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diff --git a/30743.txt b/30743.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..86304e2 --- /dev/null +++ b/30743.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1438 @@ +Project Gutenberg's The Philosophy of Evolution, by Stephen H. Carpenter + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Philosophy of Evolution + and The Metaphysical Basis of Science + +Author: Stephen H. Carpenter + +Release Date: December 23, 2009 [EBook #30743] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE PHILOSOPHY OF EVOLUTION *** + + + + +Produced by David Edwards, Martin Pettit and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +book was produced from scanned images of public domain +material from the Google Print project.) + + + + + + +THE PHILOSOPHY OF EVOLUTION + +TOGETHER WITH A PRELIMINARY ESSAY ON + +THE METAPHYSICAL BASIS OF SCIENCE. + + +TWO PAPERS + +Read before THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS +at the Annual Meetings of February, 1873 and February, 1874. + +BY + +STEPHEN H. CARPENTER, LL. D., + +_Professor of Logic, etc., in the University of Wisconsin, +and President of the Department of Speculative Philosophy +in the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters._ + + +[REPRINTED FROM THE ACADEMY'S TRANSACTIONS.] + + +MADISON, WIS.: +ATWOOD & CULVER, PRINTERS AND STEREOTYPERS. +1874. + + + + +THE METAPHYSICAL BASIS OF SCIENCE. + + +All knowledge is essentially one. The object-matter upon which intellect +exerts itself, does not affect the subjective act of knowing. Physics, +when stripped of that which is merely contingent, becomes metaphysics. +Physical science deals with object-matter, and discusses the signs by +which nature communicates her message--that is, phenomena. Metaphysical +science has to do with the subject-mind, and discusses the meaning of +the message. The one converts God's hieroglyphics into +easily-intelligible language; the other translates this language into +Idea. If this be true, there must be a unity of method in all science, +however great the diversity of the object-matter investigated. This +method is subjectively determined, that is, by the constitution of the +mind, and not by the particular form of matter upon which intellectual +energy may be exerted. If there is an essential unity in all knowledge, +it is because there is a corresponding unity of method in all mental +activity. It is only when we look upon what is to be known, that truth +separates into sciences; but particular truths become particular +sciences only under assumed relations to the whole of which they form a +part. + +Objectively considered, science is classified knowledge; subjectively +viewed, it is the laws or principles according to which knowledge is +classified. Every actor implies an act--every thinker a thought. We may +therefore universally make this dual classification, according as we +view the mental operation involved, or the attributes of objects which +form the subject of thought. The possibility of science is conditioned +upon the possibility of classification. Mere knowledge is not science, +as the world ought to have learned by costly experience. Even classified +knowledge may not be science; it becomes science not through previous +classification, but in the act of being classified, and therefore only +as the principle of classification is apprehended--that is, only as the +particular application of the law of generalization is distinctly +recognized. A man may know a book and know nothing more; he knows the +science only when he is capable of making the book for himself. Mere +knowledge thus differs from science in that the one is held only by the +apprehensive powers of the mind, while the other passes beyond these +into the reflective or ratiocinative. Pure science, then, must be wholly +abstract. The forms and substances of Nature with which the scientific +student deals, are only the discrete figures of the young mathematician, +to be thrown aside with advancing knowledge. Matter is only the staff on +which the mind leans, while too feeble to go alone. It is not the finely +chiseled statue that renders a man a sculptor; it is the conception +which is therein embodied. A day-laborer may have cut the stone, but +only the artist could conceive the idea. So in science, we care but +little for the particular results at which we arrive, compared with the +laws, according to which the results have been attained. + +But conceptions cannot be communicated without being rendered objective. +The ideal of the artist is locked up in his own mind, until on canvas, +in marble, or by means of some other physical symbol, he communicates +his high imaginings. Matter, then, according to the present constitution +of things is the condition of intellectual communication. Law cannot be +studied as abstract law; it can be studied only while acting, and that +which exhibits this activity must be matter--something which will +always and uniformly obey. There can be no conception of force except as +acting, and the sole medium of such activity is matter. Thus again, +matter is the condition of all communication from nature to man. Science +is thus, in a measure, determined by the conditions of its discovery and +communication. But we must distinguish between an invariable condition +and that which is thus conditioned. Matter is not science; it is only +the condition of its discovery and communication. Air is not hearing; it +is the condition of hearing. We do not study matter for the sake of the +matter when we study science, but for the sake of the law communicated +to us in these changes of matter, and Law is a metaphysical, not a +physical idea. Reason, not sense, apprehends it. Law is, so to speak, +formulated in the physical, but it is not material. Matter is only the +vehicle of science, as language is the vehicle of thought. + +It is plain, then, that just as in mathematics we have a division into +pure and mixed, according as we deal with matter in the abstract or in +the concrete, so we may in any science make a corresponding division, +according as we confine our attention to the laws revealed by matter or +to the matter revealing the laws: in other words; just as we give +attention to the ideas of the message, or to the language in which it is +communicated. The language must first be learned, but the words used to +communicate the message may be separately understood, and yet the +meaning of the message wholly missed. Knowing only the one makes a +charlatan; knowing the other makes a savan. The sciences based upon this +objective study of Nature are denominated Natural Sciences; and because +they lisp the first syllables of Nature's message to man, they should be +his primary teachers. It is by their aid that the universal message of +God to man must be read. They form, as it were, a public highway leading +from Nature to God. But the difficulty is that observing men become so +absorbed in admiring some splendid piece of Divine engineering that +they stop to gaze and wonder, until losing sight of everything above and +beyond, they refuse to advance, fondly imagining that they have reached +the end of the journey. + +The science based upon this subjective study of Nature is called +metaphysics. Logic has been defined as "The Science of Thought;" it +should be termed "The Science of Thinking." It is not a dead body which +we are studying by dissection, but a living, vital Force, which we study +by observing its activities. We find here the same error which we find +elsewhere--a stopping with the material symbol, and an ignoring of the +intellectual force which clothed itself with the symbol. Astronomy is +not the science of circles and spheres, ellipses and ellipsoids, but of +the Force whose sensible utterances are given in these curves. We might +as well call Painting the science of pictures, or Sculpture the science +of statues. So Language, the medium of thought, is only a symbol, less +material indeed than pictures and statues, but still physical. What we +want in "The Science of Thinking" is not the knowledge of symbols, but +the knowledge of that which is symbolized. The chemist does not care for +the compounds he finds in his retort; he seeks after the truth which +these compounds formulate. Metaphysics and Physics evidently agree in +this; that both are seeking to frame an articulate utterance of the Idea +given in the diverse manifestations of Force--the Idea which includes +all Potencies, the summing up of all phenomena into that final +generalization which includes the intellectual as well as the material, +until at last we reach the essential unity of all Truth. + +Science, then, is classification, or the discovery of the principles of +classification, rather than an arbitrary acquaintance with things +classified. Every science, however, must have an objective +expression--that is, must be formulated. In this, both metaphysical and +physical science agree; the only difference in this respect is, that in +Physics, Nature gives us in the first place the material interpretation +of the idea--that is, the basis of classification--which we have only +to translate into idea: while in metaphysics, we first have the idea to +which we must furnish the objective utterance. We see here the precise +difference between what is called the logical and the natural +method--the one being usually called the reverse of the other. The +difference is not so much a difference in intellectual procedure as in +objective expression. For instance: The botanist has before him the +whole range of vegetable forms. He notes resemblances and differences, +and groups plants into species and genera, but his work is not ended +when these are named and known, and their qualities discovered. He is +seeking amidst these multifarious forms for the law of vegetable growth +and reproduction. Every organ of the plant is the symbol of an idea, and +these ideas form the science of Botany. These Ideas are +metaphysical--that is intellectual, and only their sensible +manifestation is physical. The symbols of these Ideas, being given in +Nature, must be learned from observation before they can be used +intelligently, just as words must be learned before one can speak a +language. Mastery of the means of expression is as essential to the +communication of ideas an is the possession of the ideas themselves. The +botanist observes an individual plant, and notes its characteristics. He +observes others which possess some of these characteristics whilst +others are wanting. He forms a class-type from these agreeing +attributes, and gives this new collocation of characteristics a name. +Nature never presents this class-type absolutely; it is found nowhere +but in intellect. What has the botanist done but to retranslate the +communication of Nature into Idea, and then to express this idea by less +complicated and less physical symbols? Man's province in this case is +simply to interpret the hieroglyphics of Nature into a more readily +comprehended language--to express that simply which nature has expressed +confusedly. The scientist restricts himself to the interpretation of a +single class of symbols, as the Botanist to plants, the Zoologist to +animals, but the end sought in each case is the same--that is, to +change all these physical utterances of Nature into Idea, and to secure +for this Idea a method of expression involving the least possible +materiality of symbol--that is, to change individual facts and phenomena +into general principles, which, because abstract, are unchangeable. When +this has been done, the work of the Naturalist ceases, but the work of +Man, the Thinker is not done; it is only just begun. By assuming the +ultimate expressions of the various natural sciences as individual and +not as typical, we can treat the truths reached by them precisely as the +Botanist treated plants, and, rejecting points of of difference, may +find in them all some central idea. This is the province of the +metaphysician. He seeks the law of Idea, he determines the law of +Thinking, just as all other laws are determined, from a study of the +symbols formulating its expression in Nature. When this law has been +distinctly enunciated, and freed from all intermixture with the +contingent, then the work of the metaphysician ceases, the _summum +genus_ has been reached. The truths communicated in the symbols of +Nature, have been correlated and enunciated, and finally translated from +the dialect of man the physical into the language of man the +intellectual. Physical science determines the separate words of this +message of God, the letters of which are scattered throughout Nature. +Metaphysics combines these words into propositions which enunciate a +distinct truth. There is therefore neither conflict nor variation +between the method of Logic and the method of Nature. The movement of +both is in the same direction; the only difference is in the point of +starting. And another truth no less important, which follows from the +foregoing discussion, is that the method of Nature is fundamental to the +method of Logic. Physics should precede metaphysics, but not exclude it; +both are essential to every true science, and physics, which stops with +physics, leads man by dazzling promises into some Utopian desert only to +leave him there to die of hunger. And it is no less true that +metaphysics, without this basis in experimental science, is illusory +and untrustworthy, wherever the original data are necessarily empirical. + +Two conditions are thus necessary to all science: a body of knowable +truth capable of being systematized; and an intelligence capable of +apprehending and systematizing it. One of these conditions is physical +and one is metaphysical; and all true science must be the resultant of +Law and Idea, the Objective and the Subjective, the twin forces of +Nature and Man. If either of these conditions be wanting, there can be +no true science, for science can neither be "evolved from the depths of +the personal consciousness," nor can the scattered letters of scientific +truth, as given in nature, arrange themselves into the words of a +significant message. Knowledge must be classified before it is science, +and that which classifies can only be intellect--discovering and +enunciating this classification according to the laws of mental action. +As prominence is given to one or other of these two conditions we have +the division into Logical and Natural, but the fundamental principle of +classification is the same in both--it being simply the law of +intellectual action--just as the law which governs the action of the +levers of a loom will determine the pattern of the woven fabric. There +can, therefore, be no conflict between the methods of Logic and those of +Nature. The determining element in all classification, whether of the +phenomena of Mind or of the grosser phenomena of Matter is uniformly and +always the same--the law of intellectual action. + +Science then resolves itself into a determination of this Law of mental +activity, so that in an ultimate analysis, all science is metaphysical, +just as all science primarily is physical. Here, as elsewhere, Law can +be studied only in its objective manifestations. The Law of Thinking can +be educed only from expressed Thought, but the Law is not objective +thought, any more than the idea of the sculptor is marble, or the +conception of the painter is paint. The simplest expression of thought +is not the syllogism but the logical proposition. Now, it is plain that +if the proposition is the formulation--the material representative of +thought--if we study it as we study other natural symbols, we will find +in it the fundamental Law of Thinking, and ultimately the fundamental +Law of all Science: just as, if it were possible to reduce all +elementary substances to one, the chemist would be able to find in that +one a condensed expression of chemical science. + +What then is a proposition? Simply stated, it is the assertion of +relation between two terms; or more abstractly, it is the reference of +an individual to its species--the assertion of a classification. We find +here the same duality which we noticed above. If we give prominence to +the individual notion, we consider the proposition in extension; if we +turn our attention to the specific notion we consider the proposition in +intention: in the one case referring to the individuals composing the +class, in the other to the attributes composing the class-type. The +first corresponds to induction, the second to deduction. When we study +individuals we study physics; when we study the attributes composing the +class-type, we study metaphysics. The Law of Thinking as educed from a +study of the proposition is the law of classification. The proposition, +considered affirmatively, asserts explicitly agreement between certain +attributes of two terms; that is, it asserts a classification. The aim +of science is to reach this proposition, to discover and assert the +principle of classification--in other words, to formulate metaphysically +what nature has presented physically. We must find, then, the first or +fundamental law of thinking in this _integration_ or classification. +This fundamental law may be subdivided into two species, according to +the two terms of the proposition; of which the first may be stated thus: +"Every possible object of thought is to a certain extent identical with +every other"; and as the proposition implicitly states disagreement, the +second may be stated thus: "Every possible object of thought is to a +certain extent diverse from every other." The first gives the positive +(subjective) condition of the proposition, the second the negative +(objective) condition: both together constitute the conditions of +thinking. The proposition is thus the assertion of the same in the +different. The proposition also asserts, implicitly, the _tertium quid_, +or the basis of classification--the class-type, to which both terms are +referred--that is, the proposition secondarily asserts an analysis. +According to the first condition we have the inductive process; +according to the second we have the deductive process. A complete +movement of idea from its purely physical symbolization to its +metaphysical interpretation, must involve both these processes. + +The mind possesses the power of analysis; it can watch its own +operations and retrace its steps, until it arrives at the original data +of consciousness; but analysis cannot comprise the whole of the logical +process. Before there can be analysis there must be something to be +analyzed; before steps can be retraced, they must be taken. We must not +confound a condition with a Law--the one is a conception antecedent to +all action, a genus to which the particular activity may be referred; +the other is coincident with action. The one is the medium of the other. +We may illustrate this idea by science itself, which is reached only by +an analysis of Art. Matter is the condition of the expression of an +idea; hence to all but the artist, Art must precede Science, but this +cannot be in the case of the artist; in his mind the Idea is first +conceived, and there it is given expression in the forms of Art. Here, +as uniformly in Nature, the whole absolutely precedes the part--the +universal exists before the particular--God before man. Truth absolute +thus exists before truth conditioned. Science before Art. Remove +conditions and the conditioned becomes the absolute; art and science +coincide. But truth which is assumed to be out of all relations, cannot +be comprehended by man, and practically is not. Even the universal +propositions of deduction express universality under conditions--that +is universality of relation; just as infinity in mathematics means that +which passes measurement, while in fact between infinity and measurement +there is no relation, and the infinite is thus incomprehensible as an +object of thought, although by no means unrecognizable as a necessary +condition antecedent to all intellectual action. It is of vital +importance that we note this distinction, because reasoning, i. e. +classification, is possible only so long as we deal with what is +admitted to be under relation: if we assume a term to be out of all +relation, it ceases to be an object of thought--it can neither be +classified nor unclassified; it is beyond reason. Mathematics can +proceed with its investigations only so long as it treats all quantities +as measurable; it must wholly cease its calculations if an infinite term +be introduced. To claim that analysis represents the complete normal +action of the intellect in reasoning, is ultimately to claim that the +initial point of thinking is the _summum genus_ of thought--God. Now God +is undoubtedly the initial point of absolute thought, but he is not the +beginning of human thought. Intellectually speaking, God is the final +generalization; every movement possible to him must be one of +analysis--a differentiation of Himself, so to speak, by negatives. Thus +the course of absolute Thought, beginning with God, must be first +towards a complete differentiation into ultimate individualization; and +lastly a complete integration again of individuals into an infinite +whole. This dual action completes the circle of intellectual activity. +We have dropped attribute after attribute until we have reached the last +possible analysis; but we do not stop here, but by the assumption of +attributes we again reach the highest possible synthesis. This must be +the method of the divine activity, successive differentiation and +integration, the closing in of a mighty circle of infinity, embracing +all the finite, but never losing the essential characteristic of the +infinite. + +Now, if this also represent the exact movement of the finite mind in +action--that is, in reasoning, man must be God. Man is finite. Even his +infinite is only the immeasurable--not that which is without the +category of measure. He cannot begin where the Infinite begins, at the +highest possible generalization,--but he must begin with the finite. If +what we have shown above be true, man must begin with the individual, +and the first mental act of the positive character of thinking, is the +reference of this individual notion to a class. Now the _class-notion_ +is the same as the individual notion, less certain attributes as +_individual_ attributes, but gathered into a larger whole. This process +is plainly integration; we are rejecting from the new conception +whatever prevents enlarging the class. Each higher generalization +involves all the attributes of the lower, not individually, but +specifically or generically. In the final generalization, extension and +intension coalesce. Just as we reach the individual by differentiating a +universal through successive negations, we reach the universal again, by +integration, by successively denying the negations through which we just +now differentiated. The movement of the finite mind in reasoning is thus +from the individual through the universal to the individual again. + +Science thus parts into two great branches--one seeking to establish +principles by what we have called integration, and the other the +elucidation of facts by _a priori_ reasoning instead of observation. +That is, the aim of true science is to free man from the restrictions of +the finite, and to place him in possession of the infinite--the closing +in of a lesser circle of infinite truth, yet never losing hold upon the +finite. In accordance with this view we see science pursuing its +integrations until it has identified as composing an essential unity all +the various manifestations of force. This is the finite becoming the +infinite, for unity is, in so far, infinity--God is one, a unity, not a +unit. But we also see science going beyond this point, and by a new +series of differentiations reaching truths new to experience, if indeed +not impossible to experience. + +Between these two limits all knowledge is forever moving. It can never +rest. The tide of thought sweeps onward towards the infinite--God +following it to its final absorption into the _I Am_, simple +being,--while finite man, because of his finiteness, can only reach +those universals which are infinite only to human thought. Like men on a +journey we leave the train when we have reached our journey's end, but +the train passes on out of sight in the distance, sending back, now and +then, tokens of its progress, as it thunders over a bridge, or whistles +shrill as it nears some further stopping place, until at last all is +still, not because the train has stopped, but because we can follow it +no further with our senses. Even after science has reached the utmost +limit possible to it, it is not satisfied to rest there, but starts at +once upon its return trip, to bring to notice undiscovered facts hidden +in these mighty generalizations. Thus the pendulum of intellectual +activity unceasingly vibrates between the infinite and the finite, never +resting, because Idea and Matter, the force of Man and the force of +Nature can never be completely identified. + + + + +THE PHILOSOPHY OF EVOLUTION. + + +The intellectual processes of a rational being must proceed according to +some law. They cannot succeed each other at hap-hazard. The notion of +rationality is conditioned upon this regular procedure; if this be +wanting, the essential character of rational action is wanting. But to +say that rational processes are determined by law, and conditioned upon +a regular procedure, is simply to assert that the steps in ratiocination +are so related to each other that the relation of each to every other +may be determined by the application of the law--the difference between +any two steps being analogous to the difference between any other two. +The astronomer determines the orbit of a planet from three observations, +because he thereby determines the law of variation between these points; +from which he assumes that this law will be constant, presenting a +series of terms each differentiated according the series of differences +already determined. + +Applying the same principle to mental phenomena, we may determine the +law of intellectual action. Thoughts are discriminated by the presence +or absence of certain attributes. At one extreme we find the _summum +genus_, comprising the fewest possible attributes distinguishing an +idea; at the other extreme we find the individual, comprising any number +of attributes. Between these two extremes we find a regular series of +intermediate terms. The movement of an idea from the general to the +individual is like the motion of a planet through one-half of its orbit; +while the return movement from the individual to the general, +corresponds to the motion of the planet over the remaining half of its +orbit. The same law governs both movements and unites the two halves of +the orbit into a single whole; and a series of observations taken at +equal distances, will, by the uniformity of differences presented, +reveal the operation of the same law in this dual manifestation. Upon +examining the processes of deduction and induction, we find in each the +same series of terms, differing only in the fact that they are in +inverse order, and this correspondence reveals the operation of one and +the same law. An inductive series is only a deductive series read +backward. Any two terms in a series whether inductive or deductive, +differ only in the degree of generality, and differ similarly from a +third term, so that two being known the third can be therefrom +determined. In a deductive series the terms differ by a constant +increase in the number of individualizing attributes--a concept being +expanded into a deductive series by such regular additions. Having two +terms we can proceed to the third--that is, from two propositions +expressing this relation, we can proceed to a conclusion. In an +inductive series the terms differ by a constant diminution in the number +of individualizing attributes--an individual term being expanded into an +inductive series, by successively dropping the attributes which compose +the individual term, until we reach the required degree of +generalization. + +Thought must proceed in one of these two directions. The object-matter +of thought being composed wholly of attributes can differ only in the +presence or absence of certain attributes. A combination, then, of these +two movements must complete the intellectual orbit. The direction of the +movement of the mind will be determined by the end proposed. When we +possess the knowledge of phenomena and wish to discover law--that is, +when we seek information--we proceed by induction, from the individual +to the general. When possessed of knowledge, we wish to discover its +applications, when knowing the law, we wish to determine the phenomena +necessarily resulting therefrom, we proceed by deduction--from the +general to the individual. Complete knowledge, then, consists in the +highest possible generalization, and the expansion of this term into a +series, ending only with the last possible individualization. The aim of +physical science is to determine that half of the intellectual orbit +which lies between the individual and the general--the aim of +metaphysical science is to trace the other half which lies between the +general and the individual. When we seek to know what is, we proceed by +induction--the method of the phenomenal. When, knowing what is, we +proceed to determine what hence must be, we proceed by deduction--the +method of the Necessary. Thus Science, at first seeking principles, +proceeds by induction to establish them; but after these fundamental +principles have been established, it proceeds deductively to determine +what must result from them, without waiting to discover these truths by +observation. + +Knowledge is thus complete just in proportion to the extension of its +scope through generalization. The higher the generalization, the more +inclusive will it be, and the _summum genus_, or the final +generalization, will be the highest attainable reach of knowledge. When +man can make no further generalization, his knowledge will be, in so +far, absolute and complete, and all that remains possible to him will be +the practical application of what he already knows. Perfect knowledge is +nothing but perfect generalization. The Supreme Intelligence being +hypothetically possessed of all knowledge, that is, having discriminated +the absolute _summum genus_, can proceed no further in this direction; +his intellectual activity must be exerted in a descending series, or +from the general towards the individual, and this process must be, as we +have seen above, by a determinate series of steps, fixed by the +operation of a definite law, which law proceeds by the successive +addition of attributes to the general. + +Complete knowledge, being complete generalization, the lines of all +science will necessarily converge, as they approach this generalization, +until all sciences coalesce in one science, and all truth is reduced to +a single expression in the utterance of the final conception. In +accordance with the laws of thinking, this general term is reached by +successive omissions of particularizing attributes, until at last we +reach Being--the absolute _summum genus_, wholly free from individual +attributes, and thereby embracing everything possible to thought, +whether material or immaterial. But this _summum genus_ must be +predicable of this whole. Matter and mind may thus be reduced to a +single category, and the physical and the intellectual finally coalesce +in this last generalization. Materialism and idealism thus differ merely +in the degree of generalization reached--or rather they both agree in +avoiding the final generalization which identifies both matter and mind. +Materialism must always deal with the individual, for matter can appear +under no other form. Idealism must always rest upon the general, for +thought, to be thought, must state a generalization. Each, however, +finds its explanation in the other, and both are harmonized by the +application of the law of intellectual action above given. Matter and +Mind are complementary, not incompatible. They differ with each other, +but they agree in being similarly related to a third term. Matter is +objective; it is thought taking form, becoming individual, manifesting +itself in space. Mind is subjective. The one appeals to the senses; the +other is known only to the consciousness. + +Science reaches its full development only when it includes both physical +and intellectual phenomena within its scope. Every step which it takes +carries it further from the purely physical, and brings it nearer the +purely intellectual--that is the development of physical science is from +the individual towards the general, and it reaches its end, its +completion, only when the last distinction, that of subjective and +objective, has disappeared in the last possible generalization. When the +objective has been identified with the subjective, the distinction +between Mind and Matter has been obliterated, and we have reached the +Supreme Intelligence--the "I Am" of Scripture--simple Being. + +Matter is the formal expression of thought, or the necessary condition +of such expression, and in this condition is found the link that +connects the subjective and objective manifestations of _being_. +Subjectivity is ideality, as objectivity is materiality. The +consciousness can take cognizance only of what is within itself, and +therefore without every other. Consciousness is therefore wholly +personal. To communicate an idea it must be placed within the +consciousness of another. To reach this result it must cease to be +personal, must pass out of the subjective consciousness into objective +form, so as to be placed in the same relation to the speaker and the +hearer. Thought, out of the consciousness of the thinker, is objective +to him, and to render thought objective is to give it material form. +Thought to be communicated, must pass out of the consciousness of the +thinker into a material representation. The assumption of material form +individualizes the idea. The artist's mind may be filled with splendid +conceptions, but no one but he can look within his consciousness and see +them. Before others can have any knowledge of his thoughts, he must give +them form, or embody them in statues or paintings. The soul of the +musician may be thrilled by the harmonies that his imagination creates, +but no other soul can join him in this ecstasy until he has given form +to his conceptions. So the thinker must embody his thoughts in language +before he can communicate them to another. Matter, then, is the vehicle +by which thought is communicated, and, so far as we are concerned, the +necessary condition of such communication, so that the conception of +thought apart from the thinker involves the intervention of material +forms, and it is by the interpretation of these symbolical forms that we +discover the idea. + +Now, let us suppose a Supreme Intelligence. The intellectual processes +of such a Being, to be conceived as rational by us, must be identical +with ours, or at least analogous to ours. The possession of infinite +attributes may in fact free him from the control of any law, but it is +impossible for us to conceive an intelligence acting otherwise than in +accordance with law. So that if the Supreme Intelligence is to +communicate with man, it must be in obedience to the laws which control +our mental activities. The Divine thought must, then, like human +conceptions, be communicated by means of physical symbols. + +The Supreme Intelligence, being the final generalization, must possess +all knowledge, and the only intelligent action possible to him from our +point of view, is from this absolute generalization towards the concrete +and individual. The absolute general is purely subjective, which, to +become cognizable, must be rendered objective. This can be secured to us +only through the intervention of material forms. From this point of +view, matter is only the symbol of thought--thought apart from the +thinker. The first result of the divine activity in self-manifestation +would be the analysis of _being_ into subjective and objective--that is +the discrimination of mind and matter, which terms are severally the +final generalizations of the two fundamental divisions of science. +Matter, then, mere formless, chaotic matter, would be the first result +of creative activity. Following the development of this idea in its +continually increasing individuality, as new attributes are severally +added, matter assumes determinate form and becomes related in systems, +as the various so-called elementary substances are discriminated, until +finally all truth, capable of being revealed by inorganic matter, is +presented to us. + +Add the idea of organism and we have the two great divisions of +phenomena--material and vital. The higher the generalization, the fewer +will be the attributes composing the concept, and thus the simpler will +be the form symbolizing its expression. As in the case of matter, the +first result of the divine activity was more matter, undiscriminated by +any further attribute; so here, we have, as the first organic creation, +a concrete expression of the highest possible generalization comprising +the fewest possible attributes--that is, forms of life involving the +fewest individual characteristics. To matter add the simplest organic +attribute--that is, the one lying nearest the genus--and we have mere +organized matter, the simple cell, the foundation of all life, no matter +how great its future complexity, equally the origin of animal and +vegetable growth, which are as yet entirely undiscriminated. This would +be the first appearance of life.[1] Differentiating again by the +addition of a new attribute, and organic being is subdivided into the +two species, vegetable and animal. Beginning with these typical forms, +adding single attributes in a continuous series, we at last reach the +highest types of animals and plants. Finally, add rationality to the +animal, and we reach man, the highest and therefore the most complex +type of life, and who, so far as we are concerned, must be the end of +creation. We cannot conceive of any higher creation, because we cannot +add an attribute to those we already possess, any more than we can +conceive of an additional sense by which to cognize such new attribute. + +This process has been determined from the very outset by those +intellectual laws which we cannot disobey, and which we cannot conceive +disobeyed by an intelligent creator. If the law of intellectual action +require this process from the simple to the complex, the concrete +representation of the steps of this process must indicate the operation +of this law, and must also proceed from the simple and rudimentary to +the complex and highly developed. An intelligent Creator in revealing +his thought must follow the method which our minds must follow in +interpreting this revelation. When we know and seek to communicate our +knowledge, we proceed from the general to the specific.[2] The Creator +assumed to be infinite in knowledge would therefore follow this process +instead of the method peculiar to investigation. The law of intellectual +action determines this method, and the conditions of intellectual +communication determine the representation of this method in the +material expression of the ideas communicated. Considering the operation +of this law under these conditions, we find that the thought +communicating only, as nearly as may be, the generic idea, will be +distinguished from it by the addition of but a single attribute as the +generic by itself is incapable of being represented in concrete form, +the expression of this thought in form will present us matter +distinguished from matter in general by but a single attribute. The +least possible individualizing attribute added to the highest possible +generalization gives us the simplest expression of an idea, and the form +or the organism symbolizing this thought will be the simplest form and +the simplest organism possible. For instance: in organic life the +highest generalization barely individualized will give us the simple +cell; and no matter what degree of complexity we subsequently reach by +the addition of an almost infinite number of attributes, we nevertheless +begin in every case with the same starting point. + +Each higher type is reached by adding to a lower. The higher thus +embraces all that can be found in the lower, and something besides. This +method is invariable, and can never be departed from. The genus must +always be predicable of every individual component of every species +contained under it. Translating this law into the forms of material +expression, and it requires each higher species to physically include +all lower species, and to differ from them only by addition. Man, the +highest type, must thus include all the attributes of the cell as +physically expressed, and without them he would not be man. The +differences between no two terms in a series can be total. If the +successive steps in a train of thought must be related, so that no two +notions will be wholly distinct from each other, these notions will +constitute a series, each term of which will, in a measure, determine +the next, so soon as the law of the series is discovered; and if this +train of thought be objectively presented, it will afford a +corresponding series of physical terms, each one of which will in like +manner determine the next. But thought is impossible unless by a train +of ideas so related. Its physical expression will therefore be equally +impossible except by a series of physical terms similarly related, each +one of which in some manner determines the next. There must then be a +perfect continuity in the line that reaches from the simplest form of +matter through all grades of organic life up to man, the highest +expression of the divine idea. There can be no break in the chain of +thought, because the law of the logical process forbids it: there can be +no break in the series of material symbols for the conditions of +concrete expression equally forbid it. A symbol is nothing except as it +represents that which is to be symbolized. So the symbols form a +physical series, because the thoughts symbolized form a logical series. + +If the creator has fully revealed his thought, it must be by a series of +physical terms arranged in such a manner as to indicate the logical +series of ideas symbolized. Every form of matter is a symbol of thought, +and challenges interpretation. Every change in form corresponds to an +antecedent change in idea, and must be intended to reveal it. As +thought, then, begins its evolution with the general and proceeds to the +individual by a series of terms each of which is similarly related to +both extremes, we must find the material enunciation of this process +assuming the form of a series of terms, beginning with mere nebulous +matter, grading into organic life, and organic life presenting us with a +similar series beginning with the mere cell and ending with man. So +rigid and invariable must this serial arrangement be that if a term in +either series be wanting, we are authorized to hypothetically +interpolate it. + +"Nature never makes a leap," says the scientific investigator, as he +studies the material symbols of thought. "Thought never makes a leap," +says the metaphysician, as he studies the necessary laws of rational +action: and both have uttered the same truth. We prove a proposition by +determining the steps by which it was educed from a more generic +statement. Science must proceed in the same manner, for science only +discovers the track of mind--it does not make the track, it only follows +it. If then we find the chain of evolution broken at any point, science +must either stop there, or assume the wanting term in the series. We +have the right to interpolate these missing terms, for we must assume +that the thoughts of God communicated to us in material forms constitute +a continuous revelation, beginning with Himself, the final +generalization, and ending with man the highest individualization. These +limits are fixed--the one by the nature of God, and the other by the +nature of man. Between these two extremes we must find a series of +intermediate terms. Any other conception of their relation than that of +a determinate series is impossible and irrational; and a series, so far +as it means anything, means evolution of some sort. Finding the relation +between these terms--distinguishing the _same_ which reproduces itself, +and the _different_ which introduces a new term--that is, determining +the law of apparent evolution--is the problem presented to science. + +The astronomer found Bode's law to all appearance violated by the +omission of a planet between Mars and Jupiter. He could see no reason +for the law, but if the planets had been placed by an intelligent +Creator, some order of arrangement must be discoverable according to +which their position was determined. The Creator being intelligent, it +is impossible to conceive them placed fortuitously. There must then be a +link between Mars and Jupiter, because the law once established cannot +be broken. The same law may be observed in the arrangement of leaves +around the axis of a plant. If intelligence arranged them they must be +arranged in some order, for intelligence never performs the least act +without a purpose. Each leaf or pair of leaves is not a mere duplication +of the previous leaf or pair of leaves. The relation which subsists +between any two sets in the series expresses the idea of the Creator, +and this must be constant. Completing the series as indicated by +different plants, we may assume that if any term is apparently wanting, +it is only because it has not been discovered. In neither of these cases +would it be asserted that any physical evolution had taken place--the +terms form a series of which each term is equally determined by the +operation of a fixed law; and yet it is an operation precisely analogous +to that which in the case of animals presents every appearance of a real +evolution. Take, for instance, a series of animals, presenting at one +period of time the simplest and most rudimentary forms, and at another +the most complex and highly organized; we cannot do otherwise than +conceive these two extremes as related by intermediate terms, through +the operation of some law which holds good throughout the series. The +relation subsisting between any two, must be the same as that subsisting +between any other two similarly situated, or a departure from that +relation which is itself governed by a definite law discoverable from a +comparison of two sets of terms. The application of this law is so +universal and so rigid that we need not hesitate to interpolate a +missing term, and confidently assert that it either does exist or has +existed. To deny this principle is to deny the necessity of continuity +in reasoning. This continuity of thought is represented in matter by the +persistence of generic forms under specific differences. But just as the +specific is the generic with certain additions, so the individual is +this same generic with still further additions; and these additions, +whether considered solely in space, as given in the symbols of physical +science, or in time as in the conceptions of intellectual science, must +be determined by the same unvarying law. The persistence of the same +form furnishes us the means of identifying this relation, while the +differences reveal to us the successive steps by which the generic was +differentiated into the individual. + +If the creative thought has been expressed by the forms of matter, the +laws of thought must be thus expressed in the relative forms of matter. +Anything less than this, while it might interpret isolated ideas, would +not communicate the method of the creative process, and science is +nothing but the discovery of this method. If the terms of the logical +process must be arranged in a series, the physical symbols rendering +this logical process cognizable, must be arranged in a similar series, +for science becomes impossible when the logical process becomes +undiscoverable. + +The differences between the terms in this series must be cognizable. Two +terms which are indistinguishable are practically identical; and two +terms which are not identical vary by a difference which is cognizable +by itself apart from either term. The steps in the logical evolution of +the final term. _Being_ must be separable to be cognizable, and the +material forms interpreting these steps to the senses must also be +distinguishable. A species differs from the genus by the addition of at +least one attribute. Now, if the species is distinguishable from the +genus, the attribute which differentiates it, must be separately +cognizable--so also the individual differs from the species by the +addition of attributes, which must in like manner be separately +cognizable, or the species will never be conceived independently of the +individuals. A thought cannot proceed by insensible steps, nor can its +material expression vary otherwise than by determinate and +distinguishable differences. The distinction of species is thus a +logical necessity. The addition of distinct attributes to the genus +gives origin to distinct species; variation in attributes not affecting +their substantial identity gives rise to varieties. One species, then, +cannot become another, except by the assumption of a new specific +attribute, so that one species passes into another precisely as the +genus passes into the species, and that is just as, and not otherwise, +than one thought passes into another. + +The fundamental law of the logical process is that we pass from the +generic towards the individual; from the simple to the complex. +Induction can proceed only by assuming a genus at the outset--that is, +by assuming certain attributes in the individual to be generic. +Translate this law into material forms, and we have each higher--that is +more complex--species evolved from the lower by the addition of some new +characteristic. This new attribute cannot be added by the functional +activity of the lower organism; that can only reproduce itself. A +thought does not change merely through repeated expression. We pass to +the conclusion of a syllogism, not from each term, but from a comparison +of the premises--and this requires an intellectual operation entirely +distinct from a mere apprehension of the terms. It is one thing to +comprehend the premises; it is quite another to deduce a conclusion from +them. It may necessarily follow, but it requires a separate act of the +mind to reach it. Premises will not of themselves reach a conclusion. + +Reading this same truth in the forms of matter, we may say that species +will not pass into higher species without the intervention of a force +distinct from either. The impulse which adds a new attribute must be +intellectually separable from all those pre-existing, and its material +representation must be physically distinct from pre-existing forms. This +complete separability precludes the possibility of mere physical +genesis. The added attribute is presented by a new form of matter, +revealing the presence of a new thought--a new effect, requiring the +agency of a new cause. In accordance with the usual economy of nature, +who never duplicates her forces, change will be made only so far as may +be necessary to communicate the additional idea. Organisms representing +previous thoughts will be added to, in order to express the expansion of +the thought, instead of a creation _de novo_ in each instance. Thus an +identical cellular structure will be found in all organic beings, from +the lowest to the highest, each higher type carrying forward the idea +and its physical expression found in the lower. The differences between +no two terms in the series can be total, nor can any two terms be +identical, as each higher species will embrace all the attributes of the +lower, differing only by the addition of others. This is simply the +physical expression of the logical truth that whatever can be predicated +of the genus can be predicated of every individual contained under it. +As the individual is only the expansion of the genus, so higher physical +types must also be similar expansions of lower. + +Here, then, is evolution, or development: primarily an evolution of the +generic into the individual, the continued differentiation of a generic +idea through successive individualizations, each adding to the previous +group of attributes, thus rendering the idea increasingly complex; and, +secondly, an apparent physical evolution or development, interpreting +this logical process by a series of physical forms so related as to +reveal the relation existing between the thoughts thus interpreted. In +the physical representation of the ideas so related, there must be an +apparent physical evolution--that is, the process of evolution logically +must, like the ideas thus evolved, have a physical expression, and the +successive steps in this logical evolution must be revealed by material +forms bearing an analogous relation, and thereby expressing the logical +process. Matter is nothing, so far as we are now concerned, but the +condition necessary to the objective expression of thought. Every phase +of matter is simply an objective formulation of a corresponding phase of +thought. Every addition to form implies an antecedent increase of +thought, as there can be no formal expression until there is something +to be expressed. There can, then, be no such thing as mere material +evolution, for whatever is material is only symbolical. + +Matter being thus wholly inert, the origin of the impulse towards +greater complexity must be sought for outside of that which undergoes +the change. The movement by which one species becomes a higher is not an +elaboration, an extension or a differentiation of existing attributes, +but involves the positive addition of a new attribute, different and +distinct from any or all previously existing. One species cannot pass +into another by an innate impulse, for a species is an entity composed +of a determinate number of attributes, and all attributes potentially +present must be considered as actually present. We cannot say that the +child is a different species from the man, and that one passes into the +other by a process of evolution, because all the essential attributes of +the man are potentially present in the child. If the polyp, by the +action of innate forces, operating through a series of ages, however +extended, can, without any impulse from without, develop itself into a +man, then the polyp is as much a man as a boy is, differing only in the +time required for development: and the data for the final deduction of +the highest types of creation must be furnished in the most elementary +forms of life. + +The force manifesting itself in organic life is readily distinguishable +from the organism by which it is manifested. Life and organization are +not synonyms; one is the condition of the other, but a condition is not +a cause. We can consider force apart from organism, and this possible +separation in thought proves that the same form may not represent both, +but that life can absolutely exist apart from organs which serve to give +it a physical manifestation.[3] Physical life being conditioned upon +organization, whenever the organism varies, the vital force thus +manifested must also vary, such variation being necessarily antecedent +to its manifestation. The organism varies, because it must, in order to +express the added thought. Change in organism, therefore, is not induced +by simple organic action, because the organs and the force acting +through them can be distinguished. Assuming that matter is the objective +or formal representation of thought, there can be no change in the +material expression without a corresponding change in the antecedent +conception. There can, then, be physical evolution, only as there is +antecedent logical evolution, and then only because of this logical +evolution and not because of the operation of an innate organic force. +Force, whatever may be its genesis, is only the exertion of power, not +the increase of it. Exertion limits the view to the force immediately in +operation. We may replace one manifestation by another, but the quantity +is neither increased nor diminished by this change. Change in form +implies the operation of force: and apart from such manifestation in +matter, it escapes the tests of science, and passes into the purely +metaphysical notion of cause. And unless the operation of force be +constant, or, if different forces are blended, variable according to +some determinate law, the action of which is constant and discoverable, +so that the different units of force are separately measurable, the +force thus irregular in its action can never be placed in any scientific +category. Evolution, then, cannot proceed from any innate organic +impulse, unless the force that tends to exact reproduction, and the +force that induces a change be equally and separately cognizable. Change +must proceed according to some law which accounts for the change, and +distinguishes between the normal exertion of power and that exertion +which causes a deviation. Science, to be science, must explain apparent +exceptions as fully as the regular operation of forces, and that which +causes the irregularity must be as distinctly cognizably by itself as +the force which acts regularly. Anything less than this is not science. +The discovery of Neptune was the result of the application of this +principle; it was a successful attempt to discriminate the force which +caused variation from the force which operated regularly. + +Each species represents the operation of certain vital forces, and one +cannot physically pass into another except by the increase of this +force, or at least by a change in the manner of its manifestation; and +this increase in amount or this change in direction must separately be +accounted for. Nor does it matter, for the purposes of this discussion, +as to the genesis of this added increment, further than to show that its +origin must be exterior to the organism by which its presence is +manifested; for vital energy acting through an organism is a unit, and +cannot, even in thought, be separated into distinguishable portions. +Change in the direction of vital energy indicates that the original +impulse has been modified in its action by encountering another force, +for nothing but force can change the direction of force. It does not +fall within the range of this paper to determine the nature of this +exterior force which is thus distinguishable from that acting through +the vital organization, and therefore capable of separate objective +representation. Metaphysically we may say that force is resolvable into +will, but will being purely personal is incapable of material +representation, and thus cannot enter into the determinations of +physical science, which does not seek to discover the origin of force, +but deals solely with its presence. + +As the logician must assume his premises, and, as a logician, cannot +question their truth, so the physicist must assume a force in operation, +and, as a physicist, cannot examine its genesis. The physical or the +metaphysical method of inquiry is valid only so long as restricted to +physical or metaphysical processes: a mixture of the two methods will +give results satisfactory neither to science nor to philosophy. As logic +furnishes no criterion by which to test the absolute truth of +propositions, but deals wholly with conclusions drawn from given +premises, so science furnishes no data by which to determine the +absolute genesis of force, but restricts its enquiries to the phenomena +resulting from a force given. For the student of physical science cause +and effect is only the transference of a given and determined force from +one material form to another. If this idea is to be traced further, it +must be studied outside the limits of physics. This study belongs to +metaphysics. + +Now, if physical science does not deal with the origin of the initial +force, but assumes at the outset its presence, no more does it fall +within its province to examine into the origin of the increments which +give to physical forms that variety which renders science possible. +Science deals with results, not antecedents; and after having determined +results, it is not authorized to affirm that one species has produced +another by evolution, or has produced it at all. If there are agreements +between different organisms by which they are brought into relation, +there are also differences by which they are discriminated, and these +differences imply increments of force; and to assert that one organism +has evolved another is to determine not merely the presence of this new +increment, but also to determine its origin. Scientific investigation +deals with phenomena which give evidence to the senses of a +_transference_ of force from one form or from one manifestation to +another. Transference is not increase--an effect can be no more than the +evolution of what was potentially present in the cause; it cannot add to +it. The origin of the force must be investigated according to +intellectual laws. + + +It has been argued that a Supreme Intelligence in manifesting his +thought will, according to the necessary laws of rational activity, pass +from the universal and general to the particular and individual, or from +concepts involving few attributes to those involving these and others; +and that these steps in the rational process must be represented in a +corresponding physical series; and that the communication of thought is +conditioned upon this physical representation. If the logical series +comprises one thousand terms, each related to the preceding according to +logical law the physical series must comprise one thousand terms, each +physically related in such a manner as to reveal this law. As the +highest generalization comprises the fewest attributes, the concrete +expression of this idea will present the simplest possible physical form +and the least complexity of organization, and thus will present the +lowest types of life; and as the individual comprises the greatest +number of attributes, its concrete expression will present the greatest +complexity, and consequently the highest type of life. We have seen +that the logical process begins with the general and ends with the +individual; its material expression must therefore begin with the lowest +orders and end with the highest. But the individual cannot be +immediately derived from the general without the intervention of +intermediate generalizations. No more in the concrete expression of this +deduction can we pass from the lowest types to the highest without the +intervention of an intermediate series. These intermediate terms are not +capable of independent interpretation; they find their full explanation +only in the extremes of the series--God and Man. + +If, then, in the intellectual process from the abstract and universal +towards the concrete and individual, we find a constant evolution of +idea, each advance being an addition to the previous conception, each +new term in the series embracing all the attributes of the preceding, +and differing only by addition; and if thought is possible only on this +condition; it necessarily follows that the material representation of +this thought must present physical forms similarly related, so that, +leaving out of view the intellectual genesis of this relation, the +observer might conclude that these forms compose a series evolved from a +primordial cell in accordance with an organic law. But such we find to +be the universal law of intellectual procedure: this apparent +development or evolution must, therefore, be the condition of the +communication of such intellectual process, and the physical terms are +brought into this relation by the fact that they symbolize the logical +process. If the material symbols of thought were unrelated physically, +the thoughts thus expressed would also be unrelated and independent. But +such a supposition readers Science impossible, for its one aim is to +find the _same_ in the _different_. If there be no _same_, there can be +no science: if there be no _different_, there can be no science. Thought +proceeds by adding the _different_ to the _same_ in an endless series, +and this addition of the _different_ to the _same_ expressed in concrete +forms is what is called evolution. If no evolution were apparent in +Nature, there could be no Science; for those steps which to the +naturalist indicate evolution, being only the physical expression--the +formulation--of the logical process, afford the means by which the +student reaches the highest generalization. If these steps be wanting, +he cannot proceed. + +Admitting then to its fullest extent the fact that, judged from a purely +physical point of view, all organic forms seem to have been derived each +from its immediate predecessor, by a mere functional impulse; and +admitting that science is possible upon no other condition; we claim +that these material forms are brought into such relation by intellectual +evolution, and not by physical genesis; they represent an evolution of +Thought and not an evolution of Matter. We know from consciousness that +this process of evolution is the method of our thinking. We know also +that the divine thought can be rendered intelligible to us upon no other +hypothesis than that which supposes it to be governed by the laws which +control human thought. Translating the physical symbols which we see +about us, and which present this appearance of evolution, we infer that +this is the method according to which the divine mind proceeded. Science +will not materially err in its physical results, if it adopt the +hypothesis of physical evolution, but it must confine its attention to +physics; it is only as we attempt higher generalizations that the +insufficiency of the hypothesis becomes manifest in its failure to +satisfy the conditions of the problem as presented to philosophy. + +FOOTNOTES: + +[1] This, of course, does not absolutely determine the order of organic +creation; as in the case of the syllogism the conclusion or either +premise may be the proposition first enunciated, the order of expression +being determined by circumstances. + +[2] Compare the demonstrations of Geometry. + +[3] As in the case of man after the death of the body. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philosophy of Evolution, by +Stephen H. 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