. It is to be generally + observed that the proportions of buildings have nothing whatever to + do with the style or general merits of their architecture. An + architect trained in the worst schools, and utterly devoid of all + meaning or purpose in his work, may yet have such a natural gift of + massing and grouping as will render all his structures effective when + seen from a distance: such a gift is very general with the late + Italian builders, so that many of the most contemptible edifices in + the country have good stage effect so long as we do not approach them. + The Church of the Salute is farther assisted by the beautiful flight + of steps in front of it down to the canal; and its façade is rich and + beautiful of its kind, and was chosen by Turner for the principal + object in his well-known view of the Grand Canal. The principal faults + of the building are the meagre windows in the sides of the cupola, and + the ridiculous disguise of the buttresses under the form of colossal + scrolls; the buttresses themselves being originally a hypocrisy, for + the cupola is stated by Lazari to be of timber, and therefore needs + none. The sacristy contains several precious pictures: the three on + its roof by Titian, much vaunted, are indeed as feeble as they are + monstrous; but the small Titian, "St. Mark, with Sts. Cosmo and + Damian," was, when I first saw it, to my judgment, by far the first + work of Titian's in Venice. It has since been restored by the Academy, + and it seemed to me entirely destroyed, but I had not time to examine + it carefully. + + At the end of the larger sacristy is the lunette which once decorated + the tomb of the Doge Francesco Dandolo (see above, page 74); and, at + the side of it, one of the most highly finished Tintorets in Venice, + namely: + + _The Marriage in Cana._ An immense picture, some twenty-five feet long + by fifteen high, and said by Lazari to be one of the few which + Tintoret signed with his name. I am not surprised at his having done + so in this case. Evidently the work has been a favorite with him, and + he has taken as much pains as it was ever necessary for his colossal + strength to take with anything. The subject is not one which admits of + much singularity or energy in composition. It was always a favorite + one with Veronese, because it gave dramatic interest to figures in gay + costumes and of cheerful countenances; but one is surprised to find + Tintoret, whose tone of mind was always grave, and who did not like to + make a picture out of brocades and diadems, throwing his whole + strength into the conception of a marriage feast; but so it is, and + there are assuredly no female heads in any of his pictures in Venice + elaborated so far as those which here form the central light. Neither + is it often that the works of this mighty master conform themselves to + any of the rules acted upon by ordinary painters; but in this instance + the popular laws have been observed, and an academy student would be + delighted to see with what severity the principal light is arranged in + a central mass, which is divided and made more brilliant by a vigorous + piece of shadow thrust into the midst of it, and which dies away in + lesser fragments and sparkling towards the extremities of the picture. + This mass of light is as interesting by its composition as by its + intensity. The cicerone who escorts the stranger round the sacristy in + the course of five minutes, and allows him some forty seconds for the + contemplation of a picture which the study of six months would not + entirely fathom, directs his attention very carefully to the "bell' + effetto di prospettivo," the whole merit of the picture being, in the + eyes of the intelligent public, that there is a long table in it, one + end of which looks farther off than the other; but there is more in + the "bell' effetto di prospettivo" than the observance of the common + laws of optics. The table is set in a spacious chamber, of which the + windows at the end let in the light from the horizon, and those in the + side wall the intense blue of an Eastern sky. The spectator looks all + along the table, at the farther end of which are seated Christ and the + Madonna, the marriage guests on each side of it,--on one side men, on + the other women; the men are set with their backs to the light, which + passing over their heads and glancing slightly on the tablecloth, + falls in full length along the line of young Venetian women, who thus + fill the whole centre of the picture with one broad sunbeam, made up + of fair faces and golden hair. Close to the spectator a woman has + risen in amazement, and stretches across the table to show the wine in + her cup to those opposite; her dark red dress intercepts and enhances + the mass of gathered light. It is rather curious, considering the + subject of the picture, that one cannot distinguish either the bride + or the bridegroom; but the fourth figure from the Madonna in the line + of women, who wears a white head-dress of lace and rich chains of + pearls in her hair, may well be accepted for the former, and I think + that between her and the woman on the Madonna's left hand the unity of + the line of women is intercepted by a male figure; be this as it may, + this fourth female face is the most beautiful, as far as I recollect, + that occurs in the works of the painter, with the exception only of + the Madonna in the "Flight into Egypt." It is an ideal which occurs + indeed elsewhere in many of his works, a face at once dark and + delicate, the Italian cast of feature moulded with the softness and + childishness of English beauty some half a century ago; but I have + never seen the ideal so completely worked out by the master. The face + may best be described as one of the purest and softest of Stothard's + conceptions, executed with all the strength of Tintoret. The other + women are all made inferior to this one, but there are beautiful + profiles and bendings of breasts and necks along the whole line. The + men are all subordinate, though there are interesting portraits among + them; perhaps the only fault of the picture being that the faces are a + little too conspicuous, seen like balls of light among the crowd of + minor figures which fill the background of the picture. The tone of + the whole is sober and majestic in the highest degree; the dresses are + all broad masses of color, and the only parts of the picture which lay + claim to the expression of wealth or splendor are the head-dresses of + the women. In this respect the conception of the scene differs widely + from that of Veronese, and approaches more nearly to the probable + truth. Still the marriage is not an unimportant one; an immense crowd, + filling the background, forming superbly rich mosaic of color against + the distant sky. Taken as a whole, the picture is perhaps the most + perfect example which human art has produced of the utmost possible + force and sharpness of shadow united with richness of local color. In + all the other works of Tintoret, and much more of other colorists, + either the light and shade or the local color is predominant; in the + one case the picture has a tendency to look as if painted by + candle-light, in the other it becomes daringly conventional, and + approaches the conditions of glass-painting. This picture unites + color as rich as Titian's with light and shade as forcible as + Rembrandt's, and far more decisive. + + There are one or two other interesting pictures of the early Venetian + schools in this sacristy, and several important tombs in the adjoining + cloister; among which that of Francesco Dandolo, transported here from + the Church of the Frari, deserves especial attention. See above, p. + 74. + + SALVATORE, CHURCH OF ST. Base Renaissance, occupying the place of the + ancient church, under the porch of which the Pope Alexander III. is + said to have passed the night. M. Lazari states it to have been richly + decorated with mosaics; now all is gone. + + In the interior of the church are some of the best examples of + Renaissance sculptural monuments in Venice. (See above, Chap. II. § + LXXX.) It is said to possess an important pala of silver, of the + thirteenth century, one of the objects in Venice which I much regret + having forgotten to examine; besides two Titians, a Bonifazio, and a + John Bellini. The latter ("The Supper at Emmaus") must, I think, have + been entirely repainted: it is not only unworthy of the master, but + unlike him; as far, at least, as I could see from below, for it is + hung high. + + SANUDO PALAZZO. At the Miracoli. A noble Gothic palace of the fourteenth + century, with Byzantine fragments and cornices built into its walls, + especially round the interior court, in which the staircase is very + noble. Its door, opening on the quay, is the only one in Venice + entirely uninjured; retaining its wooden valve richly sculptured, its + wicket for examination of the stranger demanding admittance, and its + quaint knocker in the form of a fish. + + SCALZI, CHURCH OF THE. It possesses a fine John Bellini, and is renowned + through Venice for its precious marbles. I omitted to notice above, in + speaking of the buildings of the Grotesque Renaissance, that many of + them are remarkable for a kind of dishonesty, even in the use of + _true_ marbles, resulting not from motives of economy, but from mere + love of juggling and falsehood for their own sake. I hardly know which + condition of mind is meanest, that which has pride in plaster made to + look like marble, or that which takes delight in marble made to look + like silk. Several of the later churches in Venice, more especially + those of the Jesuiti, of San Clemente, and this of the Scalzi, rest + their chief claims to admiration on their having curtains and cushions + cut out of rock. The most ridiculous example is in San Clemente, and + the most curious and costly are in the Scalzi; which latter church is + a perfect type of the vulgar abuse of marble in every possible way, by + men who had no eye for color, and no understanding of any merit in a + work of art but that which arises from costliness of material, and + such powers of imitation as are devoted in England to the manufacture + of peaches and eggs out of Derbyshire spar. + + SEBASTIAN, CHURCH OF ST. The tomb, and of old the monument, of Paul + Veronese. It is full of his noblest pictures, or of what once were + such; but they seemed to me for the most part destroyed by repainting. + I had not time to examine them justly, but I would especially direct + the traveller's attention to the small Madonna over the second altar + on the right of the nave, still a perfect and priceless treasure. + + SERVI, CHURCH OF THE. Only two of its gates and some ruined walls are + left, in one of the foulest districts of the city. It was one of the + most interesting monuments of the early fourteenth century Gothic; and + there is much beauty in the fragments yet remaining. How long they may + stand I know not, the whole building having been offered me for sale, + ground and all, or stone by stone, as I chose, by its present + proprietor, when I was last in Venice. More real good might at present + be effected by any wealthy person who would devote his resources to + the preservation of such monuments wherever they exist, by freehold + purchase of the entire ruin, and afterwards by taking proper charge of + it, and forming a garden round it, than by any other mode of + protecting or encouraging art. There is no school, no lecturer, like a + ruin of the early ages. + + SEVERO, FONDAMENTA SAN, palace at, II. 264. + + SILVESTRO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance in itself, but it contains + two very interesting pictures: the first, a "St. Thomas of Canterbury + with the Baptist and St. Francis," by Girolamo Santa Croce, a superb + example of the Venetian religious school; the second by Tintoret, + namely: + + _The Baptism of Christ._ (Over the first altar on the right of the + nave.) An upright picture, some ten feet wide by fifteen high; the top + of it is arched, representing the Father supported by angels. It + requires little knowledge of Tintoret to see that these figures are + not by his hand. By returning to the opposite side of the nave, the + join in the canvas may be plainly seen, the upper part of the picture + having been entirely added on: whether it had this upper part before + it was repainted, or whether originally square, cannot now be told, + but I believe it had an upper part which has been destroyed. I am not + sure if even the dove and the two angels which are at the top of the + older part of the picture are quite genuine. The rest of it is + magnificent, though both the figures of the Saviour and the Baptist + show some concession on the part of the painter to the imperative + requirement of his age, that nothing should be done except in an + attitude; neither are there any of his usual fantastic imaginations. + There is simply the Christ in the water and the St. John on the shore, + without attendants, disciples, or witnesses of any kind; but the power + of the light and shade, and the splendor of the landscape, which on + the whole is well preserved, render it a most interesting example. The + Jordan is represented as a mountain brook, receiving a tributary + stream in a cascade from the rocks, in which St. John stands: there is + a rounded stone in the centre of the current; and the parting of the + water at this, as well as its rippling among the roots of some dark + trees on the left, are among the most accurate remembrances of nature + to be found in any of the works of the great masters. I hardly know + whether most to wonder at the power of the man who thus broke through + the neglect of nature which was universal at his time; or at the + evidences, visible throughout the whole of the conception, that he was + still content to paint from slight memories of what he had seen in + hill countries, instead of following out to its full depth the + fountain which he had opened. There is not a stream among the hills of + Priuli which in any quarter of a mile of its course would not have + suggested to him finer forms of cascade than those which he has idly + painted at Venice. + + SIMEONE, PROFETA, CHURCH OF ST. Very important, though small, possessing + the precious statue of St. Simeon, above noticed, II. 309. The rare + early Gothic capitals of the nave are only interesting to the + architect; but in the little passage by the side of the church, + leading out of the Campo, there is a curious Gothic monument built + into the wall, very beautiful in the placing of the angels in the + spandrils, and rich in the vine-leaf moulding above. + + SIMEONE, PICCOLO, CHURCH OF ST. One of the ugliest churches in Venice or + elsewhere. Its black dome, like an unusual species of gasometer, is + the admiration of modern Italian architects. + + + SOSPIRI, PONTE DE'. The well known "Bridge of Sighs," a work of no + merit, and of a late period (see Vol. II. p. 304), owing the interest + it possesses chiefly to its pretty name, and to the ignorant + sentimentalism of Byron. + + SPIRITO SANTO, CHURCH OF THE. Of no importance. + + STEFANO, CHURCH OF ST. An interesting building of central Gothic, the + best ecclesiastical example of it in Venice. The west entrance is much + later than any of the rest, and is of the richest Renaissance Gothic, + a little anterior to the Porta della Carta, and first-rate of its + kind. The manner of the introduction of the figure of the angel at the + top of the arch is full of beauty. Note the extravagant crockets and + cusp finials as signs of decline. + + STEFANO, CHURCH OF ST., at Murano (pugnacity of its abbot), II. 33. The + church no longer exists. + + STROPE, CAMPIELLO DELLA, house in, II. 266. + + + T + + + TANA, windows at the, II. 260. + + TIEPOLO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no importance. + + TOLENTINI, CHURCH OF THE. One of the basest and coldest works of the + late Renaissance. It is said to contain two Bonifazios. + + TOMA, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + TOMA, PONTE SAN. There is an interesting ancient doorway opening on the + canal close to this bridge, probably of the twelfth century, and a + good early Gothic door, opening upon the bridge itself. + + TORCELLO, general aspect of, II. 12; Santa Fosca at, I. 117, II. 13; + duomo, II. 14; mosaics of, II. 196; measures of, II. 378; date of, II. + 380. + + TREVISAN, PALAZZO, I. 369, III. 212. + + TRON, PALAZZO. Of no importance. + + TROVASO, CHURCH OF ST. Itself of no importance, but containing two + pictures by Tintoret, namely: + + 1. _The Temptation of St. Anthony._ (Altar piece in the chapel on the + left of the choir.) A small and very carefully finished picture, but + marvellously temperate and quiet in treatment, especially considering + the subject, which one would have imagined likely to inspire the + painter with one of his most fantastic visions. As if on purpose to + disappoint us, both the effect, and the conception of the figures, are + perfectly quiet, and appear the result much more of careful study than + of vigorous imagination. The effect is one of plain daylight; there + are a few clouds drifting in the distance, but with no wildness in + them, nor is there any energy or heat in the flames which mantle about + the waist of one of the figures. But for the noble workmanship, we + might almost fancy it the production of a modern academy; yet as we + begin to read the picture, the painter's mind becomes felt. St. + Anthony is surrounded by four figures, one of which only has the form + of a demon, and he is in the background, engaged in no more terrific + act of violence toward St. Anthony, than endeavoring to pull off his + mantle; he has, however, a scourge over his shoulder, but this is + probably intended for St. Anthony's weapon of self-discipline, which + the fiend, with a very Protestant turn of mind, is carrying off. A + broken staff, with a bell hanging to it, at the saint's feet, also + expresses his interrupted devotion. The three other figures beside him + are bent on more cunning mischief: the woman on the left is one of + Tintoret's best portraits of a young and bright-eyed Venetian beauty. + It is curious that he has given so attractive a countenance to a type + apparently of the temptation to violate the power of poverty, for this + woman places one hand in a vase full of coins, and shakes golden + chains with the other. On the opposite side of the saint, another + woman, admirably painted, but of a far less attractive countenance, is + a type of the lusts of the flesh, yet there is nothing gross or + immodest in her dress or gesture. She appears to have been baffled, + and for the present to have given up addressing the saint: she lays + one hand upon her breast, and might be taken for a very respectable + person, but that there are flames playing about her loins. A recumbent + figure on the ground is of less intelligible character, but may + perhaps be meant for Indolence; at all events, he has torn the saint's + book to pieces. I forgot to note, that under the figure representing + Avarice, there is a creature like a pig; whether actual pig or not is + unascertainable, for the church is dark, the little light that comes + on the picture falls on it the wrong way, and one third of the lower + part of it is hidden by a white case, containing a modern daub, lately + painted by way of an altar piece; the meaning, as well as the merit, + of the grand old picture being now far beyond the comprehension both + of priests and people. + + 2. _The Last Supper._ (On the left-hand side of the Chapel of the + Sacrament.) A picture which has been through the hands of the Academy, + and is therefore now hardly worth notice. Its conception seems always + to have been vulgar, and far below Tintoret's usual standard; there is + singular baseness in the circumstance, that one of the near Apostles, + while all the others are, as usual, intent upon Christ's words, "One + of you shall betray me," is going to help himself to wine out of a + bottle which stands behind him. In so doing he stoops towards the + table, the flask being on the floor. If intended for the action of + Judas at this moment, there is the painter's usual originality in the + thought; but it seems to me rather done to obtain variation of + posture, in bringing the red dress into strong contrast with the + tablecloth. The color has once been fine, and there are fragments of + good painting still left; but the light does not permit these to be + seen, and there is too much perfect work of the master's in Venice, to + permit us to spend time on retouched remnants. The picture is only + worth mentioning, because it is ignorantly and ridiculously referred + to by Kugler as characteristic of Tintoret. + + + V + + VITALI, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a picture by Vittor Carpaccio, + over the high altar: otherwise of no importance. + + + VOLTO SANTO, CHURCH OF THE. An interesting but desecrated ruin of the + fourteenth century; fine in style. Its roof retains some fresco + coloring, but, as far as I recollect, of later date than the + architecture. + + + Z + + ZACCARIA, CHURCH OF ST. Early Renaissance, and fine of its kind; a + Gothic chapel attached to it is of great beauty. It contains the best + John Bellini in Venice, after that of San G. Grisostomo, "The Virgin, + with Four Saints;" and is said to contain another John Bellini and a + Tintoret, neither of which I have seen. + + ZITELLE, CHURCH OF THE. Of no importance. + + ZOBENIGO, CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA, III. 124. It contains one valuable + Tintoret, namely: + + _Christ with Sta. Justina and St. Augustin._ (Over the third altar on + the south side of the nave.) A picture of small size, and upright, + about ten feet by eight. Christ appears to be descending out of the + clouds between the two saints, who are both kneeling on the sea shore. + It is a Venetian sea, breaking on a flat beach, like the Lido, with a + scarlet galley in the middle distance, of which the chief use is to + unite the two figures by a point of color. Both the saints are + respectable Venetians of the lower class, in homely dresses and with + homely faces. The whole picture is quietly painted, and somewhat + slightly; free from all extravagance, and displaying little power + except in the general truth or harmony of colors so easily laid on. It + is better preserved than usual, and worth dwelling upon as an instance + of the style of the master when _at rest_. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [71] "Am I in Italy? Is this the Mincius? + Are those the distant turrets of Verona? + And shall I sup where Juliet at the Masque + Saw her loved Montague, and now sleeps by him? + Such questions hourly do I ask myself; + And not a stone in a crossway inscribed + 'To Mantua,' 'To Ferrara,' but excites + Surprise, and doubt, and self-congratulation." + + Alas, after a few short months, spent even in the scenes dearest to + history, we can feel thus no more. + + [72] I have always called this church, in the text, simply "St. John + and Paul," not Sts. John and Paul, just as the Venetians say San + Giovanni e Paolo, and not Santi G., &c. + + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +CORRECTIONS MADE TO THE ORIGINAL TEXT. + +Page 69: 'Italian sarcophagi are kept massive, smoth and gloomy' smoth + corrected to smooth. + +Page 74: 'fallen back peacefully uppon his pillow' uppon corrected to + upon. + +Page 100: 'men's modes of life, and tones of throught' throught changed + to thought. + +Page 121: 'breathed upon her beaaty, until it melted away' beaaty + corrected to beauty. + +Page 157: 'morbid action by terror, accompained by the belief' + accompained changed to accompanied. + +Page 207: 'finds him by a fountaiu side' fountaiu corrected to fountain. + +Page 222: 'Pietro di Castello, for the feast of St. Mary' Mary changed + to Mark. + +Page 233: Number 2. misplaced. Moved to 'a. Lower arcade, Fondaco de' + Turchi.' + +Page 233: Missing 4. added before 'a. Fondaco de' Turchi, central shaft, + upper arcade.' + +Page 237: 'fourth order windows in Campo Sta. Ma Mater Domini' Ma + changed to M^a. + +Page 293: 'the usual inportant purposes of the modern Italians.' + inportant changed to important. + +Page 294: 'not the slightest touch os it but is delicious.' os corrected + to of. + +Page 318: 'examine the two large tintorets' tintorets changed to + Tintorets. + +Page 319: 'Mlaipiero, Palazzo, on the Campo St. M. Formosa.' Mlaipiero + corrected to Malipiero. + +Page 358: 'drift of its clouds, and originalty and complication.' + originalty corrected to originality. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STONES OF VENICE, VOLUME III (OF +3)*** + + +******* This file should be named 30756-8.txt or 30756-8.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/0/7/5/30756 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + https://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + diff --git a/old/30756-8.zip b/old/30756-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c6cc81f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/30756-8.zip diff --git a/old/30756.txt b/old/30756.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3c69818 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/30756.txt @@ -0,0 +1,14343 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook, The Stones of Venice, Volume III (of 3), by +John Ruskin + + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + + + + +Title: The Stones of Venice, Volume III (of 3) + + +Author: John Ruskin + + + +Release Date: December 31, 2009 [eBook #30756] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII) + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STONES OF VENICE, VOLUME III +(OF 3)*** + + +E-text prepared by Marius Masi, Juliet Sutherland, and the Project +Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team (https://www.pgdp.net) + + + +Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this + file which includes the original illustrations and also + the index for all three volumes of the set with links + to the other two volumes. + See 30756-h.htm or 30756-h.zip: + (https://www.gutenberg.org/files/30756/30756-h/30756-h.htm) + or + (https://www.gutenberg.org/files/30756/30756-h.zip) + + Volumes I and II are available in the Project Gutenberg + Library: + Volume I--see https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/30754 + Volume II--see https://www.gutenberg.org/etext/30755 + + +Transcriber's note: + + A few typographical errors have been corrected. They are + listed at the end of the text. + + Characters following a caret were printed as superscript + in the original. For example, "M^a,"; here the "a." is a + superscript. + + + + + +The Complete Works of John Ruskin + +Volume IX + +STONES OF VENICE + +VOLUME III + + +[Illustration: + THE BRIDGE OF SIGHS + FROM A PHOTOGRAPH] + + +Library Edition + +The Complete Works of John Ruskin + +STONES OF VENICE + +VOLUME III + +Giotto +Lectures on Architecture +Harbours of England +A Joy Forever + + + + + + + +National Library Association +New York Chicago + + + + +THE +STONES OF VENICE + +VOLUME III. + +THE FALL + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + THIRD, OR RENAISSANCE, PERIOD. + + CHAPTER I. + PAGE + Early Renaissance, 1 + + CHAPTER II. + Roman Renaissance, 32 + + CHAPTER III. + Grotesque Renaissance, 112 + + CHAPTER IV. + Conclusion, 166 + + + APPENDIX. + + 1. Architect of the Ducal Palace, 199 + 2. Theology of Spenser, 205 + 3. Austrian Government in Italy, 209 + 4. Date of the Palaces of the Byzantine + Renaissance, 211 + 5. Renaissance Side of Ducal Palace, 212 + 6. Character of the Doge Michele Morosini, 213 + 7. Modern Education, 214 + 8. Early Venetian Marriages, 222 + 9. Character of the Venetian Aristocracy, 223 + 10. Final Appendix, 224 + + + INDICES. + + I. Personal Index, 263 + II. Local Index, 268 + III. Topical Index, 271 + IV. Venetian Index, 287 + + + + +LIST OF PLATES. + + Facing Page + + PLATE 1. Temperance and Intemperance in Ornament, 6 + " 2. Gothic Capitals, 8 + " 3. Noble and Ignoble Grotesque, 125 + " 4. Mosaic of Olive Tree and Flowers, 179 + " 5. Byzantine Bases, 225 + " 6. Byzantine Jambs, 229 + " 7. Gothic Jambs, 230 + " 8. Byzantine Archivolts, 244 + " 9. Gothic Archivolts, 245 + " 10. Cornices, 248 + " 11. Tracery Bars, 252 + " 12. Capitals of Fondaco de Turchi, 304 + + + + +THE + +STONES OF VENICE. + +THIRD, OR RENAISSANCE, PERIOD. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +EARLY RENAISSANCE. + + +Sec. I. I trust that the reader has been enabled, by the preceding +chapters, to form some conception of the magnificence of the streets of +Venice during the course of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Yet +by all this magnificence she was not supremely distinguished above the +other cities of the middle ages. Her early edifices have been preserved +to our times by the circuit of her waves; while continual recurrences of +ruin have defaced the glory of her sister cities. But such fragments as +are still left in their lonely squares, and in the corners of their +streets, so far from being inferior to the buildings of Venice, are even +more rich, more finished, more admirable in invention, more exuberant in +beauty. And although, in the North of Europe, civilization was less +advanced, and the knowledge of the arts was more confined to the +ecclesiastical orders, so that, for domestic architecture, the period of +perfection must be there placed much later than in Italy, and considered +as extending to the middle of the fifteenth century; yet, as each city +reached a certain point in civilization, its streets became decorated +with the same magnificence, varied only in style according to the +materials at hand, and temper of the people. And I am not aware of any +town of wealth and importance in the middle ages, in which some proof +does not exist, that, at its period of greatest energy and prosperity, +its streets were inwrought with rich sculpture, and even (though in +this, as before noticed, Venice always stood supreme) glowing with color +and with gold. Now, therefore, let the reader,--forming for himself as +vivid and real a conception as he is able, either of a group of Venetian +palaces in the fourteenth century, or, if he likes better, of one of the +more fantastic but even richer street scenes of Rouen, Antwerp, Cologne, +or Nuremberg, and keeping this gorgeous image before him,--go out into +any thoroughfare, representative, in a general and characteristic way, +of the feeling for domestic architecture in modern times; let him, for +instance, if in London, walk once up and down Harley Street, or Baker +Street, or Gower Street; and then, looking upon this picture and on +this, set himself to consider (for this is to be the subject of our +following and final inquiry) what have been the causes which have +induced so vast a change in the European mind. + +Sec. II. Renaissance architecture is the school which has conducted +men's inventive and constructive faculties from the Grand Canal to Gower +Street; from the marble shaft, and the lancet arch, and the wreathed +leafage, and the glowing and melting harmony of gold and azure, to the +square cavity in the brick wall. We have now to consider the causes and +the steps of this change; and, as we endeavored above to investigate the +nature of Gothic, here to investigate also the nature of Renaissance. + +Sec. III. Although Renaissance architecture assumes very different +forms among different nations, it may be conveniently referred to three +heads:--Early Renaissance, consisting of the first corruptions +introduced into the Gothic schools: Central or Roman Renaissance, which +is the perfectly formed style: and Grotesque Renaissance, which is the +corruption of the Renaissance itself. + +Sec. IV. Now, in order to do full justice to the adverse cause, we will +consider the abstract _nature_ of the school with reference only to its +best or central examples. The forms of building which must be classed +generally under the term _early_ Renaissance are, in many cases, only +the extravagances and corruptions of the languid Gothic, for whose +errors the classical principle is in no wise answerable. It was stated +in the second chapter of the "Seven Lamps," that, unless luxury had +enervated and subtlety falsified the Gothic forms, Roman traditions +could not have prevailed against them; and, although these enervated and +false conditions are almost instantly colored by the classical +influence, it would be utterly unfair to lay to the charge of that +influence the first debasement of the earlier schools, which had lost +the strength of their system before they could be struck by the plague. + +Sec. V. The manner, however, of the debasement of all schools of art, so +far as it is natural, is in all ages the same; luxuriance of ornament, +refinement of execution, and idle subtleties of fancy, taking the place +of true thought and firm handling: and I do not intend to delay the +reader long by the Gothic sick-bed, for our task is not so much to watch +the wasting of fever in the features of the expiring king, as to trace +the character of that Hazael who dipped the cloth in water, and laid it +upon his face, Nevertheless, it is necessary to the completeness of our +view of the architecture of Venice, as well as to our understanding of +the manner in which the Central Renaissance obtained its universal +dominion, that we glance briefly at the principal forms into which +Venetian Gothic first declined. They are two in number: one the +corruption of the Gothic itself; the other a partial return to Byzantine +forms; for the Venetian mind having carried the Gothic to a point at +which it was dissatisfied, tried to retrace its steps, fell back first +upon Byzantine types, and through them passed to the first Roman. But in +thus retracing its steps, it does not recover its own lost energy. It +revisits the places through which it had passed in the morning light, +but it is now with wearied limbs, and under the gloomy shadows of +evening. + +Sec. VI. It has just been said that the two principal causes of natural +decline in any school, are over-luxuriance and over-refinement. The +corrupt Gothic of Venice furnishes us with a curious instance of the +one, and the corrupt Byzantine of the other. We shall examine them in +succession. + +Now, observe, first, I do not mean by _luxuriance_ of ornament, +_quantity_ of ornament. In the best Gothic in the world there is hardly +an inch of stone left unsculptured. But I mean that character of +extravagance in the ornament itself which shows that it was addressed to +jaded faculties; a violence and coarseness in curvature, a depth of +shadow, a lusciousness in arrangement of line, evidently arising out of +an incapability of feeling the true beauty of chaste form and restrained +power. I do not know any character of design which may be more easily +recognized at a glance than this over-lusciousness; and yet it seems to +me that at the present day there is nothing so little understood as the +essential difference between chasteness and extravagance, whether in +color, shade, or lines. We speak loosely and inaccurately of +"overcharged" ornament, with an obscure feeling that there is indeed +something in visible Form which is correspondent to Intemperance in +moral habits; but without any distinct detection of the character which +offends us, far less with any understanding of the most important lesson +which there can be no doubt was intended to be conveyed by the +universality of this ornamental law. + +Sec. VII. In a word, then, the safeguard of highest beauty, in all visible +work, is exactly that which is also the safeguard of conduct in the +soul,--Temperance, in the broadest sense; the Temperance which we have +seen sitting on an equal throne with Justice amidst the Four Cardinal +Virtues, and, wanting which, there is not any other virtue which may not +lead us into desperate error. Now, observe: Temperance, in the nobler +sense, does not mean a subdued and imperfect energy; it does not mean a +stopping short in any good thing, as in Love or in Faith; but it means +the power which governs the most intense energy, and prevents its acting +in any way but as it ought. And with respect to things in which there +may be excess, it does not mean imperfect enjoyment of them; but the +regulation of their quantity, so that the enjoyment of them shall be +greatest. For instance, in the matter we have at present in hand, +temperance in color does not mean imperfect or dull enjoyment of color; +but it means that government of color which shall bring the utmost +possible enjoyment out of all hues. A bad colorist does not _love_ +beautiful color better than the best colorist does, nor half so much. +But he indulges in it to excess; he uses it in large masses, and +unsubdued; and then it is a law of Nature, a law as universal as that of +gravitation, that he shall not be able to enjoy it so much as if he had +used it in less quantity. His eye is jaded and satiated, and the blue +and red have life in them no more. He tries to paint them bluer and +redder, in vain: all the blue has become grey, and gets greyer the more +he adds to it; all his crimson has become brown, and gets more sere and +autumnal the more he deepens it. But the great painter is sternly +temperate in his work; he loves the vivid color with all his heart; but +for a long time he does not allow himself anything like it, nothing but +sober browns and dull greys, and colors that have no conceivable beauty +in them; but these by his government become lovely: and after bringing +out of them all the life and power they possess, and enjoying them to +the uttermost,--cautiously, and as the crown of the work, and the +consummation of its music, he permits the momentary crimson and azure, +and the whole canvas is in a flame. + +Sec. VIII. Again, in curvature, which is the cause of loveliness in all +form; the bad designer does not enjoy it more than the great designer, +but he indulges in it till his eye is satiated, and he cannot obtain +enough of it to touch his jaded feeling for grace. But the great and +temperate designer does not allow himself any violent curves; he works +much with lines in which the curvature, though always existing, is long +before it is perceived. He dwells on all these subdued curvatures to the +uttermost, and opposes them with still severer lines to bring them out +in fuller sweetness; and, at last, he allows himself a momentary curve +of energy, and all the work is, in an instant, full of life and grace. + +The curves drawn in Plate VII. of the first volume, were chosen entirely +to show this character of dignity and restraint, as it appears in the +lines of nature, together with the perpetual changefulness of the +degrees of curvature in one and the same line; but although the purpose +of that plate was carefully explained in the chapter which it +illustrates, as well as in the passages of "Modern Painters" therein +referred to (vol. ii. pp. 43, 79), so little are we now in the habit of +considering the character of abstract lines, that it was thought by many +persons that this plate only illustrated Hogarth's reversed line of +beauty, even although the curve of the salvia leaf, which was the one +taken from that plate for future use, in architecture, was not a +reversed or serpentine curve at all. I shall now, however, I hope, be +able to show my meaning better. + +Sec. IX. Fig. 1 in Plate I., opposite, is a piece of ornamentation from +a Norman-French manuscript of the thirteenth century, and fig. 2 from an +Italian one of the fifteenth. Observe in the first its stern moderation +in curvature; the gradually united lines _nearly straight_, though none +quite straight, used for its main limb, and contrasted with the bold but +simple offshoots of its leaves, and the noble spiral from which it +shoots, these in their turn opposed by the sharp trefoils and thorny +cusps. And see what a reserve of resource there is in the whole; how +easy it would have been to make the curves more palpable and the foliage +more rich, and how the noble hand has stayed itself, and refused to +grant one wave of motion more. + +[Illustration: Plate I. + TEMPERANCE AND INTEMPERANCE. + IN CURVATURE.] + +Sec. X. Then observe the other example, in which, while the same idea is +continually repeated, excitement and interest are sought for by means of +violent and continual curvatures wholly unrestrained, and rolling hither +and thither in confused wantonness. Compare the character of the +separate lines in these two examples carefully, and be assured that +wherever this redundant and luxurious curvature shows itself in +ornamentation, it is a sign of jaded energy and failing invention. Do +not confuse it with fulness or richness. Wealth is not necessarily +wantonness: a Gothic moulding may be buried half a foot deep in thorns +and leaves, and yet will be chaste in every line; and a late Renaissance +moulding may be utterly barren and poverty-stricken, and yet will show +the disposition to luxury in every line. + +Sec. XI. Plate XX., in the second volume, though prepared for the special +illustration of the notices of capitals, becomes peculiarly interesting +when considered in relation to the points at present under +consideration. The four leaves in the upper row are Byzantine; the two +middle rows are transitional, all but fig. 11, which is of the formed +Gothic; fig. 12 is perfect Gothic of the finest time (Ducal Palace, +oldest part), fig. 13 is Gothic beginning to decline, fig. 14 is +Renaissance Gothic in complete corruption. + +Now observe, first, the Gothic naturalism advancing gradually from the +Byzantine severity; how from the sharp, hard, formalized conventionality +of the upper series the leaves gradually expand into more free and +flexible animation, until in fig. 12 we have the perfect living leaf as +if fresh gathered out of the dew. And then, in the last two examples and +partly in fig. 11, observe how the forms which can advance no longer in +animation, advance, or rather decline, into luxury and effeminacy as the +strength of the school expires. + +Sec. XII. In the second place, note that the Byzantine and Gothic schools, +however differing in degree of life, are both alike in _temperance_, +though the temperance of the Gothic is the nobler, because it consists +with entire animation. Observe how severe and subtle the curvatures are +in all the leaves from fig. 1 to fig. 12, except only in fig. 11; and +observe especially the firmness and strength obtained by the close +approximation to the straight line in the lateral ribs of the leaf, fig. +12. The longer the eye rests on these temperate curvatures the more it +will enjoy them, but it will assuredly in the end be wearied by the +morbid exaggeration of the last example. + +[Illustration: Plate II. + GOTHIC CAPITALS.] + +Sec. XIII. Finally, observe--and this is very important--how one and the +same character in the work may be a sign of totally different states of +mind, and therefore in one case bad, and in the other good. The +examples, fig. 3. and fig. 12., are both equally pure in line; but one +is subdivided in the extreme, the other broad in the extreme, and both +are beautiful. The Byzantine mind delighted in the delicacy of +subdivision which nature shows in the fern-leaf or parsley-leaf; and so, +also, often the Gothic mind, much enjoying the oak, thorn, and thistle. +But the builder of the Ducal Palace used great breadth in his foliage, +in order to harmonize with the broad surface of his mighty wall, and +delighted in this breadth as nature delights in the sweeping freshness +of the dock-leaf or water-lily. Both breadth and subdivision are thus +noble, when they are contemplated or conceived by a mind in health; and +both become ignoble, when conceived by a mind jaded and satiated. The +subdivision in fig. 13 as compared with the type, fig. 12, which it was +intended to improve, is the sign, not of a mind which loved intricacy, +but of one which could not relish simplicity, which had not strength +enough to enjoy the broad masses of the earlier leaves, and cut them to +pieces idly, like a child tearing the book which, in its weariness, it +cannot read. And on the other hand, we shall continually find, in other +examples of work of the same period, an unwholesome breadth or +heaviness, which results from the mind having no longer any care for +refinement or precision, nor taking any delight in delicate forms, but +making all things blunted, cumbrous, and dead, losing at the same time +the sense of the elasticity and spring of natural curves. It is as if +the soul of man, itself severed from the root of its health, and about +to fall into corruption, lost the perception of life in all things +around it; and could no more distinguish the wave of the strong +branches, full of muscular strength and sanguine circulation, from the +lax bending of a broken cord, nor the sinuousness of the edge of the +leaf, crushed into deep folds by the expansion of its living growth, +from the wrinkled contraction of its decay.[1] Thus, in morals, there +is a care for trifles which proceeds from love and conscience, and is +most holy; and a care for trifles which comes of idleness and frivolity, +and is most base. And so, also, there is a gravity proceeding from +thought, which is most noble; and a gravity proceeding from dulness and +mere incapability of enjoyment, which is most base. Now, in the various +forms assumed by the later Gothic of Venice, there are one or two +features which, under other circumstances, would not have been signs of +decline; but, in the particular manner of their occurrence here, +indicate the fatal weariness of decay. Of all these features the most +distinctive are its crockets and finials. + +Sec. XIV. There is not to be found a single crocket or finial upon any +part of the Ducal Palace built during the fourteenth century; and although +they occur on contemporary, and on some much earlier, buildings, they +either indicate detached examples of schools not properly Venetian, or +are signs of incipient decline. + +The reason of this is, that the finial is properly the ornament of +gabled architecture; it is the compliance, in the minor features of the +building, with the spirit of its towers, ridged roof, and spires. +Venetian building is not gabled, but horizontal in its roots and general +masses; therefore the finial is a feature contradictory to its spirit, +and adopted only in that search for morbid excitement which is the +infallible indication of decline. When it occurs earlier, it is on +fragments of true gabled architecture, as, for instance, on the porch of +the Carmini. + +In proportion to the unjustifiableness of its introduction was the +extravagance of the form it assumed; becoming, sometimes, a tuft at the +top of the ogee windows, half as high as the arch itself, and +consisting, in the richest examples, of a human figure, half emergent +out of a cup of leafage, as, for instance, in the small archway of the +Campo San Zaccaria: while the crockets, as being at the side of the +arch, and not so strictly connected with its balance and symmetry, +appear to consider themselves at greater liberty even than the finials, +and fling themselves, hither and thither, in the wildest contortions. +Fig. 4. in Plate I, is the outline of one, carved in stone, from the +later Gothic of St. Mark's; fig. 3. a crocket from the fine Veronese +Gothic; in order to enable the reader to discern the Renaissance +character better by comparison with the examples of curvature above +them, taken from the manuscripts. And not content with this exuberance +in the external ornaments of the arch, the finial interferes with its +traceries. The increased intricacy of these, as such, being a natural +process in the developement of Gothic, would have been no evil; but they +are corrupted by the enrichment of the finial at the point of the +cusp,--corrupted, that is to say, in Venice: for at Verona the finial, +in the form of a fleur-de-lis, appears long previously at the cusp +point, with exquisite effect; and in our own best Northern Gothic it is +often used beautifully in this place, as in the window from Salisbury, +Plate XII. (Vol. II.), fig. 2. But in Venice, such a treatment of it was +utterly contrary to the severe spirit of the ancient traceries; and the +adoption of a leafy finial at the extremity of the cusps in the door of +San Stefano, as opposed to the simple ball which terminates those of the +Ducal Palace, is an unmistakable indication of a tendency to decline. + +In like manner, the enrichment and complication of the jamb mouldings, +which, in other schools, might and did take place in the healthiest +periods, are, at Venice, signs of decline, owing to the entire +inconsistency of such mouldings with the ancient love of the single +square jamb and archivolt. The process of enrichment in them is shown by +the successive examples given in Plate VII., below. They are numbered, +and explained in the Appendix. + +Sec. XV. The date at which this corrupt form of Gothic first prevailed +over the early simplicity of the Venetian types can be determined in an +instant, on the steps of the choir of the Church of St. John and Paul. +On our left hand, as we enter, is the tomb of the Doge Marco Cornaro, +who died in 1367. It is rich and fully developed Gothic, with crockets +and finials, but not yet attaining any extravagant developement. +Opposite to it is that of the Doge Andrea Morosini, who died in 1382. +Its Gothic is voluptuous, and over-wrought; the crockets are bold and +florid, and the enormous finial represents a statue of St. Michael. +There is no excuse for the antiquaries who, having this tomb before +them, could have attributed the severe architecture of the Ducal Palace +to a later date; for every one of the Renaissance errors is here in +complete developement, though not so grossly as entirely to destroy the +loveliness of the Gothic forms. In the Porta della Carta, 1423, the vice +reaches its climax. + +Sec. XVI. Against this degraded Gothic, then, came up the Renaissance +armies; and their first assault was in the requirement of universal +perfection. For the first time since the destruction of Rome, the world +had seen, in the work of the greatest artists of the fifteenth +century,--in the painting of Ghirlandajo, Masaccio, Francia, Perugino, +Pinturicchio, and Bellini; in the sculpture of Mino da Fiesole, of +Ghiberti, and Verrocchio,--a perfection of execution and fulness of +knowledge which cast all previous art into the shade, and which, being +in the work of those men united with all that was great in that of +former days, did indeed justify the utmost enthusiasm with which their +efforts were, or could be, regarded. But when this perfection had once +been exhibited in anything, it was required in everything; the world +could no longer be satisfied with less exquisite execution, or less +disciplined knowledge. The first thing that it demanded in all work was, +that it should be done in a consummate and learned way; and men +altogether forgot that it was possible to consummate what was +contemptible, and to know what was useless. Imperatively requiring +dexterity of touch, they gradually forgot to look for tenderness of +feeling; imperatively requiring accuracy of knowledge, they gradually +forgot to ask for originality of thought. The thought and the feeling +which they despised departed from them, and they were left to +felicitate themselves on their small science and their neat fingering. +This is the history of the first attack of the Renaissance upon the +Gothic schools, and of its rapid results, more fatal and immediate in +architecture than in any other art, because there the demand for +perfection was less reasonable, and less consistent with the +capabilities of the workman; being utterly opposed to that rudeness or +savageness on which, as we saw above, the nobility of the elder schools +in great part depends. But inasmuch as the innovations were founded on +some of the most beautiful examples of art, and headed by some of the +greatest men that the world ever saw, and as the Gothic with which they +interfered was corrupt and valueless, the first appearance of the +Renaissance feeling had the appearance of a healthy movement. A new +energy replaced whatever weariness or dulness had affected the Gothic +mind; an exquisite taste and refinement, aided by extended knowledge, +furnished the first models of the new school; and over the whole of +Italy a style arose, generally now known as cinque-cento, which in +sculpture and painting, as I just stated, produced the noblest masters +which the world ever saw, headed by Michael Angelo, Raphael, and +Leonardo; but which failed of doing the same in architecture, because, +as we have seen above, perfection is therein not possible, and failed +more totally than it would otherwise have done, because the classical +enthusiasm had destroyed the best types of architectural form. + +Sec. XVII. For, observe here very carefully, the Renaissance principle, +as it consisted in a demand for universal perfection, is quite distinct +from the Renaissance principle as it consists in a demand for classical +and Roman _forms_ of perfection. And if I had space to follow out the +subject as I should desire, I would first endeavor to ascertain what +might have been the course of the art of Europe if no manuscripts of +classical authors had been recovered, and no remains of classical +architecture left, in the fifteenth century; so that the executive +perfection to which the efforts of all great men had tended for five +hundred years, and which now at last was reached, might have been +allowed to develope itself in its own natural and proper form, in +connexion with the architectural structure of earlier schools. This +refinement and perfection had indeed its own perils, and the history of +later Italy, as she sank into pleasure and thence into corruption, would +probably have been the same whether she had ever learned again to write +pure Latin or not. Still the inquiry into the probable cause of the +enervation which might naturally have followed the highest exertion of +her energies, is a totally distinct one from that into the particular +form given to this enervation by her classical learning; and it is +matter of considerable regret to me that I cannot treat these two +subjects separately: I must be content with marking them for separation +in the mind of the reader. + +Sec. XVIII. The effect, then, of the sudden enthusiasm for classical +literature, which gained strength during every hour of the fifteenth +century, was, as far as respected architecture, to do away with the +entire system of Gothic science. The pointed arch, the shadowy vault, +the clustered shaft, the heaven-pointing spire, were all swept away; and +no structure was any longer permitted but that of the plain cross-beam +from pillar to pillar, over the round arch, with square or circular +shafts, and a low-gabled roof and pediment: two elements of noble form, +which had fortunately existed in Rome, were, however, for that reason, +still permitted; the cupola, and, internally, the waggon vault. + +Sec. XIX. These changes in form were all of them unfortunate; and it is +almost impossible to do justice to the occasionally exquisite +ornamentation of the fifteenth century, on account of its being placed +upon edifices of the cold and meagre Roman outline. There is, as far as +I know, only one Gothic building in Europe, the Duomo of Florence, in +which, though the ornament be of a much earlier school, it is yet so +exquisitely finished as to enable us to imagine what might have been the +effect of the perfect workmanship of the Renaissance, coming out of the +hands of men like Verrocchio and Ghiberti, had it been employed on the +magnificent framework of Gothic structure. This is the question which, +as I shall note in the concluding chapter, we ought to set ourselves +practically to solve in modern times. + +Sec. XX. The changes effected in form, however, were the least part of +the evil principles of the Renaissance. As I have just said, its main +mistake, in its early stages, was the unwholesome demand for +_perfection_, at any cost. I hope enough has been advanced, in the +chapter on the Nature of Gothic, to show the reader that perfection is +_not_ to be had from the general workman, but at the cost of +everything,--of his whole life, thought, and energy. And Renaissance +Europe thought this a small price to pay for manipulative perfection. +Men like Verrocchio and Ghiberti were not to be had every day, nor in +every place; and to require from the common workman execution or +knowledge like theirs, was to require him to become their copyist. Their +strength was great enough to enable them to join science with invention, +method with emotion, finish with fire; but, in them, the invention and +the fire were first, while Europe saw in them only the method and the +finish. This was new to the minds of men, and they pursued it to the +neglect of everything else. "This," they cried, "we must have in all our +work henceforward:" and they were obeyed. The lower workman secured +method and finish, and lost, in exchange for them, his soul. + +Sec. XXI. Now, therefore, do not let me be misunderstood when I speak +generally of the evil spirit of the Renaissance. The reader may look +through all I have written, from first to last, and he will not find one +word but of the most profound reverence for those mighty men who could +wear the Renaissance armor of proof, and yet not feel it encumber their +living limbs,[2]--Leonardo and Michael Angelo, Ghirlandajo and Masaccio, +Titian and Tintoret. But I speak of the Renaissance as an evil time, +because, when it saw those men go burning forth into the battle, it +mistook their armor for their strength: and forthwith encumbered with +the painful panoply every stripling who ought to have gone forth only +with his own choice of three smooth stones out of the brook. + +Sec. XXII. This, then, the reader must always keep in mind when he is +examining for himself any examples of cinque-cento work. When it has +been done by a truly great man, whose life and strength could not be +oppressed, and who turned to good account the whole science of his day, +nothing is more exquisite. I do not believe, for instance, that there is +a more glorious work of sculpture existing in the world than that +equestrian statue of Bartolomeo Colleone, by Verrocchio, of which, I +hope, before these pages are printed, there will be a cast in England. +But when the cinque-cento work has been done by those meaner men, who, +in the Gothic times, though in a rough way, would yet have found some +means of speaking out what was in their hearts, it is utterly +inanimate,--a base and helpless copy of more accomplished models; or, if +not this, a mere accumulation of technical skill, in gaining which the +workman had surrendered all other powers that were in him. + +There is, therefore, of course, an infinite gradation in the art of the +period, from the Sistine Chapel down to modern upholstery; but, for the +most part, since in architecture the workman must be of an inferior +order, it will be found that this cinque-cento painting and higher +religious sculpture is noble, while the cinque-cento architecture, with +its subordinate sculpture, is universally bad; sometimes, however, +assuming forms, in which the consummate refinement almost atones for the +loss of force. + +Sec. XXIII. This is especially the case with that second branch of the +Renaissance which, as above noticed, was engrafted at Venice on the +Byzantine types. So soon as the classical enthusiasm required the +banishment of Gothic forms, it was natural that the Venetian mind should +turn back with affection to the Byzantine models in which the round +arches and simple shafts, necessitated by recent law, were presented +under a form consecrated by the usage of their ancestors. And, +accordingly, the first distinct school of architecture[3] which arose +under the new dynasty, was one in which the method of inlaying marble, +and the general forms of shaft and arch, were adopted from the buildings +of the twelfth century, and applied with the utmost possible refinements +of modern skill. Both at Verona and Venice the resulting architecture is +exceedingly beautiful. At Verona it is, indeed, less Byzantine, but +possesses a character of richness and tenderness almost peculiar to that +city. At Venice it is more severe, but yet adorned with sculpture which, +for sharpness of touch and delicacy of minute form, cannot be rivalled, +and rendered especially brilliant and beautiful by the introduction of +those inlaid circles of colored marble, serpentine, and porphyry, by +which Phillippe de Commynes was so much struck on his first entrance +into the city. The two most refined buildings in this style in Venice +are, the small Church of the Miracoli, and the Scuola di San Marco +beside the Church of St. John and St. Paul. The noblest is the Rio +Facade of the Ducal Palace. The Casa Dario, and Casa Manzoni, on the +Grand Canal, are exquisite examples of the school, as applied to +domestic architecture; and, in the reach of the canal between the Casa +Foscari and the Rialto, there are several palaces, of which the Casa +Contarini (called "delle Figure") is the principal, belonging to the +same group, though somewhat later, and remarkable for the association of +the Byzantine principles of color with the severest lines of the Roman +pediment, gradually superseding the round arch. The precision of +chiselling and delicacy of proportion in the ornament and general lines +of these palaces cannot be too highly praised; and I believe that the +traveller in Venice, in general, gives them rather too little attention +than too much. But while I would ask him to stay his gondola beside each +of them long enough to examine their every line, I must also warn him to +observe, most carefully, the peculiar feebleness and want of soul in the +conception of their ornament, which mark them as belonging to a period +of decline; as well as the absurd mode of introduction of their pieces +of colored marble: these, instead of being simply and naturally inserted +in the masonry, are placed in small circular or oblong frames of +sculpture, like mirrors or pictures, and are represented as suspended by +ribands against the wall; a pair of wings being generally fastened on to +the circular tablets, as if to relieve the ribands and knots from their +weight, and the whole series tied under the chin of a little cherub at +the top, who is nailed against the facade like a hawk on a barn door. + +But chiefly let him notice, in the Casa Contarini delle Figure, one most +strange incident, seeming to have been permitted, like the choice of the +subjects at the three angles of the Ducal Palace, in order to teach us, +by a single lesson, the true nature of the style in which it occurs. In +the intervals of the windows of the first story, certain shields and +torches are attached, in the form of trophies, to the stems of two trees +whose boughs have been cut off, and only one or two of their faded +leaves left, scarcely observable, but delicately sculptured here and +there, beneath the insertions of the severed boughs. + +It is as if the workman had intended to leave us an image of the +expiring naturalism of the Gothic school. I had not seen this sculpture +when I wrote the passage referring to its period, in the first volume of +this work (Chap. XX. Sec. XXXI.):--"Autumn came,--the leaves were +shed,--and the eye was directed to the extremities of the delicate +branches. _The Renaissance frosts came, and all perished!_" + +Sec. XXIV. And the hues of this autumn of the early Renaissance are +the last which appear in architecture. The winter which succeeded was +colorless as it was cold; and although the Venetian painters struggled +long against its influence, the numbness of the architecture prevailed +over them at last, and the exteriors of all the latter palaces were +built only in barren stone. As at this point of our inquiry, therefore, +we must bid farewell to color, I have reserved for this place the +continuation of the history of chromatic decoration, from the Byzantine +period, when we left it in the fifth chapter of the second volume, down +to its final close. + +Sec. XXV. It was above stated, that the principal difference in general +form and treatment between the Byzantine and Gothic palaces was the +contraction of the marble facing into the narrow spaces between the +windows, leaving large fields of brick wall perfectly bare. The reason +for this appears to have been, that the Gothic builders were no longer +satisfied with the faint and delicate hues of the veined marble; they +wished for some more forcible and piquant mode of decoration, +corresponding more completely with the gradually advancing splendor of +chivalric costume and heraldic device. What I have said above of the +simple habits of life of the thirteenth century, in no wise refers +either to costumes of state, or of military service; and any +illumination of the thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries (the great +period being, it seems to me, from 1250 to 1350), while it shows a +peculiar majesty and simplicity in the fall of the robes (often worn +over the chain armor), indicates, at the same time, an exquisite +brilliancy of color and power of design in the hems and borders, as well +as in the armorial bearings with which they are charged; and while, as +we have seen, a peculiar simplicity is found also in the _forms_ of the +architecture, corresponding to that of the folds of the robes, its +_colors_ were constantly increasing in brilliancy and decision, +corresponding to those of the quartering of the shield, and of the +embroidery of the mantle. + +Sec. XXVI. Whether, indeed, derived from the quarterings of the knights' +shields, or from what other source, I know not; but there is one +magnificent attribute of the coloring of the late twelfth, the whole +thirteenth, and the early fourteenth century, which I do not find +definitely in any previous work, nor afterwards in general art, though +constantly, and necessarily, in that of great colorists, namely, the +union of one color with another by reciprocal interference: that is to +say, if a mass of red is to be set beside a mass of blue, a piece of the +red will be carried into the blue, and a piece of the blue carried into +the red; sometimes in nearly equal portions, as in a shield divided into +four quarters, of which the uppermost on one side will be of the same +color as the lowermost on the other; sometimes in smaller fragments, +but, in the periods above named, always definitely and grandly, though +in a thousand various ways. And I call it a magnificent principle, for +it is an eternal and universal one, not in art only,[4] but in human +life. It is the great principle of Brotherhood, not by equality, nor by +likeness, but by giving and receiving; the souls that are unlike, and +the nations that are unlike, and the natures that are unlike, being +bound into one noble whole by each receiving something from, and of, the +others' gifts and the others' glory. I have not space to follow out this +thought,--it is of infinite extent and application,--but I note it for +the reader's pursuit, because I have long believed, and the whole second +volume of "Modern Painters" was written to prove, that in whatever has +been made by the Deity externally delightful to the human sense of +beauty, there is some type of God's nature or of God's laws; nor are any +of His laws, in one sense, greater than the appointment that the most +lovely and perfect unity shall be obtained by the taking of one nature +into another. I trespass upon too high ground; and yet I cannot fully +show the reader the extent of this law, but by leading him thus far. And +it is just because it is so vast and so awful a law, that it has rule +over the smallest things; and there is not a vein of color on the +lightest leaf which the spring winds are at this moment unfolding in the +fields around us, but it is an illustration of an ordainment to which +the earth and its creatures owe their continuance, and their Redemption. + +Sec. XXVII. It is perfectly inconceivable, until it has been made a +subject of special inquiry, how perpetually Nature employs this principle +in the distribution of her light and shade; how by the most extraordinary +adaptations, apparently accidental, but always in exactly the right +place, she contrives to bring darkness into light, and light into +darkness; and that so sharply and decisively, that at the very instant +when one object changes from light to dark, the thing relieved upon it +will change from dark to light, and yet so subtly that the eye will not +detect the transition till it looks for it. The secret of a great part +of the grandeur in all the noblest compositions is the doing of this +delicately in _degree_, and broadly in _mass_; in color it may be done +much more decisively than in light and shade, and, according to the +simplicity of the work, with greater frankness of confession, until, in +purely decorative art, as in the illumination, glass-painting, and +heraldry of the great periods, we find it reduced to segmental accuracy. +Its greatest masters, in high art, are Tintoret, Veronese, and Turner. + +Sec. XXVIII. Together with this great principle of quartering is +introduced another, also of very high value as far as regards the delight +of the eye, though not of so profound meaning. As soon as color began to +be used in broad and opposed fields, it was perceived that the mass of it +destroyed its brilliancy, and it was _tempered_ by chequering it with +some other color or colors in smaller quantities, mingled with minute +portions of pure white. The two moral principles of which this is the +type, are those of Temperance and Purity; the one requiring the fulness +of the color to be subdued, and the other that it shall be subdued +without losing either its own purity or that of the colors with which it +is associated. + +Sec. XXIX. Hence arose the universal and admirable system of the diapered +or chequered background of early ornamental art. They are completely +developed in the thirteenth century, and extend through the whole of +the fourteenth gradually yielding to landscape, and other pictorial +backgrounds, as the designers lost perception of the purpose of their +art, and of the value of color. The chromatic decoration of the Gothic +palaces of Venice was of course founded on these two great principles, +which prevailed constantly wherever the true chivalric and Gothic spirit +possessed any influence. The windows, with their intermediate spaces of +marble, were considered as the objects to be relieved, and variously +quartered with vigorous color. The whole space of the brick wall was +considered as a background; it was covered with stucco, and painted in +fresco, with diaper patterns. + +Sec. XXX. What? the reader asks in some surprise,--Stucco! and in the +great Gothic period? Even so, but _not stucco to imitate stone_. Herein +lies all the difference; it is stucco confessed and understood, and laid +on the bricks precisely as gesso is laid on canvas, in order to form them +into a ground for receiving color from the human hand,--color which, if +well laid on, might render the brick wall more precious than if it had +been built of emeralds. Whenever we wish to paint, we may prepare our +paper as we choose; the value of the ground in no wise adds to the value +of the picture. A Tintoret on beaten gold would be of no more value than +a Tintoret on coarse canvas; the gold would merely be wasted. All that +we have to do is to make the ground as good and fit for the color as +possible, by whatever means. + +Sec. XXXI. I am not sure if I am right in applying the term "stucco" to +the ground of fresco; but this is of no consequence; the reader will +understand that it was white, and that the whole wall of the palace was +considered as the page of a book to be illuminated: but he will +understand also that the sea winds are bad librarians; that, when once +the painted stucco began to fade or to fall, the unsightliness of the +defaced color would necessitate its immediate restoration; and that +therefore, of all the chromatic decoration of the Gothic palaces, there +is hardly a fragment left. + +Happily, in the pictures of Gentile Bellini, the fresco coloring of the +Gothic palaces is recorded, as it still remained in his time; not with +rigid accuracy, but quite distinctly enough to enable us, by comparing +it with the existing colored designs in the manuscripts and glass of the +period, to ascertain precisely what it must have been. + +Sec. XXXII. The walls were generally covered with chequers of very warm +color, a russet inclining to scarlet, more or less relieved with white, +black, and grey; as still seen in the only example which, having been +executed in marble, has been perfectly preserved, the front of the Ducal +Palace. This, however, owing to the nature of its materials, was a +peculiarly simple example; the ground is white, crossed with double bars +of pale red, and in the centre of each chequer there is a cross, +alternately black with a red centre and red with a black centre where +the arms cross. In painted work the grounds would be, of course, as +varied and complicated as those of manuscripts; but I only know of one +example left, on the Casa Sagredo, where, on some fragments of stucco, a +very early chequer background is traceable, composed of crimson +quatrefoils interlaced, with cherubim stretching their wings filling the +intervals. A small portion of this ground is seen beside the window +taken from the palace, Vol. II. Plate XIII. fig. 1. + +Sec. XXXIII. It ought to be especially noticed, that, in all chequered +patterns employed in the colored designs of these noble periods, the +greatest care is taken to mark that they are _grounds_ of design rather +than designs themselves. Modern architects, in such minor imitations as +they are beginning to attempt, endeavor to dispose the parts in the +patterns so as to occupy certain symmetrical positions with respect to +the parts of the architecture. A Gothic builder never does this: he cuts +his ground into pieces of the shape he requires with utter +remorselessness, and places his windows or doors upon it with no regard +whatever to the lines in which they cut the pattern: and, in +illuminations of manuscripts, the chequer itself is constantly changed +in the most subtle and arbitrary way, wherever there is the least chance +of its regularity attracting the eye, and making it of importance. So +_intentional_ is this, that a diaper pattern is often set obliquely to +the vertical lines of the designs, for fear it should appear in any way +connected with them. + +Sec. XXXIV. On these russet or crimson backgrounds the entire space of +the series of windows was relieved, for the most part, as a subdued white +field of alabaster; and on this delicate and veined white were set the +circular disks of purple and green. The arms of the family were of +course blazoned in their own proper colors, but I think generally on a +pure azure ground; the blue color is still left behind the shields in +the Casa Priuli and one or two more of the palaces which are unrestored, +and the blue ground was used also to relieve the sculptures of religious +subject. Finally, all the mouldings, capitals, cornices, cusps, and +traceries, were either entirely gilded or profusely touched with gold. + +The whole front of a Gothic palace in Venice may, therefore, be simply +described as a field of subdued russet, quartered with broad sculptured +masses of white and gold; these latter being relieved by smaller inlaid +fragments of blue, purple, and deep green. + +Sec. XXXV. Now, from the beginning of the fourteenth century, when +painting and architecture were thus united, two processes of change +went on simultaneously to the beginning of the seventeenth. The merely +decorative chequerings on the walls yielded gradually to more elaborate +paintings of figure-subject; first small and quaint, and then enlarging +into enormous pictures filled by figures generally colossal. As these +paintings became of greater merit and importance, the architecture with +which they were associated was less studied; and at last a style was +introduced in which the framework of the building was little more +interesting than that of a Manchester factory, but the whole space of +its walls was covered with the most precious fresco paintings. Such +edifices are of course no longer to be considered as forming an +architectural school; they were merely large preparations of artists' +panels; and Titian, Giorgione, and Veronese no more conferred merit on +the later architecture of Venice, as such, by painting on its facades, +than Landseer or Watts could confer merit on that of London by first +whitewashing and then painting its brick streets from one end to the +other. + +Sec. XXXVI. Contemporarily with this change in the relative values of the +color decoration and the stone-work, one equally important was taking +place in the opposite direction, but of course in another group of +buildings. For in proportion as the architect felt himself thrust aside +or forgotten in one edifice, he endeavored to make himself principal in +another; and, in retaliation for the painter's entire usurpation of +certain fields of design, succeeded in excluding him totally from those +in which his own influence was predominant. Or, more accurately +speaking, the architects began to be too proud to receive assistance +from the colorists; and these latter sought for ground which the +architect had abandoned, for the unrestrained display of their own +skill. And thus, while one series of edifices is continually becoming +feebler in design and richer in superimposed paintings, another, that of +which we have so often spoken as the earliest or Byzantine Renaissance, +fragment by fragment rejects the pictorial decoration; supplies its +place first with marbles, and then, as the latter are felt by the +architect, daily increasing in arrogance and deepening in coldness, to +be too bright for his dignity, he casts even these aside one by one: and +when the last porphyry circle has vanished from the facade, we find two +palaces standing side by side, one built, so far as mere masonry goes, +with consummate care and skill, but without the slightest vestige of +color in any part of it; the other utterly without any claim to interest +in its architectural form, but covered from top to bottom with paintings +by Veronese. At this period, then, we bid farewell to color, leaving the +painters to their own peculiar field; and only regretting that they +waste their noblest work on walls, from which in a couple of centuries, +if not before, the greater part of their labor must be effaced. On the +other hand, the architecture whose decline we are tracing, has now +assumed an entirely new condition, that of the Central or True +Renaissance, whose nature we are to examine in the next chapter. + +Sec. XXXVII. But before leaving these last palaces over which the +Byzantine influence extended itself, there is one more lesson to be +learned from them of much importance to us. Though in many respects +debased in style, they are consummate in workmanship, and unstained in +honor; there is no imperfection in them, and no dishonesty. That there is +absolutely _no_ imperfection, is indeed, as we have seen above, a proof of +their being wanting in the highest qualities of architecture; but, as +lessons in masonry, they have their value, and may well be studied for the +excellence they display in methods of levelling stones, for the +precision of their inlaying, and other such qualities, which in them are +indeed too principal, yet very instructive in their particular way. + +Sec. XXXVIII. For instance, in the inlaid design of the dove with the +olive branch, from the Casa Trevisan (Vol. I. Plate XX. p. 369), it is +impossible for anything to go beyond the precision with which the olive +leaves are cut out of the white marble; and, in some wreaths of laurel +below, the rippled edge of each leaf is as finely and easily drawn, as +if by a delicate pencil. No Florentine table is more exquisitely +finished than the facade of this entire palace; and as ideals of an +executive perfection, which, though we must not turn aside from our main +path to reach it, may yet with much advantage be kept in our sight and +memory, these palaces are most notable amidst the architecture of +Europe. The Rio Facade of the Ducal Palace, though very sparing in +color, is yet, as an example of finished masonry in a vast building, one +of the finest things, not only in Venice, but in the world. It differs +from other work of the Byzantine Renaissance, in being on a very large +scale; and it still retains one pure Gothic character, which adds not a +little to its nobleness, that of perpetual variety. There is hardly one +window of it, or one panel, that is like another; and this continual +change so increases its apparent size by confusing the eye, that, though +presenting no bold features, or striking masses of any kind, there are +few things in Italy more impressive than the vision of it overhead, as +the gondola glides from beneath the Bridge of Sighs. And lastly (unless +we are to blame these buildings for some pieces of very childish +perspective), they are magnificently honest, as well as perfect. I do +not remember even any gilding upon them; all is pure marble, and of the +finest kind.[5] + +And therefore, in finally leaving the Ducal Palace,[6] let us take with +us one more lesson, the last which we shall receive from the Stones of +Venice, except in the form of a warning. + +Sec. XXXIX. The school of architecture which we have just been examining +is, as we have seen above, redeemed from severe condemnation by its +careful and noble use of inlaid marbles as a means of color. From that +time forward, this art has been unknown, or despised; the frescoes of +the swift and daring Venetian painters long contended with the inlaid +marbles, outvying them with color, indeed more glorious than theirs, but +fugitive as the hues of woods in autumn; and, at last, as the art itself +of painting in this mighty manner failed from among men,[7] the modern +decorative system established itself, which united the meaninglessness +of the veined marble with the evanescence of the fresco, and completed +the harmony by falsehood. + +Sec. XL. Since first, in the second chapter of the "Seven Lamps," I +endeavored to show the culpableness, as well as the baseness, of our +common modes of decoration by painted imitation of various woods or +marbles, the subject has been discussed in various architectural works, +and is evidently becoming one of daily increasing interest. When it is +considered how many persons there are whose means of livelihood consist +altogether in these spurious arts, and how difficult it is, even for the +most candid, to admit a conviction contrary both to their interests and +to their inveterate habits of practice and thought, it is rather a +matter of wonder, that the cause of Truth should have found even a few +maintainers, than that it should have encountered a host of adversaries. +It has, however, been defended repeatedly by architects themselves, and +so successfully, that I believe, so far as the desirableness of this or +that method of ornamentation is to be measured by the fact of its simple +honesty or dishonesty, there is little need to add anything to what has +been already urged upon the subject. But there are some points connected +with the practice of imitating marble, which I have been unable to touch +upon until now, and by the consideration of which we may be enabled to +see something of the _policy_ of honesty in this matter, without in the +least abandoning the higher ground of principle. + +Sec. XLI. Consider, then, first, what marble seems to have been made for. +Over the greater part of the surface of the world, we find that a rock +has been providentially distributed, in a manner particularly pointing +it out as intended for the service of man. Not altogether a common rock, +it is yet rare enough to command a certain degree of interest and +attention wherever it is found; but not so rare as to preclude its use +for any purpose to which it is fitted. It is exactly of the consistence +which is best adapted for sculpture: that is to say, neither hard nor +brittle, nor flaky nor splintery, but uniform, and delicately, yet not +ignobly, soft,--exactly soft enough to allow the sculptor to work it +without force, and trace on it the finest lines of finished form; and +yet so hard as never to betray the touch or moulder away beneath the +steel; and so admirably crystallized, and of such permanent elements, +that no rains dissolve it, no time changes it, no atmosphere decomposes +it: once shaped, it is shaped for ever, unless subjected to actual +violence or attrition. This rock, then, is prepared by Nature for the +sculptor and architect, just as paper is prepared by the manufacturer +for the artist, with as great--nay, with greater--care, and more perfect +adaptation of the material to the requirements. And of this marble +paper, some is white and some colored; but more is colored than white, +because the white is evidently meant for sculpture, and the colored for +the covering of large surfaces. + +Sec. XLII. Now, if we would take Nature at her word, and use this precious +paper which she has taken so much care to provide for us (it is a long +process, the making of that paper; the pulp of it needing the subtlest +possible solution, and the pressing of it--for it is all +hot-pressed--having to be done under the saw, or under something at +least as heavy); if, I say, we use it as Nature would have us, consider +what advantages would follow. The colors of marble are mingled for us +just as if on a prepared palette. They are of all shades and hues +(except bad ones), some being united and even, some broken, mixed, and +interrupted, in order to supply, as far as possible, the want of the +painter's power of breaking and mingling the color with the brush. But +there is more in the colors than this delicacy of adaptation. There is +history in them. By the manner in which they are arranged in every piece +of marble, they record the means by which that marble has been produced, +and the successive changes through which it has passed. And in all their +veins and zones, and flame-like stainings, or broken and disconnected +lines, they write various legends, never untrue, of the former political +state of the mountain kingdom to which they belonged, of its infirmities +and fortitudes, convulsions and consolidations, from the beginning of +time. + +Now, if we were never in the habit of seeing anything but real marbles, +this language of theirs would soon begin to be understood; that is to +say, even the least observant of us would recognize such and such stones +as forming a peculiar class, and would begin to inquire where they came +from, and, at last, take some feeble interest in the main question, Why +they were only to be found in that or the other place, and how they +came to make a part of this mountain, and not of that? And in a little +while, it would not be possible to stand for a moment at a shop door, +leaning against the pillars of it, without remembering or questioning of +something well worth the memory or the inquiry, touching the hills of +Italy, or Greece, or Africa, or Spain; and we should be led on from +knowledge to knowledge, until even the unsculptured walls of our streets +became to us volumes as precious as those of our libraries. + +Sec. XLIII. But the moment we admit imitation of marble, this source of +knowledge is destroyed. None of us can be at the pains to go through the +work of verification. If we knew that every colored stone we saw was +natural, certain questions, conclusions, interests, would force +themselves upon us without any effort of our own; but we have none of us +time to stop in the midst of our daily business, to touch and pore over, +and decide with painful minuteness of investigation, whether such and +such a pillar be stucco or stone. And the whole field of this knowledge, +which Nature intended us to possess when we were children, is hopelessly +shut out from us. Worse than shut out, for the mass of coarse imitations +confuses our knowledge acquired from other sources; and our memory of +the marbles we have perhaps once or twice carefully examined, is +disturbed and distorted by the inaccuracy of the imitations which are +brought before us continually. + +Sec. XLIV. But it will be said, that it is too expensive to employ real +marbles in ordinary cases. It may be so: yet not always more expensive +than the fitting windows with enormous plate glass, and decorating them +with elaborate stucco mouldings and other useless sources of expenditure +in modern building; nay, not always in the end more expensive than the +frequent repainting of the dingy pillars, which a little water dashed +against them would refresh from day to day, if they were of true stone. +But, granting that it be so, in that very costliness, checking their +common use in certain localities, is part of the interest of marbles, +considered as history. Where they are not found, Nature has supplied +other materials,--clay for brick, or forest for timber,--in the working +of which she intends other characters of the human mind to be developed, +and by the proper use of which certain local advantages will assuredly +be attained, while the delightfulness and meaning of the precious +marbles will be felt more forcibly in the districts where they occur, or +on the occasions when they may be procured. + +Sec. XLV. It can hardly be necessary to add, that, as the imitation of +marbles interferes with and checks the knowledge of geography and +geology, so the imitation of wood interferes with that of botany; and +that our acquaintance with the nature, uses, and manner of growth of the +timber trees of our own and of foreign countries, would probably, in the +majority of cases, become accurate and extensive, without any labor or +sacrifice of time, were not all inquiry checked, and all observation +betrayed, by the wretched labors of the "Grainer." + +Sec. XLVI. But this is not all. As the practice of imitation retards +knowledge, so also it retards art. + +There is not a meaner occupation for the human mind than the imitation +of the stains and striae of marble and wood. When engaged in any easy and +simple mechanical occupation, there is still some liberty for the mind +to leave the literal work; and the clash of the loom or the activity of +the fingers will not always prevent the thoughts from some happy +expatiation in their own domains. But the grainer must think of what he +is doing; and veritable attention and care, and occasionally +considerable skill, are consumed in the doing of a more absolute nothing +than I can name in any other department of painful idleness. I know not +anything so humiliating as to see a human being, with arms and limbs +complete, and apparently a head, and assuredly a soul, yet into the +hands of which when you have put a brush and pallet, it cannot do +anything with them but imitate a piece of wood. It cannot color, it has +no ideas of color; it cannot draw, it has no ideas of form; it cannot +caricature, it has no ideas of humor. It is incapable of anything beyond +knots. All its achievement, the entire result of the daily application +of its imagination and immortality, is to be such a piece of texture as +the sun and dew are sucking up out of the muddy ground, and weaving +together, far more finely, in millions of millions of growing branches, +over every rood of waste woodland and shady hill. + +Sec. XLVII. But what is to be done, the reader asks, with men who are +capable of nothing else than this? Nay, they may be capable of +everything else, for all we know, and what we are to do with them I will +try to say in the next chapter; but meanwhile one word more touching the +higher principles of action in this matter, from which we have descended +to those of expediency. I trust that some day the language of Types will +be more read and understood by us than it has been for centuries; and +when this language, a better one than either Greek or Latin, is again +recognized amongst us, we shall find, or remember, that as the other +visible elements of the universe--its air, its water, and its flame--set +forth, in their pure energies, the life-giving, purifying, and +sanctifying influences of the Deity upon His creatures, so the earth, in +its purity, sets forth His eternity and His TRUTH. I have dwelt above on +the historical language of stones; let us not forget this, which is +their theological language; and, as we would not wantonly pollute the +fresh waters when they issue forth in their clear glory from the rock, +nor stay the mountain winds into pestilential stagnancy, nor mock the +sunbeams with artificial and ineffective light; so let us not by our own +base and barren falsehoods, replace the crystalline strength and burning +color of the earth from which we were born, and to which we must return; +the earth which, like our own bodies, though dust in its degradation, is +full of splendor when God's hand gathers its atoms; and which was for +ever sanctified by Him, as the symbol no less of His love than of His +truth, when He bade the high priest bear the names of the Children of +Israel on the clear stones of the Breastplate of Judgment. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] There is a curious instance of this in the modern imitations of + the Gothic capitals of the Casa d' Oro, employed in its + restorations. The old capitals look like clusters of leaves, the + modern ones like kneaded masses of dough with holes in them. + + [2] Not that even these men were able to wear it altogether without + harm, as we shall see in the next chapter. + + [3] Appendix 4, "Date of Palaces of Byzantine Renaissance." + + [4] In the various works which Mr. Prout has written on light and + shade, no principle will be found insisted on more strongly than + this carrying of the dark into the light, and _vice versa_. It is + curious to find the untaught instinct of a merely picturesque artist + in the nineteenth century, fixing itself so intensely on a principle + which regulated the entire sacred composition of the thirteenth. I + say "untaught" instinct, for Mr. Prout was, throughout his life, the + discoverer of his own principles; fortunately so, considering what + principles were taught in his time, but unfortunately in the + abstract, for there were gifts in him, which, had there been any + wholesome influences to cherish them, might have made him one of the + greatest men of his age. He was great, under all adverse + circumstances, but the mere wreck of what he might have been, if, + after the rough training noticed in my pamphlet on Pre-Raphaelitism, + as having fitted him for his great function in the world, he had met + with a teacher who could have appreciated his powers, and directed + them. + + [5] There may, however, be a kind of dishonesty even in the use of + marble, if it is attempted to make the marble look like something + else. See the final or Venetian Index under head "Scalzi." + + [6] Appendix 5, "Renaissance Side of Ducal Palace." + + [7] We have, as far as I _know_, at present among us, only one + painter, G. F. Watts, who is capable of design in color on a large + scale. He stands alone among our artists of the old school, in his + perception of the value of breadth in distant masses, and in the + vigor of invention by which such breadth must be sustained; and his + power of expression and depth of thought are not less remarkable + than his bold conception of color effect. Very probably some of the + Pre-Raphaelites have the gift also; I am nearly certain that Rosetti + has it, and I think also Millais; but the experiment has yet to be + tried. I wish it could be made in Mr. Hope's church in Margaret + Street. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +ROMAN RENAISSANCE. + + +Sec. I. Of all the buildings in Venice, later in date than the final +additions to the Ducal Palace, the noblest is, beyond all question, that +which, having been condemned by its proprietor, not many years ago, to +be pulled down and sold for the value of its materials, was rescued by +the Austrian government, and appropriated--the government officers +having no other use for it--to the business of the Post-Office; though +still known to the gondolier by its ancient name, the Casa Grimani. It +is composed of three stories of the Corinthian order, at once simple, +delicate, and sublime; but on so colossal a scale, that the +three-storied palaces on its right and left only reach to the cornice +which marks the level of its first floor. Yet it is not at first +perceived to be so vast; and it is only when some expedient is employed +to hide it from the eye, that by the sudden dwarfing of the whole reach +of the Grand Canal, which it commands, we become aware that it is to the +majesty of the Casa Grimani that the Rialto itself, and the whole group +of neighboring buildings, owe the greater part of their impressiveness. +Nor is the finish of its details less notable than the grandeur of their +scale. There is not an erring line, nor a mistaken proportion, +throughout its noble front; and the exceeding fineness of the chiselling +gives an appearance of lightness to the vast blocks of stone out of +whose perfect union that front is composed. The decoration is sparing, +but delicate: the first story only simpler than the rest, in that it has +pilasters instead of shafts, but all with Corinthian capitals, rich in +leafage, and fruited delicately; the rest of the walls flat and smooth, +and the mouldings sharp and shallow, so that the bold shafts look like +crystals of beryl running through a rock of quartz. + +Sec. II. This palace is the principal type at Venice, and one of the best +in Europe, of the central architecture of the Renaissance schools; that +carefully studied and perfectly executed architecture to which those +schools owe their principal claims to our respect, and which became the +model of most of the important works subsequently produced by civilized +nations. I have called it the Roman Renaissance, because it is founded, +both in its principles of superimposition, and in the style of its +ornament, upon the architecture of classic Rome at its best period. The +revival of Latin literature both led to its adoption, and directed its +form; and the most important example of it which exists is the modern +Roman basilica of St. Peter's. It had, at its Renaissance or new birth, +no resemblance either to Greek, Gothic, or Byzantine forms, except in +retaining the use of the round arch, vault, and dome; in the treatment +of all details, it was exclusively Latin; the last links of connexion +with mediaeval tradition having been broken by its builders in their +enthusiasm for classical art, and the forms of true Greek or Athenian +architecture being still unknown to them. The study of these noble Greek +forms has induced various modifications of the Renaissance in our own +times; but the conditions which are found most applicable to the uses of +modern life are still Roman, and the entire style may most fitly be +expressed by the term "Roman Renaissance." + +Sec. III. It is this style, in its purity and fullest form,--represented +by such buildings as the Casa Grimani at Venice (built by San Micheli), +the Town Hall at Vicenza (by Palladio), St. Peter's at Rome (by Michael +Angelo), St. Paul's and Whitehall in London (by Wren and Inigo +Jones),--which is the true antagonist of the Gothic school. The +intermediate, or corrupt conditions of it, though multiplied over +Europe, are no longer admired by architects, or made the subjects of +their study; but the finished work of this central school is still, in +most cases, the model set before the student of the nineteenth century, +as opposed to those Gothic, Romanesque, or Byzantine forms which have +long been considered barbarous, and are so still by most of the leading +men of the day. That they are, on the contrary, most noble and +beautiful, and that the antagonistic Renaissance is, in the main, +unworthy and unadmirable, whatever perfection of a certain kind it may +possess, it was my principal purpose to show, when I first undertook the +labor of this work. It has been attempted already to put before the +reader the various elements which unite in the Nature of Gothic, and to +enable him thus to judge, not merely of the beauty of the forms which +that system has produced already, but of its future applicability to the +wants of mankind, and endless power over their hearts. I would now +endeavor, in like manner, to set before the reader the Nature of +Renaissance, and thus to enable him to compare the two styles under the +same light, and with the same enlarged view of their relations to the +intellect, and capacities for the service, of man. + +Sec. IV. It will not be necessary for me to enter at length into any +examination of its external form. It uses, whether for its roofs of +aperture or roofs proper, the low gable or circular arch: but it differs +from Romanesque work in attaching great importance to the horizontal +lintel or architrave _above_ the arch; transferring the energy of the +principal shafts to the supporting of this horizontal beam, and thus +rendering the arch a subordinate, if not altogether a superfluous, +feature. The type of this arrangement has been given already at _c_, +Fig. XXXVI., p. 145, Vol. I.: and I might insist at length upon the +absurdity of a construction in which the shorter shaft, which has the +real weight of wall to carry, is split into two by the taller one, which +has nothing to carry at all,--that taller one being strengthened, +nevertheless, as if the whole weight of the building bore upon it; and +on the ungracefulness, never conquered in any Palladian work, of the two +half-capitals glued, as it were, against the slippery round sides of the +central shaft. But it is not the form of this architecture against which +I would plead. Its defects are shared by many of the noblest forms of +earlier building, and might have been entirely atoned for by excellence +of spirit. But it is the moral nature of it which is corrupt, and which +it must, therefore, be our principal business to examine and expose. + +Sec. V. The moral, or immoral, elements which unite to form the spirit +of Central Renaissance architecture are, I believe, in the main, +two,--Pride and Infidelity; but the pride resolves itself into three +main branches,--Pride of Science, Pride of State, and Pride of System: +and thus we have four separate mental conditions which must be examined +successively. + +Sec. VI. 1. PRIDE OF SCIENCE. It would have been more charitable, but more +confusing, to have added another element to our list, namely the _Love_ +of Science; but the love is included in the pride, and is usually so +very subordinate an element that it does not deserve equality of +nomenclature. But, whether pursued in pride or in affection (how far by +either we shall see presently), the first notable characteristic of the +Renaissance central school is its introduction of accurate knowledge +into all its work, so far as it possesses such knowledge; and its +evident conviction, that such science is necessary to the excellence of +the work, and is the first thing to be expressed therein. So that all +the forms introduced, even in its minor ornament, are studied with the +utmost care; the anatomy of all animal structure is thoroughly +understood and elaborately expressed, and the whole of the execution +skilful and practised in the highest degree. Perspective, linear and +aerial, perfect drawing and accurate light and shade in painting, and +true anatomy in all representations of the human form, drawn or +sculptured, are the first requirements in all the work of this school. + +Sec. VII. Now, first considering all this in the most charitable light, +as pursued from a real love of truth, and not from vanity, it would, of +course, have been all excellent and admirable, had it been regarded as +the aid of art, and not as its essence. But the grand mistake of the +Renaissance schools lay in supposing that science and art are the same +things, and that to advance in the one was necessarily to perfect the +other. Whereas they are, in reality, things not only different, but so +opposed, that to advance in the one is, in ninety-nine cases out of the +hundred, to retrograde in the other. This is the point to which I would +at present especially bespeak the reader's attention. + +Sec. VIII. Science and art are commonly distinguished by the nature of +their actions; the one as knowing, the other as changing, producing, or +creating. But there is a still more important distinction in the nature +of the things they deal with. Science deals exclusively with things as +they are in themselves; and art exclusively with things as they affect +the human senses and human soul.[8] Her work is to portray the +appearance of things, and to deepen the natural impressions which they +produce upon living creatures. The work of science is to substitute +facts for appearances, and demonstrations for impressions. Both, +observe, are equally concerned with truth; the one with truth of aspect, +the other with truth of essence. Art does not represent things falsely, +but truly as they appear to mankind. Science studies the relations of +things to each other: but art studies only their relations to man; and +it requires of everything which is submitted to it imperatively this, +and only this,--what that thing is to the human eyes and human heart, +what it has to say to men, and what it can become to them: a field of +question just as much vaster than that of science, as the soul is larger +than the material creation. + +Sec. IX. Take a single instance. Science informs us that the sun is +ninety-five millions of miles distant from, and 111 times broader than, +the earth; that we and all the planets revolve round it; and that it +revolves on its own axis in 25 days, 14 hours and 4 minutes. With all +this, art has nothing whatsoever to do. It has no care to know anything +of this kind. But the things which it does care to know, are these: that +in the heavens God hath set a tabernacle for the sun, "which is as a +bridegroom coming out of his chamber, and rejoiceth as a strong man to +run a race. His going forth is from the end of the heaven, and his +circuit unto the ends of it, and there is nothing hid from the heat +thereof." + +Sec. X. This, then, being the kind of truth with which art is exclusively +concerned, how is such truth as this to be ascertained and accumulated? +Evidently, and only, by perception and feeling. Never either by +reasoning, or report. Nothing must come between Nature and the artist's +sight; nothing between God and the artist's soul. Neither calculation +nor hearsay,--be it the most subtle of calculations, or the wisest of +sayings,--may be allowed to come between the universe, and the witness +which art bears to its visible nature. The whole value of that witness +depends on its being _eye_-witness; the whole genuineness, +acceptableness, and dominion of it depend on the personal assurance of +the man who utters it. All its victory depends on the veracity of the +one preceding word, "Vidi." + +The whole function of the artist in the world is to be a seeing and +feeling creature; to be an instrument of such tenderness and +sensitiveness, that no shadow, no hue, no line, no instantaneous and +evanescent expression of the visible things around him, nor any of the +emotions which they are capable of conveying to the spirit which has +been given him, shall either be left unrecorded, or fade from the book +of record. It is not his business either to think, to judge, to argue, +or to know. His place is neither in the closet, nor on the bench, nor at +the bar, nor in the library. They are for other men and other work. He +may think, in a by-way; reason, now and then, when he has nothing better +to do; know, such fragments of knowledge as he can gather without +stooping, or reach without pains; but none of these things are to be his +care. The work of his life is to be twofold only: to see, to feel. + +Sec. XI. Nay, but, the reader perhaps pleads with me, one of the great +uses of knowledge is to open the eyes; to make things perceivable which, +never would have been seen, unless first they had been known. + +Not so. This could only be said or believed by those who do not know +what the perceptive faculty of a great artist is, in comparison with +that of other men. There is no great painter, no great workman in any +art, but he sees more with the glance of a moment than he could learn by +the labor of a thousand hours. God has made every man fit for his work; +He has given to the man whom he means for a student, the reflective, +logical, sequential faculties; and to the man whom He means for an +artist, the perceptive, sensitive, retentive faculties. And neither of +these men, so far from being able to do the other's work, can even +comprehend the way in which it is done. The student has no understanding +of the vision, nor the painter of the process; but chiefly the student +has no idea of the colossal grasp of the true painter's vision and +sensibility. + +The labor of the whole Geological Society, for the last fifty years, has +but now arrived at the ascertainment of those truths respecting mountain +form which Turner saw and expressed with a few strokes of a camel's hair +pencil fifty years ago, when he was a boy. The knowledge of all the laws +of the planetary system, and of all the curves of the motion of +projectiles, would never enable the man of science to draw a waterfall +or a wave; and all the members of Surgeons' Hall helping each other +could not at this moment see, or represent, the natural movement of a +human body in vigorous action, as a poor dyer's son did two hundred +years ago.[9] + +Sec. XII. But surely, it is still insisted, granting this peculiar faculty +to the painter, he will still see more as he knows more, and the more +knowledge he obtains, therefore, the better. No; not even so. It is +indeed true, that, here and there, a piece of knowledge will enable the +eye to detect a truth which might otherwise have escaped it; as, for +instance, in watching a sunrise, the knowledge of the true nature of the +orb may lead the painter to feel more profoundly, and express more +fully, the distance between the bars of cloud that cross it, and the +sphere of flame that lifts itself slowly beyond them into the infinite +heaven. But, for one visible truth to which knowledge thus opens the +eyes, it seals them to a thousand: that is to say, if the knowledge +occur to the mind so as to occupy its powers of contemplation at the +moment when the sight work is to be done, the mind retires inward, fixes +itself upon the known fact, and forgets the passing visible ones; and a +_moment_ of such forgetfulness loses more to the painter than a day's +thought can gain. This is no new or strange assertion. Every person +accustomed to careful reflection of any kind, knows that its natural +operation is to close his eyes to the external world. While he is +thinking deeply, he neither sees nor feels, even though naturally he may +possess strong powers of sight and emotion. He who, having journeyed all +day beside the Leman Lake, asked of his companions, at evening, where it +was,[10] probably was not wanting in sensibility; but he was generally a +thinker, not a perceiver. And this instance is only an extreme one of +the effect which, in all cases, knowledge, becoming a subject of +reflection, produces upon the sensitive faculties. It must be but poor +and lifeless knowledge, if it has no tendency to force itself forward, +and become ground for reflection, in despite of the succession of +external objects. It will not obey their succession. The first that +comes gives it food enough for its day's work; it is its habit, its +duty, to cast the rest aside, and fasten upon that. The first thing that +a thinking and knowing man sees in the course of the day, he will not +easily quit. It is not his way to quit anything without getting to the +bottom of it, if possible. But the artist is bound to receive all things +on the broad, white, lucid field of his soul, not to grasp at one. For +instance, as the knowing and thinking man watches the sunrise, he sees +something in the color of a ray, or the change of a cloud, that is new +to him; and this he follows out forthwith into a labyrinth of optical +and pneumatical laws, perceiving no more clouds nor rays all the +morning. But the painter must catch all the rays, all the colors that +come, and see them all truly, all in their real relations and +succession; therefore, everything that occupies room in his mind he must +cast aside for the time, as completely as may be. The thoughtful man is +gone far away to seek; but the perceiving man must sit still, and open +his heart to receive. The thoughtful man is knitting and sharpening +himself into a two-edged sword, wherewith to pierce. The perceiving man +is stretching himself into a four-cornered sheet wherewith to catch. And +all the breadth to which he can expand himself, and all the white +emptiness into which he can blanch himself, will not be enough to +receive what God has to give him. + +Sec. XIII. What, then, it will be indignantly asked, is an utterly +ignorant and unthinking man likely to make the best artist? No, not so +neither. Knowledge is good for him so long as he can keep it utterly, +servilely, subordinate to his own divine work, and trample it under his +feet, and out of his way, the moment it is likely to entangle him. + +And in this respect, observe, there is an enormous difference between +knowledge and education. An artist need not be a _learned_ man, in all +probability it will be a disadvantage to him to become so; but he ought, +if possible, always to be an _educated_ man: that is, one who has +understanding of his own uses and duties in the world, and therefore of +the general nature of the things done and existing in the world; and who +has so trained himself, or been trained, as to turn to the best and most +courteous account whatever faculties or knowledge he has. The mind of an +educated man is greater than the knowledge it possesses; it is like the +vault of heaven, encompassing the earth which lives and flourishes +beneath it: but the mind of an educated and learned man is like a +caoutchouc band, with an everlasting spirit of contraction in it, +fastening together papers which it cannot open, and keeps others from +opening. + +Half our artists are ruined for want of education, and by the possession +of knowledge; the best that I have known have been educated, and +illiterate. The ideal of an artist, however, is not that he should be +illiterate, but well read in the best books, and thoroughly high bred, +both in heart and in bearing. In a word, he should be fit for the best +society, _and should keep out of it_.[11] + +Sec. XIV. There are, indeed, some kinds of knowledge with which an artist +ought to be thoroughly furnished; those, for instance, which enable him +to express himself; for this knowledge relieves instead of encumbering +his mind, and permits it to attend to its purposes instead of wearying +itself about means. The whole mystery of manipulation and manufacture +should be familiar to the painter from a child. He should know the +chemistry of all colors and materials whatsoever, and should prepare all +his colors himself, in a little laboratory of his own. Limiting his +chemistry to this one object, the amount of practical science necessary +for it, and such accidental discoveries as might fall in his way in the +course of his work, of better colors or better methods of preparing +them, would be an infinite refreshment to his mind; a minor subject of +interest to which it might turn when jaded with comfortless labor, or +exhausted with feverish invention, and yet which would never interfere +with its higher functions, when it chose to address itself to them. Even +a considerable amount of manual labor, sturdy color-grinding and +canvas-stretching, would be advantageous; though this kind of work ought +to be in great part done by pupils. For it is one of the conditions of +perfect knowledge in these matters, that every great master should have +a certain number of pupils, to whom he is to impart all the knowledge of +materials and means which he himself possesses, as soon as possible; so +that, at any rate, by the time they are fifteen years old, they may know +all that he knows himself in this kind; that is to say, all that the +world of artists know, and his own discoveries besides, and so never be +troubled about methods any more. Not that the knowledge even of his own +particular methods is to be of purpose confined to himself and his +pupils, but that necessarily it must be so in some degree; for only +those who see him at work daily can understand his small and +multitudinous ways of practice. These cannot verbally be explained to +everybody, nor is it needful that they should, only let them be +concealed from nobody who cares to see them; in which case, of course, +his attendant scholars will know them best. But all that can be made +public in matters of this kind should be so with all speed, every artist +throwing his discovery into the common stock, and the whole body of +artists taking such pains in this department of science as that there +shall be no unsettled questions about any known material or method: that +it shall be an entirely ascertained and indisputable matter which is the +best white, and which the best brown; which the strongest canvas, and +safest varnish; and which the shortest and most perfect way of doing +everything known up to that time: and if any one discovers a better, he +is to make it public forthwith. All of them taking care to embarrass +themselves with no theories or reasons for anything, but to work +empirically only: it not being in any wise their business to know +whether light moves in rays or in waves; or whether the blue rays of the +spectrum move slower or faster than the rest; but simply to know how +many minutes and seconds such and such a powder must be calcined, to +give the brightest blue. + +Sec. XV. Now it is perhaps the most exquisite absurdity of the whole +Renaissance system, that while it has encumbered the artist with every +species of knowledge that is of no use to him, this one precious and +necessary knowledge it has utterly lost. There is not, I believe, at +this moment, a single question which could be put respecting pigments +and methods, on which the body of living artists would agree in their +answers. The lives of artists are passed in fruitless experiments; +fruitless, because undirected by experience and uncommunicated in their +results. Every man has methods of his own, which he knows to be +insufficient, and yet jealously conceals from his fellow-workmen: every +colorman has materials of his own, to which it is rare that the artist +can trust: and in the very front of the majestic advance of chemical +science, the empirical science of the artist has been annihilated, and +the days which should have led us to higher perfection are passed in +guessing at, or in mourning over, lost processes; while the so-called +Dark ages, possessing no more knowledge of chemistry than a village +herbalist does now, discovered, established, and put into daily practice +such methods of operation as have made their work, at this day, the +despair of all who look upon it. + +Sec. XVI. And yet even this, to the painter, the safest of sciences, and +in some degree necessary, has its temptations, and capabilities of abuse. +For the simplest means are always enough for a great man; and when once +he has obtained a few ordinary colors, which he is sure will stand, and +a white surface that will not darken nor moulder, nor rend, he is master +of the world, and of his fellow-men. And, indeed, as if in these times +we were bent on furnishing examples of every species of opposite error, +while we have suffered the traditions to escape us of the simple methods +of doing simple things, which are enough for all the arts, and to all +the ages, we have set ourselves to discover fantastic modes of doing +fantastic things,--new mixtures and manipulations of metal, and +porcelain, and leather, and paper, and every conceivable condition of +false substance and cheap work, to our own infinitely multiplied +confusion,--blinding ourselves daily more and more to the great, +changeless, and inevitable truth, that there is but one goodness in art; +and that is one which the chemist cannot prepare, nor the merchant +cheapen, for it comes only of a rare human hand, and rare human soul. + +Sec. XVII. Within its due limits, however, here is one branch of science +which the artist may pursue; and, within limits still more strict, +another also, namely, the science of the appearances of things as they +have been ascertained and registered by his fellow-men. For no day +passes but some visible fact is pointed out to us by others, which, +without their help, we should not have noticed; and the accumulation and +generalization of visible facts have formed, in the succession of ages, +the sciences of light and shade, and perspective, linear and aerial: so +that the artist is now at once put in possession of certain truths +respecting the appearances of things, which, so pointed out to him, any +man may in a few days understand and acknowledge; but which, without +aid, he could not probably discover in his lifetime. I say, probably +could not, because the time which the history of art shows us to have +been actually occupied in the discovery and systematization of such +truth, is no measure of the time _necessary_ for such discovery. The +lengthened period which elapsed between the earliest and the perfect +developement of the science of light (if I may so call it) was not +occupied in the actual effort to ascertain its laws, but in _acquiring +the disposition to make that effort_. It did not take five centuries to +find out the appearance of natural objects; but it took five centuries +to make people care about representing them. An artist of the twelfth +century did not desire to represent nature. His work was symbolical and +ornamental. So long as it was intelligible and lovely, he had no care to +make it like nature. As, for instance, when an old painter represented +the glory round a saint's head by a burnished plate of pure gold, he had +no intention of imitating an effect of light. He meant to tell the +spectator that the figure so decorated was a saint, and to produce +splendor of effect by the golden circle. It was no matter to him what +light was like. So soon as it entered into his intention to represent +the appearance of light, he was not long in discovering the natural +facts necessary for his purpose. + +Sec. XVIII. But, this being fully allowed, it is still true that the +accumulation of facts now known respecting visible phenomena, is greater +than any man could hope to gather for himself, and that it is well for +him to be made acquainted with them; provided always, that he receive +them only at their true value, and do not suffer himself to be misled by +them. I say, at their true value; that is, an exceedingly small one. All +the information which men can receive from the accumulated experience of +others, is of no use but to enable them more quickly and accurately to +see for themselves. It will in no wise take the place of this personal +sight. Nothing can be done well in art, except by vision. Scientific +principles and experiences are helps to the eye, as a microscope is; and +they are of exactly as much use _without_ the eye. No science of +perspective, or of anything else, will enable us to draw the simplest +natural line accurately, unless we see it and feel it. Science is soon +at her wits' end. All the professors of perspective in Europe, could +not, by perspective, draw the line of curve of a sea beach; nay, could +not outline one pool of the quiet water left among the sand. The eye and +hand can do it, nothing else. All the rules of aerial perspective that +ever were written, will not tell me how sharply the pines on the +hill-top are drawn at this moment on the sky. I shall know if I see +them, and love them; not till then. I may study the laws of atmospheric +gradation for fourscore years and ten, and I shall not be able to draw +so much as a brick-kiln through its own smoke, unless I look at it; and +that in an entirely humble and unscientific manner, ready to see all +that the smoke, my master, is ready to show me, and expecting to see +nothing more. + +Sec. XIX. So that all the knowledge a man has must be held cheap, and +neither trusted nor respected, the moment he comes face to face with +Nature. If it help him, well; if not, but, on the contrary, thrust +itself upon him in an impertinent and contradictory temper, and venture +to set itself in the slightest degree in opposition to, or comparison +with, his sight, let it be disgraced forthwith. And the slave is less +likely to take too much upon herself, if she has not been bought for a +high price. All the knowledge an artist needs, will, in these days, come +to him almost without his seeking; if he has far to look for it, he may +be sure he does not want it. Prout became Prout, without knowing a +single rule of perspective to the end of his days; and all the +perspective in the Encyclopaedia will never produce us another Prout. + +Sec. XX. And observe, also, knowledge is not only very often unnecessary, +but it is often _untrustworthy_. It is inaccurate, and betrays us where +the eye would have been true to us. Let us take the single instance of +the knowledge of aerial perspective, of which the moderns are so proud, +and see how it betrays us in various ways. First by the conceit of it, +which often prevents our enjoying work in which higher and better things +were thought of than effects of mist. The other day I showed a line +impression of Albert Durer's "St. Hubert" to a modern engraver, who had +never seen it nor any other of Albert Durer's works. He looked at it for +a minute contemptuously, then turned away: "Ah, I see that man did not +know much about aerial perspective!" All the glorious work and thought +of the mighty master, all the redundant landscape, the living +vegetation, the magnificent truth of line, were dead letters to him, +because he happened to have been taught one particular piece of +knowledge which Durer despised. + +Sec. XXI. But not only in the conceit of it, but in the inaccuracy of +it, this science betrays us. Aerial perspective, as given by the modern +artist, is, in nine cases out of ten, a gross and ridiculous +exaggeration, as is demonstrable in a moment. The effect of air in +altering the hue and depth of color is of course great in the exact +proportion of the volume of air between the observer and the object. It +is not violent within the first few yards, and then diminished +gradually, but it is equal for each foot of interposing air. Now in a +clear day, and clear climate, such as that generally presupposed in a +work of fine color, objects are completely visible at a distance of ten +miles; visible in light and shade, with gradations between the two. +Take, then, the faintest possible hue of shadow, or of any color, and +the most violent and positive possible, and set them side by side. The +interval between them is greater than the real difference (for objects +may often be seen clearly much farther than ten miles, I have seen Mont +Blanc at 120) caused by the ten miles of intervening air between any +given hue of the nearest, and most distant, objects; but let us assume +it, in courtesy to the masters of aerial perspective, to be the real +difference. Then roughly estimating a mile at less than it really is, +also in courtesy to them, or at 5000 feet, we have this difference +between tints produced by 50,000 feet of air. Then, ten feet of air +will produce the 5000th part of this difference. Let the reader take the +two extreme tints, and carefully gradate the one into the other. Let him +divide this gradated shadow or color into 5000 successive parts; and the +difference in depth between one of these parts and the next is the exact +amount of aerial perspective between one object, and another, ten feet +behind it, on a clear day. + +Sec. XXII. Now, in Millais' "Huguenot," the figures were standing about +three feet from the wall behind them; and the wise world of critics, +which could find no other fault with the picture, professed to have its +eyes hurt by the want of an aerial perspective, which, had it been +accurately given (as, indeed, I believe it was), would have amounted to +the 10/3-5000th, or less than the 15,000th part of the depth of any +given color. It would be interesting to see a picture painted by the +critics, upon this scientific principle. The aerial perspective usually +represented is entirely conventional and ridiculous; a mere struggle on +the part of the pretendedly well-informed, but really ignorant, artist, +to express distances by mist which he cannot by drawing. + +It is curious that the critical world is just as much offended by the +true _presence_ of aerial perspective, over distances of fifty miles, +and with definite purpose of representing mist, in the works of Turner, +as by the true _absence_ of aerial perspective, over distances of three +feet, and in clear weather, in those of Millais. + +Sec. XXIII. "Well but," still answers the reader, "this kind of error +may here and there be occasioned by too much respect for undigested +knowledge; but, on the whole, the gain is greater than the loss, and the +fact is, that a picture of the Renaissance period, or by a modern +master, does indeed represent nature more faithfully than one wrought in +the ignorance of old times." No, not one whit; for the most part less +faithfully. Indeed, the outside of nature is more truly drawn; the +material commonplace, which can be systematized, catalogued, and taught +to all pains-taking mankind,--forms of ribs and scapulae,[12] of eyebrows +and lips, and curls of hair. Whatever can be measured and handled, +dissected and demonstrated,--in a word, whatever is of the body +only,--that the schools of knowledge do resolutely and courageously +possess themselves of, and portray. But whatever is immeasurable, +intangible, indivisible, and of the spirit, that the schools of +knowledge do as certainly lose, and blot out of their sight, that is to +say, all that is worth art's possessing or recording at all; for +whatever can be arrested, measured, and systematized, we can contemplate +as much as we will in nature herself. But what we want art to do for us +is to stay what is fleeting, and to enlighten what is incomprehensible, +to incorporate the things that have no measure, and immortalize the +things that have no duration. The dimly seen, momentary glance, the +flitting shadow of faint emotion, the imperfect lines of fading thought, +and all that by and through such things as these is recorded on the +features of man, and all that in man's person and actions, and in the +great natural world, is infinite and wonderful; having in it that spirit +and power which man may witness, but not weigh; conceive, but not +comprehend; love, but not limit; and imagine, but not define;--this, the +beginning and the end of the aim of all noble art, we have, in the +ancient art, by perception; and we have _not_, in the newer art, by +knowledge. Giotto gives it us, Orcagna gives it us. Angelico, Memmi, +Pisano, it matters not who,--all simple and unlearned men, in their +measure and manner,--give it us; and the learned men that followed them +give it us not, and we, in our supreme learning, own ourselves at this +day farther from it than ever. + +Sec. XXIV. "Nay," but it is still answered, "this is because we have not +yet brought our knowledge into right use, but have been seeking to +accumulate it, rather than to apply it wisely to the ends of art. Let us +now do this, and we may achieve all that was done by that elder ignorant +art, and infinitely more." No, not so; for as soon as we try to put our +knowledge to good use, we shall find that we have much more than we can +use, and that what more we have is an encumbrance. All our errors in +this respect arise from a gross misconception as to the true nature of +knowledge itself. We talk of learned and ignorant men, as if there were +a certain quantity of knowledge, which to possess was to be learned, and +which not to possess was to be ignorant; instead of considering that +knowledge is infinite, and that the man most learned in human estimation +is just as far from knowing anything as he ought to know it, as the +unlettered peasant. Men are merely on a lower or higher stage of an +eminence, whose summit is God's throne, infinitely above all; and there +is just as much reason for the wisest as for the simplest man being +discontented with his position, as respects the real quantity of +knowledge he possesses. And, for both of them, the only true reasons for +contentment with the sum of knowledge they possess are these: that it is +the kind of knowledge they need for their duty and happiness in life; +that all they have is tested and certain, so far as it is in their +power; that all they have is well in order, and within reach when they +need it; that it has not cost too much time in the getting; that none of +it, once got, has been lost; and that there is not too much to be easily +taken care of. + +Sec. XXV. Consider these requirements a little, and the evils that result +in our education and polity from neglecting them. Knowledge is mental +food, and is exactly to the spirit what food is to the body (except that +the spirit needs several sorts of food, of which knowledge is only one), +and it is liable to the same kind of misuses. It may be mixed and +disguised by art, till it becomes unwholesome; it may be refined, +sweetened, and made palatable, until it has lost all its power of +nourishment; and, even of its best kind, it may be eaten to surfeiting, +and minister to disease and death. + +Sec. XXVI. Therefore, with respect to knowledge, we are to reason and act +exactly as with respect to food. We no more live to know, than we live +to eat. We live to contemplate, enjoy, act, adore; and we may know all +that is to be known in this world, and what Satan knows in the other, +without being able to do any of these. We are to ask, therefore, first, +is the knowledge we would have fit food for us, good and simple, not +artificial and decorated? and secondly, how much of it will enable us +best for our work; and will leave our hearts light, and our eyes clear? +For no more than that is to be eaten without the old Eve-sin. + +Sec. XXVII. Observe, also, the difference between tasting knowledge, +and hoarding it. In this respect it is also like food; since, in some +measure, the knowledge of all men is laid up in granaries, for future +use; much of it is at any given moment dormant, not fed upon or enjoyed, +but in store. And by all it is to be remembered, that knowledge in this +form may be kept without air till it rots, or in such unthreshed +disorder that it is of no use; and that, however good or orderly, it is +still only in being tasted that it becomes of use; and that men may +easily starve in their own granaries, men of science, perhaps, most of +all, for they are likely to seek accumulation of their store, rather +than nourishment from it. Yet let it not be thought that I would +undervalue them. The good and great among them are like Joseph, to whom +all nations sought to buy corn; or like the sower going forth to sow +beside all waters, sending forth thither the feet of the ox and the ass: +only let us remember that this is not all men's work. We are not +intended to be all keepers of granaries, nor all to be measured by the +filling of a storehouse; but many, nay, most of us, are to receive day +by day our daily bread, and shall be as well nourished and as fit for +our labor, and often, also, fit for nobler and more divine labor, in +feeding from the barrel of meal that does not waste, and from the cruse +of oil that does not fail, than if our barns were filled with plenty, +and our presses bursting out with new wine. + +Sec. XXVIII. It is for each man to find his own measure in this matter; +in great part, also, for others to find it for him, while he is yet a +youth. And the desperate evil of the whole Renaissance system is, that +all idea of measure is therein forgotten, that knowledge is thought the +one and the only good, and it is never inquired whether men are vivified +by it or paralyzed. Let us leave figures. The reader may not believe the +analogy I have been pressing so far; but let him consider the subject in +itself, let him examine the effect of knowledge in his own heart, and +see whether the trees of knowledge and of life are one now, any more +than in Paradise. He must feel that the real animating power of +knowledge is only in the moment of its being first received, when it +fills us with wonder and joy; a joy for which, observe, the previous +ignorance is just as necessary as the present knowledge. That man is +always happy who is in the presence of something which he cannot know to +the full, which he is always going on to know. This is the necessary +condition of a finite creature with divinely rooted and divinely +directed intelligence; this, therefore, its happy state,--but observe, a +state, not of triumph or joy in what it knows, but of joy rather in the +continual discovery of new ignorance, continual self-abasement, +continual astonishment. Once thoroughly our own, the knowledge ceases to +give us pleasure. It may be practically useful to us, it may be good for +others, or good for usury to obtain more; but, in itself, once let it be +thoroughly familiar, and it is dead. The wonder is gone from it, and all +the fine color which it had when first we drew it up out of the infinite +sea. And what does it matter how much or how little of it we have laid +aside, when our only enjoyment is still in the casting of that deep sea +line? What does it matter? Nay, in one respect, it matters much, and not +to our advantage. For one effect of knowledge is to deaden the force of +the imagination and the original energy of the whole man: under the +weight of his knowledge he cannot move so lightly as in the days of his +simplicity. The pack-horse is furnished for the journey, the war-horse +is armed for war; but the freedom of the field and the lightness of the +limb are lost for both. Knowledge is, at best, the pilgrim's burden or +the soldier's panoply, often a weariness to them both: and the +Renaissance knowledge is like the Renaissance armor of plate, binding +and cramping the human form; while all good knowledge is like the +crusader's chain mail, which throws itself into folds with the body, yet +it is rarely so forged as that the clasps and rivets do not gall us. All +men feel this, though they do not think of it, nor reason out its +consequences. They look back to the days of childhood as of greatest +happiness, because those were the days of greatest wonder, greatest +simplicity, and most vigorous imagination. And the whole difference +between a man of genius and other men, it has been said a thousand +times, and most truly, is that the first remains in great part a child, +seeing with the large eyes of children, in perpetual wonder, not +conscious of much knowledge,--conscious, rather, of infinite ignorance, +and yet infinite power; a fountain of eternal admiration, delight, and +creative force within him meeting the ocean of visible and governable +things around him. + +That is what we have to make men, so far as we may. All are to be men of +genius in their degree,--rivulets or rivers, it does not matter, so that +the souls be clear and pure; not dead walls encompassing dead heaps of +things known and numbered, but running waters in the sweet wilderness of +things unnumbered and unknown, conscious only of the living banks, on +which they partly refresh and partly reflect the flowers, and so pass +on. + +Sec. XXIX. Let each man answer for himself how far his knowledge has made +him this, or how far it is loaded upon him as the pyramid is upon the +tomb. Let him consider, also, how much of it has cost him labor and time +that might have been spent in healthy, happy action, beneficial to all +mankind; how many living souls may have been left uncomforted and +unhelped by him, while his own eyes were failing by the midnight lamp; +how many warm sympathies have died within him as he measured lines or +counted letters; how many draughts of ocean air, and steps on +mountain-turf, and openings of the highest heaven he has lost for his +knowledge; how much of that knowledge, so dearly bought, is now +forgotten or despised, leaving only the capacity of wonder less within +him, and, as it happens in a thousand instances, perhaps even also the +capacity of devotion. And let him,--if, after thus dealing with his own +heart, he can say that his knowledge has indeed been fruitful to +him,--yet consider how many there are who have been forced by the +inevitable laws of modern education into toil utterly repugnant to their +natures, and that in the extreme, until the whole strength of the young +soul was sapped away; and then pronounce with fearfulness how far, and +in how many senses, it may indeed be true that the wisdom of this world +is foolishness with God. + +Sec. XXX. Now all this possibility of evil, observe, attaches to knowledge +pursued for the noblest ends, if it be pursued imprudently. I have +assumed, in speaking of its effect both on men generally and on the +artist especially, that it was sought in the true love of it, and with +all honesty and directness of purpose. But this is granting far too much +in its favor. Of knowledge in general, and without qualification, it is +said by the Apostle that "it puffeth up;" and the father of all modern +science, writing directly in its praise, yet asserts this danger even in +more absolute terms, calling it a "venomousness" in the very nature of +knowledge itself. + +Sec. XXXI. There is, indeed, much difference in this respect between the +tendencies of different branches of knowledge; it being a sure rule that +exactly in proportion as they are inferior, nugatory, or limited in +scope, their power of feeding pride is greater. Thus philology, logic, +rhetoric, and the other sciences of the schools, being for the most part +ridiculous and trifling, have so pestilent an effect upon those who are +devoted to them, that their students cannot conceive of any higher +sciences than these, but fancy that all education ends in the knowledge +of words: but the true and great sciences, more especially natural +history, make men gentle and modest in proportion to the largeness of +their apprehension, and just perception of the infiniteness of the +things they can never know. And this, it seems to me, is the principal +lesson we are intended to be caught by the book of Job; for there God +has thrown open to us the heart of a man most just and holy, and +apparently perfect in all things possible to human nature except +humility. For this he is tried: and we are shown that no suffering, no +self-examination, however honest, however stern, no searching out of the +heart by its own bitterness, is enough to convince man of his +nothingness before God; but that the sight of God's creation will do it. +For, when the Deity himself has willed to end the temptation, and to +accomplish in Job that for which it was sent, He does not vouchsafe to +reason with him, still less does He overwhelm him with terror, or +confound him by laying open before his eyes the book of his iniquities. +He opens before him only the arch of the dayspring, and the fountains of +the deep; and amidst the covert of the reeds, and on the heaving waves, +He bids him watch the kings of the children of pride,--"Behold now +Behemoth, which I made with thee:" And the work is done. + +Sec. XXXII. Thus, if, I repeat, there is any one lesson in the whole book +which stands forth more definitely than another, it is this of the holy +and humbling influence of natural science on the human heart. And yet, +even here, it is not the science, but the perception, to which the good +is owing; and the natural sciences may become as harmful as any others, +when they lose themselves in classification and catalogue-making. Still, +the principal danger is with the sciences of words and methods; and it +was exactly into those sciences that the whole energy of men during the +Renaissance period was thrown. They discovered suddenly that the world +for ten centuries had been living in an ungrammatical manner, and they +made it forthwith the end of human existence to be grammatical. And it +mattered thenceforth nothing what was said, or what was done, so only +that it was said with scholarship, and done with system. Falsehood in a +Ciceronian dialect had no opposers; truth in patois no listeners. A +Roman phrase was thought worth any number of Gothic facts. The sciences +ceased at once to be anything more than different kinds of +grammars,--grammar of language, grammar of logic, grammar of ethics, +grammar of art; and the tongue, wit, and invention of the human race +were supposed to have found their utmost and most divine mission in +syntax and syllogism, perspective and five orders. + +Of such knowledge as this, nothing but pride could come; and, therefore, +I have called the first mental characteristic of the Renaissance +schools, the "pride" of science. If they had reached any science worth +the name, they might have loved it; but of the paltry knowledge they +possessed, they could only be proud. There was not anything in it +capable of being loved. Anatomy, indeed, then first made a subject of +accurate study, is a true science, but not so attractive as to enlist +the affections strongly on its side: and therefore, like its meaner +sisters, it became merely a ground for pride; and the one main purpose +of the Renaissance artists, in all their work, was to show how much they +knew. + +Sec. XXXIII. There were, of course, noble exceptions; but chiefly +belonging to the earliest periods of the Renaissance, when its teaching +had not yet produced its full effect. Raphael, Leonardo, and Michael +Angelo were all trained in the old school; they all had masters who knew +the true ends of art, and had reached them; masters nearly as great as +they were themselves, but imbued with the old religious and earnest +spirit, which their disciples receiving from them, and drinking at the +same time deeply from all the fountains of knowledge opened in their day, +became the world's wonders. Then the dull wondering world believed that +their greatness rose out of their new knowledge, instead of out of that +ancient religious root, in which to abide was life, from which to be +severed was annihilation. And from that day to this, they have tried to +produce Michael Angelos and Leonardos by teaching the barren sciences, +and still have mourned and marvelled that no more Michael Angelos came; +not perceiving that those great Fathers were only able to receive such +nourishment because they were rooted on the rock of all ages, and that +our scientific teaching, nowadays, is nothing more nor less than the +assiduous watering of trees whose stems are cut through. Nay, I have +even granted too much in saying that those great men were able to +receive pure nourishment from the sciences; for my own conviction is, +and I know it to be shared by most of those who love Raphael +truly,--that he painted best when he knew least. Michael Angelo was +betrayed, again and again, into such vain and offensive exhibition of +his anatomical knowledge as, to this day, renders his higher powers +indiscernible by the greater part of men; and Leonardo fretted his life +away in engineering, so that there is hardly a picture left to bear his +name. But, with respect to all who followed, there can be no question +that the science they possessed was utterly harmful; serving merely to +draw away their hearts at once from the purposes of art and the power of +nature, and to make, out of the canvas and marble, nothing more than +materials for the exhibition of petty dexterity and useless knowledge. + +Sec. XXXIV. It is sometimes amusing to watch the naive and childish way +in which this vanity is shown. For instance, when perspective was first +invented, the world thought it a mighty discovery, and the greatest men +it had in it were as proud of knowing that retiring lines converge, as +if all the wisdom of Solomon had been compressed into a vanishing point. +And, accordingly, it became nearly impossible for any one to paint a +Nativity, but he must turn the stable and manger into a Corinthian +arcade, in order to show his knowledge of perspective; and half the best +architecture of the time, instead of being adorned with historical +sculpture, as of old, was set forth with bas-relief of minor corridors +and galleries, thrown into perspective. + +Now that perspective can be taught to any schoolboy in a week, we can +smile at this vanity. But the fact is, that all pride in knowledge is +precisely as ridiculous, whatever its kind, or whatever its degree. +There is, indeed, nothing of which man has any right to be proud; but +the very last thing of which, with any show of reason, he can make his +boast is his knowledge, except only that infinitely small portion of it +which he has discovered for himself. For what is there to be more proud +of in receiving a piece of knowledge from another person, than in +receiving a piece of money? Beggars should not be proud, whatever kind +of alms they receive. Knowledge is like current coin. A man may have +some right to be proud of possessing it, if he has worked for the gold +of it, and assayed it, and stamped it, so that it may be received of +all men as true; or earned it fairly, being already assayed: but if he +has done none of these things, but only had it thrown in his face by a +passer-by, what cause has he to be proud? And though, in this mendicant +fashion, he had heaped together the wealth of Croesus, would pride any +more, for this, become him, as, in some sort, it becomes the man who has +labored for his fortune, however small? So, if a man tells me the sun is +larger than the earth, have I any cause for pride in knowing it? or, if +any multitude of men tell me any number of things, heaping all their +wealth of knowledge upon me, have I any reason to be proud under the +heap? And is not nearly all the knowledge of which we boast in these +days cast upon us in this dishonorable way; worked for by other men, +proved by them, and then forced upon us, even against our wills, and +beaten into us in our youth, before we have the wit even to know if it +be good or not? (Mark the distinction between knowledge and thought.) +Truly a noble possession to be proud of! Be assured, there is no part of +the furniture of a man's mind which he has a right to exult in, but that +which he has hewn and fashioned for himself. He who has built himself a +hut on a desert heath, and carved his bed, and table, and chair out of +the nearest forest, may have some right to take pride in the appliances +of his narrow chamber, as assuredly he will have joy in them. But the +man who has had a palace built, and adorned, and furnished for him, may, +indeed, have many advantages above the other, but he has no reason to be +proud of his upholsterer's skill; and it is ten to one if he has half +the joy in his couches of ivory that the other will have in his pallet +of pine. + +Sec. XXXV. And observe how we feel this, in the kind of respect we pay to +such knowledge as we are indeed capable of estimating the value of. When +it is our own, and new to us, we cannot judge of it; but let it be +another's also, and long familiar to us, and see what value we set on +it. Consider how we regard a schoolboy, fresh from his term's labor. If +he begin to display his newly acquired small knowledge to us, and plume +himself thereupon, how soon do we silence him with contempt! But it is +not so if the schoolboy begins to feel or see anything. In the strivings +of his soul within him he is our equal; in his power of sight and +thought he stands separate from us, and may be a greater than we. We are +ready to hear him forthwith. "You saw that? you felt that? No matter for +your being a child; let us hear." + +Sec. XXXVI. Consider that every generation of men stands in this relation +to its successors. It is as the schoolboy: the knowledge of which it is +proudest will be as the alphabet to those who follow. It had better make +no noise about its knowledge; a time will come when its utmost, in that +kind, will be food for scorn. Poor fools! was that all they knew? and +behold how proud they were! But what we see and feel will never be +mocked at. All men will be thankful to us for telling them that. +"Indeed!" they will say, "they felt that in their day? saw that? Would +God we may be like them, before we go to the home where sight and +thought are not!" + +This unhappy and childish pride in knowledge, then, was the first +constituent element of the Renaissance mind, and it was enough, of +itself, to have cast it into swift decline: but it was aided by another +form of pride, which was above called the Pride of State; and which we +have next to examine. + +Sec. XXXVII. II. PRIDE OF STATE. It was noticed in the second volume of +"Modern Painters," p. 122, that the principle which had most power in +retarding the modern school of portraiture was its constant expression +of individual vanity and pride. And the reader cannot fail to have +observed that one of the readiest and commonest ways in which the +painter ministers to this vanity, is by introducing the pedestal or +shaft of a column, or some fragment, however simple, of Renaissance +architecture, in the background of the portrait. And this is not merely +because such architecture is bolder or grander than, in general, that of +the apartments of a private house. No other architecture would produce +the same effect in the same degree. The richest Gothic, the most massive +Norman, would not produce the same sense of exaltation as the simple +and meagre lines of the Renaissance. + +Sec. XXXVIII. And if we think over this matter a little, we shall soon +feel that in those meagre lines there is indeed an expression of +aristocracy in its worst characters; coldness, perfectness of training, +incapability of emotion, want of sympathy with the weakness of lower men, +blank, hopeless, haughty self-sufficiency. All these characters are +written in the Renaissance architecture as plainly as if they were graven +on it in words. For, observe, all other architectures have something in +them that common men can enjoy; some concession to the simplicities of +humanity, some daily bread for the hunger of the multitude. Quaint fancy, +rich ornament, bright color, something that shows a sympathy with men of +ordinary minds and hearts; and this wrought out, at least in the Gothic, +with a rudeness showing that the workman did not mind exposing his own +ignorance if he could please others. But the Renaissance is exactly the +contrary of all this. It is rigid, cold, inhuman; incapable of glowing, +of stooping, of conceding for an instant. Whatever excellence it has is +refined, high-trained, and deeply erudite; a kind which the architect +well knows no common mind can taste. He proclaims it to us aloud. "You +cannot feel my work unless you study Vitruvius. I will give you no gay +color, no pleasant sculpture, nothing to make you happy; for I am a +learned man. All the pleasure you can have in anything I do is in its +proud breeding, its rigid formalism, its perfect finish, its cold +tranquillity. I do not work for the vulgar, only for the men of the +academy and the court." + +Sec. XXXIX. And the instinct of the world felt this in a moment. In the +new precision and accurate law of the classical forms, they perceived +something peculiarly adapted to the setting forth of state in an +appalling manner: Princes delighted in it, and courtiers. The Gothic was +good for God's worship, but this was good for man's worship. The Gothic +had fellowship with all hearts, and was universal, like nature: it could +frame a temple for the prayer of nations, or shrink into the poor man's +winding stair. But here was an architecture that would not shrink, that +had in it no submission, no mercy. The proud princes and lords rejoiced +in it. It was full of insult to the poor in its every line. It would not +be built of the materials at the poor man's hand; it would not roof +itself with thatch or shingle, and black oak beams; it would not wall +itself with rough stone or brick; it would not pierce itself with small +windows where they were needed; it would not niche itself, wherever +there was room for it, in the street corners. It would be of hewn stone; +it would have its windows and its doors, and its stairs and its pillars, +in lordly order, and of stately size; it would have its wings and its +corridors, and its halls and its gardens, as if all the earth were its +own. And the rugged cottages of the mountaineers, and the fantastic +streets of the laboring burgher were to be thrust out of its way, as of +a lower species. + +Sec. XL. It is to be noted also, that it ministered as much to luxury as to +pride. Not to luxury of the eye, that is a holy luxury; Nature ministers +to that in her painted meadows, and sculptured forests, and gilded +heavens; the Gothic builder ministered to that in his twisted traceries, +and deep-wrought foliage, and burning casements. The dead Renaissance +drew back into its earthliness, out of all that was warm and heavenly; +back into its pride, out of all that was simple and kind; back into its +stateliness, out of all that was impulsive, reverent, and gay. But it +understood the luxury of the body; the terraced and scented and grottoed +garden, with its trickling fountains and slumbrous shades; the spacious +hall and lengthened corridor for the summer heat; the well-closed +windows, and perfect fittings and furniture, for defence against the +cold; and the soft picture, and frescoed wall and roof, covered with the +last lasciviousness of Paganism;--this is understood and possessed to +the full, and still possesses. This is the kind of domestic architecture +on which we pride ourselves, even to this day, as an infinite and +honorable advance from the rough habits of our ancestors; from the time +when the king's floor was strewn with rushes, and the tapestries swayed +before the searching wind in the baron's hall. + +Sec. XLI. Let us hear two stories of those rougher times. + +At the debate of King Edwin with his courtiers and priests, whether he +ought to receive the Gospel preached to him by Paulinus, one of his +nobles spoke as follows: + +"The present life, O king! weighed with the time that is unknown, seems +to me like this. When you are sitting at a feast with your earls and +thanes in winter time, and the fire is lighted, and the hall is warmed, +and it rains and snows, and the storm is loud without, there comes a +sparrow, and flies through the house. It comes in at one door and goes +out at the other. While it is within, it is not touched by the winter's +storm; but it is but for the twinkling of an eye, for from winter it +comes and to winter it returns. So also this life of man endureth for a +little space; what goes before or what follows after, we know not. +Wherefore, if this new lore bring anything more certain, it is fit that +we should follow it."[13] + +That could not have happened in a Renaissance building. The bird could +not have dashed in from the cold into the heat, and from the heat back +again into the storm. It would have had to come up a flight of marble +stairs, and through seven or eight antechambers; and so, if it had ever +made its way into the presence chamber, out again through loggias and +corridors innumerable. And the truth which the bird brought with it, +fresh from heaven, has, in like manner, to make its way to the +Renaissance mind through many antechambers, hardly, and as a despised +thing, if at all. + +Sec. XLII. Hear another story of those early times. + +The king of Jerusalem, Godfrey of Bouillon, at the siege of Asshur, or +Arsur, gave audience to some emirs from Samaria and Naplous. They found +him seated on the ground on a sack of straw. They expressing surprise, +Godfrey answered them: "May not the earth, out of which we came, and +which is to be our dwelling after death, serve us for a seat during +life?" + +It is long since such a throne has been set in the reception chambers +of Christendom, or such an answer heard from the lips of a king. + +Thus the Renaissance spirit became base both in its abstinence and its +indulgence. Base in its abstinence; curtailing the bright and playful +wealth of form and thought, which filled the architecture of the earlier +ages with sources of delight for their hardy spirit, pure, simple, and +yet rich as the fretwork of flowers and moss, watered by some strong and +stainless mountain stream: and base in its indulgence; as it granted to +the body what it withdrew from the heart, and exhausted, in smoothing +the pavement for the painless feet, and softening the pillow for the +sluggish brain, the powers of art which once had hewn rough ladders into +the clouds of heaven, and set up the stones by which they rested for +houses of God. + +Sec. XLIII. And just in proportion as this courtly sensuality lowered +the real nobleness of the men whom birth or fortune raised above their +fellows, rose their estimate of their own dignity, together with the +insolence and unkindness of its expression, and the grossness of the +flattery with which it was fed. Pride is indeed the first and the last +among the sins of men, and there is no age of the world in which it has +not been unveiled in the power and prosperity of the wicked. But there +was never in any form of slavery, or of feudal supremacy, a +forgetfulness so total of the common majesty of the human soul, and of +the brotherly kindness due from man to man, as in the aristocratic +follies in the Renaissance. I have not space to follow out this most +interesting and extensive subject; but here is a single and very curious +example of the kind of flattery with which architectural teaching was +mingled when addressed to the men of rank of the day. + +Sec. XLIV. In St. Mark's library there is a very curious Latin manuscript +of the twenty-five books of Averulinus, a Florentine architect, upon the +principles of his art. The book was written in or about 1460, and +translated into Latin, and richly illuminated for Corvinus, king of +Hungary, about 1483. I extract from the third book the following passage +on the nature of stones. "As there are three genera of men,--that is to +say, nobles, men of the middle classes, and rustics,--so it appears that +there are of stones. For the marbles and common stones of which we have +spoken above, set forth the rustics. The porphyries and alabasters, and +the other harder stones of mingled quality, represent the middle +classes, if we are to deal in comparisons: and by means of these the +ancients adorned their temples with incrustations and ornaments in a +magnificent manner. And after these come the chalcedonies and +sardonyxes, &c., which are so transparent that there can be seen no spot +in them.[14] Thus men endowed with nobility lead a life in which no spot +can be found." + +Canute or Coeur de Lion (I name not Godfrey or St. Louis) would have +dashed their sceptres against the lips of a man who should have dared to +utter to them flattery such as this. But in the fifteenth century it was +rendered and accepted as a matter of course, and the tempers which +delighted in it necessarily took pleasure also in every vulgar or false +means, of taking worldly superiority. And among such false means +largeness of scale in the dwelling-house was of course one of the +easiest and most direct. All persons, however senseless or dull, could +appreciate size: it required some exertion of intelligence to enter into +the spirit of the quaint carving of the Gothic times, but none to +perceive that one heap of stones was higher than another.[15] And +therefore, while in the execution and manner of work the Renaissance +builders zealously vindicated for themselves the attribute of cold and +superior learning, they appealed for such approbation as they needed +from the multitude, to the lowest possible standard of taste; and while +the older workman lavished his labor on the minute niche and narrow +casement, on the doorways no higher than the head, and the contracted +angles of the turreted chamber, the Renaissance builder spared such cost +and toil in his detail, that he might spend it in bringing larger stones +from a distance; and restricted himself to rustication and five orders, +that he might load the ground with colossal piers, and raise an +ambitious barrenness of architecture, as inanimate as it was gigantic, +above the feasts and follies of the powerful or the rich. The Titanic +insanity extended itself also into ecclesiastical design: the principal +church in Italy was built with little idea of any other admirableness +than that which was to result from its being huge; and the religious +impressions of those who enter it are to this day supposed to be +dependent, in a great degree, on their discovering that they cannot span +the thumbs of the statues which sustain the vessels for holy water. + +Sec. XLV. It is easy to understand how an architecture which thus appealed +not less to the lowest instincts of dulness than to the subtlest pride +of learning, rapidly found acceptance with a large body of mankind; and +how the spacious pomp of the new manner of design came to be eagerly +adopted by the luxurious aristocracies, not only of Venice, but of the +other countries of Christendom, now gradually gathering themselves into +that insolent and festering isolation, against which the cry of the poor +sounded hourly in more ominous unison, bursting at last into thunder +(mark where,--first among the planted walks and plashing fountains of +the palace wherein the Renaissance luxury attained its utmost height in +Europe, Versailles); that cry, mingling so much piteousness with its +wrath and indignation, "Our soul is filled with the scornful reproof of +the wealthy, and with the despitefulness of the proud." + +Sec. XLVI. But of all the evidence bearing upon this subject presented by +the various arts of the fifteenth century, none is so interesting or so +conclusive as that deduced from its tombs. For, exactly in proportion as +the pride of life became more insolent, the fear of death became more +servile; and the difference in the manner in which the men of early and +later days adorned the sepulchre, confesses a still greater difference +in their manner of regarding death. To those he came as the comforter +and the friend, rest in his right hand, hope in his left; to these as +the humiliator, the spoiler, and the avenger. And, therefore, we find +the early tombs at once simple and lovely in adornment, severe and +solemn in their expression; confessing the power, and accepting the +peace, of death, openly and joyfully; and in all their symbols marking +that the hope of resurrection lay only in Christ's righteousness; signed +always with this simple utterance of the dead, "I will lay me down in +peace, and take my rest; for it is thou, Lord, only that makest me dwell +in safety." But the tombs of the later ages are a ghastly struggle of +mean pride and miserable terror: the one mustering the statues of the +Virtues about the tomb, disguising the sarcophagus with delicate +sculpture, polishing the false periods of the elaborate epitaph, and +filling with strained animation the features of the portrait statue; and +the other summoning underneath, out of the niche or from behind the +curtain, the frowning skull, or scythed skeleton, or some other more +terrible image of the enemy in whose defiance the whiteness of the +sepulchre had been set to shine above the whiteness of the ashes. + +Sec. XLVII. This change in the feeling with which sepulchral monuments +were designed, from the eleventh to the eighteenth centuries, has been +common to the whole of Europe. But, as Venice is in other respects the +centre of the Renaissance system, so also she exhibits this change in +the manner of the sepulchral monument under circumstances peculiarly +calculated to teach us its true character. For the severe guard which, +in earlier times, she put upon every tendency to personal pomp and +ambition, renders the tombs of her ancient monarchs as remarkable for +modesty and simplicity as for their religious feeling; so that, in this +respect, they are separated by a considerable interval from the more +costly monuments erected at the same periods to the kings or nobles of +other European states. In later times, on the other hand, as the piety +of the Venetians diminished, their pride overleaped all limits, and the +tombs which in recent epochs, were erected for men who had lived only to +impoverish or disgrace the state, were as much more magnificent than +those contemporaneously erected for the nobles of Europe, as the +monuments for the great Doges had been humbler. When, in addition to +this, we reflect that the art of sculpture, considered as expressive of +emotion, was at a low ebb in Venice in the twelfth century, and that in +the seventeenth she took the lead in Italy in luxurious work, we shall +at once see the chain of examples through which the change of feeling is +expressed, must present more remarkable extremes here than it can in any +other city; extremes so startling that their impressiveness cannot be +diminished, while their intelligibility is greatly increased, by the +large number of intermediate types which have fortunately been +preserved. + +It would, however, too much weary the general reader if, without +illustrations, I were to endeavor to lead him step by step through the +aisles of St. John and Paul; and I shall therefore confine myself to a +slight notice of those features in sepulchral architecture generally +which are especially illustrative of the matter at present in hand, and +point out the order in which, if possible, the traveller should visit +the tombs in Venice, so as to be most deeply impressed with the true +character of the lessons they convey. + +Sec. XLVIII. I have not such an acquaintance with the modes of entombment +or memorial in the earliest ages of Christianity as would justify me in +making any general statement respecting them: but it seems to me that +the perfect type of a Christian tomb was not developed until toward the +thirteenth century, sooner or later according to the civilization of +each country; that perfect type consisting in the raised and perfectly +visible sarcophagus of stone, bearing upon it a recumbent figure, and +the whole covered by a canopy. Before that type was entirely developed, +and in the more ordinary tombs contemporary with it, we find the simple +sarcophagus, often with only a rough block of stone for its lid, +sometimes with a low-gabled lid like a cottage roof, derived from +Egyptian forms, and bearing, either on the sides or the lid, at least a +sculpture of the cross, and sometimes the name of the deceased, and date +of erection of the tomb. In more elaborate examples rich +figure-sculpture is gradually introduced; and in the perfect period the +sarcophagus, even when it does not bear any recumbent figure, has +generally a rich sculpture on its sides representing an angel presenting +the dead, in person and dress as he lived, to Christ or to the Madonna, +with lateral figures, sometimes of saints, sometimes--as in the tombs of +the Dukes of Burgundy at Dijon--of mourners; but in Venice almost always +representing the Annunciation, the angel being placed at one angle of +the sarcophagus, and the Madonna at the other. The canopy, in a very +simple foursquare form, or as an arch over a recess, is added above the +sarcophagus, long before the life-size recumbent figure appears resting +upon it. By the time that the sculptors had acquired skill enough to +give much expression to this figure, the canopy attains an exquisite +symmetry and richness; and, in the most elaborate examples, is +surmounted by a statue, generally small, representing the dead person in +the full strength and pride of life, while the recumbent figure shows +him as he lay in death. And, at this point, the perfect type of the +Gothic tomb is reached. + +Sec. XLIX. Of the simple sarcophagus tomb there are many exquisite +examples both at Venice and Verona; the most interesting in Venice are +those which are set in the recesses of the rude brick front of the Church +of St. John and Paul, ornamented only, for the most part, with two crosses +set in circles, and the legend with the name of the dead, and an "Orate +pro anima" in another circle in the centre. And in this we may note one +great proof of superiority in Italian over English tombs; the latter +being often enriched with quatrefoils, small shafts, and arches, and +other ordinary architectural decorations, which destroy their +seriousness and solemnity, render them little more than ornamental, and +have no religious meaning whatever; while the Italian sarcophagi are +kept massive, smooth, and gloomy,--heavy-lidded dungeons of stone, like +rock-tombs,--but bearing on their surface, sculptured with tender and +narrow lines, the emblem of the cross, not presumptuously nor proudly, +but dimly graven upon their granite, like the hope which the human heart +holds, but hardly perceives in its heaviness. + +Sec. L. Among the tombs in front of the Church of St. John and Paul +there is one which is peculiarly illustrative of the simplicity of these +earlier ages. It is on the left of the entrance, a massy sarcophagus +with low horns as of an altar, placed in a rude recess of the outside +wall, shattered and worn, and here and there entangled among wild grass +and weeds. Yet it is the tomb of two Doges, Jacopo and Lorenzo Tiepolo, +by one of whom nearly the whole ground was given for the erection of the +noble church in front of which his unprotected tomb is wasting away. The +sarcophagus bears an inscription in the centre, describing the acts of +the Doges, of which the letters show that it was added a considerable +period after the erection of the tomb: the original legend is still left +in other letters on its base, to this effect, + + "Lord James, died 1251. Lord Laurence, died 1288." + +At the two corners of the sarcophagus are two angels bearing censers; +and on its lid two birds, with crosses like crests upon their heads. For +the sake of the traveller in Venice the reader will, I think, pardon me +the momentary irrelevancy of telling the meaning of these symbols. + +Sec. LI. The foundation of the church of St. John and Paul was laid by the +Dominicans about 1234, under the immediate protection of the Senate and +the Doge Giacomo Tiepolo, accorded to them in consequence of a +miraculous vision appearing to the Doge; of which the following account +is given in popular tradition: + +"In the year 1226, the Doge Giacomo Tiepolo dreamed a dream; and in his +dream he saw the little oratory of the Dominicans, and, behold, the +ground all around it (now occupied by the church) was covered with +roses of the color of vermilion, and the air was filled with their +fragrance. And in the midst of the roses, there were seen flying to and +fro a crowd of white doves, with golden crosses upon their heads. And +while the Doge looked, and wondered, behold, two angels descended from +heaven with golden censers, and passing through the oratory, and forth +among the flowers, they filled the place with the smoke of their +incense. Then the Doge heard suddenly a clear and loud voice which +proclaimed, 'This is the place that I have chosen for my preachers;' and +having heard it, straightway he awoke and went to the Senate, and +declared to them the vision. Then the Senate decreed that forty paces of +ground should be given to enlarge the monastery; and the Doge Tiepolo +himself made a still larger grant afterwards." + +There is nothing miraculous in the occurrence of such a dream as this to +the devout Doge; and the fact, of which there is no doubt, that the +greater part of the land on which the church stands was given by him, is +partly a confirmation of the story. But, whether the sculptures on the +tomb were records of the vision, or the vision a monkish invention from +the sculptures on the tomb, the reader will not, I believe, look upon +its doves and crosses, or rudely carved angels, any more with disdain; +knowing how, in one way or another, they were connected with a point of +deep religious belief. + +Sec. LII. Towards the beginning of the fourteenth century, in Venice, the +recumbent figure begins to appear on the sarcophagus, the first dated +example being also one of the most beautiful; the statue of the prophet +Simeon, sculptured upon the tomb which was to receive his relics in the +church dedicated to him under the name of San Simeone Grande. So soon as +the figure appears, the sarcophagus becomes much more richly sculptured, +but always with definite religious purpose. It is usually divided into +two panels, which are filled with small bas-reliefs of the acts or +martyrdom of the patron saints of the deceased: between them, in the +centre, Christ, or the Virgin and Child, are richly enthroned, under a +curtained canopy; and the two figures representing the Annunciation are +almost always at the angles; the promise of the Birth of Christ being +taken as at once the ground and the type of the promise of eternal life +to all men. + +Sec. LIII. These figures are always in Venice most rudely chiselled; the +progress of figure sculpture being there comparatively tardy. At Verona, +where the great Pisan school had strong influence, the monumental +sculpture is immeasurably finer; and, so early as about the year +1335,[16] the consummate form of the Gothic tomb occurs in the monument +of Can Grande della Scala at Verona. It is set over the portal of the +chapel anciently belonging to the family. The sarcophagus is sculptured +with shallow bas-reliefs, representing (which is rare in the tombs with +which I am acquainted in Italy, unless they are those of saints) the +principal achievements of the warrior's life, especially the siege of +Vicenza and battle of Placenza; these sculptures, however, form little +more than a chased and roughened groundwork for the fully relieved +statues representing the Annunciation, projecting boldly from the front +of the sarcophagus. Above, the Lord of Verona is laid in his long robe +of civil dignity, wearing the simple bonnet, consisting merely of a +fillet bound round the brow, knotted and falling on the shoulder. He is +laid as asleep; his arms crossed upon his body, and his sword by his +side. Above him, a bold arched canopy is sustained by two projecting +shafts, and on the pinnacle of its roof is the statue of the knight on +his war-horse; his helmet, dragon-winged and crested with the dog's +head, tossed back behind his shoulders, and the broad and blazoned +drapery floating back from his horse's breast,--so truly drawn by the +old workman from the life, that it seems to wave in the wind, and the +knight's spear to shake, and his marble horse to be evermore quickening +its pace, and starting into heavier and hastier charge, as the silver +clouds float past behind it in the sky. + +Sec. LIV. Now observe, in this tomb, as much concession is made to the +pride of man as may ever consist with honor, discretion, or dignity. I +do not enter into any question respecting the character of Can Grande, +though there can be little doubt that he was one of the best among the +nobles of his time; but that is not to our purpose. It is not the +question whether his wars were just, or his greatness honorably +achieved; but whether, supposing them to have been so, these facts are +well and gracefully told upon his tomb. And I believe there can be no +hesitation in the admission of its perfect feeling and truth. Though +beautiful, the tomb is so little conspicuous or intrusive, that it +serves only to decorate the portal of the little chapel, and is hardly +regarded by the traveller as he enters. When it is examined, the history +of the acts of the dead is found subdued into dim and minute ornament +upon his coffin; and the principal aim of the monument is to direct the +thoughts to his image as he lies in death, and to the expression of his +hope of resurrection; while, seen as by the memory far away, diminished +in the brightness of the sky, there is set the likeness of his armed +youth, stately, as it stood of old, in the front of battle, and meet to +be thus recorded for us, that we may now be able to remember the dignity +of the frame, of which those who once looked upon it hardly remembered +that it was dust. + +Sec. LV. This, I repeat, is as much as may ever be granted, but this ought +always to be granted, to the honor and the affection of men. The tomb +which stands beside that of Can Grande, nearest it in the little field +of sleep, already shows the traces of erring ambition. It is the tomb of +Mastino the Second, in whose reign began the decline of his family. It +is altogether exquisite as a work of art; and the evidence of a less +wise or noble feeling in its design is found only in this, that the +image of a virtue, Fortitude, as belonging to the dead, is placed on the +extremity of the sarcophagus, opposite to the Crucifixion. But for this +slight circumstance, of which the significance will only be appreciated +as we examine the series of later monuments, the composition of this +monument of Can Mastino would have been as perfect as its decoration is +refined. It consists, like that of Can Grande, of the raised +sarcophagus, bearing the recumbent statue, protected by a noble +foursquare canopy, sculptured with ancient Scripture history. On one +side of the sarcophagus is Christ enthroned, with Can Mastino kneeling +before Him; on the other, Christ is represented in the mystical form, +half-rising from the tomb, meant, I believe, to be at once typical of +His passion and resurrection. The lateral panels are occupied by statues +of saints. At one extremity of the sarcophagus is the Crucifixion; at +the other, a noble statue of Fortitude, with a lion's skin thrown over +her shoulders, its head forming a shield upon her breast, her flowing +hair bound with a narrow fillet, and a three-edged sword in her +gauntleted right hand, drawn back sternly behind her thigh, while, in +her left, she bears high the shield of the Scalas. + +Sec. LVI. Close to this monument is another, the stateliest and most +sumptuous of the three; it first arrests the eye of the stranger, and +long detains it,--a many-pinnacled pile surrounded by niches with +statues of the warrior saints. + +It is beautiful, for it still belongs to the noble time, the latter part +of the fourteenth century; but its work is coarser than that of the +other, and its pride may well prepare us to learn that it was built for +himself, in his own lifetime, by the man whose statue crowns it, Can +Signorio della Scala. Now observe, for this is infinitely significant. +Can Mastino II. was feeble and wicked, and began the ruin of his house; +his sarcophagus is the first which bears upon it the image of a virtue, +but he lays claim only to Fortitude. Can Signorio was twice a +fratricide, the last time when he lay upon his death-bed: _his_ tomb +bears upon its gables the images of six virtues,--Faith, Hope, Charity, +Prudence, and (I believe) Justice and Fortitude. + +Sec. LVII. Let us now return to Venice, where, in the second chapel +counting from right to left, at the west end of the Church of the Frari, +there is a very early fourteenth, or perhaps late thirteenth, century +tomb, another exquisite example of the perfect Gothic form. It is a +knight's; but there is no inscription upon it, and his name is unknown. +It consists of a sarcophagus, supported on bold brackets against the +chapel wall, bearing the recumbent figure, protected by a simple canopy +in the form of a pointed arch, pinnacled by the knight's crest; beneath +which the shadowy space is painted dark blue, and strewn with stars. The +statue itself is rudely carved; but its lines, as seen from the intended +distance, are both tender and masterly. The knight is laid in his mail, +only the hands and face being bare. The hauberk and helmet are of +chain-mail, the armor for the limbs of jointed steel; a tunic, fitting +close to the breast, and marking the noble swell of it by two narrow +embroidered lines, is worn over the mail; his dagger is at his right +side; his long cross-belted sword, not seen by the spectator from below, +at his left. His feet rest on a hound (the hound being his crest), which +looks up towards its master. In general, in tombs of this kind, the face +of the statue is slightly turned towards the spectator; in this +monument, on the contrary, it is turned away from him, towards the depth +of the arch: for there, just above the warrior's breast, is carved a +small image of St. Joseph bearing the infant Christ, who looks down upon +the resting figure; and to this image its countenance is turned. The +appearance of the entire tomb is as if the warrior had seen the vision +of Christ in his dying moments, and had fallen back peacefully upon his +pillow, with his eyes still turned to it, and his hands clasped in +prayer. + +Sec. LVIII. On the opposite side of this chapel is another very lovely +tomb, to Duccio degli Alberti, a Florentine ambassador at Venice; +noticeable chiefly as being the first in Venice on which any images of +the Virtues appear. We shall return to it presently, but some account +must first be given of the more important among the other tombs in +Venice belonging to the perfect period. Of these, by far the most +interesting, though not the most elaborate, is that of the great Doge +Francesco Dandolo, whose ashes, it might have been thought, were +honorable enough to have been permitted to rest undisturbed in the +chapter-house of the Frari, where they were first laid. But, as if there +were not room enough, nor waste houses enough in the desolate city to +receive a few convent papers, the monks, wanting an "archivio," have +separated the tomb into three pieces: the canopy, a simple arch +sustained on brackets, still remains on the blank walls of the +desecrated chamber; the sarcophagus has been transported to a kind of +museum of antiquities, established in what was once the cloister of +Santa Maria della Salute; and the painting which filled the lunette +behind it is hung far out of sight, at one end of the sacristy of the +same church. The sarcophagus is completely charged with bas-reliefs: at +its two extremities are the types of St. Mark and St. John; in front, a +noble sculpture of the death of the Virgin; at the angles, angels +holding vases. The whole space is occupied by the sculpture; there are +no spiral shafts or panelled divisions; only a basic plinth below, and +crowning plinth above, the sculpture being raised from a deep concave +field between the two, but, in order to give piquancy and +picturesqueness to the mass of figures, two small trees are introduced +at the head and foot of the Madonna's couch, an oak and a stone pine. + +Sec. LIX. It was said above,[17] in speaking of the frequent disputes of +the Venetians with the Pontifical power, which in their early days they +had so strenuously supported, that "the humiliation of Francesco Dandolo +blotted out the shame of Barbarossa." It is indeed well that the two +events should be remembered together. By the help of the Venetians, +Alexander III. was enabled, in the twelfth century, to put his foot upon +the neck of the emperor Barbarossa, quoting the words of the Psalm, +"Thou shalt tread upon the lion and the adder." A hundred and fifty +years later, the Venetian ambassador, Francesco Dandolo, unable to +obtain even an audience from the Pope, Clement V., to whom he had been +sent to pray for a removal of the sentence of excommunication pronounced +against the republic, concealed himself (according to the common +tradition) beneath the Pontiff's dining-table; and thence coming out as +he sat down to meat, embraced his feet, and obtained, by tearful +entreaties, the removal of the terrible sentence. + +I say, "according to the common tradition;" for there are some doubts +cast upon the story by its supplement. Most of the Venetian historians +assert that Francesco Dandolo's surname of "Dog" was given him first on +this occasion, in insult, by the cardinals; and that the Venetians, in +remembrance of the grace which his humiliation had won for them, made it +a title of honor to him and to his race. It has, however, been +proved[18] that the surname was borne by the ancestors of Francesco +Dandolo long before; and the falsity of this seal of the legend renders +also its circumstances doubtful. But the main fact of grievous +humiliation having been undergone, admits of no dispute; the existence +of such a tradition at all is in itself a proof of its truth; it was not +one likely to be either invented or received without foundation: and it +will be well, therefore, that the reader should remember, in connection +with the treatment of Barbarossa at the door of the Church of St. +Mark's, that in the Vatican, one hundred and fifty years later, a +Venetian noble, a future Doge, submitted to a degradation, of which the +current report among his people was, that he had crept on his hands and +knees from beneath the Pontiff's table to his feet, and had been spurned +as a "dog" by the cardinals present. + +Sec. LX. There are two principal conclusions to be drawn from this: the +obvious one respecting the insolence of the Papal dominion in the +thirteenth century; the second, that there were probably most deep piety +and humility in the character of the man who could submit to this +insolence for the sake of a benefit to his country. Probably no motive +would have been strong enough to obtain such a sacrifice from most men, +however unselfish; but it was, without doubt, made easier to Dandolo by +his profound reverence for the Pontifical office; a reverence which, +however _we_ may now esteem those who claimed it, could not but have +been felt by nearly all good and faithful men at the time of which we +are speaking. This is the main point which I wish the reader to remember +as we look at his tomb, this, and the result of it,--that, some years +afterwards, when he was seated on the throne which his piety had saved, +"there were sixty princes' ambassadors in Venice at the same time, +requesting the judgment of the Senate on matters of various concernment, +_so great was the fame of the uncorrupted justice of the Fathers_."[19] + +Observe, there are no virtues on this tomb. Nothing but religious +history or symbols; the Death of the Virgin in front, and the types of +St. Mark and St. John at the extremities. + +Sec. LXI. Of the tomb of the Doge Andrea Dandolo, in St. Mark's, I have +spoken before. It is one of the first in Venice which presents, in a +canopy, the Pisan idea of angels withdrawing curtains, as of a couch, to +look down upon the dead. The sarcophagus is richly decorated with +flower-work; the usual figures of the Annunciation are at the sides; an +enthroned Madonna in the centre; and two bas-reliefs, one of the +martyrdom of the Doge's patron saint, St. Andrew, occupy the +intermediate spaces. All these tombs have been richly colored; the hair +of the angels has here been gilded, their wings bedropped with silver, +and their garments covered with the most exquisite arabesques. This +tomb, and that of St. Isidore in another chapel of St. Mark's, which was +begun by this very Doge, Andrea Dandolo, and completed after his death +in 1354, are both nearly alike in their treatment, and are, on the +whole, the best existing examples of Venetian monumental sculpture. + +Sec. LXII. Of much ruder workmanship, though still most precious, and +singularly interesting from its quaintness, is a sarcophagus in the +northernmost chapel, beside the choir of St. John and Paul, charged with +two bas-reliefs and many figures, but which bears no inscription. It +has, however, a shield with three dolphins on its brackets; and as at +the feet of the Madonna in its centre there is a small kneeling figure +of a Doge, we know it to be the tomb of the Doge Giovanni Dolfino, who +came to the throne in 1356. + +He was chosen Doge while, as provveditore, he was in Treviso, defending +the city against the King of Hungary. The Venetians sent to the +besiegers, praying that their newly elected Doge might be permitted to +pass the Hungarian lines. Their request was refused, the Hungarians +exulting that they held the Doge of Venice prisoner in Treviso. But +Dolfino, with a body of two hundred horse, cut his way through their +lines by night, and reached Mestre (Malghera) in safety, where he was +met by the Senate. His bravery could not avert the misfortunes which +were accumulating on the republic. The Hungarian war was ignominiously +terminated by the surrender of Dalmatia: the Doge's heart was broken, +his eyesight failed him, and he died of the plague four years after he +had ascended the throne. + +Sec. LXIII. It is perhaps on this account, perhaps in consequence of later +injuries, that the tomb has neither effigy nor inscription: that it has +been subjected to some violence is evident from the dentil which once +crowned its leaf-cornice being now broken away, showing the whole front. +But, fortunately, the sculpture of the sarcophagus itself is little +injured. + +There are two saints, male and female, at its angles, each in a little +niche; a Christ, enthroned in the centre, the Doge and Dogaressa +kneeling at his feet; in the two intermediate panels, on one side the +Epiphany, on the other the Death of the Virgin; the whole supported, as +well as crowned, by an elaborate leaf-plinth. The figures under the +niches are rudely cut, and of little interest. Not so the central group. +Instead of a niche, the Christ is seated under a square tent, or +tabernacle, formed by curtains running on rods; the idea, of course, as +usual, borrowed from the Pisan one, but here ingeniously applied. The +curtains are opened in front, showing those at the back of the tent, +behind the seated figure; the perspective of the two retiring sides +being very tolerably suggested. Two angels, of half the size of the +seated figure, thrust back the near curtains, and look up reverently to +the Christ; while again, at their feet, about one third of _their_ size, +and half-sheltered, as it seems, by their garments, are the two kneeling +figures of the Doge and Dogaressa, though so small and carefully cut, +full of life. The Christ raising one hand as to bless, and holding a +book upright and open on the knees, does not look either towards them or +to the angels, but forward; and there is a very noticeable effort to +represent Divine abstraction in the countenance: the idea of the three +magnitudes of spiritual being,--the God, the Angel, and the Man,--is +also to be observed, aided as it is by the complete subjection of the +angelic power to the Divine; for the angels are in attitudes of the most +lowly watchfulness of the face of Christ, and appear unconscious of the +presence of the human beings who are nestled in the folds of their +garments. + +Sec. LXIV. With this interesting but modest tomb of one of the kings +of Venice, it is desirable to compare that of one of her senators, of +exactly the same date, which is raised against the western wall of the +Frari, at the end of the north aisle. It bears the following remarkable +inscription: + + "ANNO MCCCLX. prima die Julii Sepultura . Domini . Simonii Dandolo . + amador . de . Justisia . e . desiroso . de . acrese . el . ben . + chomum." + +The "Amador de Justitia" has perhaps some reference to Simon Dandolo's +having been one of the Giunta who condemned the Doge Faliero. The +sarcophagus is decorated merely by the Annunciation group, and an +enthroned Madonna with a curtain behind her throne, sustained by four +tiny angels, who look over it as they hold it up; but the workmanship of +the figures is more than usually beautiful. + +Sec. LXV. Seven years later, a very noble monument was placed on the +north side of the choir of St. John and Paul, to the Doge Marco Cornaro, +chiefly, with respect to our present subject, noticeable for the absence +of religious imagery from the sarcophagus, which is decorated with +roses only; three very beautiful statues of the Madonna and two saints +are, however, set in the canopy above. Opposite this tomb, though about +fifteen years later in date, is the richest monument of the Gothic +period in Venice; that of the Doge Michele Morosini, who died in 1382. +It consists of a highly florid canopy,--an arch crowned by a gable, with +pinnacles at the flanks, boldly crocketed, and with a huge finial at the +top representing St. Michael,--a medallion of Christ set in the gable; +under the arch, a mosaic, representing the Madonna presenting the Doge +to Christ upon the cross; beneath, as usual, the sarcophagus, with a +most noble recumbent figure of the Doge, his face meagre and severe, and +sharp in its lines, but exquisite in the form of its small and princely +features. The sarcophagus is adorned with elaborate wrinkled leafage, +projecting in front of it into seven brackets, from which the statues +are broken away; but by which, for there can be no doubt that these last +statues represented the theological and cardinal Virtues, we must for a +moment pause. + +Sec. LXVI. It was noticed above, that the tomb of the Florentine +ambassador, Duccio, was the first in Venice which presented images of +the Virtues. Its small lateral statues of Justice and Temperance are +exquisitely beautiful, and were, I have no doubt, executed by a +Florentine sculptor; the whole range of artistical power and religious +feeling being, in Florence, full half a century in advance of that of +Venice. But this is the first truly Venetian tomb which has the Virtues; +and it becomes of importance, therefore, to know what was the character +of Morosini. + +The reader must recollect, that I dated the commencement of the fall of +Venice from the death of Carlo Zeno, considering that no state could be +held as in decline, which numbered such a man amongst its citizens. +Carlo Zeno was a candidate for the Ducal bonnet together with Michael +Morosini; and Morosini was chosen. It might be anticipated, therefore, +that there was something more than usually admirable or illustrious in +his character. Yet it is difficult to arrive at a just estimate of it, +as the reader will at once understand by comparing the following +statements: + + Sec. LXVI. 1. "To him (Andrea Contarini) succeeded Morosini, at the + age of seventy-four years; a most learned and prudent man, who also + reformed several laws."--_Sansovino_, Vite de' Principi. + + 2. "It was generally believed that, if his reign had been longer, he + would have dignified the state by many noble laws and institutes; but + by so much as his reign was full of hope, by as much was it short in + duration, for he died when he had been at the head of the republic + but four months."--_Sabellico_, lib. viii. + + 3. "He was allowed but a short time to enjoy this high dignity, which + he had so well deserved by his rare virtues, for God called him to + Himself on the 15th of October."--_Muratori_, Annali de' Italia. + + 4. "Two candidates presented themselves; one was Zeno, the other that + Michael Morosini who, during the war, had tripled his fortune by his + speculations. The suffrages of the electors fell upon him, and he was + proclaimed Doge on the 10th of June."--_Daru_, Histoire de Venise, + lib. x. + + 5. "The choice of the electors was directed to Michele Morosini, a + noble of illustrious birth, derived from a stock which, coeval with + the republic itself, had produced the conqueror of Tyre, given a + queen to Hungary, and more than one Doge to Venice. The brilliancy of + this descent was tarnished in the present chief representative of the + family by the most base and grovelling avarice; for at that moment, + in the recent war, at which all other Venetians were devoting their + whole fortunes to the service of the state, Morosini sought in the + distresses of his country an opening for his own private enrichment, + and employed his ducats, not in the assistance of the national wants, + but in speculating upon houses which were brought to market at a + price far beneath their real value, and which, upon the return of + peace, insured the purchaser a fourfold profit. 'What matters the + fall of Venice to me, so as I fall not together with her?' was his + selfish and sordid reply to some one who expressed surprise at the + transaction."--_Sketches of Venetian History_. Murray, 1831. + +Sec. LXVIII. The writer of the unpretending little history from which the +last quotation is taken has not given his authority for this statement, +and I could not find it, but believed, from the general accuracy of the +book, that some authority might exist better than Daru's. Under these +circumstances, wishing if possible to ascertain the truth, and to clear +the character of this great Doge from the accusation, if it proved +groundless, I wrote to the Count Carlo Morosini, his descendant, and one +of the few remaining representatives of the ancient noblesse of Venice; +one, also, by whom his great ancestral name is revered, and in whom it +is exalted. His answer appears to me altogether conclusive as to the +utter fallacy of the reports of Daru and the English history. I have +placed his letter in the close of this volume (Appendix 6), in order +that the reader may himself be the judge upon this point; and I should +not have alluded to Daru's report, except for the purpose of +contradicting it, but that it still appears to me impossible that any +modern historian should have gratuitously invented the whole story, and +that, therefore, there must have been a trace in the documents which +Daru himself possessed, of some scandal of this kind raised by +Morosini's enemies, perhaps at the very time of the disputed election +with Carlo Zeno. The occurrence of the Virtues upon his tomb, for the +first time in Venetian monumental work, and so richly and conspicuously +placed, may partly have been in public contradiction of such a floating +rumor. But the face of the statue is a more explicit contradiction +still; it is resolute, thoughtful, serene, and full of beauty; and we +must, therefore, for once, allow the somewhat boastful introduction of +the Virtues to have been perfectly just: though the whole tomb is most +notable, as furnishing not only the exact intermediate condition in +style between the pure Gothic and its final Renaissance corruption, but, +at the same time, the exactly intermediate condition of _feeling_ +between the pure calmness of early Christianity, and the boastful pomp +of the Renaissance faithlessness; for here we have still the religious +humility remaining in the mosaic of the canopy, which shows the Doge +kneeling before the cross, while yet this tendency to self-trust is +shown in the surrounding of the coffin by the Virtues. + +Sec. LXIX. The next tomb by the side of which they appear is that of +Jacopo Cavalli, in the same chapel of St. John and Paul which contains the +tomb of the Doge Delfin. It is peculiarly rich in religious imagery, +adorned by boldly cut types of the four evangelists, and of two saints, +while, on projecting brackets in front of it, stood three statues of +Faith, Hope, and Charity, now lost, but drawn in Zanotto's work. It is all +rich in detail, and its sculptor has been proud of it, thus recording his +name below the epitaph: + + "QST OPERA DINTALGIO E FATTO IN PIERA, + UNVENICIAN LAFE CHANOME POLO, + NATO DI JACHOMEL CHATAIAPIERA." + + This work of sculpture is done in stone; + A Venetian did it, named Paul, + Son of Jachomel the stone-cutter. + +Jacopo Cavalli died in 1384. He was a bold and active Veronese soldier, +did the state much service, was therefore ennobled by it, and became the +founder of the house of the Cavalli; but I find no especial reason for +the images of the Virtues, especially that of Charity, appearing at his +tomb, unless it be this: that at the siege of Feltre, in the war against +Leopold of Austria, he refused to assault the city, because the senate +would not grant his soldiers the pillage of the town. The feet of the +recumbent figure, which is in full armor, rest on a dog, and its head on +two lions; and these animals (neither of which form any part of the +knight's bearings) are said by Zanotto to be intended to symbolize his +bravery and fidelity. If, however, the lions are meant to set forth +courage, it is a pity they should have been represented as howling. + +Sec. LXX. We must next pause for an instant beside the tomb of Michael +Steno, now in the northern aisle of St. John and Paul, having been +removed there from the destroyed church of the Servi: first, to note its +remarkable return to the early simplicity, the sarcophagus being +decorated only with two crosses in quatrefoils, though it is of the +fifteenth century, Steno dying in 1413; and, in the second place, to +observe the peculiarity of the epitaph, which eulogises Steno as having +been "amator justitie, pacis, et ubertatis," "a lover of justice, peace, +and plenty." In the epitaphs of this period, the virtues which are made +most account of in public men are those which were most useful to their +country. We have already seen one example in the epitaph on Simon +Dandolo; and similar expressions occur constantly in laudatory mentions +of their later Doges by the Venetian writers. Thus Sansovino of Marco +Cornaro, "Era savio huomo, eloquente, e amava molto la pace e l' +abbondanza della citta;" and of Tomaso Mocenigo, "Huomo oltre modo +desideroso della pace." + +Of the tomb of this last-named Doge mention has before been made. Here, +as in Morosini's, the images of the Virtues have no ironical power, +although their great conspicuousness marks the increase of the boastful +feeling in the treatment of monuments. For the rest, this tomb is the +last in Venice which can be considered as belonging to the Gothic +period. Its mouldings are already rudely classical, and it has +meaningless figures in Roman armor at the angles; but its tabernacle +above is still Gothic, and the recumbent figure is very beautiful. It +was carved by two Florentine sculptors in 1423. + +Sec. LXXI. Tomaso Mocenigo was succeeded by the renowned Doge, Francesco +Foscari, under whom, it will be remembered, the last additions were made +to the Gothic Ducal Palace; additions which, in form only, not in +spirit, corresponded to the older portions; since, during his reign, the +transition took place which permits us no longer to consider the +Venetian architecture as Gothic at all. He died in 1457, and his tomb is +the first important example of Renaissance art. + +Not, however, a good characteristic example. It is remarkable chiefly as +introducing all the faults of the Renaissance at an early period, when +its merits, such as they are, were yet undeveloped. Its claim to be +rated as a classical composition is altogether destroyed by the remnants +of Gothic feeling which cling to it here and there in their last forms +of degradation; and of which, now that we find them thus corrupted, the +sooner we are rid the better. Thus the sarcophagus is supported by a +species of trefoil arches; the bases of the shafts have still their +spurs; and the whole tomb is covered by a pediment, with crockets and a +pinnacle. We shall find that the perfect Renaissance is at least pure in +its insipidity, and subtle in its vice; but this monument is remarkable +as showing the refuse of one style encumbering the embryo of another, +and all principles of life entangled either in the swaddling clothes or +the shroud. + +Sec. LXXII. With respect to our present purpose, however, it is a monument +of enormous importance. We have to trace, be it remembered, the pride of +state in its gradual intrusion upon the sepulchre; and the consequent +and correlative vanishing of the expressions of religious feeling and +heavenly hope, together with the more and more arrogant setting forth of +the virtues of the dead. Now this tomb is the largest and most costly we +have yet seen; but its means of religious expression are limited to a +single statue of Christ, small and used merely as a pinnacle at the top. +The rest of the composition is as curious as it is vulgar. The conceit, +so often noticed as having been borrowed from the Pisan school, of +angels withdrawing the curtains of the couch to look down upon the dead, +was brought forward with increasing prominence by every succeeding +sculptor; but, as we draw nearer to the Renaissance period, we find that +the _angels_ become of less importance, and the _curtains_ of more. With +the Pisans, the curtains are introduced as a motive for the angels; with +the Renaissance sculptors, the angels are introduced merely as a motive +for the curtains, which become every day more huge and elaborate. In the +monument of Mocenigo, they have already expanded into a tent, with a +pole in the centre of it: and in that of Foscari, for the first time, +the _angels are absent altogether_; while the curtains are arranged in +the form of an enormous French tent-bed, and are sustained at the flanks +by two diminutive figures in Roman armor; substituted for the angels, +merely that the sculptor might _show his knowledge_ of classical +costume. And now observe how often a fault in feeling induces also a +fault in style. In the old tombs, the angels used to stand on or by the +side of the sarcophagus; but their places are here to be occupied by the +Virtues, and therefore, to sustain the diminutive Roman figures at the +necessary height, each has a whole Corinthian pillar to himself, a +pillar whose shaft is eleven feet high, and some three or four feet +round: and because this was not high enough, it is put on a pedestal +four feet and a half high; and has a spurred base besides of its own, a +tall capital, then a huge bracket above the capital, and then another +pedestal above the bracket, and on the top of all the diminutive figure +who has charge of the curtains. + +Sec. LXXIII. Under the canopy, thus arranged, is placed the sarcophagus +with its recumbent figure. The statues of the Virgin and the saints have +disappeared from it. In their stead, its panels are filled with +half-length figures of Faith, Hope, and Charity; while Temperance and +Fortitude are at the Doge's feet, Justice and Prudence at his head, +figures now the size of life, yet nevertheless recognizable only by +their attributes: for, except that Hope raises her eyes, there is no +difference in the character or expression of any of their faces,--they +are nothing more than handsome Venetian women, in rather full and +courtly dresses, and tolerably well thrown into postures for effect from +below. Fortitude could not of course be placed in a graceful one without +some sacrifice of her character, but that was of no consequence in the +eyes of the sculptors of this period, so she leans back languidly, and +nearly overthrows her own column; while Temperance, and Justice opposite +to her, as neither the left hand of the one nor the right hand of the +other could be seen from below, have been _left with one hand each_. + +Sec. LXXIV. Still these figures, coarse and feelingless as they are, have +been worked with care, because the principal effect of the tomb depends +on them. But the effigy of the Doge, of which nothing but the side is +visible, has been utterly neglected; and the ingenuity of the sculptor +is not so great, at the best, as that he can afford to be slovenly. +There is, indeed, nothing in the history of Foscari which would lead us +to expect anything particularly noble in his face; but I trust, +nevertheless, it has been misrepresented by this despicable carver; for +no words are strong enough to express the baseness of the portraiture. A +huge, gross, bony clown's face, with the peculiar sodden and sensual +cunning in it which is seen so often in the countenances of the worst +Romanist priest; a face part of iron and part of clay, with the +immobility of the one, and the foulness of the other, double chinned, +blunt-mouthed, bony-cheeked, with its brows drawn down into meagre lines +and wrinkles over the eyelids; the face of a man incapable either of joy +or sorrow, unless such as may be caused by the indulgence of passion, or +the mortification of pride. Even had he been such a one, a noble workman +would not have written it so legibly on his tomb; and I believe it to be +the image of the carver's own mind that is there hewn in the marble, not +that of the Doge Foscari. For the same mind is visible enough +throughout, the traces of it mingled with those of the evil taste of the +whole time and people. There is not anything so small but it is shown in +some portion of its treatment; for instance, in the placing of the +shields at the back of the great curtain. In earlier times, the shield, +as we have seen, was represented as merely suspended against the tomb by +a thong, or if sustained in any other manner, still its form was simple +and undisguised. Men in those days used their shields in war, and +therefore there was no need to add dignity to their form by external +ornament. That which, through day after day of mortal danger, had borne +back from them the waves of battle, could neither be degraded by +simplicity, nor exalted by decoration. By its rude leathern thong it +seemed to be fastened to their tombs, and the shield of the mighty was +not cast away, though capable of defending its master no more. + +Sec. LXXV. It was otherwise in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. +The changed system of warfare was rapidly doing away with the practical +service of the shield; and the chiefs who directed the battle from a +distance, or who passed the greater part of their lives in the +council-chamber, soon came to regard the shield as nothing more than a +field for their armorial bearings. It then became a principal object of +their Pride of State to increase the conspicuousness of these marks of +family distinction by surrounding them with various and fantastic +ornament, generally scroll or flower work, which of course deprived the +shield of all appearance of being intended for a soldier's use. Thus the +shield of the Foscari is introduced in two ways. On the sarcophagus, +the bearings are three times repeated, enclosed in circular disks, which +are sustained each by a couple of naked infants. Above the canopy, two +shields of the usual form are set in the centre of circles filled by a +radiating ornament of shell flutings, which give them the effect of +ventilators; and their circumference is farther adorned by gilt rays, +undulating to represent a glory. + +Sec. LXXVI. We now approach that period of the early Renaissance which +was noticed in the preceding chapter as being at first a very visible +improvement on the corrupted Gothic. The tombs executed during the +period of the Byzantine Renaissance exhibit, in the first place, a +consummate skill in handling the chisel, perfect science of drawing and +anatomy, high appreciation of good classical models, and a grace of +composition and delicacy of ornament derived, I believe, principally +from the great Florentine sculptors. But, together with this science, +they exhibit also, for a short time, some return to the early religious +feeling, forming a school of sculpture which corresponds to that of the +school of the Bellini in painting; and the only wonder is that there +should not have been more workmen in the fifteenth century doing in +marble what Perugino, Francia, and Bellini did on canvas. There are, +indeed, some few, as I have just said, in whom the good and pure temper +shows itself: but the sculptor was necessarily led sooner than the +painter to an exclusive study of classical models, utterly adverse to +the Christian imagination; and he was also deprived of the great +purifying and sacred element of color, besides having much more of +merely mechanical and therefore degrading labor to go through in the +realization of his thought. Hence I do not know any example in sculpture +at this period, at least in Venice, which has not conspicuous faults +(not faults of imperfection, as in early sculpture, but of purpose and +sentiment), staining such beauties as it may possess; and the whole +school soon falls away, and merges into vain pomp and meagre metaphor. + +Sec. LXXVII. The most celebrated monument of this period is that to the +Doge Andrea Vendramin, in the Church of St. John and Paul, sculptured +about 1480, and before alluded to in the first chapter of the first +volume. It has attracted public admiration, partly by its costliness, +partly by the delicacy and precision of its chiselling; being otherwise +a very base and unworthy example of the school, and showing neither +invention nor feeling. It has the Virtues, as usual, dressed like +heathen goddesses, and totally devoid of expression, though graceful and +well studied merely as female figures. The rest of its sculpture is all +of the same kind; perfect in workmanship, and devoid of thought. Its +dragons are covered with marvellous scales, but have no terror nor sting +in them; its birds are perfect in plumage, but have no song in them; its +children lovely of limb, but have no childishness in them. + +Sec. LXXVIII. Of far other workmanship are the tombs of Pietro and +Giovanni Mocenigo, in St. John and Paul, and of Pietro Bernardo in the +Frari; in all which the details are as full of exquisite fancy, as they +are perfect in execution; and in the two former, and several others of +similar feeling, the old religious symbols return; the Madonna is again +seen enthroned under the canopy, and the sarcophagus is decorated with +legends of the saints. But the fatal errors of sentiment are, +nevertheless, always traceable. In the first place, the sculptor is +always seen to be intent upon the exhibition of his skill, more than on +producing any effect on the spectator's mind; elaborate backgrounds of +landscape, with tricks of perspective, imitations of trees, clouds, and +water, and various other unnecessary adjuncts, merely to show how marble +could be subdued; together with useless under-cutting, and over-finish +in subordinate parts, continually exhibiting the same cold vanity and +unexcited precision of mechanism. In the second place, the figures have +all the peculiar tendency to posture-making, which, exhibiting itself +first painfully in Perugino, rapidly destroyed the veracity of +composition in all art. By posture-making I mean, in general, that +action of figures which results from the painter's considering, in the +first place, not how, under the circumstances, they would actually have +walked, or stood, or looked, but how they may most gracefully and +harmoniously walk or stand. In the hands of a great man, posture, like +everything else, becomes noble, even when over-studied, as with Michael +Angelo, who was, perhaps, more than any other, the cause of the +mischief; but, with inferior men, this habit of composing attitudes ends +necessarily in utter lifelessness and abortion. Giotto was, perhaps, of +all painters, the most free from the infection of the poison, always +conceiving an incident naturally, and drawing it unaffectedly; and the +absence of posture-making in the works of the Pre-Raphaelites, as +opposed to the Attitudinarianism of the modern school, has been both one +of their principal virtues, and of the principal causes of outcry +against them. + +Sec. LXXIX. But the most significant change in the treatment of these +tombs, with respect to our immediate object, is in the form of the +sarcophagus. It was above noted, that, exactly in proportion to the +degree of the pride of life expressed in any monument, would be also the +fear of death; and therefore, as these tombs increase in splendor, in +size, and beauty of workmanship, we perceive a gradual desire to _take +away from the definite character of the sarcophagus_. In the earliest +times, as we have seen, it was a gloomy mass of stone; gradually it +became charged with religious sculpture; but never with the slightest +desire to disguise its form, until towards the middle of the fifteenth +century. It then becomes enriched with flower-work and hidden by the +Virtues; and, finally, losing its foursquare form, it is modelled on +graceful types of ancient vases, made as little like a coffin as +possible, and refined away in various elegancies, till it becomes, at +last, a mere pedestal or stage for the portrait statue. This statue, in +the meantime, has been gradually coming back to life, through a curious +series of transitions. The Vendramin monument is one of the last which +shows, or pretends to show, the recumbent figure laid in death. A few +years later, this idea became disagreeable to polite minds; and, lo! the +figures which before had been laid at rest upon the tomb pillow, raised +themselves on their elbows, and began to look round them. The soul of +the sixteenth century dared not contemplate its body in death. + +Sec. LXXX. The reader cannot but remember many instances of this form of +monument, England being peculiarly rich in examples of them; although, +with her, tomb sculpture, after the fourteenth century, is altogether +imitative, and in no degree indicative of the temper of the people. It +was from Italy that the authority for the change was derived; and in +Italy only, therefore, that it is truly correspondent to the change in +the national mind. There are many monuments in Venice of this +semi-animate type, most of them carefully sculptured, and some very +admirable as portraits, and for the casting of the drapery, especially +those in the Church of San Salvador; but I shall only direct the reader +to one, that of Jacopo Pesaro, Bishop of Paphos, in the Church of the +Frari; notable not only as a very skilful piece of sculpture, but for +the epitaph, singularly characteristic of the period, and confirmatory +of all that I have alleged against it: + + "James Pesaro, Bishop of Paphos, who conquered the Turks in war, + himself in peace, transported from a noble family among the Venetians + to a nobler among the angels, laid here, expects the noblest crown, + which the just Judge shall give to him in that day. He lived the + years of Plato. He died 24th March, 1547."[20] + +The mingled classicism and carnal pride of this epitaph surely need no +comment. The crown is expected as a right from the justice of the judge, +and the nobility of the Venetian family is only a little lower than that +of the angels. The quaint childishness of the "Vixit annos Platonicos" +is also very notable. + +Sec. LXXXI. The statue, however, did not long remain in this partially +recumbent attitude. Even the expression of peace became painful to the +frivolous and thoughtless Italians, and they required the portraiture to +be rendered in a manner that should induce no memory of death. The +statue rose up, and presented itself in front of the tomb, like an actor +upon a stage, surrounded now not merely, or not at all, by the Virtues, +but by allegorical figures of Fame and Victory, by genii and muses, by +personifications of humbled kingdoms and adoring nations, and by every +circumstance of pomp, and symbol of adulation, that flattery could +suggest, or insolence could claim. + +Sec. LXXXII. As of the intermediate monumental type, so also of this, the +last and most gross, there are unfortunately many examples in our own +country; but the most wonderful, by far, are still at Venice. I shall, +however, particularize only two; the first, that of the Doge John +Pesaro, in the Frari. It is to be observed that we have passed over a +considerable interval of time; we are now in the latter half of the +seventeenth century; the progress of corruption has in the meantime been +incessant, and sculpture has here lost its taste and learning as well as +its feeling. The monument is a huge accumulation of theatrical scenery +in marble: four colossal negro caryatides, grinning and horrible, with +faces of black marble and white eyes, sustain the first story of it; +above this, two monsters, long-necked, half dog and half dragon, sustain +an ornamental sarcophagus, on the top of which the full-length statue of +the Doge in robes of state stands forward with its arms expanded, like +an actor courting applause, under a huge canopy of metal, like the roof +of a bed, painted crimson and gold; on each side of him are sitting +figures of genii, and unintelligible personifications gesticulating in +Roman armor; below, between the negro caryatides, are two ghastly +figures in bronze, half corpse, half skeleton, carrying tablets on which +is written the eulogium: but in large letters graven in gold, the +following words are the first and last that strike the eye; the first +two phrases, one on each side, on tablets in the lower story, the last +under the portrait statue above: + + VIXIT ANNOS LXX. DEVIXIT ANNO MDCLIX. + "HIC REVIXIT ANNO MDCLXIX." + +We have here, at last, the horrible images of death in violent contrast +with the defiant monument, which pretends to bring the resurrection +down to earth, "Hic revixit;" and it seems impossible for false taste +and base feeling to sink lower. Yet even this monument is surpassed by +one in St. John and Paul. + +Sec. LXXXIII. But before we pass to this, the last with which I shall +burden the reader's attention, let us for a moment, and that we may feel +the contrast more forcibly, return to a tomb of the early times. + +In a dark niche in the outer wall of the outer corridor of St. +Mark's--not even in the church, observe, but in the atrium or porch of +it, and on the north side of the church,--is a solid sarcophagus of +white marble, raised only about two feet from the ground on four stunted +square pillars. Its lid is a mere slab of stone; on its extremities are +sculptured two crosses; in front of it are two rows of rude figures, the +uppermost representing Christ with the Apostles: the lower row is of six +figures only, alternately male and female, holding up their hands in the +usual attitude of benediction; the sixth is smaller than the rest, and +the midmost of the other five has a glory round its head. I cannot tell +the meaning of these figures, but between them are suspended censers +attached to crosses; a most beautiful symbolic expression of Christ's +mediatorial function. The whole is surrounded by a rude wreath of vine +leaves, proceeding out of the foot of a cross. + +On the bar of marble which separates the two rows of figures are +inscribed these words: + + "Here lies the Lord Marin Morosini, Duke." + +It is the tomb of the Doge Marino Morosini, who reigned from 1249 to +1252. + +Sec. LXXXIV. From before this rude and solemn sepulchre let us pass to the +southern aisle of the church of St. John and Paul; and there, towering +from the pavement to the vaulting of the church, behold a mass of +marble, sixty or seventy feet in height, of mingled yellow and white, +the yellow carved into the form of an enormous curtain, with ropes, +fringes, and tassels, sustained by cherubs; in front of which, in the +now usual stage attitudes, advance the statues of the Doge Bertuccio +Valier, his son the Doge Silvester Falier, and his son's wife, +Elizabeth. The statues of the Doges, though mean and Polonius-like, are +partly redeemed by the Ducal robes; but that of the Dogaressa is a +consummation of grossness, vanity, and ugliness,--the figure of a large +and wrinkled woman, with elaborate curls in stiff projection round her +face, covered from her shoulders to her feet with ruffs, furs, lace, +jewels, and embroidery. Beneath and around are scattered Virtues, +Victories, Fames, genii,--the entire company of the monumental stage +assembled, as before a drop scene,--executed by various sculptors, and +deserving attentive study as exhibiting every condition of false taste +and feeble conception. The Victory in the centre is peculiarly +interesting; the lion by which she is accompanied, springing on a +dragon, has been intended to look terrible, but the incapable sculptor +could not conceive any form of dreadfulness, could not even make the +lion look angry. It looks only lachrymose; and its lifted forepaws, +there being no spring nor motion in its body, give it the appearance of +a dog begging. The inscriptions under the two principal statues are as +follows: + + "Bertucius Valier, Duke, + Great in wisdom and eloquence, + Greater in his Hellespontic victory, + Greatest in the Prince his son. + Died in the year 1658." + + "Elisabeth Quirina, + The wife of Silvester, + Distinguished by Roman virtue, + By Venetian piety, + And by the Ducal crown, + Died 1708." + +The writers of this age were generally anxious to make the world aware +that they understood the degrees of comparison, and a large number of +epitaphs are principally constructed with this object (compare, in the +Latin, that of the Bishop of Paphos, given above): but the latter of +these epitaphs is also interesting from its mention, in an age now +altogether given up to the pursuit of worldly honor, of that "Venetian +piety" which once truly distinguished the city from all others; and of +which some form and shadow, remaining still, served to point an epitaph, +and to feed more cunningly and speciously the pride which could not be +satiated with the sumptuousness of the sepulchre. + +Sec. LXXXV. Thus far, then, of the second element of the Renaissance +spirit, the Pride of State; nor need we go farther to learn the reason +of the fall of Venice. She was already likened in her thoughts, and was +therefore to be likened in her ruin, to the Virgin of Babylon. The Pride +of State and the Pride of Knowledge were no new passions: the sentence +against them had gone forth from everlasting. "Thou saidst, I shall be a +lady for ever; so that thou didst not lay these things to thine heart ... +_Thy wisdom and thy knowledge, it hath perverted thee_; and thou hast +said in thine heart, I am, and none else beside me. Therefore shall evil +come upon thee ...; thy merchants from thy youth, they shall wander every +one to his quarter; none shall save thee."[21] + +Sec. LXXXVI. III. PRIDE OF SYSTEM. I might have illustrated these evil +principles from a thousand other sources, but I have not time to pursue +the subject farther, and must pass to the third element above named, the +Pride of System. It need not detain us so long as either of the others, +for it is at once more palpable and less dangerous. The manner in which +the pride of the fifteenth century corrupted the sources of knowledge, +and diminished the majesty, while it multiplied the trappings, of state, +is in general little observed; but the reader is probably already well +and sufficiently aware of the curious tendency to formulization and +system which, under the name of philosophy, encumbered the minds of the +Renaissance schoolmen. As it was above stated, grammar became the first +of sciences; and whatever subject had to be treated, the first aim of +the philosopher was to subject its principles to a code of laws, in the +observation of which the merit of the speaker, thinker, or worker, in +or on that subject, was thereafter to consist; so that the whole mind of +the world was occupied by the exclusive study of Restraints. The sound +of the forging of fetters was heard from sea to sea. The doctors of all +the arts and sciences set themselves daily to the invention of new +varieties of cages and manacles; they themselves wore, instead of gowns, +a chain mail, whose purpose was not so much to avert the weapon of the +adversary as to restrain the motions of the wearer; and all the acts, +thoughts, and workings of mankind,--poetry, painting, architecture, and +philosophy,--were reduced by them merely to so many different forms of +fetter-dance. + +Sec. LXXXVII. Now, I am very sure that no reader who has given any +attention to the former portions of this work, or the tendency of what +else I have written, more especially the last chapter of the "Seven +Lamps," will suppose me to underrate the importance, or dispute the +authority, of law. It has been necessary for me to allege these again +and again, nor can they ever be too often or too energetically alleged, +against the vast masses of men who now disturb or retard the advance of +civilization; heady and high-minded, despisers of discipline, and +refusers of correction. But law, so far as it can be reduced to form and +system, and is not written upon the heart,--as it is, in a Divine +loyalty, upon the hearts of the great hierarchies who serve and wait +about the throne of the Eternal Lawgiver,--this lower and formally +expressible law has, I say, two objects. It is either for the definition +and restraint of sin, or the guidance of simplicity; it either explains, +forbids, and punishes wickedness, or it guides the movements and actions +both of lifeless things and of the more simple and untaught among +responsible agents. And so long, therefore, as sin and foolishness are +in the world, so long it will be necessary for men to submit themselves +painfully to this lower law, in proportion to their need of being +corrected, and to the degree of childishness or simplicity by which they +approach more nearly to the condition of the unthinking and inanimate +things which are governed by law altogether; yet yielding, in the manner +of their submission to it, a singular lesson to the pride of +man,--being obedient more perfectly in proportion to their +greatness.[22] But, so far as men become good and wise, and rise above +the state of children, so far they become emancipated from this written +law, and invested with the perfect freedom which consists in the fulness +and joyfulness of compliance with a higher and unwritten law; a law so +universal, so subtle, so glorious, that nothing but the heart can keep +it. + +Sec. LXXXVIII. Now pride opposes itself to the observance of this Divine +law in two opposite ways: either by brute resistance, which is the way +of the rabble and its leaders, denying or defying law altogether; or by +formal compliance, which is the way of the Pharisee, exalting himself +while he pretends to obedience, and making void the infinite and +spiritual commandment by the finite and lettered commandment. And it is +easy to know which law we are obeying: for any law which we magnify and +keep through pride, is always the law of the letter; but that which we +love and keep through humility, is the law of the Spirit: And the letter +killeth, but the Spirit giveth life. + +Sec. LXXXIX. In the appliance of this universal principle to what we have +at present in hand, it is to be noted, that all written or writable law +respecting the arts is for the childish and ignorant: that in the +beginning of teaching, it is possible to say that this or that must or +must not be done; and laws of color and shade may be taught, as laws of +harmony are to the young scholar in music. But the moment a man begins +to be anything deserving the name of an artist, all this teachable law +has become a matter of course with him; and if, thenceforth, he boast +himself anywise in the law, or pretend that he lives and works by it, it +is a sure sign that he is merely tithing cummin, and that there is no +true art nor religion in him. For the true artist has that inspiration +in him which is above all law, or rather, which is continually working +out such magnificent and perfect obedience to supreme law, as can in no +wise be rendered by line and rule. There are more laws perceived and +fulfilled in the single stroke of a great workman, than could be written +in a volume. His science is inexpressibly subtle, directly taught him by +his Maker, not in any wise communicable or imitable.[23] Neither can any +written or definitely observable laws enable us to do any great thing. +It is possible, by measuring and administering quantities of color, to +paint a room wall so that it shall not hurt the eye; but there are no +laws by observing which we can become Titians. It is possible so to +measure and administer syllables, as to construct harmonious verse; but +there are no laws by which we can write Iliads. Out of the poem or the +picture, once produced, men may elicit laws by the volume, and study +them with advantage, to the better understanding of the existing poem or +picture; but no more write or paint another, than by discovering laws of +vegetation they can make a tree to grow. And therefore, wheresoever we +find the system and formality of rules much dwelt upon, and spoken of as +anything else than a help for children, there we may be sure that noble +art is not even understood, far less reached. And thus it was with all +the common and public mind in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The +greater men, indeed, broke through the thorn hedges; and, though much +time was lost by the learned among them in writing Latin verses and +anagrams, and arranging the framework of quaint sonnets and dexterous +syllogisms, still they tore their way through the sapless thicket by +force of intellect or of piety; for it was not possible that, either in +literature or in painting, rules could be received by any strong mind, +so as materially to interfere with its originality: and the crabbed +discipline and exact scholarship became an advantage to the men who +could pass through and despise them; so that in spite of the rules of +the drama we had Shakspeare, and in spite of the rules of art we had +Tintoret,--both of them, to this day, doing perpetual violence to the +vulgar scholarship and dim-eyed proprieties of the multitude. + +Sec. XC. But in architecture it was not so; for that was the art of the +multitude, and was affected by all their errors; and the great men who +entered its field, like Michael Angelo, found expression for all the +best part of their minds in sculpture, and made the architecture merely +its shell. So the simpletons and sophists had their way with it: and the +reader can have no conception of the inanities and puerilities of the +writers, who, with the help of Vitruvius, re-established its "five +orders," determined the proportions of each, and gave the various +recipes for sublimity and beauty, which have been thenceforward followed +to this day, but which may, I believe, in this age of perfect machinery, +be followed out still farther. If, indeed, there are only five perfect +forms of columns and architraves, and there be a fixed proportion to +each, it is certainly possible, with a little ingenuity, so to regulate +a stonecutting machine, as that it shall furnish pillars and friezes to +the size ordered, of any of the five orders, on the most perfect Greek +models, in any quantity; an epitome, also, of Vitruvius, may be made so +simple, as to enable any bricklayer to set them up at their proper +distances, and we may dispense with our architects altogether. + +Sec. XCI. But if this be not so, and there be any truth in the faint +persuasion which still lurks in men's minds that architecture _is_ an +art, and that it requires some gleam of intellect to practise it, then +let the whole system of the orders and their proportions be cast out and +trampled down as the most vain, barbarous, and paltry deception that was +ever stamped on human prejudice; and let us understand this plain truth, +common to all work of man, that, if it be good work, it is not a copy, +nor anything done by rule, but a freshly and divinely imagined thing. +Five orders! There is not a side chapel in any Gothic cathedral but it +has fifty orders, the worst of them better than the best of the Greek +ones, and all new; and a single inventive human soul could create a +thousand orders in an hour.[24] And this would have been discovered even +in the worst times, but that, as I said, the greatest men of the age +found expression for their invention in the other arts, and the best of +those who devoted themselves to architecture were in great part occupied +in adapting the construction of buildings to new necessities, such as +those developed by the invention of gunpowder (introducing a totally new +and most interesting science of fortification, which directed the +ingenuity of Sanmicheli and many others from its proper channel), and +found interest of a meaner kind in the difficulties of reconciling the +obsolete architectural laws they had consented to revive, and the forms +of Roman architecture which they agreed to copy, with the requirements +of the daily life of the sixteenth century. + +Sec. XCII. These, then, were the three principal directions in which +the Renaissance pride manifested itself, and its impulses were rendered +still more fatal by the entrance of another element, inevitably +associated with pride. For, as it is written, "He that trusteth in his +own heart is a fool," so also it is written, "The fool hath said in his +heart, There is no God;" and the self-adulation which influenced not +less the learning of the age than its luxury, led gradually to the +forgetfulness of all things but self, and to an infidelity only the more +fatal because it still retained the form and language of faith. + +Sec. XCIII. IV. INFIDELITY. In noticing the more prominent forms in which +this faithlessness manifested itself, it is necessary to distinguish +justly between that which was the consequence of respect for Paganism, +and that which followed from the corruption of Catholicism. For as the +Roman architecture is not to be made answerable for the primal +corruption of the Gothic, so neither is the Roman philosophy to be made +answerable for the primal corruption of Christianity. Year after year, +as the history of the life of Christ sank back into the depths of time, +and became obscured by the misty atmosphere of the history of the +world,--as intermediate actions and incidents multiplied in number, and +countless changes in men's modes of life, and tones of thought, rendered +it more difficult for them to imagine the facts of distant time,--it +became daily, almost hourly, a greater effort for the faithful heart to +apprehend the entire veracity and vitality of the story of its Redeemer; +and more easy for the thoughtless and remiss to deceive themselves as to +the true character of the belief they had been taught to profess. And +this must have been the case, had the pastors of the Church never failed +in their watchfulness, and the Church itself never erred in its practice +or doctrine. But when every year that removed the truths of the Gospel +into deeper distance, added to them also some false or foolish +tradition; when wilful distortion was added to natural obscurity, and +the dimness of memory was disguised by the fruitfulness of fiction; +when, moreover, the enormous temporal power granted to the clergy +attracted into their ranks multitudes of men who, but for such +temptation, would not have pretended to the Christian name, so that +grievous wolves entered in among them, not sparing the flock; and when, +by the machinations of such men, and the remissness of others, the form +and administrations of Church doctrine and discipline had become little +more than a means of aggrandizing the power of the priesthood, it was +impossible any longer for men of thoughtfulness or piety to remain in an +unquestioning serenity of faith. The Church had become so mingled with +the world that its witness could no longer be received; and the +professing members of it, who were placed in circumstances such as to +enable them to become aware of its corruptions, and whom their interest +or their simplicity did not bribe or beguile into silence, gradually +separated themselves into two vast multitudes of adverse energy, one +tending to Reformation, and the other to Infidelity. + +Sec. XCIV. Of these, the last stood, as it were, apart, to watch the +course of the struggle between Romanism and Protestantism; a struggle +which, however necessary, was attended with infinite calamity to the +Church. For, in the first place, the Protestant movement was, in reality, +not _reformation_ but _reanimation_. It poured new life into the Church, +but it did not form or define her anew. In some sort it rather broke down +her hedges, so that all they who passed by might pluck off her grapes. +The reformers speedily found that the enemy was never far behind the +sower of good seed; that an evil spirit might enter the ranks of +reformation as well as those of resistance; and that though the deadly +blight might be checked amidst the wheat, there was no hope of ever +ridding the wheat itself from the tares. New temptations were invented +by Satan wherewith to oppose the revived strength of Christianity: as +the Romanist, confiding in his human teachers, had ceased to try whether +they were teachers sent from God, so the Protestant, confiding in the +teaching of the Spirit, believed every spirit, and did not try the +spirits whether they were of God. And a thousand enthusiasms and +heresies speedily obscured the faith and divided the force of the +Reformation. + +Sec. XCV. But the main evils rose out of the antagonism of the two great +parties; primarily, in the mere fact of the existence of an antagonism. +To the eyes of the unbeliever the Church of Christ, for the first time +since its foundation, bore the aspect of a house divided against itself. +Not that many forms of schism had not before arisen in it; but either +they had been obscure and silent, hidden among the shadows of the Alps +and the marshes of the Rhine; or they had been outbreaks of visible and +unmistakable error, cast off by the Church, rootless, and speedily +withering away, while, with much that was erring and criminal, she still +retained within her the pillar and ground of the truth. But here was at +last a schism in which truth and authority were at issue. The body that +was cast off withered away no longer. It stretched out its boughs to the +sea and its branches to the river, and it was the ancient trunk that +gave signs of decrepitude. On one side stood the reanimated faith, in +its right hand the book open, and its left hand lifted up to heaven, +appealing for its proof to the Word of the Testimony and the power of +the Holy Ghost. On the other stood, or seemed to stand, all beloved +custom and believed tradition; all that for fifteen hundred years had +been closest to the hearts of men, or most precious for their help. +Long-trusted legend; long-reverenced power; long-practised discipline; +faiths that had ruled the destiny, and sealed the departure, of souls +that could not be told or numbered for multitude; prayers, that from the +lips of the fathers to those of the children had distilled like sweet +waterfalls, sounding through the silence of ages, breaking themselves +into heavenly dew to return upon the pastures of the wilderness; hopes, +that had set the face as a flint in the torture, and the sword as a +flame in the battle, that had pointed the purposes and ministered the +strength of life, brightened the last glances and shaped the last +syllables of death; charities, that had bound together the brotherhoods +of the mountain and the desert, and had woven chains of pitying or +aspiring communion between this world and the unfathomable beneath and +above; and, more than these, the spirits of all the innumerable, +undoubting, dead, beckoning to the one way by which they had been +content to follow the things that belonged unto their peace;--these all +stood on the other side: and the choice must have been a bitter one, +even at the best; but it was rendered tenfold more bitter by the +natural, but most sinful animosity of the two divisions of the Church +against each other. + +Sec. XCVI. On one side this animosity was, of course, inevitable. The +Romanist party, though still including many Christian men, necessarily +included, also, all the worst of those who called themselves Christians. +In the fact of its refusing correction, it stood confessed as the Church +of the unholy; and, while it still counted among its adherents many of +the simple and believing,--men unacquainted with the corruption of the +body to which they belonged, or incapable of accepting any form of +doctrine but that which they had been taught from their youth,--it +gathered together with them whatever was carnal and sensual in +priesthood or in people, all the lovers of power in the one, and of ease +in the other. And the rage of these men was, of course, unlimited +against those who either disputed their authority, reprehended their +manner of life, or cast suspicion upon the popular methods of lulling +the conscience in the lifetime, or purchasing salvation on the +death-bed. + +Sec. XCVII. Besides this, the reassertion and defence of various tenets +which before had been little more than floating errors in the popular +mind, but which, definitely attacked by Protestantism, it became +necessary to fasten down with a band of iron and brass, gave a form at +once more rigid, and less rational, to the whole body of Romanist +Divinity. Multitudes of minds which in other ages might have brought +honor and strength to the Church, preaching the more vital truths which +it still retained, were now occupied in pleading for arraigned +falsehoods, or magnifying disused frivolities; and it can hardly be +doubted by any candid observer, that the nascent or latent errors which +God pardoned in times of ignorance, became unpardonable when they were +formally defined and defended; that fallacies which were forgiven to the +enthusiasm of a multitude, were avenged upon the stubbornness of a +Council; that, above all, the great invention of the age, which rendered +God's word accessible to every man, left all sins against its light +incapable of excuse or expiation; and that from the moment when Rome set +herself in direct opposition to the Bible, the judgment was pronounced +upon her, which made her the scorn and the prey of her own children, and +cast her down from the throne where she had magnified herself against +heaven, so low, that at last the unimaginable scene of the Bethlehem +humiliation was mocked in the temples of Christianity. Judea had seen +her God laid in the manger of the beasts of burden; it was for +Christendom to stable the beasts of burden by the altar of her God. + +Sec. XCVIII. Nor, on the other hand, was the opposition of Protestantism +to the Papacy less injurious to itself. That opposition was, for the most +part, intemperate, undistinguishing, and incautious. It could indeed +hardly be otherwise. Fresh bleeding from the sword of Rome, and still +trembling at her anathema, the reformed churches were little likely to +remember any of her benefits, or to regard any of her teaching. Forced +by the Romanist contumely into habits of irreverence, by the Romanist +fallacies into habits of disbelief, the self-trusting, rashly-reasoning +spirit gained ground among them daily. Sect branched out of sect, +presumption rose over presumption; the miracles of the early Church +were denied and its martyrs forgotten, though their power and palm were +claimed by the members of every persecuted sect; pride, malice, wrath, +love of change, masked themselves under the thirst for truth, and +mingled with the just resentment of deception, so that it became +impossible even for the best and truest men to know the plague of their +own hearts; while avarice and impiety openly transformed reformation +into robbery, and reproof into sacrilege. Ignorance could as easily lead +the foes of the Church, as lull her slumber; men who would once have +been the unquestioning recipients, were now the shameless inventors of +absurd or perilous superstitions; they who were of the temper that +walketh in darkness, gained little by having discovered their guides to +be blind; and the simplicity of the faith, ill understood and +contumaciously alleged, became an excuse for the rejection of the +highest arts and most tried wisdom of mankind: while the learned +infidel, standing aloof, drew his own conclusions, both from the rancor +of the antagonists, and from their errors; believed each in all that he +alleged against the other; and smiled with superior humanity, as he +watched the winds of the Alps drift the ashes of Jerome, and the dust of +England drink the blood of King Charles. + +Sec. XCIX. Now all this evil was, of course, entirely independent of the +renewal of the study of Pagan writers. But that renewal found the faith +of Christendom already weakened and divided; and therefore it was itself +productive of an effect tenfold greater than could have been apprehended +from it at another time. It acted first, as before noticed, in leading +the attention of all men to words instead of things; for it was +discovered that the language of the middle ages had been corrupt, and +the primal object of every scholar became now to purify his style. To +this study of words, that of forms being added, both as of matters of +the first importance, half the intellect of the age was at once absorbed +in the base sciences of grammar, logic, and rhetoric; studies utterly +unworthy of the serious labor of men, and necessarily rendering those +employed upon them incapable of high thoughts or noble emotion. Of the +debasing tendency of philology, no proof is needed beyond once reading +a grammarian's notes on a great poet: logic is unnecessary for men who +can reason; and about as useful to those who cannot, as a machine for +forcing one foot in due succession before the other would be to a man +who could not walk: while the study of rhetoric is exclusively one for +men who desire to deceive or be deceived; he who has the truth at his +heart need never fear the want of persuasion on his tongue, or, if he +fear it, it is because the base rhetoric of dishonesty keeps the truth +from being heard. + +Sec. C. The study of these sciences, therefore, naturally made men shallow +and dishonest in general; but it had a peculiarly fatal effect with +respect to religion, in the view which men took of the Bible. Christ's +teaching was discovered not to be rhetorical, St. Paul's preaching not +to be logical, and the Greek of the New Testament not to be grammatical. +The stern truth, the profound pathos, the impatient period, leaping from +point to point and leaving the intervals for the hearer to fill, the +comparatively Hebraized and unelaborate idiom, had little in them of +attraction for the students of phrase and syllogism; and the chief +knowledge of the age became one of the chief stumbling-blocks to its +religion. + +Sec. CI. But it was not the grammarian and logician alone who was thus +retarded or perverted; in them there had been small loss. The men who +could truly appreciate the higher excellences of the classics were +carried away by a current of enthusiasm which withdrew them from every +other study. Christianity was still professed as a matter of form, but +neither the Bible nor the writings of the Fathers had time left for +their perusal, still less heart left for their acceptance. The human +mind is not capable of more than a certain amount of admiration or +reverence, and that which was given to Horace was withdrawn from David. +Religion is, of all subjects, that which will least endure a second +place in the heart or thoughts, and a languid and occasional study of it +was sure to lead to error or infidelity. On the other hand, what was +heartily admired and unceasingly contemplated was soon brought nigh to +being believed; and the systems of Pagan mythology began gradually to +assume the places in the human mind from which the unwatched +Christianity was wasting. Men did not indeed openly sacrifice to +Jupiter, or build silver shrines for Diana, but the ideas of Paganism +nevertheless became thoroughly vital and present with them at all times; +and it did not matter in the least, as far as respected the power of +true religion, whether the Pagan image was believed in or not, so long +as it entirely occupied the thoughts. The scholar of the sixteenth +century, if he saw the lightning shining from the east unto the west, +thought forthwith of Jupiter, not of the coming of the Son of Man; if he +saw the moon walking in brightness, he thought of Diana, not of the +throne which was to be established for ever as a faithful witness in +heaven; and though his heart was but secretly enticed, yet thus he +denied the God that is above.[25] + +And, indeed, this double creed, of Christianity confessed and Paganism +beloved, was worse than Paganism itself, inasmuch as it refused +effective and practical belief altogether. It would have been better to +have worshipped Diana and Jupiter at once, than to have gone on through +the whole of life naming one God, imagining another, and dreading none. +Better, a thousandfold, to have been "a Pagan suckled in some creed +outworn," than to have stood by the great sea of Eternity and seen no +God walking on its waves, no heavenly world on its horizon. + +Sec. CII. This fatal result of an enthusiasm for classical literature was +hastened and heightened by the misdirection of the powers of art. The +imagination of the age was actively set to realize these objects of +Pagan belief; and all the most exalted faculties of man, which, up to +that period, had been employed in the service of Faith, were now +transferred to the service of Fiction. The invention which had formerly +been both sanctified and strengthened by laboring under the command of +settled intention, and on the ground of assured belief, had now the +reins laid upon its neck by passion, and all ground of fact cut from +beneath its feet; and the imagination which formerly had helped men to +apprehend the truth, now tempted them to believe a falsehood. The +faculties themselves wasted away in their own treason; one by one they +fell in the potter's field; and the Raphael who seemed sent and inspired +from heaven that he might paint Apostles and Prophets, sank at once into +powerlessness at the feet of Apollo and the Muses. + +Sec. CIII. But this was not all. The habit of using the greatest gifts of +imagination upon fictitious subjects, of course destroyed the honor and +value of the same imagination used in the cause of truth. Exactly in the +proportion in which Jupiters and Mercuries were embodied and believed, +in that proportion Virgins and Angels were disembodied and disbelieved. +The images summoned by art began gradually to assume one average value +in the spectator's mind; and incidents from the Iliad and from the +Exodus to come within the same degrees of credibility. And, farther, +while the powers of the imagination were becoming daily more and more +languid, because unsupported by faith, the manual skill and science of +the artist were continually on the increase. When these had reached a +certain point, they began to be the principal things considered in the +picture, and its story or scene to be thought of only as a theme for +their manifestation. Observe the difference. In old times, men used +their powers of painting to show the objects of faith; in later times, +they used the objects of faith that they might show their powers of +painting. The distinction is enormous, the difference incalculable as +irreconcilable. And thus, the more skilful the artist, the less his +subject was regarded; and the hearts of men hardened as their handling +softened, until they reached a point when sacred, profane, or sensual +subjects were employed, with absolute indifference, for the display of +color and execution; and gradually the mind of Europe congealed into +that state of utter apathy,--inconceivable, unless it had been +witnessed, and unpardonable, unless by us, who have been infected by +it,--which permits us to place the Madonna and the Aphrodite side by +side in our galleries, and to pass, with the same unmoved inquiry into +the manner of their handling, from a Bacchanal to a Nativity. + +Now all this evil, observe, would have been merely the necessary and +natural operation of an enthusiasm for the classics, and of a delight in +the mere science of the artist, on the most virtuous mind. But this +operation took place upon minds enervated by luxury, and which were +tempted, at the very same period, to forgetfulness or denial of all +religious principle by their own basest instincts. The faith which had +been undermined by the genius of Pagans, was overthrown by the crimes of +Christians; and the ruin which was begun by scholarship, was completed +by sensuality. The characters of the heathen divinities were as suitable +to the manners of the time as their forms were agreeable to its taste; +and Paganism again became, in effect, the religion of Europe. That is to +say, the civilized world is at this moment, collectively, just as Pagan +as it was in the second century; a small body of believers being now, as +they were then, representative of the Church of Christ in the midst of +the faithless: but there is just this difference, and this very fatal +one, between the second and nineteenth centuries, that the Pagans are +nominally and fashionably Christians, and that there is every +conceivable variety and shade of belief between the two; so that not +only is it most difficult theoretically to mark the point where +hesitating trust and failing practice change into definite infidelity, +but it has become a point of politeness not to inquire too deeply into +our neighbor's religious opinions; and, so that no one be offended by +violent breach of external forms, to waive any close examination into +the tenets of faith. The fact is, we distrust each other and ourselves +so much, that we dare not press this matter; we know that if, on any +occasion of general intercourse, we turn to our next neighbor, and put +to him some searching or testing question, we shall, in nine cases out +of ten, discover him to be only a Christian in his own way, and as far +as he thinks proper, and that he doubts of many things which we +ourselves do not believe strongly enough to hear doubted without danger. +What is in reality cowardice and faithlessness, we call charity; and +consider it the part of benevolence sometimes to forgive men's evil +practice for the sake of their accurate faith, and sometimes to forgive +their confessed heresy for the sake of their admirable practice. And +under this shelter of charity, humility, and faintheartedness, the +world, unquestioned by others or by itself, mingles with and overwhelms +the small body of Christians, legislates for them, moralizes for them, +reasons for them; and, though itself of course greatly and beneficently +influenced by the association, and held much in check by its pretence to +Christianity, yet undermines, in nearly the same degree, the sincerity +and practical power of Christianity itself, until at last, in the very +institutions of which the administration may be considered as the +principal test of the genuineness of national religion, those devoted to +education, the Pagan system is completely triumphant; and the entire +body of the so-called Christian world has established a system of +instruction for its youth, wherein neither the history of Christ's +Church, nor the language of God's law, is considered a study of the +smallest importance; wherein, of all subjects of human inquiry, his own +religion is the one in which a youth's ignorance is most easily +forgiven;[26] and in which it is held a light matter that he should be +daily guilty of lying, or debauchery, or of blasphemy, so only that he +write Latin verses accurately, and with speed. + +I believe that in few years more we shall wake from all these errors in +astonishment, as from evil dreams; having been preserved, in the midst +of their madness, by those hidden roots of active and earnest +Christianity which God's grace has bound in the English nation with iron +and brass. But in the Venetian, those roots themselves had withered; +and, from the palace of their ancient religion, their pride cast them +forth hopelessly to the pasture of the brute. From pride to infidelity, +from infidelity to the unscrupulous and insatiable pursuit of pleasure, +and from this to irremediable degradation, the transitions were swift, +like the falling of a star. The great palaces of the haughtiest nobles +of Venice were stayed, before they had risen far above their +foundations, by the blast of a penal poverty; and the wild grass, on the +unfinished fragments of their mighty shafts, waves at the tide-mark +where the power of the godless people first heard the "Hitherto shalt +thou come." And the regeneration in which they had so vainly +trusted,--the new birth and clear dawning, as they thought it, of all +art, all knowledge, and all hope,--became to them as that dawn which +Ezekiel saw on the hills of Israel: "Behold the day; behold, it is come. +The rod hath blossomed, pride hath budded, violence is risen up into a +rod of wickedness. None of them shall remain, nor of their multitude; +let not the buyer rejoice, nor the seller mourn, for wrath is upon all +the multitude thereof." + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [8] Or, more briefly, science has to do with facts, art with + phenomena. To science, phenomena are of use only as they lead to + facts; and to art facts are of use only as they lead to phenomena. I + use the word "art" here with reference to the fine arts only, for + the lower arts of mechanical production I should reserve the word + "manufacture." + + [9] Tintoret. + + [10] St. Bernard. + + [11] Society always has a destructive influence upon an artist: + first by its sympathy with his meanest powers; secondly, by its + chilling want of understanding of his greatest; and, thirdly, by its + vain occupation of his time and thoughts. Of course a painter of men + must be _among_ men; but it ought to be as a watcher, not as a + companion. + + [12] I intended in this place to have introduced some special + consideration of the science of anatomy, which I believe to have + been in great part the cause of the decline of modern art; but I + have been anticipated by a writer better able to treat the subject. + I have only glanced at his book; and there is something in the + spirit of it which I do not like, and some parts of it are assuredly + wrong; but, respecting anatomy, it seems to me to settle the + question indisputably, more especially as being written by a master + of the science. I quote two passages, and must refer the reader to + the sequel. + + "_The scientific men of forty centuries_ have failed to describe so + accurately, so beautifully, so artistically, as Homer did, the + organic elements constituting the emblems of youth and beauty, and + the waste and decay which these sustain by time and age. All these + Homer understood better, and has described more truthfully than the + scientific men of forty centuries.... + + "Before I approach this question, permit me to make a few remarks on + the pre-historic period of Greece; that era which seems to have + produced nearly all the great men. + + "On looking attentively at the statues within my observation, I + cannot find the slightest foundation for the assertion that their + sculptors must have dissected the human frame and been well + acquainted with the human anatomy. They, like Homer, had discovered + Nature's secret, and bestowed their whole attention on the exterior. + The exterior they read profoundly, and studied deeply--the _living + exterior_ and the _dead_. Above all, they avoided displaying the + dead and dissected interior, through the exterior. They had + discovered that the interior presents hideous shapes, but not forms. + Men during the philosophic era of Greece saw all this, each reading + the antique to the best of his abilities. The man of genius + rediscovered the canon of the ancient masters, and wrought on its + principles. The greater number, as now, unequal to this step, merely + imitated and copied those who preceded them."--_Great Artists and + Great Anatomists_. By R. Knox, M.D. London, Van Voorst, 1852. + + Respecting the value of literary knowledge in general as regards + art, the reader will also do well to meditate on the following + sentences from Hallam's "Literature of Europe;" remembering at the + same time what I have above said, that "the root of all great art in + Europe is struck in the thirteenth century," and that the great time + is from 1250 to 1350: + + "In Germany the tenth century, Leibnitz declares, was a golden age + of learning compared with the thirteenth." + + "The writers of the thirteenth century display an incredible + ignorance, not only of pure idiom, but of common grammatical rules." + + The fourteenth century was "not superior to the thirteenth in + learning.... We may justly praise Richard of Bury for his zeal in + collecting books. But his erudition appears crude, his style + indifferent, and his thoughts superficial." + + I doubt the superficialness of the _thoughts_: at all events, this + is not a character of the time, though it may be of the writer; for + this would affect art more even than literature. + + [13] Churton's "Early English Church." London, 1840. + + [14] "Quibus nulla macula inest quae non cernatur. Ita viri nobilitate + praediti eam vitam peragant cui nulla nota possit inviri." The first + sentence is literally, "in which there is no spot that may not be + seen." But I imagine the writer meant it as I have put it in the + text, else his comparison does not hold. + + [15] Observe, however, that the magnitude spoken of here and in the + following passages, is the finished and polished magnitude sought + for the sake of pomp: not the rough magnitude sought for the sake of + sublimity: respecting which see the "Seven Lamps," chap. iii. Sec. 5, + 6, and 8. + + [16] Can Grande died in 1329: we can hardly allow more than five + years for the erection of his tomb. + + [17] Vol. I. Chap. I. + + [18] Sansovino, lib. xiii. + + [19] Tentori, vi. 142, i. 157. + + [20] "Jacobus Pisaurius Paphi Episcopus qui Turcos bello, se ipsum + pace vincebat, ex nobili inter Venetas, ad nobiliorem inter Angelos + familiam delatus, nobilissimam in illa die Coronam justo Judice + reddente, hic situs expectat Vixit annos Platonicos. Obijt MDXLVII. + IX. Kal. Aprilis." + + [21] Isaiah xlvii. 7, 10, 11, 15. + + [22] Compare "Seven Lamps," chap. vii. Sec. 3. + + [23] See the farther remarks on Inspiration, in the fourth chapter. + + [24] That is to say, orders separated by such distinctions as the old + Greek ones: considered with reference to the bearing power of the + capital, all orders may be referred to two, as long ago stated; just + as trees may be referred to the two great classes, monocotyledonous + and dicotyledonous. + + [25] Job xxi: 26-28; Psalm lxxxix. 37. + + [26] I shall not forget the impression made upon me at Oxford, when, + going up for my degree, and mentioning to one of the authorities + that I had not had time enough to read the Epistles properly, I was + told, that "the Epistles were separate sciences, and I need not + trouble myself about them." + + The reader will find some farther notes on this subject in Appendix + 7, "Modern Education." + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +GROTESQUE RENAISSANCE. + + +Sec. I. In the close of the last chapter it was noted that the phases of +transition in the moral temper of the falling Venetians, during their +fall, were from pride to infidelity, and from infidelity to the +unscrupulous _pursuit of pleasure_. During the last years of the +existence of the state, the minds both of the nobility and the people +seem to have been set simply upon the attainment of the means of +self-indulgence. There was not strength enough in them to be proud, nor +forethought enough to be ambitious. One by one the possessions of the +state were abandoned to its enemies; one by one the channels of its +trade were forsaken by its own languor, or occupied and closed against +it by its more energetic rivals; and the time, the resources, and the +thoughts of the nation were exclusively occupied in the invention of +such fantastic and costly pleasures as might best amuse their apathy, +lull their remorse, or disguise their ruin. + +Sec. II. The architecture raised at Venice during this period is amongst +the worst and basest ever built by the hands of men, being especially +distinguished by a spirit of brutal mockery and insolent jest, which, +exhausting itself in deformed and monstrous sculpture, can sometimes be +hardly otherwise defined than as the perpetuation in stone of the +ribaldries of drunkenness. On such a period, and on such work, it is +painful to dwell, and I had not originally intended to do so; but I +found that the entire spirit of the Renaissance could not be +comprehended unless it was followed to its consummation; and that there +were many most interesting questions arising out of the study of this +particular spirit of jesting, with reference to which I have called it +the _Grotesque_ Renaissance. For it is not this period alone which is +distinguished by such a spirit. There is jest--perpetual, careless, and +not unfrequently obscene--in the most noble work of the Gothic periods; +and it becomes, therefore, of the greatest possible importance to +examine into the nature and essence of the Grotesque itself, and to +ascertain in what respect it is that the jesting of art in its highest +flight, differs from its jesting in its utmost degradation. + +Sec. III. The place where we may best commence our inquiry is one renowned +in the history of Venice, the space of ground before the Church of Santa +Maria Formosa; a spot which, after the Rialto and St. Mark's Place, +ought to possess a peculiar interest in the mind of the traveller, in +consequence of its connexion with the most touching and true legend of +the Brides of Venice. That legend is related at length in every Venetian +history, and, finally, has been told by the poet Rogers, in a way which +renders it impossible for any one to tell it after him. I have only, +therefore, to remind the reader that the capture of the brides took +place in the cathedral church, St. Pietro di Castello; and that this of +Santa Maria Formosa is connected with the tale, only because it was +yearly visited with prayers by the Venetian maidens, on the anniversary +of their ancestors' deliverance. For that deliverance, their thanks were +to be rendered to the Virgin; and there was no church then dedicated to +the Virgin, in Venice, except this.[27] + +Neither of the cathedral church, nor of this dedicated to St. Mary the +Beautiful, is one stone left upon another. But, from that which has been +raised on the site of the latter, we may receive a most important +lesson, introductory to our immediate subject, if first we glance back +to the traditional history of the church which has been destroyed. + +Sec. IV. No more honorable epithet than "traditional" can be attached to +what is recorded concerning it, yet I should grieve to lose the legend +of its first erection. The Bishop of Uderzo, driven by the Lombards from +his Bishopric, as he was praying, beheld in a vision the Virgin Mother, +who ordered him to found a church in her honor, in the place where he +should see a white cloud rest. And when he went out, the white cloud +went before him; and on the place where it rested he built a church, and +it was called the Church of St. Mary the Beautiful, from the loveliness +of the form in which she had appeared in the vision.[28] + +The first church stood only for about two centuries. It was rebuilt in +864, and enriched with various relics some fifty years later; relics +belonging principally to St. Nicodemus, and much lamented when they and +the church were together destroyed by fire in 1105. + +It was then rebuilt in "magnifica forma," much resembling, according to +Corner, the architecture of the chancel of St. Mark;[29] but the +information which I find in various writers, as to the period at which +it was reduced to its present condition, is both sparing and +contradictory. + +Sec. V. Thus, by Corner, we are told that this church, resembling St. +Mark's, "remained untouched for more than four centuries," until, in +1689, it was thrown down by an earthquake, and restored by the piety of +a rich merchant, Turrin Toroni, "in ornatissima forma;" and that, for +the greater beauty of the renewed church, it had added to it two facades +of marble. With this information that of the Padre dell' Oratoria +agrees, only he gives the date of the earlier rebuilding of the church +in 1175, and ascribes it to an architect of the name of Barbetta. But +Quadri, in his usually accurate little guide, tells us that this +Barbetta rebuilt the church in the fourteenth century; and that of the +two facades, so much admired by Corner, one is of the sixteenth century, +and its architect unknown; and the rest of the church is of the +seventeenth, "in the style of Sansovino." + +Sec. VI. There is no occasion to examine, or endeavor to reconcile, these +conflicting accounts. All that is necessary for the reader to know is, +that every vestige of the church in which the ceremony took place was +destroyed _at least_ as early as 1689; and that the ceremony itself, +having been abolished in the close of the fourteenth century, is only to +be conceived as taking place in that more ancient church, resembling St. +Mark's, which, even according to Quadri, existed until that period. I +would, therefore, endeavor to fix the reader's mind, for a moment, on +the contrast between the former and latter aspect of this plot of +ground; the former, when it had its Byzantine church, and its yearly +procession of the Doge and the Brides; and the latter, when it has its +Renaissance church "in the style of Sansovino," and its yearly honoring +is done away. + +Sec. VII. And, first, let us consider for a little the significance and +nobleness of that early custom of the Venetians, which brought about the +attack and the rescue of the year 943: that there should be but one +marriage day for the nobles of the whole nation,[30] so that all might +rejoice together; and that the sympathy might be full, not only of the +families who that year beheld the alliance of their children, and prayed +for them in one crowd, weeping before the altar, but of all the families +of the state, who saw, in the day which brought happiness to others, the +anniversary of their own. Imagine the strong bond of brotherhood thus +sanctified among them, and consider also the effect on the minds of the +youth of the state; the greater deliberation and openness necessarily +given to the contemplation of marriage, to which all the people were +solemnly to bear testimony; the more lofty and unselfish tone which it +would give to all their thoughts. It was the exact contrary of stolen +marriage. It was marriage to which God and man were taken for witnesses, +and every eye was invoked for its glance, and every tongue for its +prayers.[31] + +Sec. VIII. Later historians have delighted themselves in dwelling on the +pageantry of the marriage day itself, but I do not find that they have +authority for the splendor of their descriptions. I cannot find a word +in the older Chronicles about the jewels or dress of the brides, and I +believe the ceremony to have been more quiet and homely than is usually +supposed. The only sentence which gives color to the usual accounts of +it is one of Sansovino's, in which he says that the magnificent dress of +the brides in his day was founded "on ancient custom."[32] However this +may have been, the circumstances of the rite were otherwise very simple. +Each maiden brought her dowry with her in a small "cassetta," or chest; +they went first to the cathedral, and waited for the youths, who having +come, they heard mass together, and the bishop preached to them and +blessed them: and so each bridegroom took his bride and her dowry and +bore her home. + +Sec. IX. It seems that the alarm given by the attack of the pirates put +an end to the custom of fixing one day for all marriages: but the main +objects of the institution were still attained by the perfect publicity +given to the marriages of all the noble families; the bridegroom +standing in the Court of the Ducal Palace to receive congratulations on +his betrothal, and the whole body of the nobility attending the +nuptials, and rejoicing, "as at some personal good fortune; since, by +the constitution of the state, they are for ever incorporated together, +as if of one and the same family."[33] But the festival of the 2nd of +February, after the year 943, seems to have been observed only in memory +of the deliverance of the brides, and no longer set apart for public +nuptials. + +Sec. X. There is much difficulty in reconciling the various accounts, +or distinguishing the inaccurate ones, of the manner of keeping this +memorable festival. I shall first give Sansovino's, which is the popular +one, and then note the points of importance in the counter-statements. +Sansovino says that the success of the pursuit of the pirates was owing +to the ready help and hard fighting of the men of the district of Sta. +Maria Formosa, for the most part trunkmakers; and that they, having been +presented after the victory to the Doge and the Senate, were told to ask +some favor for their reward. "The good men then said that they desired +the Prince, with his wife and the Signory, to visit every year the +church of their district, on the day of its feast. And the Prince asking +them, 'Suppose it should rain?' they answered, 'We will give you hats to +cover you; and if you are thirsty, we will give you to drink.' Whence is +it that the Vicar, in the name of the people, presents to the Doge, on +his visit, two flasks of malvoisie[34] and two oranges; and presents to +him two gilded hats, bearing the arms of the Pope, of the Prince, and of +the Vicar. And thus was instituted the Feast of the Maries, which was +called noble and famous because the people from all round came together +to behold it. And it was celebrated in this manner:...." The account +which follows is somewhat prolix; but its substance is, briefly, that +twelve maidens were elected, two for each division of the city; and that +it was decided by lot which contrade, or quarters of the town, should +provide them with dresses. This was done at enormous expense, one +contrada contending with another, and even the jewels of the treasury of +St. Mark being lent for the occasion to the "Maries," as the twelve +damsels were called. They, being thus dressed with gold, and silver, and +jewels, went in their galley to St. Mark's for the Doge, who joined them +with the Signory, and went first to San Pietro di Castello to hear mass +on St. Mark's day, the 31st of January, and to Santa Maria Formosa on +the 2nd of February, the intermediate day being spent in passing in +procession through the streets of the city; "and sometimes there arose +quarrels about the places they should pass through, for every one wanted +them to pass by his house." + +Sec. XI. Nearly the same account is given by Corner, who, however, does +not say anything about the hats or the malvoisie. These, however, we find +again in the Matricola de' Casseleri, which, of course, sets the +services of the trunkmakers and the privileges obtained by them in the +most brilliant light. The quaintness of the old Venetian is hardly to be +rendered into English. "And you must know that the said trunkmakers were +the men who were the cause of such victory, and of taking the galley, +and of cutting all the Triestines to pieces, because, at that time, they +were valiant men and well in order. The which victory was on the 2nd +February, on the day of the Madonna of candles. And at the request and +entreaties of the said trunkmakers, it was decreed that the Doge, every +year, as long as Venice shall endure, should go on the eve of the said +feast to vespers in the said church, with the Signory. And be it noted, +that the vicar is obliged to give to the Doge two flasks of malvoisie, +with two oranges besides. And so it is observed, and will be observed +always." The reader must observe the continual confusion between St. +Mark's day the 31st of January, and Candlemas the 2nd of February. The +fact appears to be, that the marriage day in the old republic was St. +Mark's day, and the recovery of the brides was the same day at evening; +so that, as we are told by Sansovino, the commemorative festival began +on that day, but it was continued to the day of the Purification, that +especial thanks might be rendered to the Virgin; and, the visit to Sta. +Maria Formosa being the most important ceremony of the whole festival, +the old chroniclers, and even Sansovino, got confused, and asserted the +victory itself to have taken place on the day appointed for that +pilgrimage. + +Sec. XII. I doubt not that the reader who is acquainted with the beautiful +lines of Rogers is as much grieved as I am at the interference of the +"casket-makers" with the achievement which the poet ascribes to the +bridegrooms alone; an interference quite as inopportune as that of old +Le Balafre with the victory of his nephew, in the unsatisfactory +conclusion of "Quentin Durward." I am afraid I cannot get the +casket-makers quite out of the way; but it may gratify some of my +readers to know that a chronicle of the year 1378, quoted by +Galliciolli, denies the agency of the people of Sta. Maria Formosa +altogether, in these terms: "Some say that the people of Sta. M. Formosa +were those who recovered the _spoil_ ("predra;" I may notice, in +passing, that most of the old chroniclers appear to consider the +recovery of the _caskets_ rather more a subject of congratulation than +that of the brides), and that, for their reward, they asked the Doge and +Signory to visit Sta. M. Formosa; but _this is false_. The going to Sta. +M. Formosa was because the thing had succeeded on that day, and because +this was then the only church in Venice in honor of the Virgin." But +here is again the mistake about the day itself; and besides if we get +rid altogether of the trunkmakers, how are we to account for the +ceremony of the oranges and hats, of which the accounts seem authentic? +If, however, the reader likes to substitute "carpenters" or +"house-builders" for casket-makers, he may do so with great reason (vide +Galliciolli, lib. ii. Sec. 1758); but I fear that one or the other body of +tradesmen must be allowed to have had no small share in the honor of the +victory. + +Sec. XIII. But whatever doubt attaches to the particular circumstances +of its origin, there is none respecting the splendor of the festival +itself, as it was celebrated for four centuries afterwards. We find that +each contrada spent from 800 to 1000 zecchins in the dress of the +"Maries" entrusted to it; but I cannot find among how many contrade the +twelve Maries were divided; it is also to be supposed that most of the +accounts given refer to the later periods of the celebration of the +festival. In the beginning of the eleventh century, the good Doge Pietro +Orseolo II. left in his will the third of his entire fortune "per la +Festa della Marie;" and, in the fourteenth century, so many people came +from the rest of Italy to see it, that special police regulations were +made for it, and the Council of Ten were twice summoned before it took +place.[35] The expense lavished upon it seems to have increased till the +year 1379, when all the resources of the republic were required for the +terrible war of Chiozza, and all festivity was for that time put an end +to. The issue of the war left the Venetians with neither the power nor +the disposition to restore the festival on its ancient scale, and they +seem to have been ashamed to exhibit it in reduced splendor. It was +entirely abolished. + +Sec. XIV. As if to do away even with its memory, every feature of the +surrounding scene which was associated with that festival has been in +succeeding ages destroyed. With one solitary exception,[36] there is not +a house left in the whole Piazza of Santa Maria Formosa from whose +windows the festa of the Maries has ever been seen: of the church in +which they worshipped, not a stone is left, even the form of the ground +and direction of the neighboring canals are changed; and there is now +but one landmark to guide the steps of the traveller to the place where +the white cloud rested, and the shrine was built to St. Mary the +Beautiful. Yet the spot is still worth his pilgrimage, for he may +receive a lesson upon it, though a painful one. Let him first fill his +mind with the fair images of the ancient festival, and then seek that +landmark the tower of the modern church, built upon the place where the +daughters of Venice knelt yearly with her noblest lords; and let him +look at the head that is carved on the base of the tower,[37] still +dedicated to St. Mary the Beautiful. + +Sec. XV. A head,--huge, inhuman, and monstrous,--leering in bestial +degradation, too foul to be either pictured or described, or to be +beheld for more than an instant: yet let it be endured for that instant; +for in that head is embodied the type of the evil spirit to which Venice +was abandoned in the fourth period of her decline; and it is well that +we should see and feel the full horror of it on this spot, and know what +pestilence it was that came and breathed upon her beauty, until it +melted away like the white cloud from the ancient fields of Santa Maria +Formosa. + +Sec. XVI. This head is one of many hundreds which disgrace the latest +buildings of the city, all more or less agreeing in their expression of +sneering mockery, in most cases enhanced by thrusting out the tongue. +Most of them occur upon the bridges, which were among the very last +works undertaken by the republic, several, for instance, upon the Bridge +of Sighs; and they are evidences of a delight in the contemplation of +bestial vice, and the expression of low sarcasm, which is, I believe, +the most hopeless state into which the human mind can fall. This spirit +of idiotic mockery is, as I have said, the most striking characteristic +of the last period of the Renaissance, which, in consequence of the +character thus imparted to its sculpture, I have called grotesque; but +it must be our immediate task, and it will be a most interesting one, to +distinguish between this base grotesqueness, and that magnificent +condition of fantastic imagination, which was above noticed as one of +the chief elements of the Northern Gothic mind. Nor is this a question +of interesting speculation merely: for the distinction between the true +and false grotesque is one which the present tendencies of the English +mind have rendered it practically important to ascertain; and that in a +degree which, until he has made some progress in the consideration of +the subject, the reader will hardly anticipate. + +Sec. XVII. But, first, I have to note one peculiarity in the late +architecture of Venice, which will materially assist us in understanding +the true nature of the spirit which is to be the subject of our inquiry; +and this peculiarity, singularly enough, is first exemplified in the +very facade of Santa Maria Formosa which is flanked by the grotesque +head to which our attention has just been directed. This facade, whose +architect is unknown, consists of a pediment, sustained on four +Corinthian pilasters, and is, I believe, the earliest in Venice which +appears _entirely destitute of every religious symbol, sculpture, or +inscription_; unless the Cardinal's hat upon the shield in the centre of +the impediment be considered a religious symbol. The entire facade is +nothing else than a monument to the Admiral Vincenzo Cappello. Two +tablets, one between each pair of flanking pillars, record his acts and +honors; and, on the corresponding spaces upon the base of the church, +are two circular trophies, composed of halberts, arrows, flags, +tridents, helmets, and lances: sculptures which are just as valueless in +a military as in an ecclesiastical point of view; for, being all copied +from the forms of Roman arms and armor, they cannot even be referred to +for information respecting the costume of the period. Over the door, as +the chief ornament of the facade, exactly in the spot which in the +"barbarous" St. Mark's is occupied by the figure of Christ, is the +statue of Vincenzo Cappello, in Roman armor. He died in 1542; and we +have, therefore, the latter part of the sixteenth century fixed as the +period when, in Venice, churches were first built to the glory of man, +instead of the glory of God. + +Sec. XVIII. Throughout the whole of Scripture history, nothing is more +remarkable than the close connection of punishment with the sin of +vain-glory. Every other sin is occasionally permitted to remain, for +lengthened periods, without definite chastisement; but the forgetfulness +of God, and the claim of honor by man, as belonging to himself, are +visited at once, whether in Hezekiah, Nebuchadnezzar, or Herod, with the +most tremendous punishment. We have already seen, that the first reason +for the fall of Venice was the manifestation of such a spirit; and it is +most singular to observe the definiteness with which it is here +marked,--as if so appointed, that it might be impossible for future ages +to miss the lesson. For, in the long inscriptions[38] which record the +acts of Vincenzo Cappello, it might, at least, have been anticipated +that some expressions would occur indicative of remaining pretence to +religious feeling, or formal acknowledgement of Divine power. But there +are none whatever. The name of God does not once occur; that of St. Mark +is found only in the statement that Cappello was a procurator of the +church: there is no word touching either on the faith or hope of the +deceased; and the only sentence which alludes to supernatural powers at +all, alludes to them under the heathen name of _fates_, in its +explanation of what the Admiral Cappello _would_ have accomplished, +"nisi fata Christianis adversa vetuissent." + +Sec. XIX. Having taken sufficient note of all the baseness of mind which +these facts indicate in the people, we shall not be surprised to find +immediate signs of dotage in the conception of their architecture. The +churches raised throughout this period are so grossly debased, that even +the Italian critics of the present day, who are partially awakened to +the true state of art in Italy, though blind, as yet, to its true cause, +exhaust their terms of reproach upon these last efforts of the +Renaissance builders. The two churches of San Moise and Santa Maria +Zobenigo, which are among the most remarkable in Venice for their +manifestation of insolent atheism, are characterized by Lazari, the one +as "culmine d'ogni follia architettonica," the other as "orrido ammasso +di pietra d'Istria," with added expressions of contempt, as just as it +is unmitigated. + +Sec. XX. Now both these churches, which I should like the reader to visit +in succession, if possible, after that of Sta. Maria Formosa, agree with +that church, and with each other, in being totally destitute of +religious symbols, and entirely dedicated to the honor of two Venetian +families. In San Moise, a bust of Vincenzo Fini is set on a tall narrow +pyramid, above the central door, with this marvellous inscription: + + "OMNE FASTIGIVM + VIRTVTE IMPLET + VINCENTIVS FINI." + +It is very difficult to translate this; for fastigium, besides its +general sense, has a particular one in architecture, and refers to the +part of the building occupied by the bust; but the main meaning of it is +that "Vincenzo Fini fills all height with his virtue." The inscription +goes on into farther praise, but this example is enough. Over the two +lateral doors are two other laudatory inscriptions of younger members of +the Fini family, the dates of death of the three heroes being 1660, +1685, and 1726, marking thus the period of consummate degradation. + +[Illustration: Plate III. + NOBLE AND IGNOBLE GROTESQUE.] + +Sec. XXI. In like manner, the Church of Santa Maria Zobenigo is entirely +dedicated to the Barbaro family; the only religious symbols with which +it is invested being statues of angels blowing brazen trumpets, intended +to express the spreading of the fame of the Barbaro family in heaven. At +the top of the church is Venice crowned, between Justice and Temperance, +Justice holding a pair of grocer's scales, of iron, swinging in the +wind. There is a two-necked stone eagle (the Barbaro crest), with a +copper crown, in the centre of the pediment. A huge statue of a Barbaro +in armor, with a fantastic head-dress, over the central door; and four +Barbaros in niches, two on each side of it, strutting statues, in the +common stage postures of the period,--Jo. Maria Barbaro, sapiens +ordinum; Marinus Barbaro, Senator (reading a speech in a Ciceronian +attitude); Franc. Barbaro, legatus in classe (in armor, with high-heeled +boots, and looking resolutely fierce); and Carolus Barbaro, sapiens +ordinum: the decorations of the facade being completed by two trophies, +consisting of drums, trumpets, flags and cannon; and six plans, +sculptured in relief, of the towns of Zara, Candia, Padua, Rome, Corfu, +and Spalatro. + +Sec. XXII. When the traveller has sufficiently considered the meaning of +this facade, he ought to visit the Church of St. Eustachio, remarkable +for the dramatic effect of the group of sculpture on its facade, and +then the Church of the Ospedaletto (see Index, under head Ospedaletto); +noticing, on his way, the heads on the foundations of the Palazzo Corner +della Regina, and the Palazzo Pesaro, and any other heads carved on the +modern bridges, closing with those on the Bridge of Sighs. + +He will then have obtained a perfect idea of the style and feeling of +the Grotesque Renaissance. I cannot pollute this volume by any +illustration of its worst forms, but the head turned to the front, on +the right-hand in the opposite Plate, will give the general reader an +idea of its most graceful and refined developments. The figure set +beside it, on the left, is a piece of noble grotesque, from fourteenth +century Gothic; and it must be our present task to ascertain the nature +of the difference which exists between the two, by an accurate inquiry +into the true essence of the grotesque spirit itself. + +Sec. XXIII. First, then, it seems to me that the grotesque is, in almost +all cases, composed of two elements, one ludicrous, the other fearful; +that, as one or other of these elements prevails, the grotesque falls +into two branches, sportive grotesque and terrible grotesque; but that +we cannot legitimately consider it under these two aspects, because +there are hardly any examples which do not in some degree combine both +elements; there are few grotesques so utterly playful as to be overcast +with no shade of fearfulness, and few so fearful as absolutely to +exclude all ideas of jest. But although we cannot separate the grotesque +itself into two branches, we may easily examine separately the two +conditions of mind which it seems to combine; and consider successively +what are the kinds of jest, and what the kinds of fearfulness, which may +be legitimately expressed in the various walks of art, and how their +expressions actually occur in the Gothic and Renaissance schools. + +First, then, what are the conditions of playfulness which we may fitly +express in noble art, or which (for this is the same thing) are +consistent with nobleness in humanity? In other words, what is the +proper function of play, with respect not to youth merely, but to all +mankind? + +Sec. XXIV. It is a much more serious question than may be at first +supposed; for a healthy manner of play is necessary in order to a +healthy manner of work: and because the choice of our recreation is, in +most cases, left to ourselves, while the nature of our work is generally +fixed by necessity or authority, it may be well doubted whether more +distressful consequences may not have resulted from mistaken choice in +play than from mistaken direction in labor. + +Sec. XXV. Observe, however, that we are only concerned, here, with that +kind of play which causes laughter or implies recreation, not with that +which consists in the excitement of the energies whether of body or +mind. Muscular exertion is, indeed, in youth, one of the conditions of +recreation; "but neither the violent bodily labor which children of all +ages agree to call play," nor the grave excitement of the mental +faculties in games of skill or chance, are in anywise connected with the +state of feeling we have here to investigate, namely, that sportiveness +which man possesses in common with many inferior creatures, but to which +his higher faculties give nobler expression in the various +manifestations of wit, humor, and fancy. + +With respect to the manner in which this instinct of playfulness is +indulged or repressed, mankind are broadly distinguishable into four +classes: the men who play wisely; who play necessarily; who play +inordinately; and who play not at all. + +Sec. XXVI. First: Those who play wisely. It is evident that the idea of +any kind of play can only be associated with the idea of an imperfect, +childish, and fatigable nature. As far as men can raise that nature, so +that it shall no longer be interested by trifles or exhausted by toils, +they raise it above play; he whose heart is at once fixed upon heaven, +and open to the earth, so as to apprehend the importance of heavenly +doctrines, and the compass of human sorrow, will have little disposition +for jest; and exactly in proportion to the breadth and depth of his +character and intellect, will be, in general, the incapability of +surprise, or exuberant and sudden emotion, which must render play +impossible. It is, however, evidently not intended that many men should +even reach, far less pass their lives in, that solemn state of +thoughtfulness, which brings them into the nearest brotherhood with +their Divine Master; and the highest and healthiest state which is +competent to ordinary humanity appears to be that which, accepting the +necessity of recreation, and yielding to the impulses of natural delight +springing out of health and innocence, does, indeed, condescend often to +playfulness, but never without such deep love of God, of truth, and of +humanity, as shall make even its slightest words reverent, its idlest +fancies profitable, and its keenest satire indulgent. Wordsworth and +Plato furnish us with, perhaps, the finest and highest examples of this +playfulness: in the one case, unmixed with satire, the perfectly simple +effusion of that spirit--in + + "Which gives to all the self-same bent, + Whose life is wise, and innocent;" + +Plato, and, by the by, in a very wise book of our own times, not +unworthy of being named in such companionship, "Friends in Council," +mingled with an exquisitely tender and loving satire. + +Sec. XXVII. Secondly: The men who play necessarily. That highest species +of playfulness, which we have just been considering, is evidently the +condition of a mind, not only highly cultivated, but so habitually +trained to intellectual labor that it can bring a considerable force of +accurate thought into its moments even of recreation. This is not +possible, unless so much repose of mind and heart are enjoyed, even at +the periods of greatest exertion, that the rest required by the system +is diffused over the whole life. To the majority of mankind, such a +state is evidently unattainable. They must, perforce, pass a large part +of their lives in employments both irksome and toilsome, demanding an +expenditure of energy which exhausts the system, and yet consuming that +energy upon subjects incapable of interesting the nobler faculties. When +such employments are intermitted, those noble instincts, fancy, +imagination, and curiosity, are all hungry for the food which the labor +of the day has denied to them, while yet the weariness of the body, in a +great degree, forbids their application to any serious subject. They +therefore exert themselves without any determined purpose, and under no +vigorous restraint, but gather, as best they may, such various +nourishment, and put themselves to such fantastic exercise, as may +soonest indemnify them for their past imprisonment, and prepare them to +endure their recurrence. This sketching of the mental limbs as their +fetters fall away,--this leaping and dancing of the heart and intellect, +when they are restored to the fresh air of heaven, yet half paralyzed by +their captivity, and unable to turn themselves to any earnest +purpose,--I call necessary play. It is impossible to exaggerate its +importance, whether in polity, or in art. + +Sec. XXVIII. Thirdly: The men who play inordinately. The most perfect +state of society which, consistently with due understanding of man's +nature, it may be permitted us to conceive, would be one in which the +whole human race were divided, more or less distinctly, into workers and +thinkers; that is to say, into the two classes, who only play wisely, or +play necessarily. But the number and the toil of the working class are +enormously increased, probably more than doubled, by the vices of the +men who neither play wisely nor necessarily, but are enabled by +circumstances, and permitted by their want of principle, to make +amusement the object of their existence. There is not any moment of the +lives of such men which is not injurious to others; both because they +leave the work undone which was appointed for them, and because they +necessarily think wrongly, whenever it becomes compulsory upon them to +think at all. The greater portion of the misery of this world arises +from the false opinions of men whose idleness has physically +incapacitated them from forming true ones. Every duty which we omit +obscures some truth which we should have known; and the guilt of a life +spent in the pursuit of pleasure is twofold, partly consisting in the +perversion of action, and partly in the dissemination of falsehood. + +Sec. XXIX. There is, however, a less criminal, though hardly less +dangerous condition of mind; which, though not failing in its more urgent +duties, fails in the finer conscientiousness which regulates the degree, +and directs the choice, of amusement, at those times when amusement is +allowable. The most frequent error in this respect is the want of +reverence in approaching subjects of importance or sacredness, and of +caution in the expression of thoughts which may encourage like +irreverence in others: and these faults are apt to gain upon the mind +until it becomes habitually more sensible to what is ludicrous and +accidental, than to what is grave and essential, in any subject that is +brought before it; or even, at last, desires to perceive or to know +nothing but what may end in jest. Very generally minds of this +character are active and able; and many of them are so far +conscientious, that they believe their jesting forwards their work. But +it is difficult to calculate the harm they do, by destroying the +reverence which is our best guide into all truth; for weakness and evil +are easily visible, but greatness and goodness are often latent; and we +do infinite mischief by exposing weakness to eyes which cannot +comprehend greatness. This error, however, is more connected with abuses +of the satirical than of the playful instinct; and I shall have more to +say of it presently. + +Sec. XXX. Lastly: The men who do not play at all: those who are so dull or +so morose as to be incapable of inventing or enjoying jest, and in whom +care, guilt, or pride represses all healthy exhilaration of the fancy; +or else men utterly oppressed with labor, and driven too hard by the +necessities of the world to be capable of any species of happy +relaxation. + +Sec. XXXI. We have now to consider the way in which the presence or +absence of joyfulness, in these several classes, is expressed in art. + +1. Wise play. The first and noblest class hardly ever speak through art, +except seriously; they feel its nobleness too profoundly, and value the +time necessary for its production too highly, to employ it in the +rendering of trivial thoughts. The playful fancy of a moment may +innocently be expressed by the passing word; but he can hardly have +learned the preciousness of life, who passes days in the elaboration of +a jest. And, as to what regards the delineation of human character, the +nature of all noble art is to epitomize and embrace so much at once, +that its subject can never be altogether ludicrous; it must possess all +the solemnities of the whole, not the brightness of the partial, truth. +For all truth that makes us smile is partial. The novelist amuses us by +his relation of a particular incident; but the painter cannot set any +one of his characters before us without giving some glimpse of its whole +career. That of which the historian informs us in successive pages, it +is the task of the painter to inform us of at once, writing upon the +countenance not merely the expression of the moment, but the history of +the life: and the history of a life can never be a jest. + +Whatever part, therefore, of the sportive energy of these men of the +highest class would be expressed in verbal wit or humor finds small +utterance through their art, and will assuredly be confined, if it occur +there at all, to scattered and trivial incidents. But so far as their +minds can recreate themselves by the imagination of strange, yet not +laughable, forms, which, either in costume, in landscape, or in any +other accessaries, may be combined with those necessary for their more +earnest purposes, we find them delighting in such inventions; and a +species of grotesqueness thence arising in all their work, which is +indeed one of its most valuable characteristics, but which is so +intimately connected with the sublime or terrible form of the grotesque, +that it will be better to notice it under that head. + +Sec. XXXII. 2. Necessary play. I have dwelt much in a former portion of +this work, on the justice and desirableness of employing the minds of +inferior workmen, and of the lower orders in general, in the production +of objects of art of one kind or another. So far as men of this class +are compelled to hard manual labor for their daily bread, so far forth +their artistical efforts must be rough and ignorant, and their +artistical perceptions comparatively dull. Now it is not possible, with +blunt perceptions and rude hands, to produce works which shall be +pleasing by their beauty; but it is perfectly possible to produce such +as shall be interesting by their character or amusing by their satire. +For one hard-working man who possesses the finer instincts which decide +on perfection of lines and harmonies of color, twenty possess dry humor +or quaint fancy; not because these faculties were originally given to +the human race, or to any section of it, in greater degree than the +sense of beauty, but because these are exercised in our daily +intercourse with each other, and developed by the interest which we take +in the affairs of life, while the others are not. And because, +therefore, a certain degree of success will probably attend the effort +to express this humor or fancy, while comparative failure will +assuredly result from an ignorant struggle to reach the forms of solemn +beauty, the working-man, who turns his attention partially to art, will +probably, and wisely, choose to do that which he can do best, and +indulge the pride of an effective satire rather than subject himself to +assured mortification in the pursuit of beauty; and this the more, +because we have seen that his application to art is to be playful and +recreative, and it is not in recreation that the conditions of +perfection can be fulfilled. + +Sec. XXXIII. Now all the forms of art which result from the comparatively +recreative exertion of minds more or less blunted or encumbered by other +cares and toils, the art which we may call generally art of the wayside, +as opposed to that which is the business of men's lives, is, in the best +sense of the word, Grotesque. And it is noble or inferior, first, +according to the tone of the minds which have produced it, and in +proportion to their knowledge, wit, love of truth, and kindness; +secondly, according to the degree of strength they have been able to +give forth; but yet, however much we may find in it needing to be +forgiven, always delightful so long as it is the work of good and +ordinarily intelligent men. And its delightfulness ought mainly to +consist _in those very imperfections_ which mark it for work done in +times of rest. It is not its own merit so much as the enjoyment of him +who produced it, which is to be the source of the spectator's pleasure; +it is to the strength of his sympathy, not to the accuracy of his +criticism, that it makes appeal; and no man can indeed be a lover of +what is best in the higher walks of art, who has not feeling and charity +enough to rejoice with the rude sportiveness of hearts that have escaped +out of prison, and to be thankful for the flowers which men have laid +their burdens down to sow by the wayside. + +Sec. XXXIV. And consider what a vast amount of human work this right +understanding of its meaning will make fruitful and admirable to us, +which otherwise we could only have passed by with contempt. There is +very little architecture in the world which is, in the full sense of the +words, good and noble. A few pieces of Italian Gothic and Romanesque, a +few scattered fragments of Gothic cathedrals, and perhaps two or three +of Greek temples, are all that we possess approaching to an ideal of +perfection. All the rest--Egyptian, Norman, Arabian, and most Gothic, +and, which is very noticeable, for the most part all the strongest and +mightiest--depend for their power on some developement of the grotesque +spirit; but much more the inferior domestic architecture of the middle +ages, and what similar conditions remain to this day in countries from +which the life of art has not yet been banished by its laws. The +fantastic gables, built up in scroll-work and steps, of the Flemish +street; the pinnacled roofs set with their small humorist double +windows, as if with so many ears and eyes, of Northern France; the +blackened timbers, crossed and carved into every conceivable waywardness +of imagination, of Normandy and old England; the rude hewing of the pine +timbers of the Swiss cottage; the projecting turrets and bracketed +oriels of the German street; these, and a thousand other forms, not in +themselves reaching any high degree of excellence, are yet admirable, +and most precious, as the fruits of a rejoicing energy in uncultivated +minds. It is easier to take away the energy, than to add the +cultivation; and the only effect of the better knowledge which civilized +nations now possess, has been, as we have seen in a former chapter, to +forbid their being happy, without enabling them to be great. + +Sec. XXXV. It is very necessary, however, with respect to this provincial +or rustic architecture, that we should carefully distinguish its truly +grotesque from its picturesque elements. In the "Seven Lamps" I defined +the picturesque to be "parasitical sublimity," or sublimity belonging to +the external or accidental characters of a thing, not to the thing +itself. For instance, when a highland cottage roof is covered with +fragments of shale instead of slates, it becomes picturesque, because +the irregularity and rude fractures of the rocks, and their grey and +gloomy color, give to it something of the savageness, and much of the +general aspect, of the slope of a mountain side. But as a mere cottage +roof, it cannot be sublime, and whatever sublimity it derives from the +wildness or sternness which the mountains have given it in its covering, +is, so far forth, parasitical. The mountain itself would have been +grand, which is much more than picturesque; but the cottage cannot be +grand as such, and the parasitical grandeur which it may possess by +accidental qualities, is the character for which men have long agreed to +use the inaccurate word "Picturesque." + +Sec. XXXVI. On the other hand, beauty cannot be parasitical. There is +nothing so small or so contemptible, but it may be beautiful in its own +right. The cottage may be beautiful, and the smallest moss that grows on +its roof, and the minutest fibre of that moss which the microscope can +raise into visible form, and all of them in their own right, not less +than the mountains and the sky; so that we use no peculiar term to +express their beauty, however diminutive, but only when the sublime +element enters, without sufficient worthiness in the nature of the thing +to which it is attached. + +Sec. XXXVII. Now this picturesque element, which is always given, if by +nothing else, merely by ruggedness, adds usually very largely to the +pleasurableness of grotesque work, especially to that of its inferior +kinds; but it is not for this reason to be confounded with the +grotesqueness itself. The knots and rents of the timbers, the irregular +lying of the shingles on the roofs, the vigorous light and shadow, the +fractures and weather-stains of the old stones, which were so deeply +loved and so admirably rendered by our lost Prout, are the picturesque +elements of the architecture: the grotesque ones are those which are not +produced by the working of nature and of time, but exclusively by the +fancy of man; and, as also for the most part by his indolent and +uncultivated fancy, they are always, in some degree, wanting in +grandeur, unless the picturesque element be united with them. + +Sec. XXXVIII. 3. Inordinate play. The reader will have some difficulty, +I fear, in keeping clearly in his mind the various divisions of our +subject; but, when he has once read the chapter through, he will see +their places and coherence. We have next to consider the expression +throughout of the minds of men who indulge themselves in unnecessary +play. It is evident that a large number of these men will be more +refined and more highly educated than those who only play necessarily; +the power of pleasure-seeking implies, in general, fortunate +circumstances of life. It is evident also that their play will not be so +hearty, so simple, or so joyful; and this deficiency of brightness will +affect it in proportion to its unnecessary and unlawful continuance, +until at last it becomes a restless and dissatisfied indulgence in +excitement, or a painful delving after exhausted springs of pleasure. + +The art through which this temper is expressed will, in all probability, +be refined and sensual,--therefore, also, assuredly feeble; and because, +in the failure of the joyful energy of the mind, there will fail, also, +its perceptions and its sympathies, it will be entirely deficient in +expression of character, and acuteness of thought, but will be +peculiarly restless, manifesting its desire for excitement in idle +changes of subject and purpose. Incapable of true imagination, it will +seek to supply its place by exaggerations, incoherencies, and +monstrosities; and the form of the grotesque to which it gives rise will +be an incongruous chain of hackneyed graces, idly thrown +together,--prettinesses or sublimities, not of its own invention, +associated in forms which will be absurd without being fantastic, and +monstrous without being terrible. And because, in the continual pursuit +of pleasure, men lose both cheerfulness and charity, there will be small +hilarity, but much malice, in this grotesque; yet a weak malice, +incapable of expressing its own bitterness, not having grasp enough of +truth to become forcible, and exhausting itself in impotent or +disgusting caricature. + +Sec. XXXIX. Of course, there are infinite ranks and kinds of this +grotesque, according to the natural power of the minds which originate +it, and to the degree in which they have lost themselves. Its highest +condition is that which first developed itself among the enervated +Romans, and which was brought to the highest perfection of which it was +capable, by Raphael, in the arabesques of the Vatican. It may be +generally described as an elaborate and luscious form of nonsense. Its +lower conditions are found in the common upholstery and decorations +which, over the whole of civilized Europe, have sprung from this +poisonous root; an artistical pottage, composed of nymphs, cupids, and +satyrs, with shreddings of heads and paws of meek wild beasts, and +nondescript vegetables. And the lowest of all are those which have not +even graceful models to recommend them, but arise out of the corruption +of the higher schools, mingled with clownish or bestial satire, as is +the case in the latter Renaissance of Venice, which we were above +examining. It is almost impossible to believe the depth to which the +human mind can be debased in following this species of grotesque. In a +recent Italian garden, the favorite ornaments frequently consist of +stucco images, representing, in dwarfish caricature, the most disgusting +types of manhood and womanhood which can be found amidst the dissipation +of the modern drawingroom; yet without either veracity or humor, and +dependent, for whatever interest they possess, upon simple grossness of +expression and absurdity of costume. Grossness, of one kind or another, +is, indeed, an unfailing characteristic of the style; either latent, as +in the refined sensuality of the more graceful arabesques, or, in the +worst examples, manifested in every species of obscene conception and +abominable detail. In the head, described in the opening of this +chapter, at Santa Maria Formosa, the _teeth_ are represented as +_decayed_. + +Sec. XL. 4. The minds of the fourth class of men who do not play at all, +are little likely to find expression in any trivial form of art, except +in bitterness of mockery; and this character at once stamps the work in +which it appears, as belonging to the class of terrible, rather than of +playful, grotesque. We have, therefore, now to examine the state of mind +which gave rise to this second and more interesting branch of +imaginative work. + +Sec. XLI. Two great and principal passions are evidently appointed by the +Deity to rule the life of man; namely, the love of God, and the fear of +sin, and of its companion--Death. How many motives we have for Love, how +much there is in the universe to kindle our admiration and to claim our +gratitude, there are, happily, multitudes among us who both feel and +teach. But it has not, I think, been sufficiently considered how +evident, throughout the system of creation, is the purpose of God that +we should often be affected by Fear; not the sudden, selfish, and +contemptible fear of immediate danger, but the fear which arises out of +the contemplation of great powers in destructive operation, and +generally from the perception of the presence of death. Nothing appears +to me more remarkable than the array of scenic magnificence by which the +imagination is appalled, in myriads of instances, when the actual danger +is comparatively small; so that the utmost possible impression of awe +shall be produced upon the minds of all, though direct suffering is +inflicted upon few. Consider, for instance, the moral effect of a single +thunder-storm. Perhaps two or three persons may be struck dead within +the space of a hundred square miles; and their deaths, unaccompanied by +the scenery of the storm, would produce little more than a momentary +sadness in the busy hearts of living men. But the preparation for the +Judgment by all that mighty gathering of clouds; by the questioning of +the forest leaves, in their terrified stillness, which way the winds +shall go forth; by the murmuring to each other, deep in the distance, of +the destroying angels before they draw forth their swords of fire; by +the march of the funeral darkness in the midst of the noon-day, and the +rattling of the dome of heaven beneath the chariot-wheels of death;--on +how many minds do not these produce an impression almost as great as the +actual witnessing of the fatal issue! and how strangely are the +expressions of the threatening elements fitted to the apprehension of +the human soul! The lurid color, the long, irregular, convulsive sound, +the ghastly shapes of flaming and heaving cloud, are all as true and +faithful in their appeal to our instinct of danger, as the moaning or +wailing of the human voice itself is to our instinct of pity. It is not +a reasonable calculating terror which they awake in us; it is no matter +that we count distance by seconds, and measure probability by averages. +That shadow of the thunder-cloud will still do its work upon our hearts, +and we shall watch its passing away as if we stood upon the +threshing-floor of Araunah. + +Sec. XLII. And this is equally the case with respect to all the other +destructive phenomena of the universe. From the mightiest of them to the +gentlest, from the earthquake to the summer shower, it will be found +that they are attended by certain aspects of threatening, which strike +terror into the hearts of multitudes more numerous a thousandfold than +those who actually suffer from the ministries of judgment; and that, +besides the fearfulness of these immediately dangerous phenomena, there +is an occult and subtle horror belonging to many aspects of the creation +around us, calculated often to fill us with serious thought, even in our +times of quietness and peace. I understand not the most dangerous, +because most attractive form of modern infidelity, which, pretending to +exalt the beneficence of the Deity, degrades it into a reckless +infinitude of mercy, and blind obliteration of the work of sin; and +which does this chiefly by dwelling on the manifold appearances of God's +kindness on the face of creation. Such kindness is indeed everywhere and +always visible; but not alone. Wrath and threatening are invariably +mingled with the love; and in the utmost solitudes of nature, the +existence of Hell seems to me as legibly declared by a thousand +spiritual utterances, as that of Heaven. It is well for us to dwell with +thankfulness on the unfolding of the flower, and the falling of the dew, +and the sleep of the green fields in the sunshine; but the blasted +trunk, the barren rock, the moaning of the bleak winds, the roar of the +black, perilous, merciless whirlpools of the mountain streams, the +solemn solitudes of moors and seas, the continual fading of all beauty +into darkness, and of all strength into dust, have these no language for +us? We may seek to escape their teaching by reasonings touching the good +which is wrought out of all evil; but it is vain sophistry. The good +succeeds to the evil as day succeeds the night, but so also the evil to +the good. Gerizim and Ebal, birth and death, light and darkness, heaven +and hell, divide the existence of man, and his Futurity.[39] + +Sec. XLIII. And because the thoughts of the choice we have to make between +these two, ought to rule us continually, not so much in our own actions +(for these should, for the most part, be governed by settled habit and +principle) as in our manner of regarding the lives of other men, and our +own responsibilities with respect to them; therefore, it seems to me +that the healthiest state into which the human mind can be brought is +that which is capable of the greatest love, and the greatest awe: and +this we are taught even in our times of rest; for when our minds are +rightly in tone, the merely pleasurable excitement which they seek with +most avidity is that which rises out of the contemplation of beauty or +of terribleness. We thirst for both, and, according to the height and +tone of our feeling, desire to see them in noble or inferior forms. Thus +there is a Divine beauty, and a terribleness or sublimity coequal with +it in rank, which are the subjects of the highest art; and there is an +inferior or ornamental beauty, and an inferior terribleness coequal with +it in rank, which are the subjects of grotesque art. And the state of +mind in which the terrible form of the grotesque is developed, is that +which in some irregular manner, dwells upon certain conditions of +terribleness, into the complete depth of which it does not enter for the +time. + +Sec. XLIV. Now the things which are the proper subjects of human fear are +twofold; those which have the power of Death, and those which have the +nature of Sin. Of which there are many ranks, greater or less in power +and vice, from the evil angels themselves down to the serpent which is +their type, and which though of a low and contemptible class, appears +to unite the deathful and sinful natures in the most clearly visible and +intelligible form; for there is nothing else which we know, of so small +strength and occupying so unimportant a place in the economy of +creation, which yet is so mortal and so malignant. It is, then, on these +two classes of objects that the mind fixes for its excitement, in that +mood which gives rise to the terrible grotesque; and its subject will be +found always to unite some expression of vice and danger, but regarded +in a peculiar temper; sometimes (A) of predetermined or involuntary +apathy, sometimes (B) of mockery, sometimes (C) of diseased and +ungoverned imaginativeness. + +Sec. XLV. For observe, the difficulty which, as I above stated, exists +in distinguishing the playful from the terrible grotesque arises out of +this cause; that the mind, under certain phases of excitement, _plays_ +with _terror_, and summons images which, if it were in another temper, +would be awful, but of which, either in weariness or in irony, it +refrains for the time to acknowledge the true terribleness. And the mode +in which this refusal takes place distinguishes the noble from the +ignoble grotesque. For the master of the noble grotesque knows the depth +of all at which he seems to mock, and would feel it at another time, or +feels it in a certain undercurrent of thought even while he jests with +it; but the workman of the ignoble grotesque can feel and understand +nothing, and mocks at all things with the laughter of the idiot and the +cretin. + +To work out this distinction completely is the chief difficulty in our +present inquiry; and, in order to do so, let us consider the above-named +three conditions of mind in succession, with relation to objects of +terror. + +Sec. _XLVI_. (A). Involuntary or predetermined apathy. We saw above that +the grotesque was produced, chiefly in subordinate or ornamental art, by +rude, and in some degree uneducated men, and in their times of rest. At +such times, and in such subordinate work, it is impossible that they +should represent any solemn or terrible subject with a full and serious +entrance into its feeling. It is not in the languor of a leisure hour +that a man will set his whole soul to conceive the means of representing +some important truth, nor to the projecting angle of a timber bracket +that he would trust its representation, if conceived. And yet, in this +languor, and in this trivial work, he must find some expression of the +serious part of his soul, of what there is within him capable of awe, as +well as of love. The more noble the man is, the more impossible it will +be for him to confine his thoughts to mere loveliness, and that of a low +order. Were his powers and his time unlimited, so that, like Fra +Angelico, he could paint the Seraphim, in that order of beauty he could +find contentment, bringing down heaven to earth. But by the conditions +of his being, by his hard-worked life, by his feeble powers of +execution, by the meanness of his employment and the languor of his +heart, he is bound down to earth. It is the world's work that he is +doing, and world's work is not to be done without fear. And whatever +there is of deep and eternal consciousness within him, thrilling his +mind with the sense of the presence of sin and death around him, must be +expressed in that slight work, and feeble way, come of it what will. He +cannot forget it, among all that he sees of beautiful in nature; he may +not bury himself among the leaves of the violet on the rocks, and of the +lily in the glen, and twine out of them garlands of perpetual gladness. +He sees more in the earth than these,--misery and wrath, and +discordance, and danger, and all the work of the dragon and his angels; +this he sees with too deep feeling ever to forget. And though when he +returns to his idle work,--it may be to gild the letters upon the page, +or to carve the timbers of the chamber, or the stones of the +pinnacle,--he cannot give his strength of thought any more to the woe or +to the danger, there is a shadow of them still present with him: and as +the bright colors mingle beneath his touch, and the fair leaves and +flowers grow at his bidding, strange horrors and phantasms rise by their +side; grisly beasts and venomous serpents, and spectral fiends and +nameless inconsistencies of ghastly life, rising out of things most +beautiful, and fading back into them again, as the harm and the horror +of life do out of its happiness. He has seen these things; he wars with +them daily; he cannot but give them their part in his work, though in a +state of comparative apathy to them at the time. He is but carving and +gilding, and must not turn aside to weep; but he knows that hell is +burning on, for all that, and the smoke of it withers his oak-leaves. + +Sec. XLVII. Now, the feelings which give rise to the false or ignoble +grotesque, are exactly the reverse of these. In the true grotesque, a +man of naturally strong feeling is accidentally or resolutely apathetic; +in the false grotesque, a man naturally apathetic is forcing himself +into temporary excitement. The horror which is expressed by the one, +comes upon him whether he will or not; that which is expressed by the +other, is sought out by him, and elaborated by his art. And therefore, +also, because the fear of the one is true, and of true things, however +fantastic its expression may be, there will be reality in it, and force. +It is not a manufactured terribleness, whose author, when he had +finished it, knew not if it would terrify any one else or not: but it is +a terribleness taken from the life; a spectre which the workman indeed +saw, and which, as it appalled him, will appal us also. But the other +workman never felt any Divine fear; he never shuddered when he heard the +cry from the burning towers of the earth, + + "Venga Medusa; si lo farem di smalto." + +He is stone already, and needs no gentle hand laid upon his eyes to save +him. + +Sec. XLVIII. I do not mean what I say in this place to apply to the +creations of the imagination. It is not as the creating but as the +_seeing_ man, that we are here contemplating the master of the true +grotesque. It is because the dreadfulness of the universe around him +weighs upon his heart, that his work is wild; and therefore through the +whole of it we shall find the evidence of deep insight into nature. His +beasts and birds, however monstrous, will have profound relations with +the true. He may be an ignorant man, and little acquainted with the laws +of nature; he is certainly a busy man, and has not much time to watch +nature; but he never saw a serpent cross his path, nor a bird flit +across the sky, nor a lizard bask upon a stone, without learning so much +of the sublimity and inner nature of each as will not suffer him +thenceforth to conceive them coldly. He may not be able to carve plumes +or scales well; but his creatures will bite and fly, for all that. The +ignoble workman is the very reverse of this. He never felt, never looked +at nature; and if he endeavor to imitate the work of the other, all his +touches will be made at random, and all his extravagances will be +ineffective; he may knit brows, and twist lips, and lengthen beaks, and +sharpen teeth, but it will be all in vain. He may make his creatures +disgusting, but never fearful. + +Sec. XLIX. There is, however, often another cause of difference than this. +The true grotesque being the expression of the _repose_ or play of a +_serious_ mind, there is a false grotesque opposed to it, which is the +result of the _full exertion_ of a _frivolous_ one. There is much +grotesque which is wrought out with exquisite care and pains, and as +much labor given to it as if it were of the noblest subject; so that the +workman is evidently no longer apathetic, and has no excuse for +unconnectedness of thought, or sudden unreasonable fear. If he awakens +horror now, it ought to be in some truly sublime form. His strength is +in his work; and he must not give way to sudden humor, and fits of +erratic fancy. If he does so, it must be because his mind is naturally +frivolous, or is for the time degraded into the deliberate pursuit of +frivolity. And herein lies the real distinction between the base +grotesque of Raphael and the Renaissance, above alluded to, and the true +Gothic grotesque. Those grotesques or arabesques of the Vatican, and +other such work, which have become the patterns of ornamentation in +modern times, are the fruit of great minds degraded to base objects. The +care, skill, and science, applied to the distribution of the leaves, and +the drawing of the figures, are intense, admirable, and accurate; +therefore, they ought to have produced a grand and serious work, not a +tissue of nonsense. If we can draw the human head perfectly, and are +masters of its expression and its beauty, we have no business to cut it +off, and hang it up by the hair at the end of a garland. If we can draw +the human body in the perfection of its grace and movement, we have no +business to take away its limbs, and terminate it with a bunch of +leaves. Or rather our doing so will imply that there is something wrong +with us; that, if we can consent to use our best powers for such base +and vain trifling, there must be something wanting in the powers +themselves; and that, however skilful we may be, or however learned, we +are wanting both in the earnestness which can apprehend a noble truth, +and in the thoughtfulness which can feel a noble fear. No Divine terror +will ever be found in the work of the man who wastes a colossal strength +in elaborating toys; for the first lesson which that terror is sent to +teach us, is the value of the human soul, and the shortness of mortal +time. + +Sec. L. And are we never, then, it will be asked, to possess a refined or +perfect ornamentation? Must all decoration be the work of the ignorant +and the rude? Not so; but exactly in proportion as the ignorance and +rudeness diminish, must the ornamentation become rational, and the +grotesqueness disappear. The noblest lessons may be taught in +ornamentation, the most solemn truths compressed into it. The Book of +Genesis, in all the fulness of its incidents, in all the depth of its +meaning, is bound within the leaf-borders of the gates of Ghiberti. But +Raphael's arabesque is mere elaborate idleness. It has neither meaning +nor heart in it; it is an unnatural and monstrous abortion. + +Sec. LI. Now, this passing of the grotesque into higher art, as the mind +of the workman becomes informed with better knowledge, and capable of +more earnest exertion, takes place in two ways. Either, as his power +increases, he devotes himself more and more to the beauty which he now +feels himself able to express, and so the grotesqueness expands, and +softens into the beautiful, as in the above-named instance of the gates +of Ghiberti; or else, if the mind of the workman be naturally inclined +to gloomy contemplation, the imperfection or apathy of his work rises +into nobler terribleness, until we reach the point of the grotesque of +Albert Durer, where, every now and then, the playfulness or apathy of +the painter passes into perfect sublime. Take the Adam and Eve, for +instance. When he gave Adam a bough to hold, with a parrot on it, and a +tablet hung to it, with "Albertus Durer Noricus faciebat, 1504," +thereupon, his mind was not in Paradise. He was half in play, half +apathetic with respect to his subject, thinking how to do his work well, +as a wise master-graver, and how to receive his just reward of fame. But +he rose into the true sublime in the head of Adam, and in the profound +truthfulness of every creature that fills the forest. So again in that +magnificent coat of arms, with the lady and the satyr, as he cast the +fluttering drapery hither and thither around the helmet, and wove the +delicate crown upon the woman's forehead, he was in a kind of play; but +there is none in the dreadful skull upon the shield. And in the "Knight +and Death," and in the dragons of the illustrations to the Apocalypse, +there is neither play nor apathy; but their grotesque is of the ghastly +kind which best illustrates the nature of death and sin. And this leads +us to the consideration of the second state of mind out of which the +noble grotesque is developed; that is to say, the temper of mockery. + +Sec. LII. (B). Mockery, or Satire. In the former part of this chapter, +when I spoke of the kinds of art which were produced in the recreation of +the lower orders, I only spoke of forms of ornament, not of the expression +of satire or humor. But it seems probable, that nothing is so refreshing +to the vulgar mind as some exercise of this faculty, more especially on +the failings of their superiors; and that, wherever the lower orders are +allowed to express themselves freely, we shall find humor, more or less +caustic, becoming a principal feature in their work. The classical and +Renaissance manufacturers of modern times having silenced the +independent language of the operative, his humor and satire pass away in +the word-wit which has of late become the especial study of the group of +authors headed by Charles Dickens; all this power was formerly thrown +into noble art, and became permanently expressed in the sculptures of +the cathedral. It was never thought that there was anything discordant +or improper in such a position: for the builders evidently felt very +deeply a truth of which, in modern times, we are less cognizant; that +folly and sin are, to a certain extent, synonymous, and that it would be +well for mankind in general, if all could be made to feel that +wickedness is as contemptible as it is hateful. So that the vices were +permitted to be represented under the most ridiculous forms, and all the +coarsest wit of the workman to be exhausted in completing the +degradation of the creatures supposed to be subjected to them. + +Sec. LIII. Nor were even the supernatural powers of evil exempt from this +species of satire. For with whatever hatred or horror the evil angels +were regarded, it was one of the conditions of Christianity that they +should also be looked upon as vanquished; and this not merely in their +great combat with the King of Saints, but in daily and hourly combats +with the weakest of His servants. In proportion to the narrowness of the +powers of abstract conception in the workman, the nobleness of the idea +of spiritual nature diminished, and the traditions of the encounters of +men with fiends in daily temptations were imagined with less terrific +circumstances, until the agencies which in such warfare were almost +always represented as vanquished with disgrace, became, at last, as much +the objects of contempt as of terror. + +The superstitions which represented the devil as assuming various +contemptible forms of disguises in order to accomplish his purposes +aided this gradual degradation of conception, and directed the study of +the workman to the most strange and ugly conditions of animal form, +until at last, even in the most serious subjects, the fiends are oftener +ludicrous than terrible. Nor, indeed, is this altogether avoidable, for +it is not possible to express intense wickedness without some condition +of degradation. Malice, subtlety, and pride, in their extreme, cannot be +written upon noble forms; and I am aware of no effort to represent the +Satanic mind in the angelic form, which has succeeded in painting. +Milton succeeds only because he separately describes the movements of +the mind, and therefore leaves himself at liberty to make the form +heroic; but that form is never distinct enough to be painted. Dante, who +will not leave even external forms obscure, degrades them before he can +feel them to be demoniacal; so also John Bunyan: both of them, I think, +having firmer faith than Milton's in their own creations, and deeper +insight into the nature of sin. Milton makes his fiends too noble, and +misses the foulness, inconstancy, and fury of wickedness. His Satan +possesses some virtues, not the less virtues for being applied to evil +purpose. Courage, resolution, patience, deliberation in council, this +latter being eminently a wise and holy character, as opposed to the +"Insania" of excessive sin: and all this, if not a shallow and false, is +a smooth and artistical, conception. On the other hand, I have always +felt that there was a peculiar grandeur in the indescribable, +ungovernable fury of Dante's fiends, ever shortening its own powers, and +disappointing its own purposes; the deaf, blind, speechless, unspeakable +rage, fierce as the lightning, but erring from its mark or turning +senselessly against itself, and still further debased by foulness of +form and action. Something is indeed to be allowed for the rude feelings +of the time, but I believe all such men as Dante are sent into the world +at the time when they can do their work best; and that, it being +appointed for him to give to mankind the most vigorous realization +possible both of Hell and Heaven, he was born both in the country and at +the time which furnished the most stern opposition of Horror and Beauty, +and permitted it to be written in the clearest terms. And, therefore, +though there are passages in the "Inferno" which it would be impossible +for any poet now to write, I look upon it as all the more perfect for +them. For there can be no question but that one characteristic of +excessive vice is indecency, a general baseness in its thoughts and acts +concerning the body,[40] and that the full portraiture of it cannot be +given without marking, and that in the strongest lines, this tendency to +corporeal degradation; which, in the time of Dante, could be done +frankly, but cannot now. And, therefore, I think the twenty-first and +twenty-second books of the "Inferno" the most perfect portraitures of +fiendish nature which we possess; and at the same time, in their +mingling of the extreme of horror (for it seems to me that the silent +swiftness of the first demon, "con l'ali aperte e sovra i pie leggiero," +cannot be surpassed in dreadfulness) with ludicrous actions and images, +they present the most perfect instances with which I am acquainted of +the terrible grotesque. But the whole of the "Inferno" is full of this +grotesque, as well as the "Faerie Queen;" and these two poems, together +with the works of Albert Durer, will enable the reader to study it in +its noblest forms, without reference to Gothic cathedrals. + +Sec. LIV. Now, just as there are base and noble conditions of the +apathetic grotesque, so also are there of this satirical grotesque. The +condition which might be mistaken for it is that above described as +resulting from the malice of men given to pleasure, and in which the +grossness and foulness are in the workman as much as in his subject, so +that he chooses to represent vice and disease rather than virtue and +beauty, having his chief delight in contemplating them; though he still +mocks at them with such dull wit as may be in him, because, as Young has +said most truly, + + "'Tis not in folly not to scorn a fool." + +Sec. LV. Now it is easy to distinguish this grotesque from its noble +counterpart, by merely observing whether any forms of beauty or dignity +are mingled with it or not; for, of course, the noble grotesque is only +employed by its master for good purposes, and to contrast with beauty: +but the base workman cannot conceive anything but what is base; and +there will be no loveliness in any part of his work, or, at the best, a +loveliness measured by line and rule, and dependent on legal shapes of +feature. But, without resorting to this test, and merely by examining +the ugly grotesque itself, it will be found that, if it belongs to the +base school, there will be, first, no Horror in it; secondly, no Nature +in it; and, thirdly, no Mercy in it. + +Sec. LVI. I say, first, no Horror. For the base soul has no fear of sin, +and no hatred of it: and, however it may strive to make its work +terrible, there will be no genuineness in the fear; the utmost it can do +will be to make its work disgusting. + +Secondly, there will be no Nature in it. It appears to be one of the +ends proposed by Providence in the appointment of the forms of the brute +creation, that the various vices to which mankind are liable should be +severally expressed in them so distinctly and clearly as that men could +not but understand the lesson; while yet these conditions of vice might, +in the inferior animal, be observed without the disgust and hatred which +the same vices would excite, if seen in men, and might be associated +with features of interest which would otherwise attract and reward +contemplation. Thus, ferocity, cunning, sloth, discontent, gluttony, +uncleanness, and cruelty are seen, each in its extreme, in various +animals; and are so vigorously expressed, that when men desire to +indicate the same vices in connexion with human forms, they can do it no +better than by borrowing here and there the features of animals. And +when the workman is thus led to the contemplation of the animal kingdom, +finding therein the expressions of vice which he needs, associated with +power, and nobleness, and freedom from disease, if his mind be of right +tone he becomes interested in this new study; and all noble grotesque +is, therefore, full of the most admirable rendering of animal character. +But the ignoble workman is capable of no interest of this kind; and, +being too dull to appreciate, and too idle to execute, the subtle and +wonderful lines on which the expression of the lower animal depends, he +contents himself with vulgar exaggeration, and leaves his work as false +as it is monstrous, a mass of blunt malice and obscene ignorance. + +Sec. LVII. Lastly, there will be no Mercy in it. Wherever the satire of +the noble grotesque fixes upon human nature, it does so with much sorrow +mingled amidst its indignation: in its highest forms there is an +infinite tenderness, like that of the fool in Lear; and even in its more +heedless or bitter sarcasm, it never loses sight altogether of the +better nature of what it attacks, nor refuses to acknowledge its +redeeming or pardonable features. But the ignoble grotesque has no pity: +it rejoices in iniquity, and exists only to slander. + +Sec. LVIII. I have not space to follow out the various forms of transition +which exist between the two extremes of great and base in the satirical +grotesque. The reader must always remember, that, although there is an +infinite distance between the best and worst, in this kind the interval +is filled by endless conditions more or less inclining to the evil or +the good; impurity and malice stealing gradually into the nobler forms, +and invention and wit elevating the lower, according to the countless +minglings of the elements of the human soul. + +Sec. LIX. (C). Ungovernableness of the imagination. The reader is always +to keep in mind that if the objects of horror, in which the terrible +grotesque finds its materials, were contemplated in their true light, +and with the entire energy of the soul, they would cease to be +grotesque, and become altogether sublime; and that therefore it is some +shortening of the power, or the will, of contemplation, and some +consequent distortion of the terrible image in which the grotesqueness +consists. Now this distortion takes place, it was above asserted, in +three ways: either through apathy, satire, or ungovernableness of +imagination. It is this last cause of the grotesque which we have +finally to consider; namely, the error and wildness of the mental +impressions, caused by fear operating upon strong powers of imagination, +or by the failure of the human faculties in the endeavor to grasp the +highest truths. + +Sec. LX. The grotesque which comes to all men in a disturbed dream is the +most intelligible example of this kind, but also the most ignoble; the +imagination, in this instance, being entirely deprived of all aid from +reason, and incapable of self-government. I believe, however, that the +noblest forms of imaginative power are also in some sort ungovernable, +and have in them something of the character of dreams; so that the +vision, of whatever kind, comes uncalled, and will not submit itself to +the seer, but conquers him, and forces him to speak as a prophet, +having no power over his words or thoughts.[41] Only, if the whole man +be trained perfectly, and his mind calm, consistent and powerful, the +vision which comes to him is seen as in a perfect mirror, serenely, and +in consistence with the rational powers; but if the mind be imperfect +and ill trained, the vision is seen as in a broken mirror, with strange +distortions and discrepancies, all the passions of the heart breathing +upon it in cross ripples, till hardly a trace of it remains unbroken. So +that, strictly speaking, the imagination is never governed; it is always +the ruling and Divine power: and the rest of the man is to it only as an +instrument which it sounds, or a tablet on which it writes; clearly and +sublimely if the wax be smooth and the strings true, grotesquely and +wildly if they are stained and broken. And thus the "Iliad," the +"Inferno," the "Pilgrim's Progress," the "Faerie Queen," are all of them +true dreams; only the sleep of the men to whom they came was the deep, +living sleep which God sends, with a sacredness in it, as of death, the +revealer of secrets. + +Sec. LXI. Now, observe in this matter, carefully, the difference between +a dim mirror and a distorted one; and do not blame me for pressing the +analogy too far, for it will enable me to explain my meaning every way +more clearly. Most men's minds are dim mirrors, in which all truth is +seen, as St. Paul tells us, darkly: this is the fault most common and +most fatal; dulness of the heart and mistiness of sight, increasing to +utter hardness and blindness; Satan breathing upon the glass, so that if +we do not sweep the mist laboriously away, it will take no image. But, +even so far as we are able to do this, we have still the distortion to +fear, yet not to the same extent, for we can in some sort allow for the +distortion of an image, if only we can see it clearly. And the fallen +human soul, at its best, must be as a diminishing glass, and that a +broken one, to the mighty truths of the universe round it; and the wider +the scope of its glance, and the vaster the truths into which it obtains +an insight, the more fantastic their distortion is likely to be, as the +winds and vapors trouble the field of the telescope most when it reaches +farthest. + +Sec. LXII. Now, so far as the truth is seen by the imagination[42] in +its wholeness and quietness, the vision is sublime; but so far as it is +narrowed and broken by the inconsistencies of the human capacity, it +becomes grotesque; and it would seem to be rare that any very exalted +truth should be impressed on the imagination without some grotesqueness +in its aspect, proportioned to the degree of _diminution of breadth_ in +the grasp which is given of it. Nearly all the dreams recorded in the +Bible,--Jacob's, Joseph's, Pharaoh's, Nebuchadnezzar's,--are grotesques; +and nearly the whole of the accessary scenery in the books of Ezekiel +and the Apocalypse. Thus, Jacob's dream revealed to him the ministry of +angels; but because this ministry could not be seen or understood by him +in its fulness, it was narrowed to him into a ladder between heaven and +earth, which was a grotesque. Joseph's two dreams were evidently +intended to be signs of the steadfastness of the Divine purpose towards +him, by possessing the clearness of special prophecy; yet were couched +in such imagery, as not to inform him prematurely of his destiny, and +only to be understood after their fulfilment. The sun, and moon, and +stars were at the period, and are indeed throughout the Bible, the +symbols of high authority. It was not revealed to Joseph that he should +be lord over all Egypt; but the representation of his family by symbols +of the most magnificent dominion, and yet as subject to him, must have +been afterwards felt by him as a distinctly prophetic indication of his +own supreme power. It was not revealed to him that the occasion of his +brethren's special humiliation before him should be their coming to buy +corn; but when the event took place, must he not have felt that there +was prophetic purpose in the form of the sheaves of wheat which first +imaged forth their subjection to him? And these two images of the sun +doing obeisance, and the sheaves bowing down,--narrowed and imperfect +intimations of great truth which yet could not be otherwise +conveyed,--are both grotesque. The kine of Pharaoh eating each other, +the gold and clay of Nebuchadnezzar's image, the four beasts full of +eyes, and other imagery of Ezekiel and the Apocalypse, are grotesques of +the same kind, on which I need not further insist. + +Sec. LXIII. Such forms, however, ought perhaps to have been arranged under +a separate head, as Symbolical Grotesque; but the element of awe enters +into them so strongly, as to justify, for all our present purposes, +their being classed with the other varieties of terrible grotesque. For +even if the symbolic vision itself be not terrible, the sense of what +may be veiled behind it becomes all the more awful in proportion to the +insignificance or strangeness of the sign itself; and, I believe, this +thrill of mingled doubt, fear, and curiosity lies at the very root of +the delight which mankind take in symbolism. It was not an accidental +necessity for the conveyance of truth by pictures instead of words, +which led to its universal adoption wherever art was on the advance; but +the Divine fear which necessarily follows on the understanding that a +thing is other and greater than it seems; and which, it appears +probable, has been rendered peculiarly attractive to the human heart, +because God would have us understand that this is true not of invented +symbols merely, but of all things amidst which we live; that there is a +deeper meaning within them than eye hath seen, or ear hath heard; and +that the whole visible creation is a mere perishable symbol of things +eternal and true. It cannot but have been sometimes a subject of wonder +with thoughtful men, how fondly, age after age, the Church has cherished +the belief that the four living creatures which surrounded the +Apocalyptic throne were symbols of the four Evangelists, and rejoiced +to use those forms in its picture-teaching; that a calf, a lion, an +eagle, and a beast with a man's face, should in all ages have been +preferred by the Christian world, as expressive of Evangelistic power +and inspiration, to the majesty of human forms; and that quaint +grotesques, awkward and often ludicrous caricatures even of the animals +represented, should have been regarded by all men, not only with +contentment, but with awe, and have superseded all endeavors to +represent the characters and persons of the Evangelistic writers +themselves (except in a few instances, confined principally to works +undertaken without a definite religious purpose);--this, I say, might +appear more than strange to us, were it not that we ourselves share the +awe, and are still satisfied with the symbol, and that justly. For, +whether we are conscious of it or not, there is in our hearts, as we +gaze upon the brutal forms that have so holy a signification, an +acknowledgment that it was not Matthew, nor Mark, nor Luke, nor John, in +whom the Gospel of Christ was unsealed: but that the invisible things of +Him from the beginning of the creation are clearly seen, being +understood by the things that are made; that the whole world, and all +that is therein, be it low or high, great or small, is a continual +Gospel; and that as the heathen, in their alienation from God, changed +His glory into an image made like unto corruptible man, and to birds, +and four-footed boasts, the Christian, in his approach to God, is to +undo this work, and to change the corruptible things into the image of +His glory; believing that there is nothing so base in creation, but that +our faith may give it wings which shall raise us into companionship with +heaven; and that, on the other hand, there is nothing so great or so +goodly in creation, but that it is a mean symbol of the Gospel of +Christ, and of the things He has prepared for them that love Him. + +Sec. LXIV. And it is easy to understand, if we follow out this thought, +how, when once the symbolic language was familiarized to the mind, and +its solemnity felt in all its fulness, there was no likelihood of +offence being taken at any repulsive or feeble characters in execution +or conception. There was no form so mean, no incident so commonplace, +but, if regarded in this light, it might become sublime; the more +vigorous the fancy and the more faithful the enthusiasm, the greater +would be the likelihood of their delighting in the contemplation of +symbols whose mystery was enhanced by apparent insignificance, or in +which the sanctity and majesty of meaning were contrasted with the +utmost uncouthness of external form: nor with uncouthness merely, but +even with every appearance of malignity or baseness; the beholder not +being revolted even by this, but comprehending that, as the seeming evil +in the framework of creation did not invalidate its Divine authorship, +so neither did the evil or imperfection in the symbol invalidate its +Divine message. And thus, sometimes, the designer at last became wanton +in his appeal to the piety of his interpreter, and recklessly poured out +the impurity and the savageness of his own heart, for the mere pleasure +of seeing them overlaid with the fine gold of the sanctuary, by the +religion of their beholder. + +Sec. LXV. It is not, however, in every symbolical subject that the fearful +grotesque becomes embodied to the full. The element of distortion which +affects the intellect when dealing with subjects above its proper +capacity, is as nothing compared with that which it sustains from the +direct impressions of terror. It is the trembling of the human soul in +the presence of death which most of all disturbs the images on the +intellectual mirror, and invests them with the fitfulness and +ghastliness of dreams. And from the contemplation of death, and of the +pangs which follow his footsteps, arise in men's hearts the troop of +strange and irresistible superstitions which, more or less melancholy or +majestic according to the dignity of the mind they impress, are yet +never without a certain grotesqueness, following on the paralysis of the +reason and over-excitement of the fancy. I do not mean to deny the +actual existence of spiritual manifestations; I have never weighed the +evidence upon the subject; but with these, if such exist, we are not +here concerned. The grotesque which we are examining arises out of that +condition of mind which appears to follow naturally upon the +contemplation of death, and in which the fancy is brought into morbid +action by terror, accompanied by the belief in spiritual presence, and +in the possibility of spiritual apparition. Hence are developed its most +sublime, because its least voluntary, creations, aided by the +fearfulness of the phenomena of nature which are in any wise the +ministers of death, and primarily directed by the peculiar ghastliness +of expression in the skeleton, itself a species of terrible grotesque in +its relation to the perfect human frame. + +Sec. LXVI. Thus, first born from the dusty and dreadful whiteness of +the charnel house, but softened in their forms by the holiest of human +affections, went forth the troop of wild and wonderful images, seen +through tears, that had the mastery over our Northern hearts for so many +ages. The powers of sudden destruction lurking in the woods and waters, +in the rocks and clouds;--kelpie and gnome, Lurlei and Hartz spirits; +the wraith and foreboding phantom; the spectra of second sight; the +various conceptions of avenging or tormented ghost, haunting the +perpetrator of crime, or expiating its commission; and the half +fictitious and contemplative, half visionary and believed images of the +presence of death itself, doing its daily work in the chambers of +sickness and sin, and waiting for its hour in the fortalices of strength +and the high places of pleasure;--these, partly degrading us by the +instinctive and paralyzing terror with which they are attended, and +partly ennobling us by leading our thoughts to dwell in the eternal +world, fill the last and the most important circle in that great kingdom +of dark and distorted power, of which we all must be in some sort the +subjects until mortality shall be swallowed up of life; until the waters +of the last fordless river cease to roll their untransparent volume +between us and the light of heaven, and neither death stand between us +and our brethren, nor symbols between us and our God. + +Sec. LXVII. We have now, I believe, obtained a view approaching to +completeness of the various branches of human feeling which are +concerned in the developement of this peculiar form of art. It remains +for us only to note, as briefly as possible, what facts in the actual +history of the grotesque bear upon our immediate subject. + +From what we have seen to be its nature, we must, I think, be led to one +most important conclusion; that wherever the human mind is healthy and +vigorous in all its proportions, great in imagination and emotion no +less than in intellect, and not overborne by an undue or hardened +preeminence of the mere reasoning faculties, there the grotesque will +exist in full energy. And, accordingly, I believe that there is no test +of greatness in periods, nations, or men, more sure than the +developement, among them or in them, of a noble grotesque, and no test +of comparative smallness or limitation, of one kind or another, more +sure than the absence of grotesque invention, or incapability of +understanding it. I think that the central man of all the world, as +representing in perfect balance the imaginative, moral, and intellectual +faculties, all at their highest, is Dante; and in him the grotesque +reaches at once the most distinct and the most noble developement to +which it was ever brought in the human mind. The two other greatest men +whom Italy has produced, Michael Angelo and Tintoret, show the same +element in no less original strength, but oppressed in the one by his +science, and in both by the spirit of the age in which they lived; +never, however, absent even in Michael Angelo, but stealing forth +continually in a strange and spectral way, lurking in folds of raiment +and knots of wild hair, and mountainous confusions of craggy limb and +cloudy drapery; and, in Tintoret, ruling the entire conceptions of his +greatest works to such a degree that they are an enigma or an offence, +even to this day, to all the petty disciples of a formal criticism. Of +the grotesque in our own Shakspeare I need hardly speak, nor of its +intolerableness to his French critics; nor of that of Aeschylus and +Homer, as opposed to the lower Greek writers; and so I believe it will +be found, at all periods, in all minds of the first order. + +Sec. LXVIII. As an index of the greatness of nations, it is a less certain +test, or, rather, we are not so well agreed on the meaning of the term +"greatness" respecting them. A nation may produce a great effect, and +take up a high place in the world's history, by the temporary enthusiasm +or fury of its multitudes, without being truly great; or, on the other +hand, the discipline of morality and common sense may extend its +physical power or exalt its well-being, while yet its creative and +imaginative powers are continually diminishing. And again: a people may +take so definite a lead over all the rest of the world in one direction, +as to obtain a respect which is not justly due to them if judged on +universal grounds. Thus the Greeks perfected the sculpture of the human +body; threw their literature into a disciplined form, which has given it +a peculiar power over certain conditions of modern mind; and were the +most carefully educated race that the world has seen; but a few years +hence, I believe, we shall no longer think them a greater people than +either the Egyptians or Assyrians. + +Sec. LXIX. If, then, ridding ourselves as far as possible of prejudices +owing merely to the school-teaching which remains from the system of the +Renaissance, we set ourselves to discover in what races the human soul, +taken all in all, reached its highest magnificence, we shall find, I +believe, two great families of men, one of the East and South, the other +of the West and North: the one including the Egyptians, Jews, Arabians, +Assyrians, and Persians; the other, I know not whence derived, but +seeming to flow forth from Scandinavia, and filling the whole of Europe +with its Norman and Gothic energy. And in both these families, wherever +they are seen in their utmost nobleness, there the grotesque is +developed in its utmost energy; and I hardly know whether most to admire +the winged bulls of Nineveh, or the winged dragons of Verona. + +Sec. LXX. The reader who has not before turned his attention to this +subject may, however, at first have some difficulty in distinguishing +between the noble grotesque of these great nations, and the barbarous +grotesque of mere savages, as seen in the work of the Hindoo and other +Indian nations; or, more grossly still, in that of the complete savage +of the Pacific islands; or if, as is to be hoped, he instinctively +feels the difference, he may yet find difficulty in determining wherein +that difference consists. But he will discover, on consideration, that +the noble grotesque _involves the true appreciation of beauty_, though +the mind may wilfully turn to other images or the hand resolutely stop +short of the perfection which it must fail, if it endeavored, to reach; +while the grotesque of the Sandwich islander involves no perception or +imagination of anything above itself. He will find that in the exact +proportion in which the grotesque results from an incapability of +perceiving beauty, it becomes savage or barbarous; and that there are +many stages of progress to be found in it even in its best times, much +truly savage grotesque occurring in the fine Gothic periods, mingled +with the other forms of the ignoble grotesque resulting from vicious +inclinations or base sportiveness. Nothing is more mysterious in the +history of the human mind, than the manner in which gross and ludicrous +images are mingled with the most solemn subjects in the work of the +middle ages, whether of sculpture or illumination; and although, in +great part, such incongruities are to be accounted for on the various +principles which I have above endeavored to define, in many instances +they are clearly the result of vice and sensuality. The general +greatness of seriousness of an age does not effect the restoration of +human nature; and it would be strange, if, in the midst of the art even +of the best periods, when that art was entrusted to myriads of workmen, +we found no manifestations of impiety, folly, or impurity. + +Sec. LXXI. It needs only to be added that in the noble grotesque, as it is +partly the result of a morbid state of the imaginative power, that power +itself will be always seen in a high degree; and that therefore our +power of judging of the rank of a grotesque work will depend on the +degree in which we are in general sensible of the presence of invention. +The reader may partly test this power in himself by referring to the +Plate given in the opening of this chapter, in which, on the left, is a +piece of noble and inventive grotesque, a head of the lion-symbol of St. +Mark, from the Veronese Gothic; the other is a head introduced as a +boss on the foundation of the Palazzo Corner della Regina at Venice, +utterly devoid of invention, made merely monstrous by exaggerations of +the eyeballs and cheeks, and generally characteristic of that late +Renaissance grotesque of Venice, with which we are at present more +immediately concerned.[43] + +Sec. LXXII. The developement of that grotesque took place under different +laws from those which regulate it in any other European city. For, great +as we have seen the Byzantine mind show itself to be in other +directions, it was marked as that of a declining nation by the absence +of the grotesque element; and, owing to its influence, the early +Venetian Gothic remained inferior to all other schools in this +particular character. Nothing can well be more wonderful than its +instant failure in any attempt at the representation of ludicrous or +fearful images, more especially when it is compared with the magnificent +grotesque of the neighboring city of Verona, in which the Lombard +influence had full sway. Nor was it until the last links of connexion +with Constantinople had been dissolved, that the strength of the +Venetian mind could manifest itself in this direction. But it had then a +new enemy to encounter. The Renaissance laws altogether checked its +imagination in architecture; and it could only obtain permission to +express itself by starting forth in the work of the Venetian painters, +filling them with monkeys and dwarfs, even amidst the most serious +subjects, and leading Veronese and Tintoret to the most unexpected and +wild fantasies of form and color. + +Sec. LXXIII. We may be deeply thankful for this peculiar reserve of the +Gothic grotesque character to the last days of Venice. All over the rest +of Europe it had been strongest in the days of imperfect art; +magnificently powerful throughout the whole of the thirteenth century, +tamed gradually in the fourteenth and fifteenth, and expiring in the +sixteenth amidst anatomy and laws of art. But at Venice, it had not been +received when it was elsewhere in triumph, and it fled to the lagoons +for shelter when elsewhere it was oppressed. And it was arrayed by the +Venetian painters in robes of state, and advanced by them to such honor +as it had never received in its days of widest dominion; while, in +return, it bestowed upon their pictures that fulness, piquancy, decision +of parts, and mosaic-like intermingling of fancies, alternately +brilliant and sublime, which were exactly what was most needed for the +developement of their unapproachable color-power. + +Sec. LXXIV. Yet, observe, it by no means follows that because the +grotesque does not appear in the art of a nation, the sense of it does not +exist in the national mind. Except in the form of caricature, it is hardly +traceable in the English work of the present day; but the minds of our +workmen are full of it, if we would only allow them to give it shape. +They express it daily in gesture and gibe, but are not allowed to do so +where it would be useful. In like manner, though the Byzantine influence +repressed it in the early Venetian architecture, it was always present +in the Venetian mind, and showed itself in various forms of national +custom and festival; _acted_ grotesques, full of wit, feeling, and +good-humor. The ceremony of the hat and the orange, described in the +beginning of this chapter, is one instance out of multitudes. Another, +more rude, and exceedingly characteristic, was that instituted in the +twelfth century in memorial of the submission of Woldaric, the patriarch +of Aquileia, who, having taken up arms against the patriarch of Grado, +and being defeated and taken prisoner by the Venetians, was sentenced, +not to death, but to send every year on "Fat Thursday" sixty-two large +loaves, twelve fat pigs, and a bull, to the Doge; the bull being +understood to represent the patriarch, and the twelve pigs his clergy: +and the ceremonies of the day consisting in the decapitation of these +representatives, and a distribution of their joints among the senators; +together with a symbolic record of the attack upon Aquileia, by the +erection of a wooden castle in the rooms of the Ducal Palace, which the +_Doge and the Senate_ attacked and demolished with clubs. As long as the +Doge and the Senate were truly kingly and noble, they were content to +let this ceremony be continued; but when they became proud and selfish, +and were destroying both themselves and the state by their luxury, they +found it inconsistent with their dignity, and it was abolished, as far +as the Senate was concerned, in 1549.[44] + +Sec. LXXV. By these and other similar manifestations, the grotesque spirit +is traceable through all the strength of the Venetian people. But again: +it is necessary that we should carefully distinguish between it and the +spirit of mere levity. I said, in the fifth chapter, that the Venetians +were distinctively a serious people, serious, that is to say, in the +sense in which the English are a more serious people than the French; +though the habitual intercourse of our lower classes in London has a +tone of humor in it which I believe is untraceable in that of the +Parisian populace. It is one thing to indulge in playful rest, and +another to be devoted to the pursuit of pleasure: and gaiety of heart +during the reaction after hard labor, and quickened by satisfaction in +the accomplished duty or perfected result, is altogether compatible +with, nay, even in some sort arises naturally out of, a deep internal +seriousness of disposition; this latter being exactly the condition of +mind which, as we have seen, leads to the richest developements of the +playful grotesque; while, on the contrary, the continual pursuit of +pleasure deprives the soul of all alacrity and elasticity, and leaves it +incapable of happy jesting, capable only of that which is bitter, base, +and foolish. Thus, throughout the whole of the early career of the +Venetians, though there is much jesting, there is no levity; on the +contrary there is an intense earnestness both in their pursuit of +commercial and political successes, and in their devotion to +religion,[45] which led gradually to the formation of that highly +wrought mingling of immovable resolution with secret thoughtfulness, +which so strangely, sometimes so darkly, distinguishes the Venetian +character at the time of their highest power, when the seriousness was +left, but the conscientiousness destroyed. And if there be any one sign +by which the Venetian countenance, as it is recorded for us, to the very +life, by a school of portraiture which has never been equalled (chiefly +because no portraiture ever had subjects so noble),--I say, if there be +one thing more notable than another in the Venetian features, it is this +deep pensiveness and solemnity. In other districts of Italy, the dignity +of the heads which occur in the most celebrated compositions is clearly +owing to the feeling of the painter. He has visibly raised or idealized +his models, and appears always to be veiling the faults or failings of +the human nature around him, so that the best of his work is that which +has most perfectly taken the color of his own mind; and the least +impressive, if not the least valuable, that which appears to have been +unaffected and unmodified portraiture. But at Venice, all is exactly the +reverse of this. The tone of mind in the painter appears often in some +degree frivolous or sensual; delighting in costume, in domestic and +grotesque incident, and in studies of the naked form. But the moment he +gives himself definitely to portraiture, all is noble and grave; the +more literally true his work, the more majestic; and the same artist who +will produce little beyond what is commonplace in painting a Madonna or +an apostle, will rise into unapproachable sublimity when his subject is +a member of the Forty, or a Master of the Mint. + +Such, then, were the general tone and progress of the Venetian mind, up +to the close of the seventeenth century. First, serious, religious, and +sincere; then, though serious still, comparatively deprived of +conscientiousness, and apt to decline into stern and subtle policy: in +the first case, the spirit of the noble grotesque not showing itself in +art at all, but only in speech and action; in the second case, +developing itself in painting, through accessories and vivacities of +composition, while perfect dignity was always preserved in portraiture. +A third phase rapidly developed itself. + +Sec. LXXVI. Once more, and for the last time, let me refer the reader to +the important epoch of the death of the Doge Tomaso Mocenigo in 1423, +long ago indicated as the commencement of the decline of the Venetian +power. That commencement is marked, not merely by the words of the dying +Prince, but by a great and clearly legible sign. It is recorded, that on +the accession of his successor, Foscari, to the throne, "SI FESTEGGIO +DALLA CITTA UNO ANNO INTERO:" "The city kept festival for a whole year." +Venice had in her childhood sown, in tears, the harvest she was to reap +in rejoicing. She now sowed in laughter the seeds of death. + +Thenceforward, year after year, the nation drank with deeper thirst from +the fountains of forbidden pleasure, and dug for springs, hitherto +unknown, in the dark places of the earth. In the ingenuity of +indulgence, in the varieties of vanity, Venice surpassed the cities of +Christendom, as of old she surpassed them in fortitude and devotion; and +as once the powers of Europe stood before her judgment-seat, to receive +the decisions of her justice, so now the youth of Europe assembled in +the halls of her luxury, to learn from her the arts of delight. + +It is as needless, as it is painful, to trace the steps of her final +ruin. That ancient curse was upon her, the curse of the cities of the +plain, "Pride, fulness of bread, and abundance of idleness." By the +inner burning of her own passions, as fatal as the fiery reign of +Gomorrah, she was consumed from her place among the nations; and her +ashes are choking the channels of the dead salt sea. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [27] Mutinelli, Annali Urbani, lib. i. p. 24; and the Chronicle of + 1738, quoted by Galliciolli: "attrovandosi allora la giesia de Sta. + Maria Formosa sola giesia del nome della gloriosa Vergine Maria." + + [28] Or from the brightness of the cloud, according to the Padre who + arranged the "Memorie delle Chiese di Venezia," vol. iii. p. 7. + Compare Corner, p. 42. This first church was built in 639. + + [29] Perhaps both Corner and the Padre founded their diluted + information on the short sentence of Sansovino: "Finalmente, l'anno + 1075, fu ridotta a perfezione da Paolo Barbetta, sul modello del + corpo di mezzo della chiesa di S. Marco." Sansovino, however, gives + 842, instead of 864, as the date of the first rebuilding. + + [30] Or at least for its principal families. Vide Appendix 8, "Early + Venetian Marriages." + + [31] "Nazionale quasi la ceremonia, perciocche per essa nuovi + difensori ad acquistar andava la patria, sostegni nuovi le leggi, la + Liberta."--_Mutinelli._ + + [32] "Vestita, _per antico uso_, di bianco, e con chiome sparse giu + per le spalle, conteste con fila d'oro." "Dressed according to + ancient usage in white, and with her hair thrown down upon her + shoulders, interwoven with threads of gold." This was when she was + first brought out of her chamber to be seen by the guests invited to + the espousals. "And when the form of the espousal has been gone + through, she is led, to the sound of pipes and trumpets, and other + musical instruments, round the room, _dancing serenely all the time, + and bowing herself before the guests_ (ballando placidamente, e + facendo inchini ai convitati); and so she returns to her chamber: + and when other guests have arrived, she again comes forth, and makes + the circuit of the chamber. And this is repeated for an hour or + somewhat more; and then, accompanied by many ladies who wait for + her, she enters a gondola without its felze (canopy), and, seated on + a somewhat raised seat covered with carpets, with a great number of + gondolas following her, she goes to visit the monasteries and + convents, wheresoever she has any relations." + + [33] Sansovino. + + [34] English, "Malmsey." The reader will find a most amusing account + of the negotiations between the English and Venetians, touching the + supply of London with this wine, in Mr. Brown's translation of the + Giustiniani papers. See Appendix IX. + + [35] "XV. diebus et octo diebus ante festum Mariarum omni + anno."--_Galliciolli._ The same precautions were taken before the + feast of the Ascension. + + [36] Casa Vittura. + + [37] The keystone of the arch on its western side, facing the canal. + + [38] The inscriptions are as follows: + + To the left of the reader. + + "VINCENTIUS CAPELLUS MARITIMARUM + RERUM PERITISSIMUS ET ANTIQUORUM + LAUDIBUS PAR, TRIREMIUM ONERARIA + RUM PRAEFECTUS, AB HENRICO VII. BRI + TANNIAE REGE INSIGNE DONATUS CLAS + SIS LEGATUS V. IMP. DESIG. TER CLAS + SEM DEDUXIT, COLLAPSAM NAVALEM DIS + CIPLINAM RESTITUIT, AD ZACXINTHUM + AURIAE CAESARIS LEGATO PRISCAM + VENETAM VIRTUTEM OSTENDIT." + + To the right of the reader. + + "IN AMBRACIO SINU BARBARUSSUM OTTHO + MANICAE CLASSIS DUCEM INCLUSIT + POSTRIDIE AD INTERNITIONEM DELETU + RUS NISI FATA CHRISTIANIS ADVERSA + VETUISSENT. IN RYZONICO SINU CASTRO NOVO + EXPUGNATO DIVI MARCI PROCUR + UNIVERSO REIP CONSENSU CREATUS + IN PATRIA MORITUR TOTIUS CIVITATIS + MOERORE, ANNO AETATIS LXXIV. MDCXLII. XIV. KAL SEPT." + + [39] The Love of God is, however, always shown by the predominance, + or greater sum, of good, in the end; but never by the annihilation + of evil. The modern doubts of eternal punishment are not so much the + consequence of benevolence as of feeble powers of reasoning. Every + one admits that God brings finite good out of finite evil. Why not, + therefore, infinite good out of infinite evil? + + [40] Let the reader examine, with special reference to this subject, + the general character of the language of Iago. + + [41] This opposition of art to inspiration is long and gracefully + dwelt upon by Plato, in his "Phaedrus," using, in the course of his + argument, almost the words of St Paul: [Greek: kallion marturousin + oi palaioi manian sophrosynes ten ek Theou tes par anthropon + gignomenes]: "It is the testimony of the ancients, that _the madness + which is of God is a nobler thing than the wisdom which is of men_;" + and again, "He who sets himself to any work with which the Muses + have to do," (i. e. to any of the fine arts,) "without madness, + thinking that by art alone he can do his work sufficiently, will be + found vain and incapable, and the work of temperance and rationalism + will be thrust aside and obscured by that of inspiration." The + passages to the same effect, relating especially to poetry, are + innumerable in nearly all ancient writers; but in this of Plato, the + entire compass of the fine arts is intended to be embraced. + + No one acquainted with other parts of my writings will suppose me to + be an advocate of idle trust in the imagination. But it is in these + days just as necessary to allege the supremacy of genius as the + necessity of labor; for there never was, perhaps, a period in which + the peculiar gift of the painter was so little discerned, in which + so many and so vain efforts have been made to replace it by study + and toil. This has been peculiarly the case with the German school, + and there are few exhibitions of human error more pitiable than the + manner in which the inferior members of it, men originally and for + ever destitute of the painting faculty, force themselves into an + unnatural, encumbered, learned fructification of tasteless fruit, + and pass laborious lives in setting obscurely and weakly upon canvas + the philosophy, if such it be, which ten minutes' work of a strong + man would have put into healthy practice, or plain words. I know not + anything more melancholy than the sight of the huge German cartoon, + with its objective side, and subjective side; and mythological + division, and symbolical division, and human and Divine division; + its allegorical sense, and literal sense; and ideal point of view, + and intellectual point of view; its heroism of well-made armor and + knitted brows; its heroinism of graceful attitude and braided hair; + its inwoven web of sentiment, and piety, and philosophy, and + anatomy, and history, all profound: and twenty innocent dashes of + the hand of one God-made painter, poor old Bassan or Bonifazio, were + worth it all, and worth it ten thousand times over. + + Not that the sentiment or the philosophy is base in itself. They + will make a good man, but they will not make a good painter,--no, + nor the millionth part of a painter. They would have been good in + the work and words of daily life; but they are good for nothing in + the cartoon, if they are there alone. And the worst result of the + system is the intense conceit into which it cultivates a weak mind. + Nothing is so hopeless, so intolerable, as the pride of a foolish + man who has passed through a process of thinking, so as actually to + have found something out. He believes there is nothing else to be + found out in the universe. Whereas the truly great man, on whom the + Revelations rain till they bear him to the earth with their weight, + lays his head in the dust, and speaks thence--often in broken + syllables. Vanity is indeed a very equally divided inheritance among + mankind; but I think that among the first persons, no emphasis is + altogether so strong as that on the German _Ich_. I was once + introduced to a German philosopher-painter before Tintoret's + "Massacre of the Innocents." He looked at it superciliously, and + said it "wanted to be restored." He had been himself several years + employed in painting a "Faust" in a red jerkin and blue fire; which + made Tintoret appear somewhat dull to him. + + [42] I have before stated ("Modern Painters" vol. ii.) that the + first function of the imagination is the apprehension of ultimate + truth. + + [43] Note especially, in connexion with what was advanced in Vol. II. + respecting our English neatness of execution, how the base workman + has cut the lines of the architecture neatly and precisely round the + abominable head: but the noble workman has used his chisel like a + painter's pencil, and sketched the glory with a few irregular lines, + anything rather than circular; and struck out the whole head in the + same frank and fearless way, leaving the sharp edges of the stone as + they first broke, and flinging back the crest of hair from the + forehead with half a dozen hammer-strokes, while the poor wretch who + did the other was half a day in smoothing its vapid and vermicular + curls. + + [44] The decree is quoted by Mutinelli, lib. i. p. 46. + + [45] See Appendix 9. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +CONCLUSION. + + +Sec. I. I fear this chapter will be a rambling one, for it must be a kind +of supplement to the preceding pages, and a general recapitulation of +the things I have too imperfectly and feebly said. + +The grotesques of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the nature +of which we examined in the last chapter, close the career of the +architecture of Europe. They were the last evidences of any feeling +consistent with itself, and capable of directing the efforts of the +builder to the formation of anything worthy the name of a style or +school. From that time to this, no resuscitation of energy has taken +place, nor does any for the present appear possible. How long this +impossibility may last, and in what direction with regard to art in +general, as well as to our lifeless architecture, our immediate efforts +may most profitably be directed, are the questions I would endeavor +briefly to consider in the present chapter. + +Sec. II. That modern science, with all its additions to the comforts +of life, and to the fields of rational contemplation, has placed the +existing races of mankind on a higher platform than any that preceded +them, none can doubt for an instant; and I believe the position in which +we find ourselves is somewhat analogous to that of thoughtful and +laborious youth succeeding a restless and heedless infancy. Not long +ago, it was said to me by one of the masters of modern science: "When +men invented the locomotive, the child was learning to go; when they +invented the telegraph, it was learning to speak." He looked forward to +the manhood of mankind, as assuredly the nobler in proportion to the +slowness of its developement. What might not be expected from the prime +and middle strength of the order of existence whose infancy had lasted +six thousand years? And, indeed, I think this the truest, as well as the +most cheering, view that we can take of the world's history. Little +progress has been made as yet. Base war, lying policy, thoughtless +cruelty, senseless improvidence,--all things which, in nations, are +analogous to the petulance, cunning, impatience, and carelessness of +infancy,--have been, up to this hour, as characteristic of mankind as +they were in the earliest periods; so that we must either be driven to +doubt of human progress at all, or look upon it as in its very earliest +stage. Whether the opportunity is to be permitted us to redeem the hours +that we have lost; whether He, in whose sight a thousand years are as +one day, has appointed us to be tried by the continued possession of the +strange powers with which He has lately endowed us; or whether the +periods of childhood and of probation are to cease together, and the +youth of mankind is to be one which shall prevail over death, and bloom +for ever in the midst of a new heaven and a new earth, are questions +with which we have no concern. It is indeed right that we should look +for, and hasten, so far as in us lies, the coming of the Day of God; but +not that we should check any human efforts by anticipations of its +approach. We shall hasten it best by endeavoring to work out the tasks +that are appointed for us here; and, therefore, reasoning as if the +world were to continue under its existing dispensation, and the powers +which have just been granted to us were to be continued through myriads +of future ages. + +Sec. III. It seems to me, then, that the whole human race, so far as their +own reason can be trusted, may at present be regarded as just emergent +from childhood; and beginning for the first time to feel their strength, +to stretch their limbs, and explore the creation around them. If we +consider that, till within the last fifty years, the nature of the +ground we tread on, of the air we breathe, and of the light by which we +see, were not so much as conjecturally conceived by us; that the +duration of the globe, and the races of animal life by which it was +inhabited, are just beginning to be apprehended; and that the scope of +the magnificent science which has revealed them, is as yet so little +received by the public mind, that presumption and ignorance are still +permitted to raise their voices against it unrebuked; that perfect +veracity in the representation of general nature by art has never been +attempted until the present day, and has in the present day been +resisted with all the energy of the popular voice;[46] that the simplest +problems of social science are yet so little understood, as that +doctrines of liberty and equality can be openly preached, and so +successfully as to affect the whole body of the civilized world with +apparently incurable disease; that the first principles of commerce were +acknowledged by the English Parliament only a few months ago, in its +free trade measures, and are still so little understood by the million, +that no nation dares to abolish its custom-houses;[47] that the simplest +principles of policy are still not so much as stated, far less received, +and that civilized nations persist in the belief that the subtlety and +dishonesty which they know to be ruinous in dealings between man and +man, are serviceable in dealings between multitude and multitude; +finally, that the scope of the Christian religion, which we have been +taught for two thousand years, is still so little conceived by us, that +we suppose the laws of charity and of self-sacrifice bear upon +individuals in all their social relations, and yet do not bear upon +nations in any of their political relations;--when, I say, we thus +review the depth of simplicity in which the human race are still +plunged with respect to all that it most profoundly concerns them to +know, and which might, by them, with most ease have been ascertained, we +can hardly determine how far back on the narrow path of human progress +we ought to place the generation to which we belong, how far the +swaddling clothes are unwound from us, and childish things beginning to +be put away. + +On the other hand, a power of obtaining veracity in the representation +of material and tangible things, which, within certain limits and +conditions, is unimpeachable, has now been placed in the hands of all +men,[48] almost without labor. The foundation of every natural science +is now at last firmly laid, not a day passing without some addition of +buttress and pinnacle to their already magnificent fabric. Social +theorems, if fiercely agitated, are therefore the more likely to be at +last determined, so that they never can be matters of question more. +Human life has been in some sense prolonged by the increased powers of +locomotion, and an almost limitless power of converse. Finally, there is +hardly any serious mind in Europe but is occupied, more or less, in the +investigation of the questions which have so long paralyzed the strength +of religious feeling, and shortened the dominion of religious faith. And +we may therefore at least look upon ourselves as so far in a definite +state of progress, as to justify our caution in guarding against the +dangers incident to every period of change, and especially to that from +childhood into youth. + +Sec. IV. Those dangers appear, in the main, to be twofold; consisting +partly in the pride of vain knowledge, partly in the pursuit of vain +pleasure. A few points are still to be noticed with respect to each of +these heads. + +Enough, it might be thought, had been said already, touching the pride +of knowledge; but I have not yet applied the principles, at which we +arrived in the third chapter, to the practical questions of modern art. +And I think those principles, together with what were deduced from the +consideration of the nature of Gothic in the second volume, so necessary +and vital, not only with respect to the progress of art, but even to the +happiness of society, that I will rather run the risk of tediousness +than of deficiency, in their illustration and enforcement. + +In examining the nature of Gothic, we concluded that one of the chief +elements of power in that, and in _all good_ architecture, was the +acceptance of uncultivated and rude energy in the workman. In examining +the nature of Renaissance, we concluded that its chief element of +weakness was that pride of knowledge which not only prevented all +rudeness in expression, but gradually quenched all energy which could +only be rudely expressed; nor only so, but, for the motive and matter of +the work itself, preferred science to emotion, and experience to +perception. + +Sec. V. The modern mind differs from the Renaissance mind in that its +learning is more substantial and extended, and its temper more humble; +but its errors, with respect to the cultivation of art, are precisely +the same,--nay, as far as regards execution, even more aggravated. We +require, at present, from our general workmen, more perfect finish than +was demanded in the most skilful Renaissance periods, except in their +very finest productions; and our leading principles in teaching, and in +the patronage which necessarily gives tone to teaching, are, that the +goodness of work consists primarily in firmness of handling and accuracy +of science, that is to say, in hand-work and head-work; whereas +heart-work, which is the _one_ work we want, is not only independent of +both, but often, in great degree, inconsistent with either. + +Sec. VI. Here, therefore, let me finally and firmly enunciate the +great principle to which all that has hitherto been stated is +subservient:--that art is valuable or otherwise, only as it expresses +the personality, activity, and living perception of a good and great +human soul; that it may express and contain this with little help from +execution, and less from science; and that if it have not this, if it +show not the vigor, perception, and invention of a mighty human spirit, +it is worthless. Worthless, I mean, as _art_; it may be precious in some +other way, but, as art, it is nugatory. Once let this be well understood +among us, and magnificent consequences will soon follow. Let me repeat +it in other terms, so that I may not be misunderstood. All art is great, +and good, and true, only so far as it is distinctively the work of +_manhood_ in its entire and highest sense; that is to say, not the work +of limbs and fingers, but of the soul, aided, according to her +necessities, by the inferior powers; and therefore distinguished in +essence from all products of those inferior powers unhelped by the soul. +For as a photograph is not a work of art, though it requires certain +delicate manipulations of paper and acid, and subtle calculations of +time, in order to bring out a good result; so, neither would a drawing +_like_ a photograph, made directly from nature, be a work of art, +although it would imply many delicate manipulations of the pencil and +subtle calculations of effects of color and shade. It is no more art[49] +to manipulate a camel's hair pencil, than to manipulate a china tray and +a glass vial. It is no more art to lay on color delicately, than to lay +on acid delicately. It is no more art to use the cornea and retina for +the reception of an image, than to use a lens and a piece of silvered +paper. But the moment that inner part of the man, or rather that entire +and only being of the man, of which cornea and retina, fingers and +hands, pencils and colors, are all the mere servants and +instruments;[50] that manhood which has light in itself, though the +eyeball be sightless, and can gain in strength when the hand and the +foot are hewn off and cast into the fire; the moment this part of the +man stands forth with its solemn "Behold, it is I," then the work +becomes art indeed, perfect in honor, priceless in value, boundless in +power. + +Sec. VII. Yet observe, I do not mean to speak of the body and soul as +separable. The man is made up of both: they are to be raised and +glorified together, and all art is an expression of the one, by and +through the other. All that I would insist upon is, the necessity of the +whole man being in his work; the body _must_ be in it. Hands and habits +must be in it, whether we will or not; but the nobler part of the man +may often not be in it. And that nobler part acts principally in love, +reverence, and admiration, together with those conditions of thought +which arise out of them. For we usually fall into much error by +considering the intellectual powers as having dignity in themselves, and +separable from the heart; whereas the truth is, that the intellect +becomes noble and ignoble according to the food we give it, and the kind +of subjects with which it is conversant. It is not the reasoning power +which, of itself, is noble, but the reasoning power occupied with its +proper objects. Half of the mistakes of metaphysicians have arisen from +their not observing this; namely, that the intellect, going through the +same processes, is yet mean or noble according to the matter it deals +with, and wastes itself away in mere rotatory motion, if it be set to +grind straws and dust. If we reason only respecting words, or lines, or +any trifling and finite things, the reason becomes a contemptible +faculty; but reason employed on holy and infinite things, becomes +herself holy and infinite. So that, by work of the soul, I mean the +reader always to understand the work of the entire immortal creature, +proceeding from a quick, perceptive, and eager heart, perfected by the +intellect, and finally dealt with by the hands, under the direct +guidance of these higher powers. + +Sec. VIII. And now observe, the first important consequence of our +fully understanding this preeminence of the soul, will be the due +understanding of that subordination of knowledge respecting which so +much has already been said. For it must be felt at once, that the +increase of knowledge, merely as such, does not make the soul larger or +smaller; that, in the sight of God, all the knowledge man can gain is as +nothing: but that the soul, for which the great scheme of redemption was +laid, be it ignorant or be it wise, is all in all; and in the activity, +strength, health, and well-being of this soul, lies the main difference, +in His sight, between one man and another. And that which is all in all +in God's estimate is also, be assured, all in all in man's labor; and to +have the heart open, and the eyes clear, and the emotions and thoughts +warm and quick, and not the knowing of this or the other fact, is the +state needed for all mighty doing in this world. And therefore finally, +for this, the weightiest of all reasons, let us take no pride in our +knowledge. We may, in a certain sense, be proud of being immortal; we +may be proud of being God's children; we may be proud of loving, +thinking, seeing, and of all that we are by no human teaching: but not +of what we have been taught by rote; not of the ballast and freight of +the ship of the spirit, but only of its pilotage, without which all the +freight will only sink it faster, and strew the sea more richly with +its ruin. There is not at this moment a youth of twenty, having received +what we moderns ridiculously call education, but he knows more of +everything, except the soul, than Plato or St. Paul did; but he is not +for that reason a greater man, or fitter for his work, or more fit to be +heard by others, than Plato or St. Paul. There is not at this moment a +junior student in our schools of painting, who does not know fifty times +as much about the art as Giotto did; but he is not for that reason +greater than Giotto; no, nor his work better, nor fitter for our +beholding. Let him go on to know all that the human intellect can +discover and contain in the term of a long life, and he will not be one +inch, one line, nearer to Giotto's feet. But let him leave his academy +benches, and, innocently, as one knowing nothing, go out into the +highways and hedges, and there rejoice with them that rejoice, and weep +with them that weep; and in the next world, among the companies of the +great and good, Giotto will give his hand to him, and lead him into +their white circle, and say, "This is our brother." + +Sec. IX. And the second important consequence of our feeling the soul's +preeminence will be our understanding the soul's language, however +broken, or low, or feeble, or obscure in its words; and chiefly that +great symbolic language of past ages, which has now so long been +unspoken. It is strange that the same cold and formal spirit which the +Renaissance teaching has raised amongst us, should be equally dead to +the languages of imitation and of symbolism; and should at once disdain +the faithful rendering of real nature by the modern school of the +Pre-Raphaelites, and the symbolic rendering of imagined nature in the +work of the thirteenth century. But so it is; and we find the same body +of modern artists rejecting Pre-Raphaelitism because it is not ideal! +and thirteenth century work, because it is not real!--their own practice +being at once false and un-ideal, and therefore equally opposed to both. + +Sec. X. It is therefore, at this juncture, of much importance to mark +for the reader the exact relation of healthy symbolism and of healthy +imitation; and, in order to do so, let us return to one of our Venetian +examples of symbolic art, to the central cupola of St. Mark's. On that +cupola, as has been already stated, there is a mosaic representing the +Apostles on the Mount of Olives, with an olive-tree separating each from +the other; and we shall easily arrive at our purpose, by comparing the +means which would have been adopted by a modern artist bred in the +Renaissance schools,--that is to say, under the influence of Claude and +Poussin, and of the common teaching of the present day,--with those +adopted by the Byzantine mosaicist to express the nature of these trees. + +Sec. XI. The reader is doubtless aware that the olive is one of the most +characteristic and beautiful features of all Southern scenery. On the +slopes of the northern Apennines, olives are the usual forest timber; +the whole of the Val d'Arno is wooded with them, every one of its +gardens is filled with them, and they grow in orchard-like ranks out of +its fields of maize, or corn, or vine; so that it is physically +impossible, in most parts of the neighborhood of Florence, Pistoja, +Lucca, or Pisa, to choose any site of landscape which shall not owe its +leading character to the foliage of these trees. What the elm and oak +are to England, the olive is to Italy; nay, more than this, its presence +is so constant, that, in the case of at least four fifths of the +drawings made by any artist in North Italy, he must have been somewhat +impeded by branches of olive coming between him and the landscape. Its +classical associations double its importance in Greece; and in the Holy +Land the remembrances connected with it are of course more touching than +can ever belong to any other tree of the field. Now, for many years +back, at least one third out of all the landscapes painted by English +artists have been chosen from Italian scenery; sketches in Greece and in +the Holy Land have become as common as sketches on Hampstead Heath; our +galleries also are full of sacred subjects, in which, if any background +be introduced at all, the foliage of the olive ought to have been a +prominent feature. + +And here I challenge the untravelled English reader to tell me what an +olive-tree is like? + +Sec. XII. I know he cannot answer my challenge. He has no more idea of an +olive-tree than if olives grew only in the fixed stars. Let him meditate +a little on this one fact, and consider its strangeness, and what a +wilful and constant closing of the eyes to the most important truths it +indicates on the part of the modern artist. Observe, a want of +perception, not of science. I do not want painters to tell me any +scientific facts about olive-trees. But it had been well for them to +have felt and seen the olive-tree; to have loved it for Christ's sake, +partly also for the helmed Wisdom's sake which was to the heathen in +some sort as that nobler Wisdom which stood at God's right hand, when He +founded the earth and established the heavens. To have loved it, even to +the hoary dimness of its delicate foliage, subdued and faint of hue, as +if the ashes of the Gethsemane agony had been cast upon it for ever; and +to have traced, line by line, the gnarled writhing of its intricate +branches, and the pointed fretwork of its light and narrow leaves, +inlaid on the blue field of the sky, and the small rosy-white stars of +its spring blossoming, and the beads of sable fruit scattered by autumn +along its topmost boughs--the right, in Israel, of the stranger, the +fatherless, and the widow,--and, more than all, the softness of the +mantle, silver grey, and tender like the down on a bird's breast, with +which, far away, it veils the undulation of the mountains;--these it had +been well for them to have seen and drawn, whatever they had left +unstudied in the gallery. + +Sec. XIII. And if the reader would know the reason why this has not been +done (it is one instance only out of the myriads which might be given of +sightlessness in modern art), and will ask the artists themselves, he +will be informed of another of the marvellous contradictions and +inconsistencies in the base Renaissance art; for it will be answered +him, that it is not right, nor according to law, to draw trees so that +one should be known from another, but that trees ought to be generalized +into a universal idea of a tree: that is to say, that the very school +which carries its science in the representation of man down to the +dissection of the most minute muscle, refuses so much science to the +drawing of a tree as shall distinguish one species from another; and +also, while it attends to logic, and rhetoric, and perspective, and +atmosphere, and every other circumstance which is trivial, verbal, +external, or accidental, in what it either says or sees, it will _not_ +attend to what is essential and substantial,--being intensely +solicitous, for instance, if it draws two trees, one behind the other, +that the farthest off shall be as much smaller as mathematics show that +it should be, but totally unsolicitous to show, what to the spectator is +a far more important matter, whether it is an apple or an orange tree. + +Sec. XIV. This, however, is not to our immediate purpose. Let it be +granted that an idea of an olive-tree is indeed to be given us in a +special manner; how, and by what language, this idea is to be conveyed, +are questions on which we shall find the world of artists again divided; +and it was this division which I wished especially to illustrate by +reference to the mosaics of St. Mark's. + +Now the main characteristics of an olive-tree are these. It has sharp +and slender leaves of a greyish green, nearly grey on the under surface, +and resembling, but somewhat smaller than, those of our common willow. +Its fruit, when ripe, is black and lustrous; but of course so small, +that, unless in great quantity, it is not conspicuous upon the tree. Its +trunk and branches are peculiarly fantastic in their twisting, showing +their fibres at every turn; and the trunk is often hollow, and even rent +into many divisions like separate stems, but the extremities are +exquisitely graceful, especially in the setting on of the leaves; and +the notable and characteristic effect of the tree in the distance is of +a rounded and soft mass or ball of downy foliage. + +Sec. XV. Supposing a modern artist to address himself to the rendering +of this tree with his best skill: he will probably draw accurately the +twisting of the branches, but yet this will hardly distinguish the tree +from an oak: he will also render the color and intricacy of the foliage, +but this will only confuse the idea of an oak with that of a willow. The +fruit, and the peculiar grace of the leaves at the extremities, and the +fibrous structure of the stems, will all be too minute to be rendered +consistently with his artistical feeling of breadth, or with the amount +of labor which he considers it dexterous and legitimate to bestow upon +the work: but, above all, the rounded and monotonous form of the head of +the tree will be at variance with his ideas of "composition;" he will +assuredly disguise or break it, and the main points of the olive-tree +will all at last remain untold. + +Sec. XVI. Now observe, the old Byzantine mosaicist begins his work at +enormous disadvantage. It is to be some one hundred and fifty feet above +the eye, in a dark cupola; executed not with free touches of the pencil, +but with square pieces of glass; not by his own hand, but by various +workmen under his superintendence; finally, not with a principal purpose +of drawing olive-trees, but mainly as a decoration of the cupola. There +is to be an olive-tree beside each apostle, and their stems are to be +the chief lines which divide the dome. He therefore at once gives up the +irregular twisting of the boughs hither and thither, but he will not +give up their fibres. Other trees have irregular and fantastic branches, +but the knitted cordage of fibres is the olive's own. Again, were he to +draw the leaves of their natural size, they would be so small that their +forms would be invisible in the darkness; and were he to draw them so +large as that their shape might be seen, they would look like laurel +instead of olive. So he arranges them in small clusters of five each, +nearly of the shape which the Byzantines give to the petals of the lily, +but elongated so as to give the idea of leafage upon a spray; and these +clusters,--his object always, be it remembered, being _decoration_ not +less than _representation_,--he arranges symmetrically on each side of +his branches, laying the whole on a dark ground most truly suggestive of +the heavy rounded mass of the tree, which, in its turn, is relieved +against the gold of the cupola. Lastly, comes the question respecting +the fruit. The whole power and honor of the olive is in its fruit; and, +unless that be represented, nothing is represented. But if the berries +were colored black or green, they would be totally invisible; if of +any other color, utterly unnatural, and violence would be done to the +whole conception. There is but one conceivable means of showing them, +namely to represent them as golden. For the idea of golden fruit of +various kinds was already familiar to the mind, as in the apples of the +Hesperides, without any violence to the distinctive conception of the +fruit itself.[51] So the mosaicist introduced small round golden berries +into the dark ground between each leaf, and his work was done. + +[Illustration: Plate IV. + Mosaics of Olive-tree and Flowers.] + +Sec. XVII. On the opposite plate, the uppermost figure on the left is a +tolerably faithful representation of the general effect of one of these +decorative olive-trees; the figure on the right is the head of the tree +alone, showing the leaf clusters, berries, and _interlacing_ of the +boughs as they leave the stem. Each bough is connected with a separate +line of fibre in the trunk, and the junctions of the arms and stem are +indicated, down to the very root of the tree, with a truth in structure +which may well put to shame the tree anatomy of modern times. + +Sec. XVIII. The white branching figures upon the serpentine band below are +two of the clusters of flowers which form the foreground of a mosaic in +the atrium. I have printed the whole plate in blue, because that color +approaches more nearly than black to the distant effect of the mosaics, +of which the darker portions are generally composed of blue, in greater +quantity than any other color. But the waved background in this +instance, is of various shades of blue and green alternately, with one +narrow black band to give it force; the whole being intended to +represent the distant effect and color of deep grass, and the wavy line +to _express its bending motion_, just as the same symbol is used to +represent the waves of water. Then the two white clusters are +representative of the distinctly visible herbage close to the +spectator, having buds and flowers of two kinds, springing in one case +out of the midst of twisted grass, and in the other out of their own +proper leaves; the clusters being kept each so distinctly symmetrical, +as to form, when set side by side, an ornamental border of perfect +architectural severity; and yet each cluster different from the next, +and every flower, and bud, and knot of grass, varied in form and +thought. The way the mosaic tesserae are arranged, so as to give the +writhing of the grass blades round the stalks of the flowers, is +exceedingly fine. + +The tree circles below are examples of still more severely conventional +forms, adopted, on principle, when the decoration is to be in white and +gold, instead of color; these ornaments being cut in white marble on the +outside of the church, and the ground laid in with gold, though +necessarily here represented, like the rest of the plate, in blue. And +it is exceedingly interesting to see how the noble workman, the moment +he is restricted to more conventional materials, retires into more +conventional forms, and reduces his various leafage into symmetry, now +nearly perfect; yet observe, in the central figure, where the symbolic +meaning of the vegetation beside the cross required it to be more +distinctly indicated, he has given it life and growth by throwing it +into unequal curves on the opposite sides. + +Sec. XIX. I believe the reader will now see, that in these mosaics, which +the careless traveller is in the habit of passing by with contempt, +there is a depth of feeling and of meaning greater than in most of the +best sketches from nature of modern times; and, without entering into +any question whether these conventional representations are as good as, +under the required limitations, it was possible to render them, they are +at all events good enough completely to illustrate that mode of +symbolical expression which appeals altogether to thought, and in no +wise trusts to realization. And little as, in the present state of our +schools, such an assertion is likely to be believed, the fact is that +this kind of expression is the _only one allowable in noble art_. + +Sec. XX. I pray the reader to have patience with me for a few moments. I +do not mean that no art is noble but Byzantine mosaic; but no art is noble +which in any wise depends upon direct imitation for its effect upon the +mind. This was asserted in the opening chapters of "Modern Painters," +but not upon the highest grounds; the results at which we have now +arrived in our investigation of early art, will enable me to place it on +a loftier and firmer foundation. + +Sec. XXI. We have just seen that all great art is the work of the whole +living creature, body and soul, and chiefly of the soul. But it is not +only _the work_ of the whole creature, it likewise _addresses_ the whole +creature. That in which the perfect being speaks, must also have the +perfect being to listen. I am not to spend my utmost spirit, and give +all my strength and life to my work, while you, spectator or hearer, +will give me only the attention of half your soul. You must be all mine, +as I am all yours; it is the only condition on which we can meet each +other. All your faculties, all that is in you of greatest and best, must +be awake in you, or I have no reward. The painter is not to cast the +entire treasure of his human nature into his labor, merely to please a +part of the beholder: not merely to delight his senses, not merely to +amuse his fancy, not merely to beguile him into emotion, not merely to +lead him into thought, but to do _all_ this. Senses, fancy, feeling, +reason, the whole of the beholding spirit, must be stilled in attention +or stirred with delight; else the laboring spirit has not done its work +well. For observe, it is not merely its _right_ to be thus met, face to +face, heart to heart; but it is its _duty_ to evoke its answering of the +other soul; its trumpet call must be so clear, that though the challenge +may by dulness or indolence be unanswered, there shall be no error as to +the meaning of the appeal; there must be a summons in the work, which it +shall be our own fault if we do not obey. We require this of it, we +beseech this of it. Most men do not know what is in them, till they +receive this summons from their fellows: their hearts die within them, +sleep settles upon them, the lethargy of the world's miasmata; there is +nothing for which they are so thankful as for that cry, "Awake, thou +that sleepest." And this cry must be most loudly uttered to their +noblest faculties; first of all to the imagination, for that is the most +tender, and the soonest struck into numbness by the poisoned air; so +that one of the main functions of art in its service to man, is to +arouse the imagination from its palsy, like the angel troubling the +Bethesda pool; and the art which does not do this is false to its duty, +and degraded in its nature. It is not enough that it be well imagined, +it must task the beholder also to imagine well; and this so +imperatively, that if he does not choose to rouse himself to meet the +work, he shall not taste it, nor enjoy it in any wise. Once that he is +well awake, the guidance which the artist gives him should be full and +authoritative: the beholder's imagination must not be suffered to take +its own way, or wander hither and thither; but neither must it be left +at rest; and the right point of realization, for any given work of art, +is that which will enable the spectator to complete it for himself, in +the exact way the artist would have him, but not that which will save +him the trouble of effecting the completion. So soon as the idea is +entirely conveyed, the artist's labor should cease; and every touch +which he adds beyond the point when, with the help of the beholder's +imagination, the story ought to have been told, is a degradation to his +work. So that the art is wrong, which either realizes its subject +completely, or fails in giving such definite aid as shall enable it to +be realized by the beholding imagination. + +Sec. XXII. It follows, therefore, that the quantity of finish or detail +which may rightly be bestowed upon any work, depends on the number and +kind of ideas which the artist wishes to convey, much more than on the +amount of realization necessary to enable the imagination to grasp them. +It is true that the differences of judgment formed by one or another +observer are in great degree dependent on their unequal imaginative +powers, as well as their unequal efforts in following the artist's +intention; and it constantly happens that the drawing which appears +clear to the painter in whose mind the thought is formed, is slightly +inadequate to suggest it to the spectator. These causes of false +judgment, or imperfect achievement, must always exist, but they are of +no importance. For, in nearly every mind, the imaginative power, however +unable to act independently, is so easily helped and so brightly +animated by the most obscure suggestion, that there is no form of +artistical language which will not readily be seized by it, if once it +set itself intelligently to the task; and even without such effort there +are few hieroglyphics of which, once understanding that it is to take +them as hieroglyphics, it cannot make itself a pleasant picture. + +Sec. XXIII. Thus, in the case of all sketches, etchings, unfinished +engravings, &c., no one ever supposes them to be imitations. Black +outlines on white paper cannot produce a deceptive resemblance of +anything; and the mind, understanding at once that it is to depend on +its own powers for great part of its pleasure, sets itself so actively +to the task that it can completely enjoy the rudest outline in which +meaning exists. Now, when it is once in this temper, the artist is +infinitely to be blamed who insults it by putting anything into his work +which is not suggestive: having summoned the imaginative power, he must +turn it to account and keep it employed, or it will run against him in +indignation. Whatever he does merely to realize and substantiate an idea +is impertinent; he is like a dull story-teller, dwelling on points which +the hearer anticipates or disregards. The imagination will say to him: +"I knew all that before; I don't want to be told that. Go on; or be +silent, and let me go on in my own way. I can tell the story better than +you." + +Observe, then, whenever finish is given for the sake of realization, it +is wrong; whenever it is given for the sake of adding ideas it is right. +All true finish consists in the addition of ideas, that is to say, in +giving the imagination more food; for once well awaked, it is ravenous +for food: but the painter who finishes in order to substantiate takes +the food out of its mouth, and it will turn and rend him. + +Sec. XXIV. Let us go back, for instance, to our olive grove,--or, lest the +reader should be tired of olives, let it be an oak copse,--and consider +the difference between the substantiating and the imaginative methods of +finish in such a subject. A few strokes of the pencil, or dashes of +color, will be enough to enable the imagination to conceive a tree; and +in those dashes of color Sir Joshua Reynolds would have rested, and +would have suffered the imagination to paint what more it liked for +itself, and grow oaks, or olives, or apples, out of the few dashes of +color at its leisure. On the other hand, Hobbima, one of the worst of +the realists, smites the imagination on the mouth, and bids it be +silent, while he sets to work to paint his oak of the right green, and +fill up its foliage laboriously with jagged touches, and furrow the bark +all over its branches, so as, if possible, to deceive us into supposing +that we are looking at a real oak; which, indeed, we had much better do +at once, without giving any one the trouble to deceive us in the matter. + +Sec. XXV. Now, the truly great artist neither leaves the imagination to +itself, like Sir Joshua, nor insults it by realization, like Hobbima, +but finds it continual employment of the happiest kind. Having summoned +it by his vigorous first touches, he says to it: "Here is a tree for +you, and it is to be an oak. Now I know that you can make it green and +intricate for yourself, but that is not enough: an oak is not only green +and intricate, but its leaves have most beautiful and fantastic forms +which I am very sure you are not quite able to complete without help; so +I will draw a cluster or two perfectly for you, and then you can go on +and do all the other clusters. So far so good: but the leaves are not +enough; the oak is to be full of acorns, and you may not be quite able +to imagine the way they grow, nor the pretty contrast of their glossy +almond-shaped nuts with the chasing of their cups; so I will draw a +bunch or two of acorns for you, and you can fill up the oak with others +like them. Good: but that is not enough; it is to be a bright day in +summer, and all the outside leaves are to be glittering in the sunshine +as if their edges were of gold: I cannot paint this, but you can; so I +will really gild some of the edges nearest you,[52] and you can turn +the gold into sunshine, and cover the tree with it. Well done: but still +this is not enough; the tree is so full foliaged and so old that the +wood birds come in crowds to build there; they are singing, two or three +under the shadow of every bough. I cannot show you them all; but here is +a large one on the outside spray, and you can fancy the others inside." + +Sec. XXVI. In this way the calls upon the imagination are multiplied as +a great painter finishes; and from these larger incidents he may proceed +into the most minute particulars, and lead the companion imagination to +the veins in the leaves and the mosses on the trunk, and the shadows of +the dead leaves upon the grass, but always multiplying thoughts, or +subjects of thought, never working for the sake of realization; the +amount of realization actually reached depending on his space, his +materials, and the nature of the thoughts he wishes to suggest. In the +sculpture of an oak-tree, introduced above an Adoration of the Magi on +the tomb of the Doge Marco Dolfino (fourteenth century), the sculptor +has been content with a few leaves, a single acorn, and a bird; while, +on the other hand, Millais' willow-tree with the robin, in the +background of his "Ophelia," or the foreground of Hunt's "Two Gentlemen +of Verona," carries the appeal to the imagination into particulars so +multiplied and minute, that the work nearly reaches realization. But it +does not matter how near realization the work may approach in its +fulness, or how far off it may remain in its slightness, so long as +realization is not the end proposed, but the informing one spirit of the +thoughts of another. And in this greatness and simplicity of purpose all +noble art is alike, however slight its means, or however perfect, from +the rudest mosaics of St. Mark's to the most tender finishing of the +"Huguenot" or the "Ophelia." + +Sec. XXVII. Only observe, in this matter, that a greater degree of +realization is often allowed, for the sake of color, than would be right +without it. For there is not any distinction between the artists of the +inferior and the nobler schools more definite than this; that the first +_color for the sake of realization_, and the second _realize for the +sake of color_. I hope that, in the fifth chapter, enough has been said +to show the nobility of color, though it is a subject on which I would +fain enlarge whenever I approach it: for there is none that needs more +to be insisted upon, chiefly on account of the opposition of the persons +who have no eye for color, and who, being therefore unable to understand +that it is just as divine and distinct in its power as music (only +infinitely more varied in its harmonies), talk of it as if it were +inferior and servile with respect to the other powers of art;[53] +whereas it is so far from being this, that wherever it enters it must +take the mastery, and, whatever else is sacrificed for its sake, _it_, +at least, must be right. This is partly the case even with music: it is +at our choice, whether we will accompany a poem with music, or not; but, +if we do, the music _must_ be right, and neither discordant nor +inexpressive. The goodness and sweetness of the poem cannot save it, if +the music be harsh or false; but, if the music be right, the poem may be +insipid or inharmonious, and still saved by the notes to which it is +wedded. But this is far more true of color. If that be wrong, all is +wrong. No amount of expression or invention can redeem an ill-colored +picture; while, on the other hand, if the color be right, there is +nothing it will not raise or redeem; and, therefore, wherever color +enters at all, anything _may_ be sacrificed to it, and, rather than it +should be false or feeble, everything _must_ be sacrificed to it: so +that, when an artist touches color, it is the same thing as when a poet +takes up a musical instrument; he implies, in so doing, that he is a +master, up to a certain point, of that instrument, and can produce sweet +sound from it, and is able to fit the course and measure of his words to +its tones, which, if he be not able to do, he had better not have +touched it. In like manner, to add color to a drawing is to undertake +for the perfection of a visible music, which, if it be false, will +utterly and assuredly mar the whole work; if true, proportionately +elevate it, according to its power and sweetness. But, in no case ought +the color to be added in order to increase the realization. The drawing +or engraving is all that the imagination needs. To "paint" the subject +merely to make it more real, is only to insult the imaginative power and +to vulgarize the whole. Hence the common, though little understood +feeling, among men of ordinary cultivation, that an inferior sketch is +always better than a bad painting; although, in the latter, there may +verily be more skill than in the former. For the painter who has +presumed to touch color without perfectly understanding it, not for the +color's sake, nor because he loves it, but for the sake of completion +merely, has committed two sins against us; he has dulled the imagination +by not trusting it far enough, and then, in this languid state, he +oppresses it with base and false color; for all color that is not +lovely, is discordant; there is no mediate condition. So, therefore, +when it is permitted to enter at all, it must be with the +predetermination that, cost what it will, the color shall be right and +lovely: and I only wish that, in general, it were better understood that +a _painter's_ business is _to paint_, primarily; and that all +expression, and grouping, and conceiving, and what else goes to +constitute design, _are of less importance than color, in a colored +work_. And so they were always considered in the noble periods; and +sometimes all resemblance to nature whatever (as in painted windows, +illuminated manuscripts, and such other work) is sacrificed to the +brilliancy of color; sometimes distinctness of form to its richness, as +by Titian, Turner, and Reynolds; and, which is the point on which we are +at present insisting, sometimes, in the pursuit of its utmost +refinements on the surfaces of objects, an amount of realization becomes +consistent with noble art, which would otherwise be altogether +inadmissible, that is to say, which no great mind could otherwise have +either produced or enjoyed. The extreme finish given by the +Pre-Raphaelites is rendered noble chiefly by their love of color. + +Sec. XXVIII. So then, whatever may be the means, or whatever the more +immediate end of any kind of art, all of it that is good agrees in this, +that it is the expression of one soul talking to another, and is +precious according to the greatness of the soul that utters it. And +consider what mighty consequences follow from our acceptance of this +truth! what a key we have herein given us for the interpretation of the +art of all time! For, as long as we held art to consist in any high +manual skill, or successful imitation of natural objects, or any +scientific and legalized manner of performance whatever, it was +necessary for us to limit our admiration to narrow periods and to few +men. According to our own knowledge and sympathies, the period chosen +might be different, and our rest might be in Greek statues, or Dutch +landscapes, or Italian Madonnas; but, whatever our choice, we were +therein captive, barred from all reverence but of our favorite masters, +and habitually using the language of contempt towards the whole of the +human race to whom it had not pleased Heaven to reveal the arcana of the +particular craftsmanship we admired, and who, it might be, had lived +their term of seventy years upon the earth, and fitted themselves +therein for the eternal world, without any clear understanding, +sometimes even with an insolent disregard, of the laws of perspective +and chiaroscuro. + +But let us once comprehend the holier nature of the art of man, and +begin to look for the meaning of the spirit, however syllabled, and the +scene is changed; and we are changed also. Those small and dexterous +creatures whom once we worshipped, those fur-capped divinities with +sceptres of camel's hair, peering and poring in their one-windowed +chambers over the minute preciousness of the labored canvas; how are +they swept away and crushed into unnoticeable darkness! And in their +stead, as the walls of the dismal rooms that enclosed them, and us, are +struck by the four winds of Heaven, and rent away, and as the world +opens to our sight, lo! far back into all the depths of time, and forth +from all the fields that have been sown with human life, how the harvest +of the dragon's teeth is springing! how the companies of the gods are +ascending out of the earth! The dark stones that have so long been the +sepulchres of the thoughts of nations, and the forgotten ruins wherein +their faith lay charnelled, give up the dead that were in them; and +beneath the Egyptian ranks of sultry and silent rock, and amidst the dim +golden lights of the Byzantine dome, and out of the confused and cold +shadows of the Northern cloister, behold, the multitudinous souls come +forth with singing, gazing on us with the soft eyes of newly +comprehended sympathy, and stretching their white arms to us across the +grave, in the solemn gladness of everlasting brotherhood. + +Sec. XXIX. The other danger to which, it was above said, we were primarily +exposed under our present circumstances of life, is the pursuit of vain +pleasure, that is to say, false pleasure; delight, which is not indeed +delight; as knowledge vainly accumulated, is not indeed knowledge. And +this we are exposed to chiefly in the fact of our ceasing to be +children. For the child does not seek false pleasure; its pleasures are +true, simple, and instinctive: but the youth is apt to abandon his early +and true delight for vanities,--seeking to be like men, and sacrificing +his natural and pure enjoyments to his pride. In like manner, it seems +to me that modern civilization sacrifices much pure and true pleasure to +various forms of ostentation from which it can receive no fruit. +Consider, for a moment, what kind of pleasures are open to human nature, +undiseased. Passing by the consideration of the pleasures of the higher +affections, which lie at the root of everything, and considering the +definite and practical pleasures of daily life, there is, first, the +pleasure of doing good; the greatest of all, only apt to be despised +from not being often enough tasted: and then, I know not in what order +to put them, nor does it matter,--the pleasure of gaining knowledge; the +pleasure of the excitement of imagination and emotion (or poetry and +passion); and, lastly, the gratification of the senses, first of the +eye, then of the ear, and then of the others in their order. + +Sec. XXX. All these we are apt to make subservient to the desire of +praise; nor unwisely, when the praise sought is God's and the +conscience's: but if the sacrifice is made for man's admiration, and +knowledge is only sought for praise, passion repressed or affected for +praise, and the arts practised for praise, we are feeding on the bitterest +apples of Sodom, suffering always ten mortifications for one delight. And +it seems to me, that in the modern civilized world we make such sacrifice +doubly: first, by laboring for merely ambitious purposes; and secondly, +which is the main point in question, by being ashamed of simple pleasures, +more especially of the pleasure in sweet color and form, a pleasure +evidently so necessary to man's perfectness and virtue, that the beauty of +color and form has been given lavishly throughout the whole of creation, +so that it may become the food of all, and with such intricacy and +subtlety that it may deeply employ the thoughts of all. If we refuse to +accept the natural delight which the Deity has thus provided for us, we +must either become ascetics, or we must seek for some base and guilty +pleasures to replace those of Paradise, which we have denied ourselves. + +Some years ago, in passing through some of the cells of the Grand +Chartreuse, noticing that the window of each apartment looked across the +little garden of its inhabitant to the wall of the cell opposite, and +commanded no other view, I asked the monk beside me, why the window was +not rather made on the side of the cell whence it would open to the +solemn fields of the Alpine valley. "We do not come here," he replied, +"to look at the mountains." + +Sec. XXXI. The same answer is given, practically, by the men of this +century, to every such question; only the walls with which they enclose +themselves are those of pride, not of prayer. But in the middle ages it +was otherwise. Not, indeed, in landscape itself, but in the art which +can take the place of it, in the noble color and form with which they +illumined, and into which they wrought, every object around them that +was in any wise subjected to their power, they obeyed the laws of their +inner nature, and found its proper food. The splendor and fantasy even +of dress, which in these days we pretend to despise, or in which, if we +even indulge, it is only for the sake of vanity, and therefore to our +infinite harm, were in those early days studied for love of their true +beauty and honorableness, and became one of the main helps to dignity of +character, and courtesy of bearing. Look back to what we have been told +of the dress of the early Venetians, that it was so invented "that in +clothing themselves with it, they might clothe themselves also with +modesty and honor;"[54] consider what nobleness of expression there is +in the dress of any of the portrait figures of the great times, nay, +what perfect beauty, and more than beauty, there is in the folding of +the robe round the imagined form even of the saint or of the angel; and +then consider whether the grace of vesture be indeed a thing to be +despised. We cannot despise it if we would; and in all our highest +poetry and happiest thought we cling to the magnificence which in daily +life we disregard. The essence of modern romance is simply the return of +the heart and fancy to the things in which they naturally take pleasure; +and half the influence of the best romances, of Ivanhoe, or Marmion, or +the Crusaders, or the Lady of the Lake, is completely dependent upon the +accessaries of armor and costume. Nay, more than this, deprive the Iliad +itself of its costume, and consider how much of its power would be lost. +And that delight and reverence which we feel in, and by means of, the +mere imagination of these accessaries, the middle ages had in the vision +of them; the nobleness of dress exercising, as I have said, a perpetual +influence upon character, tending in a thousand ways to increase +dignity and self-respect, and together with grace of gesture, to induce +serenity of thought. + +Sec. XXXII. I do not mean merely in its magnificence; the most splendid +time was not the best time. It was still in the thirteenth +century,--when, as we have seen, simplicity and gorgeousness were justly +mingled, and the "leathern girdle and clasp of bone" were worn, as well +as the embroidered mantle,--that the manner of dress seems to have been +noblest. The chain mail of the knight, flowing and falling over his form +in lapping waves of gloomy strength, was worn under full robes of one +color in the ground, his crest quartered on them, and their borders +enriched with subtle illumination. The women wore first a dress close to +the form in like manner, and then long and flowing robes, veiling them +up to the neck, and delicately embroidered around the hem, the sleeves, +and the girdle. The use of plate armor gradually introduced more +fantastic types; the nobleness of the form was lost beneath the steel; +the gradually increasing luxury and vanity of the age strove for +continual excitement in more quaint and extravagant devices; and in the +fifteenth century, dress reached its point of utmost splendor and fancy, +being in many cases still exquisitely graceful, but now, in its morbid +magnificence, devoid of all wholesome influence on manners. From this +point, like architecture, it was rapidly degraded; and sank through the +buff coat, and lace collar, and jack-boot, to the bag-wig, tailed coat, +and high-heeled shoes; and so to what it is now. + +Sec. XXXIII. Precisely analogous to this destruction of beauty in dress, +has been that of beauty in architecture; its color, and grace, and +fancy, being gradually sacrificed to the base forms of the Renaissance, +exactly as the splendor of chivalry has faded into the paltriness of +fashion. And observe the form in which the necessary reaction has taken +place; necessary, for it was not possible that one of the strongest +instincts of the human race could be deprived altogether of its natural +food. Exactly in the degree that the architect withdrew from his +buildings the sources of delight which in early days they had so richly +possessed, demanding, in accordance with the new principles of taste, +the banishment of all happy color and healthy invention, in that degree +the minds of men began to turn to landscape as their only resource. The +picturesque school of art rose up to address those capacities of +enjoyment for which, in sculpture, architecture, or the higher walks of +painting, there was employment no more; and the shadows of Rembrandt, +and savageness of Salvator, arrested the admiration which was no longer +permitted to be rendered to the gloom or the grotesqueness of the Gothic +aisle. And thus the English school of landscape, culminating in Turner, +is in reality nothing else than a healthy effort to fill the void which +the destruction of Gothic architecture has left. + +Sec. XXXIV. But the void cannot thus be completely filled; no, nor filled +in any considerable degree. The art of landscape-painting will never +become thoroughly interesting or sufficing to the minds of men engaged +in active life, or concerned principally with practical subjects. The +sentiment and imagination necessary to enter fully into the romantic +forms of art are chiefly the characteristics of youth; so that nearly +all men as they advance in years, and some even from their childhood +upwards, must be appealed to, if at all, by a direct and substantial +art, brought before their daily observation and connected with their +daily interests. No form of art answers these conditions so well as +architecture, which, as it can receive help from every character of mind +in the workman, can address every character of mind in the spectator; +forcing itself into notice even in his most languid moments, and +possessing this chief and peculiar advantage, that it is the property of +all men. Pictures and statues may be jealously withdrawn by their +possessors from the public gaze, and to a certain degree their safety +requires them to be so withdrawn; but the outsides of our houses belong +not so much to us as to the passer-by, and whatever cost and pains we +bestow upon them, though too often arising out of ostentation, have at +least the effect of benevolence. + +Sec. XXXV. If, then, considering these things, any of my readers should +determine, according to their means, to set themselves to the revival +of a healthy school of architecture in England, and wish to know in few +words how this may be done, the answer is clear and simple. First, let +us cast out utterly whatever is connected with the Greek, Roman, or +Renaissance architecture, in principle or in form. We have seen above, +that the whole mass of the architecture, founded on Greek and Roman +models, which we have been in the habit of building for the last three +centuries, is utterly devoid of all life, virtue, honorableness, or +power of doing good. It is base, unnatural, unfruitful, unenjoyable, and +impious. Pagan in its origin, proud and unholy in its revival, paralyzed +in its old age, yet making prey in its dotage of all the good and living +things that were springing around it in their youth, as the dying and +desperate king, who had long fenced himself so strongly with the towers +of it, is said to have filled his failing veins with the blood of +children;[55] an architecture invented, as it seems, to make plagiarists +of its architects, slaves of its workmen, and Sybarites of its +inhabitants; an architecture in which intellect is idle, invention +impossible, but in which all luxury is gratified, and all insolence +fortified;--the first thing we have to do is to cast it out, and shake +the dust of it from our feet for ever. Whatever has any connexion with +the five orders, or with any one of the orders,--whatever is Doric, or +Ionic, or Tuscan, or Corinthian, or Composite, or in any way Grecized or +Romanized; whatever betrays the smallest respect for Vitruvian laws, or +conformity with Palladian work,--that we are to endure no more. To +cleanse ourselves of these "cast clouts and rotten rags" is the first +thing to be done in the court of our prison. + +Sec. XXXVI. Then, to turn our prison into a palace is an easy thing. We +have seen above, that exactly in the degree in which Greek and Roman +architecture is lifeless, unprofitable, and unchristian, in that same +degree our own ancient Gothic is animated, serviceable, and faithful. We +have seen that it is flexible to all duty, enduring to all time, +instructive to all hearts, honorable and holy in all offices. It is +capable alike of all lowliness and all dignity, fit alike for cottage +porch or castle gateway; in domestic service familiar, in religious, +sublime; simple, and playful, so that childhood may read it, yet clothed +with a power that can awe the mightiest, and exalt the loftiest of human +spirits: an architecture that kindles every faculty in its workman, and +addresses every emotion in its beholder; which, with every stone that is +laid on its solemn walls, raises some human heart a step nearer heaven, +and which from its birth has been incorporated with the existence, and +in all its form is symbolical of the faith, of Christianity. In this +architecture let us henceforward build, alike the church, the palace, +and the cottage; but chiefly let us use it for our civil and domestic +buildings. These once ennobled, our ecclesiastical work will be exalted +together with them: but churches are not the proper scenes for +experiments in untried architecture, nor for exhibitions of unaccustomed +beauty. It is certain that we must often fail before we can again build +a natural and noble Gothic: let not our temples be the scenes of our +failures. It is certain that we must offend many deep-rooted prejudices, +before ancient Christian architecture[56] can be again received by all +of us: let not religion be the first source of such offence. We shall +meet with difficulties in applying Gothic architecture to churches, +which would in no wise affect the designs of civil buildings, for the +most beautiful forms of Gothic chapels are not those which are best +fitted for Protestant worship. As it was noticed in the second volume, +when speaking of the Cathedral of Torcello it seems not unlikely, that +as we study either the science of sound, or the practice of the early +Christians, we may see reason to place the pulpit generally at the +extremity of the apse or chancel; an arrangement entirely destructive of +the beauty of a Gothic church, as seen in existing examples, and +requiring modifications of its design in other parts with which we +should be unwise at present to embarrass ourselves; besides, that the +effort to introduce the style exclusively for ecclesiastical purposes, +excites against it the strong prejudices of many persons who might +otherwise be easily enlisted among its most ardent advocates. I am quite +sure, for instance, that if such noble architecture as has been employed +for the interior of the church just built in Margaret Street[57] had +been seen in a civil building, it would have decided the question with +many men at once; whereas, at present, it will be looked upon with fear +and suspicion, as the expression of the ecclesiastical principles of a +particular party. But, whether thus regarded or not, this church +assuredly decides one question conclusively, that of our present +capability of Gothic design. It is the first piece of architecture I +have seen, built in modern days, which is free from all signs of +timidity or incapacity. In general proportion of parts, in refinement +and piquancy of mouldings, above all, in force, vitality, and grace of +floral ornament, worked in a broad and masculine manner, it challenges +fearless comparison with the noblest work of any time. Having done this, +we may do anything; there need be no limits to our hope or our +confidence; and I believe it to be possible for us, not only to equal, +but far to surpass, in some respects, any Gothic yet seen in Northern +countries. In the introduction of figure-sculpture, we must, indeed, for +the present, remain utterly inferior, for we have no figures to study +from. No architectural sculpture was ever good for anything which did +not represent the dress and persons of the people living at the time; +and our modern dress will _not_ form decorations for spandrils and +niches. But in floral sculpture we may go far beyond what has yet been +done, as well as in refinement of inlaid work and general execution. +For, although the glory of Gothic architecture is to receive the rudest +work, it refuses not the best; and, when once we have been content to +admit the handling of the simplest workman, we shall soon be rewarded by +finding many of our simple workmen become cunning ones: and, with the +help of modern wealth and science, we may do things like Giotto's +campanile, instead of like our own rude cathedrals; but better than +Giotto's campanile, insomuch as we may adopt the pure and perfect forms +of the Northern Gothic, and work them out with the Italian refinement. +It is hardly possible at present to imagine what may be the splendor of +buildings designed in the forms of English and French thirteenth century +_surface_ Gothic, and wrought out with the refinement of Italian art in +the details, and with a deliberate resolution, since we cannot have +figure sculpture, to display in them the beauty of every flower and herb +of the English fields, each by each; doing as much for every tree that +roots itself in our rocks, and every blossom that drinks our summer +rains, as our ancestors did for the oak, the ivy, and the rose. Let this +be the object of our ambition, and let us begin to approach it, not +ambitiously, but in all humility, accepting help from the feeblest +hands; and the London of the nineteenth century may yet become as Venice +without her despotism, and as Florence without her dispeace. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [46] In the works of Turner and the Pre-Raphaelites. + + [47] Observe, I speak of these various principles as self-evident, + only under the present circumstances of the world, not as if they + had always been so; and I call them now self-evident, not merely + because they seem so to myself, but because they are felt to be so + likewise by all the men in whom I place most trust. But granting + that they are not so, then their very disputability proves the state + of infancy above alleged, as characteristic of the world. For I do + not suppose that any Christian reader will doubt the first great + truth, that whatever facts or laws are important to mankind, God has + made ascertainable by mankind; and that as the decision of all these + questions is of vital importance to the race, that decision must + have been long ago arrived at, unless they were still in a state of + childhood. + + [48] I intended to have given a sketch in this place (above referred + to) of the probable results of the daguerreotype and calotype within + the next few years, in modifying the application of the engraver's + art, but I have not had time to complete the experiments necessary + to enable me to speak with certainty. Of one thing, however, I have + little doubt, that an infinite service will soon be done to a large + body of our engravers; namely, the making them draughtsmen (in black + and white) on paper instead of steel. + + [49] I mean art in its highest sense. All that men do ingeniously is + art, in one sense. In fact, we want a definition of the word "art" + much more accurate than any in our minds at present. For, strictly + speaking, there is no such thing as "fine" or "high" art. All _art_ + is a low and common thing, and what we indeed respect is not art at + all, but _instinct_ or _inspiration_ expressed by the help of art. + + [50] "_Socrates_. This, then, was what I asked you; whether that + which puts anything else to service, and the thing which is put to + service by it, are always two different things? + + _Alcibiades._ I think so. + + _Socrates._ What shall we then say of the leather-cutter? Does he + cut his leather with his instruments only, or with his hands also? + + _Alcibiades._ With his hands also. + + _Socrates._ Does he not use his eyes as well as his hands? + + _Alcibiades._ Yes. + + _Socrates._ And we agreed that the thing which uses and the thing + which is used, were different things? + + _Alcibiades._ Yes. + + _Socrates._ Then the leather-cutter is not the same thing as his + eyes or hands? + + _Alcibiades._ So it appears. + + _Socrates._ Does not, then, man make use of his whole body? + + _Alcibiades._ Assuredly. + + _Socrates._ Then the man is not the same thing as his body? + + _Alcibiades._ It seems so. + + _Socrates._ What, then, _is_ the man? + + _Alcibiades._ I know not." + + _Plato_, Alcibiades I. + + [51] Thus the grapes pressed by Excesse are partly golden (Spenser, + book ii. cant. 12.): + + "Which did themselves amongst the leaves enfold, + As lurking from the view of covetous guest, + That the weake boughes, with so rich load opprest + Did bow adowne as overburdened." + + [52] The reader must not suppose that the use of gold, in this manner, + is confined to early art. Tintoret, the greatest master of pictorial + effect that ever existed, has gilded the ribs of the fig-leaves in + his "Resurrection," in the Scuola di San Rocco. + + [53] Nothing is more wonderful to me than to hear the pleasure of the + eye, in color, spoken of with disdain as "sensual," while people + exalt that of the ear in music. Do they really suppose the eye is a + less noble bodily organ than the ear,--that the organ by which + nearly all our knowledge of the external universe is communicated to + us, and through which we learn the wonder and the love, can be less + exalted in its own peculiar delight than the ear, which is only for + the communication of the ideas which owe to the eye their very + existence? I do not mean to depreciate music: let it be loved and + reverenced as is just; only let the delight of the eye be reverenced + more. The great power of music over the multitude is owing, not to + its being less but _more_ sensual than color; it is so distinctly + and so richly sensual, that it can be idly enjoyed; it is exactly at + the point where the lower and higher pleasures of the senses and + imagination are balanced; so that pure and great minds love it for + its invention and emotion, and lower minds for its sensual power. + + [54] Vol. II. Appendix 7. + + [55] Louis the Eleventh. "In the month of March, 1481, Louis was + seized with a fit of apoplexy at _St. Benoit-du-lac-mort_, near + Chinon. He remained speechless and bereft of reason three days; and + then but very imperfectly restored, he languished in a miserable + state.... To cure him," says a contemporary historian, "wonderful + and terrible medicines were compounded. It was reported among the + people that his physicians opened the veins of little children, and + made him drink their blood, to correct the poorness of his + own."--_Bussey's History of France._ London, 1850. + + [56] Observe, I call Gothic "Christian" architecture, not + "ecclesiastical." There is a wide difference. I believe it is the + only architecture which Christian men should build, but not at all + an architecture necessarily connected with the services of their + church. + + [57] Mr. Hope's Church, in Margaret Street, Portland Place. I do not + altogether like the arrangements of color in the brickwork; but + these will hardly attract the eye, where so much has been already + done with precious and beautiful marble, and is yet to be done in + fresco. Much will depend, however, upon the coloring of this latter + portion. I wish that either Holman Hunt or Millais could be + prevailed upon to do at least some of these smaller frescoes. + + + + +APPENDIX. + + +1. ARCHITECT OF THE DUCAL PALACE. + +Popular tradition and a large number of the chroniclers ascribe the +building of the Ducal Palace to that Filippo Calendario who suffered +death for his share in the conspiracy of Faliero. He was certainly one +of the leading architects of the time, and had for several years the +superintendence of the works of the Palace; but it appears, from the +documents collected by the Abbe Cadorin, that the first designer of the +Palace, the man to whom we owe the adaptation of the Frari traceries to +civil architecture, was Pietro Baseggio, who is spoken of expressly as +"formerly the Chief Master of our New Palace,"[58] in the decree of +1361, quoted by Cadorin, and who, at his death, left Calendario his +executor. Other documents collected by Zanotto, in his work on "Venezia +e le sue Lagune," show that Calendario was for a long time at sea, under +the commands of the Signory, returning to Venice only three or four +years before his death; and that therefore the entire management of the +works of the Palace, in the most important period, must have been +entrusted to Baseggio. + +It is quite impossible, however, in the present state of the Palace, to +distinguish one architect's work from another in the older parts; and I +have not in the text embarrassed the reader by any attempt at close +definition of epochs before the great junction of the Piazzetta Facade +with the older palace in the fifteenth century. Here, however, it is +necessary that I should briefly state the observations I was able to +make on the relative dates of the earlier portions. + +In the description of the Fig-tree angle, given in the eighth chapter of +Vol. II., I said that it seemed to me somewhat earlier than that of the +Vine, and the reader might be surprised at the apparent opposition of +this statement to my supposition that the Palace was built gradually +round from the Rio Facade to the Piazzetta. But in the two great open +arcades there is no succession of work traceable; from the Vine angle to +the junction with the fifteenth century work, above and below, all seems +nearly of the same date, the only question being of the accidental +precedence of workmanship of one capital or another; and I think, from +its style, that the Fig-tree angle must have been first completed. But +in the upper stories of the Palace there are enormous differences of +style. On the Rio Facade, in the upper story, are several series of +massive windows of the third order, corresponding exactly in mouldings +and manner of workmanship to those of the chapter-house of the Frari, +and consequently carrying us back to a very early date in the fourteenth +century: several of the capitals of these windows, and two richly +sculptured string-courses in the wall below, are of Byzantine +workmanship, and in all probability fragments of the Ziani Palace. The +traceried windows on the Rio Facade, and the two eastern windows on the +Sea Facade, are all of the finest early fourteenth century work, +masculine and noble in their capitals and bases to the highest degree, +and evidently contemporary with the very earliest portions of the lower +arcades. But the moment we come to the windows of the Great Council +Chamber the style is debased. The mouldings are the same, but they are +coarsely worked, and the heads set amidst the leafage of the capitals +quite valueless and vile. + +I have not the least doubt that these window-jambs and traceries were +restored after the great fire;[59] and various other restorations have +taken place since, beginning with the removal of the traceries from all +the windows except the northern one of the Sala del Scrutinio, behind +the Porta della Carta, where they are still left. I made out four +periods of restoration among these windows, each baser than the +preceding. It is not worth troubling the reader about them, but the +traveller who is interested in the subject may compare two of them in +the same window; the one nearer the sea of the two belonging to the +little room at the top of the Palace on the Piazzetta Facade, between +the Sala del Gran Consiglio and that of the Scrutinio. The seaward jamb +of that window is of the first, and the opposite jamb of the second, +period of these restorations. These are all the points of separation in +date which I could discover by internal evidence. But much more might be +made out by any Venetian antiquary whose time permitted him thoroughly +to examine any existing documents which allude to or describe the parts +of the Palace spoken of in the important decrees of 1340, 1342, and +1344; for the first of these decrees speaks of certain "columns looking +towards the Canal"[60] or sea, as then existing, and I presume these +columns to have been part of the Ziani Palace, corresponding to the part +of that palace on the Piazzetta where were the "red columns" between +which Calendario was executed; and a great deal more might be determined +by any one who would thoroughly unravel the obscure language of those +decrees. + +Meantime, in order to complete the evidence respecting the main dates +stated in the text, I have collected here such notices of the building +of the Ducal Palace as appeared to me of most importance in the various +chronicles I examined. I could not give them all in the text, as they +repeat each other, and would have been tedious; but they will be +interesting to the antiquary, and it is to be especially noted in all of +them how the Palazzo _Vecchio_ is invariably distinguished, either +directly or by implication, from the Palazzo Nuovo. I shall first +translate the piece of the Zancarol Chronicle given by Cadorin, which +has chiefly misled the Venetian antiquaries. I wish I could put the rich +old Italian into old English, but must be content to lose its raciness, +as it is necessary that the reader should be fully acquainted with its +facts. + +"It was decreed that none should dare to propose to the Signory of +Venice to ruin the _old_ palace and rebuild it new and more richly, and +there was a penalty of one thousand ducats against any one who should +break it. Then the Doge, wishing to set forward the public good, said to +the Signory, ... that they ought to rebuild the facades of the _old_ +palace, and that it ought to be restored, to do honor to the nation: and +so soon as he had done speaking, the Avogadori demanded the penalty from +the Doge, for having disobeyed the law; and the Doge with ready mind +paid it, remaining in his opinion that the said fabric ought to be +built. And so, in the year 1422, on the 20th day of September, it was +passed in the Council of the Pregadi that the said new palace should be +begun, and the expense should be borne by the Signori del Sal; and so, +on the 24th day of March, 1424, it was begun to throw down the _old_ +palace, and to build it anew."--_Cadorin_, p. 129. + +The day of the month, and the council in which the decree was passed, +are erroneously given by this Chronicle. Cadorin has printed the words +of the decree itself, which passed in the Great Council on the 27th +September: and these words are, fortunately, much to our present +purpose. For as more than one facade is spoken of in the above extract, +the Marchese Selvatico was induced to believe that both the front to the +sea and that to the Piazzetta had been destroyed; whereas, the "facades" +spoken of are evidently those of the Ziani Palace. For the words of the +decree (which are much more trustworthy than those of the Chronicle, +even if there were any inconsistency between them) run thus: "Palatium +nostrum fabricetur et fiat in forma decora et convenienti, quod +respondeat _solemnissimo principio palatii nostri novi_." Thus the new +council chamber and facade to the sea are called the "most venerable +beginning of our _New_ Palace;" and the rest was ordered to be designed +in accordance with these, as was actually the case as far as the Porta +della Carta. But the Renaissance architects who thenceforward proceeded +with the fabric, broke through the design, and built everything else +according to their own humors. + +The question may be considered as set at rest by these words of the +decree, even without any internal or any farther documentary evidence. +But rather for the sake of impressing the facts thoroughly on the +reader's mind, than of any additional proof, I shall quote a few more of +the best accredited Chronicles. + +The passage given by Bettio, from the Sivos Chronicle, is a very +important parallel with that from the Zancarol above: + +"Essendo molto vecchio, e quasi rovinoso el Palazzo sopra la piazza, fo +deliberato di far quella parte tutta da novo, et continuarla com' e +quella della Sala grande, et cosi il Lunedi 27 Marzo 1424 fu dato +principio a ruinare detto Palazzo vecchio dalla parte, ch' e verso +panateria cioe della Giustizia, ch' e nelli occhi di sopra le colonne +fino alla Chiesa et fo fatto anco la porta grande, com' e al presente, +con la sala che si addimanda la Libraria."[61] + +We have here all the facts told us in so many words: the "old palace" is +definitely stated to have been "on the piazza," and it is to be rebuilt +"like the part of the great saloon." The very point from which the newer +buildings commenced is told us; but here the chronicler has carried his +attempt at accuracy too far. The point of junction is, as stated above, +at the third pillar beyond the medallion of Venice; and I am much at a +loss to understand what could have been the disposition of these three +pillars where they joined the Ziani Palace, and how they were connected +with the arcade of the inner cortile. But with these difficulties, as +they do not bear on the immediate question, it is of no use to trouble +the reader. + +The next passage I shall give is from a Chronicle in the Marcian +Library, bearing title, "Supposta di Zancaruol;" but in which I could +not find the passage given by Cadorin from, I believe, a manuscript of +this Chronicle at Vienna. There occurs instead of it the following thus +headed:-- + +"Come _la parte nova_ del Palazzo fuo hedificata _novamente_. + +"El Palazzo novo de Venesia quella parte che xe verso la Chiesia de S. +Marcho fuo prexo chel se fesse del 1422 e fosse pagado la spexa per li +officiali del sal. E fuo fatto per sovrastante G. Nicolo Barberigo cum +provision de ducati X doro al mexe e fuo fabricado e fatto nobelissimo. +Come fin ancho di el sta e fuo grande honor a la Signoria de Venesia e a +la sua Citta." + +This entry, which itself bears no date, but comes between others dated +22nd July and 27th December, is interesting, because it shows the first +transition of the idea of _newness_, from the Grand Council Chamber to +the part built under Foscari. For when Mocenigo's wishes had been +fulfilled, and the old palace of Ziani had been destroyed, and another +built in its stead, the Great Council Chamber, which was "the new +palace" compared with Ziani's, became "the old palace" compared with +Foscari's; and thus we have, in the body of the above extract, the whole +building called "the new palace of Venice;" but in the heading of it, we +have "the new _part_ of the palace" applied to the part built by +Foscari, in contradistinction to the Council Chamber. + +The next entry I give is important, because the writing of the MS. in +which it occurs, No. 53 in the Correr Museum, shows it to be probably +not later than the end of the fifteenth century: + +"El palazo nuovo de Venixia zoe quella parte che se sora la piazza verso +la giesia di Miss. San Marcho del 1422 fo principiado, el qual fo fato e +finito molto belo, chome al presente se vede nobilissimo, et a la +fabricha de quello fo deputado Miss. Nicolo Barberigo, soprastante con +ducati dieci doro al mexe." + +We have here the part built by Foscari distinctly called the Palazzo +Nuovo, as opposed to the Great Council Chamber, which had now completely +taken the position of the Palazzo Vecchio, and is actually so called by +Sansovino. In the copy of the Chronicle of Paolo Morosini, and in the +MSS. numbered respectively 57, 59, 74, and 76 in the Correr Museum, the +passage above given from No. 53 is variously repeated with slight +modifications and curtailments; the entry in the Morosini Chronicle +being headed, "Come fu principiato il palazo che guarda sopra la piaza +grande di S. Marco," and proceeding in the words, "El Palazo Nuovo di +Venetia, cioe quella parte che e sopra la piaza," &c., the writers being +cautious, in all these instances, to _limit their statement_ to the part +facing the Piazza, that no reader might suppose the Council Chamber to +have been built or begun at the same time; though, as long as to the end +of the sixteenth century, we find the Council Chamber still included in +the expression "Palazzo Nuovo." Thus, in the MS. No. 75 in the Correr +Museum, which is about that date, we have "Del 1422, a di 20 Settembre +fu preso nel consegio grando de dover _compir_ el Palazo Novo, e dovesen +fare la spessa li officialli del Sal (61. M. 2. B.)." And, so long as +this is the case, the "Palazzo Vecchio" always means the Ziani Palace. +Thus, in the next page of this same MS. we have "a di 27 Marzo (1424 by +context) fo principia a butar zosso, el _Palazzo Vecchio_ per refarlo da +novo, e poi se he" (and so it is done); and in the MS. No. 81, "Del +1424, fo gittado zoso el _Palazzo Vecchio_ per refarlo de nuovo, a di 27 +Marzo." But in the time of Sansovino the Ziani Palace was quite +forgotten; the Council Chamber was then the _old_ palace, and Foscari's +part was the new. His account of the "Palazzo Publico" will now be +perfectly intelligible; but, as the work itself is easily accessible, I +shall not burden the reader with any farther extracts, only noticing +that the chequering of the facade with red and white marbles, which he +ascribes to Foscari, may or may not be of so late a date, as there is +nothing in the style of the work which can be produced as evidence. + + +2. THEOLOGY OF SPENSER. + +The following analysis of the first books of the "Faerie Queen," may be +interesting to readers who have been in the habit of reading the noble +poem too hastily to connect its parts completely together; and may +perhaps induce them to more careful study of the rest of the poem. + +The Redcrosse Knight is Holiness,--the "Pietas" of St. Mark's, the +"Devotio" of Orcagna,--meaning, I think, in general, Reverence and Godly +Fear. + +This Virtue, in the opening of the book, has Truth (or Una) at its side, +but presently enters the Wandering Wood, and encounters the serpent +Error; that is to say, Error in her universal form, the first enemy of +Reverence and Holiness; and more especially Error as founded on +learning; for when Holiness strangles her, + + "Her vomit _full of bookes and papers was_, + With loathly frogs and toades, which eyes did lacke." + +Having vanquished this first open and palpable form of Error, as +Reverence and Religion must always vanquish it, the Knight encounters +Hypocrisy, or Archimagus; Holiness cannot detect Hypocrisy, but +believes him, and goes home with him; whereupon Hypocrisy succeeds in +separating Holiness from Truth; and the Knight (Holiness) and Lady +(Truth) go forth separately from the house of Archimagus. + +Now observe: the moment Godly Fear, or Holiness, is separated from +Truth, he meets Infidelity, or the Knight Sans Foy; Infidelity having +Falsehood, or Duesa, riding behind him. The instant the Redcrosse Knight +is aware of the attack of Infidelity, he + + "Gan fairly couch his speare, and towards ride." + +He vanquishes and slays Infidelity; but is deceived by his companion, +Falsehood, and takes her for his lady: thus showing the condition of +Religion, when, after being attacked by Doubt, and remaining victorious, +it is nevertheless seduced, by any form of Falsehood, to pay reverence +where it ought not. This, then, is the first fortune of Godly Fear +separated from Truth. The poet then returns to Truth, separated from +Godly Fear. She is immediately attended by a lion, or Violence, which +makes her dreaded wherever she comes; and when she enters the mart of +Superstition, this Lion tears Kirkrapine in pieces: showing how Truth, +separated from Godliness, does indeed put an end to the abuses of +Superstition, but does so violently and desperately. She then meets +again with Hypocrisy, whom she mistakes for her own lord, or Godly Fear, +and travels a little way under his guardianship (Hypocrisy thus not +unfrequently appearing to defend the Truth), until they are both met by +Lawlessness, or the Knight Sans Loy, whom Hypocrisy cannot resist. +Lawlessness overthrows Hypocrisy, and seizes upon Truth, first slaying +her lion attendant: showing that the first aim of licence is to destroy +the force and authority of Truth. Sans Loy then takes Truth captive, and +bears her away. Now this Lawlessness is the "unrighteousness," or +"adikia," of St. Paul; and his bearing Truth away captive, is a type of +those "who hold the truth in unrighteousness,"--that is to say, +generally, of men who, knowing what is true, make the truth give way to +their own purposes, or use it only to forward them, as is the case with +so many of the popular leaders of the present day. Una is then delivered +from Sans Loy by the satyrs, to show that Nature, in the end, must work +out the deliverance of the truth, although, where it has been captive to +Lawlessness, that deliverance can only be obtained through Savageness, +and a return to barbarism. Una is then taken from among the satyrs by +Satyrane, the son of a satyr and a "lady myld, fair Thyamis," (typifying +the early steps of renewed civilization, and its rough and hardy +character "nousled up in life and manners wilde,") who, meeting again +with Sans Loy, enters instantly into rough and prolonged combat with +him: showing how the early organization of a hardy nation must be +wrought out through much discouragement from Lawlessness. This contest +the poet leaving for the time undecided, returns to trace the adventures +of the Redcrosse Knight, or Godly Fear, who, having vanquished +Infidelity, presently is led by Falsehood to the house of Pride: thus +showing how religion, separated from truth, is first tempted by doubts +of God, and then by the pride of life. The description of this house of +Pride is one of the most elaborate and noble pieces in the poem; and +here we begin to get at the proposed system of Virtues and Vices. For +Pride, as queen, has six other vices yoked in her chariot; namely, +first, Idleness, then Gluttony, Lust, Avarice, Envy, and Anger, all +driven on by "Sathan, with a smarting whip in hand." From these lower +vices and their company, Godly Fear, though lodging in the house of +Pride, holds aloof; but he is challenged, and has a hard battle to fight +with Sans Joy, the brother of Sans Foy: showing, that though he has +conquered Infidelity, and does not give himself up to the allurements of +Pride, he is yet exposed, so long as he dwells in her house, to distress +of mind and loss of his accustomed rejoicing before God. He, however, +having partly conquered Despondency, or Sans Joy, Falsehood goes down to +Hades, in order to obtain drugs to maintain the power or life of +Despondency; but, meantime, the Knight leaves the house of Pride: +Falsehood pursues and overtakes him, and finds him by a fountain side, +of which the waters are + + "Dull and slow, + And all that drinke thereof do faint and feeble grow." + +Of which the meaning is, that Godly Fear, after passing through the +house of Pride, is exposed to drowsiness and feebleness of watch; as, +after Peter's boast, came Peter's sleeping, from weakness of the flesh, +and then, last of all, Peter's fall. And so it follows: for the +Redcrosse Knight, being overcome with faintness by drinking of the +fountain, is thereupon attacked by the giant Orgoglio, overcome and +thrown by him into a dungeon. This Orgoglio is Orgueil, or Carnal Pride; +not the pride of life, spiritual and subtle, but the common and vulgar +pride in the power of this world: and his throwing the Redcrosse Knight +into a dungeon, is a type of the captivity of true religion under the +temporal power of corrupt churches, more especially of the Church of +Rome; and of its gradually wasting away in unknown places, while carnal +pride has the preeminence over all things. That Spenser means, +especially, the pride of the Papacy, is shown by the 16th stanza of the +book; for there the giant Orgoglio is said to have taken Duessa, or +Falsehood, for his "deare," and to have set upon her head a triple +crown, and endowed her with royal majesty, and made her to ride upon a +seven-headed beast. + +In the meantime, the dwarf, the attendant of the Redcrosse Knight, takes +his arms, and finding Una tells her of the captivity of her lord. Una, +in the midst of her mourning, meets Prince Arthur, in whom, as Spenser +himself tells us, is set forth generally Magnificence; but who, as is +shown by the choice of the hero's name, is more especially the +magnificence, or literally, "great doing" of the kingdom of England. +This power of England, going forth with Truth, attacks Orgoglio, or the +Pride of Papacy, slays him; strips Duessa, or Falsehood, naked; and +liberates the Redcrosse Knight. The magnificent and well-known +description of Despair follows, by whom the Redcrosse Knight is hard +bested, on account of his past errors and captivity, and is only saved +by Truth, who, perceiving him to be still feeble, brings him to the +house of Coelia, called, in the argument of the canto, Holiness, but +properly, Heavenly Grace, the mother of the Virtues. Her "three +daughters, well up-brought," are Faith, Hope, and Charity. Her porter is +Humility; because Humility opens the door of Heavenly Grace. Zeal and +Reverence are her chamberlains, introducing the new comers to her +presence; her groom, or servant, is Obedience; and her physician, +Patience. Under the commands of Charity, the matron Mercy rules over +her hospital, under whose care the Knight is healed of his sickness; and +it is to be especially noticed how much importance Spenser, though never +ceasing to chastise all hypocrisies and mere observances of form, +attaches to true and faithful _penance_ in effecting this cure. Having +his strength restored to him, the Knight is trusted to the guidance of +Mercy, who, leading him forth by a narrow and thorny way, first +instructs him in the seven works of Mercy, and then leads him to the +hill of Heavenly Contemplation; whence, having a sight of the New +Jerusalem, as Christian of the Delectable Mountains, he goes forth to +the final victory over Satan, the old serpent, with which the book +closes. + + +3. AUSTRIAN GOVERNMENT IN ITALY. + +I cannot close these volumes without expressing my astonishment and +regret at the facility with which the English allow themselves to be +misled by any representations, however openly groundless or ridiculous, +proceeding from the Italian Liberal party, respecting the present +administration of the Austrian Government. I do not choose here to enter +into any political discussion, or express any political opinion; but it +is due to justice to state the simple facts which came under my notice +during my residence in Italy. I was living at Venice through two entire +winters, and in the habit of familiar association both with Italians and +Austrians, my own antiquarian vocations rendering such association +possible without exciting the distrust of either party. During this +whole period, I never once was able to ascertain, from any liberal +Italian, that he had a single _definite_ ground of complaint against the +Government. There was much general grumbling and vague discontent; but I +never was able to bring one of them to the point, or to discover what it +was that they wanted, or in what way they felt themselves injured; nor +did I ever myself witness an instance of oppression on the part of the +Government, though several of much kindness and consideration. The +indignation of those of my own countrymen and countrywomen whom I +happened to see during their sojourn in Venice was always vivid, but by +no means large in its grounds. English ladies on their first arrival +invariably began the conversation with the same remark: "What a +dreadful thing it was to be ground under the iron heel of despotism!" +Upon closer inquiries it always appeared that being "ground under the +heel of despotism" was a poetical expression for being asked for one's +passport at San Juliano, and required to fetch it from San Lorenzo, full +a mile and a quarter distant. In like manner, travellers, after two or +three days' residence in the city, used to return with pitiful +lamentations over "the misery of the Italian people." Upon inquiring +what instances they had met with of this misery, it invariably turned +out that their gondoliers, after being paid three times their proper +fare, had asked for something to drink, and had attributed the fact of +their being thirsty to the Austrian Government. The misery of the +Italians consists in having three festa days a week, and doing in their +days of exertion about one fourth as much work as an English laborer. + +There is, indeed, much true distress occasioned by the measures which +the Government is sometimes compelled to take in order to repress +sedition; but the blame of this lies with those whose occupation is the +excitement of sedition. So also there is much grievous harm done to +works of art by the occupation of the country by so large an army; but +for the mode in which that army is quartered, the Italian municipalities +are answerable, not the Austrians. Whenever I was shocked by finding, as +above-mentioned at Milan, a cloister, or a palace, occupied by soldiery, +I always discovered, on investigation, that the place had been given by +the municipality; and that, beyond requiring that lodging for a certain +number of men should be found in such and such a quarter of the town, +the Austrians had nothing to do with the matter. This does not, however, +make the mischief less: and it is strange, if we think of it, to see +Italy, with all her precious works of art, made a continual +battle-field; as if no other place for settling their disputes could be +found by the European powers, than where every random shot may destroy +what a king's ransom cannot restore.[62] It is exactly as if the +tumults in Paris could he settled no otherwise than by fighting them out +in the Gallery of the Louvre. + + +4. DATE OF THE PALACES OF THE BYZANTINE RENAISSANCE. + +In the sixth article of the Appendix to the first volume, the question +of the date of the Casa Dario and Casa Trevisan was deferred until I +could obtain from my friend Mr. Rawdon Brown, to whom the former palace +once belonged, some more distinct data respecting this subject than I +possessed myself. + +Speaking first of the Casa Dario, he says: "Fontana dates it from about +the year 1450, and considers it the earliest specimen of the +architecture founded by Pietro Lombardo, and followed by his sons, +Tullio and Antonio. In a Sanuto autograph miscellany, purchased by me +long ago, and which I gave to St. Mark's Library, are two letters from +Giovanni Dario, dated 10th and 11th July, 1485, in the neighborhood of +Adrianople; where the Turkish camp found itself, and Bajazet II. +received presents from the Soldan of Egypt, from the Schah of the Indies +(query Grand Mogul), and from the King of Hungary: of these matters, +Dario's letters give many curious details. Then, in the _printed_ +Malipiero Annals, page 136 (which err, I think, by a year), the +Secretary Dario's negotiations at the Porte are alluded to; and in date +of 1484 he is stated to have returned to Venice, having quarrelled with +the Venetian bailiff at Constantinople: the annalist adds, that +'Giovanni Dario was a native of Candia, and that the Republic was so +well satisfied with him for having concluded peace with Bajazet, that he +received, as a gift from his country, an estate at Noventa, in the +Paduan territory, worth 1500 ducats, and 600 ducats in cash for the +dower of one of his daughters.' These largesses probably enabled him to +build his house about the year 1486, and are doubtless hinted at in the +inscription, which I restored A.D. 1837; _it had no date_, and ran thus, +URBIS . GENIO . JOANNES . DARIVS. In the Venetian history of Paolo +Morosini, page 594, it is also mentioned, that Giovanni Dario was, +moreover, the Secretary who concluded the peace between Mahomet, the +conqueror of Constantinople, and Venice, A.D. 1478; but, unless he build +his house by proxy, that date has nothing to do with it; and in my mind, +the fact of the present, and the inscription, warrant one's dating it +1486, and not 1450. + +"The Trevisan-Cappello House, in Canonica, was once the property (A.D. +1578) of a Venetian dame, fond of cray-fish, according to a letter of +hers in the archives, whereby she thanks one of her lovers for some +which he had sent her from Treviso to Florence, of which she was then +Grand Duchess. Her name has perhaps found its way into the English +annuals. Did you ever hear of Bianca Cappello? She bought that house of +the Trevisana family, by whom Selva (in Cicognara) and Fontana +(following Selva) say it was ordered of the Lombardi, at the +commencement of the sixteenth century: but the inscription on its +facade, thus, + + SOLI | | HONOR. ET + DEO | | GLORIA. + +reminding one both of the Dario House, and of the words NON NOBIS DOMINE +inscribed on the facade of the Loredano Vendramin Palace at S. Marcuola +(now the property of the Duchess of Berri), of which Selva found proof +in the Vendramin Archives that it was commenced by Sante Lombardo, A.D. +1481, is in favor of its being classed among the works of the fifteenth +century." + + +5. RENAISSANCE SIDE OF DUCAL PALACE. + +In passing along the Rio del Palazzo the traveller ought especially to +observe the base of the Renaissance building, formed by alternately +depressed and raised pyramids, the depressed portions being _casts_ of +the projecting ones, which are truncated on the summits. The work cannot +be called rustication, for it is cut as sharply and delicately as a +piece of ivory, but it thoroughly answers the end which rustication +proposes, and misses: it gives the base of the building a look of +crystalline hardness, actually resembling, and that very closely, the +appearance presented by the fracture of a piece of cap quartz; while yet +the light and shade of its alternate recesses and projections are so +varied as to produce the utmost possible degree of delight to the eye, +attainable by a geometrical pattern so simple. Yet, with all this high +merit, it is not a base which could be brought into general use. Its +brilliancy and piquancy are here set off with exquisite skill by its +opposition to mouldings, in the upper part of the building, of an almost +effeminate delicacy, and its complexity is rendered delightful by its +contrast with the ruder bases of the other buildings of the city; but it +would look meagre if it were employed to sustain bolder masses above, +and would become wearisome if the eye were once thoroughly familiarized +with it by repetition. + + +6. CHARACTER OF THE DOGE MICHELE MOROSINI. + +The following extracts from the letter of Count Charles Morosini, above +mentioned, appear to set the question at rest. + +"It is our unhappy destiny that, during the glory of the Venetian +republic, no one took the care to leave us a faithful and conscientious +history: but I hardly know whether this misfortune should be laid to the +charge of the historians themselves, or of those commentators who have +destroyed their trustworthiness by new accounts of things, invented by +themselves. As for the poor Morosini, we may perhaps save his honor by +assembling a conclave of our historians, in order to receive their +united sentence; for, in this case, he would have the absolute majority +on his side, nearly all the authors bearing testimony to his love for +his country and to the magnanimity of his heart. I must tell you that +the history of Daru is not looked upon with esteem by well-informed men; +and it is said that he seems to have no other object in view than to +obscure the glory of all actions. I know not on what authority the +English writer depends; but he has, perhaps, merely copied the statement +of Daru.... I have consulted an ancient and authentic MS. belonging to +the Venieri family, a MS. well known, and certainly better worthy of +confidence than Daru's history, and it says nothing of M. Morosini but +that he was elected Doge to the delight and joy of all men. Neither do +the Savina or Dolfin Chronicles say a word of the shameful speculation; +and our best informed men say that the reproach cast by some historians +against the Doge perhaps arose from a mistaken interpretation of the +words pronounced by him, and reported by Marin Sanuto, that 'the +speculation would sooner or later have been advantageous to the +country.' But this single consideration is enough to induce us to form a +favorable conclusion respecting the honor of this man, namely, that he +was not elected Doge until after he had been entrusted with many +honorable embassies to the Genoese and Carrarese, as well as to the King +of Hungary and Amadeus of Savoy; and if in these embassies he had not +shown himself a true lover of his country, the republic not only would +not again have entrusted him with offices so honorable, but would never +have rewarded him with the dignity of Doge, therein to succeed such a +man as Andrea Contarini; and the war of Chioggia, during which it is +said that he tripled his fortune by speculations, took place during the +reign of Contarini, 1379, 1380, while Morosini was absent on foreign +embassies." + + +7. MODERN EDUCATION. + +The following fragmentary notes on this subject have been set down at +different times. I have been accidentally prevented from arranging them +properly for publication, but there are one or two truths in them which +it is better to express insufficiently than not at all. + + * * * * * + +By a large body of the people of England and of Europe a man is called +educated if he can write Latin verses and construe a Greek chorus. By +some few more enlightened persons it is confessed that the construction +of hexameters is not in itself an important end of human existence; but +they say, that the general discipline which a course of classical +reading gives to the intellectual powers, is the final object of our +scholastical institutions. + +But it seems to me, there is no small error even in this last and more +philosophical theory. I believe, that what it is most honorable to know, +it is also most profitable to learn; and that the science which it is +the highest power to possess, it is also the best exercise to acquire. + +And if this be so, the question as to what should be the materiel of +education, becomes singularly simplified. It might be matter of dispute +what processes have the greatest effect in developing the intellect; but +it can hardly be disputed what facts it is most advisable that a man +entering into life should accurately know. + +I believe, in brief, that he ought to know three things: + + First. Where he is. + Secondly. Where he is going. + Thirdly. What he had best do, under those circumstances. + +First. Where he is.--That is to say, what sort of a world he has got +into; how large it is; what kind of creatures live in it, and how; what +it is made of, and what may be made of it. + +Secondly. Where he is going.--That is to say, what chances or reports +there are of any other world besides this; what seems to be the nature +of that other world; and whether, for information respecting it, he had +better consult the Bible, Koran, or Council of Trent. + +Thirdly. What he had best do under those circumstances.--That is to say, +what kind of faculties he possesses; what are the present state and +wants of mankind; what is his place in society; and what are the +readiest means in his power of attaining happiness and diffusing it. The +man who knows these things, and who has had his will so subdued in the +learning them, that he is ready to do what he knows he ought, I should +call educated; and the man who knows them not,--uneducated, though he +could talk all the tongues of Babel. + +Our present European system of so-called education ignores, or despises, +not one, nor the other, but all the three, of these great branches of +human knowledge. + +First: It despises Natural History.--Until within the last year or two, +the instruction in the physical sciences given at Oxford consisted of a +course of twelve or fourteen lectures on the Elements of Mechanics or +Pneumatics, and permission to ride out to Shotover with the Professor of +Geology. I do not know the specialties of the system pursued in the +academies of the Continent; but their practical result is, that unless a +man's natural instincts urge him to the pursuit of the physical sciences +too strongly to be resisted, he enters into life utterly ignorant of +them. I cannot, within my present limits, even so much as count the +various directions in which this ignorance does evil. But the main +mischief of it is, that it leaves the greater number of men without the +natural food which God intended for their intellects. For one man who is +fitted for the study of words, fifty are fitted for the study of things, +and were intended to have a perpetual, simple, and religious delight in +watching the processes, or admiring the creatures, of the natural +universe. Deprived of this source of pleasure, nothing is left to them +but ambition or dissipation; and the vices of the upper classes of +Europe are, I believe, chiefly to be attributed to this single cause. + +Secondly: It despises Religion.--I do not say it despises "Theology," +that is to say, _Talk_ about God. But it despises "Religion;" that is to +say, the "binding" or training to God's service. There is much talk and +much teaching in all our academies, of which the effect is not to bind, +but to loosen, the elements of religious faith. Of the ten or twelve +young men who, at Oxford, were my especial friends, who sat with me +under the same lectures on Divinity, or were punished with me for +missing lecture by being sent to evening prayers,[63] four are now +zealous Romanists,--a large average out of twelve; and while thus our +own universities profess to teach Protestantism, and do not, the +universities on the Continent profess to teach Romanism, and do +not,--sending forth only rebels and infidels. During long residence on +the Continent, I do not remember meeting with above two or three young +men, who either believed in revelation, or had the grace to hesitate in +the assertion of their infidelity. + +Whence, it seems to me, we may gather one of two things; either that +there is nothing in any European form of religion so reasonable or +ascertained, as that it can be taught securely to our youth, or fastened +in their minds by any rivets of proof which they shall not be able to +loosen the moment they begin to think; or else, that no means are taken +to train them in such demonstrable creeds. + +It seems to me the duty of a rational nation to ascertain (and to be at +some pains in the matter) which of these suppositions is true; and, if +indeed no proof can be given of any supernatural fact, or Divine +doctrine, stronger than a youth just out of his teens can overthrow in +the first stirrings of serious thought, to confess this boldly; to get +rid of the expense of an Establishment, and the hypocrisy of a Liturgy; +to exhibit its cathedrals as curious memorials of a by-gone +superstition, and, abandoning all thoughts of the next world, to set +itself to make the best it can of this. + +But if, on the other hand, there _does_ exist any evidence by which the +probability of certain religious facts may be shown, as clearly, even, +as the probabilities of things not absolutely ascertained in +astronomical or geological science, let this evidence be set before all +our youth so distinctly, and the facts for which it appears inculcated +upon them so steadily, that although it may be possible for the evil +conduct of after life to efface, or for its earnest and protracted +meditation to modify, the impressions of early years, it may not be +possible for our young men, the instant they emerge from their +academies, to scatter themselves like a flock of wild fowl risen out of +a marsh, and drift away on every irregular wind of heresy and apostasy. + +Lastly: Our system of European education despises Politics.--That is to +say, the science of the relations and duties of men to each other. One +would imagine, indeed, by a glance at the state of the world, that there +was no such science. And, indeed, it is one still in its infancy. + +It implies, in its full sense, the knowledge of the operations of the +virtues and vices of men upon themselves and society; the understanding +of the ranks and offices of their intellectual and bodily powers in +their various adaptations to art, science, and industry; the +understanding of the proper offices of art, science, and labor +themselves, as well as of the foundations of jurisprudence, and broad +principles of commerce; all this being coupled with practical knowledge +of the present state and wants of mankind. + +What, it will be said, and is all this to be taught to schoolboys? No; +but the first elements of it, all that are necessary to be known by an +individual in order to his acting wisely in any station of life, might +be taught, not only to every schoolboy, but to every peasant. The +impossibility of equality among men; the good which arises from their +inequality; the compensating circumstances in different states and +fortunes; the honorableness of every man who is worthily filling his +appointed place in society, however humble; the proper relations of poor +and rich, governor and governed; the nature of wealth, and mode of its +circulation; the difference between productive and unproductive labor; +the relation of the products of the mind and hand; the true value of +works of the higher arts, and the possible amount of their production; +the meaning of "Civilization," its advantages and dangers; the meaning +of the term "Refinement;" the possibilities of possessing refinement in +a low station, and of losing it in a high one; and, above all, the +significance of almost every act of a man's daily life, in its ultimate +operation upon himself and others;--all this might be, and ought to be, +taught to every boy in the kingdom, so completely, that it should be +just as impossible to introduce an absurd or licentious doctrine among +our adult population, as a new version of the multiplication table. Nor +am I altogether without hope that some day it may enter into the heads +of the tutors of our schools to try whether it is not as easy to make an +Eton boy's mind as sensitive to falseness in policy, as his ear is at +present to falseness in prosody. + +I know that this is much to hope. That English ministers of religion +should ever come to desire rather to make a youth acquainted with the +powers of nature and of God, than with the powers of Greek particles; +that they should ever think it more useful to show him how the great +universe rolls upon its course in heaven, than how the syllables are +fitted in a tragic metre; that they should hold it more advisable for +him to be fixed in the principles of religion than in those of syntax; +or, finally, that they should ever come to apprehend that a youth likely +to go straight out of college into parliament, might not unadvisably +know as much of the Peninsular as of the Peloponnesian War, and be as +well acquainted with the state of Modern Italy as of old Etruria;--all +this however unreasonably, I _do_ hope, and mean to work for. For though +I have not yet abandoned all expectation of a better world than this, I +believe this in which we live is not so good as it might be. I know +there are many people who suppose French revolutions, Italian +insurrections, Caffre wars, and such other scenic effects of modern +policy, to be among the normal conditions of humanity. I know there are +many who think the atmosphere of rapine, rebellion, and misery which +wraps the lower orders of Europe more closely every day, is as natural a +phenomenon as a hot summer. But God forbid! There are ills which flesh +is heir to, and troubles to which man is born; but the troubles which he +is born to are as sparks which fly _upward_, not as flames burning to +the nethermost Hell. The Poor we must have with us always, and sorrow is +inseparable from any hour of life; but we may make their poverty such as +shall inherit the earth, and the sorrow, such as shall be hallowed by +the hand of the Comforter, with everlasting comfort. We _can_, if we +will but shake off this lethargy and dreaming that is upon us, and take +the pains to think and act like men, we can, I say, make kingdoms to be +like well-governed households, in which, indeed, while no care or +kindness can prevent occasional heart-burnings, nor any foresight or +piety anticipate all the vicissitudes of fortune, or avert every stroke +of calamity, yet the unity of their affection and fellowship remains +unbroken, and their distress is neither embittered by division, +prolonged by imprudence, nor darkened by dishonor. + + * * * * * + +The great leading error of modern times is the mistaking erudition for +education. I call it the leading error, for I believe that, with little +difficulty, nearly every other might be shown to have root in it; and, +most assuredly, the worst that are fallen into on the subject of art. + +Education then, briefly, is the leading human souls to what is best, and +making what is best out of them; and these two objects are always +attainable together, and by the same means; the training which makes men +happiest in themselves, also makes them most serviceable to others. True +education, then, has respect, first to the ends which are proposable to +the man, or attainable by him; and, secondly, to the material of which +the man is made. So far as it is able, it chooses the end according to +the material: but it cannot always choose the end, for the position of +many persons in life is fixed by necessity; still less can it choose +the material; and, therefore, all it can do, is to fit the one to the +other as wisely as may be. + +But the first point to be understood, is that the material is as various +as the ends; that not only one man is unlike another, but _every_ man is +essentially different from _every_ other, so that no training, no +forming, nor informing, will ever make two persons alike in thought or +in power. Among all men, whether of the upper or lower orders, the +differences are eternal and irreconcilable, between one individual and +another, born under absolutely the same circumstances. One man is made +of agate, another of oak; one of slate, another of clay. The education +of the first is polishing; of the second, seasoning; of the third, +rending; of the fourth, moulding. It is of no use to season the agate; +it is vain to try to polish the slate; but both are fitted, by the +qualities they possess, for services in which they may be honored. + +Now the cry for the education of the lower classes, which is heard every +day more widely and loudly, is a wise and a sacred cry, provided it be +extended into one for the education of _all_ classes, with definite +respect to the work each man has to do, and the substance of which he is +made. But it is a foolish and vain cry, if it be understood, as in the +plurality of cases it is meant to be, for the expression of mere craving +after knowledge, irrespective of the simple purposes of the life that +now is, and blessings of that which is to come. + +One great fallacy into which men are apt to fall when they are reasoning +on this subject is: that light, as such, is always good; and darkness, +as such, always evil. Far from it. Light untempered would be +annihilation. It is good to them that sit in darkness and in the shadow +of death; but, to those that faint in the wilderness, so also is the +shadow of the great rock in a weary land. If the sunshine is good, so +also the cloud of the latter rain. Light is only beautiful, only +available for life, when it is tempered with shadow; pure light is +fearful, and unendurable by humanity. And it is not less ridiculous to +say that the light, as such, is good in itself, than to say that the +darkness is good in itself. Both are rendered safe, healthy, and useful +by the other; the night by the day, the day by the night; and we could +just as easily live without the dawn as without the sunset, so long as +we are human. Of the celestial city we are told there shall be "no night +there," and then we shall know even as also we are known: but the night +and the mystery have both their service here; and our business is not to +strive to turn the night into day, but to be sure that we are as they +that watch for the morning. + +Therefore, in the education either of lower or upper classes, it matters +not the least how much or how little they know, provided they know just +what will fit them to do their work, and to be happy in it. What the sum +or the nature of their knowledge ought to be at a given time or in a +given case, is a totally different question: the main thing to be +understood is, that a man is not educated, in any sense whatsoever, +because he can read Latin, or write English, or can behave well in a +drawingroom; but that he is only educated if he is happy, busy, +beneficent, and effective in the world; that millions of peasants are +therefore at this moment better educated than most of those who call +themselves gentlemen; and that the means taken to "educate" the lower +classes in any other sense may very often be productive of a precisely +opposite result. + +Observe: I do not say, nor do I believe, that the lower classes ought +not to be better educated, in millions of ways, than they are. I believe +_every man in a Christian kingdom ought to be equally well educated_. +But I would have it education to purpose; stern, practical, +irresistible, in moral habits, in bodily strength and beauty, in all +faculties of mind capable of being developed under the circumstances of +the individual, and especially in the technical knowledge of his own +business; but yet, infinitely various in its effort, directed to make +one youth humble, and another confident; to tranquillize this mind, to +put some spark of ambition into that; now to urge, and now to restrain: +and in the doing of all this, considering knowledge as one only out of +myriads of means in its hands, or myriads of gifts at its disposal; and +giving it or withholding it as a good husbandman waters his garden, +giving the full shower only to the thirsty plants, and at times when +they are thirsty, whereas at present we pour it upon the heads of our +youth as the snow falls on the Alps, on one and another alike, till they +can bear no more, and then take honor to ourselves because here and +there a river descends from their crests into the valleys, not +observing that we have made the loaded hills themselves barren for ever. + +Finally: I hold it for indisputable, that the first duty of a state is +to see that every child born therein shall be well housed, clothed, fed, +and educated, till it attain years of discretion. But in order to the +effecting this, the government must have an authority over the people of +which we now do not so much as dream; and I cannot in this place pursue +the subject farther. + + +8. EARLY VENETIAN MARRIAGES. + +Galliciolli, lib. ii. Sec. 1757, insinuates a doubt of the general custom, +saying "it would be more reasonable to suppose that only twelve maidens +were married in public on St. Mark's day;" and Sandi also speaks of +twelve only. All evidence, however, is clearly in favor of the popular +tradition; the most curious fact connected with the subject being the +mention, by Herodotus, of the mode of marriage practised among the +Illyrian "Veneti" of his time, who presented their maidens for marriage +on one day in each year; and, with the price paid for those who were +beautiful, gave dowries to those who had no personal attractions. + +It is very curious to find the traces of this custom existing, though in +a softened form, in Christian times. Still, I admit that there is little +confidence to be placed in the mere concurrence of the Venetian +Chroniclers, who, for the most part, copied from each other: but the +best and most complete account I have read, is that quoted by +Galliciolli from the "Matricola de' Casseleri," written in 1449; and, in +that account, the words are quite unmistakable. "It was anciently the +custom of Venice, that _all the brides_ (novizze) of Venice, when they +married, should be married by the bishop, in the Church of S. Pietro di +Castello, on St. Mark's day, which is the 31st of January." Rogers quotes +Navagiero to the same effect; and Sansovino is more explicit still. "It +was the custom to contract marriages openly; and when the deliberations +were completed, the damsels assembled themselves in St. Pietro di +Castello, for the feast of St. Mark, in February." + + +9. CHARACTER OF THE VENETIAN ARISTOCRACY. + +The following noble answer of a Venetian ambassador, Giustiniani, on the +occasion of an insult offered him at the court of Henry the Eighth, is +as illustrative of the dignity which there yet remained in the character +and thoughts of the Venetian noble, as descriptive, in few words, of the +early faith and deeds of his nation. He writes thus to the Doge, from +London, on the 15th of April, 1516: + +"By my last, in date of the 30th ult., I informed you that the +countenances of some of these lords evinced neither friendship nor +goodwill, and that much language had been used to me of a nature +bordering not merely on arrogance, but even on outrage; and not having +specified this in the foregoing letters, I think fit now to mention it +in detail. Finding myself at the court, and talking familiarly about +other matters, two lay lords, great personages in this kingdom, inquired +of me 'whence it came that your Excellency was of such slippery faith, +now favoring one party and then the other?' Although these words ought +to have irritated me, I answered them with all discretion, 'that you did +keep, and ever had kept your faith; the maintenance of which has placed +you in great trouble, and subjected you to wars of longer duration than +you would otherwise have experienced; descending to particulars in +justification of your Sublimity.' Whereupon one of them replied, '_Isti +Veneti sunt piscatores._'[64] Marvellous was the command I then had over +myself in not giving vent to expressions which might have proved +injurious to your Signory; and with extreme moderation I rejoined, 'that +had he been at Venice, and seen our Senate, and the Venetian nobility, +he perhaps would not speak thus; and moreover, were he well read in our +history, both concerning the origin of our city and the grandeur of your +Excellency's feats, neither the one nor the other would seem to him +those of fishermen; yet,' said I, 'did fishermen found the Christian +faith, and we have been those fishermen who defended it against the +forces of the Infidel, our fishing-boats being galleys and ships, our +hooks the treasure of St. Mark, and our bait the life-blood of our +citizens, who died for the Christian faith.'" + +I take this most interesting passage from a volume of despatches +addressed from London to the Signory of Venice, by the ambassador +Giustiniani, during the years 1516-1519; despatches not only full of +matters of historical interest, but of the most delightful every-day +description of all that went on at the English court. They were +translated by Mr. Brown from the original letters, and will, I believe, +soon be published, and I hope also, read and enjoyed: for I cannot close +these volumes without expressing a conviction, which has long been +forcing itself upon my mind, that _restored_ history is of little more +value than restored painting or architecture; that the only history +worth reading is that written at the time of which it treats, the +history of what was done and seen, heard out of the mouths of the men +who did and saw. One fresh draught of such history is worth more than a +thousand volumes of abstracts, and reasonings, and suppositions, and +theories; and I believe that, as we get wiser, we shall take little +trouble about the history of nations who have left no distinct records +of themselves, but spend our time only in the examination of the +faithful documents which, in any period of the world, have been left, +either in the form of art or literature, portraying the scenes, or +recording the events, which in those days were actually passing before +the eyes of men. + + +10. FINAL APPENDIX. + +The statements respecting the dates of Venetian buildings made +throughout the preceding pages, are founded, as above stated, on careful +and personal examination of all the mouldings, or other features +available as evidence, of every palace of importance in the city. Three +parts, at least, of the time occupied in the completion of the work have +been necessarily devoted to the collection of these evidences, of which +it would be quite useless to lay the mass before the reader; but of +which the leading points must be succinctly stated, in order to show the +nature of my authority for any of the conclusions expressed in the text. + +I have therefore collected in the plates which illustrate this article +of the Appendix, for the examination of any reader who may be interested +by them, as many examples of the evidence-bearing details as are +sufficient for the proof required, especially including all the +exceptional forms; so that the reader may rest assured that if I had +been able to lay before him all the evidence in my possession, it would +have been still more conclusive than the portion now submitted to him. + +[Illustration: Plate V. + BYZANTINE BASES.] + +We must examine in succession the Bases, Doorways and Jambs, Capitals, +Archivolts, Cornices, and Tracery Bars, of Venetian architecture. + + + _I. Bases._ + +The principal points we have to notice are the similarity and simplicity +of the Byzantine bases in general, and the distinction between those of +Torcello and Murano, and of St. Mark's, as tending to prove the early +dates attributed in the text to the island churches. I have sufficiently +illustrated the forms of the Gothic bases in Plates X., XI., and XIII. +of the first volume, so that I here note chiefly the Byzantine or +Romanesque ones, adding two Gothic forms for the sake of comparison. + +The most characteristic examples, then, are collected in Plate V. +opposite; namely: + + 1, 2, 3, 4. In the upper gallery of apse of Murano. + 5. Lower shafts of apse. Murano. + 6. Casa Falier. + 7. Small shafts of panels. Casa Farsetti. + 8. Great shafts and plinth. Casa Farsetti. + 9. Great lower shafts. Fondaco de' Turchi. + 10. Ducal Palace, upper arcade. + PLATE V. 11. General late Gothic form. + Vol. III. 12. Tomb of Dogaressa Vital Michele, in St. Mark's atrium. + 13. Upper arcade of Madonnetta House. + 14. Rio-Foscari House. + 15. Upper arcade. Terraced House. + 16, 17, 18. Nave. Torcello. + 19, 20. Transepts. St. Mark's. + 21. Nave. St. Mark's. + 22. External pillars of northern portico. St. Mark's. + 23, 24. Clustered pillars of northern portico. St. Mark's. + 25, 26. Clustered pillars of southern portico. St. Mark's. + +Now, observe, first, the enormous difference in style between the bases +1 to 5, and the rest in the upper row, that is to say, between the bases +of Murano and the twelfth and thirteenth century bases of Venice; and, +secondly, the difference between the bases 16 to 20 and the rest in the +lower row, that is to say, between the bases of Torcello (with those of +St. Mark's which belong to the nave, and which may therefore be supposed +to be part of the earlier church), and the later ones of the St. Mark's +Facade. + +Secondly: Note the fellowship between 5 and 6, one of the evidences of +the early date of the Casa Falier. + +Thirdly: Observe the slurring of the upper roll into the cavetto, in 13, +14, and 15, and the consequent relationship established between three +most important buildings, the Rio-Foscari House, Terraced House, and +Madonnetta House. + +Fourthly: Byzantine bases, if they have an incision between the upper +roll and cavetto, are very apt to approach the form of fig. 23, in which +the upper roll is cut out of the flat block, and the ledge beneath it is +sloping. Compare Nos. 7, 8, 9, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26. On the other +hand, the later Gothic base, 11, has always its upper roll well +developed, and, generally, the fillet between it and the cavetto +vertical. The sloping fillet is indeed found down to late periods; and +the vertical fillet, as in No. 12, in Byzantine ones; but still, when a +base has such a sloping fillet and peculiarly graceful sweeping cavetto, +as those of No. 10, looking as if they would run into one line with each +other, it is strong presumptive evidence of its belonging to an early, +rather than a late period. + +The base 12 is the boldest example I could find of the exceptional form +in early times; but observe, in this, that the upper roll is larger than +the lower. This is _never_ the case in late Gothic, where the proportion +is always as in fig. 11. Observe that in Nos. 8 and 9 the upper rolls +are at least as large as the lower, an important evidence of the dates +of the Casa Farsetti and Fondaco de' Turchi. + +Lastly: Note the peculiarly steep profile of No. 22, with reference to +what is said of this base in Vol. II. Appendix 9. + + + _II. Doorways and Jambs._ + +The entrances to St. Mark's consist, as above mentioned, of great +circular or ogee porches; underneath which the real open entrances, in +which the valves of the bronze doors play, are square headed. + +[Illustration: Fig. I.] + +The mouldings of the jambs of these doors are highly curious, and the +most characteristic are therefore represented in one view. The outsides +of the jambs are lowest. + + _a_. Northern lateral door. + _b_. First northern door of the facade. + _c_. Second door of the facade. + _d_. Fourth door of the facade. + _e_. Central door of the facade. + +I wish the reader especially to note the arbitrary character of the +curves and incisions; all evidently being drawn by hand, none being +segments of circles, none like another, none influenced by any visible +law. I do not give these mouldings as beautiful; they are, for the most +part, very poor in effect, but they are singularly characteristic of the +free work of the time. + +The kind of door to which these mouldings belong, is shown, with the +other groups of doors, in Plate XIV. Vol. II. fig. 6 _a_. Then 6 _b_, 6 +_c_, 6 _d_ represent the groups of doors in which the Byzantine +influence remained energetic, admitting slowly the forms of the pointed +Gothic; 7 _a_, with the gable above, is the intermediate group between +the Byzantine and Gothic schools; 7 _b_, 7 _c_, 7 _d_, 7 _e_ are the +advanced guards of the Gothic and Lombardic invasions, representative of +a large number of thirteenth century arcades and doors. Observe that 6 +_d_ is shown to be of a late school by its finial, and 6 _e_ of the +latest school by its finial, complete ogee arch (instead of round or +pointed), and abandonment of the lintel. + +These examples, with the exception of 6 _a_, which is a general form, +are all actually existing doors; namely: + + 6 _b._ In the Fondamenta Venier, near St. Maria della Salute. + 6 _c._ In the Calle delle Botteri, between the Rialto and San Cassan. + 6 _d._ Main door of San Gregorio. + 6 _e._ Door of a palace in Rio San Paternian. + 7 _a._ Door of a small courtyard near house of Marco Polo. + 7 _b._ Arcade in narrow canal, at the side of Casa Barbaro. + 7 _c._ At the turn of the canal, close to the Ponte dell' Angelo. + 7 _d._ In Rio San Paternian (a ruinous house). + 7 _e._ At the turn of the canal on which the Sotto Portico della Stua + opens, near San Zaccaria. + +If the reader will take a magnifying glass to the figure 6 _d_, he will +see that its square ornaments, of which, in the real door, each contains +a rose, diminish to the apex of the arch; a very interesting and +characteristic circumstance, showing the subtle feeling of the Gothic +builders. They must needs diminish the ornamentation, in order to +sympathize with the delicacy of the point of the arch. The magnifying +glass will also show the Bondumieri shield in No. 7 _d_, and the Leze +shield in No. 7 _e_, both introduced on the keystones in the grand early +manner. The mouldings of these various doors will be noticed under the +head Archivolt. + +[Illustration: Plate VI. + BYZANTINE JAMBS.] + +Now, throughout the city we find a number of doors resembling the square +doors of St. Mark, and occurring with rare exceptions either in +buildings of the Byzantine period, or imbedded in restored houses; +never, in a single instance, forming a connected portion of any late +building; and they therefore furnish a most important piece of evidence, +wherever they are part of the original structure of a _Gothic_ building, +that such building is one of the advanced guards of the Gothic school, +and belongs to its earliest period. + +On Plate VI., opposite, are assembled all the important examples I could +find in Venice of these mouldings. The reader will see at a glance their +peculiar character, and unmistakable likeness to each other. The +following are the references: + + 1. Door in Calle Mocenigo. + 2. Angle of tomb of Dogaressa Vital Michele. + 3. Door in Sotto Portico, St. Apollonia (near Ponte di + Canonica). + 4. Door in Calle della Verona (another like it is close by). + 5. Angle of tomb of Doge Marino Morosini. + 6, 7. Door in Calle Mocenigo. + 8. Door in Campo S. Margherita. + Plate VI. 9. Door at Traghetto San Samuele, on south side of Grand + Vol. III. Canal. + 10. Door at Ponte St. Toma. + 11. Great door of Church of Servi. + 12. In Calle della Chiesa, Campo San Filippo e Giacomo. + 13. Door of house in Calle di Rimedio (Vol. II.). + 14. Door in Fondaco de' Turchi. + 15. Door in Fondamenta Malcanton, near Campo S. Margherita. + 16. Door in south side of Canna Reggio. + 17, 18. Doors in Sotto Portico dei Squellini. + +The principal points to be noted in these mouldings are their curious +differences of level, as marked by the dotted lines, more especially in +14, 15, 16, and the systematic projection of the outer or lower +mouldings in 16, 17, 18. Then, as points of evidence, observe that 1 is +the jamb and 6 the archivolt (7 the angle on a larger scale) of the +brick door given in my folio work from Ramo di rimpetto Mocenigo, one of +the evidences of the early date of that door; 8 is the jamb of the door +in Campo Santa Margherita (also given in my folio work), fixing the +early date of that also; 10 is from a Gothic door opening off the Ponte +St. Toma; and 11 is also from a Gothic building. All the rest are from +Byzantine work, or from ruins. The angle of the tomb of Marino Morosini +(5) is given for comparison only. + +The doors with the mouldings 17, 18, are from the two ends of a small +dark passage, called the Sotto Portico dei Squellini, opening near Ponte +Cappello, on the Rio-Marin: 14 is the outside one, arranged as usual, +and at _a_, in the rough stone, are places for the staples of the door +valve; 15, at the other end of the passage, opening into the little +Corte dei Squellini, is set with the part _a_ outwards, it also having +places for hinges; but it is curious that the rich moulding should be +set in towards the dark passage, though natural that the doors should +both open one way. + +[Illustration: Plate VII. + GOTHIC JAMBS.] + +The next Plate, VII., will show the principal characters of the Gothic +jambs, and the total difference between them and the Byzantine ones. Two +more Byzantine forms, 1 and 2, are given here for the sake of +comparison; then 3, 4, and 5 are the common profiles of simple jambs of +doors in the Gothic period; 6 is one of the jambs of the Frari windows, +continuous into the archivolt, and meeting the traceries, where the line +is set upon it at the extremity of its main slope; 7 and 8 are jambs of +the Ducal Palace windows, in which the great semicircle is the half +shaft which sustains the traceries, and the rest of the profile is +continuous in the archivolt; 17, 18, and 19 are the principal piers of +the Ducal Palace; and 20, from St. Fermo of Verona, is put with them in +order to show the step of transition from the Byzantine form 2 to the +Gothic chamfer, which is hardly represented at Venice. The other +profiles on the plate are all late Gothic, given to show the gradual +increase of complexity without any gain of power. The open lines in 12, +14, 16, etc., are the parts of the profile cut into flowers or cable +mouldings; and so much incised as to show the constant outline of the +cavetto or curve beneath them. The following are the references: + + 1. Door in house of Marco Polo. + 2. Old door in a restored church of St. Cassan. + 3, 4, 5. Common jambs of Gothic doors. + 6. Frari windows. + 7, 8. Ducal Palace windows. + 9. Casa Priuli, great entrance. + 10. San Stefano, great door. + PLATE VII. 11. San Gregorio, door opening to the water. + Vol. III. 12. Lateral door, Frari. + 13. Door of Campo San Zaccaria. + 14. Madonna dell'Orto. + 15. San Gregorio, door in the facade. + 16. Great lateral door, Frari. + 17. Pilaster at Vine angle, Ducal Palace. + 18. Pier, inner cortile, Ducal Palace. + 19. Pier, under the medallion of Venice, on the Piazetta + facade of the Ducal Palace. + + + _III. Capitals._ + +I shall here notice the various facts I have omitted in the text of the +work. + +First, with respect to the Byzantine Capitals represented in Plate VII. +Vol. II., I omitted to notice that figs. 6 and 7 represent two sides of +the same capital at Murano (though one is necessarily drawn on a smaller +scale than the other). Fig. 7 is the side turned to the light, and fig. +6 to the shade, the inner part, which is quite concealed, not being +touched at all. + +We have here a conclusive proof that these capitals were cut for their +place in the apse; therefore I have always considered them as tests of +Venetian workmanship, and, on the strength of that proof, have +occasionally spoken of capitals as of true Venetian work, which M. +Lazari supposes to be of the Lower Empire. No. 11, from St. Mark's, was +not above noticed. The way in which the cross is gradually left in +deeper relief as the sides slope inwards and away from it, is highly +picturesque and curious. + +No. 9 has been reduced from a larger drawing, and some of the life and +character of the curves lost in consequence. It is chiefly given to show +the irregular and fearless freedom of the Byzantine designers, no two +parts of the foliage being correspondent; in the original it is of white +marble, the ground being colored blue. + +Plate X. Vol. II. represents the four principal orders of Venetian +capitals in their greatest simplicity, and the profiles of the most +interesting examples of each. The figures 1 and 4 are the two great +concave and convex groups, and 2 and 3 the transitional. Above each type +of form I have put also an example of the group of flowers which +represent it in nature: fig. 1 has a lily; fig. 2 a variety of the +Tulipa sylvestris; figs. 3 and 4 forms of the magnolia. I prepared this +plate in the early spring, when I could not get any other examples,[65] +or I would rather have had two different species for figs. 3 and 4; but +the half-open magnolia will answer the purpose, showing the beauty of +the triple curvature in the sides. + +I do not say that the forms of the capitals are actually taken from +flowers, though assuredly so in some instances, and partially so in the +decoration of nearly all. But they were designed by men of pure and +natural feeling for beauty, who therefore instinctively adopted the +forms represented, which are afterwards proved to be beautiful by their +frequent occurrence in common flowers. + +The convex forms, 3 and 4, are put lowest in the plate only because they +are heaviest; they are the earliest in date, and have already been +enough examined. + +I have added a plate to this volume (Plate XII.), which should have +appeared in illustration of the fifth chapter of Vol. II., but was not +finished in time. It represents the central capital and two of the +lateral ones of the Fondaco de' Turchi, the central one drawn very +large, in order to show the excessive simplicity of its chiselling, +together with the care and sharpness of it, each leaf being expressed by +a series of sharp furrows and ridges. Some slight errors in the large +tracings from which the engraving was made have, however, occasioned a +loss of spring in the curves, and the little fig. 4 of Plate X. Vol. II. +gives a truer idea of the distant effect of the capital. + +The profiles given in Plate X. Vol. II. are the following: + + 1. _a._ Main capitals, upper arcade, Madonnetta House. + _b._ Main capitals, upper arcade, Casa Falier. + _c._ Lateral capitals, upper arcade, Fondaco de' Turchi. + _d._ Small pillars of St. Mark's Pulpit. + _e._ Casa Farsetti. + _f._ Inner capitals of arcade of Ducal Palace. + _g._ Plinth of the house[66] at Apostoli. + _h._ Main capitals of house at Apostoli. + _i._ Main capitals, upper arcade, Fondaco de' Turchi. + 2. _a._ Lower arcade, Fondaco de' Turchi. + _b, c._ Lower pillars, house at Apostoli. + _d._ San Simeon Grande. + PLATE X. _e._ Restored house on Grand Canal. Three of the old arches left. + vol. II. _f._ Upper arcade, Ducal Palace. + _g._ Windows of third order, central shaft, Ducal Palace. + _h._ Windows of third order, lateral shaft, Ducal Palace. + _i._ Ducal Palace, main shafts. + _k._ Piazzetta shafts. + 3. _a._ St. Mark's Nave. + _b, c._ Lily capitals, St. Mark's. + 4. _a._ Fondaco de' Turchi, central shaft, upper arcade. + _b._ Murano, upper arcade. + _c._ Murano, lower arcade. + _d._ Tomb of St. Isidore. + _e._ General late Gothic profile. + +The last two sections are convex in effect, though not in reality; the +bulging lines being carved into bold flower-work. + +The capitals belonging to the groups 1 and 2, in the Byzantine times, +have already been illustrated in Plate VIII. Vol. II.; we have yet to +trace their succession in the Gothic times. This is done in Plate II. of +this volume, which we will now examine carefully. The following are the +capitals represented in that plate: + + 1. Small shafts of St. Mark's Pulpit. + 2. From the transitional house in the Calle di Rimedio (conf. + Vol. II.). + 3. General simplest form of the middle Gothic capital. + 4. Nave of San Giacomo de Lorio. + 5. Casa Falier. + 6. Early Gothic house in Campo Sta. M^a. Mater Domini. + PLATE II. 7. House at the Apostoli. + Vol. III. 8. Piazzetta shafts. + 9. Ducal Palace, upper arcade. + 10. Palace of Marco Querini. + 11. Fondaco de' Turchi. + 12. Gothic palaces in Campo San Polo. + 13. Windows of fourth order, Plate XVI. Vol. II. + 14. Nave of Church of San Stefano. + 15. Late Gothic Palace at the Miracoli. + +The two lateral columns form a consecutive series: the central column is +a group of exceptional character, running parallel with both. We will +take the lateral ones first. 1. Capital of pulpit of St. Mark's +(representative of the simplest concave forms of the Byzantine period). +Look back to Plate VIII. Vol. II., and observe that while all the forms +in that plate are contemporaneous, we are now going to follow a series +_consecutive_ in time, which begins from fig. 1, either in that plate or +in this; that is to say, with the simplest possible condition to be +found at the time; and which proceeds to develope itself into gradually +increasing richness, while the _already rich_ capitals of the old school +die at its side. In the forms 14 and 15 (Plate VIII.) the Byzantine +school expired; but from the Byzantine simple capital (1, Plate II. +above) which was coexistent with them, sprang another hardy race of +capitals, whose succession we have now to trace. + +The form 1, Plate II. is evidently the simplest conceivable condition of +the truncated capital, long ago represented generally in Vol. I., being +only rounded a little on its side to fit it to the shaft. The next step +was to place a leaf beneath each of the truncations (fig. 4, Plate II., +San Giacomo de Lorio), the end of the leaf curling over at the top in a +somewhat formal spiral, partly connected with the traditional volute of +the Corinthian capital. The sides are then enriched by the addition of +some ornament, as a shield (fig. 7) or rose (fig. 10), and we have the +formed capital of the early Gothic. Fig. 10, being from the palace of +Marco Querini, is certainly not later than the middle of the thirteenth +century (see Vol. II.), and fig. 7, is, I believe, of the same date; it +is one of the bearing capitals of the lower story of the palace at the +Apostoli, and is remarkably fine in the treatment of its angle leaves, +which are not deeply under-cut, but show their magnificent sweeping +under surface all the way down, not as a leaf surface, but treated like +the gorget of a helmet, with a curved line across it like that where the +gorget meets the mail. I never saw anything finer in simple design. Fig. +10 is given chiefly as a certification of date, and to show the +treatment of the capitals of this school on a small scale. Observe the +more expansive head in proportion to the diameter of the shaft, the +leaves being drawn from the angles, as if gathered in the hand, till +their edges meet; and compare the rule given in Vol. I. Chap. IX. Sec. +XIV. The capitals of the remarkable house, of which a portion is +represented in Fig. XXXI. Vol. II., are most curious and pure examples of +this condition; with experimental trefoils, roses, and leaves introduced +between their volutes. When compared with those of the Querini Palace, +they form one of the most important evidences of the date of the +building. + +Fig. 13. One of the bearing capitals, already drawn on a small scale in +the windows represented in Plate XVI. Vol. II. + +Now, observe. The capital of the form of fig. 10 appeared sufficient to +the Venetians for all ordinary purposes; and they used it in common +windows to the latest Gothic periods, but yet with certain differences +which at once show the lateness of the work. In the first place, the +rose, which at first was flat and quatrefoiled, becomes, after some +experiments, a round ball dividing into three leaves, closely resembling +our English ball flower, and probably derived from it; and, in other +cases, forming a bold projecting bud in various degrees of contraction +or expansion. In the second place, the extremities of the angle leaves +are wrought into rich flowing lobes, and bent back so as to lap against +their own breasts; showing lateness of date in exact proportion to the +looseness of curvature. Fig. 3 represents the general aspect of these +later capitals, which may be conveniently called the rose capitals of +Venice; two are seen on service, in Plate VIII. Vol. I., showing +comparatively early date by the experimental form of the six-foiled +rose. But for elaborate edifices this form was not sufficiently rich; +and there was felt to be something awkward in the junction of the leaves +at the bottom. Therefore, four other shorter leaves were added at the +sides, as in fig. 13, Plate II., and as generally represented in Plate +X. Vol. II. fig. 1. This was a good and noble step, taken very early in +the thirteenth century; and all the best Venetian capitals were +thenceforth of this form. Those which followed, and rested in the common +rose type, were languid and unfortunate: I do not know a single good +example of them after the first half of the thirteenth century. + +But the form reached in fig. 13 was quickly felt to be of great value +and power. One would have thought it might have been taken straight from +the Corinthian type; but it is clearly the work of men who were making +experiments for themselves. For instance, in the central capital of Fig. +XXXI. Vol. II., there is a trial condition of it, with the intermediate +leaf set behind those at the angles (the reader had better take a +magnifying glass to this woodcut; it will show the character of the +capitals better). Two other experimental forms occur in the Casa Cicogna +(Vol. II.), and supply one of the evidences which fix the date of that +palace. But the form soon was determined as in fig. 13, and then means +were sought of recommending it by farther decoration. + +The leaves which are used in fig. 13, it will be observed, have lost +the Corinthian volute, and are now pure and plain leaves, such as were +used in the Lombardic Gothic of the early thirteenth century all over +Italy. Now in a round-arched gateway at Verona, certainly not later than +1300; the pointed leaves of this pure form are used in one portion of +the mouldings, and in another are enriched by having their surfaces +carved each into a beautiful ribbed and pointed leaf. The capital, fig. +6, Plate II., is nothing more than fig. 13 so enriched; and the two +conditions are quite contemporary, fig. 13 being from a beautiful series +of fourth order windows in Campo Sta. M^a. Mater Domini, already drawn +in my folio work. + +Fig. 13 is representative of the richest conditions of Gothic capital +which existed at the close of the thirteenth century. The builder of the +Ducal Palace amplified them into the form of fig. 9, but varying the +leafage in disposition and division of lobes in every capital; and the +workmen trained under him executed many noble capitals for the Gothic +palaces of the early fourteenth century, of which fig. 12, from a palace +in the Campo St. Polo, is one of the most beautiful examples. In figs. 9 +and 12 the reader sees the Venetian Gothic capital in its noblest +developement. The next step was to such forms as fig. 15, which is +generally characteristic of the late fourteenth and early fifteenth +century Gothic, and of which I hope the reader will at once perceive the +exaggeration and corruption. + +This capital is from a palace near the Miracoli, and it is remarkable +for the delicate, though corrupt, ornament on its abacus, which is +precisely the same as that on the pillars of the screen of St. Mark's. +That screen is a monument of very great value, for it shows the entire +corruption of the Gothic power, and the style of the later palaces +accurately and completely defined in all its parts, and is dated 1380; +thus at once furnishing us with a limiting date, which throws all the +noble work of the early Ducal Palace, and all that is like it in Venice, +thoroughly back into the middle of the fourteenth century at the latest. + +Fig. 2 is the simplest condition of the capital universally employed in +the windows of the second order, noticed above, Vol. II., as belonging +to a style of great importance in the transitional architecture of +Venice. Observe, that in all the capitals given in the lateral columns +in Plate II., the points of the leaves _turn over_. But in this central +group they lie _flat_ against the angle of the capital, and form a +peculiarly light and lovely succession of forms, occurring only in their +purity in the windows of the second order, and in some important +monuments connected with them. + +In fig. 2 the leaf at the angle is cut, exactly in the manner of an +Egyptian bas-relief, _into_ the stone, with a raised edge round it, and +a raised rib up the centre; and this mode of execution, seen also in +figs. 4 and 7, is one of the collateral evidences of early date. But in +figs. 5 and 8, where more elaborate effect was required, the leaf is +thrown out boldly with an even edge from the surface of the capital, and +enriched on its own surface: and as the treatment of fig. 2 corresponds +with that of fig. 4, so that of fig. 5 corresponds with that of fig. 6; +2 and 5 having the upright leaf, 4 and 6 the bending leaves; but all +contemporary. + +Fig. 5 is the central capital of the windows of Casa Falier, drawn in +Plate XV. Vol. II.; and one of the leaves set on its angles is drawn +larger at fig. 7, Plate XX. Vol. II. It has no rib, but a sharp raised +ridge down its centre; and its lobes, of which the reader will observe +the curious form,--round in the middle one, truncated in the sides,--are +wrought with a precision and care which I have hardly ever seen +equalled: but of this more presently. + +The next figure (8, Plate II.) is the most important capital of the +whole transitional period, that employed on the two columns of the +Piazzetta. These pillars are said to have been _raised_ in the close of +the twelfth century, but I cannot find even the most meagre account of +their bases, capitals, or, which seems to me most wonderful, of that +noble winged lion, one of the grandest things produced by mediaeval art, +which all men admire, and none can draw. I have never yet seen a +faithful representation of his firm, fierce, and fiery strength. I +believe that both he and the capital which bears him are late thirteenth +century work. I have not been up to the lion, and cannot answer for it; +but if it be not thirteenth century work, it is as good; and respecting +the capitals, there can be small question. They are of exactly the date +of the oldest tombs, bearing crosses, outside of St. John and Paul; and +are associated with all the other work of the transitional period, from +1250 to 1300 (the bases of these pillars, representing the trades of +Venice, ought, by the by, to have been mentioned as among the best early +efforts of Venetian grotesque); and, besides, their abaci are formed by +four reduplications of the dentilled mouldings of St. Mark's, which +never occur after the year 1300. + +Nothing can be more beautiful or original than the adaptation of these +broad bearing abaci; but as they have nothing to do with the capital +itself, and could not easily be brought into the space, they are omitted +in Plate II., where fig. 8 shows the bell of the capital only. Its +profile is curiously subtle,--apparently concave everywhere, but in +reality concave (all the way down) only on the angles, and slightly +convex at the sides (the profile through the side being 2 _k_, Plate X. +Vol. II.); in this subtlety of curvature, as well as in the simple +cross, showing the influence of early times. + +The leaf on the angle, of which more presently, is fig. 5, Plate XX. +Vol. II. + +Connected with this school of transitional capitals we find a form in +the later Gothic, such as fig. 14, from the Church of San Stefano; but +which appears in part derived from an old and rich Byzantine type, of +which fig. 11, from the Fondaco de' Turchi, is a characteristic example. + +I must now take the reader one step farther, and ask him to examine, +finally, the treatment of the leaves, down to the cutting of their most +minute lobes, in the series of capitals of which we have hitherto only +sketched the general forms. + +In all capitals with nodding leaves, such as 6 and 9 in Plate II., the +real form of the leaf is not to be seen, except in perspective; but, in +order to render the comparison more easy, I have in Plate XX. Vol. II. +opened all the leaves out, as if they were to be dried in a herbarium, +only leaving the furrows and sinuosities of surface, but laying the +outside contour nearly flat upon the page, except for a particular +reason in figs. 2, 10, 11, and 15. + +I shall first, as usual, give the references, and then note the points +of interest. + + 1, 2, 3. Fondaco de' Turchi, upper arcade. + 4. Greek pillars brought from St. Jean d'Acre. + 5. Piazzetta shafts. + 6. Madonnetta House. + PLATE XX. 7. Casa Falier. + Vol. II. 8. Palace near St. Eustachio. + 9. Tombs, outside of St. John and Paul. + 10. Tomb of Giovanni Soranzo. + 11. Tomb of Andrea Dandolo. + 12, 13, 14. Ducal Palace. + +N.B. The upper row, 1 to 4, is Byzantine, the next transitional, the +last two Gothic. + +Fig. 1. The leaf of the capital No. 6, Plate VIII. Vol. II. Each lobe of +the leaf has a sharp furrow up to its point, from its root. + +Fig. 2. The leaf of the capital on the right hand, at the top of Plate +XII. in this volume. The lobes worked in the same manner, with deep +black drill holes between their points. + +Fig. 3. One of the leaves of fig. 14, Plate VIII. Vol. II. fully +unfolded. The lobes worked in the same manner, but left shallow, so as +not to destroy the breadth of light; the central line being drawn by +drill holes, and the interstices between lobes cut black and deep. + +Fig. 4. Leaf with flower; pure Byzantine work, showing whence the +treatment of all the other leaves has been derived. + +Fig. 6. For the sake of symmetry, this is put in the centre: it is the +earliest of the three in this row; taken from the Madonnetta House, +where the capitals have leaves both at their sides and angles. The tall +angle leaf, with its two lateral ones, is given in the plate; and there +is a remarkable distinction in the mode of workmanship of these leaves, +which, though found in a palace of the Byzantine period, is indicative +of a tendency to transition; namely, that the sharp furrow is now drawn +_only to the central lobe_ of each division of the leaf, and the rest of +the surface of the leaf is left nearly flat, a slight concavity only +marking the division of the extremities. At the base of these leaves +they are perfectly flat, only cut by the sharp and narrow furrow, as an +elevated table-land is by ravines. + +Fig. 5. A more advanced condition; the fold at the recess, between each +division of the leaf, carefully expressed, and the concave or depressed +portions of the extremities marked more deeply, as well as the central +furrow, and a rib added in the centre. + +Fig. 7. A contemporary, but more finished form; the sharp furrows +becoming softer, and the whole leaf more flexible. + +Fig. 8. An exquisite form of the same period, but showing still more +advanced naturalism, from a very early group of third order windows, +near the Church of St. Eustachio on the Grand Canal. + +Fig. 9. Of the same time, from a small capital of an angle shaft of the +sarcophagi at the _side_ of St. John and Paul, in the little square +which is adorned by the Colleone statue. This leaf is very quaint and +pretty in giving its midmost lateral divisions only two lobes each, +instead of the usual three or four. + +Fig. 10. Leaf employed in the cornice of the tomb of the Doge Giovanni +Soranzo, who died in 1312. It nods over, and has three ribs on its upper +surface; thus giving us the completed ideal form of the leaf, but its +execution is still very archaic and severe. + +Now the next example, fig. 11, is from the tomb of the Doge Andrea +Dandolo, and therefore executed between 1354 and 1360; and this leaf +shows the Gothic naturalism and refinement of curvature fully developed. +In this forty years' interval, then, the principal advance of Gothic +sculpture is to be placed. + +I had prepared a complete series of examples, showing this advance, and +the various ways in which the separations of the ribs, a most +characteristic feature, are more and more delicately and scientifically +treated, from the beginning to the middle of the fourteenth century, but +I feared that no general reader would care to follow me into these +minutiae, and have cancelled this portion of the work, at least for the +present, the main point being, that the reader should feel the full +extent of the change, which he can hardly fail to do in looking from +fig. 10 to figs. 11 and 12. I believe that fig. 12 is the earlier of the +two; and it is assuredly the finer, having all the elasticity and +simplicity of the earliest forms, with perfect flexibility added. In +fig. 11 there is a perilous element beginning to develope itself into +one feature, namely, the extremities of the leaves, which, instead of +merely nodding over, now curl completely round into a kind of ball. This +occurs early, and in the finest Gothic work, especially in cornices and +other running mouldings: but it is a fatal symptom, a beginning of the +intemperance of the later Gothic, and it was followed out with singular +avidity; the ball of coiled leafage increasing in size and complexity, +and at last becoming the principal feature of the work; the light +striking on its vigorous projection, as in fig. 14. Nearly all the +Renaissance Gothic of Venice depends upon these balls for effect, a late +capital being generally composed merely of an upper and lower range of +leaves terminating in this manner. + +It is very singular and notable how, in this loss of _temperance_, there +is loss of _life_. For truly healthy and living leaves do not bind +themselves into knots at the extremities. They bend, and wave, and nod, +but never curl. It is in disease, or in death, by blight, or frost, or +poison only, that leaves in general assume this ingathered form. It is +the flame of autumn that has shrivelled them, or the web of the +caterpillar that has bound them: and thus the last forms of the Venetian +leafage set forth the fate of Venetian pride; and, in their utmost +luxuriance and abandonment, perish as if eaten of worms. + +And now, by glancing back to Plate X. Vol. II, the reader will see in a +moment the kind of evidence which is found of the date of capitals in +their profiles merely. Observe: we have seen that the treatment of the +leaves in the Madonnetta House seemed "indicative of a tendency to +transition." Note their profile, 1_a_, and its close correspondence with +1 _h_, which is actually of a transitional capital from the upper arcade +of second order windows in the Apostoli Palace; yet both shown to be +very close to the Byzantine period, if not belonging to it, by their +fellowship with the profile _i_, from the Fondaco de' Turchi. Then note +the close correspondence of all the other profiles in that line, which +belong to the concave capitals or plinths of the Byzantine palaces, and +note their composition, the abacus being, in idea, merely an echo or +reduplication of the capital itself; as seen in perfect simplicity in +the profile _f_, which is a roll under a _tall_ concave curve forming +the bell of the capital, with a roll and _short_ concave curve for its +abacus. This peculiar abacus is an unfailing test of early date; and our +finding this simple profile used for the Ducal Palace (_f_), is strongly +confirmatory of all our former conclusions. + +Then the next row, 2, are the Byzantine and early Gothic semi-convex +curves, in their pure forms, having no roll below; but often with a roll +added, as at _f_, and in certain early Gothic conditions curiously fused +into it, with a cavetto between, as _b_, _c_, _d_. But the more archaic +form is as at _f_ and _k_; and as these two profiles are from the Ducal +Palace and Piazzetta shafts, they join again with the rest of the +evidence of their early date. The profiles _i_ and _k_ are both most +beautiful; _i_ is that of the great capitals of the Ducal Palace, and +the small profiles between it and _k_ are the varieties used on the +fillet at its base. The profile _i_ should have had leaves springing +from it, as 1 _h_ has, only more boldly, but there was no room for them. + +The reader cannot fail to discern at a glance the fellowship of the +whole series of profiles, 2 _a_ to _k_, nor can he but with equal ease +observe a marked difference in 4 _d_ and 4 _e_ from any others in the +plate; the bulging outlines of leafage being indicative of the luxuriant +and flowing masses, no longer expressible with a simple line, but to be +considered only as confined within it, of the later Gothic. Now _d_ is a +dated profile from the tomb of St. Isidore, 1355, which by its dog-tooth +abacus and heavy leafage distinguishes itself from all the other +profiles, and therefore throws them back into the first half of the +century. But, observe, it still retains the noble swelling root. This +character soon after vanishes; and, in 1380, the profile _e_, at once +heavy, feeble, and ungraceful, with a meagre and valueless abacus hardly +discernible, is characteristic of all the capitals of Venice. + +Note, finally, this contraction of the abacus. Compare 4 _c_, which is +the earliest form in the plate, from Murano, with 4 _e_, which is the +latest. The other profiles show the gradual process of change; only +observe, in 3_a_ the abacus is not drawn; it is so bold that it would +not come into the plate without reducing the bell curve to too small a +scale. + +So much for the evidence derivable from the capitals; we have next to +examine that of the archivolts or arch mouldings. + +[Illustration: Plate VIII. + BYZANTINE ARCHIVOLTS.] + + + _IV. Archivolts._ + +In Plate VIII., opposite, are arranged in one view all the conditions of +Byzantine archivolt employed in Venice, on a large scale. It will be +seen in an instant that there can be no mistaking the manner of their +masonry. The soffit of the arch is the horizontal line at the bottom of +all these profiles, and each of them (except 13, 14) is composed of two +slabs of marble, one for the soffit, another for the face of the arch; +the one on the soffit is worked on the edge into a roll (fig. 10) or +dentil (fig. 9), and the one on the face is bordered on the other side +by another piece let edgeways into the wall, and also worked into a roll +or dentil: in the richer archivolts a cornice is added to this roll, as +in figs. 1 and 4, or takes its place, as in figs. 1, 3, 5, and 6; and in +such richer examples the facestone, and often the soffit, are +sculptured, the sculpture being cut into their surfaces, as indicated in +fig. 11. The concavities cut in the facestones of 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 are all +indicative of sculpture in effect like that of Fig. XXVI. Vol. II., of +which archivolt fig. 5, here, is the actual profile. The following are +the references to the whole: + + 1. Rio-Foscari House. + 2. Terraced House, entrance door. + 3. Small Porticos of St. Mark's, external arches. + 4. Arch on the canal at Ponte St. Toma. + 5. Arch of Corte del Remer. + 6. Great outermost archivolt of central door, St. Mark's. + PLATE VIII. 7. Inner archivolt of southern porch, St. Mark's Facade. + Vol. III. 8. Inner archivolt of central entrance, St. Mark's. + 9. Fondaco de' Turchi, main arcade. + 10. Byzantine restored house on Grand Canal, lower arcade. + 11. Terraced House, upper arcade. + 12. Inner archivolt of northern porch of facade, St. Mark's. + 13 and 14. Transitional forms. + +[Illustration: Plate IX. + GOTHIC ARCHIVOLTS.] + +There is little to be noted respecting these forms, except that, in fig. +1, the two lower rolls, with the angular projections between, represent +the fall of the mouldings of two proximate arches on the abacus of the +bearing shaft; their two cornices meeting each other, and being +gradually narrowed into the little angular intermediate piece, their +sculptures being slurred into the contracted space, a curious proof of +the earliness of the work. The real archivolt moulding is the same as +fig. 4 _c c_, including only the midmost of the three rolls in fig. 1. + +It will be noticed that 2, 5, 6, and 8 are sculptured on the soffits as +well as the faces; 9 is the common profile of arches decorated only with +colored marble, the facestone being colored, the soffit white. The +effect of such a moulding is seen in the small windows at the right hand +of Fig. XXVI. Vol. II. + +The reader will now see that there is but little difficulty in +identifying Byzantine work, the archivolt mouldings being so similar +among themselves, and so unlike any others. We have next to examine the +Gothic forms. + +Figs. 13 and 14 in Plate VIII. represent the first brick mouldings of +the transitional period, occurring in such instances as Fig. XXIII. or +Fig. XXXIII. Vol. II. (the soffit stone of the Byzantine mouldings being +taken away), and this profile, translated into solid stone, forms the +almost universal moulding of the windows of the second order. These two +brick mouldings are repeated, for the sake of comparison, at the top of +Plate IX. opposite; and the upper range of mouldings which they +commence, in that plate, are the brick mouldings of Venice in the early +Gothic period. All the forms below are in stone; and the moulding 2, +translated into stone, forms the universal archivolt of the early +pointed arches of Venice, and windows of second and third orders. The +moulding 1 is much rarer, and used for the most part in doors only. + +The reader will see at once the resemblance of character in the various +flat brick mouldings, 3 to 11. They belong to such arches as 1 and 2 in +Plate XVII. Vol. II.; or 6 _b_, 6 _c_, in Plate XIV. Vol. II., 7 and 8 +being actually the mouldings of those two doors; the whole group being +perfectly defined, and separate from all the other Gothic work in +Venice, and clearly the result of an effort to imitate, in brickwork, +the effect of the flat sculptured archivolts of the Byzantine times. +(See Vol. II. Chap. VII. Sec. XXXVII.) + +Then comes the group 14 to 18 in stone, derived from the mouldings 1 and +2; first by truncation, 14; then by beading the truncated angle, 15, 16. +The occurrence of the profile 16 in the three beautiful windows +represented in the uppermost figure of Plate XVIII. Vol. I. renders that +group of peculiar interest, and is strong evidence of its antiquity. +Then a cavetto is added, 17; first shallow and then deeper, 18, which is +the common archivolt moulding of the central Gothic door and window: +but, in the windows of the early fourth order, this moulding is +complicated by various additions of dog-tooth mouldings under the +dentil, as in 20; or the _gabled_ dentil (see fig. 20, Plate IX. Vol. +I), as fig. 21; or both, as figs 23, 24. All these varieties expire in +the advanced period, and the established moulding for windows is 29. The +intermediate group, 25 to 28, I found only in the high windows of the +third order in the Ducal Palace, or in the Chapter-house of the Frari, +or in the arcades of the Ducal Palace; the great outside lower arcade of +the Ducal Palace has the profile 31, the left-hand side being the +innermost. + +Now observe, all these archivolts, without exception, assume that the +spectator looks from the outside only: none are complete on both sides; +they are essentially _window_ mouldings, and have no resemblance to +those of our perfect Gothic arches prepared for traceries. If they were +all completely drawn in the plate, they should be as fig. 25, having a +great depth of wall behind the mouldings, but it was useless to +represent this in every case. The Ducal Palace begins to show mouldings +on both sides, 28, 31; and 35 is a _complete_ arch moulding from the +apse of the Frari. That moulding, though so perfectly developed, is +earlier than the Ducal Palace, and with other features of the building, +indicates the completeness of the Gothic system, which made the +architect of the Ducal Palace found his work principally upon that +church. + +The other examples in this plate show the various modes of combination +employed in richer archivolts. The triple change of slope in 38 is very +curious. The references are as follows: + + 1. Transitional to the second order. + 2. Common second order. + 3. Brick, at Corte del Forno, Round arch. + 4. Door at San Giovanni Grisostomo. + 5. Door at Sotto Portico della Stua. + 6. Door in Campo St. Luca, of rich brickwork. + 7. Round door at Fondamenta Venier. + 8. Pointed door. Fig. 6_c_, Plate XIV. Vol. II. + 9. Great pointed arch, Salizzada San Lio. + 10. Round door near Fondaco de' Turchi. + 11. Door with Lion, at Ponte della Corona. + 12. San Gregorio, Facade. + 13. St. John and Paul, Nave. + 14. Rare early fourth order, at San Cassan. + 15. General early Gothic archivolt. + 16. Same, from door in Rio San G. Grisostomo. + 17. Casa Vittura. + 18. Casa Sagredo, Unique thirds. Vol. II. + 19. Murano Palace, Unique fourths.[67] + PLATE IX. 20. Pointed door of Four-Evangelist House.[68] + Vol. III. 21. Keystone door in Campo St. M. Formosa. + 22. Rare fourths, at St. Pantaleon. + 23. Rare fourths, Casa Papadopoli. + 24. Rare fourths, Chess house.[69] + 25. Thirds of Frari Cloister. + 26. Great pointed arch of Frari Cloister. + 27. Unique thirds, Ducal Palace. + 28. Inner Cortile, pointed arches, Ducal Palace. + 29. Common fourth and fifth order Archivolt. + 30. Unique thirds, Ducal Palace. + 31. Ducal Palace, lower arcade. + 32. Casa Priuli, arches in the inner court. + 33. Circle above the central window, Ducal Palace. + 34. Murano apse. + 35. Acute-pointed arch, Frari. + 36. Door of Accademia delle belle Arti. + 37. Door in Calle Tiossi, near Four-Evangelist House. + 38. Door in Campo San Polo. + 39. Door of palace at Ponte Marcello. + 40. Door of a palace close to the Church of the Miracoli. + + + _V. Cornices._ + +Plate X. represents, in one view, the cornices or string-courses of +Venice, and the abaci of its capitals, early and late; these two +features being inseparably connected, as explained in Vol. I. + +The evidence given by these mouldings is exceedingly clear. The two +upper lines in the Plate, 1-11, 12-24, are all plinths from Byzantine +buildings. The reader will at once observe their unmistakable +resemblances. The row 41 to 50 are contemporary abaci of capitals; 52, +53, 54, 56, are examples of late Gothic abaci; and observe, especially, +these are all rounded at the _top_ of the cavetto, but the Byzantine +abaci are rounded, if at all, at the _bottom_ of the cavetto (see 7, 8, +9, 10, 20, 28, 46). Consider what a valuable test of date this is, in +any disputable building. + +Again, compare 28, 29, one from St. Mark's, the other from the Ducal +Palace, and observe the close resemblance, giving farther evidence of +early date in the palace. + +25 and 50 are drawn to the same scale. The former is the wall-cornice, +the latter the abacus of the great shafts, in the Casa Loredan; the one +passing into the other, as seen in Fig. XXVIII. Vol. I. It is curious to +watch the change in proportion, while the moulding, all but the lower +roll, remains the same. + +[Illustration: Plate X. + CORNICES AND ABACI.] + +The following are the references: + + 1. Common plinth of St. Mark's. + 2. Plinth above lily capitals, St. Mark's. + 3, 4. Plinths in early surface Gothic. + 5. Plinth of door in Campo St. Luca. + 6. Plinth of treasury door, St. Mark's. + 7. Archivolts of nave, St. Mark's. + 8. Archivolts of treasury door, St. Mark's. + 9. Moulding of circular window in St. John and Paul. + 10. Chief decorated narrow plinth, St. Mark's. + 11. Plinth of door, Campo St. Margherita. + 12. Plinth of tomb of Doge Vital Falier. + 13. Lower plinth, Fondaco de' Turchi, and Terraced House. + 14. Running plinth of Corte del Remer. + 15. Highest plinth at top of Fondaco de' Turchi. + 16. Common Byzantine plinth. + 17. Running plinth of Casa Falier. + 18. Plinth of arch at Ponte St. Toma. + 19, 20, 21. Plinths of tomb of Doge Vital Falier. + 22. Plinth of window in Calle del Pistor. + 23. Plinth of tomb of Dogaressa Vital Michele. + 24. Archivolt in the Frari. + 25. Running plinth, Casa Loredan. + 26. Running plinth, under pointed arch, in Salizzada San Lio. + 27. Running plinth, Casa Erizzo. + PLATE X. 28. Circles in portico of St. Mark's. + Vol. III. 29. Ducal Palace cornice, lower arcade. + 30. Ducal Palace cornice, upper arcade. + 31. Central Gothic plinth. + 32. Late Gothic plinth. + 33. Late Gothic plinth, Casa degli Ambasciatori. + 34. Late Gothic plinth, Palace near the Jesuiti. + 35, 36. Central balcony cornice. + 37. Plinth of St. Mark's balustrade. + 38. Cornice of the Frari, in brick, cabled. + 39. Central balcony plinth. + 40. Uppermost cornice, Ducal Palace. + 41. Abacus of lily capitals, St. Mark's. + 42. Abacus, Fondaco de' Turchi. + 43. Abacus, large capital of Terraced House. + 44. Abacus, Fondaco de' Turchi. + 45. Abacus, Ducal Palace, upper arcade. + 46. Abacus, Corte del Remer. + 47. Abacus, small pillars, St. Mark's pulpit. + 48. Abacus, Murano and Torcello. + 49. Abacus, Casa Farsetti. + 50. Abacus, Casa Loredan, lower story. + 51. Abacus, capitals of Frari. + 52. Abacus, Casa Cavalli (plain). + 53. Abacus, Casa Priuli (flowered). + 54. Abacus, Casa Foscari (plain). + 55. Abacus, Casa Priuli (flowered). + 56. Abacus, Plate II. fig. 15. + 57. Abacus, St. John and Paul. + 58. Abacus, St. Stefano. + +It is only farther to be noted, that these mouldings are used in various +proportions, for all kinds of purposes: sometimes for true cornices; +sometimes for window-sills; sometimes, 3 and 4 (in the Gothic time) +especially, for dripstones of gables: 11 and such others form little +plinths or abaci at the spring of arches, such as those shown at _a_, +Fig. XXIII. Vol. II. Finally, a large number of superb Byzantine +cornices occur, of the form shown at the top of the arch in Plate V. +Vol. II., having a profile like 16 or 19 here; with nodding leaves of +acanthus thrown out from it, being, in fact, merely one range of the +leaves of a Byzantine capital unwrapped, and formed into a continuous +line. I had prepared a large mass of materials for the illustration of +these cornices, and the Gothic ones connected with them; but found the +subject would take up another volume, and was forced, for the present, +to abandon it. The lower series of profiles, 7 to 12 in Plate XV. Vol. +I, shows how the leaf-ornament is laid on the simple early cornices. + + + _VI. Traceries._ + +We have only one subject more to examine, the character of the early and +late Tracery Bars. + +The reader may perhaps have been surprised at the small attention given +to traceries in the course of the preceding volumes: but the reason is, +that there are no _complicated_ traceries at Venice belonging to the +good Gothic time, with the single exception of those of the Casa +Cicogna; and the magnificent arcades of the Ducal Palace Gothic are so +simple as to require little explanation. + +There are, however, two curious circumstances in the later traceries; +the first, that they are universally considered by the builder (as the +old Byzantines considered sculptured surfaces of stone) as material out +of which a certain portion is _to be cut_, to fill his window. A fine +Northern Gothic tracery is a complete and systematic arrangement of +arches and foliation, _adjusted_ to the form of the window; but a +Venetian tracery is a piece of a larger composition, cut to the shape of +the window. In the Porta della Carta, in the Church of the Madonna +dell'Orto, in the Casa Bernardo on the Grand Canal, in the old Church of +the Misericordia, and wherever else there are rich traceries in Venice, +it will always be found that a certain arrangement of quatrefoils and +other figures has been planned as if it were to extend indefinitely into +miles of arcade; and out of this colossal piece of marble lace, a piece +in the shape of a window is cut, mercilessly and fearlessly: whatever +fragments and odd shapes of interstice, remnants of this or that figure +of the divided foliation, may occur at the edge of the window, it +matters not; all are cut across, and shut in by the great outer +archivolt. + +It is very curious to find the Venetians treating what in other +countries became of so great individual importance, merely as a kind of +diaper ground, like that of their chequered colors on the walls. There +is great grandeur in the idea, though the system of their traceries was +spoilt by it: but they always treated their buildings as masses of color +rather than of line; and the great traceries of the Ducal Palace itself +are not spared any more than those of the minor palaces. They are cut +off at the flanks in the middle of the quatrefoils, and the terminal +mouldings take up part of the breadth of the poor half of a quatrefoil +at the extremity. + +One other circumstance is notable also. In good Northern Gothic the +tracery bars are of a constant profile, the same on both sides; and if +the plan of the tracery leaves any interstices so small that there is +not room for the full profile of the tracery bar all round them, those +interstices are entirely closed, the tracery bars being supposed to have +met each other. But in Venice, if an interstice becomes anywhere +inconveniently small, the tracery bar is sacrificed; cut away, or in +some way altered in profile, in order to afford more room for the light, +especially in the early traceries, so that one side of a tracery bar is +often quite different from the other. For instance, in the bars 1 and 2, +Plate XI., from the Frari and St. John and Paul, the uppermost side is +towards a great opening, and there was room for the bevel or slope to +the cusp; but in the other side the opening was too small, and the bar +falls vertically to the cusp. In 5 the uppermost side is to the narrow +aperture, and the lower to the small one; and in fig. 9, from the Casa +Cicogna, the uppermost side is to the apertures of the tracery, the +lowermost to the arches beneath, the great roll following the design of +the tracery; while 13 and 14 are left without the roll at the base of +their cavettos on the uppermost sides, which are turned to narrow +apertures. The earliness of the Casa Cicogna tracery is seen in a moment +by its being moulded on the face only. It is in fact nothing more than a +series of quatrefoiled apertures in the solid wall of the house, with +mouldings on their faces, and magnificent arches of pure pointed fifth +order sustaining them below. + +[Illustration: Plate XI. + TRACERY BARS.] + +The following are the references to the figures in the plate: + + 1. Frari. + 2. Apse, St. John and Paul. + 3. Frari. + 4. Ducal Palace, inner court, upper window. + 5. Madonna dell'Orto. + 6. St. John and Paul. + 7. Casa Bernardo. + 8. Casa Contarini Fasan. + 9. Casa Cicogna. + 10. 11. Frari. + 12. Murano Palace (see note, p. 265). + PLATE XI. 13. Misericordia. + Vol. III. 14. Palace of the younger Foscari.[70] + 15. Casa d'Oro; great single windows. + 16. Hotel Danieli. + 17. Ducal Palace. + 18. Casa Erizzo, on Grand Canal. + 19. Main story, Casa Cavalli. + 20. Younger Foscari. + 21. Ducal Palace, traceried windows. + 22. Porta della Carta. + 23. Casa d'Oro. + 24. Casa d'Oro, upper story. + 25. Casa Facanon. + 26. Casa Cavalli, near Post-Office. + +It will be seen at a glance that, except in the very early fillet +traceries of the Frari and St. John and Paul, Venetian work consists of +roll traceries of one general pattern. It will be seen also, that 10 and +11 from the Frari, furnish the first examples of the form afterwards +completely developed in 17, the tracery bar of the Ducal Palace; but +that this bar differs from them in greater strength and squareness, and +in adding a recess between its smaller roll and the cusp. Observe, that +this is done for strength chiefly; as, in the contemporary tracery (21) +of the upper windows, no such additional thickness is used. + +Figure 17 is slightly inaccurate. The little curved recesses behind the +smaller roll are not equal on each side; that next the cusp is smallest, +being about 5/8 of an inch, while that next the cavetto is about 7/8; to +such an extent of subtlety did the old builders carry their love of +change. + +The return of the cavetto in 21, 23, and 26, is comparatively rare, and +is generally a sign of later date. + +[Illustration: Fig. II.] + +[Illustration: Fig. III.] + +The reader must observe that the great sturdiness of the form of the +bars, 5, 9, 17, 24, 25, is a consequence of the peculiar office of +Venetian traceries in supporting the mass of the building above, already +noticed in Vol. II.; and indeed the forms of the Venetian Gothic are, +in many other ways, influenced by the difficulty of obtaining stability +on sandy foundations. One thing is especially noticeable in all their +arrangements of traceries; namely, the endeavor to obtain equal and +horizontal pressure along the whole breadth of the building, not the +divided and local pressures of Northern Gothic. This object is +considerably aided by the structure of the balconies, which are of great +service in knitting the shafts together, forming complete tie-beams of +marble, as well as a kind of rivets, at their bases. For instance, at +_b_, Fig. II., is represented the masonry of the base of the upper +arcade of the Ducal Palace, showing the root of one of its main shafts, +with the binding balconies. The solid stones which form the foundation +are much broader than the balcony shafts, so that the socketed +arrangement is not seen: it is shown as it would appear in a +longitudinal section. The balconies are not let into the circular +shafts, but fitted to their circular curves, so as to grasp them, and +riveted with metal; and the bars of stone which form the tops of the +balconies are of great strength and depth, the small trefoiled arches +being cut out of them as in Fig. III., so as hardly to diminish their +binding power. In the lighter independent balconies they are often cut +deeper; but in all cases the bar of stone is nearly independent of the +small shafts placed beneath it, and would stand firm though these were +removed, as at _a_, Fig. II., supported either by the main shafts of +the traceries, or by its own small pilasters with semi-shafts at their +sides, of the plan _d_, Fig. II., in a continuous balcony, and _e_ at +the angle of one. + +There is one more very curious circumstance illustrative of the Venetian +desire to obtain horizontal pressure. In all the Gothic staircases with +which I am acquainted, out of Venice, in which vertical shafts are used +to support an inclined line, those shafts are connected by arches rising +each above the other, with a little bracket above the capitals, on the +side where it is necessary to raise the arch; or else, though less +gracefully, with a longer curve to the lowest side of the arch. + +But the Venetians seem to have had a morbid horror of arches which were +not _on a level_. They could not endure the appearance of the roof of +one arch bearing against the side of another; and rather than introduce +the idea of obliquity into bearing curves, they abandoned the arch +principle altogether; so that even in their richest Gothic staircases, +where trefoiled arches, exquisitely decorated, are used on the landings, +they ran the shafts on the sloping stair simply into the bar of stone +above them, and used the excessively ugly and valueless arrangement of +Fig. II., rather than sacrifice the sacred horizontality of their arch +system. + +[Illustration: Fig. IV.] + +It will be noted, in Plate XI., that the form and character of the +tracery bars themselves are independent of the position or projection of +the cusps on their flat sides. In this respect, also, Venetian traceries +are peculiar, the example 22 of the Porta della Carta being the only one +in the plate which is subordinated according to the Northern system. In +every other case the form of the aperture is determined, either by a +flat and solid cusp as in 6, or by a pierced cusp as in 4. The effect of +the pierced cusp is seen in the uppermost figure, Plate XVIII. Vol. II.; +and its derivation from the solid cusp will be understood, at once, from +the woodcut Fig. IV., which represents a series of the flanking stones +of any arch of the fifth order, such as _f_ in Plate III. Vol. I. + +[Illustration: Fig. V.] + +The first on the left shows the condition of cusp in a perfectly simple +and early Gothic arch, 2 and 3 are those of common arches of the fifth +order, 4 is the condition in more studied examples of the Gothic +advanced guard, and 5 connects them all with the system of traceries. +Introducing the common archivolt mouldings on the projecting edge of 2 +and 3, we obtain the bold and deep fifth order window, used down to the +close of the fourteenth century or even later, and always grand in its +depth of cusp, and consequently of shadow; but the narrow cusp 4 occurs +also in very early work, and is piquant when set beneath a bold flat +archivolt, as in Fig. V., from the Corte del Forno at Santa Marina. The +pierced cusp gives a peculiar lightness and brilliancy to the window, +but is not so sublime. In the richer buildings the surface of the flat +and solid cusp is decorated with a shallow trefoil (see Plate VIII. Vol. +I.), or, when the cusp is small, with a triangular incision only, as +seen in figs. 7 and 8, Plate XI. The recesses on the sides of the other +cusps indicate their single or double lines of foliation. The cusp of +the Ducal Palace has a fillet only round its edge, and a ball of red +marble on its truncated point, and is perfect in its grand simplicity; +but in general the cusps of Venice are far inferior to those of Verona +and of the other cities of Italy, chiefly because there was always some +confusion in the mind of the designer between true cusps and the mere +bending inwards of the arch of the fourth order. The two series, 4 _a_ +to 4 _e_, and 5 _a_ to 5 _e_, in Plate XIV. Vol. II., are arranged so as +to show this connexion, as well as the varieties of curvature in the +trefoiled arches of the fourth and fifth orders, which, though +apparently slight on so small a scale, are of enormous importance in +distant effect; a house in which the joints of the cusps project as much +as in 5 _c_, being quite piquant and grotesque when compared with one in +which the cusps are subdued to the form 5 _b_. 4 _d_ and 4 _e_ are +Veronese forms, wonderfully effective and spirited; the latter occurs at +Verona only, but the former at Venice also. 5 _d_ occurs in Venice, but +is very rare; and 5 _e_ I found only once, on the narrow canal close to +the entrance door of the Hotel Danieli. It was partly walled up, but I +obtained leave to take down the brickwork and lay open one side of the +arch, which may still be seen. + + * * * * * + +The above particulars are enough to enable the reader to judge of the +distinctness of evidence which the details of Venetian architecture bear +to its dates. Farther explanation of the plates would be vainly tedious: +but the architect who uses these volumes in Venice will find them of +value, in enabling him instantly to class the mouldings which may +interest him; and for this reason I have given a larger number of +examples than would otherwise have been sufficient for my purpose. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [58] "Olim _magistri_ prothi palatii nostri novi."--_Cadorin_, p. 127. + + [59] A print, dated 1585, barbarously inaccurate, as all prints were + at that time, but still in some respects to be depended upon, + represents all the windows on the facade full of traceries; and the + circles above, between them, occupied by quatrefoils. + + [60] "Lata tanto, quantum est ambulum existens super columnis versus + canale respicientibus." + + [61] Bettio, p. 28. + + [62] In the bombardment of Venice in 1848, hardly a single palace + escaped without three or four balls through its roof: three came + into the Scuola di San Rocco, tearing their way through the pictures + of Tintoret, of which the ragged fragments were still hanging from + the ceiling in 1851; and the shells had reached to within a hundred + yards of St. Mark's Church itself, at the time of the capitulation. + + [63] A _Mohammedan_ youth is punished, I believe, for such + misdemeanors, by being _kept away_ from prayers. + + [64] "Those Venetians are fishermen." + + [65] I am afraid that the kind friend, Lady Trevelyan, who helped me + to finish this plate, will not like to be thanked here; but I cannot + let her send into Devonshire for magnolias, and draw them for me, + _without_ thanking her. + + [66] That is, the house in the parish of the Apostoli, on the Grand + Canal, noticed in Vol. II.; and see also the Venetian Index, under + head "Apostoli." + + [67] Close to the bridge over the main channel through Murano is a + massive foursquare Gothic palace, containing some curious traceries, + and many _unique_ transitional forms of window, among which these + windows of the fourth order occur, with a roll within their dentil + band. + + [68] Thus, for the sake of convenience, we may generally call the + palace with the emblems of the Evangelists on its spandrils, Vol. + II. + + [69] The house with chequers like a chess-board on its spandrils, + given in my folio work. + + [70] The palace next the Casa Foscari, on the Grand Canal, sometimes + said to have belonged to the son of the Doge. + + + + +INDICES. + + I. PERSONAL INDEX. | III. TOPICAL INDEX. + II. LOCAL INDEX. | IV. VENETIAN INDEX. + +The first of the following Indices contains the names of persons; the +second those of places (not in Venice) alluded to in the body of the +work. The third Index consists of references to the subjects touched +upon. In the fourth, called the Venetian Index, I have named every +building of importance in the city of Venice itself, or near it; +supplying, for the convenience of the traveller, short notices of those +to which I had no occasion to allude in the text of the work; and making +the whole as complete a guide as I could, with such added directions as +I should have given to any private friend visiting the city. As, +however, in many cases, the opinions I have expressed differ widely from +those usually received; and, in other instances, subjects which may be +of much interest to the traveller have not come within the scope of my +inquiry; the reader had better take Lazari's small Guide in his hand +also, as he will find in it both the information I have been unable to +furnish, and the expression of most of the received opinions upon any +subject of art. + +Various inconsistencies will be noticed in the manner of indicating the +buildings, some being named in Italian, some in English, and some half +in one, and half in the other. But these inconsistencies are permitted +in order to save trouble, and make the Index more practically useful. +For instance, I believe the traveller will generally look for "Mark," +rather than for "Marco," when he wishes to find the reference to St. +Mark's Church; but I think he will look for Rocco, rather than for Roch, +when he is seeking for the account of the Scuola di San Rocco. So also I +have altered the character in which the titles of the plates are +printed, from the black letter in the first volume, to the plain Roman +in the second and third; finding experimentally that the former +character was not easily legible, and conceiving that the book would be +none the worse for this practical illustration of its own principles, in +a daring sacrifice of symmetry to convenience. + +These alphabetical Indices will, however, be of little use, unless +another, and a very different kind of Index, be arranged in the mind of +the reader; an Index explanatory of the principal purposes and contents +of the various parts of this essay. It is difficult to analyze the +nature of the reluctance with which either a writer or painter takes it +upon him to explain the meaning of his own work, even in cases where, +without such explanation, it must in a measure remain always disputable: +but I am persuaded that this reluctance is, in most instances, carried +too far; and that, wherever there really is a serious purpose in a book +or a picture, the author does wrong who, either in modesty or vanity +(both feelings have their share in producing the dislike of personal +interpretation), trusts entirely to the patience and intelligence of the +readers or spectators to penetrate into their significance. At all +events, I will, as far as possible, spare such trouble with respect to +these volumes, by stating here, finally and clearly, both what they +intend and what they contain; and this the rather because I have lately +noticed, with some surprise, certain reviewers announcing as a +discovery, what I thought had lain palpably on the surface of the book, +namely, that "if Mr. Ruskin be right, all the architects, and all the +architectural teaching of the last three hundred years, must have been +wrong." That is indeed precisely the fact; and the very thing I meant to +say, which indeed I thought I had said over and over again. I believe +the architects of the last three centuries to have been wrong; wrong +without exception; wrong totally, and from the foundation. This is +exactly the point I have been endeavoring to prove, from the beginning +of this work to the end of it. But as it seems not yet to have been +stated clearly enough, I will here try to put my entire theorem into an +unmistakable form. + +The various nations who attained eminence in the arts before the time of +Christ, each of them, produced forms of architecture which in their +various degrees of merit were almost exactly indicative of the degrees +of intellectual and moral energy of the nations which originated them; +and each reached its greatest perfection at the time when the true +energy and prosperity of the people who had invented it were at their +culminating point. Many of these various styles of architecture were +good, considered in relation to the times and races which gave birth to +them; but none were absolutely good or perfect, or fitted for the +practice of all future time. + +The advent of Christianity for the first time rendered possible the full +development of the soul of man, and therefore the full development of +the arts of man. + +Christianity gave birth to a new architecture, not only immeasurably +superior to all that had preceded it, but demonstrably the best +architecture that _can_ exist; perfect in construction and decoration, +and fit for the practice of all time. + +This architecture, commonly called "Gothic," though in conception +perfect, like the theory of a Christian character, never reached an +actual perfection, having been retarded and corrupted by various adverse +influences; but it reached its highest perfection, hitherto manifested, +about the close of the thirteenth century, being then indicative of a +peculiar energy in the Christian mind of Europe. + +In the course of the fifteenth century, owing to various causes which I +have endeavored to trace in the preceding pages, the Christianity of +Europe was undermined; and a Pagan architecture was introduced, in +imitation of that of the Greeks and Romans. + +The architecture of the Greeks and Romans themselves was not good, but +it was natural; and, as I said before, good in some respects, and for a +particular time. + +But the imitative architecture introduced first in the fifteenth +century, and practised ever since, was neither good nor natural. It was +good in no respect, and for no time. All the architects who have built +in that style have built what was worthless; and therefore the greater +part of the architecture which has been built for the last three hundred +years, and which we are now building, is worthless. We must give up this +style totally, despise it and forget it, and build henceforward only in +that perfect and Christian style hitherto called Gothic, which is +everlastingly the best. + +This is the theorem of these volumes. + +In support of this theorem, the first volume contains, in its first +chapter, a sketch of the actual history of Christian architecture, up to +the period of the Reformation; and, in the subsequent chapters, an +analysis of the entire system of the laws of architectural construction +and decoration, deducing from those laws positive conclusions as to the +best forms and manners of building for all time. + +The second volume contains, in its first five chapters, an account of +one of the most important and least known forms of Christian +architecture, as exhibited in Venice, together with an analysis of its +nature in the fourth chapter; and, which is a peculiarly important part +of this section, an account of the power of color over the human mind. + +The sixth chapter of the second volume contains an analysis of the +nature of Gothic architecture, properly so called, and shows that in its +external form it complies precisely with the abstract laws of structure +and beauty, investigated in the first volume. The seventh and eighth +chapters of the second volume illustrate the nature of Gothic +architecture by various Venetian examples. The third volume +investigates, in its first chapter, the causes and manner of the +corruption of Gothic architecture; in its second chapter, defines the +nature of the Pagan architecture which superseded it; in the third +chapter, shows the connexion of that Pagan architecture with the various +characters of mind which brought about the destruction of the Venetian +nation; and, in the fourth chapter, points out the dangerous tendencies +in the modern mind which the practice of such an architecture indicates. + +Such is the intention of the preceding pages, which I hope will no more +be doubted or mistaken. As far as regards the manner of its fulfilment, +though I hope, in the course of other inquiries, to add much to the +elucidation of the points in dispute, I cannot feel it necessary to +apologize for the imperfect handling of a subject which the labor of a +long life, had I been able to bestow it, must still have left +imperfectly treated. + + + + +I. + +PERSONAL INDEX. + + + A + + Alberti, Duccio degli, his tomb, iii. 74, 80. + Alexander III., his defence by Venetians, i. 7. + Ambrose, St., his verbal subtleties, ii. 320. + Angelico, Fra, artistical power of, i. 400; his influence on + Protestants, ii. 105; his coloring, ii. 145. + Aristotle, his evil influence on the modern mind, ii. 319. + Averulinus, his book on architecture, iii. 63. + + + B + + Barbaro, monuments of the family, iii. 125. + Barbarossa, Emperor, i. 7, 9. + Baseggio, Pietro, iii. 199. + Bellini, John, i. 11; his kindness to Albert Durer, i. 383; general + power of, see Venetian Index, under head "Giovanni Grisostomo;" + Gentile, his brother, iii. 21. + Berti, Bellincion, ii. 263. + Browning, Elizabeth B., her poetry, ii. 206. + Bunsen, Chevalier, his work on Romanesque Churches, ii. 381. + Bunyan, John, his portraiture of constancy, ii. 333; of patience, ii. + 334; of vanity, ii. 346; of sin, iii. 147. + + + C + + Calendario, Filippo, iii. 199. + Canaletto, i. 24; and see Venetian Index under head "Carita." + Canova, i. 217; and see Venetian Index under head "Frari." + Cappello, Vincenzo, his tomb, iii. 122. + Caracci, school of the, i. 24. + Cary, his translation of Dante, ii. 264. + Cavalli, Jacopo, his tomb, iii. 82. + Cicero, influence of his philosophy, ii. 317, 318. + Claude Lorraine, i. 24. + Comnenus, Manuel, ii. 263. + Cornaro, Marco, his tomb, iii. 79. + Correggio, ii. 192. + Crabbe, naturalism in his poetry, ii. 195. + + + D + + Dandolo, Andrea, tomb of, ii. 70; Francesco, tomb of, iii. 74; + character of, iii. 76; Simon, tomb of, iii. 79. + Dante, his central position, ii. 340, iii. 158; his system of virtue, + ii. 323; his portraiture of sin, iii. 147. + Daru, his character as a historian, iii. 213. + Dolci, Carlo, ii. 105. + Dolfino, Giovanni, tomb of, iii. 78. + Durer, Albert, his rank as a landscape painter, i. 383; his power in + grotesque, iii. 145. + + + E + + Edwin, King, his conversion, iii. 62. + + + F + + Faliero, Bertuccio, his tomb, iii. 94; Marino, his house, ii. 254; + Vitale, miracle in his time, ii. 61. + Fergusson, James, his system of beauty, i. 388. + Foscari, Francesco, his reign, i. 4, iii. 165; his tomb, iii. 84; his + countenance, iii. 86. + + + G + + Garbett, answer to Mr., i. 403. + Ghiberti, his sculpture, i. 217. + Giotto, his system of the virtues, ii. 323, 329, 341; his rank as a + painter, ii. 188, iii. 172. + Giulio Romano, i. 23. + Giustiniani, Marco, his tomb, i. 315; Sebastian, ambassador to + England, iii. 224. + Godfrey of Bouillon, his piety, iii. 62. + Gozzoli, Benozzo, ii. 195. + Gradenigo, Pietro, ii. 290. + Grande, Can, della Scala, his tomb, i. 268 (the cornice _g_ in Plate + XVI. is taken from it), iii. 71. + Guariento, his Paradise, ii. 296. + Guercino, ii. 105. + + + H + + Hamilton, Colonel, his paper on the Serapeum, ii. 220. + Hobbima, iii. 184. + Hunt, William, his painting of peasant boys, ii. 192; of still life, + ii. 394. + Hunt, William Holman, relation of his works to modern and ancient + art, iii. 185. + + + K + + Knight, Gally, his work on Architecture, i. 378. + + + L + + Leonardo da Vinci, ii. 171. + Louis XI., iii. 194. + + + M + + Martin, John, ii. 104. + Mastino, Can, della Scala, his tomb, ii. 224, iii. 72. + Maynard, Miss, her poems, ii. 397. + Michael Angelo, ii. 134, 188, iii. 56, 90, 99, 158. + Millais, John E., relation of his works to older art, iii. 185; + aerial perspective in his "Huguenot," iii. 47. + Milton, how inferior to Dante, iii. 147. + Mocenigo, Tomaso, his character, i. 4; his speech on rebuilding the + Ducal Palace, ii. 299; his tomb, i. 26, iii. 84. + Morosini, Carlo, Count, note on Daru's History by, iii. 213. + Morosini, Marino, his tomb, iii. 93. + Morosini, Michael, his character, iii. 213; + his tomb, iii. 80. + Murillo, his sensualism, ii. 192. + + + N + + Napoleon, his genius in civil administration, i. 399. + Niccolo Pisano, i. 215. + + + O + + Orcagna, his system of the virtues, ii. 329. + Orseolo, Pietro (Doge), iii. 120. + Otho the Great, his vow at Murano, ii. 32. + + + P + + Palladio, i. 24, 146; and see Venetian Index, under head "Giorgio + Maggiore." + Participazio, Angelo, founds the Ducal Palace, ii. 287. + Pesaro, Giovanni, tomb of, iii. 92; Jacopo, tomb of, iii. 91. + Philippe de Commynes, i. 12. + Plato, influence of his philosophy, ii. 317, 338; his playfulness, + iii. 127. + Poussin, Nicolo and Gaspar, i. 23. + Procaccini, Camillo, ii. 188. + Prout, Samuel, his style, i. 250, iii. 19, 134. + Pugin, Welby, his rank as an architect, i. 385. + + + Q + + Querini, Marco, his palace, ii. 255. + + + R + + Raffaelle, ii. 188, iii. 56, 108, 136. + Reynolds, Sir J., his painting at New College, ii. 323; his general + manner, iii. 184. + Rogers, Samuel, his works, ii. 195, iii. 113. + Rubens, intellectual rank of, i. 400; + coarseness of, ii. 145. + + + S + + Salvator Rosa, i. 24, ii. 105, 145, 188. + Scaligeri, tombs of, at Verona; see "Grande," "Mastino," "Signorio;" + palace of, ii. 257. + Scott, Sir W., his feelings of romance, iii. 191. + Shakspeare, his "Seven Ages," whence derived, ii. 361. + Sharpe, Edmund, his works, i. 342, 408. + Signorio, Can, della Scala, his tomb, character, i. 268, iii. 73. + Simplicius, St., ii. 356. + Spenser, value of his philosophy, ii. 327, 341; his personifications + of the months, ii. 272; his system of the virtues, ii. 326; scheme of + the first book of the Faerie Queen, iii. 205. + Steno, Michael, ii. 306; his tomb, ii. 296. + Stothard (the painter), his works, ii. 187, 195. + Symmachus, St., ii. 357. + + + T + + Teniers, David, ii. 188. + Tiepolo, Jacopo and Lorenzo, their tombs, iii. 69; Bajamonte, ii. + 255. + Tintoret, i. 12; his genius and function, ii. 149; his Paradise, ii. + 304, 372; his rank among the men of Italy, iii. 158. + Titian, i. 12; his function and fall, ii. 149, 187. + Turner, his rank as a landscape painter, i. 382, ii. 187. + + + U + + Uguccione, Benedetto, destroys Giotto's facade at Florence, i. 197. + + + V + + Vendramin, Andrea (Doge), his tomb, i. 27, iii. 88. + Verocchio, Andrea, iii. 11, 13. + Veronese, Paul, artistical rank of, i. 400; his designs of + balustrades, ii. 247; and see in Venetian Index, "Ducal Palace," + "Pisani," "Sebastian," "Redentore," "Accademia." + + + W + + West, Benjamin, ii. 104. + Wordsworth, his observation of nature, i. 247 (note). + + + Z + + Zeno, Carlo, i. 4, iii. 80. + Ziani, Sebastian (Doge), builds Ducal Palace, ii. 289. + + + + +II. + +LOCAL INDEX. + + + A + + Abbeville, door of church at, ii. 225; parapet at, ii. 245. + Alexandria, Church at, i. 381. + Alhambra, ornamentation of, i. 429. + Alps, how formed for distant effect, i. 247; how seen from Venice, + ii. 2, 28. + Amiens, pillars of Cathedral at, i. 102. + Arqua, hills of, how seen from Venice, ii. 2. + Assisi, Giotto's paintings at, ii. 323. + + + B + + Beauvais, piers of Cathedral at, i. 93; grandeur of its buttress + structure, i. 170. + Bergamo, Duomo at, i. 275. + Bologna, Palazzo Pepoli at, i. 275. + Bourges, Cathedral at, i. 43, 102, 228, 271, 299; ii. 92, 186; house + of Jacques Coeur at, i. 346. + + + C + + Chamouni, glacier forms at, i. 222. + Como, Broletto of, i. 141, 339. + + + D + + Dijon, pillars in Church of Notre Dame at, i. 102; tombs of Dukes of + Burgundy, iii. 68. + + + E + + Edinburgh, college at, i. 207. + + + F + + Falaise (St. Gervaise at), piers of, i. 103. + Florence, Cathedral of, i. 197, iii. 13. + + + G + + Gloucester, Cathedral of, i. 192. + + + L + + Lombardy, geology of, ii. 5. + London, Church in Margaret Street, Portland Place, iii. 196; Temple + Church, i. 412; capitals in Belgrave and Grosvenor Squares, i. 330; + Bank of England, base of, i. 283; wall of, typical of accounts, i. + 295; statue in King William Street, i. 210; shops in Oxford Street, + i. 202; Arthur Club-house, i. 295; Athenaeum Club-house, i. 157, 283; + Duke of York's Pillar, i. 283; Treasury, i. 205; Whitehall, i. 205; + Westminster, fall of houses at, ii. 268; Monument, i. 82, 283; Nelson + Pillar, i. 216; Wellington Statue, i. 257. + Lucca, Cathedral of, ii. 275; San Michele at, i. 375. + Lyons, porch of cathedral at, i. 379. + + + M + + Matterhorn (Mont Cervin), structure of, i. 58; lines of, applied to + architecture, i. 308, 310, 332. + Mestre, scene in street of, i. 355. + Milan, St. Ambrogio, piers of, i. 102; capital of, i. 324; St. + Eustachio, tomb of St. Peter Martyr, i. 218. + Moulins, brickwork at, i. 296. + Murano, general aspect of, ii. 29; Duomo of, ii. 32; balustrades of, + ii. 247; inscriptions at, ii. 384. + + + N + + Nineveh, style of its decorations, i. 234, 239; iii. 159. + + + O + + Orange (South France), arch at, i. 250. + Orleans, Cathedral of, i. 95. + + + P + + Padua, Arena chapel at, ii. 324; St. Antonio at, i. 135; St. Sofia + at, i. 327; Eremitani, Church of, at, i. 135. + Paris, Hotel des Invalides, i. 214; Arc de l'Etoile, i. 291; Colonne + Vendome, i. 212. + Pavia, St. Michele at, piers of, i. 102, 337; ornaments of, i. 376. + Pisa, Baptistery of, ii. 275. + Pistoja, San Pietro at, i. 295. + + + R + + Ravenna, situation of, ii. 6. + Rouen, Cathedral, piers of, i. 103, 153; pinnacles of, ii. 213; St. + Maclou at, sculptures of, ii. 197. + + + S + + Salisbury Cathedral, piers of, i. 102; windows at, ii. 224. + Sens, Cathedral of, i. 135. + Switzerland, cottage architecture of, i. 156, 203, iii. 133. + + + V + + Verona, San Fermo at, i. 136, ii. 259; Sta. Anastasia at, i. 142; + Duomo of, i. 373; St. Zeno at, i. 373; balconies at, ii. 247; + archivolt at, i. 335; tombs at, see in Personal Index, "Grande," + "Mastino," "Signorio." + Vevay, architecture of, i. 136. + Vienne (South France), Cathedral of, i. 274. + + + W + + Warwick, Guy's tower at, i. 168. + Wenlock (Shropshire), Abbey of, i. 270. + Winchester, Cathedral of, i. 192. + + + Y + + York, Minster of, i. 205, 313. + + + + +III. + +TOPICAL INDEX. + + + A + + Abacus, defined, i. 107; law of its proportion, i. 111-115; its + connection with cornices, i. 116; its various profiles, i. 319-323; + iii. 243-248. + Acanthus, leaf of, its use in architecture, i. 233; how treated at + Torcello, ii. 15. + Alabaster, use of, in incrustation, ii. 86. + Anachronism, necessity of, in the best art, ii. 198. + Anatomy, a disadvantageous study for artists, iii. 47. + Angels, use of their images in Venetian heraldry, ii. 278; statues + of, on the Ducal Palace, ii. 311. + Anger, how symbolically represented, ii. 344. + Angles, decoration of, i. 260; ii. 305; of Gothic Palaces, ii. 238; + of Ducal Palace, ii. 307. + Animal character in northern and southern climates, ii. 156; in + grotesque art, iii. 149. + Apertures, analysis of their structure, i. 50; general forms of, i. + 174. + Apse, forms of, in southern and northern churches compared, i. 170. + Arabesques of Raffaelle, their baseness, iii. 136. + Arabian architecture, i. 18, 234, 235, 429; ii. 135. + Arches, general structure of, i. 122; moral characters of, i. 126; + lancet, round, and depressed, i. 129; four-centred, i. 130; ogee, i. + 131; non-concentric, i. 133, 341; masonry of, i. 133, ii. 218; load + of, i. 144; are not derived from vegetation, ii. 201. + Architects, modern, their unfortunate position, i. 404, 407. + Architecture, general view of its divisions, i. 47-51; how to judge + of it, ii. 173; adaptation of, to requirements of human mind, iii. + 192; richness of early domestic, ii. 100, iii. 2; manner of its + debasement in general, iii. 3. + Archivolts, decoration of, i. 334; general families of, i. 335; of + Murano, ii. 49; of St. Mark's, ii. 95; in London, ii. 97; Byzantine, + ii. 138; profiles of, iii. 244. + Arts, relative dignity of, i. 395; how represented in Venetian + sculpture, ii. 355; what relation exists between them and their + materials, ii. 394; art divided into the art of facts, of design, and + of both, ii. 183; into purist, naturalist, and sensualist, ii. 187; + art opposed to inspiration, iii. 151; defined, iii. 170; + distinguished from science, iii. 35; how to enjoy that of the + ancients, iii. 188. + Aspiration, not the primal motive of Gothic work, i. 151. + Astrology, judicial, representation of its doctrines in Venetian + sculpture, ii. 352. + Austrian government in Italy, iii. 209. + Avarice, how represented figuratively, ii. 344. + + + B + + Backgrounds, diapered, iii. 20. + Balconies, of Venice, ii. 243; general treatment of, iii. 254; of + iron, ii. 247. + Ballflower, its use in ornamentation, i. 279. + Balustrades. See "Balconies." + Bases, general account of, iii. 225; of walls, i. 55; of piers, i. + 73; of shafts, i. 84; decoration of, i. 281; faults of Gothic + profiles of, i. 285; spurs of, i. 286; beauty of, in St. Mark's, i. + 290; Lombardie, i. 292; ought not to be richly decorated, i. 292; + general effect of, ii. 387. + Battlements, i. 162; abuse of, in ornamentation, i. 219. + Beauty and ornament, relation of the terms, i. 404. + Bellstones of capitals defined, i. 108. + Birds, use of in ornamentation, i. 234, ii. 140. + Bishops, their ancient authority, ii. 25. + Body, its relation to the soul, i. 41, 395. + Brackets, division of, i. 161; ridiculous forms of, i. 161. + Breadth in Byzantine design, ii. 133. + Brickwork, ornamental, i. 296; in general, ii. 241, 260, 261. + Brides of Venice, legend of the, iii. 113, 116. + Buttresses, general structure of, i. 166; flying, i. 192; supposed + sanctity of, i. 173. + Bull, symbolical use of, in representing rivers, i. 418, 421, 424. + Byzantine style, analysis of, ii. 75; ecclesiastical fitness of, ii. + 97; centralization in, ii. 236; palaces built in, ii. 118; sculptures + in, ii. 137, 140. + + + C + + Candlemas, ancient symbols of, ii. 272. + Capitals, general structure of, i. 105; bells of, i. 107; just + proportions of, i. 114; various families of, i. 13, 65, 324, ii. 129, + iii. 231; are necessary to shafts in good architecture, i. 119; + Byzantine, ii. 131, iii. 231; Lily, of St. Mark's, ii. 137; of + Solomon's temple, ii. 137. + Care, how symbolized, ii. 348. See "Sorrow." + Caryatides, i. 302. + Castles, English, entrances of, i. 177. + Cathedrals, English, effect of, ii. 63. + Ceilings, old Venetian, ii. 280. + Centralization in design, ii. 237. + Chalet of Switzerland, its character, i. 203. + Chamfer defined, i. 263; varieties of, i. 262, 429. + Changefulness, an element of Gothic, ii. 172. + Charity, how symbolized, ii. 327, 339. + Chartreuse, Grande, morbid life in, iii. 190. + Chastity, how symbolized, ii. 328. + Cheerfulness, how symbolized, ii. 326, 348; virtue of, ii. 326. + Cherries, cultivation of, at Venice, ii. 361. + Christianity, how mingled with worldliness, iii. 109; how imperfectly + understood, iii. 168; influence of, in liberating workmen, ii. 159, + i. 243; influence of, on forms, i. 99. + Churches, wooden, of the North, i. 381; considered as ships, ii. 25; + decoration of, how far allowable, ii. 102. + Civilization, progress of, iii. 168; twofold danger of, iii. 169. + Classical literature, its effect on the modern mind, iii. 12. + Climate, its influence on architecture, i. 151, ii. 155, 203. + Color, its importance in early work, ii. 38, 40, 78, 91; its + spirituality, ii. 145, 396; its relation to music, iii. 186; + quartering of, iii. 20; how excusing realization, iii. 186. + Commerce, how regarded by Venetians, i. 6. + Composition, definition of the term, ii. 182. + Constancy, how symbolized, ii. 333. + Construction, architectural, how admirable, i. 36. + Convenience, how consulted by Gothic architecture, ii. 179. + Cornices, general divisions of, i. 63, iii. 248; of walls, i. 60; of + roofs, i. 149; ornamentation of, i. 305; curvatures of, i. 310; + military, i. 160; Greek, i. 157. + Courses in walls, i. 60. + Crockets, their use in ornamentation, i. 346; their abuse at Venice, + iii. 109. + Crosses, Byzantine, ii. 139. + Crusaders, character of the, ii. 263. + Crystals, architectural appliance of, i. 225. + Cupid, representation of, in early and later art, ii. 342. + Curvature, on what its beauty depends, i. 222, iii. 5. + Cusps, definition of, i. 135; groups of, i. 138; relation of, to + vegetation, ii. 219; general treatment of, iii. 255; earliest + occurrence of, ii. 220. + + + D + + Daguerreotype, probable results of, iii. 169. + Darkness, a character of early churches, ii. 18; not an abstract + evil, iii. 220. + Death, fear of, in Renaissance times, iii. 65, 90, 92; how anciently + regarded, iii. 139, 156. + Decoration, true nature of, i. 405; how to judge of, i. 44, 45. See + "Ornament." + Demons, nature of, how illustrated by Milton and Dante, iii. 147. + Dentil, Venetian, defined, i. 273, 275. + Design, definition of the term, ii. 183; its relations to naturalism, + ii. 184. + Despair, how symbolized, ii. 334. + Diaper patterns in brick, i. 296; in color, iii. 21, 22. + Discord, how symbolized, ii. 333. + Discs, decoration by means of, i. 240, 416; ii. 147, 264. + Division of labor, evils of, ii. 165. + Doge of Venice, his power, i. 3, 360. + Dogtooth moulding defined, i. 269. + Dolphins, moral disposition of, i. 230; use of, in symbolic + representation of sea, i. 422, 423. + Domestic architecture, richness of, in middle ages, ii. 99. + Doors, general structure of, i. 174, 176; smallness of in English + cathedrals, i. 176; ancient Venetian, ii. 277, iii. 227. + Doric architecture, i. 157, 301, 307; Christian Doric, i. 308, 315. + Dragon, conquered by St. Donatus, ii. 33; use of, in ornamentation, + ii. 219. + Dreams, how resembled by the highest arts, iii. 153; prophetic, in + relation to the Grotesque, iii. 156. + Dress, its use in ornamentation, i. 212; early Venetian, ii. 383; + dignity of, iii. 191; changes in modern dress, iii. 192. + Duties of buildings, i. 47. + + + E + + Earthquake of 1511, ii. 242. + Eastern races, their power over color, ii. 147. + Eaves, construction of, i. 156. + Ecclesiastical architecture in Venice, i. 20; no architecture + exclusively ecclesiastical, ii. 99. + Edge decoration, i. 268. + Education, University, i. 391; iii. 110; evils of, with respect to + architectural workmen, ii. 107; how to be successfully undertaken, + ii. 165, 214; modern education in general, how mistaken, iii. 110, + 234; system of, in Plato, ii. 318; of Persian kings, ii. 318; not to + be mistaken for erudition, iii. 219; ought to be universal, iii. 220. + Egg and arrow mouldings, i. 314. + Egyptian architecture, i. 99, 239; ii. 203. + Elgin marbles, ii. 171. + Encrusted architecture, i. 271, 272; general analysis of, ii. 76. + Energy of Northern Gothic, i. 371; ii. 16, 204. + English (early) capitals, faults of, i. 100, 411; English mind, its + mistaken demands of perfection, ii. 160. + Envy, how set forth, ii. 346. + Evangelists, types of, how explicable, iii. 155. + + + F + + Faerie Queen, Spenser's, value of, theologically, ii. 328. + Faith, influence of on art, ii. 104, 105; Titian's picture of, i. 11; + how symbolized, ii. 337. + Falsehood, how symbolized, ii. 349. + Fatalism, how expressed in Eastern architecture, ii. 205. + Fear, effect of, on human life, iii. 137; on Grotesque art, iii. 142. + Feudalism, healthy effects of, i. 184. + Fig-tree, sculpture of, on Ducal Palace, ii. 307. + Fillet, use of, in ornamentation, i. 267. + Finials, their use in ornamentation, i. 346; a sign of decline in + Venetian architecture, iii. 109. + Finish in workmanship, when to be required, ii. 165; dangers of, iii. + 170, ii. 162. + Fir, spruce, influence of, on architecture, i. 152. + Fire, forms of, in ornamentation, i. 228. + Fish, use of, in ornamentation, i. 229. + Flamboyant Gothic, i. 278, ii. 225. + Flattery, common in Renaissance times, iii. 64. + Flowers, representation of, how desirable, i. 340; how represented in + mosaic, iii. 179. + Fluting of columns, a mistake, i. 301. + Foils, definition of, ii. 221. + Foliage, how carved in declining periods, iii. 8, 17. See "Vegetation." + Foliation defined, ii. 219; essential to Gothic architecture, ii. 222. + Folly, how symbolized, ii. 325, 348. + Form of Gothic, defined, ii. 209. + Fortitude, how symbolized, ii. 337. + Fountains, symbolic representations of, i. 427. + French architecture, compared with Italian, ii. 226. + Frivolity, how exhibited in Grotesque art, iii. 143. + Fruit, its use in ornamentation, i. 232. + + + G + + Gable, general structure of, i. 124; essential to Gothic, ii. 210, 217. + Gardens, Italian, iii. 136. + Generalization, abuses of, iii. 176. + Geology of Lombardy, ii. 5. + Glass, its capacities in architecture, i. 409; manufacture of, ii. + 166; true principles of working in, ii. 168, 395. + Gluttony, how symbolized, ii. 343. + Goldsmiths' work, a high form of art, ii. 166. + Gondola, management of, ii. 375. + Gothic architecture, analysis of, ii. 151; not derived from vegetable + structure, i. 121; convenience of, ii. 178; divisions of, ii. 215; + surface and linear, ii. 226; Italian and French, ii. 226; flamboyant, + i. 278, ii. 225; perpendicular, i. 192, ii. 223, 227; early English, + i. 109; how to judge of it, ii. 228; how fitted for domestic + purposes, ii. 269, iii. 195; how first corrupted, iii. 3; how to be + at present built, iii. 196; early Venetian, ii. 248; ecclesiastical + Venetian, i. 21; central Venetian, ii. 231; how adorned by color in + Venice, iii. 23. + Government of Venice, i. 2, ii. 366. + Grammar, results of too great study of it, iii. 55, 106. + Greek architecture, general character of, i. 240, ii. 215, iii. 159. + Grief. See "Sorrow." + Griffins, Lombardic, i. 292, 387. + Grotesque, analysis of, iii. 132; in changes of form, i. 317; in + Venetian painting, iii. 162; symbolical, iii. 155; its character in + Renaissance work, iii. 113, 121, 136, 143. + Gutters of roofs, i. 151. + + + H + + Heathenism, typified in ornament, i. 317. See "Paganism." + Heaven and Hell, proofs of their existence in natural phenomena, iii. + 138. + History, how to be written and read, iii. 224. + Hobbima, iii. 184. + Honesty, how symbolized, ii. 349. + Hope, how symbolized, ii. 341. + Horseshoe arches, i. 129, ii. 249, 250. + Humanity, spiritual nature of, i. 41; divisions of, with respect to + art, i. 394. + Humility, how symbolized, ii. 339. + + + I + + Idleness, how symbolized, ii. 345. + Idolatry, proper sense of the term, ii. 388; is no encourager of art, + ii. 110. See "Popery." + Imagination, its relation to art, iii. 182. + Imitation of precious stones, &c., how reprehensible, iii. 26, 30. + Imposts, continuous, i. 120. + Infidelity, how symbolized, ii. 335; an element of the Renaissance + spirit, iii. 100. + Injustice, how symbolized, ii. 349. + Inlaid ornamentation, i. 369; perfection of, in early Renaissance, + iii. 26. + Inscriptions at Murano, ii. 47, 54; use of, in early times, ii. 111. + Insects, use of, in ornamentation, i. 230. + Inspiration, how opposed to art, iii. 151, 171. + Instinct, its dignity, iii. 171. + Intellect, how variable in dignity, iii. 173. + Involution, delightfulness of, in ornament, ii. 136. + Iron, its use in architecture, i. 184, 410. + Italians, modern character of, iii. 209. + Italy, how ravaged by recent war, iii. 209. + + + J + + Jambs, Gothic, iii. 137. + Jesting, evils of, iii. 129. + Jesuits, their restricted power in Venice, i. 366. + Jewels, their cutting, a bad employment, ii. 166. + Judgments, instinctive, i. 399. + Job, book of, its purpose, iii. 53. + + + K + + Keystones, how mismanaged in Renaissance work. See Venetian Index, + under head "Libreria." + Knowledge, its evil consequences, iii. 40; how to be received, iii. + 50, &c. See "Education." + + + L + + Labor, manual, ornamental value of, i. 407; evils of its division, + ii. 165; is not a degradation, ii. 168. + Labyrinth, in Venetian streets, its clue, ii. 254. + Lagoons, Venetian, nature of, ii. 7, 8. + Landscape, lower schools of, i. 24; Venetian, ii. 149; modern love + of, ii. 175, iii. 123. + Laws of right in architecture, i. 32; laws in general, how + permissibly violated, i. 255, ii. 210; their position with respect to + art, iii. 96; and to religion, iii. 205. + Leaves, use of, in ornamentation, i. 232 (see "Vegetation"); + proportion of, ii. 128. + Liberality, how symbolized, ii. 333. + Life in Byzantine architecture, ii. 133. + Lilies, beautiful proportions of, ii. 128; used for parapet + ornaments, ii. 242; lily capitals, ii. 137. + Limitation of ornament, i. 254. + Lines, abstract use of, in ornament, i. 221. + Lintel, its structure, i. 124, 126. + Lion, on piazzetta shafts, iii. 238. + Load, of arches, i. 133. + Logic, a contemptible science, iii. 105. + Lombardic architecture, i. 17. + Lotus leaf, its use in architecture, i. 233. + Love, its power over human life, iii. 137. + Lusts, their power over human nature, how symbolized by Spenser, ii. + 328. + Luxury, how symbolized, ii. 342; how traceable in ornament, iii. 4; + of Renaissance schools, iii. 61. + + + M + + Madonna, Byzantine representations of, ii. 53. + Magnitude, vulgar admiration of, iii. 64. + Malmsey, use of, in Feast of the Maries, iii. 117. + Marble, its uses, iii. 27. + Maries, Feast of the, iii. 117. + Mariolatry, ancient and modern, ii. 55. + Marriages of Venetians, iii. 116. + Masonry, Mont-Cenisian, i. 132; of walls, i. 61; of arches, i. 133. + Materials, invention of new, how injurious to art, iii. 42. + Misery, how symbolized, ii. 347. + Modesty, how symbolized, ii. 335. + Monotony, its place in art, ii. 176. + Months, personifications of, in ancient art, ii. 272. + Moroseness, its guilt, iii. 130. + Mosaics at Torcello, ii. 18, 19; at St. Mark's, ii. 70, 112; early + character of, ii. 110, iii. 175, 178. + Music, its relation to color, iii. 186. + Mythology of Venetian painters, ii. 150; ancient, how injurious to + the Christian mind, iii. 107. + + + N + + Natural history, how necessary a study, iii. 54. + Naturalism, general analysis of it with respect to art, ii. 181, 190; + its advance in Gothic art, iii. 6; not to be found in the encrusted + style, ii. 89; its presence in the noble Grotesque, iii. 144. + Nature (in the sense of material universe) not improvable by art, i. + 350; its relation to architecture, i. 351. + Niches, use of, in Northern Gothic, i. 278; in Venetian, ii. 240; in + French and Veronese, ii. 227. + Norman hatchet-work, i. 297; zigzag, i. 339. + Novelty, its necessity to the human mind, ii. 176. + + + O + + Oak-tree, how represented in symbolical art, iii. 185. + Obedience, how symbolized, ii. 334. + Oligarchical government, its effect on the Venetians, i. 5. + Olive-tree, neglect of, by artists, iii. 175; general expression of, + iii. 176, 177; representations of, in mosaic, iii. 178. + Order, uses and disadvantages of, ii. 172. + Orders, Doric and Corinthian, i. 13; ridiculous divisions of, i. 157, + 370; ii. 173, 249; iii. 99. + Ornament, material of, i. 211; the best, expresses man's delight in + God's work, i. 220; not in his own, i. 211; general treatment of, i. + 236; is necessarily imperfect, i. 237, 240; divided into servile, + subordinate, and insubordinate, i. 242, ii. 158; distant effect of, + i. 248; arborescent, i. 252; restrained within limits, i. 255; cannot + be overcharged if good, i. 406. + Oxford, system of education at, i. 391. + + + P + + Paganism, revival of its power in modern times, iii. 105, 107, 122. + Painters, their power of perception, iii. 37; influence of society + on, iii. 41; what they should know, iii. 41; what is their business, + iii. 187. + Palace, the Crystal, merits of, i. 409. + Palaces, Byzantine, ii. 118, 391; Gothic, ii. 231. + Papacy. See "Popery." + Parapets, i. 162, ii. 240. + Parthenon, curves of, ii. 127. + Patience, how symbolized, ii. 334. + Pavements, ii. 52. + Peacocks, sculpture of, i. 240. + Pedestals of shafts, i. 82; and see Venetian Index under head + "Giorgio Maggiore." + Perception opposed to knowledge, iii. 37. + Perfection, inordinate desire of, destructive of art, i. 237; ii. + 133, 158, 169. + Perpendicular style, i. 190, 253; ii. 223, 227. + Personification, evils of, ii. 322. + Perspective, aerial, ridiculous exaggerations of, iii. 45; ancient + pride in, iii. 57; absence of, in many great works, see in Venetian + Index the notice of Tintoret's picture of the Pool of Bethesda, under + head "Rocco." + Phariseeism and Liberalism, how opposed, iii. 97. + Philology, a base science, iii. 54. + Piazzetta at Venice, plan of, ii. 283; shafts of, ii. 233. + Pictures, judgment of, how formed, ii. 371; neglect of, in Venice, + ii. 372; how far an aid to religion, ii. 104, 110. + Picturesque, definition of term, iii. 134. + Piers, general structure of, i. 71, 98, 118. + Pilgrim's Progress. See "Bunyan." + Pine of Italy, its effect on architecture, i. 152; of Alps, effect in + distance, i. 245. See "Fir." + Pinnacles are of little practical service, i. 170; their effect on + common roofs, i. 347. + Play, its relation to Grotesque art, iii. 126. + Pleasure, its kinds and true uses, iii. 189. + Popery, how degraded in contest with Protestantism, i. 34, iii. 103; + its influence on art, i. 23, 34, 35, 384, 432, ii. 51; typified in + ornament, i. 316; power of Pope in Venice, i. 362; arts used in + support of Popery, ii. 74. + Porches, i. 195. + Portraiture, power of, in Venice, iii. 164. + Posture-making in Renaissance art, iii. 90. + Prayers, ancient and modern, difference between, ii. 315, 390. + Pre-Raphaelitism, iii. 90; present position of, iii. 168, 174, 188. + Pride, how symbolized, ii. 343, iii. 207; of knowledge, iii. 35; of + state, iii. 59; of system, iii. 95. + Priests, restricted power of, in Venice, i. 366. + Proportions, subtlety of, in early work, ii. 38, 121, 127. + Protestantism, its influence on art, i. 23; typified in ornament, i. + 316; influence of, on prosperity of nations, i. 368; expenditure in + favor of, i. 434; is incapable of judging of art, ii. 105; how + expressed in art, ii. 205; its errors in opposing Romanism, iii, 102, + 103, 104; its shame of religious confession, ii. 278. + Prudence, how symbolized, ii. 340. + Pulpits, proper structure of, ii. 22, 380. + Purism in art, its nature and definition, ii. 189. + Purity, how symbolized, iii. 20. + + + Q + + Quadrupeds, use of in ornamentation, i. 234. + Quantity of ornament, its regulation, i. 23. + + + R + + Rationalism, its influence on art, i. 23. + Realization, how far allowable in noble art, iii. 182, 186. + Recesses, decoration of, i. 278. + Recumbent statues, iii. 72. + Redundance, an element of Gothic, ii. 206. + Religion, its influence on Venetian policy, i. 6; how far aided by + pictorial art, ii. 104, 109; contempt of, in Renaissance times, iii. + 122. + Renaissance architecture, nature of, iii. 33; early, iii. 1; + Byzantine, iii. 15; Roman, iii. 32; Grotesque, iii. 112; + inconsistencies of, iii. 42, etc. + Reptiles, how used in ornamentation, i. 230. + Resistance, line of, in arches, i. 126. + Restraint, ornamental, value of, i. 255. + Reverence, how ennobling to humanity, ii. 163. + Rhetoric, a base study, iii. 106. + Rigidity, an element of Gothic, ii. 203. + Rivers, symbolical representation of, i. 419, 420. + Rocks, use of, in ornamentation, i. 224; organization of, i. 246; + curvatures of, i. 58, 224. + Roll-mouldings, decoration of, i. 276. + Romance, modern errors of, ii. 4; how connected with dress, iii. 192. + Romanesque style, i. 15, 19, 145; ii. 215. See "Byzantine," and + "Renaissance." + Romanism. See "Popery." + Roofs, analysis of, i. 46, 148; ii. 212, 216; domed, i. 149; Swiss, + i. 149, 345; steepness of, conducive to Gothic character, i. 151, ii. + 209; decoration of, i. 343. + Rustication, is ugly and foolish, i. 65; natural objects of which it + produces a resemblance, i. 296. + + + S + + Salvia, its leaf applied to architecture, i. 287, 306. + Sarcophagi, Renaissance treatment of, iii. 90; ancient, iii. 69, 93. + Satellitic shafts, i. 95. + Satire in Grotesque art, iii. 126, 145. + Savageness, the first element of Gothic, ii. 155; in Grotesque art, + iii. 159. + Science opposed to art, iii. 36. + Sculpture, proper treatment of, i. 216, &c. + Sea, symbolical representations of, i. 352, 421; natural waves of, i. + 351. + Sensualism in art, its nature and definition, ii. 189; how redeemed + by color, ii. 145. + Serapeum at Memphis, cusps of, ii. 220. + Sermons, proper manner of regarding them, ii. 22; mode of their + delivery in Scotch church, ii. 381. + Serrar del Consiglio, ii. 291. + Shafts, analysis of, i. 84; vaulting shafts, i. 145; ornamentation + of, i. 300; twisted, by what laws regulated, i. 303; strength of, i. + 402; laws by which they are regulated in encrusted style, ii. 82. + Shields, use of, on tombs, ii. 224, iii. 87. + Shipping, use of, in ornamentation, i. 215. + Shops in Venice, ii. 65. + Sight, how opposed to thought, iii. 39. + Simplicity of life in thirteenth century, ii. 263. + Sin, how symbolized in Grotesque art, iii. 141. + Slavery of Greeks and Egyptians, ii. 158; of English workmen, ii. + 162, 163. + Society, unhealthy state of, in modern times, ii. 163. + Sorrow, how sinful, ii. 325; how symbolized, ii. 347. + Soul, its development in art, iii. 173, 188; its connection with the + body, i. 41, 395. + Spandrils, structure of, i. 146; decoration of, i. 297. + Spirals, architectural value of, i. 222, ii. 16. + Spurs of bases, i. 79. + Staircases, i. 208; of Gothic palaces, ii. 280. + Stucco, when admissible, iii. 21. + Subordination of ornament, i. 240. + Superimposition of buildings, i. 200; ii. 386. + Surface-Gothic, explanation of term, ii. 225, 227. + Symbolism, i. 417; how opposed to personification, ii. 322. + System, pride of, how hurtful, iii. 95, 99. + + + T + + Temperance, how symbolized, ii. 338; temperance in color and + curvature, iii. 420. + Theology, opposed to religion, iii. 216; of Spencer, iii. 205. + Thirteenth century, its high position with respect to art, ii. 263. + Thought, opposed to sight, iii. 39. + Tombs at Verona, i. 142, 412; at Venice, ii. 69; early Christian, + iii. 67; Gothic, iii. 71; Renaissance treatment of, iii. 84. + Towers, proper character of, i. 204; of St. Mark's, i 207. + Traceries, structure of, i. 184, 185; flamboyant, i. 189; stump, i. + 189; English perpendicular, i 190, ii. 222; general character of, ii. + 220; strength of, in Venetian Gothic, ii. 234, iii. 253; general + forms of tracery bars, iii. 250. + Treason, how detested by Dante, ii. 327. + Trees, use of, in ornamentation, i. 231. + Trefoil, use of, in ornamentation, ii. 42. + Triangles, used for ornaments at Murano, ii. 43. + Tribune at Torcello, ii. 24. + Triglyphs, ugliness of, i, 43. + Trunkmakers, their share in recovery of Brides of Venice, iii. 117, 118. + Truth, relation of, to religion, in Spenser's "Faerie Queen," iii, + 205; typified by stones, iii. 31. + Tympanum, decoration of, i. 299. + + + U + + Unity of Venetian nobility, i. 10. + + + V + + Vain glory, speedy punishment of, iii. 122. + Vanity, how symbolized, ii. 346. + Variety in ornamental design, importance of, ii. 43, 133, 142, 172. + Vegetation, use of, in ornamentation, i. 232; peculiar meaning of, in + Gothic, ii. 199; how connected with cusps, ii. 219. + Veil (wall veil), construction of, i. 58; decoration of, i. 294. + Vine, Lombardic sculpture of, i. 375; at Torcello, ii. 15; use of, in + ornamentation, ii. 141; in symbolism, ii. 143; sculpture of, on Ducal + Palace, ii. 308. + Virtues, how symbolized in sepulchral monuments, iii. 82, 86; systems + of, in Pagan and Christian philosophy, ii. 312; cardinal, ii. 317, + 318, 320; of architecture, i. 36, 44. + Voussoirs defined, i. 125; contest between them and architraves, i. + 336. + + + W + + Walls, general analysis of their structure, i. 48; bases of, i. 52, + 53; cornices of, i. 63; rustication of, i. 61, 338; decoration of, i. + 294; courses in, i. 61, 295. + Water, its use in ornamentation, i. 226; ancient representations of, + i. 417. + Weaving, importance of associations connected with, ii. 136. + Wells, old Venetian, ii. 279. + Windows, general forms of, i. 179; Arabian, i. 180, ii. 135; + square-headed, ii. 211, 269; development of, in Venice, ii. 235; + orders of, in Venice, ii. 248; advisable form of, in modern + buildings, ii. 269. + Winds, how symbolized at Venice, ii. 367. + Wooden architecture, i. 381. + Womanhood, virtues of, as given by Spenser, ii. 326. + + + Z + + Zigzag, Norman, i. 339. + + + + +IV. + +VENETIAN INDEX. + + +I have endeavored to make the following index as useful as possible to +the traveller, by indicating only the objects which are really worth his +study. A traveller's interest, stimulated as it is into strange vigor by +the freshness of every impression, and deepened by the sacredness of the +charm of association which long familiarity with any scene too fatally +wears away,[71] is too precious a thing to be heedlessly wasted; and as +it is physically impossible to see and to understand more than a certain +quantity of art in a given time, the attention bestowed on second-rate +works, in such a city as Venice, is not merely lost, but actually +harmful,--deadening the interest and confusing the memory with respect +to those which it is a duty to enjoy, and a disgrace to forget. The +reader need not fear being misled by any omissions; for I have +conscientiously pointed out every characteristic example, even of the +styles which I dislike, and have referred to Lazari in all instances in +which my own information failed: but if he is in any wise willing to +trust me, I should recommend him to devote his principal attention, if +he is fond of paintings, to the works of Tintoret, Paul Veronese, and +John Bellini; not of course neglecting Titian, yet remembering that +Titian can be well and thoroughly studied in almost any great European +gallery, while Tintoret and Bellini can be judged of _only_ in Venice, +and Paul Veronese, though gloriously represented by the two great +pictures in the Louvre, and many others throughout Europe, is yet not to +be fully estimated until he is seen at play among the fantastic chequers +of the Venetian ceilings. + +I have supplied somewhat copious notices of the pictures of Tintoret, +because they are much injured, difficult to read, and entirely neglected +by other writers on art. I cannot express the astonishment and +indignation I felt on finding, in Kugler's handbook, a paltry cenacolo, +painted probably in a couple of hours for a couple of zecchins, for the +monks of St. Trovaso, quoted as characteristic of this master; just as +foolish readers quote separate stanzas of Peter Bell or the Idiot Boy, +as characteristic of Wordsworth. Finally, the reader is requested to +observe, that the dates assigned to the various buildings named in the +following index, are almost without exception conjectural; that is to +say, founded exclusively on the internal evidence of which a portion has +been given in the Final Appendix. It is likely, therefore, that here and +there, in particular instances, further inquiry may prove me to have +been deceived; but such occasional errors are not of the smallest +importance with respect to the general conclusions of the preceding +pages, which will be found to rest on too broad a basis to be disturbed. + + + A + + ACCADEMIA DELLE BELLE ARTI. Notice above the door the two bas-reliefs + of St. Leonard and St. Christopher, chiefly remarkable for their rude + cutting at so late a date as 1377; but the niches under which they + stand are unusual in their bent gables, and in little crosses within + circles which fill their cusps. The traveller is generally too much + struck by Titian's great picture of the "Assumption," to be able to + pay proper attention to the other works in this gallery. Let him, + however, ask himself candidly, how much of his admiration is + dependent merely upon the picture being larger than any other in the + room, and having bright masses of red and blue in it: let him be + assured that the picture is in reality not one whit the better for + being either large, or gaudy in color; and he will then be better + disposed to give the pains necessary to discover the merit of the more + profound and solemn works of Bellini and Tintoret. One of the most + wonderful works in the whole gallery is Tintoret's "Death of Abel," on + the left of the "Assumption;" the "Adam and Eve," on the right of it, + is hardly inferior; and both are more characteristic examples of the + master, and in many respects better pictures, than the much vaunted + "Miracle of St. Mark." All the works of Bellini in this room are of + great beauty and interest. In the great room, that which contains + Titian's "Presentation of the Virgin," the traveller should examine + carefully all the pictures by Vittor Carpaccio and Gentile Bellini, + which represent scenes in ancient Venice; they are full of interesting + architecture and costume. Marco Basaiti's "Agony in the Garden" is a + lovely example of the religious school. The Tintorets in this room are + all second rate, but most of the Veronese are good, and the large ones + are magnificent. + + ALIGA. See GIORGIO. + + ALVISE, CHURCH OF ST. I have never been in this church, but Lazari + dates its interior, with decision, as of the year 1388, and it may be + worth a glance, if the traveller has time. + + ANDREA, CHURCH OF ST. Well worth visiting for the sake of the + peculiarly sweet and melancholy effect of its little grass-grown + campo, opening to the lagoon and the Alps. The sculpture over the + door, "St. Peter walking on the Water," is a quaint piece of + Renaissance work. Note the distant rocky landscape, and the oar of the + existing gondola floating by St. Andrew's boat. The church is of the + later Gothic period, much defaced, but still picturesque. The lateral + windows are bluntly trefoiled, and good of their time. + + ANGELI, CHURCH DELGLI, at Murano. The sculpture of the "Annunciation" + over the entrance-gate is graceful. In exploring Murano, it is worth + while to row up the great canal thus far for the sake of the opening + to the lagoon. + + ANTONINO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + APOLLINARE, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + APOSTOLI, CHURCH OF THE. The exterior is nothing. There is said to be + a picture by Veronese in the interior, "The Fall of the Manna." I have + not seen it; but, if it be of importance, the traveller should compare + it carefully with Tintoret's, in the Scuola di San Rocco, and San + Giorgio Maggiore. + + APOSTOLI, PALACE AT, II. 253, on the Grand Canal, near the Rialto, + opposite the fruit-market. A most important transitional palace. Its + sculpture in the first story is peculiarly rich and curious; I think + Venetian, in imitation of Byzantine. The sea story and first floor are + of the first half of the thirteenth century, the rest modern. Observe + that only one wing of the sea story is left, the other half having + been modernized. The traveller should land to look at the capital + drawn in Plate II. of Vol. III. fig. 7. + + ARSENAL. Its gateway is a curiously picturesque example of Renaissance + workmanship, admirably sharp and expressive in its ornamental + sculpture; it is in many parts like some of the best Byzantine work. + The Greek lions in front of it appear to me to deserve more praise + than they have received; though they are awkwardly balanced between + conventional and imitative representation, having neither the severity + proper to the one, nor the veracity necessary for the other. + + + B + + BADOER, PALAZZO, in the Campo San Giovanni in Bragola. A magnificent + example of the fourteenth century Gothic, circa 1310-1320, anterior to + the Ducal Palace, and showing beautiful ranges of the fifth order + window, with fragments of the original balconies, and the usual + lateral window larger than any of the rest. In the centre of its + arcade on the first floor is the inlaid ornament drawn in Plate VIII. + Vol. I. The fresco painting on the walls is of later date; and I + believe the heads which form the finials have been inserted afterwards + also, the original windows having been pure fifth order. + + The building is now a ruin, inhabited by the lowest orders; the first + floor, when I was last in Venice, by a laundress. + + BAFFO, PALAZZO, in the Campo St. Maurizio. The commonest late + Renaissance. A few olive leaves and vestiges of two figures still + remain upon it, of the frescoes by Paul Veronese, with which it was + once adorned. + + BALBI, PALAZZO, in Volta di Canal. Of no importance. + + BARBARIGO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, next the Casa Pisani. Late + Renaissance; noticeable only as a house in which some of the best + pictures of Titian were allowed to be ruined by damp, and out of which + they were then sold to the Emperor of Russia. + + BARBARO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, next the Palazzo Cavalli. These + two buildings form the principal objects in the foreground of the view + which almost every artist seizes on his first traverse of the Grand + Canal, the Church of the Salute forming a most graceful distance. + Neither is, however, of much value, except in general effect; but the + Barbaro is the best, and the pointed arcade in its side wall, seen + from the narrow canal between it and the Cavalli, is good Gothic, of + the earliest fourteenth century type. + + BARNABA, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + BARTOLOMEO, CHURCH OF ST. I did not go to look at the works of + Sebastian del Piombo which it contains, fully crediting M. Lazari's + statement, that they have been "Barbaramente sfigurati da mani + imperite, che pretendevano ristaurarli." Otherwise the church is of no + importance. + + BASSO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + BATTAGIA, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no importance. + + BECCHERIE. See QUERINI. + + BEMBO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, next the Casa Manin. A noble + Gothic pile, circa 1350-1380, which, before it was painted by the + modern Venetians with the two most valuable colors of Tintoret, Bianco + e Nero, by being whitewashed above, and turned into a coal warehouse + below, must have been among the most noble in effect on the whole + Grand Canal. It still forms a beautiful group with the Rialto, some + large shipping being generally anchored at its quay. Its sea story and + entresol are of earlier date, I believe, than the rest; the doors of + the former are Byzantine (see above, Final Appendix, under head + "Jambs"); and above the entresol is a beautiful Byzantine cornice, + built into the wall, and harmonizing well with the Gothic work. + + BEMBO, PALAZZO, in the Calle Magno, at the Campo de' due Pozzi, close + to the Arsenal. Noticed by Lazari and Selvatico as having a very + interesting staircase. It is early Gothic, circa 1330, but not a whit + more interesting than many others of similar date and design. See + "Contarini Porta de Ferro," "Morosini," "Sanudo," and "Minelli." + + BENEDETTO, CAMPO OF ST. Do not fail to see the superb, though + partially ruinous, Gothic palace fronting this little square. It is + very late Gothic, just passing into Renaissance; unique in Venice, in + masculine character, united with the delicacy of the incipient style. + Observe especially the brackets of the balconies, the flower-work on + the cornices, and the arabesques on the angles of the balconies + themselves. + + BENEDETTO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + BERNARDO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. A very noble pile of early + fifteenth century Gothic, founded on the Ducal Palace. The traceries + in its lateral windows are both rich and unusual. + + BERNARDO, PALAZZO, at St. Polo. A glorious palace, on a narrow canal, + in a part of Venice now inhabited by the lower orders only. It is + rather late Central Gothic, circa 1380-1400, but of the finest kind, + and superb in its effect of color when seen from the side. A capital + in the interior court is much praised by Selvatico and Lazari, because + its "foglie d'acanto" (anything by the by, _but_ acanthus), "quasi + agitate de vento si attorcigliano d'intorno alla campana, _concetto + non indegno della bell'epoca greca_!" Does this mean "epoca + Bisantina?" The capital is simply a translation into Gothic sculpture + of the Byzantine ones of St. Mark's and the Fondaco de' Turchi (see + Plate VIII. Vol. I. fig. 14), and is far inferior to either. But, + taken as a whole, I think that, after the Ducal Palace, this is the + noblest in effect of all in Venice. + + BRENTA, Banks of the, I. 354. Villas on the, I. 354. + + BUSINELLO, CASA, II. 391. + + BYZANTINE PALACES generally, II. 118. + + + C + + CAMERLENGHI, PALACE OF THE, beside the Rialto. A graceful work of the + early Renaissance (1525) passing into Roman Renaissance. Its details + are inferior to most of the work of the school. The "Camerlenghi," + properly "Camerlenghi di Comune," were the three officers or ministers + who had care of the administration of public expenses. + + CANCELLARIA, II. 293. + + CANCIANO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + CAPPELLO, PALAZZO, at St. Aponal. Of no interest. Some say that Bianca + Cappello fled from it; but the tradition seems to fluctuate between + the various houses belonging to her family. + + CARITA, CHURCH OF THE. Once an interesting Gothic church of the + fourteenth century, lately defaced, and applied to some of the usual + important purposes of the modern Italians. The effect of its ancient + facade may partly be guessed at from the pictures of Canaletto, but + only guessed at; Canaletto being less to be trusted for renderings of + details, than the rudest and most ignorant painter of the thirteenth + century. + + CARMINI, CHURCH OF THE. A most interesting church of late thirteenth + century work, but much altered and defaced. Its nave, in which the + early shafts and capitals of the pure truncate form are unaltered, is + very fine in effect; its lateral porch is quaint and beautiful, + decorated with Byzantine circular sculptures (of which the central one + is given in Vol. II. Plate XI. fig. 5), and supported on two shafts + whose capitals are the most archaic examples of the pure Rose form + that I know in Venice. + + There is a glorious Tintoret over the first altar on the right in + entering; the "Circumcision of Christ." I do not know an aged head + either more beautiful or more picturesque than that of the high + priest. The cloister is full of notable tombs, nearly all dated; one, + of the fifteenth century, to the left on entering, is interesting from + the color still left on the leaves and flowers of its sculptured + roses. + + CASSANO, CHURCH OF ST. This church must on no account be missed, as it + contains three Tintorets, of which one, the "Crucifixion," is among + the finest in Europe. There is nothing worth notice in the building + itself, except the jamb of an ancient door (left in the Renaissance + buildings, facing the canal), which has been given among the examples + of Byzantine jambs; and the traveller may, therefore, devote his + entire attention to the three pictures in the chancel. + + 1. _The Crucifixion._ (On the left of the high altar.) It is + refreshing to find a picture taken care of, and in a bright though not + a good light, so that such parts of it as are seen at all are seen + well. It is also in a better state than most pictures in galleries, + and most remarkable for its new and strange treatment of the subject. + It seems to have been painted more for the artist's own delight, than + with any labored attempt at composition; the horizon is so low that + the spectator must fancy himself lying at full length on the grass, or + rather among the brambles and luxuriant weeds, of which the foreground + is entirely composed. Among these, the seamless robe of Christ has + fallen at the foot of the cross; the rambling briars and wild grasses + thrown here and there over its folds of rich, but pale, crimson. + Behind them, and seen through them, the heads of a troop of Roman + soldiers are raised against the sky; and, above them, their spears and + halberds form a thin forest against the horizontal clouds. The three + crosses are put on the extreme right of the picture, and its centre is + occupied by the executioners, one of whom, standing on a ladder, + receives from the other at once the sponge and the tablet with the + letters INRI. The Madonna and St. John are on the extreme left, + superbly painted, like all the rest, but quite subordinate. In fact, + the whole mind of the painter seems to have been set upon making the + principals accessary, and the accessaries principal. We look first at + the grass, and then at the scarlet robe; and then at the clump of + distant spears, and then at the sky, and last of all at the cross. As + a piece of color, the picture is notable for its extreme modesty. + There is not a single very full or bright tint in any part, and yet + the color is delighted in throughout; not the slightest touch of it + but is delicious. It is worth notice also, and especially, because + this picture being in a fresh state we are sure of one fact, that, + like nearly all other great colorists, Tintoret was afraid of light + greens in his vegetation. He often uses dark blue greens in his + shadowed trees, but here where the grass is in full light, it is all + painted with various hues of sober brown, more especially where it + crosses the crimson robe. The handling of the whole is in his noblest + manner; and I consider the picture generally quite beyond all price. + It was cleaned, I believe, some years ago, but not injured, or at + least as little injured as it is possible for a picture to be which + has undergone any cleaning process whatsoever. + + 2. _The Resurrection._ (Over the high altar.) The lower part of this + picture is entirely concealed by a miniature temple, about five feet + high, on the top of the altar; certainly an insult little expected by + Tintoret, as, by getting on steps, and looking over the said temple, + one may see that the lower figures of the picture are the most + labored. It is strange that the painter never seemed able to conceive + this subject with any power, and in the present work he is + marvellously hampered by various types and conventionalities. It is + not a painting of the Resurrection, but of Roman Catholic saints, + _thinking_ about the Resurrection. On one side of the tomb is a bishop + in full robes, on the other a female saint, I know not who; beneath + it, an angel playing on an organ, and a cherub blowing it; and other + cherubs flying about the sky, with flowers; the whole conception being + a mass of Renaissance absurdities. It is, moreover, heavily painted, + over-done, and over-finished; and the forms of the cherubs utterly + heavy and vulgar. I cannot help fancying the picture has been restored + in some way or another, but there is still great power in parts of it. + If it be a really untouched Tintoret, it is a highly curious example + of failure from over-labor on a subject into which his mind was not + thrown: the color is hot and harsh, and felt to be so more painfully, + from its opposition to the grand coolness and chastity of the + "Crucifixion." The face of the angel playing the organ is highly + elaborated; so, also, the flying cherubs. + + 3. _The Descent into Hades._ (On the right-hand side of the high + altar.) Much injured and little to be regretted. I never was more + puzzled by any picture, the painting being throughout careless, and in + some places utterly bad, and yet not like modern work; the principal + figure, however, of Eve, has either been redone, or is scholar's work + altogether, as, I suspect, most of the rest of the picture. It looks + as if Tintoret had sketched it when he was ill, left it to a bad + scholar to work on with, and then finished it in a hurry; but he has + assuredly had something to do with it; it is not likely that anybody + else would have refused all aid from the usual spectral company with + which common painters fill the scene. Bronzino, for instance, covers + his canvas with every form of monster that his sluggish imagination + could coin. Tintoret admits only a somewhat haggard Adam, a graceful + Eve, two or three Venetians in court dress, seen amongst the smoke, + and a Satan represented as a handsome youth, recognizable only by the + claws on his feet. The picture is dark and spoiled, but I am pretty + sure there are no demons or spectres in it. This is quite in + accordance with the master's caprice, but it considerably diminishes + the interest of a work in other ways unsatisfactory. There may once + have been something impressive in the shooting in of the rays at the + top of the cavern, as well as in the strange grass that grows in the + bottom, whose infernal character is indicated by its all being knotted + together; but so little of these parts can be seen, that it is not + worth spending time on a work certainly unworthy of the master, and in + great part probably never seen by him. + + CATTARINA, CHURCH OF ST., said to contain a _chef-d'oeuvre_ of Paul + Veronese, the "Marriage of St. Catherine." I have not seen it. + + CAVALLI, PALAZZO, opposite the Academy of Arts. An imposing pile, on + the Grand Canal, of Renaissance Gothic, but of little merit in the + details; and the effect of its traceries has been of late destroyed by + the fittings of modern external blinds. Its balconies are good, of the + later Gothic type. See "BARBARO." + + CAVALLI, PALAZZO, next the Casa Grimani (or Post-Office), but on the + other side of the narrow canal. Good Gothic, founded on the Ducal + Palace, circa 1380. The capitals of the first story are remarkably + rich in the deep fillets at the necks. The crests, heads of + sea-horses, inserted between the windows, appear to be later, but are + very fine of their kind. + + CICOGNA, PALAZZO, at San Sebastiano, II. 265. + + CLEMENTE, CHURCH OF ST. On an island to the south of Venice, from + which the view of the city is peculiarly beautiful. See "SCALZI." + + CONTARINI PORTA DI FERRO, PALAZZO, near the Church of St. John and + Paul, so called from the beautiful ironwork on a door, which was some + time ago taken down by the proprietor and sold. Mr. Rawdon Brown + rescued some of the ornaments from the hands of the blacksmith, who + had bought them for old iron. The head of the door is a very + interesting stone arch of the early thirteenth century, already drawn + in my folio work. In the interior court is a beautiful remnant of + staircase, with a piece of balcony at the top, circa 1350, and one of + the most richly and carefully wrought in Venice. The palace, judging + by these remnants (all that are now left of it, except a single + traceried window of the same date at the turn of the stair), must once + have been among the most magnificent in Venice. + + CONTARINI (DELLE FIGURE), PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, III. 17. + + CONTARINI DAI SCRIGNI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. A Gothic building, + founded on the Ducal Palace. Two Renaissance statues in niches at the + sides give it its name. + + CONTARINI FASAN, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, II. 244. The richest + work of the fifteenth century domestic Gothic in Venice, but notable + more for richness than excellence of design. In one respect, however, + it deserves to be regarded with attention, as showing how much beauty + and dignity may be bestowed on a very small and unimportant + dwelling-house by Gothic sculpture. Foolish criticisms upon it have + appeared in English accounts of foreign buildings, objecting to it on + the ground of its being "ill-proportioned;" the simple fact being, + that there was no room in this part of the canal for a wider house, + and that its builder made its rooms as comfortable as he could, and + its windows and balconies of a convenient size for those who were to + see through them, and stand on them, and left the "proportions" + outside to take care of themselves; which, indeed, they have very + sufficiently done; for though the house thus honestly confesses its + diminutiveness, it is nevertheless one of the principal ornaments of + the very noblest reach of the Grand Canal, and would be nearly as + great a loss, if it were destroyed, as the Church of La Salute itself. + + CONTARINI, PALAZZO, at St. Luca. Of no importance. + + CORNER DELLA CA' GRANDE, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. One of the worst + and coldest buildings of the central Renaissance, It is on a grand + scale, and is a conspicuous object, rising over the roofs of the + neighboring houses in the various aspects of the entrance of the Grand + Canal, and in the general view of Venice from San Clemente. + + CORNER DELLA REGINA, PALAZZO. A late Renaissance building of no merit + or interest. + + CORNER MOCENIGO, PALAZZO, at St. Polo. Of no interest. + + CORNER SPINELLI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. A graceful and + interesting example of the early Renaissance, remarkable for its + pretty circular balconies. + + CORNER, RACCOLTA. I must refer the reader to M. Lazari's Guide for an + account of this collection, which, however, ought only to be visited + if the traveller is not pressed for time. + + + D + + DANDOLO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Between the Casa Loredan and + Casa Bembo is a range of modern buildings, some of which occupy, I + believe, the site of the palace once inhabited by the Doge Henry + Dandolo. Fragments of early architecture of the Byzantine school may + still be traced in many places among their foundations, and two doors + in the foundation of the Casa Bembo itself belong to the same group. + There is only one existing palace, however, of any value, on this + spot, a very small but rich Gothic one of about 1300, with two groups + of fourth order windows in its second and third stories, and some + Byzantine circular mouldings built into it above. This is still + reported to have belonged to the family of Dandolo, and ought to be + carefully preserved, as it is one of the most interesting and ancient + Gothic palaces which yet remain. + + DANIELI, ALBERGO. See Nani. + + DA PONTE, PALAZZO. Of no interest. + + DARIO, PALAZZO, I. 370; III. 211. + + DOGANA DI MARE, at the separation of the Grand Canal from the Giudecca. + A barbarous building of the time of the Grotesque Renaissance (1676), + rendered interesting only by its position. The statue of Fortune, + forming the weathercock, standing on the world, is alike + characteristic of the conceits of the time, and of the hopes and + principles of the last days of Venice. + + DONATO, CHURCH OF ST., at Murano, II. 31. + + DONA', PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. I believe the palace described under + this name as of the twelfth century, by M. Lazari, is that which I + have called the Braided House, II. 132, 392. + + D'ORO CASA. A noble pile of very quaint Gothic, once superb in general + effect, but now destroyed by restorations. I saw the beautiful slabs + of red marble, which formed the bases of its balconies, and were + carved into noble spiral mouldings of strange sections, half a foot + deep, dashed to pieces when I was last in Venice; its glorious + interior staircase, by far the most interesting Gothic monument of the + kind in Venice, had been carried away, piece by piece, and sold for + waste marble, two years before. Of what remains, the most beautiful + portions are, or were, when I last saw them, the capitals of the + windows in the upper story, most glorious sculpture of the fourteenth + century. The fantastic window traceries are, I think, later; but the + rest of the architecture of this palace is anomalous, and I cannot + venture to give any decided opinion respecting it. Parts of its + mouldings are quite Byzantine in character, but look somewhat like + imitations. + + DUCAL PALACE, I. 29; history of, II. 282, etc.; III. 199; plan and + section of, II. 282, 283; description of, II. 304, etc.; series of its + capitals, II. 332, etc.; spandrils of, I. 299, 415; shafts of, I. 413; + traceries of, derived from those of the Frari, II. 234; angles of, II. + 239; main balcony of, II. 245; base of, III. 212; Rio Facade of, III. + 25; paintings in, II. 372. The multitude of works by various masters, + which cover the walls of this palace is so great, that the traveller + is in general merely wearied and confused by them. He had better + refuse all attention except to the following works: + + 1. _Paradise_, by Tintoret; at the extremity of the Great Council + chamber. I found it impossible to count the number of figures in this + picture, of which the grouping is so intricate, that at the upper part + it is not easy to distinguish one figure from another; but I counted + 150 important figures in one half of it alone; so that, as there are + nearly as many in subordinate position, the total number cannot be + under 500. I believe this is, on the whole, Tintoret's + _chef-d'oeuvre_; though it is so vast that no one takes the trouble + to read it, and therefore less wonderful pictures are preferred to it. + I have not myself been able to study except a few fragments of it, all + executed in his finest manner; but it may assist a hurried observer to + point out to him that the whole composition is divided into concentric + zones, represented one above another like the stories of a cupola, + round the figures of Christ and the Madonna, at the central and + highest point: both these figures are exceedingly dignified and + beautiful. Between each zone or belt of the nearer figures, the white + distances of heaven are seen filled with floating spirits. The picture + is, on the whole, wonderfully preserved, and the most precious thing + that Venice possesses. She will not possess it long; for the Venetian + academicians, finding it exceedingly unlike their own works, declare + it to want harmony, and are going to retouch it to their own ideas of + perfection. + + 2. _Siege of Zara_; the first picture on the right on entering the + Sala del Scrutinio. It is a mere battle piece, in which the figures, + like the arrows, are put in by the score. There are high merits in the + thing, and so much invention that it is possible Tintoret may have + made the sketch for it; but, if executed by him at all, he has done it + merely in the temper in which a sign-painter meets the wishes of an + ambitious landlord. He seems to have been ordered to represent all the + events of the battle at once; and to have felt that, provided he gave + men, arrows, and ships enough, his employers would be perfectly + satisfied. The picture is a vast one, some thirty feet by fifteen. + + Various other pictures will be pointed out by the custode, in these + two rooms, as worthy of attention, but they are only historically, not + artistically, interesting. The works of Paul Veronese on the ceiling + have been repainted; and the rest of the pictures on the walls are by + second-rate men. The traveller must, once for all, be warned against + mistaking the works of Domenico Robusti (Domenico Tintoretto), a very + miserable painter, for those of his illustrious father, Jacopo. + + 3. _The Doge Grimani kneeling before Faith_, by Titian; in the Sala + delle quattro Porte. To be observed with care, as one of the most + striking examples of Titian's want of feeling and coarseness of + conception. (See above, Vol. I. p. 12.) As a work of mere art, it is, + however, of great value. The traveller who has been accustomed to + deride Turner's indistinctness of touch, ought to examine carefully + the mode of painting the Venice in the distance at the bottom of this + picture. + + 4. _Frescoes on the Roof of the Sala delle quattro Porte_, by + Tintoret. Once magnificent beyond description, now mere wrecks (the + plaster crumbling away in large flakes), but yet deserving of the most + earnest study. + + 5. _Christ taken down from the Cross_, by Tintoret; at the upper end + of the Sala dei Pregadi. One of the most interesting mythic pictures + of Venice, two doges being represented beside the body of Christ, and + a most noble painting; executed, however, for distant effect, and seen + best from the end of the room. + + 6. _Venice, Queen of the Sea_, by Tintoret. Central compartment of the + ceiling, in the Sala dei Pregadi. Notable for the sweep of its vast + green surges, and for the daring character of its entire conception, + though it is wild and careless, and in many respects unworthy of the + master. Note the way in which he has used the fantastic forms of the + sea weeds, with respect to what was above stated (III. 158), as to his + love of the grotesque. + + 7. _The Doge Loredano in Prayer to the Virgin_, by Tintoret; in the + same room. Sickly and pale in color, yet a grand work; to be studied, + however, more for the sake of seeing what a great man does "to order," + when he is wearied of what is required from him, than for its own + merit. + + 8. _St. George and the Princess._ There are, besides the "Paradise," + only six pictures in the Ducal Palace, as far as I know, which + Tintoret painted carefully, and those are all exceedingly fine: the + most finished of these are in the Anti-Collegio; but those that are + most majestic and characteristic of the master are two oblong ones, + made to fill the panels of the walls in the Anti-Chiesetta; these two, + each, I suppose, about eight feet by six, are in his most quiet and + noble manner. There is excessively little color in them, their + prevalent tone being a greyish brown opposed with grey, black, and a + very warm russet. They are thinly painted, perfect in tone, and quite + untouched. The first of them is "St. George and the Dragon," the + subject being treated in a new and curious way. The principal figure + is the princess, who sits astride on the dragon's neck, holding him by + a bridle of silken riband; St. George stands above and behind her, + holding his hands over her head as if to bless her, or to keep the + dragon quiet by heavenly power; and a monk stands by on the right, + looking gravely on. There is no expression or life in the dragon, + though the white flashes in its eye are very ghastly: but the whole + thing is entirely typical; and the princess is not so much represented + riding on the dragon, as supposed to be placed by St. George in an + attitude of perfect victory over her chief enemy. She has a full rich + dress of dull red, but her figure is somewhat ungraceful. St. George + is in grey armor and grey drapery, and has a beautiful face; his + figure entirely dark against the distant sky. There is a study for + this picture in the Manfrini Palace. + + 9. _St. Andrew and St. Jerome._ This, the companion picture, has even + less color than its opposite. It is nearly all brown and grey; the + fig-leaves and olive-leaves brown, the faces brown, the dresses brown, + and St. Andrew holding a great brown cross. There is nothing that can + be called color, except the grey of the sky, which approaches in some + places a little to blue, and a single piece of dirty brick-red in St. + Jerome's dress; and yet Tintoret's greatness hardly ever shows more + than in the management of such sober tints. I would rather have these + two small brown pictures, and two others in the Academy perfectly + brown also in their general tone--the "Cain and Abel" and the "Adam + and Eve,"--than all the other small pictures in Venice put together, + which he painted in bright colors, for altar pieces; but I never saw + two pictures which so nearly approached grisailles as these, and yet + were delicious pieces of color. I do not know if I am right in calling + one of the saints St. Andrew. He stands holding a great upright wooden + cross against the sky. St. Jerome reclines at his feet, against a + rock, over which some glorious fig leaves and olive branches are + shooting; every line of them studied with the most exquisite care, and + yet cast with perfect freedom. + + 10. _Bacchus and Ariadne._ The most beautiful of the four careful + pictures by Tintoret, which occupy the angles of the Anti-Collegio. + Once one of the noblest pictures in the world, but now miserably + faded, the sun being allowed to fall on it all day long. The design of + the forms of the leafage round the head of the Bacchus, and the + floating grace of the female figure above, will, however, always give + interest to this picture, unless it be repainted. + + The other three Tintorets in this room are careful and fine, but far + inferior to the "Bacchus;" and the "Vulcan and the Cyclops" is a + singularly meagre and vulgar study of common models. + + 11. _Europa_, by Paul Veronese: in the same room. One of the very few + pictures which both possess and deserve a high reputation. + + 12. _Venice enthroned_, by Paul Veronese; on the roof of the same + room. One of the grandest pieces of frank color in the Ducal Palace. + + 13. _Venice, and the Doge Sebastian Venier_; at the upper end of the + Sala del Collegio. An unrivalled Paul Veronese, far finer even than + the "Europa." + + 14. _Marriage of St. Catherine_, by Tintoret; in the same room. An + inferior picture, but the figure of St. Catherine is quite exquisite. + Note how her veil falls over her form, showing the sky through it, as + an alpine cascade falls over a marble rock. + + There are three other Tintorets on the walls of this room, but all + inferior, though full of power. Note especially the painting of the + lion's wings, and of the colored carpet, in the one nearest the + throne, the Doge Alvise Mocenigo adoring the Redeemer. + + The roof is entirely by Paul Veronese, and the traveller who really + loves painting, ought to get leave to come to this room whenever he + chooses; and should pass the sunny summer mornings there again and + again, wandering now and then into the Anti-Collegio and Sala dei + Pregadi, and coming back to rest under the wings of the couched lion + at the feet of the "Mocenigo." He will no otherwise enter so deeply + into the heart of Venice. + + + E + + EMO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no interest. + + ERIZZO, PALAZZO, near the Arsenal, II. 262. + + ERIZZO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, nearly opposite the Fondaco + de'Turchi. A Gothic palace, with a single range of windows founded on + the Ducal traceries, and bold capitals. It has been above referred to + in the notice of tracery bars. + + EUFEMIA, CHURCH OF ST. A small and defaced, but very curious, early + Gothic church on the Giudecca. Not worth visiting, unless the + traveller is seriously interested in architecture. + + EUROPA, ALBERGO, ALL'. Once a Giustiniani Palace. Good Gothic, circa + 1400, but much altered. + + EVANGELISTI, CASA DEGLI, II. 265. + + [Illustration: Plate XII. + CAPITALS OF FONDACO DE' TURCHI.] + + + F + + FACANON, PALAZZO (ALLA FAVA). A fair example of the fifteenth century + Gothic, founded on Ducal Palace. + + FALIER, PALAZZO, at the Apostoli. Above, II. 253. + + FANTINO, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a John Bellini, otherwise of no + importance. + + FARSETTI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, II. 124, 393. + + FAVA, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + FELICE, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a Tintoret, which, if untouched, + I should conjecture, from Lazari's statement of its subject, St. + Demetrius armed, with one of the Ghisi family in prayer, must be very + fine. Otherwise the church is of no importance. + + FERRO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Fifteenth century Gothic, very + hard and bad. + + FLANGINI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no importance. + + FONDACO DE' TURCHI, I. 328; II. 120, 121, 236. The opposite plate, + representing three of its capitals, has been several times referred + to. + + FONDACO DE' TEDESCHI. A huge and ugly building near the Rialto, + rendered, however, peculiarly interesting by remnants of the frescoes + by Giorgione with which it was once covered. See Vol. II. 80, and III. + 23. + + FORMOSA, CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA, III. 113, 122, + + FOSCA, CHURCH OF ST. Notable for its exceedingly picturesque + campanile, of late Gothic, but uninjured by restorations, and + peculiarly Venetian in being crowned by the cupola instead of the + pyramid, which would have been employed at the same period in any + other Italian city. + + FOSCARI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. The noblest example in Venice of + the fifteenth century Gothic, founded on the Ducal Palace, but lately + restored and spoiled, all but the stone-work of the main windows. The + restoration was necessary, however: for, when I was in Venice in 1845, + this palace was a foul ruin; its great hall a mass of mud, used as a + back receptacle of a stone-mason's yard; and its rooms whitewashed, + and scribbled over with indecent caricatures. It has since been + partially strengthened and put in order; but as the Venetian + municipality have now given it to the Austrians to be used as + barracks, it will probably soon be reduced to its former condition. + The lower palaces at the side of this building are said by some to + have belonged to the younger Foscari. See "GIUSTINIANI." + + FRANCESCO DELLA VIGNA, CHURCH OF ST. Base Renaissance, but must be + visited in order to see the John Bellini in the Cappella Santa. The + late sculpture, in the Cappella Giustiniani, appears from Lazari's + statement to be deserving of careful study. This church is said also + to contain two pictures by Paul Veronese. + + FRARI, CHURCH OF THE. Founded in 1250, and continued at various + subsequent periods. The apse and adjoining chapels are the earliest + portions, and their traceries have been above noticed (II. 234) as the + origin of those of the Ducal Palace. The best view of the apse, which + is a very noble example of Italian Gothic, is from the door of the + Scuola di San Rocco. The doors of the church are all later than any + other portion of it, very elaborate Renaissance Gothic. The interior + is good Gothic, but not interesting, except in its monuments. Of + these, the following are noticed in the text of this volume: + + That of Duccio degli Alberti, at pages 74, 80; of the unknown Knight, + opposite that of Duccio, III. 74; of Francesco Foscari, III. 84; of + Giovanni Pesaro, 91; of Jacopo Pesaro, 92. + + Besides these tombs, the traveller ought to notice carefully that of + Pietro Bernardo, a first-rate example of Renaissance work; nothing can + be more detestable or mindless in general design, or more beautiful in + execution. Examine especially the griffins, fixed in admiration of + bouquets, at the bottom. The fruit and flowers which arrest the + attention of the griffins may well arrest the traveller's also; + nothing can be finer of their kind. The tomb of Canova, _by_ Canova, + cannot be missed; consummate in science, intolerable in affectation, + ridiculous in conception, null and void to the uttermost in invention + and feeling. The equestrian statue of Paolo Savelli is spirited; the + monument of the Beato Pacifico, a curious example of Renaissance + Gothic with wild crockets (all in terra cotta). There are several good + Vivarini's in the church, but its chief pictorial treasure is the John + Bellini in the sacristy, the most finished and delicate example of the + master in Venice. + + + G + + GEREMIA, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + GESUATI, CHURCH OF THE. Of no importance. + + GIACOMO DE LORIO, CHURCH OF ST., a most interesting church, of the early + thirteenth century, but grievously restored. Its capitals have been + already noticed as characteristic of the earliest Gothic; and it is + said to contain four works of Paul Veronese, but I have not examined + them. The pulpit is admired by the Italians, but is utterly worthless. + The verdantique pillar, in the south transept, is a very noble example + of the "Jewel Shaft." See the note at p. 83, Vol. II. + + GIACOMO DI RIALTO, CHURCH OF ST. A picturesque little church, on the + Piazza di Rialto. It has been grievously restored, but the pillars and + capitals of its nave are certainly of the eleventh century; those of + its portico are of good central Gothic; and it will surely not be left + unvisited, on this ground, if on no other, that it stands on the site, + and still retains the name, of the first church ever built on that + Rialto which formed the nucleus of future Venice, and became + afterwards the mart of her merchants. + + GIOBBE, CHURCH OF ST., near the Cana Reggio. Its principal entrance is + a very fine example of early Renaissance sculpture. Note in it, + especially, its beautiful use of the flower of the convolvulus. There + are said to be still more beautiful examples of the same period, in + the interior. The cloister, though much defaced, is of the Gothic + period, and worth a glance. + + GIORGIO DE' GRECI, CHURCH OF ST. The Greek Church. It contains no + valuable objects of art, but its service is worth attending by those + who have never seen the Greek ritual. + + GIORGIO DE' SCHIAVONI, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a very precious + series of paintings by Victor Carpaccio. Otherwise of no interest. + + GIORGIO IN ALIGA (St. George in the seaweed), Church of St. Unimportant + in itself, but the most beautiful view of Venice at sunset is from a + point at about two thirds of the distance from the city to the island. + + GIORGIO MAGGIORE, CHURCH OF ST. A building which owes its interesting + effect chiefly to its isolated position, being seen over a great space + of lagoon. The traveller should especially notice in its facade the + manner in which the central Renaissance architects (of whose style + this church is a renowned example) endeavored to fit the laws they had + established to the requirements of their age. Churches were required + with aisles and clerestories, that is to say, with a high central nave + and lower wings; and the question was, how to face this form with + pillars of one proportion. The noble Romanesque architects built story + above story, as at Pisa and Lucca; but the base Palladian architects + dared not do this. They must needs retain some image of the Greek + temple; but the Greek temple was all of one height, a low gable roof + being borne on ranges of equal pillars. So the Palladian builders + raised first a Greek temple with pilasters for shafts; and, _through + the middle of its roof, or horizontal beam_, that is to say, of the + cornice which externally represented this beam, they lifted another + temple on pedestals, adding these barbarous appendages to the shafts, + which otherwise would not have been high enough; fragments of the + divided cornice or tie-beam being left between the shafts, and the + great door of the church thrust in between the pedestals. It is + impossible to conceive a design more gross, more barbarous, more + childish in conception, more servile in plagiarism, more insipid in + result, more contemptible under every point of rational regard. + + Observe, also, that when Palladio had got his pediment at the top of + the church, he did not know what to do with it; he had no idea of + decorating it except by a round hole in the middle. (The traveller + should compare, both in construction and decoration, the Church of the + Redentore with this of San Giorgio.) Now, a dark penetration is often + a most precious assistance to a building dependent upon color for its + effect; for a cavity is the only means in the architect's power of + obtaining certain and vigorous shadow; and for this purpose, a + circular penetration, surrounded by a deep russet marble moulding, is + beautifully used in the centre of the white field on the side of the + portico of St. Mark's. But Palladio had given up color, and pierced + his pediment with a circular cavity, merely because he had not wit + enough to fill it with sculpture. The interior of the church is like a + large assembly room, and would have been undeserving of a moment's + attention, but that it contains some most precious pictures, namely: + + 1. _Gathering the Manna._ (On the left hand of the high altar.) One of + Tintoret's most remarkable landscapes. A brook flowing through a + mountainous country, studded with thickets and palm trees; the + congregation have been long in the Wilderness, and are employed in + various manufactures much more than in gathering the manna. One group + is forging, another grinding manna in a mill, another making shoes, + one woman making a piece of dress, some washing; the main purpose of + Tintoret being evidently to indicate the _continuity_ of the supply of + heavenly food. Another painter would have made the congregation + hurrying to gather it, and wondering at it; Tintoret at once makes us + remember that they have been fed with it "by the space of forty + years." It is a large picture, full of interest and power, but + scattered in effect, and not striking except from its elaborate + landscape. + + 2. _The Last Supper._ (Opposite the former.) These two pictures have + been painted for their places, the subjects being illustrative of the + sacrifice of the mass. This latter is remarkable for its entire + homeliness in the general treatment of the subject; the entertainment + being represented like any large supper in a second-rate Italian inn, + the figures being all comparatively uninteresting; but we are reminded + that the subject is a sacred one, not only by the strong light shining + from the head of Christ, but because the smoke of the lamp which hangs + over the table turns, as it rises, into a multitude of angels, all + painted in grey, the color of the smoke; and so writhed and twisted + together that the eye hardly at first distinguishes them from the + vapor out of which they are formed, ghosts of countenances and filmy + wings filling up the intervals between the completed heads. The idea + is highly characteristic of the master. The picture has been + grievously injured, but still shows miracles of skill in the + expression of candle-light mixed with twilight; variously reflected + rays, and half tones of the dimly lighted chamber, mingled with the + beams of the lantern and those from the head of Christ, flashing along + the metal and glass upon the table, and under it along the floor, and + dying away into the recesses of the room. + + 3. _Martyrdom of various Saints._ (Altar piece of the third altar in + the South aisle.) A moderately sized picture, and now a very + disagreeable one, owing to the violent red into which the color that + formed the glory of the angel at the top is changed. It has been + hastily painted, and only shows the artist's power in the energy of + the figure of an executioner drawing a bow, and in the magnificent + ease with which the other figures are thrown together in all manner of + wild groups and defiances of probability. Stones and arrows are flying + about in the air at random. + + 4. _Coronation of the Virgin._ (Fourth altar in the same aisle.) + Painted more for the sake of the portraits at the bottom, than of the + Virgin at the top. A good picture, but somewhat tame for Tintoret, and + much injured. The principal figure, in black, is still, however, very + fine. + + 5. _Resurrection of Christ._ (At the end of the north aisle, in the + chapel beside the choir.) Another picture painted chiefly for the sake + of the included portraits, and remarkably cold in general conception; + its color has, however, been gay and delicate, lilac, yellow, and blue + being largely used in it. The flag which our Saviour bears in his + hand, has been once as bright as the sail of a Venetian fishing-boat, + but the colors are now all chilled, and the picture is rather crude + than brilliant; a mere wreck of what it was, and all covered with + droppings of wax at the bottom. + + 6. _Martyrdom of St. Stephen._ (Altar piece in the north transept.) + The Saint is in a rich prelate's dress, looking as if he had just been + saying mass, kneeling in the foreground, and perfectly serene. The + stones are flying about him like hail, and the ground is covered with + them as thickly as if it were a river bed. But in the midst of them, + at the saint's right hand, there is a book lying, crushed but open, + two or three stones which have torn one of its leaves lying upon it. + The freedom and ease with which the leaf is crumpled is just as + characteristic of the master as any of the grander features; no one + but Tintoret could have so crushed a leaf; but the idea is still more + characteristic of him, for the book is evidently meant for the Mosaic + History which Stephen had just been expounding, and its being crushed + by the stones shows how the blind rage of the Jews was violating their + own law in the murder of Stephen. In the upper part of the picture are + three figures,--Christ, the Father, and St. Michael. Christ of course + at the right hand of the Father, as Stephen saw him standing; but + there is little dignity in this part of the conception. In the middle + of the picture, which is also the middle distance, are three or four + men throwing stones, with Tintoret's usual vigor of gesture, and + behind them an immense and confused crowd; so that, at first, we + wonder where St. Paul is; but presently we observe that, in the front + of this crowd, and _almost exactly in the centre of the picture_, + there is a figure seated on the ground, very noble and quiet, and with + some loose garments thrown across its knees. It is dressed in vigorous + black and red. The figure of the Father in the sky above is dressed in + black and red also, and these two figures are the centres of color to + the whole design. It is almost impossible to praise too highly the + refinement of conception which withdrew the unconverted St. Paul into + the distance, so as entirely to separate him from the immediate + interest of the scene, and yet marked the dignity to which he was + afterward to be raised, by investing him with the colors which + occurred nowhere else in the picture except in the dress which veils + the form of the Godhead. It is also to be noted as an interesting + example of the value which the painter put upon color only; another + composer would have thought it necessary to exalt the future apostle + by some peculiar dignity of action or expression. The posture of the + figure is indeed grand, but inconspicuous; Tintoret does not depend + upon it, and thinks that the figure is quite ennobled enough by being + made a key-note of color. + + It is also worth observing how boldly imaginative is the treatment + which covers the ground with piles of stones, and yet leaves the + martyr apparently unwounded. Another painter would have covered him + with blood, and elaborated the expression of pain upon his + countenance. Tintoret leaves us under no doubt as to what manner of + death he is dying; he makes the air hurtle with the stones, but he + does not choose to make his picture disgusting, or even painful. The + face of the martyr is serene, and exulting; and we leave the picture, + remembering only how "he fell asleep." + + GIOVANELLI, PALAZZO, at the Ponte di Noale. A fine example of + fifteenth century Gothic, founded on the Ducal Palace. + + GIOVANNI E PAOLO, CHURCH OF ST.[72] Foundation of, III. 69. An + impressive church, though none of its Gothic is comparable with that + of the North, or with that of Verona. The Western door is interesting + as one of the last conditions of Gothic design passing into + Renaissance, very rich and beautiful of its kind, especially the + wreath of fruit and flowers which forms its principal molding. The + statue of Bartolomeo Colleone, in the little square beside the church, + is certainly one of the noblest works in Italy. I have never seen + anything approaching it in animation, in vigor of portraiture, or + nobleness of line. The reader will need Lazari's Guide in making the + circuit of the church, which is full of interesting monuments: but I + wish especially to direct his attention to two pictures, besides the + celebrated Peter Martyr: namely, + + 1. _The Crucifixion_, by Tintoret; on the wall of the left-hand aisle, + just before turning into the transept. A picture fifteen feet long by + eleven or twelve high. I do not believe that either the "Miracle of + St. Mark," or the great "Crucifixion" in the Scuola di San Rocco, cost + Tintoret more pains than this comparatively small work, which is now + utterly neglected, covered with filth and cobwebs, and fearfully + injured. As a piece of color, and light and shade, it is altogether + marvellous. Of all the fifty figures which the picture contains, there + is not one which in any way injures or contends with another; nay, + there is not a single fold of garment or touch of the pencil which + could be spared; every virtue of Tintoret, as a painter, is there in + its highest degree,--color at once the most intense and the most + delicate, the utmost decision in the arrangement of masses of light, + and yet half tones and modulations of endless variety; and all + executed with a magnificence of handling which no words are energetic + enough to describe. I have hardly ever seen a picture in which there + was so much decision, and so little impetuosity, and in which so + little was conceded to haste, to accident, or to weakness. It is too + infinite a work to be describable; but among its minor passages of + extreme beauty, should especially be noticed the manner in which the + accumulated forms of the human body, which fill the picture from end + to end, are prevented from being felt heavy, by the grace and + elasticity of two or three sprays of leafage which spring from a + broken root in the foreground, and rise conspicuous in shadow against + an interstice filled by the pale blue, grey, and golden light in which + the distant crowd is invested, the office of this foliage being, in an + artistical point of view, correspondent to that of the trees set by + the sculptors of the Ducal Palace on its angles. But they have a far + more important meaning in the picture than any artistical one. If the + spectator will look carefully at the root which I have called broken, + he will find that in reality, it is not broken, but cut; the other + branches of the young tree having _lately been cut away_. When we + remember that one of the principal incidents in great San Rocco + Crucifixion is the ass feeding on withered palm leaves, we shall be at + no loss to understand the great painter's purpose in lifting the + branch of this mutilated olive against the dim light of the distant + sky; while, close beside it, St. Joseph of Arimathea drags along the + dust a white garment--observe, the principal light of the + picture,--stained with the blood of that King before whom, five days + before, his crucifiers had strewn their own garments in the way. + + 2. _Our Lady with the Camerlenghi._ (In the centre chapel of the three + on the right of the choir.) A remarkable instance of the theoretical + manner of representing Scriptural facts, which, at this time, as noted + in the second chapter of this volume, was undermining the belief of + the facts themselves. Three Venetian chamberlains desired to have + their portraits painted, and at the same time to express their + devotion to the Madonna; to that end they are painted kneeling before + her, and in order to account for their all three being together, and + to give a thread or clue to the story of the picture, they are + represented as the Three Magi; but lest the spectator should think it + strange that the Magi should be in the dress of Venetian chamberlains, + the scene is marked as a mere ideality, by surrounding the person of + the Virgin with saints who lived five hundred years after her. She has + for attendants St. Theodore, St. Sebastian, and St. Carlo (query St. + Joseph). One hardly knows whether most to regret the spirit which was + losing sight of the verities of religious history in imaginative + abstractions, or to praise the modesty and piety which desired rather + to be represented as kneeling before the Virgin than in the discharge + or among the insignia of important offices of state. + + As an "Adoration of the Magi," the picture is, of course, sufficiently + absurd: the St. Sebastian leans back in the corner to be out of the + way; the three Magi kneel, without the slightest appearance of + emotion, to a Madonna seated in a Venetian loggia of the fifteenth + century, and three Venetian servants behind bear their offerings in a + very homely sack, tied up at the mouth. As a piece of portraiture and + artistical composition, the work is altogether perfect, perhaps the + best piece of Tintoret's portrait-painting in existence. It is very + carefully and steadily wrought, and arranged with consummate skill on + a difficult plan. The canvas is a long oblong, I think about eighteen + or twenty feet long, by about seven high; one might almost fancy the + painter had been puzzled to bring the piece into use, the figures + being all thrown into positions which a little diminish their height. + The nearest chamberlain is kneeling, the two behind him bowing + themselves slightly, the attendants behind bowing lower, the Madonna + sitting, the St. Theodore sitting still lower on the steps at her + feet, and the St. Sebastian leaning back, so that all the lines of the + picture incline more or less from right to left as they ascend. This + slope, which gives unity to the detached groups, is carefully + exhibited by what a mathematician would call coordinates,--the upright + pillars of the loggia and the horizontal clouds of the beautiful sky. + The color is very quiet, but rich and deep, the local tones being + brought out with intense force, and the cast shadows subdued, the + manner being much more that of Titian than of Tintoret. The sky + appears full of light, though it is as dark as the flesh of the faces; + and the forms of its floating clouds, as well as of the hills over + which they rise, are drawn with a deep remembrance of reality. There + are hundreds of pictures of Tintoret's more amazing than this, but I + hardly know one that I more love. + + The reader ought especially to study the sculpture round the altar of + the Capella del Rosario, as an example of the abuse of the sculptor's + art; every accessory being labored out with as much ingenuity and + intense effort to turn sculpture into painting, the grass, trees, and + landscape being as far realized as possible, and in alto-relievo. + These bas-reliefs are by various artists, and therefore exhibit the + folly of the age, not the error of an individual. + + The following alphabetical list of the tombs in this church which are + alluded to as described in the text, with references to the pages + where they are mentioned, will save some trouble: + + Cavalli, Jacopo, III. 82. | Mocenigo, Pietro, III. 89. + Cornaro, Marco, III. 11. | Mocenigo, Tomaso, I. 8, 26, III. 84. + Dolfin, Giovanni, III. 78. | Morosini, Michele, III. 80. + Giustiniani, Marco, I. 315. | Steno, Michele, III. 83. + Mocenigo, Giovanni, III. 89. | Vendramin, Andrea, I. 27, III. 88. + + GIOVANNI GRISOSTOMO, CHURCH OF ST. One of the most important in + Venice. It is early Renaissance, containing some good sculpture, but + chiefly notable as containing a noble Sebastian del Piombo, and a John + Bellini, which a few years hence, unless it be "restored," will be + esteemed one of the most precious pictures in Italy, and among the + most perfect in the world. John Bellini is the only artist who appears + to me to have united, in equal and magnificent measures, justness of + drawing, nobleness of coloring, and perfect manliness of treatment, + with the purest religious feeling. He did, as far as it is possible to + do it, instinctively and unaffectedly, what the Caracci only pretended + to do. Titian colors better, but has not his piety. Leonardo draws + better, but has not his color. Angelico is more heavenly, but has not + his manliness, far less his powers of art. + + GIOVANNI ELEMOSINARIO, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a Titian and a + Bonifazio. Of no other interest. + + GIOVANNI IN BRAGOLA, CHURCH OF ST. A Gothic church of the fourteenth + century, small, but interesting, and said to contain some precious + works by Cima da Conegliano, and one by John Bellini. + + GIOVANNI NOVO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + GIOVANNI, S., SCUOLA DI. A fine example of the Byzantine Renaissance, + mixed with remnants of good late Gothic. The little exterior cortile + is sweet in feeling, and Lazari praises highly the work of the + interior staircase. + + GIUDECCA. The crescent-shaped island (or series of islands), which + forms the most northern extremity of the city of Venice, though + separated by a broad channel from the main city. Commonly said to + derive its name from the number of Jews who lived upon it; but Lazari + derives it from the word "Judicato," in Venetian dialect "Zudega," it + having been in old time "adjudged" as a kind of prison territory to + the more dangerous and turbulent citizens. It is now inhabited only by + the poor, and covered by desolate groups of miserable dwellings, + divided by stagnant canals. + + Its two principal churches, the Redentore and St. Eufemia, are named + in their alphabetical order. + + GIULIANO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + GIUSEPPE DI CASTELLO, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a Paul Veronese: + otherwise of no importance. + + GIUSTINA, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + GIUSTINIANI PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, now Albergo all' Europa. Good + late fourteenth century Gothic, but much altered. + + GIUSTINIANI, PALAZZO, next the Casa Foscari, on the Grand Canal. + Lazari, I know not on what authority, says that this palace was built + by the Giustiniani family before 1428. It is one of those founded + directly on the Ducal Palace, together with the Casa Foscari at its + side: and there could have been no doubt of their date on this ground; + but it would be interesting, after what we have seen of the progress + of the Ducal Palace, to ascertain the exact year of the erection of + any of these imitations. + + This palace contains some unusually rich detached windows, full of + tracery, of which the profiles are given in the Appendix, under the + title of the Palace of the Younger Foscari, it being popularly + reported to have belonged to the son of the Doge. + + GIUSTINIAN LOLIN, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no importance. + + GRASSI PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, now Albergo all' Imperator d' + Austria. Of no importance. + + GREGORIO, CHURCH OF ST., on the Grand Canal. An important church of + the fourteenth century, now desecrated, but still interesting. Its + apse is on the little canal crossing from the Grand Canal to the + Giudecca, beside the Church of the Salute, and is very characteristic + of the rude ecclesiastical Gothic contemporary with the Ducal Palace. + The entrance to its cloisters, from the Grand Canal, is somewhat + later; a noble square door, with two windows on each side of it, the + grandest examples in Venice of the late window of the fourth order. + + The cloister, to which this door gives entrance, is exactly + contemporary with the finest work of the Ducal Palace, circa 1350. It + is the loveliest cortile I know in Venice; its capitals consummate in + design and execution; and the low wall on which they stand showing + remnants of sculpture unique, as far as I know, in such application. + + GRIMANI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, III. 32. + + There are several other palaces in Venice belonging to this family, + but none of any architectural interest. + + + J + + JESUITI, CHURCH OF THE. The basest Renaissance; but worth a visit in + order to examine the imitations of curtains in white marble inlaid + with green. + + It contains a Tintoret, "The Assumption," which I have not examined; + and a Titian, "The Martyrdom of St. Lawrence," originally, it seems to + me, of little value, and now, having been restored, of none. + + + L + + LABIA PALAZZO, on the Canna Reggio. Of no importance. + + LAZZARO DE' MENDICANTI, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + LIBRERIA VECCHIA. A graceful building of the central Renaissance, + designed by Sansovino, 1536, and much admired by all architects of the + school. It was continued by Scamozzi, down the whole side of St. + Mark's Place, adding another story above it, which modern critics + blame as destroying the "eurithmia;" never considering that had the + two low stories of the Library been continued along the entire length + of the Piazza, they would have looked so low that the entire dignity + of the square would have been lost. As it is, the Library is left in + its originally good proportions, and the larger mass of the Procuratie + Nuove forms a more majestic, though less graceful, side for the great + square. + + But the real faults of the building are not in its number of stories, + but in the design of the parts. It is one of the grossest examples of + the base Renaissance habit of turning _keystones_ into _brackets_, + throwing them out in bold projection (not less than a foot and a half) + beyond the mouldings of the arch; a practice utterly barbarous, + inasmuch as it evidently tends to dislocate the entire arch, if any + real weight were laid on the extremity of the keystone; and it is also + a very characteristic example of the vulgar and painful mode of + filling spandrils by naked figures in alto-relievo, leaning against + the arch on each side, and appearing as if they were continually in + danger of slipping off. Many of these figures have, however, some + merit in themselves; and the whole building is graceful and effective + of its kind. The continuation of the Procuratie Nuove, at the western + extremity of St. Mark's Place (together with various apartments in the + great line of the Procuratie Nuove) forms the "Royal Palace," the + residence of the Emperor when at Venice. This building is entirely + modern, built in 1810, in imitation of the Procuratie Nuove, and on + the site of Sansovino's Church of San Geminiano. + + In this range of buildings, including the Royal Palace, the Procuratie + Nuove, the old Library, and the "Zecca" which is connected with them + (the latter being an ugly building of very modern date, not worth + notice architecturally), there are many most valuable pictures, among + which I would especially direct attention, first to those in the + Zecca, namely, a beautiful and strange Madonna, by Benedetto Diana; + two noble Bonifazios; and two groups, by Tintoret, of the Provveditori + della Zecca, by no means to be missed, whatever may be sacrificed to + see them, on account of the quietness and veracity of their unaffected + portraiture, and the absolute freedom from all vanity either in the + painter or in his subjects. + + Next, in the "Antisala" of the old Library, observe the "Sapienza" of + Titian, in the centre of the ceiling; a most interesting work in the + light brilliancy of its color, and the resemblance to Paul Veronese. + Then, in the great hall of the old Library, examine the two large + Tintorets, "St. Mark saving a Saracen from Drowning," and the + "Stealing of his Body from Constantinople," both rude, but great (note + in the latter the dashing of the rain on the pavement, and running of + the water about the feet of the figures): then in the narrow spaces + between the windows, there are some magnificent single figures by + Tintoret, among the finest things of the kind in Italy, or in Europe. + Finally, in the gallery of pictures in the Palazzo Reale, among other + good works of various kinds, are two of the most interesting + Bonifazios in Venice, the "Children of Israel in their journeyings," + in one of which, if I recollect right, the quails are coming in flight + across a sunset sky, forming one of the earliest instances I know of a + thoroughly natural and Turneresque effect being felt and rendered by + the old masters. The picture struck me chiefly from this circumstance; + but, the note-book in which I had described it and its companion + having been lost on my way home, I cannot now give a more special + account of them, except that they are long, full of crowded figures, + and peculiarly light in color and handling as compared with + Bonifazio's work in general. + + LIO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance, but said to contain a spoiled + Titian. + + LIO, SALIZZADA DI ST., windows in, II. 252, 257. + + LOREDAN, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, near the Rialto, II. 123, 393. + Another palace of this name, on the Campo St. Stefano, is of no + importance. + + LORENZO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + LUCA, CHURCH OF ST. Its campanile is of very interesting and quaint + early Gothic, and it is said to contain a Paul Veronese, "St Luke and + the Virgin." In the little Campiello St. Luca, close by, is a very + precious Gothic door, rich in brickwork, of the thirteenth century; + and in the foundations of the houses on the same side of the square, + but at the other end of it, are traceable some shafts and arches + closely resembling the work of the Cathedral of Murano, and evidently + having once belonged to some most interesting building. + + LUCIA, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + + M + + MADDALENA, CHURCH OF STA. MARIA. Of no importance. + + MALIPIERO, PALAZZO, on the Campo St. M. Formosa, facing the canal at its + extremity. A very beautiful example of the Byzantine Renaissance. Note + the management of color in its inlaid balconies. + + MANFRINI, PALAZZO. The architecture is of no interest; and as it is in + contemplation to allow the collection of pictures to be sold, I shall + take no note of them. But even if they should remain, there are few of + the churches in Venice where the traveller had not better spend his + time than in this gallery; as, with the exception of Titian's + "Entombment," one or two Giorgiones, and the little John Bellini (St. + Jerome), the pictures are all of a kind which may be seen elsewhere. + + MANGILI VALMARANA, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no importance. + + MANIN, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no importance. + + MANZONI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, near the Church of the Carita. A + perfect and very rich example of Byzantine Renaissance: its warm + yellow marbles are magnificent. + + MARCILIAN, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a Titian, "Tobit and the + Angel:" otherwise of no importance. + + MARIA, CHURCHES OF STA. See FORMOSA, MATER DOMINI, MIRACOLI, ORTO, + SALUTE, and ZOBENIGO. + + MARCO, SCUOLA DI SAN, III. 16. + + MARK, CHURCH OF ST., history of, II. 57; approach to, II. 71; general + teaching of, II. 112, 116; measures of facade of, II. 126; balustrades + of, II. 244, 247; cornices of, I. 311; horseshoe arches of, II. 249; + entrances of, II. 271, III. 245; shafts of, II. 384; base in + baptistery of, I. 290; mosaics in atrium of, II. 112; mosaics in + cupola of, II. 114, III. 192; lily capitals of, II. 137; Plates + illustrative of (Vol. II.), VI. VII. figs. 9, 10, 11, VIII. figs. 8, + 9, 12, 13, 15, IX. XI. fig. 1, and Plate III. Vol. III. + + MARK, SQUARE OF ST. (Piazza di San Marco), anciently a garden, II. 58; + general effect of, II. 66, 116; plan of, II. 282. + + MARTINO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + MATER DOMINI, CHURCH OF ST. MARIA. It contains two important pictures: + one over the second altar on the right, "St. Christina," by Vincenzo + Catena, a very lovely example of the Venetian religious school; and, + over the north transept door, the "Finding of the Cross," by Tintoret, + a carefully painted and attractive picture, but by no means a good + specimen of the master, as far as regards power of conception. He does + not seem to have entered into his subject. There is no wonder, no + rapture, no entire devotion in any of the figures. They are only + interested and pleased in a mild way; and the kneeling woman who hands + the nails to a man stooping forward to receive them on the right hand, + does so with the air of a person saying, "You had better take care of + them; they may be wanted another time." This general coldness in + expression is much increased by the presence of several figures on the + right and left, introduced for the sake of portraiture merely; and + the reality, as well as the feeling, of the scene is destroyed by our + seeing one of the youngest and weakest of the women with a huge cross + lying across her knees, the whole weight of it resting upon her. As + might have been expected, where the conception is so languid, the + execution is little delighted in; it is throughout steady and + powerful, but in no place affectionate, and in no place impetuous. If + Tintoret had always painted in this way, he would have sunk into a + mere mechanist. It is, however, a genuine and tolerably well preserved + specimen, and its female figures are exceedingly graceful; that of St. + Helena very queenly, though by no means agreeable in feature. Among + the male portraits on the left there is one different from the usual + types which occur either in Venetian paintings or Venetian populace; + it is carefully painted, and more like a Scotch Presbyterian minister, + than a Greek. The background is chiefly composed of architecture, + white, remarkably uninteresting in color, and still more so in form. + This is to be noticed as one of the unfortunate results of the + Renaissance teaching at this period. Had Tintoret backed his Empress + Helena with Byzantine architecture, the picture might have been one of + the most gorgeous he ever painted. + + MATER DOMINI, CAMPO DI STA. MARIA, II. 261. A most interesting little + piazza, surrounded by early Gothic houses, once of singular beauty; + the arcade at its extremity, of fourth order windows, drawn in my + folio work, is one of the earliest and loveliest of its kind in + Venice; and in the houses at the side is a group of second order + windows with their intermediate crosses, all complete, and well worth + careful examination. + + MICHELE IN ISOLA, CHURCH OF ST. On the island between Venice and + Murano. The little Cappella Emiliana at the side of it has been much + admired, but it would be difficult to find a building more feelingless + or ridiculous. It is more like a German summer-house, or angle turret, + than a chapel, and may be briefly described as a bee-hive set on a low + hexagonal tower, with dashes of stone-work about its windows like the + flourishes of an idle penman. + + The cloister of this church is pretty; and the attached cemetery is + worth entering, for the sake of feeling the strangeness of the quiet + sleeping ground in the midst of the sea. + + MICHIEL DALLE COLONNE, PALAZZO. Of no importance. + + MINELLI, PALAZZO. In the Corte del Maltese, at St. Paternian. It has a + spiral external staircase, very picturesque, but of the fifteenth + century and without merit. + + MIRACOLI, CHURCH OF STA. MARIA DEI. The most interesting and finished + example in Venice of the Byzantine Renaissance, and one of the most + important in Italy of the cinque-cento style. All its sculptures + should be examined with great care, as the best possible examples of a + bad style. Observe, for instance, that in spite of the beautiful work + on the square pillars which support the gallery at the west end, they + have no more architectural effect than two wooden posts. The same kind + of failure in boldness of purpose exists throughout; and the building + is, in fact, rather a small museum of unmeaning, though refined + sculpture, than a piece of architecture. + + Its grotesques are admirable examples of the base Raphaelesque design + examined above, III. 136. Note especially the children's heads tied up + by the hair, in the lateral sculptures at the top of the altar steps. + A rude workman, who could hardly have carved the head at all, might + have allowed this or any other mode of expressing discontent with his + own doings; but the man who could carve a child's head so perfectly + must have been wanting in all human feeling, to cut it off, and tie it + by the hair to a vine leaf. Observe, in the Ducal Palace, though far + ruder in skill, the heads always _emerge_ from the leaves, they are + never _tied_ to them. + + MISERICORDIA, CHURCH OF. The church itself is nothing, and contains + nothing worth the traveller's time; but the Albergo de' Confratelli + della Misericordia at its side is a very interesting and beautiful + relic of the Gothic Renaissance. Lazari says, "del secolo xiv.;" but I + believe it to be later. Its traceries are very curious and rich, and + the sculpture of its capitals very fine for the late time. Close to + it, on the right-hand side of the canal which is crossed by the wooden + bridge, is one of the richest Gothic doors in Venice, remarkable for + the appearance of antiquity in the general design and stiffness of its + figures, though it bears its date 1505. Its extravagant crockets are + almost the only features which, but for this written date, would at + first have confessed its lateness; but, on examination, the figures + will be found as bad and spiritless as they are apparently archaic, + and completely exhibiting the Renaissance palsy of imagination. + + The general effect is, however, excellent, the whole arrangement + having been borrowed from earlier work. + + The action of the statue of the Madonna, who extends her robe to + shelter a group of diminutive figures, representative of the Society + for whose house the sculpture was executed, may be also seen in most + of the later Venetian figures of the Virgin which occupy similar + situations. The image of Christ is placed in a medallion on her + breast, thus fully, though conventionally, expressing the idea of + self-support which is so often partially indicated by the great + religious painters in their representations of the infant Jesus. + + MOISE, CHURCH OF ST., III. 124. Notable as one of the basest examples + of the basest school of the Renaissance. It contains one important + picture, namely "Christ washing the Disciples' Feet," by Tintoret; on + the left side of the chapel, north of the choir. This picture has been + originally dark, is now much faded--in parts, I believe, altogether + destroyed--and is hung in the worst light of a chapel, where, on a + sunny day at noon, one could not easily read without a candle. I + cannot, therefore, give much information respecting it; but it is + certainly one of the least successful of the painter's works, and both + careless and unsatisfactory in its composition as well as its color. + One circumstance is noticeable, as in a considerable degree detracting + from the interest of most of Tintoret's representations of our Saviour + with his disciples. He never loses sight of the fact that all were + poor, and the latter ignorant; and while he never paints a senator, or + a saint once thoroughly canonized, except as a gentleman, he is very + careful to paint the Apostles, in their living intercourse with the + Saviour, in such a manner that the spectator may see in an instant, as + the Pharisee did of old, that they were unlearned and ignorant men; + and, whenever we find them in a room, it is always such a one as would + be inhabited by the lower classes. There seems some violation of this + practice in the dais, or flight of steps, at the top of which the + Saviour is placed in the present picture; but we are quickly reminded + that the guests' chamber or upper room ready prepared was not likely + to have been in a palace, by the humble furniture upon the floor, + consisting of a tub with a copper saucepan in it, a coffee-pot, and a + pair of bellows, curiously associated with a symbolic cup with a + wafer, which, however, is in an injured part of the canvas, and may + have been added by the priests. I am totally unable to state what the + background of the picture is or has been; and the only point farther + to be noted about it is the solemnity, which, in spite of the familiar + and homely circumstances above noticed, the painter has given to the + scene, by placing the Saviour, in the act of washing the feet of + Peter, at the top of a circle of steps, on which the other Apostles + kneel in adoration and astonishment. + + MORO, PALAZZO. See OTHELLO. + + MOROSINI, PALAZZO, near the Ponte dell' Ospedaletto, at San Giovannie + Paolo. Outside it is not interesting, though the gateway shows remains + of brickwork of the thirteenth century. Its interior court is + singularly beautiful; the staircase of early fourteenth century Gothic + has originally been superb, and the window in the angle above is the + most perfect that I know in Venice of the kind; the lightly sculptured + coronet is exquisitely introduced at the top of its spiral shaft. + + This palace still belongs to the Morosini family, to whose present + representative, the Count Carlo Morosini, the reader is indebted for + the note on the character of his ancestors, above, III. 213. + + MOROSINI, PALAZZO, at St. Stefano. Of no importance. + + + N + + NANI-MOCENIGO, PALAZZO. (Now Hotel Danieli.) A glorious example of the + central Gothic, nearly contemporary with the finest part of the Ducal + Palace. Though less impressive in effect than the Casa Foscari or Casa + Bernardo, it is of purer architecture than either: and quite unique in + the delicacy of the form of the cusps in the central group of windows, + which are shaped like broad scimitars, the upper foil of the windows + being very small. If the traveller will compare these windows with + the neighboring traceries of the Ducal Palace, he will easily perceive + the peculiarity. + + NICOLO DEL LIDO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + NOME DI GESU, CHURCH OF THE. Of no importance. + + + O + + ORFANI, CHURCH OF THE. Of no importance. + + ORTO, CHURCH OF STA. MARIA, DELL'. An interesting example of Renaissance + Gothic, the traceries of the windows being very rich and quaint. + + It contains four most important Tintorets: "The Last Judgment," "The + Worship of the Golden Calf," "The Presentation of the Virgin," and + "Martyrdom of St. Agnes." The first two are among his largest and + mightiest works, but grievously injured by damp and neglect; and + unless the traveller is accustomed to decipher the thoughts in a + picture patiently, he need not hope to derive any pleasure from them. + But no pictures will better reward a resolute study. The following + account of the "Last Judgment," given in the second volume of "Modern + Painters," will be useful in enabling the traveller to enter into the + meaning of the picture, but its real power is only to be felt by + patient examination of it. + + "By Tintoret only has this unimaginable event (the Last Judgment) been + grappled with in its Verity; not typically nor symbolically, but as + they may see it who shall not sleep, but be changed. Only one + traditional circumstance he has received, with Dante and Michael + Angelo, the Boat of the Condemned; but the impetuosity of his mind + bursts out even in the adoption of this image; he has not stopped at + the scowling ferryman of the one, nor at the sweeping blow and demon + dragging of the other, but, seized Hylas like by the limbs, and + tearing up the earth in his agony, the victim is dashed into his + destruction; nor is it the sluggish Lethe, nor the fiery lake, that + bears the cursed vessel, but the oceans of the earth and the waters of + the firmament gathered into one white, ghastly cataract; the river of + the wrath of God, roaring down into the gulf where the world has + melted with its fervent heat, choked with the ruins of nations, and + the limbs of its corpses tossed out of its whirling, like + water-wheels. Bat-like, out of the holes and caverns and shadows of + the earth, the bones gather, and the clay heaps heave, rattling and + adhering into half-kneaded anatomies, that crawl, and startle, and + struggle up among the putrid weeds, with the clay clinging to their + clotted hair, and their heavy eyes sealed by the earth darkness yet, + like his of old who went his way unseeing to the Siloam Pool; shaking + off one by one the dreams of the prison-house, hardly hearing the + clangor of the trumpets of the armies of God, blinded yet more, as + they awake, by the white light of the new Heaven, until the great + vortex of the four winds bears up their bodies to the judgment seat; + the Firmament is all full of them, a very dust of human souls, that + drifts, and floats, and falls into the interminable, inevitable light; + the bright clouds are darkened with them as with thick snow, currents + of atom life in the arteries of heaven, now soaring up slowly, and + higher and higher still, till the eye and the thought can follow no + farther, borne up, wingless, by their inward faith and by the angel + powers invisible, now hurled in countless drifts of horror before the + breath of their condemnation." + + Note in the opposite picture the way the clouds are wrapped about in + the distant Sinai. + + The figure of the little Madonna in the "Presentation" should be + compared with Titian's in his picture of the same subject in the + Academy. I prefer Tintoret's infinitely: and note how much finer is + the feeling with which Tintoret has relieved the glory round her head + against the pure sky, than that which influenced Titian in encumbering + his distance with architecture. + + The "Martyrdom of St. Agnes" _was_ a lovely picture. It has been + "restored" since I saw it. + + OSPEDALETTO, CHURCH OF THE. The most monstrous example of the + Grotesque Renaissance which there is in Venice; the sculptures on its + facade representing masses of diseased figures and swollen fruit. + + It is almost worth devoting an hour to the successive examination of + five buildings, as illustrative of the last degradation of the + Renaissance. San Moise is the most clumsy, Santa Maria Zobenigo the + most impious, St. Eustachio the most ridiculous, the Ospedaletto the + most monstrous, and the head at Santa Maria Formosa the most foul. + + OTHELLO, HOUSE OF, at the Carmini. The researches of Mr. Brown into + the origin of the play of "Othello" have, I think, determined that + Shakspeare wrote on definite historical grounds; and that Othello may + be in many points identified with Christopher Moro, the lieutenant of + the republic at Cyprus, in 1508. See "Ragguagli su Maria Sanuto," i. + 252. + + His palace was standing till very lately, a Gothic building of the + fourteenth century, of which Mr. Brown possesses a drawing. It is now + destroyed, and a modern square-windowed house built on its site. A + statue, said to be a portrait of Moro, but a most paltry work, is set + in a niche in the modern wall. + + + P + + PANTALEONE, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a Paul Veronese; otherwise of + no importance. + + PATERNIAN, CHURCH OF ST. Its little leaning tower forms an interesting + object as the traveller sees it from the narrow canal which passes + beneath the Porte San Paternian. The two arched lights of the belfry + appear of very early workmanship, probably of the beginning of the + thirteenth century. + + PESARO PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. The most powerful and impressive + in effect of all the palaces of the Grotesque Renaissance. The heads + upon its foundation are very characteristic of the period, but there + is more genius in them than usual. Some of the mingled expressions of + faces and grinning casques are very clever. + + PIAZZETTA, pillars of, see Final Appendix under head "Capital." The + two magnificent blocks of marble brought from St. Jean d'Acre, which + form one of the principal ornaments of the Piazzetta, are Greek + sculpture of the sixth century, and will be described in my folio + work. + + PIETA, CHURCH OF THE. Of no importance. + + PIETRO, CHURCH OF ST., at Murano. Its pictures, once valuable, are now + hardly worth examination, having been spoiled by neglect. + + PIETRO, DI CASTELLO, CHURCH OF ST., I. 7, 361. It is said to contain + a Paul Veronese, and I suppose the so-called "Chair of St. Peter" must + be worth examining. + + PISANI, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. The latest Venetian Gothic, just + passing into Renaissance. The capitals of the first floor windows are, + however, singularly spirited and graceful, very daringly under-cut, + and worth careful examination. The Paul Veronese, once the glory of + this palace, is, I believe, not likely to remain in Venice. The other + picture in the same room, the "Death of Darius," is of no value. + + PISANI, PALAZZO, at St. Stefano. Late Renaissance, and of no merit, + but grand in its colossal proportions, especially when seen from the + narrow canal at its side, which terminated by the apse of the Church + of San Stefano, is one of the most picturesque and impressive little + pieces of water scenery in Venice. + + POLO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance, except as an example of the + advantages accruing from restoration. M. Lazari says of it, "Before + this church was modernized, its principal chapel was adorned with + Mosaics, and possessed a pala of silver gilt, of Byzantine + workmanship, which is now lost." + + POLO, SQUARE OF ST. (Campo San Polo.) A large and important square, + rendered interesting chiefly by three palaces on the side of it + opposite the church, of central Gothic (1360), and fine of their time, + though small. One of their capitals has been given in Plate II. of + this volume, fig. 12. They are remarkable as being decorated with + sculptures of the Gothic time, in imitation of Byzantine ones; the + period being marked by the dog-tooth and cable being used instead of + the dentil round the circles. + + POLO, PALAZZO, at San G. Grisostomo (the house of Marco Polo), II. 139. + Its interior court is full of interest, showing fragments of the old + building in every direction, cornices, windows, and doors, of almost + every period, mingled among modern rebuilding and restoration of all + degrees of dignity. + + PORTA DELLA CARTA, II. 302. + + PRIULI, PALAZZO. A most important and beautiful early Gothic Palace, + at San Severo; the main entrance is from the Fundamento San Severo, + but the principal facade is on the other side, towards the canal. The + entrance has been grievously defaced, having had winged lions filling + the spandrils of its pointed arch, of which only feeble traces are now + left, the facade has very early fourth order windows in the lower + story, and above, the beautiful range of fifth order windows drawn at + the bottom of Plate XVIII. Vol. II., where the heads of the fourth + order range are also seen (note their inequality, the larger one at + the flank). This Palace has two most interesting traceried angle + windows also, which, however, I believe are later than those on the + facade; and finally, a rich and bold interior staircase. + + PROCURATIE NUOVE, see "LIBRERIA" VECCHIA: A graceful series buildings, + of late fifteenth century design, forming the northern side of St. + Mark's Place, but of no particular interest. + + + Q + + QUERINI, PALAZZO, now the Beccherie, II. 255, III. 234. + + + R + + RAFFAELLE, CHIESA DELL'ANGELO. Said to contain a Bonifazio, otherwise of + no importance. + + REDENTORE, CHURCH OF THE, II. 378. It contains three interesting John + Bellinis, and also, in the sacristy, a most beautiful Paul Veronese. + + REMER, CORTE DEL, house in. II. 251. + + REZZONICO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of the Grotesque Renaissance + time, but less extravagant than usual. + + RIALTO, BRIDGE OF THE. The best building raised in the time of the + Grotesque Renaissance; very noble in its simplicity, in its + proportions, and in its masonry. Note especially the grand way in + which the oblique archstones rest on the butments of the bridge, safe, + palpably both to the sense and eye: note also the sculpture of the + Annunciation on the southern side of it; how beautifully arranged, so + as to give more lightness and a grace to the arch--_the dove, flying + towards the Madonna, forming the keystone_,--and thus the whole action + of the figures being parallel to the curve of the arch, while all the + masonry is at right angles to it. Note, finally, one circumstance + which gives peculiar firmness to the figure of the angel, and + associates itself with the general expression of strength in the + whole building; namely that the sole of the advanced foot is set + perfectly level, as if placed on the ground, instead of being thrown + back behind like a heron's, as in most modern figures of this kind. + + The sculptures themselves are not good; but these pieces of feeling in + them are very admirable. The two figures on the other side, St. Mark + and St. Theodore, are inferior, though all by the same sculptor, + Girolamo Campagna. + + The bridge was built by Antonio da Ponte, in 1588. It was anciently of + wood, with a drawbridge in the centre, a representation of which may + be seen in one of Carpaccio's pictures at the Accademia delle Belle + Arti: and the traveller should observe that the interesting effect, + both of this and the Bridge of Sighs, depends in great part on their + both being _more_ than bridges; the one a covered passage, the other a + row of shops, sustained on an arch. No such effect can be produced + merely by the masonry of the roadway itself. + + RIO DEL PALAZZO, II. 282. + + ROCCO, CAMPIELLO DI SAN, windows in, II. 258. + + ROCCO, CHURCH OF ST. Notable only for the most interesting pictures by + Tintoret which it contains, namely: + + 1. _San Rocco before the Pope._ (On the left of the door as we enter.) + A delightful picture in his best manner, but not much labored; and, + like several other pictures in this church, it seems to me to have + been executed at some period of the painter's life when he was either + in ill health, or else had got into a mechanical way of painting, from + having made too little reference to nature for a long time. There is + something stiff and forced in the white draperies on both sides, and a + general character about the whole which I can feel better than I can + describe; but which, if I had been the painter's physician, would have + immediately caused me to order him to shut up his painting-room, and + take a voyage to the Levant, and back again. The figure of the Pope + is, however, extremely beautiful, and is not unworthy, in its jewelled + magnificence, here dark against the sky, of comparison with the figure + of the high priest in the "Presentation," in the Scuola di San Rocco. + + 2. _Annunciation._ (On the other side of the door, on entering.) A + most disagreeable and dead picture, having all the faults of the age, + and none of the merits of the painter. It must be a matter of future + investigation to me, what could cause the fall of his mind from a + conception so great and so fiery as that of the "Annunciation" in the + Scuola di San Rocco, to this miserable reprint of an idea worn out + centuries before. One of the most inconceivable things in it, + considered as the work of Tintoret, is that where the angel's robe + drifts away behind his limb, one cannot tell by the character of the + outline, or by the tones of the color, whether the cloud comes in + before the robe, or whether the robe cuts upon the cloud. The Virgin + is uglier than that of the Scuola, and not half so real; and the + draperies are crumpled in the most commonplace and ignoble folds. It + is a picture well worth study, as an example of the extent to which + the greatest mind may be betrayed by the abuse of its powers, and the + neglect of its proper food in the study of nature. + + 3. _Pool of Bethesda._ (On the right side of the church, in its + centre, the lowest of the two pictures which occupy the wall.) A noble + work, but eminently disagreeable, as must be all pictures of this + subject; and with the same character in it of undefinable want, which + I have noticed in the two preceding works. The main figure in it is + the cripple, who has taken up his bed; but the whole effect of this + action is lost by his not turning to Christ, but flinging it on his + shoulder like a triumphant porter with a huge load; and the corrupt + Renaissance architecture, among which the figures are crowded, is both + ugly in itself, and much too small for them. It is worth noticing, for + the benefit of persons who find fault with the perspective of the + Pre-Raphaelites, that the perspective of the brackets beneath these + pillars is utterly absurd; and that, in fine, the presence or absence + of perspective has nothing to do with the merits of a great picture: + not that the perspective of the Pre-Raphaelites _is_ false in any case + that I have examined, the objection being just as untenable as it is + ridiculous. + + 4. _San Rocco in the Desert._ (Above the last-named picture.) A single + recumbent figure in a not very interesting landscape, deserving less + attention than a picture of St. Martin just opposite to it,--a noble + and knightly figure on horseback by Pordenone, to which I cannot pay a + greater compliment than by saying that I was a considerable time in + doubt whether or not it was another Tintoret. + + 5. _San Rocco in the Hospital._ (On the right-hand side of the altar.) + There are four vast pictures by Tintoret in the dark choir of this + church, not only important by their size (each being some twenty-five + feet long by ten feet high), but also elaborate compositions; and + remarkable, one for its extraordinary landscape, and the other as the + most studied picture in which the painter has introduced horses in + violent action. In order to show what waste of human mind there is in + these dark churches of Venice, it is worth recording that, as I was + examining these pictures, there came in a party of eighteen German + tourists, not hurried, nor jesting among themselves as large parties + often do, but patiently submitting to their cicerone, and evidently + desirous of doing their duty as intelligent travellers. They sat down + for a long time on the benches of the nave, looked a little at the + "Pool of Bethesda," walked up into the choir and there heard a lecture + of considerable length from their _valet-de-place_ upon some subject + connected with the altar itself, which, being in German, I did not + understand; they then turned and went slowly out of the church, not + one of the whole eighteen ever giving a single glance to any of the + four Tintorets, and only one of them, as far as I saw, even raising + his eyes to the walls on which they hung, and immediately withdrawing + them, with a jaded and _nonchalant_ expression easily interpretable + into "Nothing but old black pictures." The two Tintorets above + noticed, at the end of the church, were passed also without a glance; + and this neglect is not because the pictures have nothing in them + capable of arresting the popular mind, but simply because they are + totally in the dark, or confused among easier and more prominent + objects of attention. This picture, which I have called "St. Rocco in + the Hospital," shows him, I suppose, in his general ministrations at + such places, and is one of the usual representations of a disgusting + subject from which neither Orcagna nor Tintoret seems ever to have + shrunk. It is a very noble picture, carefully composed and highly + wrought; but to me gives no pleasure, first, on account of its + subject, secondly, on account of its dull brown tone all over,--it + being impossible, or nearly so, in such a scene, and at all events + inconsistent with its feeling, to introduce vivid color of any kind. + So it is a brown study of diseased limbs in a close room. + + 6. _Cattle Piece._ (Above the picture last described.) I can give no + other name to this picture, whose subject I can neither guess nor + discover, the picture being in the dark, and the guide-books leaving + me in the same position. All I can make out of it is, that there is a + noble landscape with cattle and figures. It seems to me the best + landscape of Tintoret's in Venice, except the "Flight into Egypt;" and + is even still more interesting from its savage character, the + principal trees being pines, something like Titian's in his "St. + Francis receiving the Stigmata," and chestnuts on the slopes and in + the hollows of the hills; the animals also seem first-rate. But it is + too high, too much faded, and too much in the dark to be made out. It + seems never to have been rich in color, rather cool and grey, and very + full of light. + + 7. _Finding of Body of San Rocco._ (On the left-hand side of the + altar.) An elaborate, but somewhat confused picture, with a flying + angel in a blue drapery; but it seemed to me altogether uninteresting, + or perhaps requiring more study than I was able to give it. + + 8. _San Rocco in Campo d' Armata._ So this picture is called by the + sacristan. I could see no San Rocco in it; nothing but a wild group of + horses and warriors in the most magnificent confusion of fall and + flight ever painted by man. They seem all dashed different ways as if + by a whirlwind; and a whirlwind there must be, or a thunderbolt, + behind them, for a huge tree is torn up and hurled into the air beyond + the central figure, as if it were a shivered lance. Two of the horses + meet in the midst, as if in a tournament; but in madness of fear, not + in hostility; on the horse to the right is a standard-bearer, who + stoops as from some foe behind him, with the lance laid across his + saddle-bow, level, and the flag stretched out behind him as he flies, + like the sail of a ship drifting from its mast; the central horseman, + who meets the shock, of storm, or enemy, whatever it be, is hurled + backwards from his seat, like a stone from a sling; and this figure + with the shattered tree trunk behind it, is the most noble part of the + picture. There is another grand horse on the right, however, also in + full action. Two gigantic figures on foot, on the left, meant to be + nearer than the others, would, it seems to me, have injured the + picture, had they been clearly visible; but time has reduced them to + perfect subordination. + + + ROCCO, SCUOLA DI SAN, bases of, I. 291, 431; soffit ornaments of, I. + 337. An interesting building of the early Renaissance (1517), passing + into Roman Renaissance. The wreaths of leafage about its shafts are + wonderfully delicate and fine, though misplaced. + + As regards the pictures which it contains, it is one of the three most + precious buildings in Italy; buildings, I mean, consistently decorated + with a series of paintings at the time of their erection, and still + exhibiting that series in its original order. I suppose there can be + little question, but that the three most important edifices of this + kind in Italy are the Sistine Chapel, the Campo Santo of Pisa, and the + Scuola di San Rocco at Venice: the first is painted by Michael Angelo; + the second by Orcagna, Benozzo Gozzoli, Pietro Laurati, and several + other men whose works are as rare as they are precious; and the third + by Tintoret. + + Whatever the traveller may miss in Venice, he should therefore give + unembarrassed attention and unbroken time to the Scuola di San Rocco; + and I shall, accordingly, number the pictures, and note in them, one + by one, what seemed to me most worthy of observation. + + There are sixty-two in all, but eight of these are merely of children + or children's heads, and two of unimportant figures. The number of + valuable pictures is fifty-two; arranged on the walls and ceilings of + three rooms, so badly lighted, in consequence of the admirable + arrangements of the Renaissance architect, that it is only in the + early morning that some of the pictures can be seen at all, nor can + they ever be seen but imperfectly. They were all painted, however, for + their places in the dark, and, as compared with Tintoret's other + works, are therefore, for the most part, nothing more than vast + sketches, made to produce, under a certain degree of shadow, the + effect of finished pictures. Their treatment is thus to be considered + as a kind of scene-painting; differing from ordinary scene-painting + only in this, that the effect aimed at is not _that of a natural + scene_ but _a perfect picture_. They differ in this respect from all + other existing works; for there is not, as far as I know, any other + instance in which a great master has consented to work for a room + plunged into almost total obscurity. It is probable that none but + Tintoret would have undertaken the task, and most fortunate that he + was forced to it. For in this magnificent scene-painting we have, of + course, more wonderful examples, both of his handling, and knowledge + of effect, than could ever have been exhibited in finished pictures; + while the necessity of doing much with few strokes keeps his mind so + completely on the stretch throughout the work (while yet the velocity + of production prevented his being wearied), that no other series of + his works exhibits powers so exalted. On the other hand, owing to the + velocity and coarseness of the painting, it is more liable to injury + through drought or damp; and, as the walls have been for years + continually running down with rain, and what little sun gets into the + place contrives to fall all day right on one or other of the pictures, + they are nothing but wrecks of what they were; and the ruins of + paintings originally coarse are not likely ever to be attractive to + the public mind. Twenty or thirty years ago they were taken down to be + retouched; but the man to whom the task was committed providentially + died, and only one of them was spoiled. I have found traces of his + work upon another, but not to an extent very seriously destructive. + The rest of the sixty-two, or, at any rate, all that are in the upper + room, appear entirely intact. + + Although, as compared with his other works, they are all very scenic + in execution, there are great differences in their degrees of finish; + and, curiously enough, some on the ceilings and others in the darkest + places in the lower room are very nearly finished pictures, while the + "Agony in the Garden," which is in one of the best lights in the upper + room, appears to have been painted in a couple of hours with a broom + for a brush. + + For the traveller's greater convenience, I shall give a rude plan of + the arrangement, and list of the subjects, of each group of pictures + before examining them in detail. + + First Group. On the walls of the room on the ground floor. + + [Illustration: + + 1. Annunciation. 5. The Magdalen. + 2. Adoration of Magi. 6. St. Mary of Egypt. + 3. Flight into Egypt. 7. Circumcision. + 4. Massacre of Innocents. 8. Assumption of Virgin. + + At the turn of the stairs leading to the upper room: + 9. Visitation.] + + 1. _The Annunciation._ This, which first strikes the eye, is a very + just representative of the whole group, the execution being carried to + the utmost limits of boldness consistent with completion. It is a + well-known picture, and need not therefore be specially described, but + one or two points in it require notice. The face of the Virgin is very + disagreeable to the spectator from below, giving the idea of a woman + about thirty, who had never been handsome. If the face is untouched, + it is the only instance I have ever seen of Tintoret's failing in an + intended effect, for, when seen near, the face is comely and youthful, + and expresses only surprise, instead of the pain and fear of which it + bears the aspect in the distance. I could not get near enough to see + whether it had been retouched. It looks like Tintoret's work, though + rather hard; but, as there are unquestionable marks in the retouching + of this picture, it is possible that some slight restoration of lines + supposed to be faded, entirely alter the distant expression of the + face. One of the evident pieces of repainting is the scarlet of the + Madonna's lap, which is heavy and lifeless. A far more injurious one + is the strip of sky seen through the doorway by which the angel + enters, which has originally been of the deep golden color of the + distance on the left, and which the blundering restorer has daubed + over with whitish blue, so that it looks like a bit of the wall; + luckily he has not touched the outlines of the angel's black wings, on + which the whole expression of the picture depends. This angel and the + group of small cherubs above form a great swinging chain, of which the + dove representing the Holy Spirit forms the bend. The angels in their + flight seem to be attached to this as the train of fire is to a + rocket; all of them appearing to have swooped down with the swiftness + of a falling star. + + 2. _Adoration of the Magi._ The most finished picture in the Scuola, + except the "Crucifixion," and perhaps the most delightful of the + whole. It unites every source of pleasure that a picture can possess: + the highest elevation of principal subject, mixed with the lowest + detail of picturesque incident; the dignity of the highest ranks of + men, opposed to the simplicity of the lowest; the quietness and + serenity of an incident in cottage life, contrasted with the + turbulence of troops of horsemen and the spiritual power of angels. + The placing of the two doves as principal points of light in the front + of the picture, in order to remind the spectator of the poverty of the + mother whose child is receiving the offerings and adoration of three + monarchs, is one of Tintoret's master touches; the whole scene, + indeed, is conceived in his happiest manner. Nothing can be at once + more humble or more dignified than the bearing of the kings; and there + is a sweet reality given to the whole incident by the Madonna's + stooping forward and lifting her hand in admiration of the vase of + gold which has been set before the Christ, though she does so with + such gentleness and quietness that her dignity is not in the least + injured by the simplicity of the action. As if to illustrate the means + by which the Wise men were brought from the East, the whole picture is + nothing but a large star, of which Christ is the centre; all the + figures, even the timbers of the roof, radiate from the small bright + figure on which the countenances of the flying angels are bent, the + star itself, gleaming through the timbers above, being quite + subordinate. The composition would almost be too artificial were it + not broken by the luminous distance where the troop of horsemen are + waiting for the kings. These, with a dog running at full speed, at + once interrupt the symmetry of the lines, and form a point of relief + from the over concentration of all the rest of the action. + + 3. _Flight into Egypt._ One of the principal figures here is the + donkey. I have never seen any of the nobler animals--lion, or leopard, + or horse, or dragon--made so sublime as this quiet head of the + domestic ass, chiefly owing to the grand motion in the nostril and + writhing in the ears. The space of the picture is chiefly occupied by + lovely landscape, and the Madonna and St. Joseph are pacing their way + along a shady path upon the banks of a river at the side of the + picture. I had not any conception, until I got near, how much pains + had been taken with the Virgin's head; its expression is as sweet and + as intense as that of any of Raffaelle's, its reality far greater. The + painter seems to have intended that everything should be subordinate + to the beauty of this single head; and the work is a wonderful proof + of the way in which a vast field of canvas may be made conducive to + the interest of a single figure. This is partly accomplished by + slightness of painting, so that on close examination, while there is + everything to astonish in the masterly handling and purpose, there is + not much perfect or very delightful painting; in fact, the two figures + are treated like the living figures in a scene at the theatre, and + finished to perfection, while the landscape is painted as hastily as + the scenes, and with the same kind of opaque size color. It has, + however, suffered as much as any of the series, and it is hardly fair + to judge of its tones and colors in its present state. + + 4. _Massacre of the Innocents._ The following account of this picture, + given in "Modern Painters," may be useful to the traveller, and is + therefore here repeated. "I have before alluded to the painfulness of + Raffaelle's treatment of the Massacre of the Innocents. Fuseli affirms + of it, that, 'in dramatic gradation he disclosed all the mother + through every image of pity and terror.' If this be so, I think the + philosophical spirit has prevailed over the imaginative. The + imagination never errs; it sees all that is, and all the relations + and bearings of it; but it would not have confused the mortal frenzy + of maternal terror, with various development of maternal character. + Fear, rage, and agony, at their utmost pitch, sweep away all + character: humanity itself would be lost in maternity, the woman would + become the mere personification of animal fury or fear. For this + reason all the ordinary representations of this subject are, I think, + false and cold: the artist has not heard the shrieks, nor mingled with + the fugitives; he has sat down in his study to convulse features + methodically, and philosophize over insanity. Not so Tintoret. + Knowing, or feeling, that the expression of the human face was, in + such circumstances, not to be rendered, and that the effort could only + end in an ugly falsehood, he denies himself all aid from the features, + he feels that if he is to place himself or us in the midst of that + maddened multitude, there can be no time allowed for watching + expression. Still less does he depend on details of murder or + ghastliness of death; there is no blood, no stabbing or cutting, but + there is an awful substitute for these in the chiaroscuro. The scene + is the outer vestibule of a palace, the slippery marble floor is + fearfully barred across by sanguine shadows, so that our eyes seem to + become bloodshot and strained with strange horror and deadly vision; a + lake of life before them, like the burning seen of the doomed Moabite + on the water that came by the way of Edom: a huge flight of stairs, + without parapet, descends on the left; down this rush a crowd of women + mixed with the murderers; the child in the arms of one has been seized + by the limbs, _she hurls herself over the edge, and falls head + downmost, dragging the child out of the grasp by her weight_;--she + will be dashed dead in a second:--close to us is the great struggle; a + heap of the mothers, entangled in one mortal writhe with each other + and the swords; one of the murderers dashed down and crushed beneath + them, the sword of another caught by the blade and dragged at by a + woman's naked hand; the youngest and fairest of the women, her child + just torn away from a death grasp, and clasped to her breast with the + grip of a steel vice, falls backwards, helpless over the heap, right + on the sword points; all knit together and hurled down in one + hopeless, frenzied, furious abandonment of body and soul in the + effort to save. Far back, at the bottom of the stairs, there is + something in the shadow like a heap of clothes. It is a woman, sitting + quiet,--quite quiet,--still as any stone; she looks down steadfastly + on her dead child, laid along on the floor before her, and her hand is + pressed softly upon her brow." + + I have nothing to add to the above description of this picture, except + that I believe there may have been some change in the color of the + shadow that crosses the pavement. The chequers of the pavements are, + in the light, golden white and pale grey; in the shadow, red and dark + grey, the white in the sunshine becoming red in the shadow. I formerly + supposed that this was meant to give greater horror to the scene, and + it is very like Tintoret if it be so; but there is a strangeness and + discordance in it which makes me suspect the colors may have changed. + + 5. _The Magdalen._ This and the picture opposite to it, "St. Mary of + Egypt," have been painted to fill up narrow spaces between the windows + which were not large enough to receive compositions, and yet in which + single figures would have looked awkwardly thrust into the corner. + Tintoret has made these spaces as large as possible by filling them + with landscapes, which are rendered interesting by the introduction of + single figures of very small size. He has not, however, considered his + task, of making a small piece of wainscot look like a large one, worth + the stretch of his powers, and has painted these two landscapes just + as carelessly and as fast as an upholsterer's journeyman finishing a + room at a railroad hotel. The color is for the most part opaque, and + dashed or scrawled on in the manner of a scene-painter; and as during + the whole morning the sun shines upon the one picture, and during the + afternoon upon the other, hues, which were originally thin and + imperfect, are now dried in many places into mere dirt upon the + canvas. With all these drawbacks the pictures are of very high + interest, for although, as I said, hastily and carelessly, they are + not languidly painted; on the contrary, he has been in his hottest and + grandest temper; and in this first one ("Magdalen") the laurel tree, + with its leaves driven hither and thither among flakes of fiery cloud, + has been probably one of the greatest achievements that his hand + performed in landscape: its roots are entangled in underwood; of which + every leaf seems to be articulated, yet all is as wild as if it had + grown there instead of having been painted; there has been a mountain + distance, too, and a sky of stormy light, of which I infinitely regret + the loss, for though its masses of light are still discernible, its + variety of hue is all sunk into a withered brown. There is a curious + piece of execution in the striking of the light upon a brook which + runs under the roots of the laurel in the foreground: these roots are + traced in shadow against the bright surface of the water; another + painter would have drawn the light first, and drawn the dark roots + over it. Tintoret has laid in a brown ground which he has left for the + roots, and painted the water through their interstices with a few + mighty rolls of his brush laden with white. + + 6. _St. Mary of Egypt._ This picture differs but little in the plan, + from the one opposite, except that St. Mary has her back towards us, + and the Magdalen her face, and that the tree on the other side of the + brook is a palm instead of a laurel. The brook (Jordan?) is, however, + here much more important; and the water painting is exceedingly fine. + Of all painters that I know, in old times, Tintoret is the fondest of + running water; there was a sort of sympathy between it and his own + impetuous spirit. The rest of the landscape is not of much interest, + except so far as it is pleasant to see trunks of trees drawn by single + strokes of the brush. + + 7. _The Circumcision of Christ._ The custode has some story about this + picture having been painted in imitation of Paul Veronese. I much + doubt if Tintoret ever imitated any body; but this picture is the + expression of his perception of what Veronese delighted in, the + nobility that there may be in mere golden tissue and colored drapery. + It is, in fact, a picture of the moral power of gold and color; and + the chief use of the attendant priest is to support upon his shoulders + the crimson robe, with its square tablets of black and gold; and yet + nothing is withdrawn from the interest or dignity of the scene. + Tintoret has taken immense pains with the head of the high-priest. I + know not any existing old man's head so exquisitely tender, or so + noble in its lines. He receives the Infant Christ in his arms + kneeling, and looking down upon the Child with infinite veneration and + love; and the flashing of golden rays from its head is made the centre + of light, and all interest. The whole picture is like a golden charger + to receive the Child; the priest's dress is held up behind him, that + it may occupy larger space; the tables and floor are covered with + chequer-work; the shadows of the temple are filled with brazen lamps; + and above all are hung masses of curtains, whose crimson folds are + strewn over with golden flakes. Next to the "Adoration of the Magi" + this picture is the most laboriously finished of the Scuola di San + Rocco, and it is unquestionably the highest existing type of the + sublimity which may be thrown into the treatment of accessaries of + dress and decoration. + + 8. _Assumption of the Virgin._ On the tablet or panel of stone which + forms the side of the tomb out of which the Madonna rises, is this + inscription, in large letters, REST. ANTONIUS FLORIAN, 1834. Exactly + in proportion to a man's idiocy, is always the size of the letters in + which he writes his name on the picture that he spoils. The old + mosaicists in St. Mark's have not, in a single instance, as far as I + know, signed their names; but the spectator who wishes to know who + destroyed the effect of the nave, may see his name inscribed, twice + over, in letters half a foot high, BARTOLOMEO BOZZA. I have never seen + Tintoret's name signed, except in the great "Crucifixion;" but this + Antony Florian, I have no doubt, repainted the whole side of the tomb + that he might put his name on it. The picture is, of course, ruined + wherever he touched it; that is to say, half over; the circle of + cherubs in the sky is still pure; and the design of the great painter + is palpable enough yet in the grand flight of the horizontal angel, on + whom the Madonna half leans as she ascends. It has been a noble + picture, and is a grievous loss; but, happily, there are so many pure + ones, that we need not spend time in gleaning treasures out of the + ruins of this. + + 9. _Visitation._ A small picture, painted in his very best manner; + exquisite in its simplicity, unrivalled in vigor, well preserved, and, + as a piece of painting, certainly one of the most precious in Venice. + Of course it does not show any of his high inventive powers; nor can a + picture of four middle-sized figures be made a proper subject of + comparison with large canvases containing forty or fifty; but it is, + for this very reason, painted with such perfect ease, and yet with no + slackness either of affection or power, that there is no picture that + I covet so much. It is, besides, altogether free from the Renaissance + taint of dramatic effect. The gestures are as simple and natural as + Giotto's, only expressed by grander lines, such as none but Tintoret + ever reached. The draperies are dark, relieved against a light sky, + the horizon being excessively low, and the outlines of the drapery so + severe, that the intervals between the figures look like ravines + between great rocks, and have all the sublimity of an Alpine valley at + twilight. This precious picture is hung about thirty feet above the + eye, but by looking at it in a strong light, it is discoverable that + the Saint Elizabeth is dressed in green and crimson, the Virgin in the + peculiar red which all great colorists delight in--a sort of glowing + brick-color or brownish scarlet, opposed to rich golden brownish + black; and both have white kerchiefs, or drapery, thrown over their + shoulders. Zacharias leans on his staff behind them in a black dress + with white sleeves. The stroke of brilliant white light, which + outlines the knee of Saint Elizabeth, is a curious instance of the + habit of the painter to relieve his dark forms by a sort of halo of + more vivid light, which, until lately, one would have been apt to + suppose a somewhat artificial and unjustifiable means of effect. The + daguerreotype has shown, what the naked eye never could, that the + instinct of the great painter was true, and that there is actually + such a sudden and sharp line of light round the edges of dark objects + relieved by luminous space. + + Opposite this picture is a most precious Titian, the "Annunciation," + full of grace and beauty. I think the Madonna one of the sweetest + figures he ever painted. But if the traveller has entered at all into + the spirit of Tintoret, he will immediately feel the comparative + feebleness and conventionality of the Titian. Note especially the mean + and petty folds of the angel's drapery, and compare them with the + draperies of the opposite picture. The larger pictures at the sides of + the stairs by Zanchi and Negri, are utterly worthless. + + [Illustration: Second Group. On the walls of the upper room. + + 10. Adoration of Shepherds. 17. Resurrection of Lazarus. + 11. Baptism. 18. Ascension. + 12. Resurrection. 19. Pool of Bethesda. + 13. Agony in Garden. 20. Temptation. + 14. Last Supper. 21. St. Rocco. + 15. Altar Piece: St. Rocco. 22. St. Sebastian. + 16. Miracle of Loaves.] + + 10. _The Adoration of the Shepherds._ This picture commences the + series of the upper room, which, as already noticed, is painted with + far less care than that of the lower. It is one of the painter's + inconceivable caprices that the only canvases that are in good light + should be covered in this hasty manner, while those in the dungeon + below, and on the ceiling above, are all highly labored. It is, + however, just possible that the covering of these walls may have been + an after-thought, when he had got tired of his work. They are also, + for the most part, illustrative of a principle of which I am more and + more convinced every day, that historical and figure pieces ought not + to be made vehicles for effects of light. The light which is fit for a + historical picture is that tempered semi-sunshine of which, in + general, the works of Titian are the best examples, and of which the + picture we have just passed, "The Visitation," is a perfect example + from the hand of one greater than Titian; so also the three + "Crucifixions" of San Rocco, San Cassano, and St. John and Paul; the + "Adoration of the Magi" here; and, in general, the finest works of + the master; but Tintoret was not a man to work in any formal or + systematic manner; and, exactly like Turner, we find him recording + every effect which Nature herself displays. Still he seems to regard + the pictures which deviate from the great general principle of + colorists rather as "tours de force" than as sources of pleasure; and + I do not think there is any instance of his having worked out one of + these tricky pictures with thorough affection, except only in the case + of the "Marriage of Cana." By tricky pictures, I mean those which + display light entering in different directions, and attract the eye to + the effects rather than to the figure which displays them. Of this + treatment, we have already had a marvellous instance in the + candle-light picture of the "Last Supper" in San Giorgio Maggiore. + This "Adoration of the Shepherds" has probably been nearly as + wonderful when first painted: the Madonna is seated on a kind of + hammock floor made of rope netting, covered with straw; it divides the + picture into two stories, of which the uppermost contains the Virgin, + with two women who are adoring Christ, and shows light entering from + above through the loose timbers of the roof of the stable, as well as + through the bars of a square window; the lower division shows this + light falling behind the netting upon the stable floor, occupied by a + cock and a cow, and against this light are relieved the figures of the + shepherds, for the most part in demi-tint, but with flakes of more + vigorous sunshine falling here and there upon them from above. The + optical illusion has originally been as perfect as one of Hunt's best + interiors; but it is most curious that no part of the work seems to + have been taken any pleasure in by the painter; it is all by his hand, + but it looks as if he had been bent only on getting over the ground. + It is literally a piece of scene-painting, and is exactly what we + might fancy Tintoret to have done, had he been forced to paint scenes + at a small theatre at a shilling a day. I cannot think that the whole + canvas, though fourteen feet high and ten wide, or thereabouts, could + have taken him more than a couple of days to finish: and it is very + noticeable that exactly in proportion to the brilliant effects of + light is the coarseness of the execution, for the figures of the + Madonna and of the women above, which are not in any strong effect, + are painted with some care, while the shepherds and the cow are alike + slovenly; and the latter, which is in full sunshine, is recognizable + for a cow more by its size and that of its horns, than by any care + given to its form. It is interesting to contrast this slovenly and + mean sketch with the ass's head in the "Flight into Egypt," on which + the painter exerted his full power; as an effect of light, however, + the work is, of course, most interesting. One point in the treatment + is especially noticeable: there is a peacock in the rack beyond the + cow; and under other circumstances, one cannot doubt that Tintoret + would have liked a peacock in full color, and would have painted it + green and blue with great satisfaction. It is sacrificed to the light, + however, and is painted in warm grey, with a dim eye or two in the + tail: this process is exactly analogous to Turner's taking the colors + out of the flags of his ships in the "Gosport." Another striking point + is the litter with which the whole picture is filled in order more to + confuse the eye: there is straw sticking from the roof, straw all over + the hammock floor, and straw struggling hither and thither all over + the floor itself; and, to add to the confusion, the glory around the + head of the infant, instead of being united and serene, is broken into + little bits, and is like a glory of chopped straw. But the most + curious thing, after all, is the want of delight in any of the + principal figures, and the comparative meanness and commonplaceness of + even the folds of the drapery. It seems as if Tintoret had determined + to make the shepherds as uninteresting as possible; but one does not + see why their very clothes should be ill painted, and their + disposition unpicturesque. I believe, however, though it never struck + me until I had examined this picture, that this is one of the + painter's fixed principles: he does not, with German sentimentality, + make shepherds and peasants graceful or sublime, but he purposely + vulgarizes them, not by making their actions or their faces boorish or + disagreeable, but rather by painting them ill, and composing their + draperies tamely. As far as I recollect at present, the principle is + universal with him; exactly in proportion to the dignity of character + is the beauty of the painting. He will not put out his strength upon + any man belonging to the lower classes; and, in order to know what the + painter is, one must see him at work on a king, a senator, or a + saint. The curious connexion of this with the aristocratic tendencies + of the Venetian nation, when we remember that Tintoret was the + greatest man whom that nation produced, may become very interesting, + if followed out. I forgot to note that, though the peacock is painted + with great regardlessness of color, there is a feature in it which no + common painter would have observed,--the peculiar flatness of the + back, and undulation of the shoulders: the bird's body is all there, + though its feathers are a good deal neglected; and the same thing is + noticeable in a cock who is pecking among the straw near the + spectator, though in other respects a shabby cock enough. The fact is, + I believe, he had made his shepherds so commonplace that he dare not + paint his animals well, otherwise one would have looked at nothing in + the picture but the peacock, cock, and cow. I cannot tell what the + shepherds are offering; they look like milk bowls, but they are + awkwardly held up, with such twistings of body as would have certainly + spilt the milk. A woman in front has a basket of eggs; but this I + imagine to be merely to keep up the rustic character of the scene, and + not part of the shepherd's offerings. + + 11. _Baptism._ There is more of the true picture quality in this work + than in the former one, but still very little appearance of enjoyment + or care. The color is for the most part grey and uninteresting, and + the figures are thin and meagre in form, and slightly painted; so much + so, that of the nineteen figures in the distance, about a dozen are + hardly worth calling figures, and the rest are so sketched and + flourished in that one can hardly tell which is which. There is one + point about it very interesting to a landscape painter: the river is + seen far into the distance, with a piece of copse bordering it; the + sky beyond is dark, but the water nevertheless receives a brilliant + reflection from some unseen rent in the clouds, so brilliant, that + when I was first at Venice, not being accustomed to Tintoret's slight + execution, or to see pictures so much injured, I took this piece of + water for a piece of sky. The effect as Tintoret has arranged it, is + indeed somewhat unnatural, but it is valuable as showing his + recognition of a principle unknown to half the historical painters of + the present day,--that the reflection seen in the water is totally + different from the object seen above it, and that it is very possible + to have a bright light in reflection where there appears nothing but + darkness to be reflected. The clouds in the sky itself are round, + heavy, and lightless, and in a great degree spoil what would otherwise + be a fine landscape distance. Behind the rocks on the right, a single + head is seen, with a collar on the shoulders: it seems to be intended + for a portrait of some person connected with the picture. + + 12. _Resurrection._ Another of the "effect of light" pictures, and not + a very striking one, the best part of it being the two distant figures + of the Maries seen in the dawn of the morning. The conception of the + Resurrection itself is characteristic of the worst points of Tintoret. + His impetuosity is here in the wrong place; Christ bursts out of the + rock like a thunderbolt, and the angels themselves seem likely to be + crushed under the rent stones of the tomb. Had the figure of Christ + been sublime, this conception might have been accepted; but, on the + contrary, it is weak, mean, and painful; and the whole picture is + languidly or roughly painted, except only the fig-tree at the top of + the rock, which, by a curious caprice, is not only drawn in the + painter's best manner, but has golden ribs to all its leaves, making + it look like one of the beautiful crossed or chequered patterns, of + which he is so fond in his dresses; the leaves themselves being a dark + olive brown. + + 13. _The Agony in the Garden._ I cannot at present understand the + order of these subjects; but they may have been misplaced. This, of + all the San Rocco pictures, is the most hastily painted, but it is + not, like those we have been passing, _clodly_ painted; it seems to + have been executed altogether with a hearth-broom, and in a few hours. + It is another of the "effects," and a very curious one; the Angel who + bears the cup to Christ is surrounded by a red halo; yet the light + which falls upon the shoulders of the sleeping disciples, and upon the + leaves of the olive-trees, is cool and silvery, while the troop coming + up to seize Christ are seen by torch-light. Judas, who is the second + figure, points to Christ, but turns his head away as he does so, as + unable to look at him. This is a noble touch; the foliage is also + exceedingly fine, though what kind of olive-tree bears such leaves I + know not, each of them being about the size of a man's hand. If there + be any which bear such foliage, their olives must be the size of + cocoa-nuts. This, however, is true only of the underwood, which is, + perhaps, not meant for olive. There are some taller trees at the top + of the picture, whose leaves are of a more natural size. On closely + examining the figures of the troops on the left, I find that the + distant ones are concealed, all but the limbs, by a sort of arch of + dark color, which is now so injured, that I cannot tell whether it was + foliage or ground: I suppose it to have been a mass of close foliage, + through which the troop is breaking its way; Judas rather showing them + the path, than actually pointing to Christ, as it is written, "Judas, + who betrayed him, knew the place." St. Peter, as the most zealous of + the three disciples, the only one who was to endeavor to defend his + Master, is represented as awakening and turning his head toward the + troop, while James and John are buried in profound slumber, laid in + magnificent languor among the leaves. The picture is singularly + impressive, when seen far enough off, as an image of thick forest + gloom amidst the rich and tender foliage of the South; the leaves, + however, tossing as in disturbed night air, and the flickering of the + torches, and of the branches, contrasted with the steady flame which + from the Angel's presence is spread over the robes of the disciples. + The strangest feature in the whole is that the Christ also is + represented as sleeping. The angel seems to appear to him in a dream. + + 14. _The Last Supper._ A most unsatisfactory picture; I think about + the worst I know of Tintoret's, where there is no appearance of + retouching. He always makes the disciples in this scene too vulgar; + they are here not only vulgar, but diminutive, and Christ is at the + end of the table, the smallest figure of them all. The principal + figures are two mendicants sitting on steps in front; a kind of + supporters, but I suppose intended to be waiting for the fragments; a + dog, in still more earnest expectation, is watching the movements of + the disciples, who are talking together, Judas having just gone out. + Christ is represented as giving what one at first supposes is the sop + to Judas, but as the disciple who received it has a glory, and there + are only eleven at table, it is evidently the Sacramental bread. The + room in which they are assembled is a sort of large kitchen, and the + host is seen employed at a dresser in the background. This picture has + not only been originally poor, but is one of those exposed all day to + the sun, and is dried into mere dusty canvas: where there was once + blue, there is now nothing. + + 15. _Saint Rocco in Glory._ One of the worst order of Tintorets, with + apparent smoothness and finish, yet languidly painted, as if in + illness or fatigue; very dark and heavy in tone also; its figures, for + the most part, of an awkward middle size, about five feet high, and + very uninteresting. St. Rocco ascends to heaven, looking down upon a + crowd of poor and sick persons who are blessing and adoring him. One + of these, kneeling at the bottom, is very nearly a repetition, though + a careless and indolent one, of that of St. Stephen, in St. Giorgio + Maggiore, and of the central figure in the "Paradise" of the Ducal + Palace. It is a kind of lay figure, of which he seems to have been + fond; its clasped hands are here shockingly painted--I should think + unfinished. It forms the only important light at the bottom, relieved + on a dark ground; at the top of the picture, the figure of St. Rocco + is seen in shadow against the light of the sky, and all the rest is in + confused shadow. The commonplaceness of this composition is curiously + connected with the languor of thought and touch throughout the work. + + 16. _Miracle of the Loaves._ Hardly anything but a fine piece of + landscape is here left; it is more exposed to the sun than any other + picture in the room, and its draperies having been, in great part, + painted in blue, are now mere patches of the color of starch; the + scene is also very imperfectly conceived. The twenty-one figures, + including Christ and his Disciples, very ill represent a crowd of + seven thousand; still less is the marvel of the miracle expressed by + perfect ease and rest of the reclining figures in the foreground, who + do not so much as look surprised; considered merely as reclining + figures, and as pieces of effect in half light, they have once been + fine. The landscape, which represents the slope of a woody hill, has a + very grand and far-away look. Behind it is a great space of streaky + sky, almost prismatic in color, rosy and golden clouds covering up its + blue, and some fine vigorous trees thrown against it; painted in about + ten minutes each, however, by curly touches of the brush, and looking + rather more like seaweed than foliage. + + 17. _Resurrection of Lazarus._ Very strangely, and not impressively + conceived. Christ is half reclining, half sitting, at the bottom of + the picture, while Lazarus is disencumbered of his grave-clothes at + the top of it; the scene being the side of a rocky hill, and the mouth + of the tomb probably once visible in the shadow on the left; but all + that is now discernible is a man having his limbs unbound, as if + Christ were merely ordering a prisoner to be loosed. There appears + neither awe nor agitation, nor even much astonishment, in any of the + figures of the group; but the picture is more vigorous than any of the + three last mentioned, and the upper part of it is quite worthy of the + master, especially its noble fig-tree and laurel, which he has + painted, in one of his usual fits of caprice, as carefully as that in + the "Resurrection of Christ," opposite. Perhaps he has some meaning in + this; he may have been thinking of the verse, "Behold the fig-tree, + and all the trees; when they now shoot forth," &c. In the present + instance, the leaves are dark only, and have no golden veins. The + uppermost figures also come dark against the sky, and would form a + precipitous mass, like a piece of the rock itself, but that they are + broken in upon by one of the limbs of Lazarus, bandaged and in full + light, which, to my feeling, sadly injures the picture, both as a + disagreeable object, and a light in the wrong place. The grass and + weeds are, throughout, carefully painted, but the lower figures are of + little interest, and the face of the Christ a grievous failure. + + 18. _The Ascension._ I have always admired this picture, though it is + very slight and thin in execution, and cold in color; but it is + remarkable for its thorough effect of open air, and for the sense of + motion and clashing in the wings of the Angels which sustain the + Christ: they owe this effect a good deal to the manner in which they + are set, edge on; all seem like sword-blades cutting the air. It is + the most curious in conception of all the pictures in the Scuola, for + it represents, beneath the Ascension, a kind of epitome of what took + place before the Ascension. In the distance are two Apostles walking, + meant, I suppose, for the two going to Emmaus; nearer are a group + round a table, to remind us of Christ appearing to them as they sat at + meat; and in the foreground is a single reclining figure of, I + suppose, St. Peter, because we are told that "he was seen of Cephas, + then of the twelve:" but this interpretation is doubtful; for why + should not the vision by the Lake of Tiberias be expressed also? And + the strange thing of all is the scene, for Christ ascended from the + Mount of Olives; but the Disciples are walking, and the table is set, + in a little marshy and grassy valley, like some of the bits near + Maison Neuve on the Jura, with a brook running through it, so + capitally expressed, that I believe it is this which makes me so fond + of the picture. The reflections are as scientific in the diminution, + in the image, of large masses of bank above, as any of Turner's, and + the marshy and reedy ground looks as if one would sink into it; but + what all this has to do with the Ascension I cannot see. The figure of + Christ is not undignified, but by no means either interesting or + sublime. + + 19. _Pool of Bethesda._ I have no doubt the principal figures have + been repainted; but as the colors are faded, and the subject + disgusting, I have not paid this picture sufficient attention to say + how far the injury extends; nor need any one spend time upon it, + unless after having first examined all the other Tintorets in Venice. + All the great Italian painters appear insensible to the feeling of + disgust at disease; but this study of the population of an hospital is + without any points of contrast, and I wish Tintoret had not + condescended to paint it. This and the six preceding paintings have + all been uninteresting,--I believe chiefly owing to the observance in + them of Sir Joshua's rule for the heroic, "that drapery is to be mere + drapery, and not silk, nor satin, nor brocade." However wise such a + rule may be when applied to works of the purest religious art, it is + anything but wise as respects works of color. Tintoret is never quite + himself unless he has fur or velvet, or rich stuff of one sort or the + other, or jewels, or armor, or something that he can put play of color + into, among his figures, and not dead folds of linsey-woolsey; and I + believe that even the best pictures of Raffaelle and Angelico are not + a little helped by their hems of robes, jewelled crowns, priests' + copes, and so on; and the pictures that have nothing of this kind in + them, as for instance the "Transfiguration," are to my mind not a + little dull. + + 20. _Temptation._ This picture singularly illustrates what has just + been observed; it owes great part of its effect to the lustre of the + jewels in the armlet of the evil angel, and to the beautiful colors of + his wings. These are slight accessaries apparently, but they enhance + the value of all the rest, and they have evidently been enjoyed by the + painter. The armlet is seen by reflected light, its stones shining by + inward lustre; this occult fire being the only hint given of the real + character of the Tempter, who is otherways represented in the form of + a beautiful angel, though the face is sensual: we can hardly tell how + far it was intended to be therefore expressive of evil; for Tintoret's + good angels have not always the purest features; but there is a + peculiar subtlety in this telling of the story by so slight a + circumstance as the glare of the jewels in the darkness. It is curious + to compare this imagination with that of the mosaics in St. Mark's, in + which Satan is a black monster, with horns, and head, and tail, + complete. The whole of the picture is powerfully and carefully + painted, though very broadly; it is a strong effect of light, and + therefore, as usual, subdued in color. The painting of the stones in + the foreground I have always thought, and still think, the best piece + of rock drawing before Turner, and the most amazing instance of + Tintoret's perceptiveness afforded by any of his pictures. + + 21. _St. Rocco._ Three figures occupy the spandrils of the window + above this and the following picture, painted merely in light and + shade, two larger than life, one rather smaller. I believe these to be + by Tintoret; but as they are quite in the dark, so that the execution + cannot be seen, and very good designs of the kind have been furnished + by other masters, I cannot answer for them. The figure of St. Rocco, + as well as its companion, St. Sebastian, is colored; they occupy the + narrow intervals between the windows, and are of course invisible + under ordinary circumstances. By a great deal of straining of the + eyes, and sheltering them with the hand from the light, some little + idea of the design may be obtained. The "St. Rocco" is a fine figure, + though rather coarse, but, at all events, worth as much light as would + enable us to see it. + + 22. _St. Sebastian._ This, the companion figure, is one of the finest + things in the whole room, and assuredly the most majestic Saint + Sebastian in existence; as far as mere humanity can be majestic, for + there is no effort at any expression of angelic or saintly + resignation; the effort is simply to realize the fact of the + martyrdom, and it seems to me that this is done to an extent not even + attempted by any other painter. I never saw a man die a violent death, + and therefore cannot say whether this figure be true or not, but it + gives the grandest and most intense impression of truth. The figure is + dead, and well it may be, for there is one arrow through the forehead + and another through the heart; but the eyes are open, though glazed, + and the body is rigid in the position in which it last stood, the left + arm raised and the left limb advanced, something in the attitude of a + soldier sustaining an attack under his shield, while the dead eyes are + still turned in the direction from which the arrows came: but the most + characteristic feature is the way these arrows are fixed. In the + common martyrdoms of St. Sebastian they are stuck into him here and + there like pins, as if they had been shot from a great distance and + had come faltering down, entering the flesh but a little way, and + rather bleeding the saint to death than mortally wounding him; but + Tintoret had no such ideas about archery. He must have seen bows drawn + in battle, like that of Jehu when he smote Jehoram between the + harness: all the arrows in the saint's body lie straight in the same + direction, broad-feathered and strong-shafted, and sent apparently + with the force of thunderbolts; every one of them has gone through him + like a lance, two through the limbs, one through the arm, one through + the heart, and the last has crashed through the forehead, nailing the + head to the tree behind as if it had been dashed in by a + sledge-hammer. The face, in spite of its ghastliness, is beautiful, + and has been serene; and the light which enters first and glistens on + the plumes of the arrows, dies softly away upon the curling hair, and + mixes with the glory upon the forehead. There is not a more remarkable + picture in Venice, and yet I do not suppose that one in a thousand of + the travellers who pass through the Scuola so much as perceives there + is a picture in the place which it occupies. + + [Illustration: Third Group. On the roof of the upper room. + + 23. Moses striking the Rock. 29. Elijah. + 24. Plague of Serpents. 30. Jonah. + 25. Fall of Manna. 31. Joshua. + 26. Jacob's Dream. 32. Sacrifice of Isaac. + 27. Ezekiel's Vision. 33. Elijah at the Brook. + 28. Fall of Man. 34. Paschal Feast. + 35. Elisha feeding the People.] + + 23. _Moses striking the Rock._ We now come to the series of pictures + upon which the painter concentrated the strength he had reserved for + the upper room; and in some sort wisely, for, though it is not + pleasant to examine pictures on a ceiling, they are at least + distinctly visible without straining the eyes against the light. They + are carefully conceived and thoroughly well painted in proportion to + their distance from the eye. This carefulness of thought is apparent + at a glance: the "Moses striking the Rock" embraces the whole of the + seventeenth chapter of Exodus, and even something more, for it is not + from that chapter, but from parallel passages that we gather the facts + of the impatience of Moses and the wrath of God at the waters of + Meribah; both which facts are shown by the leaping of the stream out + of the rock half-a-dozen ways at once, forming a great arch over the + head of Moses, and by the partial veiling of the countenance of the + Supreme Being. This latter is the most painful part of the whole + picture, at least as it is seen from below; and I believe that in some + repairs of the roof this head must have been destroyed and repainted. + It is one of Tintoret's usual fine thoughts that the lower part of the + figure is veiled, not merely by clouds, but in a kind of watery + sphere, showing the Deity coming to the Israelites at that particular + moment as the Lord of the Rivers and of the Fountain of the Waters. + The whole figure, as well as that of Moses and the greater number of + those in the foreground, is at once dark and warm, black and red being + the prevailing colors, while the distance is bright gold touched with + blue, and seems to open into the picture like a break of blue sky + after rain. How exquisite is this expression, by mere color, of the + main force of the fact represented! that is to say, joy and + refreshment after sorrow and scorching heat. But, when we examine of + what this distance consists, we shall find still more cause for + admiration. The blue in it is not the blue of sky, it is obtained by + blue stripes upon white tents glowing in the sunshine; and in front of + these tents is seen that great battle with Amalek of which the account + is given in the remainder of the chapter, and for which the Israelites + received strength in the streams which ran out of the rock in Horeb. + Considered merely as a picture, the opposition of cool light to warm + shadow is one of the most remarkable pieces of color in the Scuola, + and the great mass of foliage which waves over the rocks on the left + appears to have been elaborated with his highest power and his most + sublime invention. But this noble passage is much injured, and now + hardly visible. + + 24. _Plague of Serpents._ The figures in the distance are remarkably + important in this picture, Moses himself being among them; in fact, + the whole scene is filled chiefly with middle-sized figures, in order + to increase the impression of space. It is interesting to observe the + difference in the treatment of this subject by the three great + painters, Michael Angelo, Rubens, and Tintoret. The first two, equal + to the latter in energy, had less love of liberty: they were fond of + binding their compositions into knots, Tintoret of scattering his far + and wide: they all alike preserve the unity of composition, but the + unity in the first two is obtained by binding, and that of the last by + springing from one source; and, together with this feeling, comes his + love of space, which makes him less regard the rounding and form of + objects themselves, than their relations of light and shade and + distance. Therefore Rubens and Michael Angelo made the fiery serpents + huge boa constrictors, and knotted the sufferers together with them. + Tintoret does not like to be so bound; so he makes the serpents little + flying and fluttering monsters like lampreys with wings; and the + children of Israel, instead of being thrown into convulsed and + writhing groups, are scattered, fainting in the fields, far away in + the distance. As usual, Tintoret's conception, while thoroughly + characteristic of himself, is also truer to the words of Scripture. We + are told that "the Lord sent fiery serpents among the people, and they + _bit_ the people;" we are not told that they crushed the people to + death. And while thus the truest, it is also the most terrific + conception. M. Angelo's would be terrific if one could believe in it: + but our instinct tells us that boa constrictors do not come in armies; + and we look upon the picture with as little emotion as upon the handle + of a vase, or any other form worked out of serpents, where there is no + probability of serpents actually occurring. But there is a probability + in Tintoret's conception. We feel that it is not impossible that there + should come up a swarm of these small winged reptiles: and their + horror is not diminished by their smallness: not that they have any of + the grotesque terribleness of German invention; they might have been + made infinitely uglier with small pains, but it is their + _veritableness_ which makes them awful. They have triangular heads + with sharp beaks or muzzle; and short, rather thick bodies, with bony + processes down the back like those of sturgeons; and small wings + spotted with orange and black; and round glaring eyes, not very large, + but very ghastly, with an intense delight in biting expressed in them. + (It is observable, that the Venetian painter has got his main idea of + them from the sea-horses and small reptiles of the Lagoons.) These + monsters are fluttering and writhing about everywhere, fixing on + whatever they come near with their sharp venomous heads; and they are + coiling about on the ground, and all the shadows and thickets are full + of them, so that there is no escape anywhere: and, in order to give + the idea of greater extent to the plague, Tintoret has not been + content with one horizon; I have before mentioned the excessive + strangeness of this composition, in having a cavern open in the right + of the foreground, through which is seen another sky and another + horizon. At the top of the picture, the Divine Being is seen borne by + angels, apparently passing over the congregation in wrath, involved in + masses of dark clouds; while, behind, an Angel of mercy is descending + toward Moses, surrounded by a globe of white light. This globe is + hardly seen from below; it is not a common glory, but a transparent + sphere, like a bubble, which not only envelopes the angel, but crosses + the figure of Moses, throwing the upper part of it into a subdued pale + color, as if it were crossed by a sunbeam. Tintoret is the only + painter who plays these tricks with transparent light, the only man + who seems to have perceived the effects of sunbeams, mists, and + clouds, in the far away atmosphere; and to have used what he saw on + towers, clouds, or mountains, to enhance the sublimity of his figures. + The whole upper part of this picture is magnificent, less with respect + to individual figures, than for the drift of its clouds, and + originality and complication of its light and shade; it is something + like Raffaelle's "Vision of Ezekiel," but far finer. It is difficult + to understand how any painter, who could represent floating clouds so + nobly as he has done here, could ever paint the odd, round, pillowy + masses which so often occur in his more carelessly designed sacred + subjects. The lower figures are not so interesting, and the whole is + painted with a view to effect from below, and gains little by close + examination. + + 25. _Fall of Manna._ In none of these three large compositions has the + painter made the slightest effort at expression in the human + countenance; everything is done by gesture, and the faces of the + people who are drinking from the rock, dying from the serpent-bites, + and eating the manna, are all alike as calm as if nothing was + happening; in addition to this, as they are painted for distant + effect, the heads are unsatisfactory and coarse when seen near, and + perhaps in this last picture the more so, and yet the story is + exquisitely told. We have seen in the Church of San Giorgio Maggiore + another example of his treatment of it, where, however, the gathering + of manna is a subordinate employment, but here it is principal. Now, + observe, we are told of the manna, that it was found in the morning; + that then there lay round about the camp a small round thing like the + hoar-frost, and that "when the sun waxed hot it melted." Tintoret has + endeavored, therefore, first of all, to give the idea of coolness; the + congregation are reposing in a soft green meadow, surrounded by blue + hills, and there are rich trees above them, to the branches of one of + which is attached a great grey drapery to catch the manna as it comes + down. In any other picture such a mass of drapery would assuredly have + had some vivid color, but here it is grey; the fields are cool frosty + green, the mountains cold blue, and, to complete the expression and + meaning of all this, there is a most important point to be noted in + the form of the Deity, seen above, through an opening in the clouds. + There are at least ten or twelve other pictures in which the form of + the Supreme Being occurs, to be found in the Scuola di San Rocco + alone; and in every one of these instances it is richly colored, the + garments being generally red and blue, but in this picture of the + manna the figure is _snow white_. Thus the painter endeavors to show + the Deity as the giver of bread, just as in the "Striking of the Rock" + we saw that he represented Him as the Lord of the rivers, the + fountains, and the waters. There is one other very sweet incident at + the bottom of the picture; four or five sheep, instead of pasturing, + turn their heads aside to catch the manna as it comes down, or seem to + be licking it off each other's fleeces. The tree above, to which the + drapery is tied, is the most delicate and delightful piece of leafage + in all the Scuola; it has a large sharp leaf, something like that of a + willow, but five times the size. + + 26. _Jacob's Dream._ A picture which has good effect from below, but + gains little when seen near. It is an embarrassing one for any + painter, because angels always look awkward going up and down stairs; + one does not see the use of their wings. Tintoret has thrown them into + buoyant and various attitudes, but has evidently not treated the + subject with delight; and it is seen to all the more disadvantage + because just above the painting of the "Ascension," in which the full + fresh power of the painter is developed. One would think this latter + picture had been done just after a walk among hills, for it is full of + the most delicate effects of transparent cloud, more or less veiling + the faces and forms of the angels, and covering with white light the + silvery sprays of the palms, while the clouds in the "Jacob's Dream" + are the ordinary rotundities of the studio. + + 27. _Ezekiel's Vision._ I suspect this has been repainted, it is so + heavy and dead in color; a fault, however, observable in many of the + small pictures on the ceiling, and perhaps the natural result of the + fatigue of such a mind as Tintoret's. A painter who threw such intense + energy into some of his works can hardly but have been languid in + others in a degree never experienced by the more tranquil minds of + less powerful workmen; and when this languor overtook him whilst he + was at work on pictures where a certain space had to be covered by + mere force of arm, this heaviness of color could hardly but have been + the consequence: it shows itself chiefly in reds and other hot hues, + many of the pictures in the Ducal Palace also displaying it in a + painful degree. This "Ezekiel's Vision" is, however, in some measure + worthy of the master, in the wild and horrible energy with which the + skeletons are leaping up about the prophet; but it might have been + less horrible and more sublime, no attempt being made to represent the + space of the Valley of Dry Bones, and the whole canvas being occupied + only by eight figures, of which five are half skeletons. It it is + strange that, in such a subject, the prevailing hues should be red and + brown. + + 28. _Fall of Man._ The two canvases last named are the most + considerable in size upon the roof, after the centre pieces. We now + come to the smaller subjects which surround the "Striking the Rock;" + of these this "Fall of Man" is the best, and I should think it very + fine anywhere but in the Scuola di San Rocco; there is a grand light + on the body of Eve, and the vegetation is remarkably rich, but the + faces are coarse, and the composition uninteresting. I could not get + near enough to see what the grey object is upon which Eve appears to + be sitting, nor could I see any serpent. It is made prominent in the + picture of the Academy of this same subject, so that I suppose it is + hidden in the darkness, together with much detail which it would be + necessary to discover in order to judge the work justly. + + 29. _Elijah (?)._ A prophet holding down his face, which is covered + with his hand. God is talking with him, apparently in rebuke. The + clothes on his breast are rent, and the action of the figures might + suggest the idea of the scene between the Deity and Elijah at Horeb: + but there is no suggestion of the past magnificent scenery,--of the + wind, the earthquake, or the fire; so that the conjecture is good for + very little. The painting is of small interest; the faces are vulgar, + and the draperies have too much vapid historical dignity to be + delightful. + + 30. _Jonah._ The whale here occupies fully one-half of the canvas; + being correspondent in value with a landscape background. His mouth is + as large as a cavern, and yet, unless the mass of red color in the + foreground be a piece of drapery, his tongue is too large for it. He + seems to have lifted Jonah out upon it, and not yet drawn it back, so + that it forms a kind of crimson cushion for him to kneel upon in his + submission to the Deity. The head to which this vast tongue belongs is + sketched in somewhat loosely, and there is little remarkable about it + except its size, nor much in the figures, though the submissiveness of + Jonah is well given. The great thought of Michael Angelo renders one + little charitable to any less imaginative treatment of this subject. + + 31. _Joshua (?)._ This is a most interesting picture, and it is a + shame that its subject is not made out, for it is not a common one. + The figure has a sword in its hand, and looks up to a sky full of + fire, out of which the form of the Deity is stooping, represented as + white and colorless. On the other side of the picture there is seen + among the clouds a pillar apparently falling, and there is a crowd at + the feet of the principal figure, carrying spears. Unless this be + Joshua at the fall of Jericho, I cannot tell what it means; it is + painted with great vigor, and worthy of a better place. + + 32. _Sacrifice of Isaac._ In conception, it is one of the least worthy + of the master in the whole room, the three figures being thrown into + violent attitudes, as inexpressive as they are strained and + artificial. It appears to have been vigorously painted, but vulgarly; + that is to say, the light is concentrated upon the white beard and + upturned countenance of Abraham, as it would have been in one of the + dramatic effects of the French school, the result being that the head + is very bright and very conspicuous, and perhaps, in some of the late + operations upon the roof, recently washed and touched. In consequence, + every one who comes into the room, is first invited to observe the + "bella testa di Abramo." The only thing characteristic of Tintoret is + the way in which the pieces of ragged wood are tossed hither and + thither in the pile upon which Isaac is bound, although this + scattering of the wood is inconsistent with the Scriptural account of + Abraham's deliberate procedure, for we are told of him that "he set + the wood in order." But Tintoret had probably not noticed this, and + thought the tossing of the timber into the disordered heap more like + the act of the father in his agony. + + 33. _Elijah at the Brook Cherith (?)._ I cannot tell if I have rightly + interpreted the meaning of this picture, which merely represents a + noble figure couched upon the ground, and an angel appearing to him; + but I think that between the dark tree on the left, and the recumbent + figure, there is some appearance of a running stream, at all events + there is of a mountainous and stony place. The longer I study this + master, the more I feel the strange likeness between him and Turner, + in our never knowing what subject it is that will stir him to + exertion. We have lately had him treating Jacob's Dream, Ezekiel's + Vision, Abraham's Sacrifice, and Jonah's Prayer, (all of them subjects + on which the greatest painters have delighted to expend their + strength,) with coldness, carelessness, and evident absence of + delight; and here, on a sudden, in a subject so indistinct that one + cannot be sure of its meaning, and embracing only two figures, a man + and an angel, forth he starts in his full strength. I believe he must + somewhere or another, the day before, have seen a kingfisher; for this + picture seems entirely painted for the sake of the glorious downy + wings of the angel,--white clouded with blue, as the bird's head and + wings are with green,--the softest and most elaborate in plumage that + I have seen in any of his works: but observe also the general + sublimity obtained by the mountainous lines of the drapery of the + recumbent figure, dependent for its dignity upon these forms alone, as + the face is more than half hidden, and what is seen of it + expressionless. + + 34. _The Paschal Feast._ I name this picture by the title given in the + guide-books; it represents merely five persons watching the increase + of a small fire lighted on a table or altar in the midst of them. It + is only because they have all staves in their hands that one may + conjecture this fire to be that kindled to consume the Paschal + offering. The effect is of course a fire light; and, like all mere + fire lights that I have ever seen, totally devoid of interest. + + 35. _Elisha feeding the People._ I again guess at the subject: the + picture only represents a figure casting down a number of loaves + before a multitude; but, as Elisha has not elsewhere occurred, I + suppose that these must be the barley loaves brought from + Baalshalisha. In conception and manner of painting, this picture and + the last, together with the others above-mentioned, in comparison with + the "Elijah at Cherith," may be generally described as "dregs of + Tintoret:" they are tired, dead, dragged out upon the canvas + apparently in the heavy-hearted state which a man falls into when he + is both jaded with toil and sick of the work he is employed upon. They + are not hastily painted; on the contrary, finished with considerably + more care than several of the works upon the walls; but those, as, for + instance, the "Agony in the Garden," are hurried sketches with the + man's whole heart in them, while these pictures are exhausted + fulfilments of an appointed task. Whether they were really amongst the + last painted, or whether the painter had fallen ill at some + intermediate time, I cannot say; but we shall find him again in his + utmost strength in the room which we last enter. + + [Illustration: Fourth Group. Inner room on the upper floor. + + On the Roof. + + 36 to 39. Children's Heads. 41 to 44. Children. + 40. St. Rocco in Heaven. 45 to 56. Allegorical Figures. + + On the Walls. + + 57. Figure in Niche. 60. Ecce Homo. + 58. Figure in Niche. 61. Christ bearing his Cross. + 59. Christ before Pilate. 62. CRUCIFIXION.] + + 36 to 39. _Four Children's Heads_, which it is much to be regretted + should be thus lost in filling small vacuities of the ceiling. + + 40. _St. Rocco in Heaven._ The central picture of the roof, in the + inner room. From the well-known anecdote respecting the production of + this picture, whether in all its details true or not, we may at least + gather that having been painted in competition with Paul Veronese and + other powerful painters of the day, it was probably Tintoret's + endeavor to make it as popular and showy as possible. It is quite + different from his common works; bright in all its tints and tones; + the faces carefully drawn, and of an agreeable type; the outlines + firm, and the shadows few; the whole resembling Correggio more than + any Venetian painter. It is, however, an example of the danger, even + to the greatest artist, of leaving his own style; for it lacks all the + great virtues of Tintoret, without obtaining the lusciousness of + Correggio. One thing, at all events, is remarkable in it,--that, + though painted while the competitors were making their sketches, it + shows no sign of haste or inattention. + + 41 to 44. _Figures of Children_, merely decorative. + + 45 to 56. _Allegorical Figures on the Roof._ If these were not in the + same room with the "Crucifixion," they would attract more public + attention than any works in the Scuola, as there are here no black + shadows, nor extravagances of invention, but very beautiful figures + richly and delicately colored, a good deal resembling some of the best + works of Andrea del Sarto. There is nothing in them, however, + requiring detailed examination. The two figures between the windows + are very slovenly, if they are his at all; and there are bits of + marbling and fruit filling the cornices, which may or may not be his: + if they are, they are tired work, and of small importance. + + 59. _Christ before Pilate._ A most interesting picture, but, which is + unusual, best seen on a dark day, when the white figure of Christ + alone draws the eye, looking almost like a spirit; the painting of the + rest of the picture being both somewhat thin and imperfect. There is a + certain meagreness about all the minor figures, less grandeur and + largeness in the limbs and draperies, and less solidity, it seems, + even in the color, although its arrangements are richer than in many + of the compositions above described. I hardly know whether it is owing + to this thinness of color, or on purpose, that the horizontal clouds + shine through the crimson flag in the distance; though I should think + the latter, for the effect is most beautiful. The passionate action of + the Scribe in lifting his hand to dip the pen into the ink-horn is, + however, affected and overstrained, and the Pilate is very mean; + perhaps intentionally, that no reverence might be withdrawn from the + person of Christ. In work of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, + the figures of Pilate and Herod are always intentionally made + contemptible. + + _Ecce Homo._ As usual, Tintoret's own peculiar view of the subject. + Christ is laid fainting on the ground, with a soldier standing on one + side of him; while Pilate, on the other, withdraws the robe from the + scourged and wounded body, and points it out to the Jews. Both this + and the picture last mentioned resemble Titian more than Tintoret in + the style of their treatment. + + 61. _Christ bearing his Cross._ Tintoret is here recognizable again in + undiminished strength. He has represented the troops and attendants + climbing Calvary by a winding path, of which two turns are seen, the + figures on the uppermost ledge, and Christ in the centre of them, + being relieved against the sky; but, instead of the usual simple + expedient of the bright horizon to relieve the dark masses, there is + here introduced, on the left, the head of a white horse, which blends + itself with the sky in one broad mass of light. The power of the + picture is chiefly in effect, the figure of Christ being too far off + to be very interesting, and only the malefactors being seen on the + nearer path; but for this very reason it seems to me more impressive, + as if one had been truly present at the scene, though not exactly in + the right place for seeing it. + + 62. _The Crucifixion._ I must leave this picture to work its will on + the spectator; for it is beyond all analysis, and above all praise. + + + S + + SAGREDO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal, II. 256. Much defaced, but full + of interest. Its sea story is restored; its first floor has a most + interesting arcade of the early thirteenth century third order + windows; its upper windows are the finest fourth and fifth orders of + early fourteenth century; the group of fourth orders in the centre + being brought into some resemblance to the late Gothic traceries by + the subsequent introduction of the quatrefoils above them. + + SALUTE, CHURCH OF STA. MARIA DELLA, on the Grand Canal, II. 378. One + of the earliest buildings of the Grotesque Renaissance, rendered + impressive by its position, size, and general proportions. These + latter are exceedingly good; the grace of the whole building being + chiefly dependent on the inequality of size in its cupolas, and pretty + grouping of the two campaniles behind them. It is to be generally + observed that the proportions of buildings have nothing whatever to + do with the style or general merits of their architecture. An + architect trained in the worst schools, and utterly devoid of all + meaning or purpose in his work, may yet have such a natural gift of + massing and grouping as will render all his structures effective when + seen from a distance: such a gift is very general with the late + Italian builders, so that many of the most contemptible edifices in + the country have good stage effect so long as we do not approach them. + The Church of the Salute is farther assisted by the beautiful flight + of steps in front of it down to the canal; and its facade is rich and + beautiful of its kind, and was chosen by Turner for the principal + object in his well-known view of the Grand Canal. The principal faults + of the building are the meagre windows in the sides of the cupola, and + the ridiculous disguise of the buttresses under the form of colossal + scrolls; the buttresses themselves being originally a hypocrisy, for + the cupola is stated by Lazari to be of timber, and therefore needs + none. The sacristy contains several precious pictures: the three on + its roof by Titian, much vaunted, are indeed as feeble as they are + monstrous; but the small Titian, "St. Mark, with Sts. Cosmo and + Damian," was, when I first saw it, to my judgment, by far the first + work of Titian's in Venice. It has since been restored by the Academy, + and it seemed to me entirely destroyed, but I had not time to examine + it carefully. + + At the end of the larger sacristy is the lunette which once decorated + the tomb of the Doge Francesco Dandolo (see above, page 74); and, at + the side of it, one of the most highly finished Tintorets in Venice, + namely: + + _The Marriage in Cana._ An immense picture, some twenty-five feet long + by fifteen high, and said by Lazari to be one of the few which + Tintoret signed with his name. I am not surprised at his having done + so in this case. Evidently the work has been a favorite with him, and + he has taken as much pains as it was ever necessary for his colossal + strength to take with anything. The subject is not one which admits of + much singularity or energy in composition. It was always a favorite + one with Veronese, because it gave dramatic interest to figures in gay + costumes and of cheerful countenances; but one is surprised to find + Tintoret, whose tone of mind was always grave, and who did not like to + make a picture out of brocades and diadems, throwing his whole + strength into the conception of a marriage feast; but so it is, and + there are assuredly no female heads in any of his pictures in Venice + elaborated so far as those which here form the central light. Neither + is it often that the works of this mighty master conform themselves to + any of the rules acted upon by ordinary painters; but in this instance + the popular laws have been observed, and an academy student would be + delighted to see with what severity the principal light is arranged in + a central mass, which is divided and made more brilliant by a vigorous + piece of shadow thrust into the midst of it, and which dies away in + lesser fragments and sparkling towards the extremities of the picture. + This mass of light is as interesting by its composition as by its + intensity. The cicerone who escorts the stranger round the sacristy in + the course of five minutes, and allows him some forty seconds for the + contemplation of a picture which the study of six months would not + entirely fathom, directs his attention very carefully to the "bell' + effetto di prospettivo," the whole merit of the picture being, in the + eyes of the intelligent public, that there is a long table in it, one + end of which looks farther off than the other; but there is more in + the "bell' effetto di prospettivo" than the observance of the common + laws of optics. The table is set in a spacious chamber, of which the + windows at the end let in the light from the horizon, and those in the + side wall the intense blue of an Eastern sky. The spectator looks all + along the table, at the farther end of which are seated Christ and the + Madonna, the marriage guests on each side of it,--on one side men, on + the other women; the men are set with their backs to the light, which + passing over their heads and glancing slightly on the tablecloth, + falls in full length along the line of young Venetian women, who thus + fill the whole centre of the picture with one broad sunbeam, made up + of fair faces and golden hair. Close to the spectator a woman has + risen in amazement, and stretches across the table to show the wine in + her cup to those opposite; her dark red dress intercepts and enhances + the mass of gathered light. It is rather curious, considering the + subject of the picture, that one cannot distinguish either the bride + or the bridegroom; but the fourth figure from the Madonna in the line + of women, who wears a white head-dress of lace and rich chains of + pearls in her hair, may well be accepted for the former, and I think + that between her and the woman on the Madonna's left hand the unity of + the line of women is intercepted by a male figure; be this as it may, + this fourth female face is the most beautiful, as far as I recollect, + that occurs in the works of the painter, with the exception only of + the Madonna in the "Flight into Egypt." It is an ideal which occurs + indeed elsewhere in many of his works, a face at once dark and + delicate, the Italian cast of feature moulded with the softness and + childishness of English beauty some half a century ago; but I have + never seen the ideal so completely worked out by the master. The face + may best be described as one of the purest and softest of Stothard's + conceptions, executed with all the strength of Tintoret. The other + women are all made inferior to this one, but there are beautiful + profiles and bendings of breasts and necks along the whole line. The + men are all subordinate, though there are interesting portraits among + them; perhaps the only fault of the picture being that the faces are a + little too conspicuous, seen like balls of light among the crowd of + minor figures which fill the background of the picture. The tone of + the whole is sober and majestic in the highest degree; the dresses are + all broad masses of color, and the only parts of the picture which lay + claim to the expression of wealth or splendor are the head-dresses of + the women. In this respect the conception of the scene differs widely + from that of Veronese, and approaches more nearly to the probable + truth. Still the marriage is not an unimportant one; an immense crowd, + filling the background, forming superbly rich mosaic of color against + the distant sky. Taken as a whole, the picture is perhaps the most + perfect example which human art has produced of the utmost possible + force and sharpness of shadow united with richness of local color. In + all the other works of Tintoret, and much more of other colorists, + either the light and shade or the local color is predominant; in the + one case the picture has a tendency to look as if painted by + candle-light, in the other it becomes daringly conventional, and + approaches the conditions of glass-painting. This picture unites + color as rich as Titian's with light and shade as forcible as + Rembrandt's, and far more decisive. + + There are one or two other interesting pictures of the early Venetian + schools in this sacristy, and several important tombs in the adjoining + cloister; among which that of Francesco Dandolo, transported here from + the Church of the Frari, deserves especial attention. See above, p. + 74. + + SALVATORE, CHURCH OF ST. Base Renaissance, occupying the place of the + ancient church, under the porch of which the Pope Alexander III. is + said to have passed the night. M. Lazari states it to have been richly + decorated with mosaics; now all is gone. + + In the interior of the church are some of the best examples of + Renaissance sculptural monuments in Venice. (See above, Chap. II. Sec. + LXXX.) It is said to possess an important pala of silver, of the + thirteenth century, one of the objects in Venice which I much regret + having forgotten to examine; besides two Titians, a Bonifazio, and a + John Bellini. The latter ("The Supper at Emmaus") must, I think, have + been entirely repainted: it is not only unworthy of the master, but + unlike him; as far, at least, as I could see from below, for it is + hung high. + + SANUDO PALAZZO. At the Miracoli. A noble Gothic palace of the fourteenth + century, with Byzantine fragments and cornices built into its walls, + especially round the interior court, in which the staircase is very + noble. Its door, opening on the quay, is the only one in Venice + entirely uninjured; retaining its wooden valve richly sculptured, its + wicket for examination of the stranger demanding admittance, and its + quaint knocker in the form of a fish. + + SCALZI, CHURCH OF THE. It possesses a fine John Bellini, and is renowned + through Venice for its precious marbles. I omitted to notice above, in + speaking of the buildings of the Grotesque Renaissance, that many of + them are remarkable for a kind of dishonesty, even in the use of + _true_ marbles, resulting not from motives of economy, but from mere + love of juggling and falsehood for their own sake. I hardly know which + condition of mind is meanest, that which has pride in plaster made to + look like marble, or that which takes delight in marble made to look + like silk. Several of the later churches in Venice, more especially + those of the Jesuiti, of San Clemente, and this of the Scalzi, rest + their chief claims to admiration on their having curtains and cushions + cut out of rock. The most ridiculous example is in San Clemente, and + the most curious and costly are in the Scalzi; which latter church is + a perfect type of the vulgar abuse of marble in every possible way, by + men who had no eye for color, and no understanding of any merit in a + work of art but that which arises from costliness of material, and + such powers of imitation as are devoted in England to the manufacture + of peaches and eggs out of Derbyshire spar. + + SEBASTIAN, CHURCH OF ST. The tomb, and of old the monument, of Paul + Veronese. It is full of his noblest pictures, or of what once were + such; but they seemed to me for the most part destroyed by repainting. + I had not time to examine them justly, but I would especially direct + the traveller's attention to the small Madonna over the second altar + on the right of the nave, still a perfect and priceless treasure. + + SERVI, CHURCH OF THE. Only two of its gates and some ruined walls are + left, in one of the foulest districts of the city. It was one of the + most interesting monuments of the early fourteenth century Gothic; and + there is much beauty in the fragments yet remaining. How long they may + stand I know not, the whole building having been offered me for sale, + ground and all, or stone by stone, as I chose, by its present + proprietor, when I was last in Venice. More real good might at present + be effected by any wealthy person who would devote his resources to + the preservation of such monuments wherever they exist, by freehold + purchase of the entire ruin, and afterwards by taking proper charge of + it, and forming a garden round it, than by any other mode of + protecting or encouraging art. There is no school, no lecturer, like a + ruin of the early ages. + + SEVERO, FONDAMENTA SAN, palace at, II. 264. + + SILVESTRO, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance in itself, but it contains + two very interesting pictures: the first, a "St. Thomas of Canterbury + with the Baptist and St. Francis," by Girolamo Santa Croce, a superb + example of the Venetian religious school; the second by Tintoret, + namely: + + _The Baptism of Christ._ (Over the first altar on the right of the + nave.) An upright picture, some ten feet wide by fifteen high; the top + of it is arched, representing the Father supported by angels. It + requires little knowledge of Tintoret to see that these figures are + not by his hand. By returning to the opposite side of the nave, the + join in the canvas may be plainly seen, the upper part of the picture + having been entirely added on: whether it had this upper part before + it was repainted, or whether originally square, cannot now be told, + but I believe it had an upper part which has been destroyed. I am not + sure if even the dove and the two angels which are at the top of the + older part of the picture are quite genuine. The rest of it is + magnificent, though both the figures of the Saviour and the Baptist + show some concession on the part of the painter to the imperative + requirement of his age, that nothing should be done except in an + attitude; neither are there any of his usual fantastic imaginations. + There is simply the Christ in the water and the St. John on the shore, + without attendants, disciples, or witnesses of any kind; but the power + of the light and shade, and the splendor of the landscape, which on + the whole is well preserved, render it a most interesting example. The + Jordan is represented as a mountain brook, receiving a tributary + stream in a cascade from the rocks, in which St. John stands: there is + a rounded stone in the centre of the current; and the parting of the + water at this, as well as its rippling among the roots of some dark + trees on the left, are among the most accurate remembrances of nature + to be found in any of the works of the great masters. I hardly know + whether most to wonder at the power of the man who thus broke through + the neglect of nature which was universal at his time; or at the + evidences, visible throughout the whole of the conception, that he was + still content to paint from slight memories of what he had seen in + hill countries, instead of following out to its full depth the + fountain which he had opened. There is not a stream among the hills of + Priuli which in any quarter of a mile of its course would not have + suggested to him finer forms of cascade than those which he has idly + painted at Venice. + + SIMEONE, PROFETA, CHURCH OF ST. Very important, though small, possessing + the precious statue of St. Simeon, above noticed, II. 309. The rare + early Gothic capitals of the nave are only interesting to the + architect; but in the little passage by the side of the church, + leading out of the Campo, there is a curious Gothic monument built + into the wall, very beautiful in the placing of the angels in the + spandrils, and rich in the vine-leaf moulding above. + + SIMEONE, PICCOLO, CHURCH OF ST. One of the ugliest churches in Venice or + elsewhere. Its black dome, like an unusual species of gasometer, is + the admiration of modern Italian architects. + + + SOSPIRI, PONTE DE'. The well known "Bridge of Sighs," a work of no + merit, and of a late period (see Vol. II. p. 304), owing the interest + it possesses chiefly to its pretty name, and to the ignorant + sentimentalism of Byron. + + SPIRITO SANTO, CHURCH OF THE. Of no importance. + + STEFANO, CHURCH OF ST. An interesting building of central Gothic, the + best ecclesiastical example of it in Venice. The west entrance is much + later than any of the rest, and is of the richest Renaissance Gothic, + a little anterior to the Porta della Carta, and first-rate of its + kind. The manner of the introduction of the figure of the angel at the + top of the arch is full of beauty. Note the extravagant crockets and + cusp finials as signs of decline. + + STEFANO, CHURCH OF ST., at Murano (pugnacity of its abbot), II. 33. The + church no longer exists. + + STROPE, CAMPIELLO DELLA, house in, II. 266. + + + T + + + TANA, windows at the, II. 260. + + TIEPOLO, PALAZZO, on the Grand Canal. Of no importance. + + TOLENTINI, CHURCH OF THE. One of the basest and coldest works of the + late Renaissance. It is said to contain two Bonifazios. + + TOMA, CHURCH OF ST. Of no importance. + + TOMA, PONTE SAN. There is an interesting ancient doorway opening on the + canal close to this bridge, probably of the twelfth century, and a + good early Gothic door, opening upon the bridge itself. + + TORCELLO, general aspect of, II. 12; Santa Fosca at, I. 117, II. 13; + duomo, II. 14; mosaics of, II. 196; measures of, II. 378; date of, II. + 380. + + TREVISAN, PALAZZO, I. 369, III. 212. + + TRON, PALAZZO. Of no importance. + + TROVASO, CHURCH OF ST. Itself of no importance, but containing two + pictures by Tintoret, namely: + + 1. _The Temptation of St. Anthony._ (Altar piece in the chapel on the + left of the choir.) A small and very carefully finished picture, but + marvellously temperate and quiet in treatment, especially considering + the subject, which one would have imagined likely to inspire the + painter with one of his most fantastic visions. As if on purpose to + disappoint us, both the effect, and the conception of the figures, are + perfectly quiet, and appear the result much more of careful study than + of vigorous imagination. The effect is one of plain daylight; there + are a few clouds drifting in the distance, but with no wildness in + them, nor is there any energy or heat in the flames which mantle about + the waist of one of the figures. But for the noble workmanship, we + might almost fancy it the production of a modern academy; yet as we + begin to read the picture, the painter's mind becomes felt. St. + Anthony is surrounded by four figures, one of which only has the form + of a demon, and he is in the background, engaged in no more terrific + act of violence toward St. Anthony, than endeavoring to pull off his + mantle; he has, however, a scourge over his shoulder, but this is + probably intended for St. Anthony's weapon of self-discipline, which + the fiend, with a very Protestant turn of mind, is carrying off. A + broken staff, with a bell hanging to it, at the saint's feet, also + expresses his interrupted devotion. The three other figures beside him + are bent on more cunning mischief: the woman on the left is one of + Tintoret's best portraits of a young and bright-eyed Venetian beauty. + It is curious that he has given so attractive a countenance to a type + apparently of the temptation to violate the power of poverty, for this + woman places one hand in a vase full of coins, and shakes golden + chains with the other. On the opposite side of the saint, another + woman, admirably painted, but of a far less attractive countenance, is + a type of the lusts of the flesh, yet there is nothing gross or + immodest in her dress or gesture. She appears to have been baffled, + and for the present to have given up addressing the saint: she lays + one hand upon her breast, and might be taken for a very respectable + person, but that there are flames playing about her loins. A recumbent + figure on the ground is of less intelligible character, but may + perhaps be meant for Indolence; at all events, he has torn the saint's + book to pieces. I forgot to note, that under the figure representing + Avarice, there is a creature like a pig; whether actual pig or not is + unascertainable, for the church is dark, the little light that comes + on the picture falls on it the wrong way, and one third of the lower + part of it is hidden by a white case, containing a modern daub, lately + painted by way of an altar piece; the meaning, as well as the merit, + of the grand old picture being now far beyond the comprehension both + of priests and people. + + 2. _The Last Supper._ (On the left-hand side of the Chapel of the + Sacrament.) A picture which has been through the hands of the Academy, + and is therefore now hardly worth notice. Its conception seems always + to have been vulgar, and far below Tintoret's usual standard; there is + singular baseness in the circumstance, that one of the near Apostles, + while all the others are, as usual, intent upon Christ's words, "One + of you shall betray me," is going to help himself to wine out of a + bottle which stands behind him. In so doing he stoops towards the + table, the flask being on the floor. If intended for the action of + Judas at this moment, there is the painter's usual originality in the + thought; but it seems to me rather done to obtain variation of + posture, in bringing the red dress into strong contrast with the + tablecloth. The color has once been fine, and there are fragments of + good painting still left; but the light does not permit these to be + seen, and there is too much perfect work of the master's in Venice, to + permit us to spend time on retouched remnants. The picture is only + worth mentioning, because it is ignorantly and ridiculously referred + to by Kugler as characteristic of Tintoret. + + + V + + VITALI, CHURCH OF ST. Said to contain a picture by Vittor Carpaccio, + over the high altar: otherwise of no importance. + + + VOLTO SANTO, CHURCH OF THE. An interesting but desecrated ruin of the + fourteenth century; fine in style. Its roof retains some fresco + coloring, but, as far as I recollect, of later date than the + architecture. + + + Z + + ZACCARIA, CHURCH OF ST. Early Renaissance, and fine of its kind; a + Gothic chapel attached to it is of great beauty. It contains the best + John Bellini in Venice, after that of San G. Grisostomo, "The Virgin, + with Four Saints;" and is said to contain another John Bellini and a + Tintoret, neither of which I have seen. + + ZITELLE, CHURCH OF THE. Of no importance. + + ZOBENIGO, CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA, III. 124. It contains one valuable + Tintoret, namely: + + _Christ with Sta. Justina and St. Augustin._ (Over the third altar on + the south side of the nave.) A picture of small size, and upright, + about ten feet by eight. Christ appears to be descending out of the + clouds between the two saints, who are both kneeling on the sea shore. + It is a Venetian sea, breaking on a flat beach, like the Lido, with a + scarlet galley in the middle distance, of which the chief use is to + unite the two figures by a point of color. Both the saints are + respectable Venetians of the lower class, in homely dresses and with + homely faces. The whole picture is quietly painted, and somewhat + slightly; free from all extravagance, and displaying little power + except in the general truth or harmony of colors so easily laid on. It + is better preserved than usual, and worth dwelling upon as an instance + of the style of the master when _at rest_. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [71] "Am I in Italy? Is this the Mincius? + Are those the distant turrets of Verona? + And shall I sup where Juliet at the Masque + Saw her loved Montague, and now sleeps by him? + Such questions hourly do I ask myself; + And not a stone in a crossway inscribed + 'To Mantua,' 'To Ferrara,' but excites + Surprise, and doubt, and self-congratulation." + + Alas, after a few short months, spent even in the scenes dearest to + history, we can feel thus no more. + + [72] I have always called this church, in the text, simply "St. John + and Paul," not Sts. John and Paul, just as the Venetians say San + Giovanni e Paolo, and not Santi G., &c. + + + + + + * * * * * + + + + +CORRECTIONS MADE TO THE ORIGINAL TEXT. + +Page 69: 'Italian sarcophagi are kept massive, smoth and gloomy' smoth + corrected to smooth. + +Page 74: 'fallen back peacefully uppon his pillow' uppon corrected to + upon. + +Page 100: 'men's modes of life, and tones of throught' throught changed + to thought. + +Page 121: 'breathed upon her beaaty, until it melted away' beaaty + corrected to beauty. + +Page 157: 'morbid action by terror, accompained by the belief' + accompained changed to accompanied. + +Page 207: 'finds him by a fountaiu side' fountaiu corrected to fountain. + +Page 222: 'Pietro di Castello, for the feast of St. Mary' Mary changed + to Mark. + +Page 233: Number 2. misplaced. Moved to 'a. Lower arcade, Fondaco de' + Turchi.' + +Page 233: Missing 4. added before 'a. Fondaco de' Turchi, central shaft, + upper arcade.' + +Page 237: 'fourth order windows in Campo Sta. Ma Mater Domini' Ma + changed to M^a. + +Page 293: 'the usual inportant purposes of the modern Italians.' + inportant changed to important. + +Page 294: 'not the slightest touch os it but is delicious.' os corrected + to of. + +Page 318: 'examine the two large tintorets' tintorets changed to + Tintorets. + +Page 319: 'Mlaipiero, Palazzo, on the Campo St. M. Formosa.' Mlaipiero + corrected to Malipiero. + +Page 358: 'drift of its clouds, and originalty and complication.' + originalty corrected to originality. + + + +***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE STONES OF VENICE, VOLUME III (OF +3)*** + + +******* This file should be named 30756.txt or 30756.zip ******* + + +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: +https://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/0/7/5/30756 + + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. 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