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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Primary Handwork, by Ella Victoria Dobbs
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Primary Handwork
+
+
+Author: Ella Victoria Dobbs
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 14, 2009  [eBook #30676]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRIMARY HANDWORK***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Stephanie Eason and the Project Gutenberg Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from digital material
+generously made available by Internet Archive/American Libraries
+(http://www.archive.org/details/americana)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
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+      See 30676-h.htm or 30676-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30676/30676-h/30676-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30676/30676-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/primaryhandwo00dobbrich
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_).
+
+      Text in bold face is enclosed by equal signs (=bold=).
+
+
+
+
+PRIMARY HANDWORK
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+  NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS
+  ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO
+
+  MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
+
+  LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA
+  MELBOURNE
+
+  THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
+
+  TORONTO
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+[Illustration: HOUSE OF THE THREE BEARS
+
+Built by first-grade class. Columbia, Missouri. See page 58.]
+
+
+PRIMARY HANDWORK
+
+by
+
+ELLA VICTORIA DOBBS, B.S., A.M.
+
+Assistant Professor of Manual Arts
+University of Missouri
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York
+The Macmillan Company
+1923
+
+All rights reserved
+
+Copyright, 1914,
+by The Macmillan Company.
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1914.
+
+Norwood Press
+J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+  DEDICATED TO
+  THE LITTLE CHILDREN OF AMERICA
+  WITH THE WISH
+  THAT ALL THEIR SCHOOL DAYS
+  MAY BE HAPPY DAYS
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This book is the outgrowth of long experience as a teacher of primary
+grades, followed by special study of handwork as a factor in elementary
+education. It is written with three objects in view:
+
+First, to gather into a single volume various methods already in use in
+the more progressive schools, and for which the best suggestions are
+scattered through current periodicals:
+
+Second, to organize these methods and present them in a simple form for
+the use of teachers who have had no special training in handwork
+processes:
+
+Third, accepting conditions as they exist in the small town school and the
+one-room country school, as a basis of organization, to offer suggestions
+which may be easily adapted to the conditions of any school with a view to
+bringing present practice into closer harmony with the best educational
+ideals.
+
+No claim is laid to originality, beyond the small details in which one
+person's interpretation of a large problem will differ from that of
+another.
+
+The projects here outlined have been tested in the Public Schools of
+Columbia, Missouri, under conditions which are common to towns of about
+the same size.
+
+The point of view has been influenced chiefly by the educational
+philosophy of Prof. John Dewey, especially as expressed in his essay "The
+Child and the Curriculum." The author wishes here to make grateful
+acknowledgement to Dr. Dewey, not only for the helpfulness of his
+writings, but also for the inspiration of his teaching.
+
+Thanks are also due to Dr. Naomi Norsworthy of Teachers College, and to
+Dean W. W. Charters of Missouri University, for encouragement in planning
+the book and for criticism of the manuscript. Especial acknowledgment is
+here made to Prof. R. W. Selvidge of Peabody College for Teachers,
+formerly of this University, for hearty coöperation and helpful
+suggestions in working out the problems described in this book, and to the
+teachers of the Columbia Schools for their most efficient services in
+testing these problems in their classrooms.
+
+E. V. D.
+
+UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI,
+
+February, 1914.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+CHAPTER                                           PAGE
+
+     I. INTRODUCTION                                 1
+
+    II. PAPER CUTTING AND POSTER MAKING              6
+
+   III. BOOKLETS                                    17
+
+    IV. CRITICISM AND STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP      24
+
+     V. THE HOUSE PROBLEM                           27
+
+    VI. THE VILLAGE STREET                          65
+
+   VII. SAND TABLES AND WHAT TO DO WITH THEM        77
+
+  VIII. ANIMALS AND TOYS                           102
+
+    IX. HOLIDAYS                                   112
+
+     X. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS AND SUMMARY            115
+
+  REFERENCES                                       123
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                                                  PAGE
+
+  House of the Three Bears              _Frontispiece_
+
+   1. Paper Cutting. First Grade                     7
+
+   2. Paper Cutting. Second Grade                    8
+
+   3. Paper Cutting. Second Grade                   10
+
+   4. Paper Tearing                                 11
+
+   5. Paper Cutting. Third Grade                    13
+
+   6. Paper Cutting. Fourth Grade                   15
+
+   7. Pamphlet Sewing                               22
+
+   8. Japanese Sewing                               22
+
+   9. House arranged on a Shelf                     28
+
+  10. A Medieval Castle                             29
+
+  11. House arranged on a Table--Front View         32
+
+  12. House arranged on a Table--Side View          33
+
+  13. House arranged on a Table--Back View          34
+
+  14. House Plan                                    35
+
+  15. Arrangement of Windows                        36
+
+  16. Detail of Hollow Square                       38
+
+  17. Borders                                       39
+
+  18. Looms and Samples of Weaving                  41
+
+  19. Box House by Second Grade                     43
+
+  20. Detail for Paper Weaving                      44
+
+  21. Furniture from Wood Blocks                    48
+
+  22. Furniture from Wood Blocks                    48
+
+  23. Home of White Cloud, the Pueblo Girl          51
+
+  24. Detail of Stairway                            54
+
+  25. Box House, showing Roof                       55
+
+  26. Detail of Gable                               56
+
+  27. Colonial Kitchen                              56
+
+  28. House of the Three Bears                      59
+
+  29. Cornstalk House                               60
+
+  30. A Flour Mill                                  62
+
+  31. Box House and Stores                          66
+
+  32. A Village Street                              68
+
+  33. A Grocery. Fourth Grade                       70
+
+  34. A Grocery. Third Grade                        73
+
+  35. A Dry Goods Store                             75
+
+  36. Home in a Hot Country                         76
+
+  37. Home in a Cold Country                        76
+
+  38. A Sand-table Farm. First Grade                80
+
+  39. A Sand-table Farm. Second Grade               80
+
+  40. Detail of Chicken Fence                       81
+
+  41. Detail of Paper Tree                          84
+
+  42. Overall Boys' Farm                            86
+
+  43. An Apple Orchard                              87
+
+  44. Robinson Crusoe                               89
+
+  45. Pueblo Indian Village                         90
+
+  46. A Home in Switzerland                         92
+
+  47. Two Little Knights of Kentucky                94
+
+  48. How Cedric became a Knight                    94
+
+  49. A Sugar Camp                                  95
+
+  50. A Western Cattle Ranch                        96
+
+  51. The Story of Three Little Pigs                98
+
+  52. A Japanese Tea Garden                         99
+
+  53. A Coal Mine                                   99
+
+  54. A Chariot Race                               102
+
+  55. A Circus Parade                              103
+
+  56. Three-ply Wooden Animals                     104
+
+  57. Detail for Three-ply Wooden Animals
+      with Movable Parts                           105
+
+  58. Notched Rest for Animals                     106
+
+  59. Balancing Figures                            107
+
+  60. Some Simple Toys                             108
+
+  61. Adjusting Jumping-Jack in Frame              109
+
+
+
+
+PRIMARY HANDWORK
+
+
+
+
+PRIMARY HANDWORK
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+In setting forth the plan and purpose of this little book the author
+wishes to lay equal emphasis on its limitations. The outlines and
+suggestions which follow are designed for the use of grade teachers who
+have had little or no training in handwork processes but who appreciate
+the necessity of making worthy use of the child's natural activity and
+desire to do. The outlines are arranged with reference to schools which
+are not provided with special equipment and which have scant funds for
+supplies. The projects require only such materials as empty goods boxes,
+and odds and ends of cloth and paper, which are easily obtainable in any
+community. No extra time is required for the work, and it may be
+successfully carried out by any teacher who is willing to devote a little
+study to the possibilities of things near at hand.
+
+These outlines do not form a course of study to be followed in regular
+order nor in set lessons coming at a definite time. They are, rather, a
+series of suggestions to be used wherever and whenever they will serve a
+worthy purpose. They are not to be regarded as a _special_ subject,
+having little or no connection with the regular class work, but rather as
+an illustrative method of teaching the regular subject matter whenever the
+teaching can be done more effectively by means of concrete illustrations.
+It is proposed to make greater use of construction as a medium of
+expression, and place _making_ more nearly on a par with talking, writing,
+and drawing.
+
+Any of the projects outlined may be modified to suit varying conditions,
+and the emphasis placed according to the needs of a particular class. All
+the suggestions are given in very simple form, chiefly from the standpoint
+of the first grade, for the reason that it is easier to add to the details
+of a simple problem than to simplify one which is complex.
+
+It is not the purpose here to emphasize the training of the hand or the
+development of technique in handwork processes to the extent commonly
+expected of a course in manual arts, though considerable dexterity in the
+use of tools and materials will undoubtedly be developed as the work
+proceeds. While careless work is never to be tolerated in construction any
+more than it would be tolerated in writing or drawing, the standard is to
+be only such a degree of perfection as is possible through a child's
+unaided efforts. It is proposed to provide him with things to do of such
+interest to him that he will wish to do his best, and things of such a
+nature that they will please him best when they are well done, and so
+stimulate a genuine desire for good work. To this end the suggestions
+relate to things of immediate value and use to the children themselves,
+rather than to things commonly comprehended in a list of articles which
+are useful from the adult point of view.
+
+The work is to be kept on a level with the child's experience and used as
+a means of broadening his experience and lifting it to a higher level. It
+must also be kept on the level of his constructive ability in order that
+he may do things _by himself_, and develop independence through feeling
+himself master of his tools. Neither patterns nor definite directions are
+provided for the details of the projects outlined, for the reason that it
+is desired to make every project a spontaneous expression of the child's
+own ideas. To this end the outline serves only as a framework, to be
+filled in as the worker desires. The ready-made pattern implies dictation
+on the part of the teacher and mechanical imitation and repetition on the
+part of the pupil,--a process almost fatal to spontaneous effort. While it
+is possible through a method of dictation to secure results which seem, at
+first, to be much better than the crude constructions which children are
+able to work out for themselves, it is only a superficial advantage, and
+one gained at the expense of the child's growth in power to think and act
+independently. It is an advantage closely akin to the parrotlike
+recitation of the pupil who catches a few glib phrases and gives them back
+without thought, as compared with the recitation of the pupil who thinks
+and expresses his thoughts in his own childish language.
+
+These outlines are intended not only to emphasize independence in
+self-expression, but also to foster a social spirit through community
+effort and develop a sense of responsibility through division of labor. A
+child's shortcomings will be brought home to him much more vividly if he
+fails to contribute some essential assigned to him in the construction of
+a coöperative project, and thereby spoils the pleasure of the whole group,
+than when his failure affects only his individual effort in a group of
+duplicate projects.
+
+These outlines are intended also to suggest a method of opening up to the
+children, in an attractive way, the great field of industry. Their deep
+interest in playing store leads easily to a study of the source, use, and
+value of various forms of merchandise and the essential features of
+various trades and occupations. Problems of this sort are fascinating to
+children in all the lower grades, are rich in valuable subject matter, and
+suggest things to do which are both interesting and worth while. Without
+attempting to exhaust any phase of the subject, they awaken an intelligent
+interest in the industrial world and tend to stimulate thoughtful
+observation. They help to give the children correct ideas about industrial
+processes as far as their knowledge goes, and to create a desire for
+further knowledge. This general information lays a good foundation for
+later and more serious study of the industries and the choice of a
+vocation.
+
+These outlines are offered as a means of bridging the gap between the
+formal methods and outgrown courses of study still in use and the richer
+curriculum and more vital methods toward which we are working. Much time
+must be spent in study and experimentation before a satisfactory
+reorganization of the curriculum can be worked out. Without waiting until
+this work shall be wholly completed, it is possible at once to vitalize
+the most formal course of study through the use of freer methods, which
+permit and encourage self-directed activity on the part of the pupil. The
+use of such methods will not only tend to create a deeper interest in
+school work, but must also help toward the great problem of
+reorganization, by throwing into stronger relief the strength and weakness
+of our present common practice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PAPER CUTTING AND POSTER MAKING
+
+
+Paper and scissors form a fascinating combination to all children, and
+offer a very direct means of self-expression. In the language of a small
+boy who attempted to tell how to do it, "You just think about something
+and then cut out your _think_." The teacher is concerned chiefly with the
+"think" and the way in which it is expressed. The children are interested
+in paper cutting chiefly from the pleasure of the activity. Beyond the
+immediate pleasure in the process, the cuttings are valuable only as they
+indicate the clearness of the child's ideas and measure his ability to
+express them. The process is educative only in so far as it helps the
+small worker to "see with his mind's eye" and to give tangible shape to
+what he thus sees. It is important, therefore, that the work be done in a
+way that will emphasize the thinking rather than the finished product.
+
+The first question arising is, To what extent shall a pattern be used?
+Shall the teacher cut out the object and bid the class follow her example?
+Shall she display a silhouette or outline drawing of the object she
+desires the children to cut, or shall they work without any external guide
+to justify or modify the mental picture? Shall they be given a pattern and
+be allowed to draw around it?
+
+All of the above methods are used to a greater or less extent. Long
+experience seems to indicate that the first cutting of any object should
+be unassisted by any external representation of it whatever, in order that
+the attention of each child may be focused upon his own mental picture of
+the object. When he has put forth his best effort from this standpoint, he
+should compare his cutting with the real object or a good picture of it
+and be led to see the chief defects in his own production and then allowed
+to try again.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Story of Jack Horner on poster and sand table.
+Snowflakes in background. First grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+For example, after telling the story of Mother Hubbard, the children may
+be interested in cutting out dogs. No picture or other guide should be
+used at first, since every child knows something about dogs. The first
+cuttings are likely to be very poor, partly because the children have not
+sufficient control over the scissors and largely because their ideas are
+very vague. In a general comparison of work they will help each other with
+such criticisms as, "This dog's head is too big." "That dog's legs are too
+stiff." They are then ready to try again. Only when they have reached the
+limit of their power to see flaws in their work do they need to compare it
+with the real dog or its picture. Only after a child has attempted to
+express his idea and has become conscious in ever so small a degree of the
+imperfection of his expression will he really be able to see differences
+between the real object and his representation of it, and thereby clarify
+his mental picture.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Paper cutting. Second grade, Columbia.]
+
+
+The child's imagination is so strong that he is apt to see his productions
+not as they are but as he means them to be, and he is unable to
+distinguish between the original and his copy of it. If the picture or
+silhouette is presented at first, his work becomes to a large extent mere
+copying rather than self-expression. If the teacher cuts out a dog and
+displays it as a sample, the class will be apt to see that piece of paper
+only and not a real dog. If the children are permitted to draw the outline
+either freehand or around a pattern, still less mental effort is required,
+and in cutting they see only the bit of line just ahead of the scissors
+and not the object as a whole.
+
+Such methods (_i.e._ the use of outlines, silhouettes, etc.) will produce
+better immediate results. It will be easier to distinguish dogs and cats
+from cows and horses if a pattern is provided, but it will not produce
+stronger children. Such methods only defeat the chief purpose of the work,
+which is to stimulate the mental effort required to hold the mental image
+of the object in the focus of attention during the time required to
+reproduce it in the material form.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Paper cutting. Second grade.]
+
+
+It is also often asked whether the children shall always cut directly and
+without modification or whether they shall be permitted to trim off the
+imperfections of their first attempts. While any rule must always be
+interpreted in the light of immediate circumstances, it is generally best
+to cut directly, and after noting the defects, cut again. It is then
+possible to compare the several attempts and see if improvement has been
+made. Attention should be directed to the most glaring defect only, and an
+attempt made to correct it. For example, if the dog's head is too large,
+do not trim down, but cut another dog and try for better proportions.
+Compare the second attempt with the first, to measure improvement. Even
+little children can be taught to work in this thoughtful way, looking for
+the defects in their own work and making definite attempts to correct
+them. To this end much cutting from an unlimited supply of newspaper or
+scratch paper will accomplish more than a few exercises in better paper
+which must be trimmed and worked over for the sake of economy. If little
+children are allowed to trim off, they are apt, in the pure joy of
+cutting, to trim too much and lose the idea with which they started--a
+process which tends to vagueness rather than clearness. To prevent this it
+is often helpful to preserve both pieces of paper, _i.e._ the cutting and
+the hole. (See Fig. 4.)
+
+=Paper Tearing.=--Paper tearing serves many of the same purposes sought in
+cutting, and has several strong points in its favor. Working directly with
+the finger tips tends to develop a desirable dexterity of manipulation.
+The nature of the process prevents the expression of small details and
+tends to emphasize bold outlines and big general proportions. Working
+directly with the fingers tends also to prevent a weak dependence upon
+certain tools and tends to develop power to express an idea by whatever
+means is at hand.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Paper tearing.]
+
+
+=Posters.=--The term "poster" as here used includes all mounted pictures
+made by children, such as cuttings, drawings, paintings, and scrap
+pictures.
+
+A poster may be the work of one child or of a group. A single poster may
+tell the whole story, or a series of posters may be made to show a
+sequence of events. A series of posters may be bound together in book
+form. For poster making single sheets of paper, medium weight and of
+neutral tone, are needed. The sheets should be of uniform size for
+individual use so that they could be bound together if desired. For
+coöperative work and special problems larger sheets will be needed.
+
+
+SUGGESTED PROBLEMS FOR PAPER WORK
+
+=Cutting out Pictures.=--This serves well for first effort with scissors.
+The interest in the picture furnishes a motive, while the outline serves
+as a guide and allows the attention to be given wholly to the control of
+the scissors.
+
+_Free cutting of single objects_--such as animals, fruits, trees,
+furniture, utensils, etc.--intensifies and clarifies mental pictures and
+stimulates observation if the child is led to express his own ideas first
+and then to compare his expression with the original and note his
+deficiencies. As far as possible choose objects with strong bold outlines
+for the first attempts. There should be some marked feature, such as
+Bunny's long ears, which calls for emphasis. To cut a circular piece of
+paper which might be an apple or a peach, a walnut or a tomato, will not
+aid much in clarifying a mental picture, while Bunny's long ears, even
+though crudely cut, will be more deeply impressed on the child's mind.
+
+=Illustrations for Stories.=--_Single Illustration._--After a story has
+been read aloud and the characters and events freely discussed by the
+class, each child may be encouraged to represent the part which has
+appealed to him--_i.e._ "cut what he wants to cut." After the cuttings are
+mounted they will probably form a series which will tell the whole story.
+When several children illustrate the same feature, it offers opportunity
+for comparison and judgment as to which ones have told the story most
+effectively. For example, in the story of the Three Bears, the cuttings
+may show the three bears in three relative sizes, the three chairs, the
+three beds, the table, and the three bowls of porridge. (See notes on
+Criticism.)
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Free cutting. Third grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+_Series._--Let each child select the two or three most important events in
+a story and illustrate these in a single poster or series of posters.
+
+_Community Poster._--A long story such as the "Old Woman and the Silver
+Sixpence" may be illustrated by the class as a whole, each child cutting
+some one feature. This requires attention to relative proportions so that
+the parts may be in harmony when assembled. Such posters may be used for
+wall decoration.
+
+=Charts.=--Poster making may also include the making of charts containing
+samples of manufactured articles in various stages of development. For
+example, a chart on cotton might show raw cotton, cord, thread, cloth of
+various sorts, lace, paper, and other materials made from cotton. Such a
+chart might also include pictures of cotton fields, spinning and weaving
+machinery, and other related features.
+
+=Materials.=--Too much can scarcely be said in favor of much cutting from
+an unlimited supply of common wrapping paper, newspaper, or other waste
+paper, in which the children are entirely unhampered by such injunctions
+as, "Be careful and get it just right the first time, because you can't
+have another paper if you waste this piece." The possible danger of
+cultivating wastefulness is less serious and more easily overcome than the
+very probable danger of dwarfing and cramping the power of expression.
+Here, if anywhere, the rule holds good that we learn to do by doing, and
+abundant practice is essential to success.
+
+_Black silhouette_ or _poster_ paper is most effective when mounted, but
+is too expensive for general use in large classes.
+
+_Brown kraft_ paper and _tailor's pattern_ paper serve well for both
+cuttings and mounts. Both of these papers may be had by the roll at a low
+cost. The tailor's paper comes in several dull colors, which make good
+mounts for cuttings from white scratch paper or the fine print of
+newspaper.
+
+_Bogus_ paper makes an excellent mount and is very inexpensive.
+
+=The Pasting Process.=--To a large number of teachers the pasting lesson
+is a time to be dreaded and its results a cause of discouragement.
+Especially is this true if the class is large and the teacher attempts to
+have all the class pasting at one time. In many phases of school work it
+is so much easier to control forty or fifty children if they all act in
+unison that we are prone to use the method too often and apply it to forms
+of work much better managed by groups. The process of teaching little
+folks to paste is greatly simplified by the use of the group method.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Free cutting. Fourth grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+If the room affords a large table at which a small group may work, the
+teacher can easily supervise the work of the entire group. If there is no
+table, the teacher can work with one or two rows at a time or have very
+small groups come to her desk. The secret of the success of the group
+method lies in having the rest of the class busy with some occupation
+sufficiently interesting to prevent impatience while waiting for turns.
+The command to "fold hands and sit still till your turn comes" is sure to
+cause trouble, because children are physically unable to obey it.
+
+The most important factor in successful pasting is a liberal supply of
+waste paper. Each child should be supplied with a number of single sheets
+of newspaper torn to convenient size, to paste on, each sheet to be
+discarded as soon as used. This decreases the danger of untidy work. With
+the cutting laid upon the waste paper, the paste may be spread with brush,
+thin wood, or thick paper, well out over the edges. As soon as the pasted
+cutting is lifted the waste paper should be folded over to cover all wet
+paste and lessen the possibility of accidents. After the cutting is placed
+upon the mount, a clean piece of waste paper should be laid over it and
+rubbed until the air is all pressed out and the cutting adheres firmly.
+The waste paper overlay may be rubbed vigorously without harm, whereas a
+light touch of sticky fingers directly upon the cutting will leave a
+soiled spot, if it does not tear the moist paper. If children are
+carefully taught in small groups to follow this method of pasting, in a
+fairly short time all but the weakest members of the class will be able to
+paste neatly without much supervision.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+BOOKLETS
+
+
+The making of booklets forms a valuable accompaniment to almost every
+phase of school work. Even simple exercises, when put into book form, take
+on a dignity otherwise impossible and seem more worth while. It is
+impossible to work with much enthusiasm and care on exercises which are
+destined only for the wastebasket.
+
+The chief value in the making of booklets is lost when they are made for
+display purposes only. Many difficulties are sure to arise when the
+teacher, for the sake of her own reputation, sets an arbitrary standard
+and tries to force every member of the class to meet it. Because of these
+difficulties many teachers dread and avoid work of this sort, but the
+trouble lies in our false standards and poor methods rather than in the
+process itself. When the exhibit idea is uppermost, each page must be
+examined with great care, done over again and again if need be, until the
+standard is reached or the patience of both teacher and pupil exhausted.
+In such a case the work practically ceases to be the child's own. Instead
+of expressing an idea of his own in his own way, he tries to express the
+teacher's idea in the teacher's way, and it is not surprising that he
+fails so often.
+
+The booklet serves its best purpose when it combines both value and need;
+that is, when it is something which seems worth while to the pupil and
+when he feels responsible for its success. He should feel something akin
+to the responsibility one feels in writing an important letter; that is,
+that it must be right the first time because there is no opportunity to
+try again and that he cannot afford to do less than his best because what
+is done will stand.
+
+To "express his own idea in his own way" does not mean that his work is to
+be undirected or that poor results are to be accepted. It does mean that
+when an idea and a means of expressing it have been suggested to him, he
+shall be allowed to do the best he can by himself, and that when he has
+done his best, it shall be accepted even though imperfect. Under no
+circumstances should his work be "touched up" by the teacher. If he is not
+asked to do things which are too hard for him, he will not make many
+serious errors. If these are wisely pointed out, they will not often be
+repeated. If his attention is held to one or two important features at a
+time, each effort will mean some gain.
+
+The making of a booklet in the primary grades should really consist in
+making a cover to preserve pages already made or to receive pages on
+certain topics as they are finished. The making of an animal book, for
+example, might be a continuous process. Whenever a new animal is studied
+and a cutting or drawing of it made, the new page may be added to the
+book.
+
+The first books should be picture books only, collections of cuttings,
+drawings, and mounted pictures. As the children learn to write they may
+add first the name and then short descriptions of the pictures, the
+development proceeding by easy stages until their composition work takes
+the form of the illustrated story.
+
+Books which are a collection of single sheets are, as a rule, most
+satisfactory in the primary school. The single sheet is much more
+convenient to use, and there is always an inspiration in beginning with a
+fresh sheet of paper. It is more difficult to paste cuttings into a book,
+and if pages are spoiled, the book is spoiled. If separate sheets are
+used, a poor one may be done over or discarded without affecting the rest.
+
+The making of booklets and posters offers an excellent opportunity for
+developing artistic appreciation. It is not enough for the teacher to
+provide only good colors from which the children may choose, and to
+supervise the spacing of pictures and then flatter herself that because
+the results are good that the children are developing good taste. Unless
+they really want the good things, little real gain has been made. Unless
+they see some reason for the arrangement of a page, other than that the
+_teacher wants it that way_, little has been accomplished.
+
+The first attempts will show little or no idea of balance or good spacing.
+The early color combinations are apt to be crude. If the best things they
+do are praised and their attention is constantly directed to the good
+points in things about them, they will begin to want those things. They
+will begin gradually to feel a greater pleasure in a well-balanced page
+than in one on which big and little pictures are stuck indiscriminately.
+If they are given all possible freedom in matters of choice, it will be
+possible to measure their real progress and to know what points need
+emphasis.
+
+The more accustomed the children are to tasteful surroundings, the easier
+will be their progress, but whether they come from tasteful homes or the
+reverse, the process is the same. Real progress will undoubtedly be slow,
+but it should be upon a sure foundation.
+
+
+SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR BOOKLETS
+
+=Stories.=--Series of illustrations either cut or drawn for any of the
+stories read by the class.
+
+_Animal Book._--Cuttings or sketches of animals. The name and short
+statement of some characteristic may be added by children who are able to
+write. Trees, flowers, fruits, etc., may be treated in the same way.
+
+_A. B. C. Book._--A page for each letter of the alphabet to be filled with
+pictures and names of objects having the same initial letter.
+
+_House Book._--A page for each room, upon which may be mounted pictures of
+things appropriate to the room. Newspaper advertisements and catalogs
+furnish abundant material for this problem. The work not only helps the
+children to classify present knowledge, but offers opportunity for
+judgment as to arrangement and relative proportions.
+
+_How People Live._--A book of pictures of houses in different countries.
+
+_Famous Houses._--Pictures of famous buildings and homes of famous people.
+
+_What we Wear._--Pictures showing materials from which clothing is made,
+the methods of production and manufacture.
+
+_What we Eat._--Vegetable foods may be grouped as roots, stalks, leaves,
+seeds, etc. Animal foods may be classified according to the animal from
+which they are obtained and the part of the animal from which they are
+cut. Suggestions for cooking may be added.
+
+_How we Travel._--Pictures showing vehicles and conveyances of all sorts,
+classified as ancient and modern, or according to the countries in which
+they are used, or the motive power, as horses, electricity, steam, etc.
+
+In connection with elementary geography and history, booklets and posters
+may be made up from pictures cut from discarded papers, catalogs, and
+magazines, as well as original drawings. A great variety of topics may be
+profitably illustrated in this way. As, for example, land and water forms,
+famous mountains, lakes, rivers, etc., products and processes of
+cultivation and manufacture, famous people, costumes and customs of other
+times and places, utensils and weapons of earlier times.
+
+=Fastenings.=--The simplest method of binding single sheets is by means of
+paper fasteners and eyelets. Though these are not expensive, some schools
+cannot afford to buy them. Cords may be used in several ways and serve as
+part of the decoration.
+
+_The Simple Tie._--Punch three holes in the margin, at least one half inch
+from the edge to prevent tearing out. Insert the cord in the middle hole,
+carry through one end hole, then through the other end hole, then back
+through the middle and tie. (See Fig. 7.)
+
+_Japanese Sewing._--Punch holes at regular intervals, as one inch apart.
+Sew through first hole twice, making a loop around the back,--repeat the
+process until a loop has been made for each hole,--carry the cord in and
+out through the holes back to the starting point, filling in the blank
+places and making a continuous line, and tie ends together with a small
+knot. (See Fig. 8.)
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Pamphlet sewing.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Japanese binding.]
+
+
+=Decoration.=--Only the simplest decoration should be attempted. A plain
+cover of good color tied with a cord of harmonious color will have
+elements of beauty without further decoration. A single border line well
+placed may be used and offers opportunity for developing a nice sense of
+proportion by studying the results to see which borders are neither too
+near the edge nor too far from it.
+
+A well-printed, well-placed title is often the most satisfactory
+decoration. Printing should be introduced early, and the children
+encouraged to make good plain letters. In order to get the title in good
+proportion and well placed, it is helpful to cut a piece of paper the
+desired size and lay it on the cover, moving it about to see where it
+looks best. Until the children have learned to do fairly neat work it is
+often helpful to print the title on a separate piece and paste it in
+place. It is discouraging to spoil an otherwise good cover by a bad
+letter, and this process lessens that danger.
+
+Before the children learn to print, a simple border or band across the
+cover may take the place of the title. The border may be drawn in crayons
+or be free-hand cuttings.
+
+Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the beauty of simplicity in
+decoration. Children are inclined to think beauty means fanciness and that
+beauty increases with the quantity of decoration. It is necessary to begin
+early to develop a taste for good design.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CRITICISM AND STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP
+
+
+=Criticism.=--An important feature of all self-directed activity is the
+ability to judge one's efforts and intelligently measure one's success.
+This ability is a matter of slow growth and must be cultivated. It is not
+enough for the teacher to pass judgment upon a piece of work and grade its
+quality. The worker himself must learn to find his own mistakes and how to
+correct them. Class criticism offers the best means of developing this
+power, but must be tactfully conducted.
+
+Little children are brutally frank in expressing their opinions and need
+to be taught how to be truthful and yet not unkind. They need to be taught
+what to look for and how to find it, and how to compare one thing with
+another and discover why one pleases and another displeases. The first
+essential in the training is emphasis on the good rather than the bad. It
+is a gospel of "do" rather than of "don't." The earliest efforts of the
+class may well be confined to comments upon the features they like and, if
+possible, the reason for the liking. This will forestall any tendency to
+call undue attention to the poor efforts of weak workers. At first many
+children will scarcely discriminate between their admiration for a piece
+of work and their love for the worker and will be apt to praise the work
+of their special friends. This tendency will gradually disappear through
+the development of a real basis of appreciation.
+
+The second essential concerns the improvement of the things which are not
+good. Criticism which merely points out what is bad is of little value.
+Helpful criticism must point out what is good and why, and what is weak
+and how to make it stronger. If, for example, the class is considering the
+success of their efforts to illustrate the story of the Three Bears, they
+should be encouraged to make such comments as, "John's chairs look too
+small for his table," "Mary's bowls are all about the same size." The
+criticism should direct the thought to its possible remedy. It is
+generally better to pass over defects for which no immediate remedy can be
+suggested.
+
+=Standards of Workmanship.=--The standard of excellence by which acceptable
+work is measured must always vary according to the ability of the class.
+The best the child can do, alone and unaided, should be the only standard
+of measurement, and his best efforts should always be accepted, no matter
+how crude. In no other way can real growth be observed and genuine
+progress made.
+
+In schools where arbitrary standards are set either by supervisors or by
+the rivalry of teachers, the tendency to _help_ the children by doing part
+of the work for them for the sake of the _apparent_ results, offers the
+teacher's most serious temptation to selfishness. In a few cases it is
+helpful for the teacher to add a few strokes to a drawing or adjust some
+detail in construction, that the child may see the value of certain small
+changes in the place where they will mean most to him. Such work should
+not be exhibited as an example of the child's accomplishment, but should
+be treated as practice work. As a rule the teacher's demonstration should
+be made on other material and not on that used by the pupil. In no
+particular are primary schools open to greater criticism than in the too
+common habit of setting arbitrary standards of excellence and attempting
+to force all children to reach them. Such standards are usually too high
+for honest attainment and tempt or force the teacher to use methods which
+cannot be defended by any sound principle of pedagogy.
+
+Values change with the purpose of the work. A thing is well made when it
+serves its purpose adequately. Toys must be strong enough to permit
+handling. Mechanical toys must work. Sewing must be strong as well as
+neat. In illustrative problems, in which effect is the chief
+consideration, technique needs little emphasis, and workmanship may be of
+a temporary character.
+
+Each thing made should establish its own standard in a way to appeal to
+the child's common sense.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE HOUSE PROBLEM
+
+
+The making of a playhouse has long been an accepted feature of primary
+work, but we have not always made it yield all of which it is capable,
+either in the self-directed activity of the children or in correlated
+subject matter. It has, in many cases, been only a bit of recreation from
+the more serious work of the school. In a house prepared by the janitor or
+older pupils the children have been allowed to arrange and rearrange
+ready-made furniture contributed from their playthings at home, but little
+creative work has been attempted. In other cases an elaborate house,
+carefully planned by the teacher, has been built and furnished by the
+children, but, because of the detailed planning, the children's part in it
+became merely a mechanical following of directions. In some cases relative
+proportions in rooms and furnishings have received scant attention; in
+others, color harmonies have been all but ignored. These varying methods
+of carrying out the house-building idea are not without value and may
+often be justified by local conditions, but their results are meager
+compared with the possible richness of the problem.
+
+Playing at house building and housekeeping appeals to an interest so
+universal that children of all times and nations yield to its power. It
+is therefore necessary to take account of its influence in their
+development and to dignify it with the approval of the school. We must
+refine and enrich it by our direction and suggestion without robbing it of
+its simplicity and charm.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Box house, arranged on a shelf.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Medieval castle. Built by third grade. Franklin,
+Indiana.
+
+An example of elaborate work which aroused the interest of pupils and
+patrons and paved the way for freer work later.]
+
+
+In the suggestions which follow, an attempt is made to utilize this
+natural activity of children in an occupation which appeals to them as
+worth while. At the same time it may furnish ample opportunity for the
+general development and effective teaching of various phases of subject
+matter which are incident to the occupation, _i.e._ number in connection
+with measurements, art in the proportions and color combinations, language
+through discussions and descriptions.
+
+The work is kept on the level of the children's experience by throwing
+them constantly on their own responsibility in every possible detail, the
+teacher never dictating the method of procedure and guiding the work with
+as few suggestions as possible. The work, being on the level of their
+experience, appeals to the children as very real and worth while. It is,
+therefore, intensely interesting, and they work without urging.
+
+=General Plan.=--A house may be constructed from several empty goods boxes,
+each box forming one room of the house. The boxes or rooms are arranged in
+convenient order, but are not fastened together. Adjoining rooms are
+connected by doors carefully cut in both boxes so that the holes match.
+Windows are also sawed out where needed. The walls are papered, careful
+attention being given to color schemes, border designs, and relative
+proportions in spacing. Floors are provided with suitable coverings--woven
+rugs, mattings, linoleums, tiles, according to the purpose of the room.
+
+Each step is discussed and more or less definitely outlined before the
+actual making is begun, furnishing opportunity for oral language of a
+vital sort. Completed parts are examined and criticized, furnishing
+further opportunity for exercise in oral language while directing
+attention to strong and weak points in the work.
+
+The materials needed are easily obtainable and inexpensive, consisting
+chiefly of empty boxes and odds and ends of paper, cloth, and yarn,
+together with carpenters' scraps.
+
+The tools needed are few, and in some cases may be brought from home by
+the children for a few days, as needed. The necessary time is found by
+making the incidental problems serve as subject matter for regular
+lessons. Making designs for tiling, linoleum, and borders for wall paper,
+planning relative proportions for doors, windows, and furnishings will
+supply material for very practical lessons in art. The problems incident
+to the measurement of doors and windows, tables and chairs, are number
+work of a vital sort and may be legitimately used as a regular number
+lesson. Discussions, descriptions, and definite statements of plans all
+form vital language exercises if rightly used.
+
+
+HOUSE PLANS IN DETAIL
+
+=Materials.=--_Empty Store Boxes of Soft Wood._--Sizes may vary, but where
+several are grouped for a house, they should be near enough the same
+height to make a fairly level ceiling. About 10 × 12 × 18 in. is a
+convenient size.
+
+_Paper for Walls._--Scraps of ingrain wall papers may be had from dealers
+for little or nothing. Cover paper in good colors may be purchased by the
+sheet. Tailor's paper and brown wrapping paper serve well, and are sold
+by the roll at a low price.
+
+_Pasteboard_ (strawboard or juteboard) may be used for the roof.
+
+_Weaving Materials._--Rugs may be made from carpet rags, rug yarns,
+rovings, chenille, or jute; towels from crochet cotton; and hammocks from
+macramé cord or carpet warp.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--House arranged on a table. Front view. Built by
+first grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+_Wood for Furniture._--Bass, white pine, poplar, or other soft wood. Box
+tops, if of soft wood, may be made to serve nearly all needs. If possible,
+provide thin wood (about 1/4 in. thick) in various widths, from one inch
+to six inches, so that only one dimension need be measured. Provide also
+thick pieces 1-1/2 in. or 2 in. square for beds and chairs; 1/2 in. square
+for table legs.
+
+_Nails_ of various sizes, chiefly inch brads, are needed.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--House arranged on a table. Side view. Built by
+second grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+=Tools.=--The tools actually necessary are few. A class can _get along_
+with one saw and still do good work, though there will be times when
+several saws will facilitate progress. Some tools are needed only for a
+short time and sometimes may be borrowed from the homes. It is more
+satisfactory to have the school provided with the essential tools whenever
+possible. The essential tools include:
+
+_Brace and auger bit_, for boring holes in doors and windows. Needed for a
+short time only.
+
+_Compass saw_, for sawing out doors and windows.
+
+_Crosscut saw_, for sawing off lumber. School should own at least one.
+
+_Miter box_, for holding lumber and guiding saw. An old one, good enough
+for children's use, will frequently be contributed by a carpenter. The
+miter box should be fastened firmly to a low table or box.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--House arranged on a table. Back view. Built by
+second grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+_Hammers_, several of medium size.
+
+_Try-square_, a very valuable tool for setting right angles, provided the
+teacher and pupils know how to use it.
+
+=Arrangement of Rooms.=--The sort of house a man can build is governed by
+his resources and his site. Considering the number of boxes as resources
+and the table or shelf on which they are to stand as the site, the same
+big factors which enter into any house-building problem control the size
+and style of the schoolroom playhouse. What sort of house is desired? What
+sort of house can be built from the materials at hand? What sort of house
+can be built in the space at our disposal?
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--House plan.]
+
+
+The boxes may be arranged on a shelf with all the open sides toward the
+class, as in Fig. 9. This economizes space, and all of the rooms are
+visible at once. A two-story house is easily built on this plan. If
+economy of space is not necessary, the boxes may be placed on a table with
+the open sides of the boxes toward the edges of the table, as in Figs. 11,
+12, and 13. This permits a more artistic grouping of the rooms. (See Fig.
+14.)
+
+The responsibility in grouping the boxes should be thrown as fully as
+possible upon the children, the teacher merely suggesting where necessary.
+It should be their house, not the teacher's. The planning should not be
+hurried but time allowed to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
+different plans and reach an agreement. In trying to express individual
+opinions convincingly their ideas will become clearer--a factor in the
+development of the children which is much more important than any of the
+actual details of the house itself. Whether the class decides to have one
+or two bedrooms in the house is a matter of small consequence. Whether or
+not they are growing in power to appreciate conditions and make an
+intelligent decision is a matter of great consequence. Their decisions
+when made may not always reach the high standard at which the teacher is
+aiming, but if they have really made a decision, not merely followed the
+teacher's suggestion, and if their independent selections from time to
+time show a higher standard of appreciation and greater refinement of
+taste in ever so small a degree, it is evidence of genuine growth upon a
+sure foundation.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Arrangement of windows.]
+
+
+=Doors and Windows.=--The size and arrangement of doors and windows should
+be freely discussed. Various possible arrangements may be sketched upon
+the blackboard by the children. For example, see Fig. 15, _a_ and _b_.
+When a plan is adopted, the doors and windows should be carefully drawn on
+the _outside_ of each box, using the try-square to get right angles.
+
+Bore holes in the corners of the doors and windows and saw out with
+keyhole or compass saw. In order to avoid mistakes it is well, after
+sawing out the opening for a door in one box, to place the two boxes
+together and test the measurements before sawing out the second opening. A
+mistake of this sort, however, is not fatal, but may prove the most
+effective way of impressing the workers with the necessity of careful
+measurement.
+
+=Walls.=--The decoration of the walls will furnish material for several
+art lessons. The discussion should turn first to the suitability of
+different styles for different purposes, such as tiling for kitchen and
+bathroom walls, light papers for dark rooms, etc. The division of wall
+space will be the next point to be settled, _i.e._ the height of the
+tiling or wainscot, the width of a border, or the effect of horizontal and
+vertical lines in breaking up wall space. These questions may be discussed
+as far as the immediate circumstances and the development of the class
+suggest.
+
+The question of color combinations demands special attention. Unless the
+children come from refined homes their ideas of color will be very crude,
+and if contributions of material have been asked for, some gaudy
+impossibilities in flowered paper are apt to be presented. If so, it may
+require considerable tact on the part of the teacher to secure a
+satisfactory selection without casting any reflections on the taste of
+somebody's mother. This difficulty may be avoided to a degree by providing
+all the materials necessary. It is not enough, however, to cause the
+children to select good combinations at the teacher's suggestion while in
+their hearts they are longing for the gaudy thing she has frowned upon. It
+is better to get an honest expression from them, even though it is very
+crude, and endeavor to educate their taste to a love for better things, so
+that each time they choose the choice may be on a higher level of
+appreciation. Immediate results may not be as beautiful by this plan, and
+apparent progress may be slow, but only by some such method can a real
+appreciation be developed which will prevent the return to the crude
+expression as soon as the teacher's influence is withdrawn.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Detail of hollow square.]
+
+
+Plain papers generally give the most pleasing effects. Attractive borders
+may be made by cutting simple units and repeating them at intervals.
+Almost any motif may be used for the unit. Animals, birds, trees, flowers,
+ships, etc., serve well. The process of making the border should be a
+serious lesson in design. A good border is not merely the repetition of a
+pretty figure. The units must not be too far apart nor too close together.
+The shape of the figure used must be such that each unit seems to need the
+next one. Little children will usually take greatest pleasure in working
+from some nature motif, as flower or animal, but interesting work can be
+done with simple geometric figures. Take, for example, the hollow square.
+Fold a square of paper on both diagonals. (See Fig. 16.) Cut on dotted
+line. Let each child cut several and lay them in order for a border or
+mount them on a paper of different color. Let the work of the class be put
+up for general criticism. (See notes on Criticism.) Several points which
+very small children are able to appreciate will be found to enter into the
+success or failure of their efforts. The hollow square itself may be cut
+too wide and look clumsy, or cut too narrow and look frail. In the
+arrangement they may be too close together and look crowded, or too far
+apart and look scattered. A sensitiveness to good proportions comes
+naturally to only a few people, but nearly all are capable of a higher
+degree of appreciation if their attention is directed to the essential
+elements which make things good or bad. The beginnings of this
+appreciation lie in simple things which are easily understood by
+first-grade children.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Borders using hollow square.]
+
+
+=Floors.=--Many of the considerations which enter into the selection of
+wall decorations are of equal importance in choosing floor coverings. What
+will be suitable to the purpose of each room? Why do we use linoleum in
+the kitchen and warm rugs in the bedroom? Shall we use small rugs or a
+carpet? What colors must we have on the floor to harmonize with the colors
+on the wall? What designs are possible and desirable for the materials we
+have to use?
+
+_Rug Weaving Materials._--The market offers a wide variety of materials
+prepared especially for school use. Among them the most satisfactory for
+use with small workers are cotton rovings, loose twisted jute, and cotton
+chenille. These, especially the first two, are coarse and work up rapidly,
+and may be had in very desirable colors. Even the cheapest of them,
+however, will prove an expensive item for the school with limited funds,
+and ordinary carpet rags may be made to serve every purpose. Often these
+will be contributed by members of the class. By a careful selection and
+combination of colors very artistic results can be produced which are in
+some respects more satisfactory than any obtained from the so-called
+weaving materials, and have the added advantage of costing practically
+nothing.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Looms and samples of weaving.]
+
+
+_Looms._--The market also offers a great variety of looms for school use,
+many of them quite simple in construction and moderate in price. In
+schools where bench work is taught, the making of a loom is an excellent
+problem either for the weavers themselves or for an older class working
+for them. If the looms are made by the little weavers themselves, only the
+simplest possible construction should be used, that the work may be
+completed and the loom put to use before the worker loses sight of the
+fact that the purpose is to provide carpet for the house. Children lose
+interest in long-drawn-out processes, and for that reason it is better to
+provide them with the necessary tools as far as possible while interest in
+the house building is keen. Later, if considerable enthusiasm has been
+aroused for weaving, individual looms may be made for home use. For the
+school with scant funds a very satisfactory loom may be improvised by
+driving nails one fourth inch apart in the ends of a shallow box of
+convenient size and stretching the warp threads across the open top.
+
+For very small rugs a cardboard loom will serve. This may be made by
+cutting notches or punching holes along opposite edges of a piece of
+cardboard into which the warp may be strung. If a knitting needle is
+inserted at each side, the cardboard will be stiffened and the edges of
+the rug kept straight. Weaving needles may be purchased from supply
+houses. Wooden needles cost 50 cents per dozen. Sack needles serve well
+for small rugs and may be had at any hardware store for 10 cents per
+dozen.
+
+_Weaves._--For first weaving the plain "over one, under one" on cotton
+warp with rags or other coarse woof is generally best. Variety may be
+introduced by weaving a stripe or border of a different tone near each end
+of the rug. Vertical stripes serve well as another easy method of
+variation and are produced by using two woof threads of different tones
+and weaving first with one and then with the other. This weave is very
+attractive as the body of the rug with a plain border at either end.
+
+As soon as the children have mastered the plain weave and have a fairly
+clear idea of the possibilities in design through varying the colors in
+the woof only, they may be initiated into the mysteries of the "gingham
+weave" and allowed to experiment with the variations in warp as well as in
+woof. Cotton rovings is an excellent material for weaves of this sort.
+This weave may also be used with raffia to make matting for the
+dining-room floor.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Box house by second grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+Paper mats may also be used as carpets with good effect. Weaving paper
+strips is often an easier process to little children than weaving with
+textiles, except where very coarse textile materials are used. For paper
+mats select paper of suitable color and cut to the size desired for the
+mat. Fold on the short diameter. Cut slashes from the folded edge, not
+less than one half inch apart, to within one inch of edge of the paper
+(See Fig. 20), leaving a margin on all four sides of the mat. For weavers,
+cut from paper of harmonious tone, strips equal in width to the slashes in
+the mat.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Detail of paper weaving.]
+
+
+Variations of the simple over one, under one weave add interest to the
+work and also give practice in number combinations such as over one, under
+two, etc. Work of this sort is used in many schools as a method of
+teaching number, the teacher dictating the combinations while the interest
+of the children centers in the new pattern which develops under their
+fingers. While such work has much to be said in its favor, it is open to
+criticism, especially in the matter of dictation. All the children in any
+one group will not work with equal speed. Some will undoubtedly "get
+behind" and others will lose time while waiting for the slow ones.
+Accidents are liable to happen in individual cases.
+
+Many of these undesirable features may be eliminated while still retaining
+the valuable part of the work by writing the directions on the board
+instead of dictating them to the children. It then becomes a lesson in
+reading as well as in number. Each child is thrown more completely upon
+his own responsibility and can proceed as rapidly and as steadily as his
+capacity permits. His rate of progress will often be a fair measure of his
+ability for independent thought and action, which is the real measure for
+successful teaching.
+
+As the hardest feature in this method is in keeping the right line and not
+repeating or omitting any direction, a social spirit may be encouraged by
+allowing the children to work in groups and take turns in _keeping the
+place_ while the others work. In one first grade where this plan was in
+vogue the children discovered a book on the teacher's desk which contained
+numerous designs, many of them much more intricate than she would have
+attempted to use as classwork. Their instinct for exploration led them to
+struggle with the directions until they had worked out some designs which
+would have proved dismal failures had they been attempted as class
+lessons. In this instance those who belonged to the persevering group were
+happy in a new-found sense of strength and independence, while the others
+had accomplished as much as any would have done under the dictation
+method.
+
+=Furniture.=--The problem of furniture for the school playhouse has been
+discussed in numerous publications, and nearly every writer on the subject
+of primary handwork offers suggestions on this topic. The suggestions
+include a range in materials and processes from very simple foldings in
+paper to quite complex processes in reeds and raffia and methodical
+construction in wood.
+
+Among the various materials and styles in common use, folded paper
+furniture has the advantage of being quickly made. The process is of
+sufficient interest to little children to hold their attention, and in
+order to secure the desired result they must hear the directions
+intelligently and obey them promptly. These are desirable habits to form.
+It is quite possible, however, for the work to be done in a very formal,
+mechanical way, in which the children merely follow directions, often
+blindly, without any clear purpose and very little thought. Success or
+failure is due largely to chance; for, if by accident even a good worker
+"loses out" on a direction, his work is at a standstill until special help
+is given. He is unable to proceed because he does not know what to do
+next. There is very little opportunity in such a process for independent
+thought or action. It is not self-directed activity.
+
+A second objection to paper furniture is its lack of stability. Paper
+which is pliable enough to fold readily will not hold its own weight long
+when made into furniture, and very soon becomes wobbly. To overcome this
+tendency to wobble, heavier papers are often used and new complications
+arise. Heavy papers do not fold readily without scoring. Scoring demands
+considerable accuracy of measurement--often to a degree beyond the power
+of a six-year-old. The stiff papers, being hard pressed, are harder to
+paste, and neat work is often an impossibility, unless considerable
+assistance is given.
+
+It is possible to make satisfactory furniture in a great variety of styles
+from stiff paper, and the processes involve some excellent practice in
+measurement and design. The processes necessary to obtain these
+satisfactory results are, however, beyond the ability of children in the
+lower grades. Even fairly satisfactory results are impossible unless an
+undue amount of assistance is given by the teacher. In actual practice,
+where stiff paper is used a few of the best workers in the class are
+helped to make the few pieces needed in the playhouse and the unhappy
+failures of the rest of the class are promptly consigned to the
+wastebasket.
+
+Very pretty furniture may be made from reeds and raffia, but the processes
+are too difficult to be successfully performed by small children. The
+reeds do not lend themselves readily to constructions small enough to suit
+the average playhouse, and the larger pieces are out of proportion to the
+other features of the house.
+
+The use of wood overcomes the most serious of the objections to be made to
+other materials, besides being the material most commonly used in "real"
+furniture. Wooden furniture is stable, and a great variety of processes in
+construction are possible without introducing complications which prevent
+independent work on the part of the little people.
+
+The processes necessary to the construction of very simple yet
+satisfactory wooden furniture may be reduced to measuring one dimension,
+sawing off, and nailing on. Measuring one dimension is quite within the
+powers of six-year-olds. _Sawing off_ is not difficult if soft lumber is
+used, and it becomes very simple by the help of the miter box. _Nailing
+on_ is difficult if the nails must be driven into the edges of thin
+boards, but if thin boards are nailed to thick boards, nails may "go
+crooked" without serious consequences, and the process becomes quite easy.
+These processes have the advantage of being particularly fascinating to
+small boys, in contrast to the girlish character of many forms of primary
+handwork. (See Figs. 21 and 22.)
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Furniture from wood blocks.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Furniture from wood blocks.]
+
+
+_Processes._--For the sake of convenience and clearness in these
+directions it will be assumed that the class is provided with pieces of
+wood two inches square which will be referred to as 2 × 2. Also with thin
+wood in a variety of widths from 1 in. to 6 in. Material of other
+dimensions would serve the purpose equally well, and for many of the parts
+odd pieces from the scrap box will answer every purpose. The directions
+are intended only to suggest how to proceed, and it is left to the teacher
+to adapt them to the material and conditions with which she works.
+
+(1) _To make a chair._
+
+Use 2 × 2 for seat and thin wood 2 in. wide for back. Children should
+measure and decide how much to saw off from strip of 2 × 2 in order to
+make a square block or cube for the seat. They should estimate the length
+of the back of the chair, then measure and saw off the thin wood needed.
+Nail the back piece to the cube and finish with a coat of water-color
+paint or color with crayon. An armchair may be made by the addition of
+shorter pieces of thin wood to the sides of the chair.
+
+(2) _To make table with pedestal._
+
+Use 2 × 2 for pedestal. Use thin wood 6 in. wide for top. Use thin wood 4
+in. wide for base. Measure and saw off 3 in. of 2 × 2 for pedestal.
+Measure _enough_ of the 6 in. wood to make a square top and _enough_ of
+the 4 in. wood to make a square base. Do not tell the children what they
+can discover for themselves. They should decide how high the table ought
+to be and how large to suit the size of the room. Nail the square pieces
+to the two ends of the pedestal. Finish by same method used for chairs.
+
+(3) _For ordinary table._
+
+Use thin wood for top. Use 1/2 × 1/2 for legs. Measure and saw off pieces
+needed. Measure places for legs about one inch from corner of top in order
+to allow an overhang. Children frequently put the legs flush with the edge
+of the table, which gives a clumsy appearance. Nail through the top with a
+comparatively long nail.
+
+(4) _To make a double bed._
+
+Use wood 1/2 to 1 in. thick for body. Use thin wood of corresponding width
+for head and foot boards. Class or individual workers should decide on
+dimensions for different parts and height of body of bed from the floor.
+
+(5) _For single bed._
+
+Proceed as for double bed, using narrow pieces of wood, or use six or
+seven inches of 2 × 2 for body of bed and make head and foot boards after
+the style of chair back.
+
+(6) _Dressing table._
+
+Decide upon dimensions needed. Use 2 × 2 for body. Use thin wood of equal
+width for back. Use tinfoil for mirror. Indicate drawers with pencil
+lines.
+
+(7) _Couch._
+
+Use piece of 2 × 2 of desired length and make couch cover of appropriate
+material, or add back and arms of thin wood to piece of 2 × 2 and finish
+to match other furniture.
+
+(8) _Piano._
+
+Use wood 3/4 or 1 in. thick for body. Nail on piece 1/2 × 1/2 for
+keyboard. Draw keys on paper and paste on keyboard.
+
+(9) _Kitchen stove._
+
+Use 2 × 4 or any scrap or empty box of appropriate size and shape. Color
+black with crayon. Add chalk marks or bits of tinfoil to indicate doors
+and lids. Make hot-water tank of paper. Pieces of reed, wire, or twigs
+covered with tinfoil make good water pipes. Macaroni sticks and lemonade
+straws have served this purpose.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Home of White Cloud, the Pueblo girl. Second
+grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+=Clay Furnishings.=--For such articles as the kitchen sink, the bathtub,
+and other bathroom fittings clay is a satisfactory material. These
+articles may be modeled by the children, in as good an imitation of the
+real fittings as they are able to make. Various methods may be used for
+holding the kitchen sink and the bathroom basin in place, and it is much
+better for the children to evolve one of their own than to follow the
+teacher's dictation from the start. If they meet serious difficulties, a
+suggestion from her may help clear the way. Two long nails driven into the
+wall will give a satisfactory bracket on which the sink may rest. Two
+short nails may be driven through the back while the clay is moist and may
+serve also as a foundation for faucets. The basin, bathtub, and stool may
+each be built solid to the floor.
+
+The teakettle and other stove furniture may be modeled in clay. Electric
+light bulbs of clay suspended by cords from the ceiling have a realistic
+air. Paper shades of appropriate color add to the general effect.
+
+=Miscellaneous furnishings.=
+
+_Bedding._--Paper or cloth may be used for bedding, as circumstances
+suggest. If interest in _real_ things is strong, the making of the sheets
+and pillow cases offers an opportunity for some practice with the needle.
+If time is limited, paper may be used.
+
+_Curtains._--Curtains also may be made from either paper or regular
+curtain material. If paper is used, it should be very soft, such as plain
+Japanese napkins. Scraps of plain net or scrim are most desirable. Some
+child is apt to contribute a piece of large-patterned lace curtain, but
+the tactful teacher will avoid using it if possible, and direct the
+children's thoughts toward a better taste in draperies.
+
+_Portières_ may be made of cloth, of knotted cords, or chenille.
+
+_Couch pillows_ may be made from cloth or may be woven on a small card.
+
+_Towels_ for the bathroom may be woven from crochet cotton.
+
+_The fireplace_ may be made of cardboard marked off and colored to
+represent brick. A shallow box may be made to serve the purpose. Cut out
+the opening for the grate and lay real sticks on andirons made from soft
+wire; or draw a picture of blazing fire and put inside. The fireplace may
+also be made of clay. Pebbles may be pressed into the clay if a stone
+fireplace is desired. If clay is used, several small nails should be
+driven into the wall before the fireplace is built up, to hold the clay in
+place after it dries.
+
+_Bookcases_ may be made of cardboard, using a box construction, and glued
+to the wall. Or a block of wood about one inch thick may be used. In
+either case mark off the shelves and books with pencil lines, and color
+the backs of the books with crayon.
+
+=The Stairway.=--In a two-story house the hardest problem will usually be
+the stairs. Some good work in number may be done while finding out how
+many steps will be needed and where the stairway must begin in order to
+reach the second floor in comfort. Even quite small children can deal with
+this problem if presented in a simple way. For example, if the box or room
+is ten inches high, how many steps 1 in. wide and 1 in. high will be
+needed, and how far out into the room will they come? The children can
+work out the plan on the blackboard. Measurements may be modified to suit
+the ability of the class and the needs of the room.
+
+The variety of possible constructions in building the staircase
+corresponds to the varying ability of classes. A strip of paper may be
+folded back and forth and made to serve with least mature classes. This
+paper stair will sag unless it rests on a board or piece of stiff
+pasteboard. A substantial stairway may be made by sawing two thin boards
+for supports, as in Fig. 24, and nailing on steps of thin wood or
+cardboard. There is usually one boy in every first grade who is capable of
+as difficult a piece of handwork as this. He is apt, also, to be the boy
+who takes least interest in the general work of the class, and often it is
+possible to arouse him to special effort through some such problem. The
+stairway may be made of heavy cardboard with a construction similar to
+that just described, but this requires pasting instead of nailing and is
+much more difficult for little children.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Detail of stairway.]
+
+
+=The Roof.=--The making of the roof is another part of the house building
+which may often be given into the special care of the two or three
+over-age pupils who need special problems. The plan which they evolve from
+their study of the needs of the case will usually be of greater value to
+them, even though it may not be the best that could be suggested.
+
+The roof may be made of wood as a base, with either wood or cardboard
+shingles tacked on in proper fashion; or it may be made of cardboard with
+the shingles merely indicated by lines made with crayon. If the wood base
+is used, wood gables may be made for sides or ends of the house. To
+these, long boards may be nailed to form a solid roof. Shingles two inches
+long by about one inch wide may be cut from cardboard or very thin wood
+and tacked to the boards. The children should be spurred to study the
+roofs of houses and find out how the shingles are arranged, and discover
+for themselves, if possible, the secret of successful shingling.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Box house, showing roof. Built by summer class,
+Teachers College, New York.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Detail of gable.]
+
+
+A cardboard roof is in many ways easier to build. In a house similar to
+the one shown in Fig. 25 two gables are used, and the roof slopes to front
+and back. The framework can be very simply made. At the two gable ends
+place uprights made of two pieces of wood joined in the form of an
+inverted T. (See Fig. 26.) These should be nailed to the box. A ridgepole
+may then be nailed to the upper ends of the uprights. If the house is not
+large, no other framework will be necessary. If the slope of the roof is
+long enough to allow the cardboard to sag, light strips of wood extending
+from the ridgepole to the outer edge of the box may be added. If a single
+piece of cardboard of sufficient size is available, it may be scored[1]
+and bent at the proper place and laid over the ridgepole, with the edges
+extending beyond the box to form the eaves. Or, two pieces may be used,
+one for each slope of the roof, each piece being tacked to the ridgepole.
+Chimneys may be made from paper and colored to represent bricks or stone.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Colonial kitchen. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+The outside of the house may be treated in several ways. It may be sided
+after the manner of frame houses by tacking on strips of paper or
+cardboard lapped in the proper fashion. It may be covered with paper
+marked in horizontal lines to represent siding, in irregular spaces to
+represent stone, or in regular spaces to represent brick, and finished in
+the appropriate color. Or, a coat of paint or stain may be applied
+directly to the box.
+
+
+VARIATIONS IN HOUSE PROBLEM
+
+A playhouse for its own sake is a justifiable project for primary children
+and one which may be repeated several times without exhausting its
+possibilities. Each time it is repeated the emphasis will fall on some new
+feature, and the children will wish to do more accurate work.
+
+In the lowest grades very simple houses of one or two rooms may be built
+for story-book friends, such as the "Three Bears" or "Little Red Riding
+Hood," with only such furniture as the story suggests. In intermediate
+grades the house may have an historical motive and illustrate home life in
+primitive times or in foreign countries, such as a colonial kitchen in New
+England, a pioneer cabin on the Western prairies, a Dutch home, a Japanese
+home, etc. In upper grades it may become a serious study in house
+decoration.
+
+As the motive for making the house changes, the character and quality of
+its furnishings will change. The block furniture described above will give
+way to more accurate models in either wood or paper. Some excellent
+suggestions for paper furniture for advanced work may be found in the
+_Manual Training Magazine_.
+
+As skill in construction increases, a wish for something more realistic
+than the box construction will arise, and the elements of house framing
+will be studied with great eagerness.
+
+=The House of the Three Bears.= (See Fig. 28.)--This house was made early
+in the year by a class of first-grade children. The walls were papered in
+plain brown paper. The carpets were woven mats of paper. The chairs,
+table, and beds were made according to the methods already described in
+the playhouse outline. The stove and the doll were contributed. The bears
+were modeled in clay. The children played with the house and its contents
+throughout the year. The bears were broken and made over many times--a
+process which not only afforded great pleasure, but also developed
+considerable skill in modeling.
+
+=Another Bears' House.=--This house, shown in Frontispiece, was made in
+the spring, near the end of the school year, by a class of first-grade
+children all of whom were under seven and many of whom were very immature.
+
+The story of the Three Bears was taken up after Christmas, told and
+retold, read, and dramatized by the children. Teddy bears were brought to
+school. Many bears were modeled in clay, each child making the set of
+three many times.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--House for the Three Bears. First grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+The children laid off spaces on the table for individual Bears' houses and
+made furniture for these as their fancy prompted. The furniture was made
+of wood after the general style described above. Later, carpets were
+woven for these individual playhouses. Each carpet was woven to a given
+dimension, making it necessary to use the rule. This was their
+introduction to the rule as a tool for measuring. Every child in a class
+of forty made one or more pieces of furniture and wove one or more small
+carpets from rags. Nearly all made some bedding.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Cornstalk house. Built by second-grade class.
+Franklin, Indiana.]
+
+
+Later, four boxes were secured and arranged as a house. The openings for
+doors were marked off during school time, but were sawed out by a few
+children who remained during the noon intermission. This is the only part
+of the work which was not done during regular class time. The papering was
+done by two or three of the most capable children, while the rest were
+deeply absorbed in weaving. All made borders. Certain borders were
+selected for the house, and several children worked together to make
+enough of the same pattern for one room. Selections were then made from
+the carpets and furniture already made by the children.
+
+The roof was made chiefly by one boy who "knew a good way to make it." The
+porches were also individual projects by pupils who had ideas on the
+subject and were allowed to work them out.
+
+The children became very familiar with every phase of the story and
+attacked any expression of it with the feeling, "That's easy." They wrote
+stories, _i.e._ sentences about bears. Each child at the close of the year
+could write on the blackboard a story of two or more sentences. They made
+pictures of bears in all sorts of postures with colored crayon and from
+free-hand cuttings. They modeled the bears in clay over and over again,
+keeping up a large family in spite of many accidents.
+
+=Coöperative Building.=--Figures 11, 12, and 13 show three rooms of a
+four-room house built by the first and second grades working together. The
+living room and bedroom were furnished by first-grade children. The dining
+room, kitchen, and bath were furnished by the second grade. Four boxes
+were used. (See diagram, page 35, Fig. 14.) Each room, except the bath,
+was a separate box. After a general plan had been agreed upon by the
+teachers, the boxes were carried to the several rooms and each class
+worked quite independently. When the rooms were finished, they were
+assembled on a table in the hall and the roof put on.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--A flour mill. Built by fourth grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+=The Flour Mill.=--The flour mill, shown in Fig. 30, was built in
+connection with a study of the general subject of milling by a
+fourth-grade class. The class visited a flour mill. They were shown the
+various machines, and the function of each was explained to them. They
+made hasty sketches of the machines and a rough diagram of their
+arrangement on the floors. They got the dimensions of the floors and
+height of the ceiling. An empty box was remodeled to approximate the
+dimensions of the building. Small representations of the machines were
+made and placed in the proper relation to each other. No attempt was made
+to show more than the external proportions in the small representation.
+The work served its best purpose in keeping the children thinking
+definitely about what they had seen. The attempt to express their thoughts
+in tangible form deepened the mental impression, even though the tangible
+results were crude and lacked many details.
+
+The conveyer being of special interest, two boys worked out a larger model
+which illustrated the band-bucket process. This is shown in Fig. 30, at
+the right of the mill. Small cups were made of soft tin and fastened to a
+leather strap. The strap was fastened around two rods, placed one above
+the other. The lower rod was turned by a crank fastened on the outside of
+the box. Two or three brads driven into the lower rod caught into holes in
+the strap and prevented slipping. The machine successfully hoisted grain
+from the lower box to one fastened higher up, but not shown in the
+picture. The model was very crude in its workmanship, but it showed the
+ability of fourth-grade boys to successfully apply an important principle
+in mechanics, and it gave opportunity for their ingenuity to express
+itself. The work was done with such tools and materials as the boys could
+provide for themselves, and without assistance other than encouraging
+suggestions from the teacher. This bit of construction accompanied a broad
+study of the subject of milling, including the source and character of the
+raw materials, the processes involved, the finished products and their
+value.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE VILLAGE STREET
+
+
+Playing store is a game of universal interest. Making a play store is a
+fascinating occupation. These are factors which cannot be overlooked in
+any scheme of education which seeks to make use of the natural activities
+of children.
+
+The downtown store stands to the children as the source of all good things
+which are to be bought with pennies. It is usually the first place outside
+the home with which they become familiar, and its processes are sure to be
+imitated in their play. In their play they not only repeat the processes
+of buying and selling, but try to reproduce in miniature what they regard
+as the essential features of the real store.
+
+If they are allowed to play this fascinating game in school, it may, by
+the teacher's help, become at once more interesting and more worth while.
+Curiosity may be aroused through questions concerning what is in the
+store, where it came from, how it got there, what was done to make it
+usable, how it is measured, and what it is worth. In seeking answers to
+these questions, the fields of geography, history, and arithmetic may be
+explored as extensively as circumstances warrant and a whole curriculum
+is built up in a natural way. After such study, stores cease to be the
+_source_ of the good things they offer for sale. The various kinds of
+merchandise take on a new interest when the purchaser knows something of
+their history, and a new value when he knows something of the labor which
+has gone into their manufacture.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Box house and stores. Grades one, three, and two.
+Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+Being a subject of universal interest, it may be adapted to the conditions
+of the various grades. It being also impossible to exhaust the
+possibilities of the subject in any single presentation, it may profitably
+be repeated with a change of emphasis to suit the development of the
+class. For example, in the second grade, the study of the street is
+chiefly a classification of the various commodities which are essential to
+our daily life, and a few of the main facts of interest concerning their
+origin. Those a little older are interested in the processes of
+manufacture and the geography of their sources. In playing store, weights
+and measures, the changing of money, and the making of bills take on an
+interest impossible in the old-fashioned method of presenting these phases
+of arithmetic. Discussions and narratives supply oral language work, and
+descriptions, letters, and notes provide material for written exercises.
+
+The class may be divided into groups, each group contributing one store to
+the street, or the attention of the whole class may be centered on one
+store at a time, as the immediate conditions suggest. If the former method
+is used, as each store is finished it may be used as subject matter for
+the entire class, while the important facts concerning it are considered.
+The first permits a broader scope; the second a more exhaustive study. In
+either case visits to the real stores studied are important supplements
+to the work.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--A village street. Third grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+=General Directions.=--Discuss the stores on a village street. Which are
+most important? Why? Decide how many stores the class can build, and
+choose those most necessary to a community.
+
+If self-organized groups[2] are allowed to choose the part they are to
+work out, both interest and harmony are promoted and leadership
+stimulated.
+
+Use a box for each store. Each group is usually able to provide its own
+box. Paper inside of box with clean paper, or put on a coat of fresh
+paint. Make appropriate shelving and counters of thin wood.
+
+Stock the store with samples of appropriate merchandise as far as
+possible. Supplement with the best representations the children can make.
+They should be left to work out the problem for themselves to a large
+extent, the teacher giving a suggestion only when they show a lack of
+ideas.
+
+=Suggestions for Details of Representation.=--_Clay Modeling._--Clay may
+be used to model fruits and vegetables, bottles and jugs for the grocery;
+bread, cake, and pies for the bakery; different cuts of meat for the
+butcher shop; horses for the blacksmith shop and for delivery wagons. Clay
+representations may be made very realistic by coloring with crayon.
+
+_Canned Goods._--Paper cylinders on which labels are drawn before pasting
+serve well for canned goods. Cylindrical blocks may be cut from broom
+sticks or dowel rods and wrapped in appropriately labeled covers.
+
+_Cloth._--Rolls of various kinds of cloth should be collected for the dry
+goods store. Figures may be cut from fashion plates and mounted for the
+"Ready to Wear" department.
+
+_Hats._--Hats may be made for the millinery store from any of the
+materials commonly used. This is a good way for girls to develop their
+ingenuity and resourcefulness.
+
+_The Store Front._--The front of each store may be made of either wood or
+cardboard, the spaces for doors and windows being left open that the
+merchandise may be conveniently handled. Brick or stone fronts,
+second-story windows, offices, etc., may all be indicated as artistically
+as the capacity of the class permits by the use of colored crayons. The
+sign is an important feature and should stimulate an interest in well-made
+lettering.
+
+=Additional Projects.=--In addition to representations of retail shops,
+various industries, such as the carpenter shop, blacksmith shop, flour
+mill, ice plant, and other familiar industries, may be represented.
+Coöperative institutions, such as the post office and fire department,
+should be included in the study.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--A grocery. Fourth grade.]
+
+
+=Excursions.=--Wherever possible, the plant should be visited by the class.
+Before making the visit, the class should discuss what they expect to see,
+and go prepared to find out definite things. Each child should have at
+least one question which he is to ask, or one item of information for
+which he is to be responsible to the class on the return. Often the visit
+is more worth while to the class after they have tried to make a
+representation from what they already know and from what they can read on
+the subject. They are then more conscious of their needs and more alive to
+the important elements than when they are merely seeing a new thing which
+is to a great extent foreign to their experience. If they make the visit
+first, they are apt to feel the need of another when they attempt to work
+out their representation. If they make a representation first, they are
+quite sure to be dissatisfied with it and want to make another after they
+have made the visit. In either case their consciousness of need is a
+measure of growth.
+
+=Correlation.=--While the building of a store is in progress the study of
+the sources and processes of manufacture of the various articles of
+merchandise will supply valuable subject matter in several fields.
+
+_English._--Books containing information on the subject will be read with
+a definite purpose and more than ordinary interest. Especially if the
+group method is used, will the members of a group be proud to bring to the
+class interesting items concerning their particular part of the work.
+These narratives and descriptions may be made excellent practice in either
+oral or written English and will be of the sort Dewey characterizes as
+"having something to say rather than having to say something."
+
+_Geography._--This study may also enter as deeply into the field of
+geography as the development of the class warrants. It will be geography
+of a vital sort. How these things are brought to us touches the field of
+transportation, creating an interest in ships and railroad trains, pack
+mules and express wagons.
+
+_History._--The study of the process of manufacture opens up the field of
+industrial history, and in this, as in the geography, the study is limited
+only by the capacity of the class.
+
+_Number._--In the field of number the possibilities are also unlimited, in
+studying the weights and measures used for different commodities, the
+actual prices paid for these things, and the usual quantities purchased.
+
+Playing store will involve the making of bills, the changing of money, and
+the measuring of merchandise. Different pupils may take turns acting as
+salesmen or cashier. The common practices of business life should be
+followed as closely as possible, only in this case each purchaser should
+make out his own bills. Actual purchase slips may be brought from home and
+used in number lessons.
+
+An inventory of the stock may be taken and will supply excellent practice
+in addition and multiplication. After the example of _real_ stores, a
+stock-taking sale at reduced rates may be advertised. The writer answered
+such an advertisement by a third grade and asked how much could be
+purchased for one dollar. Pencils were busy at once, and a variety of
+combinations suggested. One pupil was quickly called to account by his
+mates for offering only ninety-five cents' worth of merchandise for the
+dollar. By these and numerous other exercises which will suggest
+themselves to lively children and wide-awake teachers a vast amount of
+vital subject matter may be dealt with in a natural way, quite on the
+level of the child's experience and interest.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--A grocery. Third grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+_Art._--The art side also may receive due attention in the general
+proportioning and arrangement of the stores, in the modeling of certain
+features from clay, as enumerated above, in the making of labels for boxes
+and cans, in the writing of signs and advertisements, and in the color
+combinations. These features are to a great extent incidental to other
+problems just as the use of good taste is incidental to all the affairs
+of life and should receive corresponding emphasis.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Figure 32 shows about half the stores built by one third-grade class. Some
+of the subject matter drawn from the various stories was as follows: in
+connection with the grocery, a study of the source of various articles of
+food with oral and written descriptions of processes of manufacture; the
+common measures used in the grocery, and ordinary amounts purchased.
+
+In connection with the meat market, the names of various kinds of meat,
+the animals from which they are obtained, and the part of the animal which
+furnishes certain cuts; as, for example, ham, bacon, chops. The current
+prices and approximate quantity needed for a meal made practical number
+work.
+
+The bakery called for an investigation of the processes of bread making
+and a study of the material used. In all of the processes the teacher had
+opportunity to stress the necessity for proper sanitation.
+
+In connection with the dry goods store, the distinguishing characteristics
+of cotton, wool, linen, and silk were emphasized and illustrated by the
+samples collected for the store and by the clothing worn by the children.
+Common problems in measuring cloth enlivened the number lessons.
+
+The millinery store disclosed considerable ingenuity in the field of hat
+manufacture, and a lively business in doll hats was carried on for some
+time.
+
+In connection with the post office, registered letters, dead letters,
+money orders, rural free delivery, etc., were discussed, and the
+advantages of coöperation touched upon.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--A dry goods store. Third grade.]
+
+
+The other stores of the village street offer further opportunity for
+becoming better acquainted with the common things which lie close at hand
+and touch our daily lives.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Home in a hot country.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Home in a cold country.]
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+SAND TABLES AND WHAT TO DO WITH THEM
+
+
+A sand table should be considered one of the indispensable furnishings of
+every schoolroom. Its possibilities are many and varied. It may be used
+merely as a means of recreation and the children allowed to play in the
+sand, digging and building as fancy suggests. Or it may be used as the
+foundation for elaborate representations, carefully planned by the
+teacher, laboriously worked out by the children, and extravagantly admired
+by the parents on visitors' day. While both of these uses may serve worthy
+ends on certain occasions, the most valuable function of the sand table
+strikes a happy medium between the two, as means of illustrating and
+emphasizing various features of the daily lessons. In this capacity the
+laborious efforts of the show problem on the one hand and purposeless play
+of the other are both avoided. In this capacity the work on the sand table
+goes along hand in hand with the regular work in geography, history,
+language, or any subject in which it is possible through an illustration
+to teach more effectively.
+
+The purpose of this work is not so much to produce fine representations as
+to help the children to clarify and strengthen their ideas through the
+effort to express them in concrete form. The value lies in the
+development which comes to the children while they work. The technique of
+processes of construction is of secondary importance, though careless work
+ought never to be permitted. The completed project has little value after
+it has served its purpose as an illustration and may be quickly destroyed
+to make way for the next project. For this reason emphasis is laid on the
+general effect rather than the detail of construction. The work should be
+done well enough to serve the purpose, but time should not be spent on
+unnecessary details which do not add to the value as an illustration. In
+most cases speed is an important element. The project should be completed
+while the subject it illustrates is under discussion, if it is to be of
+most service. The first essential is that the work shall be done wholly by
+the children. The teacher may by skillful questions help them to build up
+in imagination the project they intend to work out, so that they may work
+with a definite purpose. She may sometimes suggest improved methods of
+working out various features when the improvements will add to the value
+of the illustration, but she should seldom, if ever, plan a project
+definitely or dictate the method of procedure.
+
+Not least among the possible benefits to be derived from work of this kind
+is the development of resourcefulness. The necessity for expressing an
+idea in concrete form with whatever materials are at hand often calls for
+considerable ingenuity. Ability of this sort will show itself only when
+the children are expressing their ideas with utmost freedom and feel the
+responsibility for the success of their work. The more earnestly the
+children try to express their ideas, the greater will be their
+development. The teacher should feel that she is hindering the growth of
+the children and defrauding them of their legitimate opportunity for
+development when she allows an over-anxiety for tangible and showy results
+to make her take the responsibility upon herself.
+
+The details of method are best presented through a detailed description of
+typical illustrations actually worked out in the classroom.
+
+
+A SAND-TABLE FARM--HOME LIFE IN THE COUNTRY
+
+The study of home life as a general subject will include "our home" and
+the homes of other people who live under different conditions. To the town
+child the country will often be somewhat familiar and hold the second
+place in his interest. In the country school the farm may often be the
+best place to begin.
+
+Various questions will arise as soon as it is decided to make a sand-table
+farm, the answers to which will be governed by the habits of the locality.
+What sort of farm shall we have? Shall we raise stock, fruit, corn, wheat,
+vegetables, or a little of everything? What shall we need to plant in each
+case, and in what proportion? How much pasture land shall we need? What
+buildings? What machinery?
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--A sand-table farm. First grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--A sand-table farm. Second grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+=Fences.=--As soon as the question of crops and the division of the table
+into fields is settled, the problem of fencing presents itself. What sort
+of fence is needed, wire, boards, pickets, rails, or hedge? How far apart
+shall the posts be set, how tall should they be, and how many will be
+needed? How many boards? How wide? How long? How many wires?
+
+The making of the fencing will supply material for one or more number
+lessons. Various materials may be used.
+
+_Twigs_ may be cut to given lengths and set in concrete (clay) posts.
+
+_For wire fence_, cut posts from small wooden sticks. Drive small tacks in
+each post--one for each wire. Use fine spool wire or wire raveled from fly
+screen. Twist wires once around each tack, or drive the tacks in firmly so
+that the wire is held by the head of the tack. This is not an easy fence
+for very little children to make.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Detail of chicken fence.]
+
+
+_To make board fence._ Cut posts required length, and decide upon distance
+between posts. Make boards of thin strips of wood or of pasteboard. Nail
+boards to posts with tacks or small brads. This is a very easy fence to
+make and gives some good exercise in measuring.
+
+_Rail fences_ may be made from toothpicks or burnt matches.
+
+_Picket fence_ for the dooryard may be made on wooden foundation with
+cardboard pickets.
+
+_Hedge fence_ should be made from some fine-leafed plant. Cedar twigs
+serve well.
+
+_Chicken fence_ may be cut from paper as per illustration. Fold paper
+several times, lengthwise. Cut across the fold as indicated by arrows.
+Stretch lengthwise as shown in Fig. 40, _a_ and _b_.
+
+=Buildings.=--The class should decide on the buildings needed. Each
+building should be assigned to a group of two or three workers. Each group
+should be held responsible for its contribution and should work out its
+problem with as little help as possible. If the children are able to plan
+a barn and make it, even though it is a very crude affair, more has been
+accomplished than if a very cunning structure had been made after plans,
+dictated and closely supervised by the teacher.
+
+_Wood_ is the best building material for general use.
+
+_Pasteboard_ serves well, but it is less substantial. It is also harder to
+cut and paste heavy cardboard than it is to saw and nail thin wood.
+
+_Clay_ may be used for all buildings which are commonly made of concrete.
+
+=Stock.=--The different kinds of animals needed on the farm and the number
+of each will furnish profitable subject matter for class discussion. The
+animals may be modeled from clay. While the animals will of necessity be
+very large in proportion to the acreage of the farm, attention should be
+directed to the relative proportions between horses and hogs, cattle and
+sheep. Differences of this sort do not trouble little people, as their
+work is sure to show. The point should be stressed only sufficiently to
+help them to see a little more clearly and express their ideas a little
+more adequately each time they try. The accuracy of the result is
+important only as an index that the children are steadily developing in
+power to see and do, and gaining self-reliance.
+
+_The Modeling Process._--The best method seems to be simply to _begin_,
+and, for example, model as good a horse as possible; then discuss the
+results, note a few serious defects, and try again, endeavoring to correct
+them. Encourage rapid work which gives the general proportions of the
+animal in the rough. Beginners are apt to waste time in a purposeless
+smoothing of the clay, in mere tactual enjoyment. Discourage the tendency
+to finish the details of a horse's head, for example, before the body has
+been modeled. Repeat the process as often as time and the interest of the
+children warrant, but be satisfied if the children are doing the best they
+can, even though the results are crude and not so good as some other class
+has produced. The children should always feel that the work is their own.
+For this reason the teacher's help in clay modeling should be through
+demonstration rather than by finishing touches to the child's work.
+Imitation is a strong instinct in little children, and watching the
+teacher model a better horse than he can make will help a child to improve
+his own. One thing to be especially avoided is the attempt to bring every
+class to a uniform degree of excellence according to adult standards. Such
+an ideal encourages the giving of help in a way which hinders real
+development though it may produce immediate results.
+
+=Trees.=--This topic will call out a discussion of the uses of trees;
+which trees are shade trees, which are cultivated for their fruit, the
+distinguishing characteristics of the different varieties, and the ones
+best suited to this particular farm.
+
+Twigs from the real tree should be used wherever possible. In other cases
+the trees may be cut from paper. If a good green paper is not at hand, use
+drawing paper and color with crayons. A realistic effect is gained by
+cutting the tree from folded paper. (See Fig. 41.) Cut three pieces for
+each tree and paste together at the fold, then open out. Make the trunk
+long enough to be driven an inch or more into the sand.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Detail of paper tree.]
+
+
+The making of the trees will furnish material for both art and nature
+study lessons. As far as circumstances permit the real trees should be
+studied, giving the children first-hand experience whether it be much or
+little. They should test the trees they cut by comparing them with real
+trees of the same variety. If this is impossible, the best pictures
+available should be used. (See notes on paper cutting.)
+
+=Crops.=--When the various parts of the farm are about ready, the fields
+may be sown. The sand should be made very wet before the seed is put in
+and sprinkled frequently (twice a day), as the top dries off very quickly.
+After the seeds have germinated little sprinkling need be done, as the
+roots will find enough moisture in the wet sand underneath, and it is
+desirable to retard rather than hasten growth. If carefully managed, a
+table can be kept green for several weeks.
+
+For corn, check holes well into the sand and drop one grain into each
+hole. See that rows are straight and holes evenly spaced.
+
+Sow wheat, oats, barley, etc., _very thickly_, cover lightly with dry
+sand, and sprinkle.
+
+Timothy serves well for meadow and lawn, as it puts up a fine blade. Blue
+grass sends up a fine blade, but is very slow in germination. Clover does
+not make a velvety lawn, but a little in the pasture will make an
+interesting contrast.
+
+Vegetables may be planted in the garden. They will not develop to any
+great extent, but will serve to emphasize different habits in germination;
+as, for example, the contrast between beans and corn.
+
+=Correlation.=--The opportunity for nature study afforded by the farm
+problem will prove one of its most interesting and valuable features as
+the progress in plant growth is noted from day to day. The farm problem
+combines well with both language and art work in supplying vital material
+for both. In addition to the interesting discussions which naturally arise
+concerning the building and planting, a diary may be kept by each child.
+
+_Keeping a Diary._--The date of planting may be noted and the date when
+each variety of seed first appears above ground. With the larger seeds, as
+corn and beans, a seed may be dug up each day and examined, so that the
+children may appreciate what is going on below ground. Drawings may be
+made of the seeds, showing the changes in appearance from day to day.
+After the seed leaves appear the daily growth may be measured and noted in
+the diary. After a few days seeds may be dug up again that the roots may
+be examined. At various stages of growth different varieties of seeds may
+be dug up, laid upon a paper, and sketched by the children. The facts they
+note may be stated in simple, well-formed sentences, either oral or
+written or both.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--An Eskimo village and The Overall Boys' Farm.
+First grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+_Art._--The sketching will serve well as the day's art lesson, though its
+chief value is in helping the children to see clearly. Their efforts will
+be crude but the teacher should constantly keep in mind that the chief aim
+is not to obtain fine sketches. Its purpose is to help the children to a
+better appreciation of the plant through the effort put forth in making
+the sketch. The technique of the drawing should be emphasized only so far
+as it will help them express better what they see, and not to the point
+where they attempt to copy the teacher's strokes. The teacher should be
+satisfied if every child is doing his best and making steady progress,
+even though that best may be crude and not up to the standard reached by
+the teacher who struggles for fine results.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--An apple orchard. First grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+_English._--For children who are able to write the diary offers a natural
+means of gaining experience in the use of common forms of punctuation; as,
+for example, the writing of dates and the use of a comma in a series, as
+well as the punctuation of simple statements, in such entries as the
+following:
+
+     April 15, 1912.
+
+     We planted the seeds on our farm to-day.
+
+     We planted corn, wheat, oats, and beans.
+
+
+In all work of this sort it is difficult to overestimate the advantage of
+separate sheets of paper over a notebook with sewed leaves, in the hands
+of the children. With the fresh sheet always comes an inspiration, no
+matter what failures have gone before. Poor pages can be done over when
+necessary, but do not haunt the workers with their discouraging
+suggestions, as in the use of a notebook. The leaves may be gathered
+together into a binding of some sort. Even covers of plain brown wrapping
+paper can be made artistic with a simple border line well placed or a
+design cut from a paper of a different tone. Written work which culminates
+in an attractive booklet, however simple, seems more worth while than
+exercises written into a commonplace notebook or on scratch paper which
+goes to the wastebasket soon after the mistakes have been commented on.
+
+_Number._--The farm problem also supplies abundant opportunity for gaining
+experience with number. In addition to the actual measurement of the
+materials used for fences and buildings, the scope may be widened, where
+conditions warrant, to include estimates and calculations of the amount of
+the material used.
+
+For example, how many inches or feet of wire will be needed to make a
+three-wire fence of given length? How large a piece of cardboard will be
+needed to cut boards one fourth or one half inch wide for a four-board
+fence fifteen inches long?
+
+These estimates may be translated, _as far as the children are able to
+appreciate the connection_, into quantities and values of the same
+material in real problems connected with real farms. It is important,
+however, to be careful not to carry work of this sort so far beyond the
+experience of the children that it becomes wholly foreign and abstract to
+them. We are too apt to forget that it is _experience_ and not _objects_,
+which is the vital factor in concreteness.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Robinson Crusoe. Third grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+In connection with the nature study a variety of number exercises grow out
+of the questions which the situation prompts. As, for example, in
+connection with the corn crop: How many seeds were planted? In how many
+rows? How many seeds in a row? How many came up? How many failed to
+germinate? How many more came up than failed? If each good seed should
+produce two ears of corn, how many would we have? What would they be
+worth at a given price? etc.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Pueblo Indian village. Second grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+In an ungraded school, while the younger children might confine their
+efforts to counting as above, the older children might answer the same
+questions in terms of percentage and in the probable quantities on a real
+farm. The stock farm may be treated in the same way. How many cows? How
+much milk will they give? What will it be worth? How much butter would it
+make? What will it cost to keep the cows? What is the farmer's profit?
+These and many other questions will suggest themselves to both teacher and
+pupils, once the subject is opened up. They will be _practical questions
+in so far as they touch the experience of the children_ in such a way as
+to appeal to them as real questions. Each individual teacher must decide
+how far and into what field it is worth while to lead any particular
+class.
+
+=The Sand Table.=--The various types of sand tables range all the way from
+the hardwood, zinc-lined article, provided with a drainpipe, down to the
+homemade structure evolved from a goods box.
+
+The quality of the table does not greatly affect the quality of the work
+to be done on it, but there are several points which affect the
+convenience of the workers. The height of the table should allow the
+children to work comfortably when standing beside it. A long, narrow table
+is seldom as satisfactory as one more nearly square, but it should never
+be too wide for the children to reach the center easily. Any table with
+tight joints in the top and four- or five-inch boards fitted tightly
+around the edge will serve the purpose. The inside of the box should be
+painted to prevent warping and leaking. An "ocean blue" is a good color,
+as it makes a good background for islands.
+
+If no table is available, a goods box may be turned on its side, the top
+covered with oilcloth, and a frame, made from the cover of the box, fitted
+around the edge. The inside of the box may be used as a closet in which to
+store tools and materials, and a neat appearance given to the whole by a
+curtain of denim or other plain, heavy material.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
+
+One of the most valuable uses of the sand table is in making illustrations
+for stories, historical events, and similar topics in which the relations
+between people and places is important. No definite rules can be laid
+down for working out such illustrations. The conditions under which they
+are made, the time to be devoted to the work, the importance of the
+subject, all affect both the nature and the quality of the work. Any
+material which lends itself to the purpose should be called into service.
+
+The method of procedure is best set forth by describing several problems
+as actually worked out by children.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--A home in Switzerland. Second grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+(1) =Story of Columbus=--_First Grade._
+
+_Materials Used._--Paper for cutting and folding, twigs for forests,
+acorns for tents, large piece of glass for ocean.
+
+_Details of Illustration._--The piece of glass was imbedded in sand in the
+middle of the table; one end of the table represented Spain, the other,
+America. The representation of Spain included:
+
+"Castles in Spain" being large houses with many
+     windows in which the king and queen lived. They were cut from paper.
+
+Many people, cut from paper, including kings and queens and the
+     friends of Mr. Columbus who came to tell him "good-by." The kings and
+     queens were distinguished by royal purple robes and golden crowns and
+     necklaces, produced by the use of colored crayon.
+
+The three ships made from folded paper. In one of them sat Mr.
+     Columbus.
+
+Fishes, of paper, inhabited the hollow space underneath the glass.
+
+The forest primeval was shown on the American side by green twigs of
+     trees set very close together. On pulling apart the leaves and
+     peering into the depths of this forest, one found it inhabited by
+     bears and other wild beasts, also cut from paper.
+
+The Indians lived in a village of acorn tents set up in a little
+     clearing on the shore.
+
+Flags.--The Spanish region was identified by a Spanish flag, while
+     the stars and stripes waved above the Indian village.
+
+_Values._--The project being on the level of the children's experience,
+they worked freely and with intense interest. The characters in the story
+were all very real to them. They literally swarmed about the table
+whenever opportunity was given, moving the figures about as they told the
+story over and over again. Mr. Columbus sailed across the sea many times.
+Many boats were made and named for one of the three, according to the
+preference of the maker. They peeped into the forest and shuddered in
+delightful fear "lest a bear get me." They made and remade the scene as
+new ideas suggested themselves during several days of Columbus week.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Two little knights of Kentucky. Fourth grade.
+Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--How Cedric became a knight. Fourth grade.
+Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--A sugar camp. Built late in the spring by a
+third-grade class. They enjoyed the green grass, though it suggests an
+overlate season.]
+
+
+Several discrepancies existed which are mentioned here because they
+troubled some overconscientious visitors. The stars and stripes did not
+come into existence until centuries after Columbus died and therefore
+never waved over the Indian village which he found. But chronology does
+not trouble the first grader very much, while "my country" and "my flag"
+are ideas which are developing together. And when he is singing, "Columbus
+sailed across the sea, To find a land for you and me," the red, white, and
+blue forms the most fitting symbol in his representation of that land. The
+wild animals which infested the sand-table forest are not all mentioned in
+the histories as found on San Salvador, but they did exist in the child's
+idea of the wild country which the white men found on this side of the
+Atlantic. The children having truthfully expressed their ideas, the
+teacher had a basis from which to develop, correct, and emphasize such
+points as were of real importance, while the unimportant features would
+fade out for lack of emphasis.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--A western cattle ranch.]
+
+
+On the occasion of the supervisor's visit the members of the class vied
+with each other in telling the story and explaining the significance of
+the various illustrations. The supervisor expressed a wish to own some of
+the cuttings, whereupon, at a hint from the teacher, the class which had
+gathered about the sand table scampered joyfully (but quietly) back to
+their seats. Scissors and paper were quickly distributed, and in about
+five minutes an empty shoe box was required to hold the collection of "Mr.
+Columbuses," kings and queens in royal purple, gold crowns, and necklaces,
+ships, fishes, etc., that were showered upon the guest. Needless to say
+many scraps of paper had fallen to the floor. The teacher remarked that
+it was time for the brownies to come. Down went all the heads for a sleepy
+time. The teacher slipped about, tapping here and there a child, who
+quickly began gathering up the scraps as joyously as he had helped to make
+them.
+
+The supervisor bade them good-by, with a wish that all children might
+begin their school life under such happy and wholesome influences.
+
+(2) =Story of Jack Horner=[3]--_First Grade._--As the story was read the
+different characters were subjects for free paper-cutting exercises. An
+abundance of paper (scratch paper and newspaper) was supplied, and each
+child allowed to cut each figure many times, very quickly.
+
+The story was also dramatized and acted out over and over again. Figure 1
+shows the result of an hour's work in assembling the various characters
+and telling the whole story on the sand table and in a poster. The
+different figures to be cut were assigned to or chosen by the different
+children, the teacher taking care that no characters were omitted. Having
+cut figures of the various characters as they were met in the story, all
+were eager to reproduce the part called for, and in a few minutes more
+than enough cuttings were made to supply both sand table and poster with
+ample material. Two groups of children, one for the poster and one for the
+sand table, were assigned the work of placing the figures. The teacher
+superintended both projects, giving a few suggestions as needed, but
+throwing the responsibility upon the children as much as possible.
+
+This problem was worked out by the same class which made the Columbus
+illustration just described. The Jack Horner story was illustrated in the
+spring, after much work of this sort had been done. The quality of the
+cuttings showed an interesting improvement over the cuttings made for the
+Columbus story, which came during the third week of the school year.
+
+(3) =Story of Three Little Pigs.=--This is a long story, and three weeks
+were occupied in reading it and dramatizing it. During this time there
+were frequent discussions about how it was to be worked out on the sand
+table. Contributions in great variety were brought in: straw for the straw
+house, twigs for the house of sticks, bags of brick dust to make a roadway
+different from the sand, rose hips to be tied to a small branch to
+represent the apple tree, and various other articles.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--The story of Three Little Pigs. First grade.
+Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--A Japanese tea garden. Third grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--A coal mine. Fourth grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+The houses were built as suggested by the pictures in the reader. The pig
+and wolf were modeled in clay, each being shown in the several different
+positions described in the story. Over and over a little clay pig rolled
+down the hill in a paper churn and frightened a clay wolf. One group, not
+having wherewithal to build a brick house, used a wooden one made by
+another group. Another class made the brick house out of blocks, and built
+in a fireplace with its kettle ready to hold the hot water whenever the
+wolf should start for the chimney. (See Fig. 51.)
+
+(4) =Japanese Tea Garden.=--A third-grade class used the sand table to
+illustrate what they had gleaned from reading several stories and
+descriptions of life in Japan, in connection with elementary geography.
+The sand-table representation included a tiny bridge across a small stream
+of "real" water. The "real river" was secured by ingenious use of a
+leaking tin can which was hidden behind a clump of trees (twigs). A thin
+layer of cement in the bed of the river kept the water from sinking into
+the sand. A shallow pan imbedded in the sand formed a lake into which the
+river poured its waters. (See Fig. 52.)
+
+(5) =A Coal Mine.=--The sand table shown in Fig. 53 was worked out by a
+fourth-grade class in connection with the geography of the western states.
+Descriptions and pictures were studied with great earnestness to find out
+how to fix it, and the children made it as they thought it ought to be.
+The actual making occupied very little time, the various parts being
+contributed by different pupils.
+
+Problems of this sort develop leadership. There is usually one whose ideas
+take definite shape promptly and whose suggestions are willingly followed
+by his group. If there is one pupil in the class whose ability to lead is
+so strong that the others are overshadowed, it is sometimes well to let
+the work be done by small groups who use the table turn about. This plan
+stimulates a wholesome rivalry and discourages dawdling.
+
+(6) =Stories.=--Illustrations for two stories are shown on page 94. In the
+first (Fig. 47) part of the class made a representation on the sand table
+while the rest prepared a poster from paper cuttings. In the second (Fig.
+48) empty shoe boxes were used in making the castle. Very little time was
+spent on either project.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--A chariot race. Second grade. Pasadena,
+California.]
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+ANIMALS AND TOYS
+
+
+The circus and the zoölogical garden are always centers of interest to
+little children and may be used to great advantage to furnish the point of
+departure in the study of animal life. Making the animals in some form
+crystallizes the interest in the animals represented, and awakens interest
+in their habits and home.
+
+The handwork may be used as an illustrative factor connected with
+geography and nature study, or the making of the circus may be the
+starting point, and incidentally furnish subject matter in several fields.
+For example, geography and nature study grow out of the search for facts
+concerning the animals themselves, _i.e._ size, color, food, home, value,
+etc. The desire for such information gives purpose to reading. Oral and
+written descriptions supply subject matter for practice in English.
+Reducing the actual proportions of animals to a definite scale and
+problems relating to their commercial value make practical use of the
+knowledge of number. Art enters into the making of free-hand sketches,
+cuttings, and patterns for wooden models.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--A circus parade.]
+
+
+A good circus or "zoo" may be worked out in a variety of materials. Paper,
+cardboard, clay, and wood all serve well.
+
+To get the best value from the problem it should be as free as possible
+from copy work. The children should consult the best sources of
+information at their disposal, which may range all the way from ordinary
+picture books to natural history and encyclopedia descriptions. They
+should find out, unaided, as much as possible concerning the animal in
+question: his size, color, food, home, values, etc.,--the teacher
+supplementing with interesting and necessary items not at the disposal of
+the class.
+
+Free-hand cuttings and pencil sketches should be compared with the best
+pictures obtainable and the real animal whenever possible. Such patterns
+as are needed should be made by the children themselves. Ready-made
+patterns will produce better proportioned animals, but more dependent,
+less observant children also.
+
+
+METHODS IN DETAIL
+
+=Realistic Animals in Three-ply Wood.=--Secure necessary items of
+measurement and decide upon scale. One inch for each foot is best for
+younger children.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Three-ply wooden animals.]
+
+
+Draw rectangle proportioned to the extreme length and height of the
+animal. Draw into the rectangle a _profile_ sketch of the animal, being
+careful that it comes to the line on each side. _All four feet must_ touch
+the base line. Considerable practice may be needed before a good sketch
+can be drawn. The animal may be represented as standing, walking, or
+running, but must be drawn in profile.
+
+Cut out the sketch and make by it three patterns: one of the head, body,
+and tail; one of the body and right legs; one of the body and left legs.
+Care must be taken to get good lines at shoulder and rump. (See Fig. 56.)
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Detail of three-ply animals with movable parts.]
+
+
+Lay the pattern on the wood so that the grain runs lengthwise of the legs
+and other frail parts and draw outline carefully. Use basswood one fourth
+inch thick, or other soft wood.
+
+Saw out the parts with a coping saw. Be careful in sawing to keep the
+blade in a vertical position in order that the edges may be true.
+
+Nail or glue the parts together. If the animal does not stand perfectly,
+rub the feet on a piece of sandpaper. Use water color or crayon to give
+proper color.
+
+_Three-ply Animals with Movable Parts._--To make the head movable, saw the
+part from the body on a curved line, as shown in Fig. 57. Fasten with a
+single nail through the shoulder. The curved line must be a part of a
+circle and the nail must be at the center. The edges should be smooth to
+allow easy action. The tail may be adjusted by a similar plan. The parts
+may be made to move automatically by suspending a weight on cords which
+are attached to the movable parts, as shown in Fig. 57. If the weight is
+to be used, cut off the body part on the double dotted line to allow room
+for the cords to swing.
+
+A figure of this sort must be fastened on a pedestal or platform which
+will extend over the edge of the table. A slot must be cut in the pedestal
+wide enough to allow the cords to swing freely. (See Fig. 56.) The
+pedestal may be a long board or piece of heavy cardboard which can be
+tacked to the table or held firm by a clamp, or it may be a thin board
+fastened to a U-shaped block which is held firm on the edge of the table
+by a wedge.
+
+=Cardboard and Paper Animals that Stand.=--For younger children who cannot
+handle the saw easily cardboard or stiff paper may be used.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Notched rest for animals.]
+
+
+To make the animal stand the feet may be tacked to a small piece of wood
+about one inch square on the end and as long as needed, or a cardboard
+brace, such as is used on easels, may be glued to the back. A realistic
+effect is given if the animal is cut with two legs and the brace made to
+represent the other two, or a piece of cardboard cut as in Fig. 58 may be
+used as a brace, the body of the animal fitting into the notch.
+
+_Clay_ makes an excellent medium, but it requires more skill in clay than
+in wood to get an equally good effect. Clay animals should be modeled with
+a pedestal, and the separations between the two forelegs and the two hind
+legs merely indicated. If each leg is modeled separately, the figure is
+likely to be frail.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Balancing figures.]
+
+
+=Balancing Figures.=--Design such figures as a prancing horse or dancing
+bear and saw from a single piece of wood. A little below the center of the
+figure insert a curved wire, on the other end of which is a ball of clay
+or other weight. The wire must be fastened firmly so that it cannot turn.
+Adjust so that the figure balances.
+
+Figures of people in foreign costumes, children running and jumping, as
+well as all sorts of animals, are very fascinating problems of this sort.
+(See Fig. 59.)
+
+=Seesaw Figures.=--Such groups as two boys chopping wood, two chickens
+drinking, two dogs tugging at a string, wrestling boys, and similar groups
+are interesting problems of the seesaw type. (See Fig. 60.)
+
+_Detail._--Cut the figures from cardboard. Make with a long pedestal.
+Color with crayon or water color. Use two light sticks for the seesaw, to
+which tack one figure in a vertical position and the other on a slant.
+Fasten to each stick with one tack. If a central figure is used, tack
+firmly to lower stick. Work the figure by moving the upper stick while the
+lower one is held firm.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Some simple toys.]
+
+
+=Toys.=--A box of carpenter's scraps of soft wood will supply material for
+a variety of toys which may be made by the children themselves, thereby
+more than doubling the fun. A few suggestions are given in detail. The
+making of these will suggest others. (See Fig. 60.)
+
+_Doll's Swing._--A heavy block for a base, two tall uprights, and a
+crosspiece will make the frame. Make a seat from cardboard or use the end
+of a small box and suspend from crossbar.
+
+_Doll's Teeter._--Use a heavy block for a base. Two uprights with
+double-pointed tacks or notches in the top. Drive two double-pointed tacks
+in lower side of teeter board at center. Slip a small rod through the
+tacks and rest in the notches on the uprights. Suspend a weight by cords
+from the lower side of the board, adjust until the board balances. The
+ends of the board should be provided with box seats for the doll's
+comfort.
+
+_Railroad Train._--For cars, saw pieces from a square stick. For engine,
+use pieces of broomstick or other cylinder. Soft wood is better if
+obtainable. For wheels, use pieces of small broomstick or dowel rod. (See
+Fig. 56.)
+
+Let the children study real trains and make the best imitation they can
+work out.
+
+_Jumping Jacks._--Cut the figure from light weight cardboard. Make head
+and body in one piece. Cut two arms long enough to reach well above the
+head. Make the hands very large. Cut two legs either with or without a
+joint at the knee. Color with crayon or water color.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Adjusting jumping jack in frame.]
+
+
+Fasten the legs and arms to the body with a string tied loosely to allow
+free movements. Make a frame of two light stiff sticks and a crosspiece
+fastened between them near the lower end of the sticks. Fasten with a
+single nail at either end of the crosspiece. Cut notches near the upper
+ends of the sticks. Fasten the figure to the frame by a stout thread. Use
+a coarse needle and carry the thread through the hands twice, leaving a
+loop on each side to slip over the ends of the sticks into the notches. A
+small block or folded bit of cardboard between the hands to keep them
+apart will improve the movement of the toy. Adjust the figure so that the
+threads are parallel when the figure hangs below the inverted frame. (See
+Fig. 61.) When the frame is held upright, the figure will hang between the
+sticks and the threads will be crossed. Press the lower ends of the frame
+together to make the jumping jack perform.
+
+_Merry-go-round._--Use a heavy block for a base. Bore a hole in the center
+and insert a square stick, about 10 in. long. For arms, use two pieces
+about 3/8 in. thick and 10 in. long. Fasten these together in the form of
+a cross and nail to the top of the upright with a single nail. An awl may
+be used to make the hole a little larger than the nail so that the arms
+will revolve easily. Suspend a box seat of wood or cardboard from each arm
+to complete the toy. (See Fig. 59.)
+
+=Games.=--_Ring Toss._--Use two square pieces of board at least 1/2 in.
+thick, one piece larger than the other. Bore a hole in the center of the
+smaller piece with a 1/2-in. auger bit.
+
+For the upright use a stick 1/2 in. square and about 12 in. long. Whittle
+the corners of the stick until it fits firmly into the hole in the small
+board. Nail the small board to the large one.
+
+For the rings use reeds, venetian iron, or hoops from small buckets or
+cart wheels. Wrap the rings with raffia or yarn. Make at least three rings
+of varying sizes. (See Fig. 60.)
+
+Playing ring toss and keeping tally makes an excellent number game.
+
+_Ten Pins._--From bogus or other heavy paper roll and paste cylinders
+about three inches in diameter and about twelve inches long. These may be
+set on end, and any of the common ten pin games played with the help of a
+soft rubber ball. Keeping tally gives excellent practice in number.
+
+_Bean Bag Game._--Draw three circles of different sizes on a large sheet
+of heavy cardboard. Carefully cut out the circles with a sharp-pointed
+knife. Mount a picture of some animal on each piece cut out.
+
+Fasten the pieces back in place by a single cloth hinge pasted on the
+back, and at the lowest part of the circle.
+
+Tack the sheet of cardboard to a light wooden frame to keep it from
+bending.
+
+Let the frame rest against the wall at a slight angle. Bean bags thrown at
+the animals will knock them down as they go through the holes. The bean
+bags should be made by the children. Various number games may be played
+with bean bags.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+HOLIDAYS
+
+
+The various holidays which come during the year mean so much to little
+children that they should receive special notice and should suggest the
+form of handwork to be done at the time.
+
+=Thanksgiving= suggests attention to harvest products, to be modeled in
+clay, cut from paper, or drawn with crayon; the making of sand-table
+scenes showing early New England life in various phases; the making of
+various utensils and commodities of the primitive home which differ from
+our own; as, for example, the making of candles, the hour glass, and the
+sundial.
+
+=Christmas= suggests the making of toys and all sorts of things suitable
+for gifts. If the work centers around the Christmas tree, it offers
+opportunity for coöperation in making trimming such as paper chains,
+pop-corn strings, etc., as well as individual gifts. If a tree is not
+obtainable, a box may be dressed up in imitation of Santa's sleigh drawn
+by cardboard reindeer. Whatever else is done in honor of the visit of St.
+Nicholas, the spirit of giving should be cultivated by making gifts to
+some younger or less fortunate groups. Picture books may be made for sick
+children, doll furniture and other toys for the orphans' home or some
+family of unfortunates. A sack might arrive a week or two before
+Christmas accompanied by a telegram from Santa requesting contributions
+to help him out in some specific way and stating that it would be called
+for at a certain time. When a "real Santa" calls for the sack, he may
+leave in its place another containing some unexpected treat for the
+children themselves. The gifts which the children contribute should be of
+their own making, that they may have a full sense of real giving and not
+merely the pleasure of delivering the parcels mother has provided.
+
+=Valentine's Day= offers an opportunity for developing appreciation of a
+higher form of art than the shop windows frequently offer, and also
+investing with pure, sweet sentiment a day which means, in some quarters,
+only vulgar sentimentality and coarse jests.
+
+=Easter= offers a similar opportunity for emphasis on the fine things in
+color and subjects for greeting cards. The season also suggests emphasis
+on study of budding plants and young animal life by means of cutting,
+painting, and modeling.
+
+=Hero days= suggest a variety of forms of handwork, such as picture making
+with crayons or cuttings, or pictures in three dimensions on the sand
+table, for intensifying important phases of the hero's life; illustrated
+stories in booklet form; and the making of "properties" for dramatic
+representations. These things offer a welcome change from the stereotyped
+"Speaking day," and stimulate originality and self-reliance.
+
+So much has been written and so many suggestions are constantly being
+offered in school journals that specific suggestions for _things to make_
+seem superfluous here.
+
+=Individual Problems.=--While community problems must form a large part of
+the handwork in the lower grades, it is desirable to have, from time to
+time, projects which seek a definite result from each pupil. In the
+community problem it is possible for the strong pupil to monopolize the
+values of the work by imposing his ideas upon his fellows and by doing all
+the work while the slower pupils are getting ready to begin. In the same
+way it is possible for the lazy pupil to shirk much of his responsibility
+through the eagerness of his companions. It is therefore necessary to
+maintain a balance by the use of individual problems of a more definite
+type. These may often be specific parts of the community problem, but this
+will not meet all the needs of the case. The special days offer excellent
+occasion for work of this sort in addition to the coöperative problems
+which are undertaken by the class as a whole.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+GENERAL SUGGESTIONS AND SUMMARY
+
+
+=Modification of Outlines.=--All the projects outlined in the foregoing
+pages are capable of modification and adaptation to the needs of several
+grades. For this reason, in nearly every problem, many more suggestions
+are offered than will often be applicable in any one instance of its
+development. The directions are, for the most part, given from the
+standpoint of the first grade, on the principle that it is easier to add
+to the detail of a problem than to simplify it. On the other hand, the
+directions are not generally specific in detail, in order to prevent as
+far as possible a mechanical copying of any project.
+
+=Emphasis on Self-expression.=--It is desired to place special emphasis
+upon the point that each project undertaken, if it is to reach its highest
+value, must come as fully as possible from the children themselves and be
+to the very fullest extent _their self-expression_.
+
+_Not any house described in this book, nor any house seen in another
+schoolroom, nor even the house which I, as teacher, plan in detail, will
+be most valuable to my class_; but rather _our house_, which _we, teacher
+and pupils_ working together, evolve to suit our own needs and fancies,
+using suggestions gathered from every available source, but adapting them
+to our own needs.
+
+=Self-directed Activity and Discipline.=--The terms "self-directed
+activity" and "self-expression" must not be confounded with the idea of
+letting the children do as they please in any random and purposeless
+fashion. If one were to start out to escort a group of children to a
+certain hilltop, it is quite probable that some of them would run part of
+the way. Others would walk in twos and threes, and these would change
+about. They would halt to look at things that attracted their attention.
+The leader would halt them to observe some interesting point which they
+might otherwise miss. Should any of them wander from the right path the
+leader would call them back, and any frail child would be helped over the
+hard places. Yet with all this freedom the group might move steadily
+forward and reach the hilltop in due time.
+
+All progress up the hill of knowledge should follow a similar plan. The
+teacher should have a very definite idea of the end to be attained. The
+children should work with a purpose, and that purpose should be of such
+immediate interest to them that they would be anxious to attain it. They
+would then work earnestly, and discipline would settle itself. Handwork
+projects should be sufficiently simple to allow each worker to see his way
+through, or at least find his way without waiting for directions at each
+step. Instead of a blind following of such directions the worker should at
+all times feel himself the master of his tools and materials and be able
+to make them obey his impulse and express his idea. This attitude toward
+work can be secured only when the work is kept quite down to the level of
+the child's ability and appreciation. Only by this means can we hope to
+establish the inspiring and strengthening "habit of success."
+
+=Introduction of New Methods.=--The question arises, How shall work of
+this sort be adapted to a course of study which is already full and does
+not provide time for handwork? Handwork takes more time than bookwork, and
+children evolve plans but slowly. If the teacher waits for the children to
+evolve plans and then carry them out on their own responsibility, the
+quantity of work produced will be small and the quality poor compared with
+the results gained by other methods.
+
+The freer method must be justified, not by its tangible results, but by
+its value as a means of individual development. If it is true that
+
+  "One good idea known to be thine own
+  Is worth a thousand gleaned from fields by others sown,"
+
+then it follows that a small quantity of crude work may often represent
+greater genuine growth than a larger quantity of nicely finished work, if
+the latter has been accomplished by such careful dictation that individual
+thought on the part of the pupils was unnecessary.
+
+Common sense is the best guide in introducing a new method of work. Any
+sudden transition is likely to be disastrous. Responsibility in new fields
+should be shifted from teacher to pupils as rapidly as they are able to
+carry it, but it should never be transferred in wholesale fashion. This is
+especially true of a class that is accustomed to wait for the teacher's
+permission or command in all the small details of schoolroom life, such as
+speaking, moving about the room, etc.
+
+The freer methods may be introduced by either of two plans. In carrying
+through the first sand-table project, for example, the teacher may plan
+the details quite as definitely as is her custom in general work, assign
+each part to a particular pupil, and guide his execution of it as far as
+necessary. With each succeeding project more and more freedom may be
+granted, as the children become accustomed to community work and learn how
+to use the materials involved. Or, the work may be introduced by allowing
+two or three very trustworthy pupils to work out, quite alone, some simple
+project which will appeal to the entire class as very desirable. Other
+projects may be worked out by other pupils as they show themselves worthy
+of trust. Such a plan sets a premium upon independence and ability to
+direct one's own actions, and has a beneficial effect upon general
+discipline. Each individual teacher must follow the plan which best
+accords with her individual habits and the conditions under which she
+works. No rule can be rated as best under any and all circumstances.
+
+=New and Different Projects.=--Teachers frequently spend time and nerve
+force seeking new projects supposedly to stimulate the interest of the
+children. Often a careful examination into the true motives back of the
+search would prove that it is not so much to stimulate the interest of the
+children as to call forth the admiration of other teachers. Because a
+house was built last year does not hinder the building of another this
+year. If the children are allowed ample freedom, the houses will not be
+alike. If the teacher is centering her interest in the development of the
+children and not in the things the children make, the projects will always
+be new because worked out in a new way by a different group of children.
+Monotony comes about through the teacher's attempt to plan out details and
+impose them upon the children, a process quite similar to the use of
+predigested foods.
+
+=Quality of Work.=--Methods such as outlined above are sometimes criticized
+because of the crudity of the results. It is sometimes argued that the
+crude work establishes low standards and that better finished work of a
+more useful type is more desirable in school projects. Certainly
+everything which is done in school should be useful. School years are too
+precious to be wasted, in any degree, on a thing which is useless. But it
+is important to have a right standard for measuring the usefulness of a
+project. Since it is the child's interest and effort which are to be
+stimulated, his work must be useful from his point of view. The things
+that he works upon must be valuable to him personally. It is not enough
+for the teacher to be satisfied with the value of the subject matter. It
+must, as far as possible, be self-evident to the child himself.
+
+In the growing period a child is always anxious to excel himself and
+attain a higher level, nearer the adult standards. He measures his growth,
+not only in inches, but in ability to run faster, jump farther, count
+higher, and so on. So long as he is stimulated by an interesting motive he
+puts forth his best effort. It is only when we set him tasks and demand
+blind obedience that he lags. If his crude work represents his best
+effort, honestly put forth, he will, and he does, desire to do something
+better each time he tries. If he is permitted to work freely upon projects
+of immediate interest to him, he not only becomes familiar with various
+materials and the purposes they may serve, but he also begins to realize
+his inability to make them always obey his impulse. As soon as he
+discovers that there are better and easier ways of working which bring
+about more satisfactory results, he is anxious to learn the tricks of the
+trade; and he comes to the later, more technical courses in handwork, not
+only with more intelligence, but also with an appreciation of their value
+which is reflected in the quality of his work.
+
+=Summary.=--The last word, as the first in this little book, would stress
+the fact that it is always possible to improve present conditions.
+
+Activity is an essential factor in a child's development in school as well
+as out. Handwork is an important phase of this necessary activity. Neither
+lack of time, scarcity of material, nor lack of training on the part of
+the teacher is a sufficient excuse for failure to use some handwork in
+every school. Much can be accomplished with materials which are to be
+found anywhere, without using more time than is ordinarily devoted to the
+subject, and with better results, if we will but realize that educative
+handwork is not confined to the making of a few books, boxes, mats, or
+baskets after a prescribed pattern, however good in themselves these may
+be, but is also a means through which we may teach other subject matter.
+
+We not only learn to do by doing, but we come to _know_ through trying to
+_do_. And we often learn more through our failures than through our
+successes. We defraud the children if we deprive them of this important
+factor in their development. Any teacher who is willing to begin with what
+she has and _let the children do_ the best they can with it, will find
+unexpected resources and greater opportunities at every hand.
+
+Let us not allow ourselves to grow disheartened through vain wishes for
+the impossible or for the advantages of some other field, but attack our
+own with vigor and determination; for
+
+  "The common problem, yours, mine, every one's
+  Is--not to fancy what were fair in life
+  Provided it could be--but, finding first
+  What may be, then find how to make it fair
+  Up to our means."
+
+
+
+
+REFERENCES
+
+
+DEWEY--The School and the Child; School and Society; The Child and the
+Curriculum.
+
+O'SHEA--Dynamic Factors in Education.
+
+SCOTT--Social Education.
+
+DOPP--The Place of Industries in Elementary Education.
+
+BONE--The Service of the Hand in the School.
+
+SARGENT--Fine and Industrial Arts.
+
+ROW--The Educational Meaning of Manual Arts and Industries.
+
+CHARTERS--Methods of Teaching.
+
+BAGLEY--The Educative Process.
+
+RUSSELL--The School and Industrial Life. Educational Review, Dec. 1909.
+
+SYKES AND BONSER--Industrial Education. Teachers College Record, Sept.
+1911.
+
+BENNETT--The Place of Manual Arts in Education. Educational Review, Oct.
+1911.
+
+RICHARDS--Handwork in the Primary School. Manual Training Magazine, Oct.
+1901.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASSROOM USE
+
+Coping Saw Work JOHNSTON
+
+School Drawing DANIELS
+
+Little Folks Handy Book BEARD
+
+World at Work Series DUTTON
+
+Big People and Little People of Other Lands SHAW
+
+How We Are Fed CHAMBERLAIN
+
+How We Are Clothed CHAMBERLAIN
+
+How We Are Sheltered CHAMBERLAIN
+
+Continents and their People CHAMBERLAIN
+
+How the World is Fed CARPENTER
+
+How the World is Clothed CARPENTER
+
+How the World is Housed CARPENTER
+
+Around the World Series TOLMAN
+
+Youth's Companion Series LANE
+
+The Bird Woman CHANDLER
+
+The Tree Dwellers DOPP
+
+The Early Cave Men DOPP
+
+The Later Cave Men DOPP
+
+
+Printed in the United States of America.
+
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] In scoring cardboard cut about halfway through the board on the
+_outside_ of the fold.
+
+[2] See Scott's "Social Education."
+
+[3] See Riverside Primer.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate
+both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as
+presented in the original text.
+
+Printer's inconsistencies in hyphenation have been retained.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRIMARY HANDWORK***
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+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1" />
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Primary Handwork, by Ella Victoria Dobbs</title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+
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+<body>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Primary Handwork, by Ella Victoria Dobbs</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Primary Handwork</p>
+<p>Author: Ella Victoria Dobbs</p>
+<p>Release Date: December 14, 2009  [eBook #30676]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRIMARY HANDWORK***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>E-text prepared by Stephanie Eason<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.pgdp.net/c/">http://www.pgdp.net</a>)<br />
+    from digital material generously made available by<br />
+    Internet Archive/American Libraries<br />
+    (<a href="http://www.archive.org/details/americana">http://www.archive.org/details/americana</a>)</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" style="background-color: #ccccff;" cellpadding="10">
+  <tr>
+    <td valign="top">
+      Note:
+    </td>
+    <td>
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      <a href="http://www.archive.org/details/primaryhandwo00dobbrich">
+      http://www.archive.org/details/primaryhandwo00dobbrich</a>
+	</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h1>PRIMARY HANDWORK</h1>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>THE MACMILLAN COMPANY</h4>
+<h4>NEW YORK &middot; BOSTON &middot; CHICAGO &middot; DALLAS<br />
+ATLANTA &middot; SAN FRANCISCO</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>MACMILLAN &amp; CO., <span class="smcap">Limited</span><br />
+LONDON &middot; BOMBAY &middot; CALCUTTA<br />
+MELBOURNE</h4>
+<h4>THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, <span class="smcap">Ltd.</span><br />
+TORONTO</h4>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><a name="front" id="front"></a></p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i004.jpg" alt="House of the Three Bears" /></div>
+<p class="center"><b>HOUSE OF THE THREE BEARS</b><br />
+Built by first-grade class. Columbia, Missouri. See <a href="#Page_58">page 58</a>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<h1>PRIMARY HANDWORK</h1>
+<h3>BY</h3>
+<h2>ELLA VICTORIA DOBBS, B.S., A.M.</h2>
+<h4>ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF MANUAL ARTS<br />UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5>New York<br />
+THE MACMILLAN COMPANY<br />
+1923</h5>
+<h5><i>All rights reserved</i></h5>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1914,<br />
+<span class="smcap">By</span> THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.</h5>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5>Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1914.</h5>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5>Norwood Press<br />
+J. S. Cushing Co.&mdash;Berwick &amp; Smith Co.<br />
+Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.</h5>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4>DEDICATED TO<br />
+THE LITTLE CHILDREN OF AMERICA<br />
+WITH THE WISH<br />
+THAT ALL THEIR SCHOOL DAYS<br />
+MAY BE HAPPY DAYS</h4>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>This book is the outgrowth of long experience as a teacher of primary
+grades, followed by special study of handwork as a factor in elementary
+education. It is written with three objects in view:</p>
+
+<p>First, to gather into a single volume various methods already in use in
+the more progressive schools, and for which the best suggestions are
+scattered through current periodicals:</p>
+
+<p>Second, to organize these methods and present them in a simple form for
+the use of teachers who have had no special training in handwork
+processes:</p>
+
+<p>Third, accepting conditions as they exist in the small town school and the
+one-room country school, as a basis of organization, to offer suggestions
+which may be easily adapted to the conditions of any school with a view to
+bringing present practice into closer harmony with the best educational
+ideals.</p>
+
+<p>No claim is laid to originality, beyond the small details in which one
+person's interpretation of a large problem will differ from that of
+another.</p>
+
+<p>The projects here outlined have been tested in the Public Schools of
+Columbia, Missouri, under conditions which are common to towns of about
+the same size.</p>
+
+<p>The point of view has been influenced chiefly by the educational
+philosophy of Prof. John Dewey, especially as expressed in his essay "The
+Child and the Curriculum." The author wishes here to make grateful<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span>
+acknowledgement to Dr. Dewey, not only for the helpfulness of his
+writings, but also for the inspiration of his teaching.</p>
+
+<p>Thanks are also due to Dr. Naomi Norsworthy of Teachers College, and to
+Dean W. W. Charters of Missouri University, for encouragement in planning
+the book and for criticism of the manuscript. Especial acknowledgment is
+here made to Prof. R. W. Selvidge of Peabody College for Teachers,
+formerly of this University, for hearty co&ouml;peration and helpful
+suggestions in working out the problems described in this book, and to the
+teachers of the Columbia Schools for their most efficient services in
+testing these problems in their classrooms.</p>
+
+<p class="right">E. V. D.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">University of Missouri</span>,<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">February, 1914.</span></p>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr><td align="right"><span class="smcap">chapter</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><span class="smcap">page</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">I.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">II.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Paper Cutting and Poster Making</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">III.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Booklets</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">IV.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Criticism and Standards of Workmanship</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">V.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The House Problem</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">VI.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Village Street</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">VII.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Sand Tables and What To Do With Them</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">VIII.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Animals and Toys</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">IX.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Holidays</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">X.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">General Suggestions and Summary</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td><a href="#REFERENCES">REFERENCES</a></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Illustrations">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><span class="smcap">page</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>House of the Three Bears</td><td align="right"><a href="#front"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1.</td><td>Paper Cutting. First Grade</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig1">7</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2.</td><td>Paper Cutting. Second Grade</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig2">8</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3.</td><td>Paper Cutting. Second Grade</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig3">10</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4.</td><td>Paper Tearing</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig4">11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5.</td><td>Paper Cutting. Third Grade</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig5">13</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6.</td><td>Paper Cutting. Fourth Grade</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig6">15</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7.</td><td>Pamphlet Sewing</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig7">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8.</td><td>Japanese Sewing</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig8">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9.</td><td>House arranged on a Shelf</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig9">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10.</td><td>A Medieval Castle</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig10">29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">11.</td><td>House arranged on a Table&mdash;Front View</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig11">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">12.</td><td>House arranged on a Table&mdash;Side View</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig12">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">13.</td><td>House arranged on a Table&mdash;Back View</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig13">34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">14.</td><td>House Plan</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig14">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">15.</td><td>Arrangement of Windows</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig15">36</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">16.</td><td>Detail of Hollow Square</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig16">38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">17.</td><td>Borders</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig17">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">18.</td><td>Looms and Samples of Weaving</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig18">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">19.</td><td>Box House by Second Grade</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig19">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">20.</td><td>Detail for Paper Weaving</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig20">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">21.</td><td>Furniture from Wood Blocks</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig21">48</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">22.</td><td>Furniture from Wood Blocks</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig22">48</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">23.</td><td>Home of White Cloud, the Pueblo Girl</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig23">51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">24.</td><td>Detail of Stairway</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig24">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">25.</td><td>Box House, showing Roof</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig25">55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">26.</td><td>Detail of Gable</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig26">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">27.</td><td>Colonial Kitchen</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig27">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">28.</td><td>House of the Three Bears</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig28">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">29.</td><td>Cornstalk House</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig29">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">30.</td><td>A Flour Mill</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig30">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">31.</td><td>Box House and Stores</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig31">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class='pagenum'>[Pg xii]</span>32.</td><td>A Village Street</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig32">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">33.</td><td>A Grocery. Fourth Grade</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig33">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">34.</td><td>A Grocery. Third Grade</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig34">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">35.</td><td>A Dry Goods Store</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig35">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">36.</td><td>Home in a Hot Country</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig36">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">37.</td><td>Home in a Cold Country</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig37">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">38.</td><td>A Sand-table Farm. First Grade</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig38">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">39.</td><td>A Sand-table Farm. Second Grade</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig39">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">40.</td><td>Detail of Chicken Fence</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig40">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">41.</td><td>Detail of Paper Tree</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig41">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">42.</td><td>Overall Boys' Farm</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig42">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">43.</td><td>An Apple Orchard</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig43">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">44.</td><td>Robinson Crusoe</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig44">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">45.</td><td>Pueblo Indian Village</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig45">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">46.</td><td>A Home in Switzerland</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig46">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">47.</td><td>Two Little Knights of Kentucky</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig47">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">48.</td><td>How Cedric became a Knight</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig48">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">49.</td><td>A Sugar Camp</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig49">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">50.</td><td>A Western Cattle Ranch</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig50">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">51.</td><td>The Story of Three Little Pigs</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig51">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">52.</td><td>A Japanese Tea Garden</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig52">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">53.</td><td>A Coal Mine</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig53">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">54.</td><td>A Chariot Race</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig54">102</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">55.</td><td>A Circus Parade</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig55">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">56.</td><td>Three-ply Wooden Animals</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig56">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">57.</td><td>Detail for Three-ply Wooden Animals with Movable Parts</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig57">105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">58.</td><td>Notched Rest for Animals</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig58">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">59.</td><td>Balancing Figures</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig59">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">60.</td><td>Some Simple Toys</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig60">108</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">61.</td><td>Adjusting Jumping-Jack in Frame</td><td align="right"><a href="#fig61">109</a></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h1>PRIMARY HANDWORK</h1>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>PRIMARY HANDWORK</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2>CHAPTER I</h2>
+<h3>INTRODUCTION</h3>
+
+<p>In setting forth the plan and purpose of this little book the author
+wishes to lay equal emphasis on its limitations. The outlines and
+suggestions which follow are designed for the use of grade teachers who
+have had little or no training in handwork processes but who appreciate
+the necessity of making worthy use of the child's natural activity and
+desire to do. The outlines are arranged with reference to schools which
+are not provided with special equipment and which have scant funds for
+supplies. The projects require only such materials as empty goods boxes,
+and odds and ends of cloth and paper, which are easily obtainable in any
+community. No extra time is required for the work, and it may be
+successfully carried out by any teacher who is willing to devote a little
+study to the possibilities of things near at hand.</p>
+
+<p>These outlines do not form a course of study to be followed in regular
+order nor in set lessons coming at a definite time. They are, rather, a
+series of suggestions to be used wherever and whenever they will serve a
+worthy purpose. They are not to be regarded<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> as a <i>special</i> subject,
+having little or no connection with the regular class work, but rather as
+an illustrative method of teaching the regular subject matter whenever the
+teaching can be done more effectively by means of concrete illustrations.
+It is proposed to make greater use of construction as a medium of
+expression, and place <i>making</i> more nearly on a par with talking, writing,
+and drawing.</p>
+
+<p>Any of the projects outlined may be modified to suit varying conditions,
+and the emphasis placed according to the needs of a particular class. All
+the suggestions are given in very simple form, chiefly from the standpoint
+of the first grade, for the reason that it is easier to add to the details
+of a simple problem than to simplify one which is complex.</p>
+
+<p>It is not the purpose here to emphasize the training of the hand or the
+development of technique in handwork processes to the extent commonly
+expected of a course in manual arts, though considerable dexterity in the
+use of tools and materials will undoubtedly be developed as the work
+proceeds. While careless work is never to be tolerated in construction any
+more than it would be tolerated in writing or drawing, the standard is to
+be only such a degree of perfection as is possible through a child's
+unaided efforts. It is proposed to provide him with things to do of such
+interest to him that he will wish to do his best, and things of such a
+nature that they will please him best when they are well done, and so
+stimulate a genuine desire for good work. To this end the suggestions
+relate to things of immediate value and use to the children<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span> themselves,
+rather than to things commonly comprehended in a list of articles which
+are useful from the adult point of view.</p>
+
+<p>The work is to be kept on a level with the child's experience and used as
+a means of broadening his experience and lifting it to a higher level. It
+must also be kept on the level of his constructive ability in order that
+he may do things <i>by himself</i>, and develop independence through feeling
+himself master of his tools. Neither patterns nor definite directions are
+provided for the details of the projects outlined, for the reason that it
+is desired to make every project a spontaneous expression of the child's
+own ideas. To this end the outline serves only as a framework, to be
+filled in as the worker desires. The ready-made pattern implies dictation
+on the part of the teacher and mechanical imitation and repetition on the
+part of the pupil,&mdash;a process almost fatal to spontaneous effort. While it
+is possible through a method of dictation to secure results which seem, at
+first, to be much better than the crude constructions which children are
+able to work out for themselves, it is only a superficial advantage, and
+one gained at the expense of the child's growth in power to think and act
+independently. It is an advantage closely akin to the parrotlike
+recitation of the pupil who catches a few glib phrases and gives them back
+without thought, as compared with the recitation of the pupil who thinks
+and expresses his thoughts in his own childish language.</p>
+
+<p>These outlines are intended not only to emphasize independence in
+self-expression, but also to foster a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> social spirit through community
+effort and develop a sense of responsibility through division of labor. A
+child's shortcomings will be brought home to him much more vividly if he
+fails to contribute some essential assigned to him in the construction of
+a co&ouml;perative project, and thereby spoils the pleasure of the whole group,
+than when his failure affects only his individual effort in a group of
+duplicate projects.</p>
+
+<p>These outlines are intended also to suggest a method of opening up to the
+children, in an attractive way, the great field of industry. Their deep
+interest in playing store leads easily to a study of the source, use, and
+value of various forms of merchandise and the essential features of
+various trades and occupations. Problems of this sort are fascinating to
+children in all the lower grades, are rich in valuable subject matter, and
+suggest things to do which are both interesting and worth while. Without
+attempting to exhaust any phase of the subject, they awaken an intelligent
+interest in the industrial world and tend to stimulate thoughtful
+observation. They help to give the children correct ideas about industrial
+processes as far as their knowledge goes, and to create a desire for
+further knowledge. This general information lays a good foundation for
+later and more serious study of the industries and the choice of a
+vocation.</p>
+
+<p>These outlines are offered as a means of bridging the gap between the
+formal methods and outgrown courses of study still in use and the richer
+curriculum and more vital methods toward which we are working. Much time
+must be spent in study and experimentation before a satisfactory
+reorganization of the curriculum can be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> worked out. Without waiting until
+this work shall be wholly completed, it is possible at once to vitalize
+the most formal course of study through the use of freer methods, which
+permit and encourage self-directed activity on the part of the pupil. The
+use of such methods will not only tend to create a deeper interest in
+school work, but must also help toward the great problem of
+reorganization, by throwing into stronger relief the strength and weakness
+of our present common practice.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+<h3>PAPER CUTTING AND POSTER MAKING</h3>
+
+<p>Paper and scissors form a fascinating combination to all children, and
+offer a very direct means of self-expression. In the language of a small
+boy who attempted to tell how to do it, "You just think about something
+and then cut out your <i>think</i>." The teacher is concerned chiefly with the
+"think" and the way in which it is expressed. The children are interested
+in paper cutting chiefly from the pleasure of the activity. Beyond the
+immediate pleasure in the process, the cuttings are valuable only as they
+indicate the clearness of the child's ideas and measure his ability to
+express them. The process is educative only in so far as it helps the
+small worker to "see with his mind's eye" and to give tangible shape to
+what he thus sees. It is important, therefore, that the work be done in a
+way that will emphasize the thinking rather than the finished product.</p>
+
+<p>The first question arising is, To what extent shall a pattern be used?
+Shall the teacher cut out the object and bid the class follow her example?
+Shall she display a silhouette or outline drawing of the object she
+desires the children to cut, or shall they work without any external guide
+to justify or modify the mental picture? Shall they be given a pattern and
+be allowed to draw around it?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>All of the above methods are used to a greater or less extent. Long
+experience seems to indicate that the first cutting of any object should
+be unassisted by any external representation of it whatever, in order that
+the attention of each child may be focused upon his own mental picture of
+the object. When he has put forth his best effort from this standpoint, he
+should compare his cutting with the real object or a good picture of it
+and be led to see the chief defects in his own production and then allowed
+to try again.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig1" id="fig1"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i023.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Story of Jack Horner on poster and sand table.<br />Snowflakes in background. First grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>For example, after telling the story of Mother Hubbard, the children may
+be interested in cutting out dogs. No picture or other guide should be
+used at first, since every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> child knows something about dogs. The first
+cuttings are likely to be very poor, partly because the children have not
+sufficient control over the scissors and largely because their ideas are
+very vague. In a general comparison of work they will help each other with
+such criticisms as, "This dog's head is too big." "That dog's legs are too
+stiff." They are then ready to try again. Only when they have reached the
+limit of their power to see flaws in their work do they need to compare it
+with the real dog or its picture. Only after a child has attempted to
+express his idea and has become conscious in ever so small a degree of the
+imperfection of his expression will he really be able to see differences
+between the real object and his representation of it, and thereby clarify
+his mental picture.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig2" id="fig2"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i024.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Paper cutting. Second grade, Columbia.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>The child's imagination is so strong that he is apt to see his productions
+not as they are but as he means them to be, and he is unable to
+distinguish between the original and his copy of it. If the picture or
+silhouette is presented at first, his work becomes to a large extent mere
+copying rather than self-expression. If the teacher cuts out a dog and
+displays it as a sample, the class will be apt to see that piece of paper
+only and not a real dog. If the children are permitted to draw the outline
+either freehand or around a pattern, still less mental effort is required,
+and in cutting they see only the bit of line just ahead of the scissors
+and not the object as a whole.</p>
+
+<p>Such methods (<i>i.e.</i> the use of outlines, silhouettes, etc.) will produce
+better immediate results. It will be easier to distinguish dogs and cats
+from cows and horses if a pattern is provided, but it will not produce
+stronger children. Such methods only defeat the chief purpose of the work,
+which is to stimulate the mental effort required to hold the mental image
+of the object in the focus of attention during the time required to
+reproduce it in the material form.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig3" id="fig3"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i026.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Paper cutting. Second grade.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>It is also often asked whether the children shall always cut directly and
+without modification or whether they shall be permitted to trim off the
+imperfections of their first attempts. While any rule must always be
+interpreted in the light of immediate circumstances, it is generally best
+to cut directly, and after noting the defects, cut again. It is then
+possible to compare the several attempts and see if improvement has been
+made. Attention should be directed to the most glaring defect only, and an
+attempt made to correct it. For example, if the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> dog's head is too large,
+do not trim down, but cut another dog and try for better proportions.
+Compare the second attempt with the first, to measure improvement. Even
+little children can be taught to work in this thoughtful way, looking for
+the defects in their own work and making definite attempts to correct
+them. To this end much cutting from an unlimited supply of newspaper or
+scratch paper will accomplish more than a few exercises in better paper
+which must be trimmed and worked over for the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> sake of economy. If little
+children are allowed to trim off, they are apt, in the pure joy of
+cutting, to trim too much and lose the idea with which they started&mdash;a
+process which tends to vagueness rather than clearness. To prevent this it
+is often helpful to preserve both pieces of paper, <i>i.e.</i> the cutting and
+the hole. (See <a href="#fig4">Fig. 4</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Paper Tearing.</b>&mdash;Paper tearing serves many of the same purposes sought in
+cutting, and has several strong points in its favor. Working directly with
+the finger tips tends to develop a desirable dexterity of manipulation.
+The nature of the process prevents the expression of small details and
+tends to emphasize bold outlines and big general proportions. Working
+directly with the fingers tends also to prevent a weak dependence upon
+certain tools and tends to develop power to express an idea by whatever
+means is at hand.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig4" id="fig4"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i027.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Paper tearing.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><b>Posters.</b>&mdash;The term "poster" as here used includes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> all mounted pictures
+made by children, such as cuttings, drawings, paintings, and scrap
+pictures.</p>
+
+<p>A poster may be the work of one child or of a group. A single poster may
+tell the whole story, or a series of posters may be made to show a
+sequence of events. A series of posters may be bound together in book
+form. For poster making single sheets of paper, medium weight and of
+neutral tone, are needed. The sheets should be of uniform size for
+individual use so that they could be bound together if desired. For
+co&ouml;perative work and special problems larger sheets will be needed.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SUGGESTED PROBLEMS FOR PAPER WORK</h3>
+
+<p><b>Cutting out Pictures.</b>&mdash;This serves well for first effort with scissors.
+The interest in the picture furnishes a motive, while the outline serves
+as a guide and allows the attention to be given wholly to the control of
+the scissors.</p>
+
+<p><i>Free cutting of single objects</i>&mdash;such as animals, fruits, trees,
+furniture, utensils, etc.&mdash;intensifies and clarifies mental pictures and
+stimulates observation if the child is led to express his own ideas first
+and then to compare his expression with the original and note his
+deficiencies. As far as possible choose objects with strong bold outlines
+for the first attempts. There should be some marked feature, such as
+Bunny's long ears, which calls for emphasis. To cut a circular piece of
+paper which might be an apple or a peach, a walnut or a tomato, will not
+aid much in clarifying a mental picture, while Bunny's long ears, even
+though crudely cut, will be more deeply impressed on the child's mind.</p>
+
+<p><b>Illustrations for Stories.</b>&mdash;<i>Single Illustration.</i>&mdash;After<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> a story has
+been read aloud and the characters and events freely discussed by the
+class, each child may be encouraged to represent the part which has
+appealed to him&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> "cut what he wants to cut." After the cuttings are
+mounted they will probably form a series which will tell the whole story.
+When several children illustrate the same feature, it offers opportunity
+for comparison and judgment as to which ones have told the story most
+effectively. For example, in the story of the Three Bears, the cuttings
+may show the three bears in three relative sizes, the three chairs, the
+three beds, the table, and the three bowls of porridge. (See notes on
+Criticism.)</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig5" id="fig5"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i029.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Free cutting. Third grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><i>Series.</i>&mdash;Let each child select the two or three most important events in
+a story and illustrate these in a single poster or series of posters.</p>
+
+<p><i>Community Poster.</i>&mdash;A long story such as the "Old Woman and the Silver
+Sixpence" may be illustrated by the class as a whole, each child cutting
+some one feature. This requires attention to relative proportions so that
+the parts may be in harmony when assembled. Such posters may be used for
+wall decoration.</p>
+
+<p><b>Charts.</b>&mdash;Poster making may also include the making of charts containing
+samples of manufactured articles in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> various stages of development. For
+example, a chart on cotton might show raw cotton, cord, thread, cloth of
+various sorts, lace, paper, and other materials made from cotton. Such a
+chart might also include pictures of cotton fields, spinning and weaving
+machinery, and other related features.</p>
+
+<p><b>Materials.</b>&mdash;Too much can scarcely be said in favor of much cutting from an
+unlimited supply of common wrapping paper, newspaper, or other waste
+paper, in which the children are entirely unhampered by such injunctions
+as, "Be careful and get it just right the first time, because you can't
+have another paper if you waste this piece." The possible danger of
+cultivating wastefulness is less serious and more easily overcome than the
+very probable danger of dwarfing and cramping the power of expression.
+Here, if anywhere, the rule holds good that we learn to do by doing, and
+abundant practice is essential to success.</p>
+
+<p><i>Black silhouette</i> or <i>poster</i> paper is most effective when mounted, but
+is too expensive for general use in large classes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brown kraft</i> paper and <i>tailor's pattern</i> paper serve well for both
+cuttings and mounts. Both of these papers may be had by the roll at a low
+cost. The tailor's paper comes in several dull colors, which make good
+mounts for cuttings from white scratch paper or the fine print of
+newspaper.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bogus</i> paper makes an excellent mount and is very inexpensive.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Pasting Process.</b>&mdash;To a large number of teachers the pasting lesson is
+a time to be dreaded and its results<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> a cause of discouragement.
+Especially is this true if the class is large and the teacher attempts to
+have all the class pasting at one time. In many phases of school work it
+is so much easier to control forty or fifty children if they all act in
+unison that we are prone to use the method too often and apply it to forms
+of work much better managed by groups. The process of teaching little
+folks to paste is greatly simplified by the use of the group method.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig6" id="fig6"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i031.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Free cutting. Fourth grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>If the room affords a large table at which a small group may work, the
+teacher can easily supervise the work of the entire group. If there is no
+table, the teacher can work with one or two rows at a time or have very
+small groups come to her desk. The secret of the success of the group
+method lies in having the rest of the class busy with some occupation
+sufficiently interesting to prevent impatience while waiting for turns.
+The command to "fold hands and sit still till your turn comes" is sure to
+cause trouble, because children are physically unable to obey it.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>The most important factor in successful pasting is a liberal supply of
+waste paper. Each child should be supplied with a number of single sheets
+of newspaper torn to convenient size, to paste on, each sheet to be
+discarded as soon as used. This decreases the danger of untidy work. With
+the cutting laid upon the waste paper, the paste may be spread with brush,
+thin wood, or thick paper, well out over the edges. As soon as the pasted
+cutting is lifted the waste paper should be folded over to cover all wet
+paste and lessen the possibility of accidents. After the cutting is placed
+upon the mount, a clean piece of waste paper should be laid over it and
+rubbed until the air is all pressed out and the cutting adheres firmly.
+The waste paper overlay may be rubbed vigorously without harm, whereas a
+light touch of sticky fingers directly upon the cutting will leave a
+soiled spot, if it does not tear the moist paper. If children are
+carefully taught in small groups to follow this method of pasting, in a
+fairly short time all but the weakest members of the class will be able to
+paste neatly without much supervision.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+<h3>BOOKLETS</h3>
+
+<p>The making of booklets forms a valuable accompaniment to almost every
+phase of school work. Even simple exercises, when put into book form, take
+on a dignity otherwise impossible and seem more worth while. It is
+impossible to work with much enthusiasm and care on exercises which are
+destined only for the wastebasket.</p>
+
+<p>The chief value in the making of booklets is lost when they are made for
+display purposes only. Many difficulties are sure to arise when the
+teacher, for the sake of her own reputation, sets an arbitrary standard
+and tries to force every member of the class to meet it. Because of these
+difficulties many teachers dread and avoid work of this sort, but the
+trouble lies in our false standards and poor methods rather than in the
+process itself. When the exhibit idea is uppermost, each page must be
+examined with great care, done over again and again if need be, until the
+standard is reached or the patience of both teacher and pupil exhausted.
+In such a case the work practically ceases to be the child's own. Instead
+of expressing an idea of his own in his own way, he tries to express the
+teacher's idea in the teacher's way, and it is not surprising that he
+fails so often.</p>
+
+<p>The booklet serves its best purpose when it combines<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> both value and need;
+that is, when it is something which seems worth while to the pupil and
+when he feels responsible for its success. He should feel something akin
+to the responsibility one feels in writing an important letter; that is,
+that it must be right the first time because there is no opportunity to
+try again and that he cannot afford to do less than his best because what
+is done will stand.</p>
+
+<p>To "express his own idea in his own way" does not mean that his work is to
+be undirected or that poor results are to be accepted. It does mean that
+when an idea and a means of expressing it have been suggested to him, he
+shall be allowed to do the best he can by himself, and that when he has
+done his best, it shall be accepted even though imperfect. Under no
+circumstances should his work be "touched up" by the teacher. If he is not
+asked to do things which are too hard for him, he will not make many
+serious errors. If these are wisely pointed out, they will not often be
+repeated. If his attention is held to one or two important features at a
+time, each effort will mean some gain.</p>
+
+<p>The making of a booklet in the primary grades should really consist in
+making a cover to preserve pages already made or to receive pages on
+certain topics as they are finished. The making of an animal book, for
+example, might be a continuous process. Whenever a new animal is studied
+and a cutting or drawing of it made, the new page may be added to the
+book.</p>
+
+<p>The first books should be picture books only, collections of cuttings,
+drawings, and mounted pictures. As the children learn to write they may
+add first the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> name and then short descriptions of the pictures, the
+development proceeding by easy stages until their composition work takes
+the form of the illustrated story.</p>
+
+<p>Books which are a collection of single sheets are, as a rule, most
+satisfactory in the primary school. The single sheet is much more
+convenient to use, and there is always an inspiration in beginning with a
+fresh sheet of paper. It is more difficult to paste cuttings into a book,
+and if pages are spoiled, the book is spoiled. If separate sheets are
+used, a poor one may be done over or discarded without affecting the rest.</p>
+
+<p>The making of booklets and posters offers an excellent opportunity for
+developing artistic appreciation. It is not enough for the teacher to
+provide only good colors from which the children may choose, and to
+supervise the spacing of pictures and then flatter herself that because
+the results are good that the children are developing good taste. Unless
+they really want the good things, little real gain has been made. Unless
+they see some reason for the arrangement of a page, other than that the
+<i>teacher wants it that way</i>, little has been accomplished.</p>
+
+<p>The first attempts will show little or no idea of balance or good spacing.
+The early color combinations are apt to be crude. If the best things they
+do are praised and their attention is constantly directed to the good
+points in things about them, they will begin to want those things. They
+will begin gradually to feel a greater pleasure in a well-balanced page
+than in one on which big and little pictures are stuck indiscriminately.
+If they are given all possible freedom in matters of choice,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> it will be
+possible to measure their real progress and to know what points need
+emphasis.</p>
+
+<p>The more accustomed the children are to tasteful surroundings, the easier
+will be their progress, but whether they come from tasteful homes or the
+reverse, the process is the same. Real progress will undoubtedly be slow,
+but it should be upon a sure foundation.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR BOOKLETS</h3>
+
+<p><b>Stories.</b>&mdash;Series of illustrations either cut or drawn for any of the
+stories read by the class.</p>
+
+<p><i>Animal Book.</i>&mdash;Cuttings or sketches of animals. The name and short
+statement of some characteristic may be added by children who are able to
+write. Trees, flowers, fruits, etc., may be treated in the same way.</p>
+
+<p><i>A. B. C. Book.</i>&mdash;A page for each letter of the alphabet to be filled with
+pictures and names of objects having the same initial letter.</p>
+
+<p><i>House Book.</i>&mdash;A page for each room, upon which may be mounted pictures of
+things appropriate to the room. Newspaper advertisements and catalogs
+furnish abundant material for this problem. The work not only helps the
+children to classify present knowledge, but offers opportunity for
+judgment as to arrangement and relative proportions.</p>
+
+<p><i>How People Live.</i>&mdash;A book of pictures of houses in different countries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Famous Houses.</i>&mdash;Pictures of famous buildings and homes of famous people.</p>
+
+<p><i>What we Wear.</i>&mdash;Pictures showing materials from which clothing is made,
+the methods of production and manufacture.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span><i>What we Eat.</i>&mdash;Vegetable foods may be grouped as roots, stalks, leaves,
+seeds, etc. Animal foods may be classified according to the animal from
+which they are obtained and the part of the animal from which they are
+cut. Suggestions for cooking may be added.</p>
+
+<p><i>How we Travel.</i>&mdash;Pictures showing vehicles and conveyances of all sorts,
+classified as ancient and modern, or according to the countries in which
+they are used, or the motive power, as horses, electricity, steam, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with elementary geography and history, booklets and posters
+may be made up from pictures cut from discarded papers, catalogs, and
+magazines, as well as original drawings. A great variety of topics may be
+profitably illustrated in this way. As, for example, land and water forms,
+famous mountains, lakes, rivers, etc., products and processes of
+cultivation and manufacture, famous people, costumes and customs of other
+times and places, utensils and weapons of earlier times.</p>
+
+<p><b>Fastenings.</b>&mdash;The simplest method of binding single sheets is by means of
+paper fasteners and eyelets. Though these are not expensive, some schools
+cannot afford to buy them. Cords may be used in several ways and serve as
+part of the decoration.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Simple Tie.</i>&mdash;Punch three holes in the margin, at least one half inch
+from the edge to prevent tearing out. Insert the cord in the middle hole,
+carry through one end hole, then through the other end hole, then back
+through the middle and tie. (See <a href="#fig7">Fig. 7</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Japanese Sewing.</i>&mdash;Punch holes at regular intervals, as one inch apart.
+Sew through first hole twice, making<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> a loop around the back,&mdash;repeat the
+process until a loop has been made for each hole,&mdash;carry the cord in and
+out through the holes back to the starting point, filling in the blank
+places and making a continuous line, and tie ends together with a small
+knot. (See <a href="#fig8">Fig. 8</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig7" id="fig7"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i038a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Pamphlet sewing.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig8" id="fig8"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i038b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Japanese binding.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span><b>Decoration.</b>&mdash;Only the simplest decoration should be attempted. A plain
+cover of good color tied with a cord of harmonious color will have
+elements of beauty without further decoration. A single border line well
+placed may be used and offers opportunity for developing a nice sense of
+proportion by studying the results to see which borders are neither too
+near the edge nor too far from it.</p>
+
+<p>A well-printed, well-placed title is often the most satisfactory
+decoration. Printing should be introduced early, and the children
+encouraged to make good plain letters. In order to get the title in good
+proportion and well placed, it is helpful to cut a piece of paper the
+desired size and lay it on the cover, moving it about to see where it
+looks best. Until the children have learned to do fairly neat work it is
+often helpful to print the title on a separate piece and paste it in
+place. It is discouraging to spoil an otherwise good cover by a bad
+letter, and this process lessens that danger.</p>
+
+<p>Before the children learn to print, a simple border or band across the
+cover may take the place of the title. The border may be drawn in crayons
+or be free-hand cuttings.</p>
+
+<p>Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the beauty of simplicity in
+decoration. Children are inclined to think beauty means fanciness and that
+beauty increases with the quantity of decoration. It is necessary to begin
+early to develop a taste for good design.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+<h3>CRITICISM AND STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP</h3>
+
+<p><b>Criticism.</b>&mdash;An important feature of all self-directed activity is the
+ability to judge one's efforts and intelligently measure one's success.
+This ability is a matter of slow growth and must be cultivated. It is not
+enough for the teacher to pass judgment upon a piece of work and grade its
+quality. The worker himself must learn to find his own mistakes and how to
+correct them. Class criticism offers the best means of developing this
+power, but must be tactfully conducted.</p>
+
+<p>Little children are brutally frank in expressing their opinions and need
+to be taught how to be truthful and yet not unkind. They need to be taught
+what to look for and how to find it, and how to compare one thing with
+another and discover why one pleases and another displeases. The first
+essential in the training is emphasis on the good rather than the bad. It
+is a gospel of "do" rather than of "don't." The earliest efforts of the
+class may well be confined to comments upon the features they like and, if
+possible, the reason for the liking. This will forestall any tendency to
+call undue attention to the poor efforts of weak workers. At first many
+children will scarcely discriminate between their admiration for a piece
+of work and their love for the worker and will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> apt to praise the work
+of their special friends. This tendency will gradually disappear through
+the development of a real basis of appreciation.</p>
+
+<p>The second essential concerns the improvement of the things which are not
+good. Criticism which merely points out what is bad is of little value.
+Helpful criticism must point out what is good and why, and what is weak
+and how to make it stronger. If, for example, the class is considering the
+success of their efforts to illustrate the story of the Three Bears, they
+should be encouraged to make such comments as, "John's chairs look too
+small for his table," "Mary's bowls are all about the same size." The
+criticism should direct the thought to its possible remedy. It is
+generally better to pass over defects for which no immediate remedy can be
+suggested.</p>
+
+<p><b>Standards of Workmanship.</b>&mdash;The standard of excellence by which acceptable
+work is measured must always vary according to the ability of the class.
+The best the child can do, alone and unaided, should be the only standard
+of measurement, and his best efforts should always be accepted, no matter
+how crude. In no other way can real growth be observed and genuine
+progress made.</p>
+
+<p>In schools where arbitrary standards are set either by supervisors or by
+the rivalry of teachers, the tendency to <i>help</i> the children by doing part
+of the work for them for the sake of the <i>apparent</i> results, offers the
+teacher's most serious temptation to selfishness. In a few cases it is
+helpful for the teacher to add a few strokes to a drawing or adjust some
+detail in construction, that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> child may see the value of certain small
+changes in the place where they will mean most to him. Such work should
+not be exhibited as an example of the child's accomplishment, but should
+be treated as practice work. As a rule the teacher's demonstration should
+be made on other material and not on that used by the pupil. In no
+particular are primary schools open to greater criticism than in the too
+common habit of setting arbitrary standards of excellence and attempting
+to force all children to reach them. Such standards are usually too high
+for honest attainment and tempt or force the teacher to use methods which
+cannot be defended by any sound principle of pedagogy.</p>
+
+<p>Values change with the purpose of the work. A thing is well made when it
+serves its purpose adequately. Toys must be strong enough to permit
+handling. Mechanical toys must work. Sewing must be strong as well as
+neat. In illustrative problems, in which effect is the chief
+consideration, technique needs little emphasis, and workmanship may be of
+a temporary character.</p>
+
+<p>Each thing made should establish its own standard in a way to appeal to
+the child's common sense.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+<h3>THE HOUSE PROBLEM</h3>
+
+<p>The making of a playhouse has long been an accepted feature of primary
+work, but we have not always made it yield all of which it is capable,
+either in the self-directed activity of the children or in correlated
+subject matter. It has, in many cases, been only a bit of recreation from
+the more serious work of the school. In a house prepared by the janitor or
+older pupils the children have been allowed to arrange and rearrange
+ready-made furniture contributed from their playthings at home, but little
+creative work has been attempted. In other cases an elaborate house,
+carefully planned by the teacher, has been built and furnished by the
+children, but, because of the detailed planning, the children's part in it
+became merely a mechanical following of directions. In some cases relative
+proportions in rooms and furnishings have received scant attention; in
+others, color harmonies have been all but ignored. These varying methods
+of carrying out the house-building idea are not without value and may
+often be justified by local conditions, but their results are meager
+compared with the possible richness of the problem.</p>
+
+<p>Playing at house building and housekeeping appeals to an interest so
+universal that children of all times and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> nations yield to its power. It
+is therefore necessary to take account of its influence in their
+development and to dignify it with the approval of the school. We must
+refine and enrich it by our direction and suggestion without robbing it of
+its simplicity and charm.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig9" id="fig9"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i044.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Box house, arranged on a shelf.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig10" id="fig10"></a></p><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i045.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Medieval castle. Built by third grade. Franklin, Indiana.<br />
+<br />An example of elaborate work which aroused the interest of pupils and patrons and paved the way for freer work later.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>In the suggestions which follow, an attempt is made to utilize this
+natural activity of children in an occupation which appeals to them as
+worth while. At the same time it may furnish ample opportunity for the
+general development and effective teaching of various phases of subject
+matter which are incident to the occupation, <i>i.e.</i> number in connection
+with measurements, art in the proportions and color combinations, language
+through discussions and descriptions.</p>
+
+<p>The work is kept on the level of the children's experience by throwing
+them constantly on their own responsibility in every possible detail, the
+teacher never dictating the method of procedure and guiding the work with
+as few suggestions as possible. The work, being on the level of their
+experience, appeals to the children as very real and worth while. It is,
+therefore, intensely interesting, and they work without urging.</p>
+
+<p><b>General Plan.</b>&mdash;A house may be constructed from several empty goods boxes,
+each box forming one room of the house. The boxes or rooms are arranged in
+convenient order, but are not fastened together. Adjoining rooms are
+connected by doors carefully cut in both boxes so that the holes match.
+Windows are also sawed out where needed. The walls are papered, careful
+attention being given to color schemes, border designs, and relative
+proportions in spacing. Floors are provided with suitable coverings&mdash;woven
+rugs, mattings, linoleums, tiles, according to the purpose of the room.</p>
+
+<p>Each step is discussed and more or less definitely outlined before the
+actual making is begun, furnishing opportunity for oral language of a
+vital sort.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> Completed parts are examined and criticized, furnishing
+further opportunity for exercise in oral language while directing
+attention to strong and weak points in the work.</p>
+
+<p>The materials needed are easily obtainable and inexpensive, consisting
+chiefly of empty boxes and odds and ends of paper, cloth, and yarn,
+together with carpenters' scraps.</p>
+
+<p>The tools needed are few, and in some cases may be brought from home by
+the children for a few days, as needed. The necessary time is found by
+making the incidental problems serve as subject matter for regular
+lessons. Making designs for tiling, linoleum, and borders for wall paper,
+planning relative proportions for doors, windows, and furnishings will
+supply material for very practical lessons in art. The problems incident
+to the measurement of doors and windows, tables and chairs, are number
+work of a vital sort and may be legitimately used as a regular number
+lesson. Discussions, descriptions, and definite statements of plans all
+form vital language exercises if rightly used.</p>
+
+
+<h3>HOUSE PLANS IN DETAIL</h3>
+
+<p><b>Materials.</b>&mdash;<i>Empty Store Boxes of Soft Wood.</i>&mdash;Sizes may vary, but where
+several are grouped for a house, they should be near enough the same
+height to make a fairly level ceiling. About 10 &times; 12 &times; 18 in. is a
+convenient size.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paper for Walls.</i>&mdash;Scraps of ingrain wall papers may be had from dealers
+for little or nothing. Cover paper in good colors may be purchased by the
+sheet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> Tailor's paper and brown wrapping paper serve well, and are sold
+by the roll at a low price.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pasteboard</i> (strawboard or juteboard) may be used for the roof.</p>
+
+<p><i>Weaving Materials.</i>&mdash;Rugs may be made from carpet rags, rug yarns,
+rovings, chenille, or jute; towels from crochet cotton; and hammocks from
+macram&eacute; cord or carpet warp.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig11" id="fig11"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i048.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;House arranged on a table. Front view. Built by first grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><i>Wood for Furniture.</i>&mdash;Bass, white pine, poplar, or other soft wood. Box
+tops, if of soft wood, may be made to serve nearly all needs. If possible,
+provide thin wood (about &#188; in. thick) in various widths, from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> one inch
+to six inches, so that only one dimension need be measured. Provide also
+thick pieces 1&#189; in. or 2 in. square for beds and chairs; &#189; in. square
+for table legs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nails</i> of various sizes, chiefly inch brads, are needed.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig12" id="fig12"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i049.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;House arranged on a table. Side view. Built by second grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><b>Tools.</b>&mdash;The tools actually necessary are few. A class can <i>get along</i> with
+one saw and still do good work, though there will be times when several
+saws will facilitate progress. Some tools are needed only for a short time
+and sometimes may be borrowed from the homes. It is more satisfactory to
+have the school provided with the essential tools whenever possible. The
+essential tools include:</p>
+
+<p><i>Brace and auger bit</i>, for boring holes in doors and windows. Needed for a
+short time only.</p>
+
+<p><i>Compass saw</i>, for sawing out doors and windows.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span><i>Crosscut saw</i>, for sawing off lumber. School should own at least one.</p>
+
+<p><i>Miter box</i>, for holding lumber and guiding saw. An old one, good enough
+for children's use, will frequently be contributed by a carpenter. The
+miter box should be fastened firmly to a low table or box.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig13" id="fig13"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i050.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;House arranged on a table. Back view. Built by second grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><i>Hammers</i>, several of medium size.</p>
+
+<p><i>Try-square</i>, a very valuable tool for setting right angles, provided the
+teacher and pupils know how to use it.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span><a name="fig14" id="fig14"></a></p>
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/i051.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;House plan.</p></div>
+<p><b>Arrangement of Rooms.</b>&mdash;The sort of house a man can build is governed by
+his resources and his site. Considering the number of boxes as resources
+and the table or shelf on which they are to stand as the site, the same
+big factors which enter into any house-building problem control the size
+and style of the schoolroom playhouse. What sort of house is desired? What
+sort of house can be built from the materials at hand? What sort of house
+can be built in the space at our disposal?</p>
+
+<p>The boxes may be arranged on a shelf with all the open sides toward the
+class, as in <a href="#fig9">Fig. 9</a>. This economizes space, and all of the rooms are
+visible at once. A two-story house is easily built on this plan. If
+economy of space is not necessary, the boxes may be placed on a table with
+the open sides of the boxes toward the edges of the table, as in <a href="#fig11">Figs. 11</a>,
+<a href="#fig12">12</a>, and <a href="#fig13">13</a>. This permits a more artistic grouping of the rooms. (See <a href="#fig14">Fig. 14</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The responsibility in grouping the boxes should be thrown as fully as
+possible upon the children, the teacher merely suggesting where necessary.
+It should be their house, not the teacher's. The planning should not be
+hurried but time allowed to discuss the advantages and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> disadvantages of
+different plans and reach an agreement. In trying to express individual
+opinions convincingly their ideas will become clearer&mdash;a factor in the
+development of the children which is much more important than any of the
+actual details of the house itself. Whether the class decides to have one
+or two bedrooms in the house is a matter of small consequence. Whether or
+not they are growing in power to appreciate conditions and make an
+intelligent decision is a matter of great consequence. Their decisions
+when made may not always reach the high standard at which the teacher is
+aiming, but if they have really made a decision, not merely followed the
+teacher's suggestion, and if their independent selections from time to
+time show a higher standard of appreciation and greater refinement of
+taste in ever so small a degree, it is evidence of genuine growth upon a
+sure foundation.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig15" id="fig15"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/i052.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 15.&mdash;Arrangement of windows.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Doors and Windows.</b>&mdash;The size and arrangement of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> doors and windows should
+be freely discussed. Various possible arrangements may be sketched upon
+the blackboard by the children. For example, see <a href="#fig15">Fig. 15</a>, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>.
+When a plan is adopted, the doors and windows should be carefully drawn on
+the <i>outside</i> of each box, using the try-square to get right angles.</p>
+
+<p>Bore holes in the corners of the doors and windows and saw out with
+keyhole or compass saw. In order to avoid mistakes it is well, after
+sawing out the opening for a door in one box, to place the two boxes
+together and test the measurements before sawing out the second opening. A
+mistake of this sort, however, is not fatal, but may prove the most
+effective way of impressing the workers with the necessity of careful
+measurement.</p>
+
+<p><b>Walls.</b>&mdash;The decoration of the walls will furnish material for several art
+lessons. The discussion should turn first to the suitability of different
+styles for different purposes, such as tiling for kitchen and bathroom
+walls, light papers for dark rooms, etc. The division of wall space will
+be the next point to be settled, <i>i.e.</i> the height of the tiling or
+wainscot, the width of a border, or the effect of horizontal and vertical
+lines in breaking up wall space. These questions may be discussed as far
+as the immediate circumstances and the development of the class suggest.</p>
+
+<p>The question of color combinations demands special attention. Unless the
+children come from refined homes their ideas of color will be very crude,
+and if contributions of material have been asked for, some gaudy
+impossibilities in flowered paper are apt to be presented. If so, it may
+require considerable tact on the part of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> teacher to secure a
+satisfactory selection without casting any reflections on the taste of
+somebody's mother. This difficulty may be avoided to a degree by providing
+all the materials necessary. It is not enough, however, to cause the
+children to select good combinations at the teacher's suggestion while in
+their hearts they are longing for the gaudy thing she has frowned upon. It
+is better to get an honest expression from them, even though it is very
+crude, and endeavor to educate their taste to a love for better things, so
+that each time they choose the choice may be on a higher level of
+appreciation. Immediate results may not be as beautiful by this plan, and
+apparent progress may be slow, but only by some such method can a real
+appreciation be developed which will prevent the return to the crude
+expression as soon as the teacher's influence is withdrawn.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig16" id="fig16"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/i054.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Detail of hollow square.</p></div>
+
+<p>Plain papers generally give the most pleasing effects. Attractive borders
+may be made by cutting simple units and repeating them at intervals.
+Almost any motif may be used for the unit. Animals, birds, trees, flowers,
+ships, etc., serve well. The process of making the border should be a
+serious lesson in design. A good border is not merely the repetition of a
+pretty figure. The units must not be too far apart nor too close together.
+The shape of the figure used must be such that each unit seems to need the
+next one. Little children will usually take greatest pleasure in working
+from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> some nature motif, as flower or animal, but interesting work can be
+done with simple geometric figures. Take, for example, the hollow square.
+Fold a square of paper on both diagonals. (See <a href="#fig16">Fig. 16</a>.) Cut on dotted
+line. Let each child cut several and lay them in order for a border or
+mount them on a paper of different color. Let the work of the class be put
+up for general criticism. (See notes on Criticism.) Several points which
+very small children are able to appreciate will be found to enter into the
+success or failure of their efforts. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> hollow square itself may be cut
+too wide and look clumsy, or cut too narrow and look frail. In the
+arrangement they may be too close together and look crowded, or too far
+apart and look scattered. A sensitiveness to good proportions comes
+naturally to only a few people, but nearly all are capable of a higher
+degree of appreciation if their attention is directed to the essential
+elements which make things good or bad. The beginnings of this
+appreciation lie in simple things which are easily understood by
+first-grade children.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig17" id="fig17"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i055.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 17.&mdash;Borders using hollow square.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><b>Floors.</b>&mdash;Many of the considerations which enter into the selection of wall
+decorations are of equal importance in choosing floor coverings. What will
+be suitable to the purpose of each room? Why do we use linoleum in the
+kitchen and warm rugs in the bedroom? Shall we use small rugs or a carpet?
+What colors must we have on the floor to harmonize with the colors on the
+wall? What designs are possible and desirable for the materials we have to
+use?</p>
+
+<p><i>Rug Weaving Materials.</i>&mdash;The market offers a wide variety of materials
+prepared especially for school use. Among them the most satisfactory for
+use with small workers are cotton rovings, loose twisted jute, and cotton
+chenille. These, especially the first two, are coarse and work up rapidly,
+and may be had in very desirable colors. Even the cheapest of them,
+however, will prove an expensive item for the school with limited funds,
+and ordinary carpet rags may be made to serve every purpose. Often these
+will be contributed by members of the class. By a careful selection and
+combination of colors very artistic results can be produced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> which are in
+some respects more satisfactory than any obtained from the so-called
+weaving materials, and have the added advantage of costing practically
+nothing.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig18" id="fig18"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i057.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Looms and samples of weaving.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><i>Looms.</i>&mdash;The market also offers a great variety of looms for school use,
+many of them quite simple in construction and moderate in price. In
+schools where bench work is taught, the making of a loom is an excellent
+problem either for the weavers themselves or for an older class working
+for them. If the looms are made by the little weavers themselves, only the
+simplest possible construction should be used, that the work may be
+completed and the loom put to use before the worker loses sight of the
+fact that the purpose is to provide carpet for the house. Children lose
+interest in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>long-drawn-out processes, and for that reason it is better to
+provide them with the necessary tools as far as possible while interest in
+the house building is keen. Later, if considerable enthusiasm has been
+aroused for weaving, individual looms may be made for home use. For the
+school with scant funds a very satisfactory loom may be improvised by
+driving nails one fourth inch apart in the ends of a shallow box of
+convenient size and stretching the warp threads across the open top.</p>
+
+<p>For very small rugs a cardboard loom will serve. This may be made by
+cutting notches or punching holes along opposite edges of a piece of
+cardboard into which the warp may be strung. If a knitting needle is
+inserted at each side, the cardboard will be stiffened and the edges of
+the rug kept straight. Weaving needles may be purchased from supply
+houses. Wooden needles cost 50 cents per dozen. Sack needles serve well
+for small rugs and may be had at any hardware store for 10 cents per
+dozen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Weaves.</i>&mdash;For first weaving the plain "over one, under one" on cotton
+warp with rags or other coarse woof is generally best. Variety may be
+introduced by weaving a stripe or border of a different tone near each end
+of the rug. Vertical stripes serve well as another easy method of
+variation and are produced by using two woof threads of different tones
+and weaving first with one and then with the other. This weave is very
+attractive as the body of the rug with a plain border at either end.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as the children have mastered the plain weave and have a fairly
+clear idea of the possibilities in design<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> through varying the colors in
+the woof only, they may be initiated into the mysteries of the "gingham
+weave" and allowed to experiment with the variations in warp as well as in
+woof. Cotton rovings is an excellent material for weaves of this sort.
+This weave may also be used with raffia to make matting for the
+dining-room floor.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig19" id="fig19"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i059.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Box house by second grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Paper mats may also be used as carpets with good effect. Weaving paper
+strips is often an easier process to little children than weaving with
+textiles, except where very coarse textile materials are used. For paper
+mats select paper of suitable color and cut to the size desired<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> for the
+mat. Fold on the short diameter. Cut slashes from the folded edge, not
+less than one half inch apart, to within one inch of edge of the paper
+(See <a href="#fig20">Fig. 20</a>), leaving a margin on all four sides of the mat. For weavers,
+cut from paper of harmonious tone, strips equal in width to the slashes in
+the mat.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig20" id="fig20"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/i060.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 20.&mdash;Detail of paper weaving.</p></div>
+
+<p>Variations of the simple over one, under one weave add interest to the
+work and also give practice in number combinations such as over one, under
+two, etc. Work of this sort is used in many schools as a method of
+teaching number, the teacher dictating the combinations while the interest
+of the children centers in the new pattern which develops under their
+fingers. While such work has much to be said in its favor, it is open to
+criticism, especially in the matter of dictation. All the children in any
+one group will not work with equal speed. Some will undoubtedly "get
+behind" and others will lose time while waiting for the slow ones.
+Accidents are liable to happen in individual cases.</p>
+
+<p>Many of these undesirable features may be eliminated while still retaining
+the valuable part of the work by writing the directions on the board
+instead of dictating them to the children. It then becomes a lesson in
+reading as well as in number. Each child is thrown more completely upon
+his own responsibility and can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> proceed as rapidly and as steadily as his
+capacity permits. His rate of progress will often be a fair measure of his
+ability for independent thought and action, which is the real measure for
+successful teaching.</p>
+
+<p>As the hardest feature in this method is in keeping the right line and not
+repeating or omitting any direction, a social spirit may be encouraged by
+allowing the children to work in groups and take turns in <i>keeping the
+place</i> while the others work. In one first grade where this plan was in
+vogue the children discovered a book on the teacher's desk which contained
+numerous designs, many of them much more intricate than she would have
+attempted to use as classwork. Their instinct for exploration led them to
+struggle with the directions until they had worked out some designs which
+would have proved dismal failures had they been attempted as class
+lessons. In this instance those who belonged to the persevering group were
+happy in a new-found sense of strength and independence, while the others
+had accomplished as much as any would have done under the dictation
+method.</p>
+
+<p><b>Furniture.</b>&mdash;The problem of furniture for the school playhouse has been
+discussed in numerous publications, and nearly every writer on the subject
+of primary handwork offers suggestions on this topic. The suggestions
+include a range in materials and processes from very simple foldings in
+paper to quite complex processes in reeds and raffia and methodical
+construction in wood.</p>
+
+<p>Among the various materials and styles in common use, folded paper
+furniture has the advantage of being quickly made. The process is of
+sufficient interest to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> little children to hold their attention, and in
+order to secure the desired result they must hear the directions
+intelligently and obey them promptly. These are desirable habits to form.
+It is quite possible, however, for the work to be done in a very formal,
+mechanical way, in which the children merely follow directions, often
+blindly, without any clear purpose and very little thought. Success or
+failure is due largely to chance; for, if by accident even a good worker
+"loses out" on a direction, his work is at a standstill until special help
+is given. He is unable to proceed because he does not know what to do
+next. There is very little opportunity in such a process for independent
+thought or action. It is not self-directed activity.</p>
+
+<p>A second objection to paper furniture is its lack of stability. Paper
+which is pliable enough to fold readily will not hold its own weight long
+when made into furniture, and very soon becomes wobbly. To overcome this
+tendency to wobble, heavier papers are often used and new complications
+arise. Heavy papers do not fold readily without scoring. Scoring demands
+considerable accuracy of measurement&mdash;often to a degree beyond the power
+of a six-year-old. The stiff papers, being hard pressed, are harder to
+paste, and neat work is often an impossibility, unless considerable
+assistance is given.</p>
+
+<p>It is possible to make satisfactory furniture in a great variety of styles
+from stiff paper, and the processes involve some excellent practice in
+measurement and design. The processes necessary to obtain these
+satisfactory results are, however, beyond the ability of children in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> the
+lower grades. Even fairly satisfactory results are impossible unless an
+undue amount of assistance is given by the teacher. In actual practice,
+where stiff paper is used a few of the best workers in the class are
+helped to make the few pieces needed in the playhouse and the unhappy
+failures of the rest of the class are promptly consigned to the
+wastebasket.</p>
+
+<p>Very pretty furniture may be made from reeds and raffia, but the processes
+are too difficult to be successfully performed by small children. The
+reeds do not lend themselves readily to constructions small enough to suit
+the average playhouse, and the larger pieces are out of proportion to the
+other features of the house.</p>
+
+<p>The use of wood overcomes the most serious of the objections to be made to
+other materials, besides being the material most commonly used in "real"
+furniture. Wooden furniture is stable, and a great variety of processes in
+construction are possible without introducing complications which prevent
+independent work on the part of the little people.</p>
+
+<p>The processes necessary to the construction of very simple yet
+satisfactory wooden furniture may be reduced to measuring one dimension,
+sawing off, and nailing on. Measuring one dimension is quite within the
+powers of six-year-olds. <i>Sawing off</i> is not difficult if soft lumber is
+used, and it becomes very simple by the help of the miter box. <i>Nailing
+on</i> is difficult if the nails must be driven into the edges of thin
+boards, but if thin boards are nailed to thick boards, nails may "go
+crooked" without serious consequences, and the process becomes quite easy.
+These processes have the advantage of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> being particularly fascinating to
+small boys, in contrast to the girlish character of many forms of primary
+handwork. (See <a href="#fig21">Figs. 21</a> and <a href="#fig22">22</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig21" id="fig21"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i064a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 21.&mdash;Furniture from wood blocks.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig22" id="fig22"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i064b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 22.&mdash;Furniture from wood blocks.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><i>Processes.</i>&mdash;For the sake of convenience and clearness in these
+directions it will be assumed that the class is provided with pieces of
+wood two inches square<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> which will be referred to as 2 &times; 2. Also with thin
+wood in a variety of widths from 1 in. to 6 in. Material of other
+dimensions would serve the purpose equally well, and for many of the parts
+odd pieces from the scrap box will answer every purpose. The directions
+are intended only to suggest how to proceed, and it is left to the teacher
+to adapt them to the material and conditions with which she works.</p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>To make a chair.</i></p>
+
+<p>Use 2 &times; 2 for seat and thin wood 2 in. wide for back. Children should
+measure and decide how much to saw off from strip of 2 &times; 2 in order to
+make a square block or cube for the seat. They should estimate the length
+of the back of the chair, then measure and saw off the thin wood needed.
+Nail the back piece to the cube and finish with a coat of water-color
+paint or color with crayon. An armchair may be made by the addition of
+shorter pieces of thin wood to the sides of the chair.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>To make table with pedestal.</i></p>
+
+<p>Use 2 &times; 2 for pedestal. Use thin wood 6 in. wide for top. Use thin wood 4
+in. wide for base. Measure and saw off 3 in. of 2 &times; 2 for pedestal.
+Measure <i>enough</i> of the 6 in. wood to make a square top and <i>enough</i> of
+the 4 in. wood to make a square base. Do not tell the children what they
+can discover for themselves. They should decide how high the table ought
+to be and how large to suit the size of the room. Nail the square pieces
+to the two ends of the pedestal. Finish by same method used for chairs.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>For ordinary table.</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Use thin wood for top. Use &#189; &times; &#189; for legs. Measure<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> and saw off pieces
+needed. Measure places for legs about one inch from corner of top in order
+to allow an overhang. Children frequently put the legs flush with the edge
+of the table, which gives a clumsy appearance. Nail through the top with a
+comparatively long nail.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>To make a double bed.</i></p>
+
+<p>Use wood &#189; to 1 in. thick for body. Use thin wood of corresponding width
+for head and foot boards. Class or individual workers should decide on
+dimensions for different parts and height of body of bed from the floor.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <i>For single bed.</i></p>
+
+<p>Proceed as for double bed, using narrow pieces of wood, or use six or
+seven inches of 2 &times; 2 for body of bed and make head and foot boards after
+the style of chair back.</p>
+
+<p>(6) <i>Dressing table.</i></p>
+
+<p>Decide upon dimensions needed. Use 2 &times; 2 for body. Use thin wood of equal
+width for back. Use tinfoil for mirror. Indicate drawers with pencil
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>(7) <i>Couch.</i></p>
+
+<p>Use piece of 2 &times; 2 of desired length and make couch cover of appropriate
+material, or add back and arms of thin wood to piece of 2 &times; 2 and finish
+to match other furniture.</p>
+
+<p>(8) <i>Piano.</i></p>
+
+<p>Use wood &#190; or 1 in. thick for body. Nail on piece &#189; &times; &#189; for
+keyboard. Draw keys on paper and paste on keyboard.</p>
+
+<p>(9) <i>Kitchen stove.</i></p>
+
+<p>Use 2 &times; 4 or any scrap or empty box of appropriate size and shape. Color
+black with crayon. Add chalk marks or bits of tinfoil to indicate doors
+and lids. Make<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> hot-water tank of paper. Pieces of reed, wire, or twigs
+covered with tinfoil make good water pipes. Macaroni sticks and lemonade
+straws have served this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig23" id="fig23"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i067.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Home of White Cloud, the Pueblo girl. Second grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><b>Clay Furnishings.</b>&mdash;For such articles as the kitchen sink, the bathtub, and
+other bathroom fittings clay is a satisfactory material. These articles
+may be modeled by the children, in as good an imitation of the real
+fittings as they are able to make. Various methods may be used for holding
+the kitchen sink and the bathroom basin in place, and it is much better
+for the children to evolve one of their own than to follow the teacher's
+dictation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> from the start. If they meet serious difficulties, a suggestion
+from her may help clear the way. Two long nails driven into the wall will
+give a satisfactory bracket on which the sink may rest. Two short nails
+may be driven through the back while the clay is moist and may serve also
+as a foundation for faucets. The basin, bathtub, and stool may each be
+built solid to the floor.</p>
+
+<p>The teakettle and other stove furniture may be modeled in clay. Electric
+light bulbs of clay suspended by cords from the ceiling have a realistic
+air. Paper shades of appropriate color add to the general effect.</p>
+
+<p><b>Miscellaneous furnishings.</b></p>
+
+<p><i>Bedding.</i>&mdash;Paper or cloth may be used for bedding, as circumstances
+suggest. If interest in <i>real</i> things is strong, the making of the sheets
+and pillow cases offers an opportunity for some practice with the needle.
+If time is limited, paper may be used.</p>
+
+<p><i>Curtains.</i>&mdash;Curtains also may be made from either paper or regular
+curtain material. If paper is used, it should be very soft, such as plain
+Japanese napkins. Scraps of plain net or scrim are most desirable. Some
+child is apt to contribute a piece of large-patterned lace curtain, but
+the tactful teacher will avoid using it if possible, and direct the
+children's thoughts toward a better taste in draperies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Porti&egrave;res</i> may be made of cloth, of knotted cords, or chenille.</p>
+
+<p><i>Couch pillows</i> may be made from cloth or may be woven on a small card.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span><i>Towels</i> for the bathroom may be woven from crochet cotton.</p>
+
+<p><i>The fireplace</i> may be made of cardboard marked off and colored to
+represent brick. A shallow box may be made to serve the purpose. Cut out
+the opening for the grate and lay real sticks on andirons made from soft
+wire; or draw a picture of blazing fire and put inside. The fireplace may
+also be made of clay. Pebbles may be pressed into the clay if a stone
+fireplace is desired. If clay is used, several small nails should be
+driven into the wall before the fireplace is built up, to hold the clay in
+place after it dries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bookcases</i> may be made of cardboard, using a box construction, and glued
+to the wall. Or a block of wood about one inch thick may be used. In
+either case mark off the shelves and books with pencil lines, and color
+the backs of the books with crayon.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig24" id="fig24"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/i070.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Detail of stairway.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>The Stairway.</b>&mdash;In a two-story house the hardest problem will usually be
+the stairs. Some good work in number may be done while finding out how
+many steps will be needed and where the stairway must begin in order to
+reach the second floor in comfort. Even quite small children can deal with
+this problem if presented in a simple way. For example, if the box or room
+is ten inches high, how many steps 1 in. wide and 1 in. high will be
+needed, and how far out into the room will they come? The children can
+work out the plan on the blackboard. Measurements may be modified to suit
+the ability of the class and the needs of the room.</p>
+
+<p>The variety of possible constructions in building the staircase
+corresponds to the varying ability of classes.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> A strip of paper may be
+folded back and forth and made to serve with least mature classes. This
+paper stair will sag unless it rests on a board or piece of stiff
+pasteboard. A substantial stairway may be made by sawing two thin boards
+for supports, as in <a href="#fig24">Fig. 24</a>, and nailing on steps of thin wood or
+cardboard. There is usually one boy in every first grade who is capable of
+as difficult a piece of handwork as this. He is apt, also, to be the boy
+who takes least interest in the general work of the class, and often it is
+possible to arouse him to special effort through some such problem. The
+stairway may be made of heavy cardboard with a construction similar to
+that just described, but this requires pasting instead of nailing and is
+much more difficult for little children.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Roof.</b>&mdash;The making of the roof is another part of the house building
+which may often be given into the special care of the two or three
+over-age pupils who need special problems. The plan which they evolve from
+their study of the needs of the case will usually be of greater value to
+them, even though it may not be the best that could be suggested.</p>
+
+<p>The roof may be made of wood as a base, with either wood or cardboard
+shingles tacked on in proper fashion; or it may be made of cardboard with
+the shingles merely indicated by lines made with crayon. If the wood base
+is used, wood gables may be made for sides or ends of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span> the house. To
+these, long boards may be nailed to form a solid roof. Shingles two inches
+long by about one inch wide may be cut from cardboard or very thin wood
+and tacked to the boards. The children should be spurred to study the
+roofs of houses and find out how the shingles are arranged, and discover
+for themselves, if possible, the secret of successful shingling.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig25" id="fig25"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i071.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 25.&mdash;Box house, showing roof. Built by summer class, Teachers College, New York.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig26" id="fig26"></a></p>
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/i072a.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;Detail of gable.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>A cardboard roof is in many ways easier to build. In a house similar to
+the one shown in <a href="#fig25">Fig. 25</a> two gables are used, and the roof slopes to front
+and back. The framework can be very simply made. At the two gable ends
+place uprights made of two pieces of wood<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> joined in the form of an
+inverted T. (See <a href="#fig26">Fig. 26</a>.) These should be nailed to the box. A ridgepole
+may then be nailed to the upper ends of the uprights. If the house is not
+large, no other framework will be necessary. If the slope of the roof is
+long enough to allow the cardboard to sag, light strips of wood extending
+from the ridgepole to the outer edge of the box may be added. If a single
+piece of cardboard of sufficient size is available, it<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> may be
+scored<small><a name="f1.1" id="f1.1" href="#f1">[1]</a></small>
+and bent at the proper place and laid over the ridgepole, with the edges
+extending beyond the box to form the eaves. Or, two pieces may be used,
+one for each slope of the roof, each piece being tacked to the ridgepole.
+Chimneys may be made from paper and colored to represent bricks or stone.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;<a name="fig27" id="fig27"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i072b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;Colonial kitchen. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The outside of the house may be treated in several ways. It may be sided
+after the manner of frame houses by tacking on strips of paper or
+cardboard lapped in the proper fashion. It may be covered with paper
+marked in horizontal lines to represent siding, in irregular spaces to
+represent stone, or in regular spaces to represent brick, and finished in
+the appropriate color. Or, a coat of paint or stain may be applied
+directly to the box.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VARIATIONS IN HOUSE PROBLEM</h3>
+
+<p>A playhouse for its own sake is a justifiable project for primary children
+and one which may be repeated several times without exhausting its
+possibilities. Each time it is repeated the emphasis will fall on some new
+feature, and the children will wish to do more accurate work.</p>
+
+<p>In the lowest grades very simple houses of one or two rooms may be built
+for story-book friends, such as the "Three Bears" or "Little Red Riding
+Hood," with only such furniture as the story suggests. In intermediate
+grades the house may have an historical motive and illustrate home life in
+primitive times or in foreign countries, such as a colonial kitchen in New
+England, a pioneer cabin on the Western prairies, a Dutch home, a Japanese
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>home, etc. In upper grades it may become a serious study in house
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>As the motive for making the house changes, the character and quality of
+its furnishings will change. The block furniture described above will give
+way to more accurate models in either wood or paper. Some excellent
+suggestions for paper furniture for advanced work may be found in the
+<i>Manual Training Magazine</i>.</p>
+
+<p>As skill in construction increases, a wish for something more realistic
+than the box construction will arise, and the elements of house framing
+will be studied with great eagerness.</p>
+
+<p><b>The House of the Three Bears.</b> (See <a href="#fig28">Fig. 28</a>.)&mdash;This house was made early in
+the year by a class of first-grade children. The walls were papered in
+plain brown paper. The carpets were woven mats of paper. The chairs,
+table, and beds were made according to the methods already described in
+the playhouse outline. The stove and the doll were contributed. The bears
+were modeled in clay. The children played with the house and its contents
+throughout the year. The bears were broken and made over many times&mdash;a
+process which not only afforded great pleasure, but also developed
+considerable skill in modeling.</p>
+
+<p><b>Another Bears' House.</b>&mdash;This house, shown in Frontispiece, was made in the
+spring, near the end of the school year, by a class of first-grade
+children all of whom were under seven and many of whom were very immature.</p>
+
+<p>The story of the Three Bears was taken up after Christmas, told and
+retold, read, and dramatized by the children. Teddy bears were brought to
+school. Many bears<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> were modeled in clay, each child making the set of
+three many times.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig28" id="fig28"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i075.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;House for the Three Bears. First grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The children laid off spaces on the table for individual Bears' houses and
+made furniture for these as their fancy prompted. The furniture was made
+of wood after the general style described above. Later, carpets were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+woven for these individual playhouses. Each carpet was woven to a given
+dimension, making it necessary to use the rule. This was their
+introduction to the rule as a tool for measuring. Every child in a class
+of forty made one or more pieces of furniture and wove one or more small
+carpets from rags. Nearly all made some bedding.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig29" id="fig29"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i076.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;Cornstalk house. Built by second-grade class. Franklin, Indiana.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Later, four boxes were secured and arranged as a house. The openings for
+doors were marked off during school time, but were sawed out by a few
+children who remained during the noon intermission. This is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> only part
+of the work which was not done during regular class time. The papering was
+done by two or three of the most capable children, while the rest were
+deeply absorbed in weaving. All made borders. Certain borders were
+selected for the house, and several children worked together to make
+enough of the same pattern for one room. Selections were then made from
+the carpets and furniture already made by the children.</p>
+
+<p>The roof was made chiefly by one boy who "knew a good way to make it." The
+porches were also individual projects by pupils who had ideas on the
+subject and were allowed to work them out.</p>
+
+<p>The children became very familiar with every phase of the story and
+attacked any expression of it with the feeling, "That's easy." They wrote
+stories, <i>i.e.</i> sentences about bears. Each child at the close of the year
+could write on the blackboard a story of two or more sentences. They made
+pictures of bears in all sorts of postures with colored crayon and from
+free-hand cuttings. They modeled the bears in clay over and over again,
+keeping up a large family in spite of many accidents.</p>
+
+<p><b>Co&ouml;perative Building.</b>&mdash;Figures <a href="#fig11">11</a>, <a href="#fig12">12</a>, and <a href="#fig13">13</a> show three rooms of a
+four-room house built by the first and second grades working together. The
+living room and bedroom were furnished by first-grade children. The dining
+room, kitchen, and bath were furnished by the second grade. Four boxes
+were used. (See diagram, page 35, <a href="#fig14">Fig. 14</a>.) Each room, except the bath,
+was a separate box. After a general plan had been agreed upon by the
+teachers, the boxes were carried to the several rooms and each class
+worked quite independently.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span> When the rooms were finished, they were
+assembled on a table in the hall and the roof put on.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig30" id="fig30"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i078.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;A flour mill. Built by fourth grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span><b>The Flour Mill.</b>&mdash;The flour mill, shown in <a href="#fig30">Fig. 30</a>,
+was built in connection with a study of the general subject of milling by a fourth-grade class.
+The class visited a flour mill. They were shown the various machines, and
+the function of each was explained to them. They made hasty sketches of
+the machines and a rough diagram of their arrangement on the floors. They
+got the dimensions of the floors and height of the ceiling. An empty box
+was remodeled to approximate the dimensions of the building. Small
+representations of the machines were made and placed in the proper
+relation to each other. No attempt was made to show more than the external
+proportions in the small representation. The work served its best purpose
+in keeping the children thinking definitely about what they had seen. The
+attempt to express their thoughts in tangible form deepened the mental
+impression, even though the tangible results were crude and lacked many
+details.</p>
+
+<p>The conveyer being of special interest, two boys worked out a larger model
+which illustrated the band-bucket process. This is shown in <a href="#fig30">Fig. 30</a>, at
+the right of the mill. Small cups were made of soft tin and fastened to a
+leather strap. The strap was fastened around two rods, placed one above
+the other. The lower rod was turned by a crank fastened on the outside of
+the box. Two or three brads driven into the lower rod caught into holes in
+the strap and prevented slipping. The machine successfully hoisted grain
+from the lower box to one fastened higher up, but not shown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span> in the
+picture. The model was very crude in its workmanship, but it showed the
+ability of fourth-grade boys to successfully apply an important principle
+in mechanics, and it gave opportunity for their ingenuity to express
+itself. The work was done with such tools and materials as the boys could
+provide for themselves, and without assistance other than encouraging
+suggestions from the teacher. This bit of construction accompanied a broad
+study of the subject of milling, including the source and character of the
+raw materials, the processes involved, the finished products and their
+value.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+<h3>THE VILLAGE STREET</h3>
+
+<p>Playing store is a game of universal interest. Making a play store is a
+fascinating occupation. These are factors which cannot be overlooked in
+any scheme of education which seeks to make use of the natural activities
+of children.</p>
+
+<p>The downtown store stands to the children as the source of all good things
+which are to be bought with pennies. It is usually the first place outside
+the home with which they become familiar, and its processes are sure to be
+imitated in their play. In their play they not only repeat the processes
+of buying and selling, but try to reproduce in miniature what they regard
+as the essential features of the real store.</p>
+
+<p>If they are allowed to play this fascinating game in school, it may, by
+the teacher's help, become at once more interesting and more worth while.
+Curiosity may be aroused through questions concerning what is in the
+store, where it came from, how it got there, what was done to make it
+usable, how it is measured, and what it is worth. In seeking answers to
+these questions, the fields of geography, history, and arithmetic may be
+explored as extensively as circumstances warrant and a whole curriculum
+is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> built up in a natural way. After such study, stores cease to be the
+<i>source</i> of the good things they offer for sale. The various kinds of
+merchandise take on a new interest when the purchaser knows something of
+their history, and a new value when he knows something of the labor which
+has gone into their manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span><a name="fig31" id="fig31"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i082.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;Box house and stores. Grades one, three, and two. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Being a subject of universal interest, it may be adapted to the conditions
+of the various grades. It being also impossible to exhaust the
+possibilities of the subject in any single presentation, it may profitably
+be repeated with a change of emphasis to suit the development of the
+class. For example, in the second grade, the study of the street is
+chiefly a classification of the various commodities which are essential to
+our daily life, and a few of the main facts of interest concerning their
+origin. Those a little older are interested in the processes of
+manufacture and the geography of their sources. In playing store, weights
+and measures, the changing of money, and the making of bills take on an
+interest impossible in the old-fashioned method of presenting these phases
+of arithmetic. Discussions and narratives supply oral language work, and
+descriptions, letters, and notes provide material for written exercises.</p>
+
+<p>The class may be divided into groups, each group contributing one store to
+the street, or the attention of the whole class may be centered on one
+store at a time, as the immediate conditions suggest. If the former method
+is used, as each store is finished it may be used as subject matter for
+the entire class, while the important facts concerning it are considered.
+The first permits a broader scope; the second a more exhaustive study. In
+either<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> case visits to the real stores studied are important supplements
+to the work.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig32" id="fig32"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i084.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;A village street. Third grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><b>General Directions.</b>&mdash;Discuss the stores on a village street. Which are
+most important? Why? Decide how many stores the class can build, and
+choose those most necessary to a community.</p>
+
+<p>If self-organized groups<small><a name="f2.1" id="f2.1" href="#f2">[2]</a></small> are allowed to choose the part they are to
+work out, both interest and harmony are promoted and leadership
+stimulated.</p>
+
+<p>Use a box for each store. Each group is usually able to provide its own
+box. Paper inside of box with clean paper, or put on a coat of fresh
+paint. Make appropriate shelving and counters of thin wood.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>Stock the store with samples of appropriate merchandise as far as
+possible. Supplement with the best representations the children can make.
+They should be left to work out the problem for themselves to a large
+extent, the teacher giving a suggestion only when they show a lack of
+ideas.</p>
+
+<p><b>Suggestions for Details of Representation.</b>&mdash;<i>Clay Modeling.</i>&mdash;Clay may be
+used to model fruits and vegetables, bottles and jugs for the grocery;
+bread, cake, and pies for the bakery; different cuts of meat for the
+butcher shop; horses for the blacksmith shop and for delivery wagons. Clay
+representations may be made very realistic by coloring with crayon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Canned Goods.</i>&mdash;Paper cylinders on which labels are drawn before pasting
+serve well for canned goods. Cylindrical blocks may be cut from broom
+sticks or dowel rods and wrapped in appropriately labeled covers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cloth.</i>&mdash;Rolls of various kinds of cloth should be collected for the dry
+goods store. Figures may be cut from fashion plates and mounted for the
+"Ready to Wear" department.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hats.</i>&mdash;Hats may be made for the millinery store from any of the
+materials commonly used. This is a good way for girls to develop their
+ingenuity and resourcefulness.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Store Front.</i>&mdash;The front of each store may be made of either wood or
+cardboard, the spaces for doors and windows being left open that the
+merchandise may be conveniently handled. Brick or stone fronts,
+second-story windows, offices, etc., may all be indicated as artistically
+as the capacity of the class permits by the use of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> colored crayons. The
+sign is an important feature and should stimulate an interest in well-made
+lettering.</p>
+
+<p><b>Additional Projects.</b>&mdash;In addition to representations of retail shops,
+various industries, such as the carpenter shop, blacksmith shop, flour
+mill, ice plant, and other familiar industries, may be represented.
+Co&ouml;perative institutions, such as the post office and fire department,
+should be included in the study.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig33" id="fig33"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i086.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 33.&mdash;A grocery. Fourth grade.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><b>Excursions.</b>&mdash;Wherever possible, the plant should be visited by the class.
+Before making the visit, the class should discuss what they expect to see,
+and go prepared to find out definite things. Each child should have at
+least one question which he is to ask, or one item of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span> information for
+which he is to be responsible to the class on the return. Often the visit
+is more worth while to the class after they have tried to make a
+representation from what they already know and from what they can read on
+the subject. They are then more conscious of their needs and more alive to
+the important elements than when they are merely seeing a new thing which
+is to a great extent foreign to their experience. If they make the visit
+first, they are apt to feel the need of another when they attempt to work
+out their representation. If they make a representation first, they are
+quite sure to be dissatisfied with it and want to make another after they
+have made the visit. In either case their consciousness of need is a
+measure of growth.</p>
+
+<p><b>Correlation.</b>&mdash;While the building of a store is in progress the study of
+the sources and processes of manufacture of the various articles of
+merchandise will supply valuable subject matter in several fields.</p>
+
+<p><i>English.</i>&mdash;Books containing information on the subject will be read with
+a definite purpose and more than ordinary interest. Especially if the
+group method is used, will the members of a group be proud to bring to the
+class interesting items concerning their particular part of the work.
+These narratives and descriptions may be made excellent practice in either
+oral or written English and will be of the sort Dewey characterizes as
+"having something to say rather than having to say something."</p>
+
+<p><i>Geography.</i>&mdash;This study may also enter as deeply into the field of
+geography as the development of the class warrants. It will be geography
+of a vital sort.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> How these things are brought to us touches the field of
+transportation, creating an interest in ships and railroad trains, pack
+mules and express wagons.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The study of the process of manufacture opens up the field of
+industrial history, and in this, as in the geography, the study is limited
+only by the capacity of the class.</p>
+
+<p><i>Number.</i>&mdash;In the field of number the possibilities are also unlimited, in
+studying the weights and measures used for different commodities, the
+actual prices paid for these things, and the usual quantities purchased.</p>
+
+<p>Playing store will involve the making of bills, the changing of money, and
+the measuring of merchandise. Different pupils may take turns acting as
+salesmen or cashier. The common practices of business life should be
+followed as closely as possible, only in this case each purchaser should
+make out his own bills. Actual purchase slips may be brought from home and
+used in number lessons.</p>
+
+<p>An inventory of the stock may be taken and will supply excellent practice
+in addition and multiplication. After the example of <i>real</i> stores, a
+stock-taking sale at reduced rates may be advertised. The writer answered
+such an advertisement by a third grade and asked how much could be
+purchased for one dollar. Pencils were busy at once, and a variety of
+combinations suggested. One pupil was quickly called to account by his
+mates for offering only ninety-five cents' worth of merchandise for the
+dollar. By these and numerous other exercises which will suggest
+themselves to lively children and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> wide-awake teachers a vast amount of
+vital subject matter may be dealt with in a natural way, quite on the
+level of the child's experience and interest.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig34" id="fig34"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i089.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;A grocery. Third grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><i>Art.</i>&mdash;The art side also may receive due attention in the general
+proportioning and arrangement of the stores, in the modeling of certain
+features from clay, as enumerated above, in the making of labels for boxes
+and cans, in the writing of signs and advertisements, and in the color
+combinations. These features are to a great extent incidental to other
+problems just as the use of good<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> taste is incidental to all the affairs
+of life and should receive corresponding emphasis.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+<p>Figure <a href="#fig32">32</a> shows about half the stores built by one third-grade class. Some
+of the subject matter drawn from the various stories was as follows: in
+connection with the grocery, a study of the source of various articles of
+food with oral and written descriptions of processes of manufacture; the
+common measures used in the grocery, and ordinary amounts purchased.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the meat market, the names of various kinds of meat,
+the animals from which they are obtained, and the part of the animal which
+furnishes certain cuts; as, for example, ham, bacon, chops. The current
+prices and approximate quantity needed for a meal made practical number
+work.</p>
+
+<p>The bakery called for an investigation of the processes of bread making
+and a study of the material used. In all of the processes the teacher had
+opportunity to stress the necessity for proper sanitation.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the dry goods store, the distinguishing characteristics
+of cotton, wool, linen, and silk were emphasized and illustrated by the
+samples collected for the store and by the clothing worn by the children.
+Common problems in measuring cloth enlivened the number lessons.</p>
+
+<p>The millinery store disclosed considerable ingenuity in the field of hat
+manufacture, and a lively business in doll hats was carried on for some
+time.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>In connection with the post office, registered letters, dead letters,
+money orders, rural free delivery, etc., were discussed, and the
+advantages of co&ouml;peration touched upon.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig35" id="fig35"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i091.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 35.&mdash;A dry goods store. Third grade.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The other stores of the village street offer further opportunity for
+becoming better acquainted with the common things which lie close at hand
+and touch our daily lives.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span></p>
+<p><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a></p>
+<p><a name="fig36" id="fig36"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i092a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;Home in a hot country.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig37" id="fig37"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i092b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;Home in a cold country.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+<h3>SAND TABLES AND WHAT TO DO WITH THEM</h3>
+
+<p>A sand table should be considered one of the indispensable furnishings of
+every schoolroom. Its possibilities are many and varied. It may be used
+merely as a means of recreation and the children allowed to play in the
+sand, digging and building as fancy suggests. Or it may be used as the
+foundation for elaborate representations, carefully planned by the
+teacher, laboriously worked out by the children, and extravagantly admired
+by the parents on visitors' day. While both of these uses may serve worthy
+ends on certain occasions, the most valuable function of the sand table
+strikes a happy medium between the two, as means of illustrating and
+emphasizing various features of the daily lessons. In this capacity the
+laborious efforts of the show problem on the one hand and purposeless play
+of the other are both avoided. In this capacity the work on the sand table
+goes along hand in hand with the regular work in geography, history,
+language, or any subject in which it is possible through an illustration
+to teach more effectively.</p>
+
+<p>The purpose of this work is not so much to produce fine representations as
+to help the children to clarify and strengthen their ideas through the
+effort to express<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> them in concrete form. The value lies in the
+development which comes to the children while they work. The technique of
+processes of construction is of secondary importance, though careless work
+ought never to be permitted. The completed project has little value after
+it has served its purpose as an illustration and may be quickly destroyed
+to make way for the next project. For this reason emphasis is laid on the
+general effect rather than the detail of construction. The work should be
+done well enough to serve the purpose, but time should not be spent on
+unnecessary details which do not add to the value as an illustration. In
+most cases speed is an important element. The project should be completed
+while the subject it illustrates is under discussion, if it is to be of
+most service. The first essential is that the work shall be done wholly by
+the children. The teacher may by skillful questions help them to build up
+in imagination the project they intend to work out, so that they may work
+with a definite purpose. She may sometimes suggest improved methods of
+working out various features when the improvements will add to the value
+of the illustration, but she should seldom, if ever, plan a project
+definitely or dictate the method of procedure.</p>
+
+<p>Not least among the possible benefits to be derived from work of this kind
+is the development of resourcefulness. The necessity for expressing an
+idea in concrete form with whatever materials are at hand often calls for
+considerable ingenuity. Ability of this sort will show itself only when
+the children are expressing their ideas with utmost freedom and feel the
+responsibility for the success of their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> work. The more earnestly the
+children try to express their ideas, the greater will be their
+development. The teacher should feel that she is hindering the growth of
+the children and defrauding them of their legitimate opportunity for
+development when she allows an over-anxiety for tangible and showy results
+to make her take the responsibility upon herself.</p>
+
+<p>The details of method are best presented through a detailed description of
+typical illustrations actually worked out in the classroom.</p>
+
+
+<h3>A SAND-TABLE FARM&mdash;HOME LIFE IN THE COUNTRY</h3>
+
+<p>The study of home life as a general subject will include "our home" and
+the homes of other people who live under different conditions. To the town
+child the country will often be somewhat familiar and hold the second
+place in his interest. In the country school the farm may often be the
+best place to begin.</p>
+
+<p>Various questions will arise as soon as it is decided to make a sand-table
+farm, the answers to which will be governed by the habits of the locality.
+What sort of farm shall we have? Shall we raise stock, fruit, corn, wheat,
+vegetables, or a little of everything? What shall we need to plant in each
+case, and in what proportion? How much pasture land shall we need? What
+buildings? What machinery?</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig38" id="fig38"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i096a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>&mdash;A sand-table farm. First grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig39" id="fig39"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i096b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;A sand-table farm. Second grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><b>Fences.</b>&mdash;As soon as the question of crops and the division of the table
+into fields is settled, the problem of fencing presents itself. What sort
+of fence is needed, wire, boards, pickets, rails, or hedge? How far apart
+shall the posts be set, how tall should they be, and how<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span> many will be
+needed? How many boards? How wide? How long? How many wires?</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig40" id="fig40"></a></p>
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/i097.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 40.&mdash;<br />Detail of chicken fence.</p></div>
+
+<p>The making of the fencing will supply material for one or more number
+lessons. Various materials may be used.</p>
+
+<p><i>Twigs</i> may be cut to given lengths and set in concrete (clay) posts.</p>
+
+<p><i>For wire fence</i>, cut posts from small wooden sticks. Drive small tacks in
+each post&mdash;one for each wire. Use fine spool wire or wire raveled from fly
+screen. Twist wires once around each tack, or drive the tacks in firmly so
+that the wire is held by the head of the tack. This is not an easy fence
+for very little children to make.</p>
+
+<p><i>To make board fence.</i> Cut posts required length, and decide upon distance
+between posts. Make boards of thin strips of wood or of pasteboard. Nail
+boards to posts with tacks or small brads. This is a very easy fence to
+make and gives some good exercise in measuring.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rail fences</i> may be made from toothpicks or burnt matches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Picket fence</i> for the dooryard may be made on wooden foundation with
+cardboard pickets.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span><i>Hedge fence</i> should be made from some fine-leafed plant. Cedar twigs
+serve well.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chicken fence</i> may be cut from paper as per illustration. Fold paper
+several times, lengthwise. Cut across the fold as indicated by arrows.
+Stretch lengthwise as shown in <a href="#fig40">Fig. 40</a>, <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>Buildings.</b>&mdash;The class should decide on the buildings needed. Each building
+should be assigned to a group of two or three workers. Each group should
+be held responsible for its contribution and should work out its problem
+with as little help as possible. If the children are able to plan a barn
+and make it, even though it is a very crude affair, more has been
+accomplished than if a very cunning structure had been made after plans,
+dictated and closely supervised by the teacher.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wood</i> is the best building material for general use.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pasteboard</i> serves well, but it is less substantial. It is also harder to
+cut and paste heavy cardboard than it is to saw and nail thin wood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clay</i> may be used for all buildings which are commonly made of concrete.</p>
+
+<p><b>Stock.</b>&mdash;The different kinds of animals needed on the farm and the number
+of each will furnish profitable subject matter for class discussion. The
+animals may be modeled from clay. While the animals will of necessity be
+very large in proportion to the acreage of the farm, attention should be
+directed to the relative proportions between horses and hogs, cattle and
+sheep. Differences of this sort do not trouble little people, as their
+work is sure to show. The point should be stressed only sufficiently to
+help them to see a little more clearly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> and express their ideas a little
+more adequately each time they try. The accuracy of the result is
+important only as an index that the children are steadily developing in
+power to see and do, and gaining self-reliance.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Modeling Process.</i>&mdash;The best method seems to be simply to <i>begin</i>,
+and, for example, model as good a horse as possible; then discuss the
+results, note a few serious defects, and try again, endeavoring to correct
+them. Encourage rapid work which gives the general proportions of the
+animal in the rough. Beginners are apt to waste time in a purposeless
+smoothing of the clay, in mere tactual enjoyment. Discourage the tendency
+to finish the details of a horse's head, for example, before the body has
+been modeled. Repeat the process as often as time and the interest of the
+children warrant, but be satisfied if the children are doing the best they
+can, even though the results are crude and not so good as some other class
+has produced. The children should always feel that the work is their own.
+For this reason the teacher's help in clay modeling should be through
+demonstration rather than by finishing touches to the child's work.
+Imitation is a strong instinct in little children, and watching the
+teacher model a better horse than he can make will help a child to improve
+his own. One thing to be especially avoided is the attempt to bring every
+class to a uniform degree of excellence according to adult standards. Such
+an ideal encourages the giving of help in a way which hinders real
+development though it may produce immediate results.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig41" id="fig41"></a></p>
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/i100.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 41.&mdash;<br />Detail of paper tree.</p></div>
+
+<p><b>Trees.</b>&mdash;This topic will call out a discussion of the uses of trees; which
+trees are shade trees, which are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> cultivated for their fruit, the
+distinguishing characteristics of the different varieties, and the ones
+best suited to this particular farm.</p>
+
+<p>Twigs from the real tree should be used wherever possible. In other cases
+the trees may be cut from paper. If a good green paper is not at hand, use
+drawing paper and color with crayons. A realistic effect is gained by
+cutting the tree from folded paper. (See <a href="#fig41">Fig. 41</a>.) Cut three pieces for
+each tree and paste together at the fold, then open out. Make the trunk
+long enough to be driven an inch or more into the sand.</p>
+
+<p>The making of the trees will furnish material for both art and nature
+study lessons. As far as circumstances permit the real trees should be
+studied, giving the children first-hand experience whether it be much or
+little. They should test the trees they cut by comparing them with real
+trees of the same variety. If this is impossible, the best pictures
+available should be used. (See notes on paper cutting.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Crops.</b>&mdash;When the various parts of the farm are about ready, the fields may
+be sown. The sand should be made very wet before the seed is put in and
+sprinkled frequently (twice a day), as the top dries off very quickly.
+After the seeds have germinated little sprinkling need be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> done, as the
+roots will find enough moisture in the wet sand underneath, and it is
+desirable to retard rather than hasten growth. If carefully managed, a
+table can be kept green for several weeks.</p>
+
+<p>For corn, check holes well into the sand and drop one grain into each
+hole. See that rows are straight and holes evenly spaced.</p>
+
+<p>Sow wheat, oats, barley, etc., <i>very thickly</i>, cover lightly with dry
+sand, and sprinkle.</p>
+
+<p>Timothy serves well for meadow and lawn, as it puts up a fine blade. Blue
+grass sends up a fine blade, but is very slow in germination. Clover does
+not make a velvety lawn, but a little in the pasture will make an
+interesting contrast.</p>
+
+<p>Vegetables may be planted in the garden. They will not develop to any
+great extent, but will serve to emphasize different habits in germination;
+as, for example, the contrast between beans and corn.</p>
+
+<p><b>Correlation.</b>&mdash;The opportunity for nature study afforded by the farm
+problem will prove one of its most interesting and valuable features as
+the progress in plant growth is noted from day to day. The farm problem
+combines well with both language and art work in supplying vital material
+for both. In addition to the interesting discussions which naturally arise
+concerning the building and planting, a diary may be kept by each child.</p>
+
+<p><i>Keeping a Diary.</i>&mdash;The date of planting may be noted and the date when
+each variety of seed first appears above ground. With the larger seeds, as
+corn and beans, a seed may be dug up each day and examined, so<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> that the
+children may appreciate what is going on below ground. Drawings may be
+made of the seeds, showing the changes in appearance from day to day.
+After the seed leaves appear the daily growth may be measured and noted in
+the diary. After a few days seeds may be dug up again that the roots may
+be examined. At various stages of growth different varieties of seeds may
+be dug up, laid upon a paper, and sketched by the children. The facts they
+note may be stated in simple, well-formed sentences, either oral or
+written or both.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig42" id="fig42"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i102.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>&mdash;An Eskimo village and The Overall Boys' Farm. First grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><i>Art.</i>&mdash;The sketching will serve well as the day's art lesson, though its
+chief value is in helping the children to see clearly. Their efforts will
+be crude but the teacher should constantly keep in mind that the chief aim
+is not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> to obtain fine sketches. Its purpose is to help the children to a
+better appreciation of the plant through the effort put forth in making
+the sketch. The technique of the drawing should be emphasized only so far
+as it will help them express better what they see, and not to the point
+where they attempt to copy the teacher's strokes. The teacher should be
+satisfied if every child is doing his best and making steady progress,
+even though that best may be crude and not up to the standard reached by
+the teacher who struggles for fine results.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig43" id="fig43"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i103.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>&mdash;An apple orchard. First grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><i>English.</i>&mdash;For children who are able to write the diary offers a natural
+means of gaining experience in the use of common forms of punctuation; as,
+for example, the writing of dates and the use of a comma in a series, as
+well as the punctuation of simple statements, in such entries as the
+following:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>April 15, 1912.</p>
+
+<p>We planted the seeds on our farm to-day.</p>
+
+<p>We planted corn, wheat, oats, and beans.</p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>In all work of this sort it is difficult to overestimate the advantage of
+separate sheets of paper over a notebook with sewed leaves, in the hands
+of the children. With the fresh sheet always comes an inspiration, no
+matter what failures have gone before. Poor pages can be done over when
+necessary, but do not haunt the workers with their discouraging
+suggestions, as in the use of a notebook. The leaves may be gathered
+together into a binding of some sort. Even covers of plain brown wrapping
+paper can be made artistic with a simple border line well placed or a
+design cut from a paper of a different tone. Written work which culminates
+in an attractive booklet, however simple, seems more worth while than
+exercises written into a commonplace notebook or on scratch paper which
+goes to the wastebasket soon after the mistakes have been commented on.</p>
+
+<p><i>Number.</i>&mdash;The farm problem also supplies abundant opportunity for gaining
+experience with number. In addition to the actual measurement of the
+materials used for fences and buildings, the scope may be widened, where
+conditions warrant, to include estimates and calculations of the amount of
+the material used.</p>
+
+<p>For example, how many inches or feet of wire will be needed to make a
+three-wire fence of given length? How large a piece of cardboard will be
+needed to cut boards one fourth or one half inch wide for a four-board
+fence fifteen inches long?</p>
+
+<p>These estimates may be translated, <i>as far as the children are able to
+appreciate the connection</i>, into quantities and values of the same
+material in real problems connected with real farms. It is important,
+however, to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span> careful not to carry work of this sort so far beyond the
+experience of the children that it becomes wholly foreign and abstract to
+them. We are too apt to forget that it is <i>experience</i> and not <i>objects</i>,
+which is the vital factor in concreteness.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig44" id="fig44"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i105.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>&mdash;Robinson Crusoe. Third grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the nature study a variety of number exercises grow out
+of the questions which the situation prompts. As, for example, in
+connection with the corn crop: How many seeds were planted? In how many
+rows? How many seeds in a row? How many came up? How many failed to
+germinate? How many more came up than failed? If each good seed should
+produce<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> two ears of corn, how many would we have? What would they be
+worth at a given price? etc.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig45" id="fig45"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i106.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>&mdash;Pueblo Indian village. Second grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In an ungraded school, while the younger children might confine their
+efforts to counting as above, the older children might answer the same
+questions in terms of percentage and in the probable quantities on a real
+farm. The stock farm may be treated in the same way. How many cows? How
+much milk will they give? What will it be worth? How much butter would it
+make? What will it cost to keep the cows? What is the farmer's profit?
+These and many other questions will suggest themselves to both teacher and
+pupils, once the subject is opened up. They will be <i>practical questions
+in so far as they touch the experience of the children</i> in such a way as
+to appeal to them as real questions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> Each individual teacher must decide
+how far and into what field it is worth while to lead any particular
+class.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Sand Table.</b>&mdash;The various types of sand tables range all the way from
+the hardwood, zinc-lined article, provided with a drainpipe, down to the
+homemade structure evolved from a goods box.</p>
+
+<p>The quality of the table does not greatly affect the quality of the work
+to be done on it, but there are several points which affect the
+convenience of the workers. The height of the table should allow the
+children to work comfortably when standing beside it. A long, narrow table
+is seldom as satisfactory as one more nearly square, but it should never
+be too wide for the children to reach the center easily. Any table with
+tight joints in the top and four- or five-inch boards fitted tightly
+around the edge will serve the purpose. The inside of the box should be
+painted to prevent warping and leaking. An "ocean blue" is a good color,
+as it makes a good background for islands.</p>
+
+<p>If no table is available, a goods box may be turned on its side, the top
+covered with oilcloth, and a frame, made from the cover of the box, fitted
+around the edge. The inside of the box may be used as a closet in which to
+store tools and materials, and a neat appearance given to the whole by a
+curtain of denim or other plain, heavy material.</p>
+
+
+<h3>ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS</h3>
+
+<p>One of the most valuable uses of the sand table is in making illustrations
+for stories, historical events, and similar topics in which the relations
+between people and places is important. No definite rules can be laid
+down<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> for working out such illustrations. The conditions under which they
+are made, the time to be devoted to the work, the importance of the
+subject, all affect both the nature and the quality of the work. Any
+material which lends itself to the purpose should be called into service.</p>
+
+<p>The method of procedure is best set forth by describing several problems
+as actually worked out by children.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig46" id="fig46"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i108.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>&mdash;A home in Switzerland. Second grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>(1) <b>Story of Columbus</b>&mdash;<i>First Grade.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Materials Used.</i>&mdash;Paper for cutting and folding, twigs for forests,
+acorns for tents, large piece of glass for ocean.</p>
+
+<p><i>Details of Illustration.</i>&mdash;The piece of glass was imbedded in sand in the
+middle of the table; one end of the table represented Spain, the other,
+America. The representation of Spain included:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Castles in Spain" being large houses with many
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>windows in which the king and queen lived. They were cut from paper.</p>
+
+<p>Many people, cut from paper, including kings and queens and the
+friends of Mr. Columbus who came to tell him "good-by." The kings and
+queens were distinguished by royal purple robes and golden crowns and
+necklaces, produced by the use of colored crayon.</p>
+
+<p>The three ships made from folded paper. In one of them sat Mr.
+Columbus.</p>
+
+<p>Fishes, of paper, inhabited the hollow space underneath the glass.</p>
+
+<p>The forest primeval was shown on the American side by green twigs of
+trees set very close together. On pulling apart the leaves and
+peering into the depths of this forest, one found it inhabited by
+bears and other wild beasts, also cut from paper.</p>
+
+<p>The Indians lived in a village of acorn tents set up in a little
+clearing on the shore.</p>
+
+<p>Flags.&mdash;The Spanish region was identified by a Spanish flag, while
+the stars and stripes waved above the Indian village.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Values.</i>&mdash;The project being on the level of the children's experience,
+they worked freely and with intense interest. The characters in the story
+were all very real to them. They literally swarmed about the table
+whenever opportunity was given, moving the figures about as they told the
+story over and over again. Mr. Columbus sailed across the sea many times.
+Many boats were made and named for one of the three, according to the
+preference of the maker. They peeped into the forest and shuddered in
+delightful fear "lest a bear get me."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> They made and remade the scene as
+new ideas suggested themselves during several days of Columbus week.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig47" id="fig47"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i110a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>&mdash;Two little knights of Kentucky. Fourth grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig48" id="fig48"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i110b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>&mdash;How Cedric became a knight. Fourth grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig49" id="fig49"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i111.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>&mdash;A sugar camp. Built late in the spring by a third-grade class.<br />
+They enjoyed the green grass, though it suggests an overlate season.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Several discrepancies existed which are mentioned here because they
+troubled some overconscientious visitors. The stars and stripes did not
+come into existence until centuries after Columbus died and therefore
+never waved over the Indian village which he found. But chronology does
+not trouble the first grader very much, while "my country" and "my flag"
+are ideas which are developing together. And when he is singing, "Columbus
+sailed across the sea, To find a land for you and me," the red, white, and
+blue forms the most fitting symbol in his representation of that land. The
+wild animals which infested the sand-table forest are not all mentioned in
+the histories as found on San Salvador, but they did exist in the child's<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+idea of the wild country which the white men found on this side of the
+Atlantic. The children having truthfully expressed their ideas, the
+teacher had a basis from which to develop, correct, and emphasize such
+points as were of real importance, while the unimportant features would
+fade out for lack of emphasis.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig50" id="fig50"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i112.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 50.&mdash;A western cattle ranch.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>On the occasion of the supervisor's visit the members of the class vied
+with each other in telling the story and explaining the significance of
+the various illustrations. The supervisor expressed a wish to own some of
+the cuttings, whereupon, at a hint from the teacher, the class which had
+gathered about the sand table scampered joyfully (but quietly) back to
+their seats. Scissors and paper were quickly distributed, and in about
+five minutes an empty shoe box was required to hold the collection of "Mr.
+Columbuses," kings and queens in royal purple, gold crowns, and necklaces,
+ships, fishes, etc., that were showered upon the guest. Needless to say
+many scraps of paper had fallen to the floor. The teacher remarked<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> that
+it was time for the brownies to come. Down went all the heads for a sleepy
+time. The teacher slipped about, tapping here and there a child, who
+quickly began gathering up the scraps as joyously as he had helped to make
+them.</p>
+
+<p>The supervisor bade them good-by, with a wish that all children might
+begin their school life under such happy and wholesome influences.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <b>Story of Jack Horner</b><small><a name="f3.1" id="f3.1" href="#f3">[3]</a></small>&mdash;<i>First Grade.</i>&mdash;As the story was read the
+different characters were subjects for free paper-cutting exercises. An
+abundance of paper (scratch paper and newspaper) was supplied, and each
+child allowed to cut each figure many times, very quickly.</p>
+
+<p>The story was also dramatized and acted out over and over again. Figure <a href="#fig1">1</a>
+shows the result of an hour's work in assembling the various characters
+and telling the whole story on the sand table and in a poster. The
+different figures to be cut were assigned to or chosen by the different
+children, the teacher taking care that no characters were omitted. Having
+cut figures of the various characters as they were met in the story, all
+were eager to reproduce the part called for, and in a few minutes more
+than enough cuttings were made to supply both sand table and poster with
+ample material. Two groups of children, one for the poster and one for the
+sand table, were assigned the work of placing the figures. The teacher
+superintended both projects, giving a few suggestions as needed, but
+throwing the responsibility upon the children as much as possible.</p>
+
+<p>This problem was worked out by the same class which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>made the Columbus
+illustration just described. The Jack Horner story was illustrated in the
+spring, after much work of this sort had been done. The quality of the
+cuttings showed an interesting improvement over the cuttings made for the
+Columbus story, which came during the third week of the school year.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <b>Story of Three Little Pigs.</b>&mdash;This is a long story, and three weeks
+were occupied in reading it and dramatizing it. During this time there
+were frequent discussions about how it was to be worked out on the sand
+table. Contributions in great variety were brought in: straw for the straw
+house, twigs for the house of sticks, bags of brick dust to make a roadway
+different from the sand, rose hips to be tied to a small branch to
+represent the apple tree, and various other articles.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig51" id="fig51"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i114.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 51.&mdash;The story of Three Little Pigs. First grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig52" id="fig52"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i115a.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 52.&mdash;A Japanese tea garden. Third grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig53" id="fig53"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i115b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 53.&mdash;A coal mine. Fourth grade. Columbia, Missouri.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The houses were built as suggested by the pictures in the reader. The pig
+and wolf were modeled in clay,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span> each being shown in the several different
+positions described in the story. Over and over a little clay pig rolled
+down the hill in a paper churn and frightened a clay wolf. One group, not
+having wherewithal to build a brick house, used a wooden one made by
+another group. Another class made the brick house out of blocks, and built
+in a fireplace with its kettle ready to hold the hot water whenever the
+wolf should start for the chimney. (See <a href="#fig51">Fig. 51</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>(4) <b>Japanese Tea Garden.</b>&mdash;A third-grade class used the sand table to
+illustrate what they had gleaned from reading several stories and
+descriptions of life in Japan, in connection with elementary geography.
+The sand-table representation included a tiny bridge across a small stream
+of "real" water. The "real river" was secured by ingenious use of a
+leaking tin can which was hidden behind a clump of trees (twigs). A thin
+layer of cement in the bed of the river kept the water from sinking into
+the sand. A shallow pan imbedded in the sand formed a lake into which the
+river poured its waters. (See <a href="#fig52">Fig. 52</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>(5) <b>A Coal Mine.</b>&mdash;The sand table shown in <a href="#fig53">Fig. 53</a> was worked out by a
+fourth-grade class in connection with the geography of the western states.
+Descriptions and pictures were studied with great earnestness to find out
+how to fix it, and the children made it as they thought it ought to be.
+The actual making occupied very little time, the various parts being
+contributed by different pupils.</p>
+
+<p>Problems of this sort develop leadership. There is usually one whose ideas
+take definite shape promptly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> and whose suggestions are willingly followed
+by his group. If there is one pupil in the class whose ability to lead is
+so strong that the others are overshadowed, it is sometimes well to let
+the work be done by small groups who use the table turn about. This plan
+stimulates a wholesome rivalry and discourages dawdling.</p>
+
+<p>(6) <b>Stories.</b>&mdash;Illustrations for two stories are shown on page 94. In the
+first (<a href="#fig47">Fig. 47</a>) part of the class made a representation on the sand table
+while the rest prepared a poster from paper cuttings. In the second (<a href="#fig48">Fig. 48</a>) empty shoe
+boxes were used in making the castle. Very little time was spent on either project.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p>
+<p><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a></p>
+<p><a name="fig54" id="fig54"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i118.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>&mdash;A chariot race. Second grade. Pasadena, California.</p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+<h3>ANIMALS AND TOYS</h3>
+
+<p>The circus and the zo&ouml;logical garden are always centers of interest to
+little children and may be used to great advantage to furnish the point of
+departure in the study of animal life. Making the animals in some form
+crystallizes the interest in the animals represented, and awakens interest
+in their habits and home.</p>
+
+<p>The handwork may be used as an illustrative factor connected with
+geography and nature study, or the making of the circus may be the
+starting point, and incidentally furnish subject matter in several fields.
+For example, geography and nature study grow out of the search for facts
+concerning the animals themselves, <i>i.e.</i> size, color, food, home, value,
+etc. The desire for such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> information gives purpose to reading. Oral and
+written descriptions supply subject matter for practice in English.
+Reducing the actual proportions of animals to a definite scale and
+problems relating to their commercial value make practical use of the
+knowledge of number. Art enters into the making of free-hand sketches,
+cuttings, and patterns for wooden models.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig55" id="fig55"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i119.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 55.&mdash;A circus parade.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>A good circus or "zoo" may be worked out in a variety of materials. Paper,
+cardboard, clay, and wood all serve well.</p>
+
+<p>To get the best value from the problem it should be as free as possible
+from copy work. The children should consult the best sources of
+information at their disposal, which may range all the way from ordinary
+picture books to natural history and encyclopedia descriptions. They
+should find out, unaided, as much as possible concerning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> the animal in
+question: his size, color, food, home, values, etc.,&mdash;the teacher
+supplementing with interesting and necessary items not at the disposal of
+the class.</p>
+
+<p>Free-hand cuttings and pencil sketches should be compared with the best
+pictures obtainable and the real animal whenever possible. Such patterns
+as are needed should be made by the children themselves. Ready-made
+patterns will produce better proportioned animals, but more dependent,
+less observant children also.</p>
+
+
+<h3>METHODS IN DETAIL</h3>
+
+<p><b>Realistic Animals in Three-ply Wood.</b>&mdash;Secure necessary items of
+measurement and decide upon scale. One inch for each foot is best for
+younger children.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig56" id="fig56"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i120.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 56.&mdash;Three-ply wooden animals.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Draw rectangle proportioned to the extreme length and height of the
+animal. Draw into the rectangle a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> <i>profile</i> sketch of the animal, being
+careful that it comes to the line on each side. <i>All four feet must</i> touch
+the base line. Considerable practice may be needed before a good sketch
+can be drawn. The animal may be represented as standing, walking, or
+running, but must be drawn in profile.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig57" id="fig57"></a></p>
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/i121.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>&mdash;Detail of three-ply animals<br />with movable parts.</p></div>
+
+<p>Cut out the sketch and make by it three patterns: one of the head, body,
+and tail; one of the body and right legs; one of the body and left legs.
+Care must be taken to get good lines at shoulder and rump. (See <a href="#fig56">Fig. 56</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Lay the pattern on the wood so that the grain runs lengthwise of the legs
+and other frail parts and draw outline carefully. Use basswood one fourth
+inch thick, or other soft wood.</p>
+
+<p>Saw out the parts with a coping saw. Be careful in sawing to keep the
+blade in a vertical position in order that the edges may be true.</p>
+
+<p>Nail or glue the parts together. If the animal does not stand perfectly,
+rub the feet on a piece of sandpaper. Use water color or crayon to give
+proper color.</p>
+
+<p><i>Three-ply Animals with Movable Parts.</i>&mdash;To make the head movable, saw the
+part from the body on a curved line, as shown in <a href="#fig57">Fig. 57</a>. Fasten with a
+single nail<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> through the shoulder. The curved line must be a part of a
+circle and the nail must be at the center. The edges should be smooth to
+allow easy action. The tail may be adjusted by a similar plan. The parts
+may be made to move automatically by suspending a weight on cords which
+are attached to the movable parts, as shown in <a href="#fig57">Fig. 57</a>. If the weight is
+to be used, cut off the body part on the double dotted line to allow room
+for the cords to swing.</p>
+
+<p>A figure of this sort must be fastened on a pedestal or platform which
+will extend over the edge of the table. A slot must be cut in the pedestal
+wide enough to allow the cords to swing freely. (See <a href="#fig56">Fig. 56</a>.) The
+pedestal may be a long board or piece of heavy cardboard which can be
+tacked to the table or held firm by a clamp, or it may be a thin board
+fastened to a U-shaped block which is held firm on the edge of the table
+by a wedge.</p>
+
+<p><b>Cardboard and Paper Animals that Stand.</b>&mdash;For younger children who cannot
+handle the saw easily cardboard or stiff paper may be used.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig58" id="fig58"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/i122.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 58.&mdash;Notched rest for animals.</p></div>
+
+<p>To make the animal stand the feet may be tacked to a small piece of wood
+about one inch square on the end and as long as needed, or a cardboard
+brace, such as is used on easels, may be glued to the back. A realistic
+effect is given if the animal is cut with two legs and the brace made to
+represent the other two, or a piece of cardboard cut as in <a href="#fig58">Fig. 58</a> may be
+used as a brace, the body of the animal fitting into the notch.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span><i>Clay</i> makes an excellent medium, but it requires more skill in clay than
+in wood to get an equally good effect. Clay animals should be modeled with
+a pedestal, and the separations between the two forelegs and the two hind
+legs merely indicated. If each leg is modeled separately, the figure is
+likely to be frail.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig59" id="fig59"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i123.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>&mdash;Balancing figures.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><b>Balancing Figures.</b>&mdash;Design such figures as a prancing horse or dancing
+bear and saw from a single piece of wood. A little below the center of the
+figure insert a curved wire, on the other end of which is a ball of clay
+or other weight. The wire must be fastened firmly so that it cannot turn.
+Adjust so that the figure balances.</p>
+
+<p>Figures of people in foreign costumes, children running<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> and jumping, as
+well as all sorts of animals, are very fascinating problems of this sort.
+(See <a href="#fig59">Fig. 59</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Seesaw Figures.</b>&mdash;Such groups as two boys chopping wood, two chickens
+drinking, two dogs tugging at a string, wrestling boys, and similar groups
+are interesting problems of the seesaw type. (See <a href="#fig60">Fig. 60</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Detail.</i>&mdash;Cut the figures from cardboard. Make with a long pedestal.
+Color with crayon or water color. Use two light sticks for the seesaw, to
+which tack one figure in a vertical position and the other on a slant.
+Fasten to each stick with one tack. If a central figure is used, tack
+firmly to lower stick. Work the figure by moving the upper stick while the
+lower one is held firm.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<a name="fig60" id="fig60"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i124.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 60.&mdash;Some simple toys.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><b>Toys.</b>&mdash;A box of carpenter's scraps of soft wood will supply material for a
+variety of toys which may be made by the children themselves, thereby more
+than doubling the fun. A few suggestions are given in detail. The making
+of these will suggest others. (See <a href="#fig60">Fig. 60</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span><i>Doll's Swing.</i>&mdash;A heavy block for a base, two tall uprights, and a
+crosspiece will make the frame. Make a seat from cardboard or use the end
+of a small box and suspend from crossbar.</p>
+
+<p><i>Doll's Teeter.</i>&mdash;Use a heavy block for a base. Two uprights with
+double-pointed tacks or notches in the top. Drive two double-pointed tacks
+in lower side of teeter board at center. Slip a small rod through the
+tacks and rest in the notches on the uprights. Suspend a weight by cords
+from the lower side of the board, adjust until the board balances. The
+ends of the board should be provided with box seats for the doll's
+comfort.</p>
+
+<p><i>Railroad Train.</i>&mdash;For cars, saw pieces from a square stick. For engine,
+use pieces of broomstick or other cylinder. Soft wood is better if
+obtainable. For wheels, use pieces of small broomstick or dowel rod. (See <a href="#fig56">Fig. 56</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Let the children study real trains and make the best imitation they can
+work out.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig61" id="fig61"></a></p>
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/i125.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 61.&mdash;Adjusting<br />jumping jack in frame.</p></div>
+
+<p><i>Jumping Jacks.</i>&mdash;Cut the figure from light weight cardboard. Make head
+and body in one piece. Cut two arms long enough to reach well above the
+head. Make the hands very large. Cut two legs either with or without a
+joint at the knee. Color with crayon or water color.</p>
+
+<p>Fasten the legs and arms to the body with a string tied loosely to allow
+free movements. Make a frame<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> of two light stiff sticks and a crosspiece
+fastened between them near the lower end of the sticks. Fasten with a
+single nail at either end of the crosspiece. Cut notches near the upper
+ends of the sticks. Fasten the figure to the frame by a stout thread. Use
+a coarse needle and carry the thread through the hands twice, leaving a
+loop on each side to slip over the ends of the sticks into the notches. A
+small block or folded bit of cardboard between the hands to keep them
+apart will improve the movement of the toy. Adjust the figure so that the
+threads are parallel when the figure hangs below the inverted frame. (See <a href="#fig61">Fig. 61</a>.) When
+the frame is held upright, the figure will hang between the
+sticks and the threads will be crossed. Press the lower ends of the frame
+together to make the jumping jack perform.</p>
+
+<p><i>Merry-go-round.</i>&mdash;Use a heavy block for a base. Bore a hole in the center
+and insert a square stick, about 10 in. long. For arms, use two pieces
+about &#8540; in. thick and 10 in. long. Fasten these together in the form of
+a cross and nail to the top of the upright with a single nail. An awl may
+be used to make the hole a little larger than the nail so that the arms
+will revolve easily. Suspend a box seat of wood or cardboard from each arm
+to complete the toy. (See <a href="#fig59">Fig. 59</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><b>Games.</b>&mdash;<i>Ring Toss.</i>&mdash;Use two square pieces of board at least &#189; in.
+thick, one piece larger than the other. Bore a hole in the center of the
+smaller piece with a &#189;-in. auger bit.</p>
+
+<p>For the upright use a stick &#189; in. square and about 12 in. long. Whittle
+the corners of the stick until it fits<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> firmly into the hole in the small
+board. Nail the small board to the large one.</p>
+
+<p>For the rings use reeds, venetian iron, or hoops from small buckets or
+cart wheels. Wrap the rings with raffia or yarn. Make at least three rings
+of varying sizes. (See <a href="#fig60">Fig. 60</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Playing ring toss and keeping tally makes an excellent number game.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ten Pins.</i>&mdash;From bogus or other heavy paper roll and paste cylinders
+about three inches in diameter and about twelve inches long. These may be
+set on end, and any of the common ten pin games played with the help of a
+soft rubber ball. Keeping tally gives excellent practice in number.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bean Bag Game.</i>&mdash;Draw three circles of different sizes on a large sheet
+of heavy cardboard. Carefully cut out the circles with a sharp-pointed
+knife. Mount a picture of some animal on each piece cut out.</p>
+
+<p>Fasten the pieces back in place by a single cloth hinge pasted on the
+back, and at the lowest part of the circle.</p>
+
+<p>Tack the sheet of cardboard to a light wooden frame to keep it from
+bending.</p>
+
+<p>Let the frame rest against the wall at a slight angle. Bean bags thrown at
+the animals will knock them down as they go through the holes. The bean
+bags should be made by the children. Various number games may be played
+with bean bags.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+<h3>HOLIDAYS</h3>
+
+<p>The various holidays which come during the year mean so much to little
+children that they should receive special notice and should suggest the
+form of handwork to be done at the time.</p>
+
+<p><b>Thanksgiving</b> suggests attention to harvest products, to be modeled in
+clay, cut from paper, or drawn with crayon; the making of sand-table
+scenes showing early New England life in various phases; the making of
+various utensils and commodities of the primitive home which differ from
+our own; as, for example, the making of candles, the hour glass, and the
+sundial.</p>
+
+<p><b>Christmas</b> suggests the making of toys and all sorts of things suitable for
+gifts. If the work centers around the Christmas tree, it offers
+opportunity for co&ouml;peration in making trimming such as paper chains,
+pop-corn strings, etc., as well as individual gifts. If a tree is not
+obtainable, a box may be dressed up in imitation of Santa's sleigh drawn
+by cardboard reindeer. Whatever else is done in honor of the visit of St.
+Nicholas, the spirit of giving should be cultivated by making gifts to
+some younger or less fortunate groups. Picture books may be made for sick
+children, doll furniture and other toys for the orphans' home or some
+family of unfortunates. A sack might arrive a week or two before
+Christmas<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> accompanied by a telegram from Santa requesting contributions
+to help him out in some specific way and stating that it would be called
+for at a certain time. When a "real Santa" calls for the sack, he may
+leave in its place another containing some unexpected treat for the
+children themselves. The gifts which the children contribute should be of
+their own making, that they may have a full sense of real giving and not
+merely the pleasure of delivering the parcels mother has provided.</p>
+
+<p><b>Valentine's Day</b> offers an opportunity for developing appreciation of a
+higher form of art than the shop windows frequently offer, and also
+investing with pure, sweet sentiment a day which means, in some quarters,
+only vulgar sentimentality and coarse jests.</p>
+
+<p><b>Easter</b> offers a similar opportunity for emphasis on the fine things in
+color and subjects for greeting cards. The season also suggests emphasis
+on study of budding plants and young animal life by means of cutting,
+painting, and modeling.</p>
+
+<p><b>Hero days</b> suggest a variety of forms of handwork, such as picture making
+with crayons or cuttings, or pictures in three dimensions on the sand
+table, for intensifying important phases of the hero's life; illustrated
+stories in booklet form; and the making of "properties" for dramatic
+representations. These things offer a welcome change from the stereotyped
+"Speaking day," and stimulate originality and self-reliance.</p>
+
+<p>So much has been written and so many suggestions are constantly being
+offered in school journals that specific suggestions for <i>things to make</i>
+seem superfluous here.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span><b>Individual Problems.</b>&mdash;While community problems must form a large part of
+the handwork in the lower grades, it is desirable to have, from time to
+time, projects which seek a definite result from each pupil. In the
+community problem it is possible for the strong pupil to monopolize the
+values of the work by imposing his ideas upon his fellows and by doing all
+the work while the slower pupils are getting ready to begin. In the same
+way it is possible for the lazy pupil to shirk much of his responsibility
+through the eagerness of his companions. It is therefore necessary to
+maintain a balance by the use of individual problems of a more definite
+type. These may often be specific parts of the community problem, but this
+will not meet all the needs of the case. The special days offer excellent
+occasion for work of this sort in addition to the co&ouml;perative problems
+which are undertaken by the class as a whole.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+<h3>GENERAL SUGGESTIONS AND SUMMARY</h3>
+
+<p><b>Modification of Outlines.</b>&mdash;All the projects outlined in the foregoing
+pages are capable of modification and adaptation to the needs of several
+grades. For this reason, in nearly every problem, many more suggestions
+are offered than will often be applicable in any one instance of its
+development. The directions are, for the most part, given from the
+standpoint of the first grade, on the principle that it is easier to add
+to the detail of a problem than to simplify it. On the other hand, the
+directions are not generally specific in detail, in order to prevent as
+far as possible a mechanical copying of any project.</p>
+
+<p><b>Emphasis on Self-expression.</b>&mdash;It is desired to place special emphasis upon
+the point that each project undertaken, if it is to reach its highest
+value, must come as fully as possible from the children themselves and be
+to the very fullest extent <i>their self-expression</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Not any house described in this book, nor any house seen in another
+schoolroom, nor even the house which I, as teacher, plan in detail, will
+be most valuable to my class</i>; but rather <i>our house</i>, which <i>we, teacher
+and pupils</i> working together, evolve to suit our own needs and fancies,
+using suggestions gathered from every available source, but adapting them
+to our own needs.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span><b>Self-directed Activity and Discipline.</b>&mdash;The terms "self-directed activity"
+and "self-expression" must not be confounded with the idea of letting the
+children do as they please in any random and purposeless fashion. If one
+were to start out to escort a group of children to a certain hilltop, it
+is quite probable that some of them would run part of the way. Others
+would walk in twos and threes, and these would change about. They would
+halt to look at things that attracted their attention. The leader would
+halt them to observe some interesting point which they might otherwise
+miss. Should any of them wander from the right path the leader would call
+them back, and any frail child would be helped over the hard places. Yet
+with all this freedom the group might move steadily forward and reach the
+hilltop in due time.</p>
+
+<p>All progress up the hill of knowledge should follow a similar plan. The
+teacher should have a very definite idea of the end to be attained. The
+children should work with a purpose, and that purpose should be of such
+immediate interest to them that they would be anxious to attain it. They
+would then work earnestly, and discipline would settle itself. Handwork
+projects should be sufficiently simple to allow each worker to see his way
+through, or at least find his way without waiting for directions at each
+step. Instead of a blind following of such directions the worker should at
+all times feel himself the master of his tools and materials and be able
+to make them obey his impulse and express his idea. This attitude toward
+work can be secured only when the work is kept quite down to the level of
+the child's ability and appreciation. Only by this means can we hope to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>
+establish the inspiring and strengthening "habit of success."</p>
+
+<p><b>Introduction of New Methods.</b>&mdash;The question arises, How shall work of this
+sort be adapted to a course of study which is already full and does not
+provide time for handwork? Handwork takes more time than bookwork, and
+children evolve plans but slowly. If the teacher waits for the children to
+evolve plans and then carry them out on their own responsibility, the
+quantity of work produced will be small and the quality poor compared with
+the results gained by other methods.</p>
+
+<p>The freer method must be justified, not by its tangible results, but by
+its value as a means of individual development. If it is true that</p>
+
+<p class="poem">"One good idea known to be thine own<br />
+Is worth a thousand gleaned from fields by others sown,"</p>
+
+<p>then it follows that a small quantity of crude work may often represent
+greater genuine growth than a larger quantity of nicely finished work, if
+the latter has been accomplished by such careful dictation that individual
+thought on the part of the pupils was unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>Common sense is the best guide in introducing a new method of work. Any
+sudden transition is likely to be disastrous. Responsibility in new fields
+should be shifted from teacher to pupils as rapidly as they are able to
+carry it, but it should never be transferred in wholesale fashion. This is
+especially true of a class that is accustomed to wait for the teacher's
+permission or command in all the small details of schoolroom life, such as
+speaking, moving about the room, etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>The freer methods may be introduced by either of two plans. In carrying
+through the first sand-table project, for example, the teacher may plan
+the details quite as definitely as is her custom in general work, assign
+each part to a particular pupil, and guide his execution of it as far as
+necessary. With each succeeding project more and more freedom may be
+granted, as the children become accustomed to community work and learn how
+to use the materials involved. Or, the work may be introduced by allowing
+two or three very trustworthy pupils to work out, quite alone, some simple
+project which will appeal to the entire class as very desirable. Other
+projects may be worked out by other pupils as they show themselves worthy
+of trust. Such a plan sets a premium upon independence and ability to
+direct one's own actions, and has a beneficial effect upon general
+discipline. Each individual teacher must follow the plan which best
+accords with her individual habits and the conditions under which she
+works. No rule can be rated as best under any and all circumstances.</p>
+
+<p><b>New and Different Projects.</b>&mdash;Teachers frequently spend time and nerve
+force seeking new projects supposedly to stimulate the interest of the
+children. Often a careful examination into the true motives back of the
+search would prove that it is not so much to stimulate the interest of the
+children as to call forth the admiration of other teachers. Because a
+house was built last year does not hinder the building of another this
+year. If the children are allowed ample freedom, the houses will not be
+alike. If the teacher is centering her interest<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> in the development of the
+children and not in the things the children make, the projects will always
+be new because worked out in a new way by a different group of children.
+Monotony comes about through the teacher's attempt to plan out details and
+impose them upon the children, a process quite similar to the use of
+predigested foods.</p>
+
+<p><b>Quality of Work.</b>&mdash;Methods such as outlined above are sometimes criticized
+because of the crudity of the results. It is sometimes argued that the
+crude work establishes low standards and that better finished work of a
+more useful type is more desirable in school projects. Certainly
+everything which is done in school should be useful. School years are too
+precious to be wasted, in any degree, on a thing which is useless. But it
+is important to have a right standard for measuring the usefulness of a
+project. Since it is the child's interest and effort which are to be
+stimulated, his work must be useful from his point of view. The things
+that he works upon must be valuable to him personally. It is not enough
+for the teacher to be satisfied with the value of the subject matter. It
+must, as far as possible, be self-evident to the child himself.</p>
+
+<p>In the growing period a child is always anxious to excel himself and
+attain a higher level, nearer the adult standards. He measures his growth,
+not only in inches, but in ability to run faster, jump farther, count
+higher, and so on. So long as he is stimulated by an interesting motive he
+puts forth his best effort. It is only when we set him tasks and demand
+blind obedience that he lags. If his crude work represents his best
+effort, honestly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> put forth, he will, and he does, desire to do something
+better each time he tries. If he is permitted to work freely upon projects
+of immediate interest to him, he not only becomes familiar with various
+materials and the purposes they may serve, but he also begins to realize
+his inability to make them always obey his impulse. As soon as he
+discovers that there are better and easier ways of working which bring
+about more satisfactory results, he is anxious to learn the tricks of the
+trade; and he comes to the later, more technical courses in handwork, not
+only with more intelligence, but also with an appreciation of their value
+which is reflected in the quality of his work.</p>
+
+<p><b>Summary.</b>&mdash;The last word, as the first in this little book, would stress
+the fact that it is always possible to improve present conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Activity is an essential factor in a child's development in school as well
+as out. Handwork is an important phase of this necessary activity. Neither
+lack of time, scarcity of material, nor lack of training on the part of
+the teacher is a sufficient excuse for failure to use some handwork in
+every school. Much can be accomplished with materials which are to be
+found anywhere, without using more time than is ordinarily devoted to the
+subject, and with better results, if we will but realize that educative
+handwork is not confined to the making of a few books, boxes, mats, or
+baskets after a prescribed pattern, however good in themselves these may
+be, but is also a means through which we may teach other subject matter.</p>
+
+<p>We not only learn to do by doing, but we come to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> <i>know</i> through trying to
+<i>do</i>. And we often learn more through our failures than through our
+successes. We defraud the children if we deprive them of this important
+factor in their development. Any teacher who is willing to begin with what
+she has and <i>let the children do</i> the best they can with it, will find
+unexpected resources and greater opportunities at every hand.</p>
+
+<p>Let us not allow ourselves to grow disheartened through vain wishes for
+the impossible or for the advantages of some other field, but attack our
+own with vigor and determination; for</p>
+
+<p class="poem">"The common problem, yours, mine, every one's<br />
+Is&mdash;not to fancy what were fair in life<br />
+Provided it could be&mdash;but, finding first<br />
+What may be, then find how to make it fair<br />
+Up to our means."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="REFERENCES" id="REFERENCES"></a>REFERENCES</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="References">
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Dewey</span>&mdash;The School and the Child; School and Society; The Child and the Curriculum.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">O'Shea</span>&mdash;Dynamic Factors in Education.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Scott</span>&mdash;Social Education.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Dopp</span>&mdash;The Place of Industries in Elementary Education.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Bone</span>&mdash;The Service of the Hand in the School.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Sargent</span>&mdash;Fine and Industrial Arts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Row</span>&mdash;The Educational Meaning of Manual Arts and Industries.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Charters</span>&mdash;Methods of Teaching.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Bagley</span>&mdash;The Educative Process.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Russell</span>&mdash;The School and Industrial Life. Educational Review, Dec. 1909.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Sykes and Bonser</span>&mdash;Industrial Education. Teachers College Record, Sept. 1911.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Bennett</span>&mdash;The Place of Manual Arts in Education. Educational Review, Oct. 1911.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Richards</span>&mdash;Handwork in the Primary School. Manual Training Magazine, Oct. 1901.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3><span class="smcap">References for Classroom Use</span></h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="References">
+<tr><td>Coping Saw Work</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Johnston</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>School Drawing</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Daniels</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Little Folks Handy Book</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Beard</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>World at Work Series</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Dutton</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Big People and Little People of Other Lands</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Shaw</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>How We Are Fed</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Chamberlain</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>How We Are Clothed</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Chamberlain</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>How We Are Sheltered</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Chamberlain</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class='pagenum'>[Pg 124]</span>Continents and their People</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Chamberlain</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>How the World is Fed</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Carpenter</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>How the World is Clothed</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Carpenter</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>How the World is Housed</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Carpenter</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Around the World Series</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Tolman</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Youth's Companion Series</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Lane</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>The Bird Woman</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Chandler</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>The Tree Dwellers</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Dopp</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>The Early Cave Men</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Dopp</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>The Later Cave Men</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class="smcap">Dopp</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><b>Printed in the United States of America.</b></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><b>Footnotes:</b></p>
+
+<p><a name="f1" id="f1" href="#f1.1">[1]</a> In scoring cardboard cut about halfway through the board on the <i>outside</i> of the fold.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f2" id="f2" href="#f2.1">[2]</a> See Scott's "Social Education."</p>
+
+<p><a name="f3" id="f3" href="#f3.1">[3]</a> See Riverside Primer.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><b>Transcriber's note:</b></p>
+<p>Additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as presented in the original text.</p>
+<p>Printer's inconsistencies in hyphenation have been retained.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Primary Handwork, by Ella Victoria Dobbs
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Primary Handwork
+
+
+Author: Ella Victoria Dobbs
+
+
+
+Release Date: December 14, 2009  [eBook #30676]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PRIMARY HANDWORK***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Stephanie Eason and the Project Gutenberg Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net) from digital material
+generously made available by Internet Archive/American Libraries
+(http://www.archive.org/details/americana)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the original illustrations.
+      See 30676-h.htm or 30676-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30676/30676-h/30676-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30676/30676-h.zip)
+
+
+      Images of the original pages are available through
+      Internet Archive/American Libraries. See
+      http://www.archive.org/details/primaryhandwo00dobbrich
+
+
+Transcriber's note:
+
+      Text in italics is enclosed by underscores (_italics_).
+
+      Text in bold face is enclosed by equal signs (=bold=).
+
+
+
+
+PRIMARY HANDWORK
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+  THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
+
+  NEW YORK . BOSTON . CHICAGO . DALLAS
+  ATLANTA . SAN FRANCISCO
+
+  MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED
+
+  LONDON . BOMBAY . CALCUTTA
+  MELBOURNE
+
+  THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD.
+
+  TORONTO
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+[Illustration: HOUSE OF THE THREE BEARS
+
+Built by first-grade class. Columbia, Missouri. See page 58.]
+
+
+PRIMARY HANDWORK
+
+by
+
+ELLA VICTORIA DOBBS, B.S., A.M.
+
+Assistant Professor of Manual Arts
+University of Missouri
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+New York
+The Macmillan Company
+1923
+
+All rights reserved
+
+Copyright, 1914,
+by The Macmillan Company.
+
+Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1914.
+
+Norwood Press
+J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co.
+Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.
+
+
+
+
+  DEDICATED TO
+  THE LITTLE CHILDREN OF AMERICA
+  WITH THE WISH
+  THAT ALL THEIR SCHOOL DAYS
+  MAY BE HAPPY DAYS
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This book is the outgrowth of long experience as a teacher of primary
+grades, followed by special study of handwork as a factor in elementary
+education. It is written with three objects in view:
+
+First, to gather into a single volume various methods already in use in
+the more progressive schools, and for which the best suggestions are
+scattered through current periodicals:
+
+Second, to organize these methods and present them in a simple form for
+the use of teachers who have had no special training in handwork
+processes:
+
+Third, accepting conditions as they exist in the small town school and the
+one-room country school, as a basis of organization, to offer suggestions
+which may be easily adapted to the conditions of any school with a view to
+bringing present practice into closer harmony with the best educational
+ideals.
+
+No claim is laid to originality, beyond the small details in which one
+person's interpretation of a large problem will differ from that of
+another.
+
+The projects here outlined have been tested in the Public Schools of
+Columbia, Missouri, under conditions which are common to towns of about
+the same size.
+
+The point of view has been influenced chiefly by the educational
+philosophy of Prof. John Dewey, especially as expressed in his essay "The
+Child and the Curriculum." The author wishes here to make grateful
+acknowledgement to Dr. Dewey, not only for the helpfulness of his
+writings, but also for the inspiration of his teaching.
+
+Thanks are also due to Dr. Naomi Norsworthy of Teachers College, and to
+Dean W. W. Charters of Missouri University, for encouragement in planning
+the book and for criticism of the manuscript. Especial acknowledgment is
+here made to Prof. R. W. Selvidge of Peabody College for Teachers,
+formerly of this University, for hearty cooperation and helpful
+suggestions in working out the problems described in this book, and to the
+teachers of the Columbia Schools for their most efficient services in
+testing these problems in their classrooms.
+
+E. V. D.
+
+UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI,
+
+February, 1914.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+CHAPTER                                           PAGE
+
+     I. INTRODUCTION                                 1
+
+    II. PAPER CUTTING AND POSTER MAKING              6
+
+   III. BOOKLETS                                    17
+
+    IV. CRITICISM AND STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP      24
+
+     V. THE HOUSE PROBLEM                           27
+
+    VI. THE VILLAGE STREET                          65
+
+   VII. SAND TABLES AND WHAT TO DO WITH THEM        77
+
+  VIII. ANIMALS AND TOYS                           102
+
+    IX. HOLIDAYS                                   112
+
+     X. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS AND SUMMARY            115
+
+  REFERENCES                                       123
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+                                                  PAGE
+
+  House of the Three Bears              _Frontispiece_
+
+   1. Paper Cutting. First Grade                     7
+
+   2. Paper Cutting. Second Grade                    8
+
+   3. Paper Cutting. Second Grade                   10
+
+   4. Paper Tearing                                 11
+
+   5. Paper Cutting. Third Grade                    13
+
+   6. Paper Cutting. Fourth Grade                   15
+
+   7. Pamphlet Sewing                               22
+
+   8. Japanese Sewing                               22
+
+   9. House arranged on a Shelf                     28
+
+  10. A Medieval Castle                             29
+
+  11. House arranged on a Table--Front View         32
+
+  12. House arranged on a Table--Side View          33
+
+  13. House arranged on a Table--Back View          34
+
+  14. House Plan                                    35
+
+  15. Arrangement of Windows                        36
+
+  16. Detail of Hollow Square                       38
+
+  17. Borders                                       39
+
+  18. Looms and Samples of Weaving                  41
+
+  19. Box House by Second Grade                     43
+
+  20. Detail for Paper Weaving                      44
+
+  21. Furniture from Wood Blocks                    48
+
+  22. Furniture from Wood Blocks                    48
+
+  23. Home of White Cloud, the Pueblo Girl          51
+
+  24. Detail of Stairway                            54
+
+  25. Box House, showing Roof                       55
+
+  26. Detail of Gable                               56
+
+  27. Colonial Kitchen                              56
+
+  28. House of the Three Bears                      59
+
+  29. Cornstalk House                               60
+
+  30. A Flour Mill                                  62
+
+  31. Box House and Stores                          66
+
+  32. A Village Street                              68
+
+  33. A Grocery. Fourth Grade                       70
+
+  34. A Grocery. Third Grade                        73
+
+  35. A Dry Goods Store                             75
+
+  36. Home in a Hot Country                         76
+
+  37. Home in a Cold Country                        76
+
+  38. A Sand-table Farm. First Grade                80
+
+  39. A Sand-table Farm. Second Grade               80
+
+  40. Detail of Chicken Fence                       81
+
+  41. Detail of Paper Tree                          84
+
+  42. Overall Boys' Farm                            86
+
+  43. An Apple Orchard                              87
+
+  44. Robinson Crusoe                               89
+
+  45. Pueblo Indian Village                         90
+
+  46. A Home in Switzerland                         92
+
+  47. Two Little Knights of Kentucky                94
+
+  48. How Cedric became a Knight                    94
+
+  49. A Sugar Camp                                  95
+
+  50. A Western Cattle Ranch                        96
+
+  51. The Story of Three Little Pigs                98
+
+  52. A Japanese Tea Garden                         99
+
+  53. A Coal Mine                                   99
+
+  54. A Chariot Race                               102
+
+  55. A Circus Parade                              103
+
+  56. Three-ply Wooden Animals                     104
+
+  57. Detail for Three-ply Wooden Animals
+      with Movable Parts                           105
+
+  58. Notched Rest for Animals                     106
+
+  59. Balancing Figures                            107
+
+  60. Some Simple Toys                             108
+
+  61. Adjusting Jumping-Jack in Frame              109
+
+
+
+
+PRIMARY HANDWORK
+
+
+
+
+PRIMARY HANDWORK
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+In setting forth the plan and purpose of this little book the author
+wishes to lay equal emphasis on its limitations. The outlines and
+suggestions which follow are designed for the use of grade teachers who
+have had little or no training in handwork processes but who appreciate
+the necessity of making worthy use of the child's natural activity and
+desire to do. The outlines are arranged with reference to schools which
+are not provided with special equipment and which have scant funds for
+supplies. The projects require only such materials as empty goods boxes,
+and odds and ends of cloth and paper, which are easily obtainable in any
+community. No extra time is required for the work, and it may be
+successfully carried out by any teacher who is willing to devote a little
+study to the possibilities of things near at hand.
+
+These outlines do not form a course of study to be followed in regular
+order nor in set lessons coming at a definite time. They are, rather, a
+series of suggestions to be used wherever and whenever they will serve a
+worthy purpose. They are not to be regarded as a _special_ subject,
+having little or no connection with the regular class work, but rather as
+an illustrative method of teaching the regular subject matter whenever the
+teaching can be done more effectively by means of concrete illustrations.
+It is proposed to make greater use of construction as a medium of
+expression, and place _making_ more nearly on a par with talking, writing,
+and drawing.
+
+Any of the projects outlined may be modified to suit varying conditions,
+and the emphasis placed according to the needs of a particular class. All
+the suggestions are given in very simple form, chiefly from the standpoint
+of the first grade, for the reason that it is easier to add to the details
+of a simple problem than to simplify one which is complex.
+
+It is not the purpose here to emphasize the training of the hand or the
+development of technique in handwork processes to the extent commonly
+expected of a course in manual arts, though considerable dexterity in the
+use of tools and materials will undoubtedly be developed as the work
+proceeds. While careless work is never to be tolerated in construction any
+more than it would be tolerated in writing or drawing, the standard is to
+be only such a degree of perfection as is possible through a child's
+unaided efforts. It is proposed to provide him with things to do of such
+interest to him that he will wish to do his best, and things of such a
+nature that they will please him best when they are well done, and so
+stimulate a genuine desire for good work. To this end the suggestions
+relate to things of immediate value and use to the children themselves,
+rather than to things commonly comprehended in a list of articles which
+are useful from the adult point of view.
+
+The work is to be kept on a level with the child's experience and used as
+a means of broadening his experience and lifting it to a higher level. It
+must also be kept on the level of his constructive ability in order that
+he may do things _by himself_, and develop independence through feeling
+himself master of his tools. Neither patterns nor definite directions are
+provided for the details of the projects outlined, for the reason that it
+is desired to make every project a spontaneous expression of the child's
+own ideas. To this end the outline serves only as a framework, to be
+filled in as the worker desires. The ready-made pattern implies dictation
+on the part of the teacher and mechanical imitation and repetition on the
+part of the pupil,--a process almost fatal to spontaneous effort. While it
+is possible through a method of dictation to secure results which seem, at
+first, to be much better than the crude constructions which children are
+able to work out for themselves, it is only a superficial advantage, and
+one gained at the expense of the child's growth in power to think and act
+independently. It is an advantage closely akin to the parrotlike
+recitation of the pupil who catches a few glib phrases and gives them back
+without thought, as compared with the recitation of the pupil who thinks
+and expresses his thoughts in his own childish language.
+
+These outlines are intended not only to emphasize independence in
+self-expression, but also to foster a social spirit through community
+effort and develop a sense of responsibility through division of labor. A
+child's shortcomings will be brought home to him much more vividly if he
+fails to contribute some essential assigned to him in the construction of
+a cooperative project, and thereby spoils the pleasure of the whole group,
+than when his failure affects only his individual effort in a group of
+duplicate projects.
+
+These outlines are intended also to suggest a method of opening up to the
+children, in an attractive way, the great field of industry. Their deep
+interest in playing store leads easily to a study of the source, use, and
+value of various forms of merchandise and the essential features of
+various trades and occupations. Problems of this sort are fascinating to
+children in all the lower grades, are rich in valuable subject matter, and
+suggest things to do which are both interesting and worth while. Without
+attempting to exhaust any phase of the subject, they awaken an intelligent
+interest in the industrial world and tend to stimulate thoughtful
+observation. They help to give the children correct ideas about industrial
+processes as far as their knowledge goes, and to create a desire for
+further knowledge. This general information lays a good foundation for
+later and more serious study of the industries and the choice of a
+vocation.
+
+These outlines are offered as a means of bridging the gap between the
+formal methods and outgrown courses of study still in use and the richer
+curriculum and more vital methods toward which we are working. Much time
+must be spent in study and experimentation before a satisfactory
+reorganization of the curriculum can be worked out. Without waiting until
+this work shall be wholly completed, it is possible at once to vitalize
+the most formal course of study through the use of freer methods, which
+permit and encourage self-directed activity on the part of the pupil. The
+use of such methods will not only tend to create a deeper interest in
+school work, but must also help toward the great problem of
+reorganization, by throwing into stronger relief the strength and weakness
+of our present common practice.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PAPER CUTTING AND POSTER MAKING
+
+
+Paper and scissors form a fascinating combination to all children, and
+offer a very direct means of self-expression. In the language of a small
+boy who attempted to tell how to do it, "You just think about something
+and then cut out your _think_." The teacher is concerned chiefly with the
+"think" and the way in which it is expressed. The children are interested
+in paper cutting chiefly from the pleasure of the activity. Beyond the
+immediate pleasure in the process, the cuttings are valuable only as they
+indicate the clearness of the child's ideas and measure his ability to
+express them. The process is educative only in so far as it helps the
+small worker to "see with his mind's eye" and to give tangible shape to
+what he thus sees. It is important, therefore, that the work be done in a
+way that will emphasize the thinking rather than the finished product.
+
+The first question arising is, To what extent shall a pattern be used?
+Shall the teacher cut out the object and bid the class follow her example?
+Shall she display a silhouette or outline drawing of the object she
+desires the children to cut, or shall they work without any external guide
+to justify or modify the mental picture? Shall they be given a pattern and
+be allowed to draw around it?
+
+All of the above methods are used to a greater or less extent. Long
+experience seems to indicate that the first cutting of any object should
+be unassisted by any external representation of it whatever, in order that
+the attention of each child may be focused upon his own mental picture of
+the object. When he has put forth his best effort from this standpoint, he
+should compare his cutting with the real object or a good picture of it
+and be led to see the chief defects in his own production and then allowed
+to try again.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Story of Jack Horner on poster and sand table.
+Snowflakes in background. First grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+For example, after telling the story of Mother Hubbard, the children may
+be interested in cutting out dogs. No picture or other guide should be
+used at first, since every child knows something about dogs. The first
+cuttings are likely to be very poor, partly because the children have not
+sufficient control over the scissors and largely because their ideas are
+very vague. In a general comparison of work they will help each other with
+such criticisms as, "This dog's head is too big." "That dog's legs are too
+stiff." They are then ready to try again. Only when they have reached the
+limit of their power to see flaws in their work do they need to compare it
+with the real dog or its picture. Only after a child has attempted to
+express his idea and has become conscious in ever so small a degree of the
+imperfection of his expression will he really be able to see differences
+between the real object and his representation of it, and thereby clarify
+his mental picture.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Paper cutting. Second grade, Columbia.]
+
+
+The child's imagination is so strong that he is apt to see his productions
+not as they are but as he means them to be, and he is unable to
+distinguish between the original and his copy of it. If the picture or
+silhouette is presented at first, his work becomes to a large extent mere
+copying rather than self-expression. If the teacher cuts out a dog and
+displays it as a sample, the class will be apt to see that piece of paper
+only and not a real dog. If the children are permitted to draw the outline
+either freehand or around a pattern, still less mental effort is required,
+and in cutting they see only the bit of line just ahead of the scissors
+and not the object as a whole.
+
+Such methods (_i.e._ the use of outlines, silhouettes, etc.) will produce
+better immediate results. It will be easier to distinguish dogs and cats
+from cows and horses if a pattern is provided, but it will not produce
+stronger children. Such methods only defeat the chief purpose of the work,
+which is to stimulate the mental effort required to hold the mental image
+of the object in the focus of attention during the time required to
+reproduce it in the material form.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Paper cutting. Second grade.]
+
+
+It is also often asked whether the children shall always cut directly and
+without modification or whether they shall be permitted to trim off the
+imperfections of their first attempts. While any rule must always be
+interpreted in the light of immediate circumstances, it is generally best
+to cut directly, and after noting the defects, cut again. It is then
+possible to compare the several attempts and see if improvement has been
+made. Attention should be directed to the most glaring defect only, and an
+attempt made to correct it. For example, if the dog's head is too large,
+do not trim down, but cut another dog and try for better proportions.
+Compare the second attempt with the first, to measure improvement. Even
+little children can be taught to work in this thoughtful way, looking for
+the defects in their own work and making definite attempts to correct
+them. To this end much cutting from an unlimited supply of newspaper or
+scratch paper will accomplish more than a few exercises in better paper
+which must be trimmed and worked over for the sake of economy. If little
+children are allowed to trim off, they are apt, in the pure joy of
+cutting, to trim too much and lose the idea with which they started--a
+process which tends to vagueness rather than clearness. To prevent this it
+is often helpful to preserve both pieces of paper, _i.e._ the cutting and
+the hole. (See Fig. 4.)
+
+=Paper Tearing.=--Paper tearing serves many of the same purposes sought in
+cutting, and has several strong points in its favor. Working directly with
+the finger tips tends to develop a desirable dexterity of manipulation.
+The nature of the process prevents the expression of small details and
+tends to emphasize bold outlines and big general proportions. Working
+directly with the fingers tends also to prevent a weak dependence upon
+certain tools and tends to develop power to express an idea by whatever
+means is at hand.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Paper tearing.]
+
+
+=Posters.=--The term "poster" as here used includes all mounted pictures
+made by children, such as cuttings, drawings, paintings, and scrap
+pictures.
+
+A poster may be the work of one child or of a group. A single poster may
+tell the whole story, or a series of posters may be made to show a
+sequence of events. A series of posters may be bound together in book
+form. For poster making single sheets of paper, medium weight and of
+neutral tone, are needed. The sheets should be of uniform size for
+individual use so that they could be bound together if desired. For
+cooperative work and special problems larger sheets will be needed.
+
+
+SUGGESTED PROBLEMS FOR PAPER WORK
+
+=Cutting out Pictures.=--This serves well for first effort with scissors.
+The interest in the picture furnishes a motive, while the outline serves
+as a guide and allows the attention to be given wholly to the control of
+the scissors.
+
+_Free cutting of single objects_--such as animals, fruits, trees,
+furniture, utensils, etc.--intensifies and clarifies mental pictures and
+stimulates observation if the child is led to express his own ideas first
+and then to compare his expression with the original and note his
+deficiencies. As far as possible choose objects with strong bold outlines
+for the first attempts. There should be some marked feature, such as
+Bunny's long ears, which calls for emphasis. To cut a circular piece of
+paper which might be an apple or a peach, a walnut or a tomato, will not
+aid much in clarifying a mental picture, while Bunny's long ears, even
+though crudely cut, will be more deeply impressed on the child's mind.
+
+=Illustrations for Stories.=--_Single Illustration._--After a story has
+been read aloud and the characters and events freely discussed by the
+class, each child may be encouraged to represent the part which has
+appealed to him--_i.e._ "cut what he wants to cut." After the cuttings are
+mounted they will probably form a series which will tell the whole story.
+When several children illustrate the same feature, it offers opportunity
+for comparison and judgment as to which ones have told the story most
+effectively. For example, in the story of the Three Bears, the cuttings
+may show the three bears in three relative sizes, the three chairs, the
+three beds, the table, and the three bowls of porridge. (See notes on
+Criticism.)
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Free cutting. Third grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+_Series._--Let each child select the two or three most important events in
+a story and illustrate these in a single poster or series of posters.
+
+_Community Poster._--A long story such as the "Old Woman and the Silver
+Sixpence" may be illustrated by the class as a whole, each child cutting
+some one feature. This requires attention to relative proportions so that
+the parts may be in harmony when assembled. Such posters may be used for
+wall decoration.
+
+=Charts.=--Poster making may also include the making of charts containing
+samples of manufactured articles in various stages of development. For
+example, a chart on cotton might show raw cotton, cord, thread, cloth of
+various sorts, lace, paper, and other materials made from cotton. Such a
+chart might also include pictures of cotton fields, spinning and weaving
+machinery, and other related features.
+
+=Materials.=--Too much can scarcely be said in favor of much cutting from
+an unlimited supply of common wrapping paper, newspaper, or other waste
+paper, in which the children are entirely unhampered by such injunctions
+as, "Be careful and get it just right the first time, because you can't
+have another paper if you waste this piece." The possible danger of
+cultivating wastefulness is less serious and more easily overcome than the
+very probable danger of dwarfing and cramping the power of expression.
+Here, if anywhere, the rule holds good that we learn to do by doing, and
+abundant practice is essential to success.
+
+_Black silhouette_ or _poster_ paper is most effective when mounted, but
+is too expensive for general use in large classes.
+
+_Brown kraft_ paper and _tailor's pattern_ paper serve well for both
+cuttings and mounts. Both of these papers may be had by the roll at a low
+cost. The tailor's paper comes in several dull colors, which make good
+mounts for cuttings from white scratch paper or the fine print of
+newspaper.
+
+_Bogus_ paper makes an excellent mount and is very inexpensive.
+
+=The Pasting Process.=--To a large number of teachers the pasting lesson
+is a time to be dreaded and its results a cause of discouragement.
+Especially is this true if the class is large and the teacher attempts to
+have all the class pasting at one time. In many phases of school work it
+is so much easier to control forty or fifty children if they all act in
+unison that we are prone to use the method too often and apply it to forms
+of work much better managed by groups. The process of teaching little
+folks to paste is greatly simplified by the use of the group method.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Free cutting. Fourth grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+If the room affords a large table at which a small group may work, the
+teacher can easily supervise the work of the entire group. If there is no
+table, the teacher can work with one or two rows at a time or have very
+small groups come to her desk. The secret of the success of the group
+method lies in having the rest of the class busy with some occupation
+sufficiently interesting to prevent impatience while waiting for turns.
+The command to "fold hands and sit still till your turn comes" is sure to
+cause trouble, because children are physically unable to obey it.
+
+The most important factor in successful pasting is a liberal supply of
+waste paper. Each child should be supplied with a number of single sheets
+of newspaper torn to convenient size, to paste on, each sheet to be
+discarded as soon as used. This decreases the danger of untidy work. With
+the cutting laid upon the waste paper, the paste may be spread with brush,
+thin wood, or thick paper, well out over the edges. As soon as the pasted
+cutting is lifted the waste paper should be folded over to cover all wet
+paste and lessen the possibility of accidents. After the cutting is placed
+upon the mount, a clean piece of waste paper should be laid over it and
+rubbed until the air is all pressed out and the cutting adheres firmly.
+The waste paper overlay may be rubbed vigorously without harm, whereas a
+light touch of sticky fingers directly upon the cutting will leave a
+soiled spot, if it does not tear the moist paper. If children are
+carefully taught in small groups to follow this method of pasting, in a
+fairly short time all but the weakest members of the class will be able to
+paste neatly without much supervision.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+BOOKLETS
+
+
+The making of booklets forms a valuable accompaniment to almost every
+phase of school work. Even simple exercises, when put into book form, take
+on a dignity otherwise impossible and seem more worth while. It is
+impossible to work with much enthusiasm and care on exercises which are
+destined only for the wastebasket.
+
+The chief value in the making of booklets is lost when they are made for
+display purposes only. Many difficulties are sure to arise when the
+teacher, for the sake of her own reputation, sets an arbitrary standard
+and tries to force every member of the class to meet it. Because of these
+difficulties many teachers dread and avoid work of this sort, but the
+trouble lies in our false standards and poor methods rather than in the
+process itself. When the exhibit idea is uppermost, each page must be
+examined with great care, done over again and again if need be, until the
+standard is reached or the patience of both teacher and pupil exhausted.
+In such a case the work practically ceases to be the child's own. Instead
+of expressing an idea of his own in his own way, he tries to express the
+teacher's idea in the teacher's way, and it is not surprising that he
+fails so often.
+
+The booklet serves its best purpose when it combines both value and need;
+that is, when it is something which seems worth while to the pupil and
+when he feels responsible for its success. He should feel something akin
+to the responsibility one feels in writing an important letter; that is,
+that it must be right the first time because there is no opportunity to
+try again and that he cannot afford to do less than his best because what
+is done will stand.
+
+To "express his own idea in his own way" does not mean that his work is to
+be undirected or that poor results are to be accepted. It does mean that
+when an idea and a means of expressing it have been suggested to him, he
+shall be allowed to do the best he can by himself, and that when he has
+done his best, it shall be accepted even though imperfect. Under no
+circumstances should his work be "touched up" by the teacher. If he is not
+asked to do things which are too hard for him, he will not make many
+serious errors. If these are wisely pointed out, they will not often be
+repeated. If his attention is held to one or two important features at a
+time, each effort will mean some gain.
+
+The making of a booklet in the primary grades should really consist in
+making a cover to preserve pages already made or to receive pages on
+certain topics as they are finished. The making of an animal book, for
+example, might be a continuous process. Whenever a new animal is studied
+and a cutting or drawing of it made, the new page may be added to the
+book.
+
+The first books should be picture books only, collections of cuttings,
+drawings, and mounted pictures. As the children learn to write they may
+add first the name and then short descriptions of the pictures, the
+development proceeding by easy stages until their composition work takes
+the form of the illustrated story.
+
+Books which are a collection of single sheets are, as a rule, most
+satisfactory in the primary school. The single sheet is much more
+convenient to use, and there is always an inspiration in beginning with a
+fresh sheet of paper. It is more difficult to paste cuttings into a book,
+and if pages are spoiled, the book is spoiled. If separate sheets are
+used, a poor one may be done over or discarded without affecting the rest.
+
+The making of booklets and posters offers an excellent opportunity for
+developing artistic appreciation. It is not enough for the teacher to
+provide only good colors from which the children may choose, and to
+supervise the spacing of pictures and then flatter herself that because
+the results are good that the children are developing good taste. Unless
+they really want the good things, little real gain has been made. Unless
+they see some reason for the arrangement of a page, other than that the
+_teacher wants it that way_, little has been accomplished.
+
+The first attempts will show little or no idea of balance or good spacing.
+The early color combinations are apt to be crude. If the best things they
+do are praised and their attention is constantly directed to the good
+points in things about them, they will begin to want those things. They
+will begin gradually to feel a greater pleasure in a well-balanced page
+than in one on which big and little pictures are stuck indiscriminately.
+If they are given all possible freedom in matters of choice, it will be
+possible to measure their real progress and to know what points need
+emphasis.
+
+The more accustomed the children are to tasteful surroundings, the easier
+will be their progress, but whether they come from tasteful homes or the
+reverse, the process is the same. Real progress will undoubtedly be slow,
+but it should be upon a sure foundation.
+
+
+SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR BOOKLETS
+
+=Stories.=--Series of illustrations either cut or drawn for any of the
+stories read by the class.
+
+_Animal Book._--Cuttings or sketches of animals. The name and short
+statement of some characteristic may be added by children who are able to
+write. Trees, flowers, fruits, etc., may be treated in the same way.
+
+_A. B. C. Book._--A page for each letter of the alphabet to be filled with
+pictures and names of objects having the same initial letter.
+
+_House Book._--A page for each room, upon which may be mounted pictures of
+things appropriate to the room. Newspaper advertisements and catalogs
+furnish abundant material for this problem. The work not only helps the
+children to classify present knowledge, but offers opportunity for
+judgment as to arrangement and relative proportions.
+
+_How People Live._--A book of pictures of houses in different countries.
+
+_Famous Houses._--Pictures of famous buildings and homes of famous people.
+
+_What we Wear._--Pictures showing materials from which clothing is made,
+the methods of production and manufacture.
+
+_What we Eat._--Vegetable foods may be grouped as roots, stalks, leaves,
+seeds, etc. Animal foods may be classified according to the animal from
+which they are obtained and the part of the animal from which they are
+cut. Suggestions for cooking may be added.
+
+_How we Travel._--Pictures showing vehicles and conveyances of all sorts,
+classified as ancient and modern, or according to the countries in which
+they are used, or the motive power, as horses, electricity, steam, etc.
+
+In connection with elementary geography and history, booklets and posters
+may be made up from pictures cut from discarded papers, catalogs, and
+magazines, as well as original drawings. A great variety of topics may be
+profitably illustrated in this way. As, for example, land and water forms,
+famous mountains, lakes, rivers, etc., products and processes of
+cultivation and manufacture, famous people, costumes and customs of other
+times and places, utensils and weapons of earlier times.
+
+=Fastenings.=--The simplest method of binding single sheets is by means of
+paper fasteners and eyelets. Though these are not expensive, some schools
+cannot afford to buy them. Cords may be used in several ways and serve as
+part of the decoration.
+
+_The Simple Tie._--Punch three holes in the margin, at least one half inch
+from the edge to prevent tearing out. Insert the cord in the middle hole,
+carry through one end hole, then through the other end hole, then back
+through the middle and tie. (See Fig. 7.)
+
+_Japanese Sewing._--Punch holes at regular intervals, as one inch apart.
+Sew through first hole twice, making a loop around the back,--repeat the
+process until a loop has been made for each hole,--carry the cord in and
+out through the holes back to the starting point, filling in the blank
+places and making a continuous line, and tie ends together with a small
+knot. (See Fig. 8.)
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.--Pamphlet sewing.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8.--Japanese binding.]
+
+
+=Decoration.=--Only the simplest decoration should be attempted. A plain
+cover of good color tied with a cord of harmonious color will have
+elements of beauty without further decoration. A single border line well
+placed may be used and offers opportunity for developing a nice sense of
+proportion by studying the results to see which borders are neither too
+near the edge nor too far from it.
+
+A well-printed, well-placed title is often the most satisfactory
+decoration. Printing should be introduced early, and the children
+encouraged to make good plain letters. In order to get the title in good
+proportion and well placed, it is helpful to cut a piece of paper the
+desired size and lay it on the cover, moving it about to see where it
+looks best. Until the children have learned to do fairly neat work it is
+often helpful to print the title on a separate piece and paste it in
+place. It is discouraging to spoil an otherwise good cover by a bad
+letter, and this process lessens that danger.
+
+Before the children learn to print, a simple border or band across the
+cover may take the place of the title. The border may be drawn in crayons
+or be free-hand cuttings.
+
+Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the beauty of simplicity in
+decoration. Children are inclined to think beauty means fanciness and that
+beauty increases with the quantity of decoration. It is necessary to begin
+early to develop a taste for good design.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CRITICISM AND STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP
+
+
+=Criticism.=--An important feature of all self-directed activity is the
+ability to judge one's efforts and intelligently measure one's success.
+This ability is a matter of slow growth and must be cultivated. It is not
+enough for the teacher to pass judgment upon a piece of work and grade its
+quality. The worker himself must learn to find his own mistakes and how to
+correct them. Class criticism offers the best means of developing this
+power, but must be tactfully conducted.
+
+Little children are brutally frank in expressing their opinions and need
+to be taught how to be truthful and yet not unkind. They need to be taught
+what to look for and how to find it, and how to compare one thing with
+another and discover why one pleases and another displeases. The first
+essential in the training is emphasis on the good rather than the bad. It
+is a gospel of "do" rather than of "don't." The earliest efforts of the
+class may well be confined to comments upon the features they like and, if
+possible, the reason for the liking. This will forestall any tendency to
+call undue attention to the poor efforts of weak workers. At first many
+children will scarcely discriminate between their admiration for a piece
+of work and their love for the worker and will be apt to praise the work
+of their special friends. This tendency will gradually disappear through
+the development of a real basis of appreciation.
+
+The second essential concerns the improvement of the things which are not
+good. Criticism which merely points out what is bad is of little value.
+Helpful criticism must point out what is good and why, and what is weak
+and how to make it stronger. If, for example, the class is considering the
+success of their efforts to illustrate the story of the Three Bears, they
+should be encouraged to make such comments as, "John's chairs look too
+small for his table," "Mary's bowls are all about the same size." The
+criticism should direct the thought to its possible remedy. It is
+generally better to pass over defects for which no immediate remedy can be
+suggested.
+
+=Standards of Workmanship.=--The standard of excellence by which acceptable
+work is measured must always vary according to the ability of the class.
+The best the child can do, alone and unaided, should be the only standard
+of measurement, and his best efforts should always be accepted, no matter
+how crude. In no other way can real growth be observed and genuine
+progress made.
+
+In schools where arbitrary standards are set either by supervisors or by
+the rivalry of teachers, the tendency to _help_ the children by doing part
+of the work for them for the sake of the _apparent_ results, offers the
+teacher's most serious temptation to selfishness. In a few cases it is
+helpful for the teacher to add a few strokes to a drawing or adjust some
+detail in construction, that the child may see the value of certain small
+changes in the place where they will mean most to him. Such work should
+not be exhibited as an example of the child's accomplishment, but should
+be treated as practice work. As a rule the teacher's demonstration should
+be made on other material and not on that used by the pupil. In no
+particular are primary schools open to greater criticism than in the too
+common habit of setting arbitrary standards of excellence and attempting
+to force all children to reach them. Such standards are usually too high
+for honest attainment and tempt or force the teacher to use methods which
+cannot be defended by any sound principle of pedagogy.
+
+Values change with the purpose of the work. A thing is well made when it
+serves its purpose adequately. Toys must be strong enough to permit
+handling. Mechanical toys must work. Sewing must be strong as well as
+neat. In illustrative problems, in which effect is the chief
+consideration, technique needs little emphasis, and workmanship may be of
+a temporary character.
+
+Each thing made should establish its own standard in a way to appeal to
+the child's common sense.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE HOUSE PROBLEM
+
+
+The making of a playhouse has long been an accepted feature of primary
+work, but we have not always made it yield all of which it is capable,
+either in the self-directed activity of the children or in correlated
+subject matter. It has, in many cases, been only a bit of recreation from
+the more serious work of the school. In a house prepared by the janitor or
+older pupils the children have been allowed to arrange and rearrange
+ready-made furniture contributed from their playthings at home, but little
+creative work has been attempted. In other cases an elaborate house,
+carefully planned by the teacher, has been built and furnished by the
+children, but, because of the detailed planning, the children's part in it
+became merely a mechanical following of directions. In some cases relative
+proportions in rooms and furnishings have received scant attention; in
+others, color harmonies have been all but ignored. These varying methods
+of carrying out the house-building idea are not without value and may
+often be justified by local conditions, but their results are meager
+compared with the possible richness of the problem.
+
+Playing at house building and housekeeping appeals to an interest so
+universal that children of all times and nations yield to its power. It
+is therefore necessary to take account of its influence in their
+development and to dignify it with the approval of the school. We must
+refine and enrich it by our direction and suggestion without robbing it of
+its simplicity and charm.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9.--Box house, arranged on a shelf.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10.--Medieval castle. Built by third grade. Franklin,
+Indiana.
+
+An example of elaborate work which aroused the interest of pupils and
+patrons and paved the way for freer work later.]
+
+
+In the suggestions which follow, an attempt is made to utilize this
+natural activity of children in an occupation which appeals to them as
+worth while. At the same time it may furnish ample opportunity for the
+general development and effective teaching of various phases of subject
+matter which are incident to the occupation, _i.e._ number in connection
+with measurements, art in the proportions and color combinations, language
+through discussions and descriptions.
+
+The work is kept on the level of the children's experience by throwing
+them constantly on their own responsibility in every possible detail, the
+teacher never dictating the method of procedure and guiding the work with
+as few suggestions as possible. The work, being on the level of their
+experience, appeals to the children as very real and worth while. It is,
+therefore, intensely interesting, and they work without urging.
+
+=General Plan.=--A house may be constructed from several empty goods boxes,
+each box forming one room of the house. The boxes or rooms are arranged in
+convenient order, but are not fastened together. Adjoining rooms are
+connected by doors carefully cut in both boxes so that the holes match.
+Windows are also sawed out where needed. The walls are papered, careful
+attention being given to color schemes, border designs, and relative
+proportions in spacing. Floors are provided with suitable coverings--woven
+rugs, mattings, linoleums, tiles, according to the purpose of the room.
+
+Each step is discussed and more or less definitely outlined before the
+actual making is begun, furnishing opportunity for oral language of a
+vital sort. Completed parts are examined and criticized, furnishing
+further opportunity for exercise in oral language while directing
+attention to strong and weak points in the work.
+
+The materials needed are easily obtainable and inexpensive, consisting
+chiefly of empty boxes and odds and ends of paper, cloth, and yarn,
+together with carpenters' scraps.
+
+The tools needed are few, and in some cases may be brought from home by
+the children for a few days, as needed. The necessary time is found by
+making the incidental problems serve as subject matter for regular
+lessons. Making designs for tiling, linoleum, and borders for wall paper,
+planning relative proportions for doors, windows, and furnishings will
+supply material for very practical lessons in art. The problems incident
+to the measurement of doors and windows, tables and chairs, are number
+work of a vital sort and may be legitimately used as a regular number
+lesson. Discussions, descriptions, and definite statements of plans all
+form vital language exercises if rightly used.
+
+
+HOUSE PLANS IN DETAIL
+
+=Materials.=--_Empty Store Boxes of Soft Wood._--Sizes may vary, but where
+several are grouped for a house, they should be near enough the same
+height to make a fairly level ceiling. About 10 x 12 x 18 in. is a
+convenient size.
+
+_Paper for Walls._--Scraps of ingrain wall papers may be had from dealers
+for little or nothing. Cover paper in good colors may be purchased by the
+sheet. Tailor's paper and brown wrapping paper serve well, and are sold
+by the roll at a low price.
+
+_Pasteboard_ (strawboard or juteboard) may be used for the roof.
+
+_Weaving Materials._--Rugs may be made from carpet rags, rug yarns,
+rovings, chenille, or jute; towels from crochet cotton; and hammocks from
+macrame cord or carpet warp.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11.--House arranged on a table. Front view. Built by
+first grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+_Wood for Furniture._--Bass, white pine, poplar, or other soft wood. Box
+tops, if of soft wood, may be made to serve nearly all needs. If possible,
+provide thin wood (about 1/4 in. thick) in various widths, from one inch
+to six inches, so that only one dimension need be measured. Provide also
+thick pieces 1-1/2 in. or 2 in. square for beds and chairs; 1/2 in. square
+for table legs.
+
+_Nails_ of various sizes, chiefly inch brads, are needed.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12.--House arranged on a table. Side view. Built by
+second grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+=Tools.=--The tools actually necessary are few. A class can _get along_
+with one saw and still do good work, though there will be times when
+several saws will facilitate progress. Some tools are needed only for a
+short time and sometimes may be borrowed from the homes. It is more
+satisfactory to have the school provided with the essential tools whenever
+possible. The essential tools include:
+
+_Brace and auger bit_, for boring holes in doors and windows. Needed for a
+short time only.
+
+_Compass saw_, for sawing out doors and windows.
+
+_Crosscut saw_, for sawing off lumber. School should own at least one.
+
+_Miter box_, for holding lumber and guiding saw. An old one, good enough
+for children's use, will frequently be contributed by a carpenter. The
+miter box should be fastened firmly to a low table or box.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--House arranged on a table. Back view. Built by
+second grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+_Hammers_, several of medium size.
+
+_Try-square_, a very valuable tool for setting right angles, provided the
+teacher and pupils know how to use it.
+
+=Arrangement of Rooms.=--The sort of house a man can build is governed by
+his resources and his site. Considering the number of boxes as resources
+and the table or shelf on which they are to stand as the site, the same
+big factors which enter into any house-building problem control the size
+and style of the schoolroom playhouse. What sort of house is desired? What
+sort of house can be built from the materials at hand? What sort of house
+can be built in the space at our disposal?
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14.--House plan.]
+
+
+The boxes may be arranged on a shelf with all the open sides toward the
+class, as in Fig. 9. This economizes space, and all of the rooms are
+visible at once. A two-story house is easily built on this plan. If
+economy of space is not necessary, the boxes may be placed on a table with
+the open sides of the boxes toward the edges of the table, as in Figs. 11,
+12, and 13. This permits a more artistic grouping of the rooms. (See Fig.
+14.)
+
+The responsibility in grouping the boxes should be thrown as fully as
+possible upon the children, the teacher merely suggesting where necessary.
+It should be their house, not the teacher's. The planning should not be
+hurried but time allowed to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
+different plans and reach an agreement. In trying to express individual
+opinions convincingly their ideas will become clearer--a factor in the
+development of the children which is much more important than any of the
+actual details of the house itself. Whether the class decides to have one
+or two bedrooms in the house is a matter of small consequence. Whether or
+not they are growing in power to appreciate conditions and make an
+intelligent decision is a matter of great consequence. Their decisions
+when made may not always reach the high standard at which the teacher is
+aiming, but if they have really made a decision, not merely followed the
+teacher's suggestion, and if their independent selections from time to
+time show a higher standard of appreciation and greater refinement of
+taste in ever so small a degree, it is evidence of genuine growth upon a
+sure foundation.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15.--Arrangement of windows.]
+
+
+=Doors and Windows.=--The size and arrangement of doors and windows should
+be freely discussed. Various possible arrangements may be sketched upon
+the blackboard by the children. For example, see Fig. 15, _a_ and _b_.
+When a plan is adopted, the doors and windows should be carefully drawn on
+the _outside_ of each box, using the try-square to get right angles.
+
+Bore holes in the corners of the doors and windows and saw out with
+keyhole or compass saw. In order to avoid mistakes it is well, after
+sawing out the opening for a door in one box, to place the two boxes
+together and test the measurements before sawing out the second opening. A
+mistake of this sort, however, is not fatal, but may prove the most
+effective way of impressing the workers with the necessity of careful
+measurement.
+
+=Walls.=--The decoration of the walls will furnish material for several
+art lessons. The discussion should turn first to the suitability of
+different styles for different purposes, such as tiling for kitchen and
+bathroom walls, light papers for dark rooms, etc. The division of wall
+space will be the next point to be settled, _i.e._ the height of the
+tiling or wainscot, the width of a border, or the effect of horizontal and
+vertical lines in breaking up wall space. These questions may be discussed
+as far as the immediate circumstances and the development of the class
+suggest.
+
+The question of color combinations demands special attention. Unless the
+children come from refined homes their ideas of color will be very crude,
+and if contributions of material have been asked for, some gaudy
+impossibilities in flowered paper are apt to be presented. If so, it may
+require considerable tact on the part of the teacher to secure a
+satisfactory selection without casting any reflections on the taste of
+somebody's mother. This difficulty may be avoided to a degree by providing
+all the materials necessary. It is not enough, however, to cause the
+children to select good combinations at the teacher's suggestion while in
+their hearts they are longing for the gaudy thing she has frowned upon. It
+is better to get an honest expression from them, even though it is very
+crude, and endeavor to educate their taste to a love for better things, so
+that each time they choose the choice may be on a higher level of
+appreciation. Immediate results may not be as beautiful by this plan, and
+apparent progress may be slow, but only by some such method can a real
+appreciation be developed which will prevent the return to the crude
+expression as soon as the teacher's influence is withdrawn.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Detail of hollow square.]
+
+
+Plain papers generally give the most pleasing effects. Attractive borders
+may be made by cutting simple units and repeating them at intervals.
+Almost any motif may be used for the unit. Animals, birds, trees, flowers,
+ships, etc., serve well. The process of making the border should be a
+serious lesson in design. A good border is not merely the repetition of a
+pretty figure. The units must not be too far apart nor too close together.
+The shape of the figure used must be such that each unit seems to need the
+next one. Little children will usually take greatest pleasure in working
+from some nature motif, as flower or animal, but interesting work can be
+done with simple geometric figures. Take, for example, the hollow square.
+Fold a square of paper on both diagonals. (See Fig. 16.) Cut on dotted
+line. Let each child cut several and lay them in order for a border or
+mount them on a paper of different color. Let the work of the class be put
+up for general criticism. (See notes on Criticism.) Several points which
+very small children are able to appreciate will be found to enter into the
+success or failure of their efforts. The hollow square itself may be cut
+too wide and look clumsy, or cut too narrow and look frail. In the
+arrangement they may be too close together and look crowded, or too far
+apart and look scattered. A sensitiveness to good proportions comes
+naturally to only a few people, but nearly all are capable of a higher
+degree of appreciation if their attention is directed to the essential
+elements which make things good or bad. The beginnings of this
+appreciation lie in simple things which are easily understood by
+first-grade children.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17.--Borders using hollow square.]
+
+
+=Floors.=--Many of the considerations which enter into the selection of
+wall decorations are of equal importance in choosing floor coverings. What
+will be suitable to the purpose of each room? Why do we use linoleum in
+the kitchen and warm rugs in the bedroom? Shall we use small rugs or a
+carpet? What colors must we have on the floor to harmonize with the colors
+on the wall? What designs are possible and desirable for the materials we
+have to use?
+
+_Rug Weaving Materials._--The market offers a wide variety of materials
+prepared especially for school use. Among them the most satisfactory for
+use with small workers are cotton rovings, loose twisted jute, and cotton
+chenille. These, especially the first two, are coarse and work up rapidly,
+and may be had in very desirable colors. Even the cheapest of them,
+however, will prove an expensive item for the school with limited funds,
+and ordinary carpet rags may be made to serve every purpose. Often these
+will be contributed by members of the class. By a careful selection and
+combination of colors very artistic results can be produced which are in
+some respects more satisfactory than any obtained from the so-called
+weaving materials, and have the added advantage of costing practically
+nothing.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Looms and samples of weaving.]
+
+
+_Looms._--The market also offers a great variety of looms for school use,
+many of them quite simple in construction and moderate in price. In
+schools where bench work is taught, the making of a loom is an excellent
+problem either for the weavers themselves or for an older class working
+for them. If the looms are made by the little weavers themselves, only the
+simplest possible construction should be used, that the work may be
+completed and the loom put to use before the worker loses sight of the
+fact that the purpose is to provide carpet for the house. Children lose
+interest in long-drawn-out processes, and for that reason it is better to
+provide them with the necessary tools as far as possible while interest in
+the house building is keen. Later, if considerable enthusiasm has been
+aroused for weaving, individual looms may be made for home use. For the
+school with scant funds a very satisfactory loom may be improvised by
+driving nails one fourth inch apart in the ends of a shallow box of
+convenient size and stretching the warp threads across the open top.
+
+For very small rugs a cardboard loom will serve. This may be made by
+cutting notches or punching holes along opposite edges of a piece of
+cardboard into which the warp may be strung. If a knitting needle is
+inserted at each side, the cardboard will be stiffened and the edges of
+the rug kept straight. Weaving needles may be purchased from supply
+houses. Wooden needles cost 50 cents per dozen. Sack needles serve well
+for small rugs and may be had at any hardware store for 10 cents per
+dozen.
+
+_Weaves._--For first weaving the plain "over one, under one" on cotton
+warp with rags or other coarse woof is generally best. Variety may be
+introduced by weaving a stripe or border of a different tone near each end
+of the rug. Vertical stripes serve well as another easy method of
+variation and are produced by using two woof threads of different tones
+and weaving first with one and then with the other. This weave is very
+attractive as the body of the rug with a plain border at either end.
+
+As soon as the children have mastered the plain weave and have a fairly
+clear idea of the possibilities in design through varying the colors in
+the woof only, they may be initiated into the mysteries of the "gingham
+weave" and allowed to experiment with the variations in warp as well as in
+woof. Cotton rovings is an excellent material for weaves of this sort.
+This weave may also be used with raffia to make matting for the
+dining-room floor.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Box house by second grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+Paper mats may also be used as carpets with good effect. Weaving paper
+strips is often an easier process to little children than weaving with
+textiles, except where very coarse textile materials are used. For paper
+mats select paper of suitable color and cut to the size desired for the
+mat. Fold on the short diameter. Cut slashes from the folded edge, not
+less than one half inch apart, to within one inch of edge of the paper
+(See Fig. 20), leaving a margin on all four sides of the mat. For weavers,
+cut from paper of harmonious tone, strips equal in width to the slashes in
+the mat.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20.--Detail of paper weaving.]
+
+
+Variations of the simple over one, under one weave add interest to the
+work and also give practice in number combinations such as over one, under
+two, etc. Work of this sort is used in many schools as a method of
+teaching number, the teacher dictating the combinations while the interest
+of the children centers in the new pattern which develops under their
+fingers. While such work has much to be said in its favor, it is open to
+criticism, especially in the matter of dictation. All the children in any
+one group will not work with equal speed. Some will undoubtedly "get
+behind" and others will lose time while waiting for the slow ones.
+Accidents are liable to happen in individual cases.
+
+Many of these undesirable features may be eliminated while still retaining
+the valuable part of the work by writing the directions on the board
+instead of dictating them to the children. It then becomes a lesson in
+reading as well as in number. Each child is thrown more completely upon
+his own responsibility and can proceed as rapidly and as steadily as his
+capacity permits. His rate of progress will often be a fair measure of his
+ability for independent thought and action, which is the real measure for
+successful teaching.
+
+As the hardest feature in this method is in keeping the right line and not
+repeating or omitting any direction, a social spirit may be encouraged by
+allowing the children to work in groups and take turns in _keeping the
+place_ while the others work. In one first grade where this plan was in
+vogue the children discovered a book on the teacher's desk which contained
+numerous designs, many of them much more intricate than she would have
+attempted to use as classwork. Their instinct for exploration led them to
+struggle with the directions until they had worked out some designs which
+would have proved dismal failures had they been attempted as class
+lessons. In this instance those who belonged to the persevering group were
+happy in a new-found sense of strength and independence, while the others
+had accomplished as much as any would have done under the dictation
+method.
+
+=Furniture.=--The problem of furniture for the school playhouse has been
+discussed in numerous publications, and nearly every writer on the subject
+of primary handwork offers suggestions on this topic. The suggestions
+include a range in materials and processes from very simple foldings in
+paper to quite complex processes in reeds and raffia and methodical
+construction in wood.
+
+Among the various materials and styles in common use, folded paper
+furniture has the advantage of being quickly made. The process is of
+sufficient interest to little children to hold their attention, and in
+order to secure the desired result they must hear the directions
+intelligently and obey them promptly. These are desirable habits to form.
+It is quite possible, however, for the work to be done in a very formal,
+mechanical way, in which the children merely follow directions, often
+blindly, without any clear purpose and very little thought. Success or
+failure is due largely to chance; for, if by accident even a good worker
+"loses out" on a direction, his work is at a standstill until special help
+is given. He is unable to proceed because he does not know what to do
+next. There is very little opportunity in such a process for independent
+thought or action. It is not self-directed activity.
+
+A second objection to paper furniture is its lack of stability. Paper
+which is pliable enough to fold readily will not hold its own weight long
+when made into furniture, and very soon becomes wobbly. To overcome this
+tendency to wobble, heavier papers are often used and new complications
+arise. Heavy papers do not fold readily without scoring. Scoring demands
+considerable accuracy of measurement--often to a degree beyond the power
+of a six-year-old. The stiff papers, being hard pressed, are harder to
+paste, and neat work is often an impossibility, unless considerable
+assistance is given.
+
+It is possible to make satisfactory furniture in a great variety of styles
+from stiff paper, and the processes involve some excellent practice in
+measurement and design. The processes necessary to obtain these
+satisfactory results are, however, beyond the ability of children in the
+lower grades. Even fairly satisfactory results are impossible unless an
+undue amount of assistance is given by the teacher. In actual practice,
+where stiff paper is used a few of the best workers in the class are
+helped to make the few pieces needed in the playhouse and the unhappy
+failures of the rest of the class are promptly consigned to the
+wastebasket.
+
+Very pretty furniture may be made from reeds and raffia, but the processes
+are too difficult to be successfully performed by small children. The
+reeds do not lend themselves readily to constructions small enough to suit
+the average playhouse, and the larger pieces are out of proportion to the
+other features of the house.
+
+The use of wood overcomes the most serious of the objections to be made to
+other materials, besides being the material most commonly used in "real"
+furniture. Wooden furniture is stable, and a great variety of processes in
+construction are possible without introducing complications which prevent
+independent work on the part of the little people.
+
+The processes necessary to the construction of very simple yet
+satisfactory wooden furniture may be reduced to measuring one dimension,
+sawing off, and nailing on. Measuring one dimension is quite within the
+powers of six-year-olds. _Sawing off_ is not difficult if soft lumber is
+used, and it becomes very simple by the help of the miter box. _Nailing
+on_ is difficult if the nails must be driven into the edges of thin
+boards, but if thin boards are nailed to thick boards, nails may "go
+crooked" without serious consequences, and the process becomes quite easy.
+These processes have the advantage of being particularly fascinating to
+small boys, in contrast to the girlish character of many forms of primary
+handwork. (See Figs. 21 and 22.)
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Furniture from wood blocks.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22.--Furniture from wood blocks.]
+
+
+_Processes._--For the sake of convenience and clearness in these
+directions it will be assumed that the class is provided with pieces of
+wood two inches square which will be referred to as 2 x 2. Also with thin
+wood in a variety of widths from 1 in. to 6 in. Material of other
+dimensions would serve the purpose equally well, and for many of the parts
+odd pieces from the scrap box will answer every purpose. The directions
+are intended only to suggest how to proceed, and it is left to the teacher
+to adapt them to the material and conditions with which she works.
+
+(1) _To make a chair._
+
+Use 2 x 2 for seat and thin wood 2 in. wide for back. Children should
+measure and decide how much to saw off from strip of 2 x 2 in order to
+make a square block or cube for the seat. They should estimate the length
+of the back of the chair, then measure and saw off the thin wood needed.
+Nail the back piece to the cube and finish with a coat of water-color
+paint or color with crayon. An armchair may be made by the addition of
+shorter pieces of thin wood to the sides of the chair.
+
+(2) _To make table with pedestal._
+
+Use 2 x 2 for pedestal. Use thin wood 6 in. wide for top. Use thin wood 4
+in. wide for base. Measure and saw off 3 in. of 2 x 2 for pedestal.
+Measure _enough_ of the 6 in. wood to make a square top and _enough_ of
+the 4 in. wood to make a square base. Do not tell the children what they
+can discover for themselves. They should decide how high the table ought
+to be and how large to suit the size of the room. Nail the square pieces
+to the two ends of the pedestal. Finish by same method used for chairs.
+
+(3) _For ordinary table._
+
+Use thin wood for top. Use 1/2 x 1/2 for legs. Measure and saw off pieces
+needed. Measure places for legs about one inch from corner of top in order
+to allow an overhang. Children frequently put the legs flush with the edge
+of the table, which gives a clumsy appearance. Nail through the top with a
+comparatively long nail.
+
+(4) _To make a double bed._
+
+Use wood 1/2 to 1 in. thick for body. Use thin wood of corresponding width
+for head and foot boards. Class or individual workers should decide on
+dimensions for different parts and height of body of bed from the floor.
+
+(5) _For single bed._
+
+Proceed as for double bed, using narrow pieces of wood, or use six or
+seven inches of 2 x 2 for body of bed and make head and foot boards after
+the style of chair back.
+
+(6) _Dressing table._
+
+Decide upon dimensions needed. Use 2 x 2 for body. Use thin wood of equal
+width for back. Use tinfoil for mirror. Indicate drawers with pencil
+lines.
+
+(7) _Couch._
+
+Use piece of 2 x 2 of desired length and make couch cover of appropriate
+material, or add back and arms of thin wood to piece of 2 x 2 and finish
+to match other furniture.
+
+(8) _Piano._
+
+Use wood 3/4 or 1 in. thick for body. Nail on piece 1/2 x 1/2 for
+keyboard. Draw keys on paper and paste on keyboard.
+
+(9) _Kitchen stove._
+
+Use 2 x 4 or any scrap or empty box of appropriate size and shape. Color
+black with crayon. Add chalk marks or bits of tinfoil to indicate doors
+and lids. Make hot-water tank of paper. Pieces of reed, wire, or twigs
+covered with tinfoil make good water pipes. Macaroni sticks and lemonade
+straws have served this purpose.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23.--Home of White Cloud, the Pueblo girl. Second
+grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+=Clay Furnishings.=--For such articles as the kitchen sink, the bathtub,
+and other bathroom fittings clay is a satisfactory material. These
+articles may be modeled by the children, in as good an imitation of the
+real fittings as they are able to make. Various methods may be used for
+holding the kitchen sink and the bathroom basin in place, and it is much
+better for the children to evolve one of their own than to follow the
+teacher's dictation from the start. If they meet serious difficulties, a
+suggestion from her may help clear the way. Two long nails driven into the
+wall will give a satisfactory bracket on which the sink may rest. Two
+short nails may be driven through the back while the clay is moist and may
+serve also as a foundation for faucets. The basin, bathtub, and stool may
+each be built solid to the floor.
+
+The teakettle and other stove furniture may be modeled in clay. Electric
+light bulbs of clay suspended by cords from the ceiling have a realistic
+air. Paper shades of appropriate color add to the general effect.
+
+=Miscellaneous furnishings.=
+
+_Bedding._--Paper or cloth may be used for bedding, as circumstances
+suggest. If interest in _real_ things is strong, the making of the sheets
+and pillow cases offers an opportunity for some practice with the needle.
+If time is limited, paper may be used.
+
+_Curtains._--Curtains also may be made from either paper or regular
+curtain material. If paper is used, it should be very soft, such as plain
+Japanese napkins. Scraps of plain net or scrim are most desirable. Some
+child is apt to contribute a piece of large-patterned lace curtain, but
+the tactful teacher will avoid using it if possible, and direct the
+children's thoughts toward a better taste in draperies.
+
+_Portieres_ may be made of cloth, of knotted cords, or chenille.
+
+_Couch pillows_ may be made from cloth or may be woven on a small card.
+
+_Towels_ for the bathroom may be woven from crochet cotton.
+
+_The fireplace_ may be made of cardboard marked off and colored to
+represent brick. A shallow box may be made to serve the purpose. Cut out
+the opening for the grate and lay real sticks on andirons made from soft
+wire; or draw a picture of blazing fire and put inside. The fireplace may
+also be made of clay. Pebbles may be pressed into the clay if a stone
+fireplace is desired. If clay is used, several small nails should be
+driven into the wall before the fireplace is built up, to hold the clay in
+place after it dries.
+
+_Bookcases_ may be made of cardboard, using a box construction, and glued
+to the wall. Or a block of wood about one inch thick may be used. In
+either case mark off the shelves and books with pencil lines, and color
+the backs of the books with crayon.
+
+=The Stairway.=--In a two-story house the hardest problem will usually be
+the stairs. Some good work in number may be done while finding out how
+many steps will be needed and where the stairway must begin in order to
+reach the second floor in comfort. Even quite small children can deal with
+this problem if presented in a simple way. For example, if the box or room
+is ten inches high, how many steps 1 in. wide and 1 in. high will be
+needed, and how far out into the room will they come? The children can
+work out the plan on the blackboard. Measurements may be modified to suit
+the ability of the class and the needs of the room.
+
+The variety of possible constructions in building the staircase
+corresponds to the varying ability of classes. A strip of paper may be
+folded back and forth and made to serve with least mature classes. This
+paper stair will sag unless it rests on a board or piece of stiff
+pasteboard. A substantial stairway may be made by sawing two thin boards
+for supports, as in Fig. 24, and nailing on steps of thin wood or
+cardboard. There is usually one boy in every first grade who is capable of
+as difficult a piece of handwork as this. He is apt, also, to be the boy
+who takes least interest in the general work of the class, and often it is
+possible to arouse him to special effort through some such problem. The
+stairway may be made of heavy cardboard with a construction similar to
+that just described, but this requires pasting instead of nailing and is
+much more difficult for little children.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24.--Detail of stairway.]
+
+
+=The Roof.=--The making of the roof is another part of the house building
+which may often be given into the special care of the two or three
+over-age pupils who need special problems. The plan which they evolve from
+their study of the needs of the case will usually be of greater value to
+them, even though it may not be the best that could be suggested.
+
+The roof may be made of wood as a base, with either wood or cardboard
+shingles tacked on in proper fashion; or it may be made of cardboard with
+the shingles merely indicated by lines made with crayon. If the wood base
+is used, wood gables may be made for sides or ends of the house. To
+these, long boards may be nailed to form a solid roof. Shingles two inches
+long by about one inch wide may be cut from cardboard or very thin wood
+and tacked to the boards. The children should be spurred to study the
+roofs of houses and find out how the shingles are arranged, and discover
+for themselves, if possible, the secret of successful shingling.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25.--Box house, showing roof. Built by summer class,
+Teachers College, New York.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26.--Detail of gable.]
+
+
+A cardboard roof is in many ways easier to build. In a house similar to
+the one shown in Fig. 25 two gables are used, and the roof slopes to front
+and back. The framework can be very simply made. At the two gable ends
+place uprights made of two pieces of wood joined in the form of an
+inverted T. (See Fig. 26.) These should be nailed to the box. A ridgepole
+may then be nailed to the upper ends of the uprights. If the house is not
+large, no other framework will be necessary. If the slope of the roof is
+long enough to allow the cardboard to sag, light strips of wood extending
+from the ridgepole to the outer edge of the box may be added. If a single
+piece of cardboard of sufficient size is available, it may be scored[1]
+and bent at the proper place and laid over the ridgepole, with the edges
+extending beyond the box to form the eaves. Or, two pieces may be used,
+one for each slope of the roof, each piece being tacked to the ridgepole.
+Chimneys may be made from paper and colored to represent bricks or stone.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27.--Colonial kitchen. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+The outside of the house may be treated in several ways. It may be sided
+after the manner of frame houses by tacking on strips of paper or
+cardboard lapped in the proper fashion. It may be covered with paper
+marked in horizontal lines to represent siding, in irregular spaces to
+represent stone, or in regular spaces to represent brick, and finished in
+the appropriate color. Or, a coat of paint or stain may be applied
+directly to the box.
+
+
+VARIATIONS IN HOUSE PROBLEM
+
+A playhouse for its own sake is a justifiable project for primary children
+and one which may be repeated several times without exhausting its
+possibilities. Each time it is repeated the emphasis will fall on some new
+feature, and the children will wish to do more accurate work.
+
+In the lowest grades very simple houses of one or two rooms may be built
+for story-book friends, such as the "Three Bears" or "Little Red Riding
+Hood," with only such furniture as the story suggests. In intermediate
+grades the house may have an historical motive and illustrate home life in
+primitive times or in foreign countries, such as a colonial kitchen in New
+England, a pioneer cabin on the Western prairies, a Dutch home, a Japanese
+home, etc. In upper grades it may become a serious study in house
+decoration.
+
+As the motive for making the house changes, the character and quality of
+its furnishings will change. The block furniture described above will give
+way to more accurate models in either wood or paper. Some excellent
+suggestions for paper furniture for advanced work may be found in the
+_Manual Training Magazine_.
+
+As skill in construction increases, a wish for something more realistic
+than the box construction will arise, and the elements of house framing
+will be studied with great eagerness.
+
+=The House of the Three Bears.= (See Fig. 28.)--This house was made early
+in the year by a class of first-grade children. The walls were papered in
+plain brown paper. The carpets were woven mats of paper. The chairs,
+table, and beds were made according to the methods already described in
+the playhouse outline. The stove and the doll were contributed. The bears
+were modeled in clay. The children played with the house and its contents
+throughout the year. The bears were broken and made over many times--a
+process which not only afforded great pleasure, but also developed
+considerable skill in modeling.
+
+=Another Bears' House.=--This house, shown in Frontispiece, was made in
+the spring, near the end of the school year, by a class of first-grade
+children all of whom were under seven and many of whom were very immature.
+
+The story of the Three Bears was taken up after Christmas, told and
+retold, read, and dramatized by the children. Teddy bears were brought to
+school. Many bears were modeled in clay, each child making the set of
+three many times.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28.--House for the Three Bears. First grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+The children laid off spaces on the table for individual Bears' houses and
+made furniture for these as their fancy prompted. The furniture was made
+of wood after the general style described above. Later, carpets were
+woven for these individual playhouses. Each carpet was woven to a given
+dimension, making it necessary to use the rule. This was their
+introduction to the rule as a tool for measuring. Every child in a class
+of forty made one or more pieces of furniture and wove one or more small
+carpets from rags. Nearly all made some bedding.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29.--Cornstalk house. Built by second-grade class.
+Franklin, Indiana.]
+
+
+Later, four boxes were secured and arranged as a house. The openings for
+doors were marked off during school time, but were sawed out by a few
+children who remained during the noon intermission. This is the only part
+of the work which was not done during regular class time. The papering was
+done by two or three of the most capable children, while the rest were
+deeply absorbed in weaving. All made borders. Certain borders were
+selected for the house, and several children worked together to make
+enough of the same pattern for one room. Selections were then made from
+the carpets and furniture already made by the children.
+
+The roof was made chiefly by one boy who "knew a good way to make it." The
+porches were also individual projects by pupils who had ideas on the
+subject and were allowed to work them out.
+
+The children became very familiar with every phase of the story and
+attacked any expression of it with the feeling, "That's easy." They wrote
+stories, _i.e._ sentences about bears. Each child at the close of the year
+could write on the blackboard a story of two or more sentences. They made
+pictures of bears in all sorts of postures with colored crayon and from
+free-hand cuttings. They modeled the bears in clay over and over again,
+keeping up a large family in spite of many accidents.
+
+=Cooperative Building.=--Figures 11, 12, and 13 show three rooms of a
+four-room house built by the first and second grades working together. The
+living room and bedroom were furnished by first-grade children. The dining
+room, kitchen, and bath were furnished by the second grade. Four boxes
+were used. (See diagram, page 35, Fig. 14.) Each room, except the bath,
+was a separate box. After a general plan had been agreed upon by the
+teachers, the boxes were carried to the several rooms and each class
+worked quite independently. When the rooms were finished, they were
+assembled on a table in the hall and the roof put on.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30.--A flour mill. Built by fourth grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+=The Flour Mill.=--The flour mill, shown in Fig. 30, was built in
+connection with a study of the general subject of milling by a
+fourth-grade class. The class visited a flour mill. They were shown the
+various machines, and the function of each was explained to them. They
+made hasty sketches of the machines and a rough diagram of their
+arrangement on the floors. They got the dimensions of the floors and
+height of the ceiling. An empty box was remodeled to approximate the
+dimensions of the building. Small representations of the machines were
+made and placed in the proper relation to each other. No attempt was made
+to show more than the external proportions in the small representation.
+The work served its best purpose in keeping the children thinking
+definitely about what they had seen. The attempt to express their thoughts
+in tangible form deepened the mental impression, even though the tangible
+results were crude and lacked many details.
+
+The conveyer being of special interest, two boys worked out a larger model
+which illustrated the band-bucket process. This is shown in Fig. 30, at
+the right of the mill. Small cups were made of soft tin and fastened to a
+leather strap. The strap was fastened around two rods, placed one above
+the other. The lower rod was turned by a crank fastened on the outside of
+the box. Two or three brads driven into the lower rod caught into holes in
+the strap and prevented slipping. The machine successfully hoisted grain
+from the lower box to one fastened higher up, but not shown in the
+picture. The model was very crude in its workmanship, but it showed the
+ability of fourth-grade boys to successfully apply an important principle
+in mechanics, and it gave opportunity for their ingenuity to express
+itself. The work was done with such tools and materials as the boys could
+provide for themselves, and without assistance other than encouraging
+suggestions from the teacher. This bit of construction accompanied a broad
+study of the subject of milling, including the source and character of the
+raw materials, the processes involved, the finished products and their
+value.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+THE VILLAGE STREET
+
+
+Playing store is a game of universal interest. Making a play store is a
+fascinating occupation. These are factors which cannot be overlooked in
+any scheme of education which seeks to make use of the natural activities
+of children.
+
+The downtown store stands to the children as the source of all good things
+which are to be bought with pennies. It is usually the first place outside
+the home with which they become familiar, and its processes are sure to be
+imitated in their play. In their play they not only repeat the processes
+of buying and selling, but try to reproduce in miniature what they regard
+as the essential features of the real store.
+
+If they are allowed to play this fascinating game in school, it may, by
+the teacher's help, become at once more interesting and more worth while.
+Curiosity may be aroused through questions concerning what is in the
+store, where it came from, how it got there, what was done to make it
+usable, how it is measured, and what it is worth. In seeking answers to
+these questions, the fields of geography, history, and arithmetic may be
+explored as extensively as circumstances warrant and a whole curriculum
+is built up in a natural way. After such study, stores cease to be the
+_source_ of the good things they offer for sale. The various kinds of
+merchandise take on a new interest when the purchaser knows something of
+their history, and a new value when he knows something of the labor which
+has gone into their manufacture.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31.--Box house and stores. Grades one, three, and two.
+Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+Being a subject of universal interest, it may be adapted to the conditions
+of the various grades. It being also impossible to exhaust the
+possibilities of the subject in any single presentation, it may profitably
+be repeated with a change of emphasis to suit the development of the
+class. For example, in the second grade, the study of the street is
+chiefly a classification of the various commodities which are essential to
+our daily life, and a few of the main facts of interest concerning their
+origin. Those a little older are interested in the processes of
+manufacture and the geography of their sources. In playing store, weights
+and measures, the changing of money, and the making of bills take on an
+interest impossible in the old-fashioned method of presenting these phases
+of arithmetic. Discussions and narratives supply oral language work, and
+descriptions, letters, and notes provide material for written exercises.
+
+The class may be divided into groups, each group contributing one store to
+the street, or the attention of the whole class may be centered on one
+store at a time, as the immediate conditions suggest. If the former method
+is used, as each store is finished it may be used as subject matter for
+the entire class, while the important facts concerning it are considered.
+The first permits a broader scope; the second a more exhaustive study. In
+either case visits to the real stores studied are important supplements
+to the work.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32.--A village street. Third grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+=General Directions.=--Discuss the stores on a village street. Which are
+most important? Why? Decide how many stores the class can build, and
+choose those most necessary to a community.
+
+If self-organized groups[2] are allowed to choose the part they are to
+work out, both interest and harmony are promoted and leadership
+stimulated.
+
+Use a box for each store. Each group is usually able to provide its own
+box. Paper inside of box with clean paper, or put on a coat of fresh
+paint. Make appropriate shelving and counters of thin wood.
+
+Stock the store with samples of appropriate merchandise as far as
+possible. Supplement with the best representations the children can make.
+They should be left to work out the problem for themselves to a large
+extent, the teacher giving a suggestion only when they show a lack of
+ideas.
+
+=Suggestions for Details of Representation.=--_Clay Modeling._--Clay may
+be used to model fruits and vegetables, bottles and jugs for the grocery;
+bread, cake, and pies for the bakery; different cuts of meat for the
+butcher shop; horses for the blacksmith shop and for delivery wagons. Clay
+representations may be made very realistic by coloring with crayon.
+
+_Canned Goods._--Paper cylinders on which labels are drawn before pasting
+serve well for canned goods. Cylindrical blocks may be cut from broom
+sticks or dowel rods and wrapped in appropriately labeled covers.
+
+_Cloth._--Rolls of various kinds of cloth should be collected for the dry
+goods store. Figures may be cut from fashion plates and mounted for the
+"Ready to Wear" department.
+
+_Hats._--Hats may be made for the millinery store from any of the
+materials commonly used. This is a good way for girls to develop their
+ingenuity and resourcefulness.
+
+_The Store Front._--The front of each store may be made of either wood or
+cardboard, the spaces for doors and windows being left open that the
+merchandise may be conveniently handled. Brick or stone fronts,
+second-story windows, offices, etc., may all be indicated as artistically
+as the capacity of the class permits by the use of colored crayons. The
+sign is an important feature and should stimulate an interest in well-made
+lettering.
+
+=Additional Projects.=--In addition to representations of retail shops,
+various industries, such as the carpenter shop, blacksmith shop, flour
+mill, ice plant, and other familiar industries, may be represented.
+Cooperative institutions, such as the post office and fire department,
+should be included in the study.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33.--A grocery. Fourth grade.]
+
+
+=Excursions.=--Wherever possible, the plant should be visited by the class.
+Before making the visit, the class should discuss what they expect to see,
+and go prepared to find out definite things. Each child should have at
+least one question which he is to ask, or one item of information for
+which he is to be responsible to the class on the return. Often the visit
+is more worth while to the class after they have tried to make a
+representation from what they already know and from what they can read on
+the subject. They are then more conscious of their needs and more alive to
+the important elements than when they are merely seeing a new thing which
+is to a great extent foreign to their experience. If they make the visit
+first, they are apt to feel the need of another when they attempt to work
+out their representation. If they make a representation first, they are
+quite sure to be dissatisfied with it and want to make another after they
+have made the visit. In either case their consciousness of need is a
+measure of growth.
+
+=Correlation.=--While the building of a store is in progress the study of
+the sources and processes of manufacture of the various articles of
+merchandise will supply valuable subject matter in several fields.
+
+_English._--Books containing information on the subject will be read with
+a definite purpose and more than ordinary interest. Especially if the
+group method is used, will the members of a group be proud to bring to the
+class interesting items concerning their particular part of the work.
+These narratives and descriptions may be made excellent practice in either
+oral or written English and will be of the sort Dewey characterizes as
+"having something to say rather than having to say something."
+
+_Geography._--This study may also enter as deeply into the field of
+geography as the development of the class warrants. It will be geography
+of a vital sort. How these things are brought to us touches the field of
+transportation, creating an interest in ships and railroad trains, pack
+mules and express wagons.
+
+_History._--The study of the process of manufacture opens up the field of
+industrial history, and in this, as in the geography, the study is limited
+only by the capacity of the class.
+
+_Number._--In the field of number the possibilities are also unlimited, in
+studying the weights and measures used for different commodities, the
+actual prices paid for these things, and the usual quantities purchased.
+
+Playing store will involve the making of bills, the changing of money, and
+the measuring of merchandise. Different pupils may take turns acting as
+salesmen or cashier. The common practices of business life should be
+followed as closely as possible, only in this case each purchaser should
+make out his own bills. Actual purchase slips may be brought from home and
+used in number lessons.
+
+An inventory of the stock may be taken and will supply excellent practice
+in addition and multiplication. After the example of _real_ stores, a
+stock-taking sale at reduced rates may be advertised. The writer answered
+such an advertisement by a third grade and asked how much could be
+purchased for one dollar. Pencils were busy at once, and a variety of
+combinations suggested. One pupil was quickly called to account by his
+mates for offering only ninety-five cents' worth of merchandise for the
+dollar. By these and numerous other exercises which will suggest
+themselves to lively children and wide-awake teachers a vast amount of
+vital subject matter may be dealt with in a natural way, quite on the
+level of the child's experience and interest.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34.--A grocery. Third grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+_Art._--The art side also may receive due attention in the general
+proportioning and arrangement of the stores, in the modeling of certain
+features from clay, as enumerated above, in the making of labels for boxes
+and cans, in the writing of signs and advertisements, and in the color
+combinations. These features are to a great extent incidental to other
+problems just as the use of good taste is incidental to all the affairs
+of life and should receive corresponding emphasis.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+Figure 32 shows about half the stores built by one third-grade class. Some
+of the subject matter drawn from the various stories was as follows: in
+connection with the grocery, a study of the source of various articles of
+food with oral and written descriptions of processes of manufacture; the
+common measures used in the grocery, and ordinary amounts purchased.
+
+In connection with the meat market, the names of various kinds of meat,
+the animals from which they are obtained, and the part of the animal which
+furnishes certain cuts; as, for example, ham, bacon, chops. The current
+prices and approximate quantity needed for a meal made practical number
+work.
+
+The bakery called for an investigation of the processes of bread making
+and a study of the material used. In all of the processes the teacher had
+opportunity to stress the necessity for proper sanitation.
+
+In connection with the dry goods store, the distinguishing characteristics
+of cotton, wool, linen, and silk were emphasized and illustrated by the
+samples collected for the store and by the clothing worn by the children.
+Common problems in measuring cloth enlivened the number lessons.
+
+The millinery store disclosed considerable ingenuity in the field of hat
+manufacture, and a lively business in doll hats was carried on for some
+time.
+
+In connection with the post office, registered letters, dead letters,
+money orders, rural free delivery, etc., were discussed, and the
+advantages of cooperation touched upon.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35.--A dry goods store. Third grade.]
+
+
+The other stores of the village street offer further opportunity for
+becoming better acquainted with the common things which lie close at hand
+and touch our daily lives.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36.--Home in a hot country.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37.--Home in a cold country.]
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+SAND TABLES AND WHAT TO DO WITH THEM
+
+
+A sand table should be considered one of the indispensable furnishings of
+every schoolroom. Its possibilities are many and varied. It may be used
+merely as a means of recreation and the children allowed to play in the
+sand, digging and building as fancy suggests. Or it may be used as the
+foundation for elaborate representations, carefully planned by the
+teacher, laboriously worked out by the children, and extravagantly admired
+by the parents on visitors' day. While both of these uses may serve worthy
+ends on certain occasions, the most valuable function of the sand table
+strikes a happy medium between the two, as means of illustrating and
+emphasizing various features of the daily lessons. In this capacity the
+laborious efforts of the show problem on the one hand and purposeless play
+of the other are both avoided. In this capacity the work on the sand table
+goes along hand in hand with the regular work in geography, history,
+language, or any subject in which it is possible through an illustration
+to teach more effectively.
+
+The purpose of this work is not so much to produce fine representations as
+to help the children to clarify and strengthen their ideas through the
+effort to express them in concrete form. The value lies in the
+development which comes to the children while they work. The technique of
+processes of construction is of secondary importance, though careless work
+ought never to be permitted. The completed project has little value after
+it has served its purpose as an illustration and may be quickly destroyed
+to make way for the next project. For this reason emphasis is laid on the
+general effect rather than the detail of construction. The work should be
+done well enough to serve the purpose, but time should not be spent on
+unnecessary details which do not add to the value as an illustration. In
+most cases speed is an important element. The project should be completed
+while the subject it illustrates is under discussion, if it is to be of
+most service. The first essential is that the work shall be done wholly by
+the children. The teacher may by skillful questions help them to build up
+in imagination the project they intend to work out, so that they may work
+with a definite purpose. She may sometimes suggest improved methods of
+working out various features when the improvements will add to the value
+of the illustration, but she should seldom, if ever, plan a project
+definitely or dictate the method of procedure.
+
+Not least among the possible benefits to be derived from work of this kind
+is the development of resourcefulness. The necessity for expressing an
+idea in concrete form with whatever materials are at hand often calls for
+considerable ingenuity. Ability of this sort will show itself only when
+the children are expressing their ideas with utmost freedom and feel the
+responsibility for the success of their work. The more earnestly the
+children try to express their ideas, the greater will be their
+development. The teacher should feel that she is hindering the growth of
+the children and defrauding them of their legitimate opportunity for
+development when she allows an over-anxiety for tangible and showy results
+to make her take the responsibility upon herself.
+
+The details of method are best presented through a detailed description of
+typical illustrations actually worked out in the classroom.
+
+
+A SAND-TABLE FARM--HOME LIFE IN THE COUNTRY
+
+The study of home life as a general subject will include "our home" and
+the homes of other people who live under different conditions. To the town
+child the country will often be somewhat familiar and hold the second
+place in his interest. In the country school the farm may often be the
+best place to begin.
+
+Various questions will arise as soon as it is decided to make a sand-table
+farm, the answers to which will be governed by the habits of the locality.
+What sort of farm shall we have? Shall we raise stock, fruit, corn, wheat,
+vegetables, or a little of everything? What shall we need to plant in each
+case, and in what proportion? How much pasture land shall we need? What
+buildings? What machinery?
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38.--A sand-table farm. First grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39.--A sand-table farm. Second grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+=Fences.=--As soon as the question of crops and the division of the table
+into fields is settled, the problem of fencing presents itself. What sort
+of fence is needed, wire, boards, pickets, rails, or hedge? How far apart
+shall the posts be set, how tall should they be, and how many will be
+needed? How many boards? How wide? How long? How many wires?
+
+The making of the fencing will supply material for one or more number
+lessons. Various materials may be used.
+
+_Twigs_ may be cut to given lengths and set in concrete (clay) posts.
+
+_For wire fence_, cut posts from small wooden sticks. Drive small tacks in
+each post--one for each wire. Use fine spool wire or wire raveled from fly
+screen. Twist wires once around each tack, or drive the tacks in firmly so
+that the wire is held by the head of the tack. This is not an easy fence
+for very little children to make.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40.--Detail of chicken fence.]
+
+
+_To make board fence._ Cut posts required length, and decide upon distance
+between posts. Make boards of thin strips of wood or of pasteboard. Nail
+boards to posts with tacks or small brads. This is a very easy fence to
+make and gives some good exercise in measuring.
+
+_Rail fences_ may be made from toothpicks or burnt matches.
+
+_Picket fence_ for the dooryard may be made on wooden foundation with
+cardboard pickets.
+
+_Hedge fence_ should be made from some fine-leafed plant. Cedar twigs
+serve well.
+
+_Chicken fence_ may be cut from paper as per illustration. Fold paper
+several times, lengthwise. Cut across the fold as indicated by arrows.
+Stretch lengthwise as shown in Fig. 40, _a_ and _b_.
+
+=Buildings.=--The class should decide on the buildings needed. Each
+building should be assigned to a group of two or three workers. Each group
+should be held responsible for its contribution and should work out its
+problem with as little help as possible. If the children are able to plan
+a barn and make it, even though it is a very crude affair, more has been
+accomplished than if a very cunning structure had been made after plans,
+dictated and closely supervised by the teacher.
+
+_Wood_ is the best building material for general use.
+
+_Pasteboard_ serves well, but it is less substantial. It is also harder to
+cut and paste heavy cardboard than it is to saw and nail thin wood.
+
+_Clay_ may be used for all buildings which are commonly made of concrete.
+
+=Stock.=--The different kinds of animals needed on the farm and the number
+of each will furnish profitable subject matter for class discussion. The
+animals may be modeled from clay. While the animals will of necessity be
+very large in proportion to the acreage of the farm, attention should be
+directed to the relative proportions between horses and hogs, cattle and
+sheep. Differences of this sort do not trouble little people, as their
+work is sure to show. The point should be stressed only sufficiently to
+help them to see a little more clearly and express their ideas a little
+more adequately each time they try. The accuracy of the result is
+important only as an index that the children are steadily developing in
+power to see and do, and gaining self-reliance.
+
+_The Modeling Process._--The best method seems to be simply to _begin_,
+and, for example, model as good a horse as possible; then discuss the
+results, note a few serious defects, and try again, endeavoring to correct
+them. Encourage rapid work which gives the general proportions of the
+animal in the rough. Beginners are apt to waste time in a purposeless
+smoothing of the clay, in mere tactual enjoyment. Discourage the tendency
+to finish the details of a horse's head, for example, before the body has
+been modeled. Repeat the process as often as time and the interest of the
+children warrant, but be satisfied if the children are doing the best they
+can, even though the results are crude and not so good as some other class
+has produced. The children should always feel that the work is their own.
+For this reason the teacher's help in clay modeling should be through
+demonstration rather than by finishing touches to the child's work.
+Imitation is a strong instinct in little children, and watching the
+teacher model a better horse than he can make will help a child to improve
+his own. One thing to be especially avoided is the attempt to bring every
+class to a uniform degree of excellence according to adult standards. Such
+an ideal encourages the giving of help in a way which hinders real
+development though it may produce immediate results.
+
+=Trees.=--This topic will call out a discussion of the uses of trees;
+which trees are shade trees, which are cultivated for their fruit, the
+distinguishing characteristics of the different varieties, and the ones
+best suited to this particular farm.
+
+Twigs from the real tree should be used wherever possible. In other cases
+the trees may be cut from paper. If a good green paper is not at hand, use
+drawing paper and color with crayons. A realistic effect is gained by
+cutting the tree from folded paper. (See Fig. 41.) Cut three pieces for
+each tree and paste together at the fold, then open out. Make the trunk
+long enough to be driven an inch or more into the sand.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41.--Detail of paper tree.]
+
+
+The making of the trees will furnish material for both art and nature
+study lessons. As far as circumstances permit the real trees should be
+studied, giving the children first-hand experience whether it be much or
+little. They should test the trees they cut by comparing them with real
+trees of the same variety. If this is impossible, the best pictures
+available should be used. (See notes on paper cutting.)
+
+=Crops.=--When the various parts of the farm are about ready, the fields
+may be sown. The sand should be made very wet before the seed is put in
+and sprinkled frequently (twice a day), as the top dries off very quickly.
+After the seeds have germinated little sprinkling need be done, as the
+roots will find enough moisture in the wet sand underneath, and it is
+desirable to retard rather than hasten growth. If carefully managed, a
+table can be kept green for several weeks.
+
+For corn, check holes well into the sand and drop one grain into each
+hole. See that rows are straight and holes evenly spaced.
+
+Sow wheat, oats, barley, etc., _very thickly_, cover lightly with dry
+sand, and sprinkle.
+
+Timothy serves well for meadow and lawn, as it puts up a fine blade. Blue
+grass sends up a fine blade, but is very slow in germination. Clover does
+not make a velvety lawn, but a little in the pasture will make an
+interesting contrast.
+
+Vegetables may be planted in the garden. They will not develop to any
+great extent, but will serve to emphasize different habits in germination;
+as, for example, the contrast between beans and corn.
+
+=Correlation.=--The opportunity for nature study afforded by the farm
+problem will prove one of its most interesting and valuable features as
+the progress in plant growth is noted from day to day. The farm problem
+combines well with both language and art work in supplying vital material
+for both. In addition to the interesting discussions which naturally arise
+concerning the building and planting, a diary may be kept by each child.
+
+_Keeping a Diary._--The date of planting may be noted and the date when
+each variety of seed first appears above ground. With the larger seeds, as
+corn and beans, a seed may be dug up each day and examined, so that the
+children may appreciate what is going on below ground. Drawings may be
+made of the seeds, showing the changes in appearance from day to day.
+After the seed leaves appear the daily growth may be measured and noted in
+the diary. After a few days seeds may be dug up again that the roots may
+be examined. At various stages of growth different varieties of seeds may
+be dug up, laid upon a paper, and sketched by the children. The facts they
+note may be stated in simple, well-formed sentences, either oral or
+written or both.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42.--An Eskimo village and The Overall Boys' Farm.
+First grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+_Art._--The sketching will serve well as the day's art lesson, though its
+chief value is in helping the children to see clearly. Their efforts will
+be crude but the teacher should constantly keep in mind that the chief aim
+is not to obtain fine sketches. Its purpose is to help the children to a
+better appreciation of the plant through the effort put forth in making
+the sketch. The technique of the drawing should be emphasized only so far
+as it will help them express better what they see, and not to the point
+where they attempt to copy the teacher's strokes. The teacher should be
+satisfied if every child is doing his best and making steady progress,
+even though that best may be crude and not up to the standard reached by
+the teacher who struggles for fine results.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43.--An apple orchard. First grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+_English._--For children who are able to write the diary offers a natural
+means of gaining experience in the use of common forms of punctuation; as,
+for example, the writing of dates and the use of a comma in a series, as
+well as the punctuation of simple statements, in such entries as the
+following:
+
+     April 15, 1912.
+
+     We planted the seeds on our farm to-day.
+
+     We planted corn, wheat, oats, and beans.
+
+
+In all work of this sort it is difficult to overestimate the advantage of
+separate sheets of paper over a notebook with sewed leaves, in the hands
+of the children. With the fresh sheet always comes an inspiration, no
+matter what failures have gone before. Poor pages can be done over when
+necessary, but do not haunt the workers with their discouraging
+suggestions, as in the use of a notebook. The leaves may be gathered
+together into a binding of some sort. Even covers of plain brown wrapping
+paper can be made artistic with a simple border line well placed or a
+design cut from a paper of a different tone. Written work which culminates
+in an attractive booklet, however simple, seems more worth while than
+exercises written into a commonplace notebook or on scratch paper which
+goes to the wastebasket soon after the mistakes have been commented on.
+
+_Number._--The farm problem also supplies abundant opportunity for gaining
+experience with number. In addition to the actual measurement of the
+materials used for fences and buildings, the scope may be widened, where
+conditions warrant, to include estimates and calculations of the amount of
+the material used.
+
+For example, how many inches or feet of wire will be needed to make a
+three-wire fence of given length? How large a piece of cardboard will be
+needed to cut boards one fourth or one half inch wide for a four-board
+fence fifteen inches long?
+
+These estimates may be translated, _as far as the children are able to
+appreciate the connection_, into quantities and values of the same
+material in real problems connected with real farms. It is important,
+however, to be careful not to carry work of this sort so far beyond the
+experience of the children that it becomes wholly foreign and abstract to
+them. We are too apt to forget that it is _experience_ and not _objects_,
+which is the vital factor in concreteness.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44.--Robinson Crusoe. Third grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+In connection with the nature study a variety of number exercises grow out
+of the questions which the situation prompts. As, for example, in
+connection with the corn crop: How many seeds were planted? In how many
+rows? How many seeds in a row? How many came up? How many failed to
+germinate? How many more came up than failed? If each good seed should
+produce two ears of corn, how many would we have? What would they be
+worth at a given price? etc.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45.--Pueblo Indian village. Second grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+In an ungraded school, while the younger children might confine their
+efforts to counting as above, the older children might answer the same
+questions in terms of percentage and in the probable quantities on a real
+farm. The stock farm may be treated in the same way. How many cows? How
+much milk will they give? What will it be worth? How much butter would it
+make? What will it cost to keep the cows? What is the farmer's profit?
+These and many other questions will suggest themselves to both teacher and
+pupils, once the subject is opened up. They will be _practical questions
+in so far as they touch the experience of the children_ in such a way as
+to appeal to them as real questions. Each individual teacher must decide
+how far and into what field it is worth while to lead any particular
+class.
+
+=The Sand Table.=--The various types of sand tables range all the way from
+the hardwood, zinc-lined article, provided with a drainpipe, down to the
+homemade structure evolved from a goods box.
+
+The quality of the table does not greatly affect the quality of the work
+to be done on it, but there are several points which affect the
+convenience of the workers. The height of the table should allow the
+children to work comfortably when standing beside it. A long, narrow table
+is seldom as satisfactory as one more nearly square, but it should never
+be too wide for the children to reach the center easily. Any table with
+tight joints in the top and four- or five-inch boards fitted tightly
+around the edge will serve the purpose. The inside of the box should be
+painted to prevent warping and leaking. An "ocean blue" is a good color,
+as it makes a good background for islands.
+
+If no table is available, a goods box may be turned on its side, the top
+covered with oilcloth, and a frame, made from the cover of the box, fitted
+around the edge. The inside of the box may be used as a closet in which to
+store tools and materials, and a neat appearance given to the whole by a
+curtain of denim or other plain, heavy material.
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
+
+One of the most valuable uses of the sand table is in making illustrations
+for stories, historical events, and similar topics in which the relations
+between people and places is important. No definite rules can be laid
+down for working out such illustrations. The conditions under which they
+are made, the time to be devoted to the work, the importance of the
+subject, all affect both the nature and the quality of the work. Any
+material which lends itself to the purpose should be called into service.
+
+The method of procedure is best set forth by describing several problems
+as actually worked out by children.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46.--A home in Switzerland. Second grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+
+(1) =Story of Columbus=--_First Grade._
+
+_Materials Used._--Paper for cutting and folding, twigs for forests,
+acorns for tents, large piece of glass for ocean.
+
+_Details of Illustration._--The piece of glass was imbedded in sand in the
+middle of the table; one end of the table represented Spain, the other,
+America. The representation of Spain included:
+
+"Castles in Spain" being large houses with many
+     windows in which the king and queen lived. They were cut from paper.
+
+Many people, cut from paper, including kings and queens and the
+     friends of Mr. Columbus who came to tell him "good-by." The kings and
+     queens were distinguished by royal purple robes and golden crowns and
+     necklaces, produced by the use of colored crayon.
+
+The three ships made from folded paper. In one of them sat Mr.
+     Columbus.
+
+Fishes, of paper, inhabited the hollow space underneath the glass.
+
+The forest primeval was shown on the American side by green twigs of
+     trees set very close together. On pulling apart the leaves and
+     peering into the depths of this forest, one found it inhabited by
+     bears and other wild beasts, also cut from paper.
+
+The Indians lived in a village of acorn tents set up in a little
+     clearing on the shore.
+
+Flags.--The Spanish region was identified by a Spanish flag, while
+     the stars and stripes waved above the Indian village.
+
+_Values._--The project being on the level of the children's experience,
+they worked freely and with intense interest. The characters in the story
+were all very real to them. They literally swarmed about the table
+whenever opportunity was given, moving the figures about as they told the
+story over and over again. Mr. Columbus sailed across the sea many times.
+Many boats were made and named for one of the three, according to the
+preference of the maker. They peeped into the forest and shuddered in
+delightful fear "lest a bear get me." They made and remade the scene as
+new ideas suggested themselves during several days of Columbus week.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47.--Two little knights of Kentucky. Fourth grade.
+Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48.--How Cedric became a knight. Fourth grade.
+Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49.--A sugar camp. Built late in the spring by a
+third-grade class. They enjoyed the green grass, though it suggests an
+overlate season.]
+
+
+Several discrepancies existed which are mentioned here because they
+troubled some overconscientious visitors. The stars and stripes did not
+come into existence until centuries after Columbus died and therefore
+never waved over the Indian village which he found. But chronology does
+not trouble the first grader very much, while "my country" and "my flag"
+are ideas which are developing together. And when he is singing, "Columbus
+sailed across the sea, To find a land for you and me," the red, white, and
+blue forms the most fitting symbol in his representation of that land. The
+wild animals which infested the sand-table forest are not all mentioned in
+the histories as found on San Salvador, but they did exist in the child's
+idea of the wild country which the white men found on this side of the
+Atlantic. The children having truthfully expressed their ideas, the
+teacher had a basis from which to develop, correct, and emphasize such
+points as were of real importance, while the unimportant features would
+fade out for lack of emphasis.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50.--A western cattle ranch.]
+
+
+On the occasion of the supervisor's visit the members of the class vied
+with each other in telling the story and explaining the significance of
+the various illustrations. The supervisor expressed a wish to own some of
+the cuttings, whereupon, at a hint from the teacher, the class which had
+gathered about the sand table scampered joyfully (but quietly) back to
+their seats. Scissors and paper were quickly distributed, and in about
+five minutes an empty shoe box was required to hold the collection of "Mr.
+Columbuses," kings and queens in royal purple, gold crowns, and necklaces,
+ships, fishes, etc., that were showered upon the guest. Needless to say
+many scraps of paper had fallen to the floor. The teacher remarked that
+it was time for the brownies to come. Down went all the heads for a sleepy
+time. The teacher slipped about, tapping here and there a child, who
+quickly began gathering up the scraps as joyously as he had helped to make
+them.
+
+The supervisor bade them good-by, with a wish that all children might
+begin their school life under such happy and wholesome influences.
+
+(2) =Story of Jack Horner=[3]--_First Grade._--As the story was read the
+different characters were subjects for free paper-cutting exercises. An
+abundance of paper (scratch paper and newspaper) was supplied, and each
+child allowed to cut each figure many times, very quickly.
+
+The story was also dramatized and acted out over and over again. Figure 1
+shows the result of an hour's work in assembling the various characters
+and telling the whole story on the sand table and in a poster. The
+different figures to be cut were assigned to or chosen by the different
+children, the teacher taking care that no characters were omitted. Having
+cut figures of the various characters as they were met in the story, all
+were eager to reproduce the part called for, and in a few minutes more
+than enough cuttings were made to supply both sand table and poster with
+ample material. Two groups of children, one for the poster and one for the
+sand table, were assigned the work of placing the figures. The teacher
+superintended both projects, giving a few suggestions as needed, but
+throwing the responsibility upon the children as much as possible.
+
+This problem was worked out by the same class which made the Columbus
+illustration just described. The Jack Horner story was illustrated in the
+spring, after much work of this sort had been done. The quality of the
+cuttings showed an interesting improvement over the cuttings made for the
+Columbus story, which came during the third week of the school year.
+
+(3) =Story of Three Little Pigs.=--This is a long story, and three weeks
+were occupied in reading it and dramatizing it. During this time there
+were frequent discussions about how it was to be worked out on the sand
+table. Contributions in great variety were brought in: straw for the straw
+house, twigs for the house of sticks, bags of brick dust to make a roadway
+different from the sand, rose hips to be tied to a small branch to
+represent the apple tree, and various other articles.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51.--The story of Three Little Pigs. First grade.
+Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52.--A Japanese tea garden. Third grade. Columbia,
+Missouri.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53.--A coal mine. Fourth grade. Columbia, Missouri.]
+
+
+The houses were built as suggested by the pictures in the reader. The pig
+and wolf were modeled in clay, each being shown in the several different
+positions described in the story. Over and over a little clay pig rolled
+down the hill in a paper churn and frightened a clay wolf. One group, not
+having wherewithal to build a brick house, used a wooden one made by
+another group. Another class made the brick house out of blocks, and built
+in a fireplace with its kettle ready to hold the hot water whenever the
+wolf should start for the chimney. (See Fig. 51.)
+
+(4) =Japanese Tea Garden.=--A third-grade class used the sand table to
+illustrate what they had gleaned from reading several stories and
+descriptions of life in Japan, in connection with elementary geography.
+The sand-table representation included a tiny bridge across a small stream
+of "real" water. The "real river" was secured by ingenious use of a
+leaking tin can which was hidden behind a clump of trees (twigs). A thin
+layer of cement in the bed of the river kept the water from sinking into
+the sand. A shallow pan imbedded in the sand formed a lake into which the
+river poured its waters. (See Fig. 52.)
+
+(5) =A Coal Mine.=--The sand table shown in Fig. 53 was worked out by a
+fourth-grade class in connection with the geography of the western states.
+Descriptions and pictures were studied with great earnestness to find out
+how to fix it, and the children made it as they thought it ought to be.
+The actual making occupied very little time, the various parts being
+contributed by different pupils.
+
+Problems of this sort develop leadership. There is usually one whose ideas
+take definite shape promptly and whose suggestions are willingly followed
+by his group. If there is one pupil in the class whose ability to lead is
+so strong that the others are overshadowed, it is sometimes well to let
+the work be done by small groups who use the table turn about. This plan
+stimulates a wholesome rivalry and discourages dawdling.
+
+(6) =Stories.=--Illustrations for two stories are shown on page 94. In the
+first (Fig. 47) part of the class made a representation on the sand table
+while the rest prepared a poster from paper cuttings. In the second (Fig.
+48) empty shoe boxes were used in making the castle. Very little time was
+spent on either project.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54.--A chariot race. Second grade. Pasadena,
+California.]
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+ANIMALS AND TOYS
+
+
+The circus and the zoological garden are always centers of interest to
+little children and may be used to great advantage to furnish the point of
+departure in the study of animal life. Making the animals in some form
+crystallizes the interest in the animals represented, and awakens interest
+in their habits and home.
+
+The handwork may be used as an illustrative factor connected with
+geography and nature study, or the making of the circus may be the
+starting point, and incidentally furnish subject matter in several fields.
+For example, geography and nature study grow out of the search for facts
+concerning the animals themselves, _i.e._ size, color, food, home, value,
+etc. The desire for such information gives purpose to reading. Oral and
+written descriptions supply subject matter for practice in English.
+Reducing the actual proportions of animals to a definite scale and
+problems relating to their commercial value make practical use of the
+knowledge of number. Art enters into the making of free-hand sketches,
+cuttings, and patterns for wooden models.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55.--A circus parade.]
+
+
+A good circus or "zoo" may be worked out in a variety of materials. Paper,
+cardboard, clay, and wood all serve well.
+
+To get the best value from the problem it should be as free as possible
+from copy work. The children should consult the best sources of
+information at their disposal, which may range all the way from ordinary
+picture books to natural history and encyclopedia descriptions. They
+should find out, unaided, as much as possible concerning the animal in
+question: his size, color, food, home, values, etc.,--the teacher
+supplementing with interesting and necessary items not at the disposal of
+the class.
+
+Free-hand cuttings and pencil sketches should be compared with the best
+pictures obtainable and the real animal whenever possible. Such patterns
+as are needed should be made by the children themselves. Ready-made
+patterns will produce better proportioned animals, but more dependent,
+less observant children also.
+
+
+METHODS IN DETAIL
+
+=Realistic Animals in Three-ply Wood.=--Secure necessary items of
+measurement and decide upon scale. One inch for each foot is best for
+younger children.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56.--Three-ply wooden animals.]
+
+
+Draw rectangle proportioned to the extreme length and height of the
+animal. Draw into the rectangle a _profile_ sketch of the animal, being
+careful that it comes to the line on each side. _All four feet must_ touch
+the base line. Considerable practice may be needed before a good sketch
+can be drawn. The animal may be represented as standing, walking, or
+running, but must be drawn in profile.
+
+Cut out the sketch and make by it three patterns: one of the head, body,
+and tail; one of the body and right legs; one of the body and left legs.
+Care must be taken to get good lines at shoulder and rump. (See Fig. 56.)
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57.--Detail of three-ply animals with movable parts.]
+
+
+Lay the pattern on the wood so that the grain runs lengthwise of the legs
+and other frail parts and draw outline carefully. Use basswood one fourth
+inch thick, or other soft wood.
+
+Saw out the parts with a coping saw. Be careful in sawing to keep the
+blade in a vertical position in order that the edges may be true.
+
+Nail or glue the parts together. If the animal does not stand perfectly,
+rub the feet on a piece of sandpaper. Use water color or crayon to give
+proper color.
+
+_Three-ply Animals with Movable Parts._--To make the head movable, saw the
+part from the body on a curved line, as shown in Fig. 57. Fasten with a
+single nail through the shoulder. The curved line must be a part of a
+circle and the nail must be at the center. The edges should be smooth to
+allow easy action. The tail may be adjusted by a similar plan. The parts
+may be made to move automatically by suspending a weight on cords which
+are attached to the movable parts, as shown in Fig. 57. If the weight is
+to be used, cut off the body part on the double dotted line to allow room
+for the cords to swing.
+
+A figure of this sort must be fastened on a pedestal or platform which
+will extend over the edge of the table. A slot must be cut in the pedestal
+wide enough to allow the cords to swing freely. (See Fig. 56.) The
+pedestal may be a long board or piece of heavy cardboard which can be
+tacked to the table or held firm by a clamp, or it may be a thin board
+fastened to a U-shaped block which is held firm on the edge of the table
+by a wedge.
+
+=Cardboard and Paper Animals that Stand.=--For younger children who cannot
+handle the saw easily cardboard or stiff paper may be used.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Notched rest for animals.]
+
+
+To make the animal stand the feet may be tacked to a small piece of wood
+about one inch square on the end and as long as needed, or a cardboard
+brace, such as is used on easels, may be glued to the back. A realistic
+effect is given if the animal is cut with two legs and the brace made to
+represent the other two, or a piece of cardboard cut as in Fig. 58 may be
+used as a brace, the body of the animal fitting into the notch.
+
+_Clay_ makes an excellent medium, but it requires more skill in clay than
+in wood to get an equally good effect. Clay animals should be modeled with
+a pedestal, and the separations between the two forelegs and the two hind
+legs merely indicated. If each leg is modeled separately, the figure is
+likely to be frail.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59.--Balancing figures.]
+
+
+=Balancing Figures.=--Design such figures as a prancing horse or dancing
+bear and saw from a single piece of wood. A little below the center of the
+figure insert a curved wire, on the other end of which is a ball of clay
+or other weight. The wire must be fastened firmly so that it cannot turn.
+Adjust so that the figure balances.
+
+Figures of people in foreign costumes, children running and jumping, as
+well as all sorts of animals, are very fascinating problems of this sort.
+(See Fig. 59.)
+
+=Seesaw Figures.=--Such groups as two boys chopping wood, two chickens
+drinking, two dogs tugging at a string, wrestling boys, and similar groups
+are interesting problems of the seesaw type. (See Fig. 60.)
+
+_Detail._--Cut the figures from cardboard. Make with a long pedestal.
+Color with crayon or water color. Use two light sticks for the seesaw, to
+which tack one figure in a vertical position and the other on a slant.
+Fasten to each stick with one tack. If a central figure is used, tack
+firmly to lower stick. Work the figure by moving the upper stick while the
+lower one is held firm.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60.--Some simple toys.]
+
+
+=Toys.=--A box of carpenter's scraps of soft wood will supply material for
+a variety of toys which may be made by the children themselves, thereby
+more than doubling the fun. A few suggestions are given in detail. The
+making of these will suggest others. (See Fig. 60.)
+
+_Doll's Swing._--A heavy block for a base, two tall uprights, and a
+crosspiece will make the frame. Make a seat from cardboard or use the end
+of a small box and suspend from crossbar.
+
+_Doll's Teeter._--Use a heavy block for a base. Two uprights with
+double-pointed tacks or notches in the top. Drive two double-pointed tacks
+in lower side of teeter board at center. Slip a small rod through the
+tacks and rest in the notches on the uprights. Suspend a weight by cords
+from the lower side of the board, adjust until the board balances. The
+ends of the board should be provided with box seats for the doll's
+comfort.
+
+_Railroad Train._--For cars, saw pieces from a square stick. For engine,
+use pieces of broomstick or other cylinder. Soft wood is better if
+obtainable. For wheels, use pieces of small broomstick or dowel rod. (See
+Fig. 56.)
+
+Let the children study real trains and make the best imitation they can
+work out.
+
+_Jumping Jacks._--Cut the figure from light weight cardboard. Make head
+and body in one piece. Cut two arms long enough to reach well above the
+head. Make the hands very large. Cut two legs either with or without a
+joint at the knee. Color with crayon or water color.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61.--Adjusting jumping jack in frame.]
+
+
+Fasten the legs and arms to the body with a string tied loosely to allow
+free movements. Make a frame of two light stiff sticks and a crosspiece
+fastened between them near the lower end of the sticks. Fasten with a
+single nail at either end of the crosspiece. Cut notches near the upper
+ends of the sticks. Fasten the figure to the frame by a stout thread. Use
+a coarse needle and carry the thread through the hands twice, leaving a
+loop on each side to slip over the ends of the sticks into the notches. A
+small block or folded bit of cardboard between the hands to keep them
+apart will improve the movement of the toy. Adjust the figure so that the
+threads are parallel when the figure hangs below the inverted frame. (See
+Fig. 61.) When the frame is held upright, the figure will hang between the
+sticks and the threads will be crossed. Press the lower ends of the frame
+together to make the jumping jack perform.
+
+_Merry-go-round._--Use a heavy block for a base. Bore a hole in the center
+and insert a square stick, about 10 in. long. For arms, use two pieces
+about 3/8 in. thick and 10 in. long. Fasten these together in the form of
+a cross and nail to the top of the upright with a single nail. An awl may
+be used to make the hole a little larger than the nail so that the arms
+will revolve easily. Suspend a box seat of wood or cardboard from each arm
+to complete the toy. (See Fig. 59.)
+
+=Games.=--_Ring Toss._--Use two square pieces of board at least 1/2 in.
+thick, one piece larger than the other. Bore a hole in the center of the
+smaller piece with a 1/2-in. auger bit.
+
+For the upright use a stick 1/2 in. square and about 12 in. long. Whittle
+the corners of the stick until it fits firmly into the hole in the small
+board. Nail the small board to the large one.
+
+For the rings use reeds, venetian iron, or hoops from small buckets or
+cart wheels. Wrap the rings with raffia or yarn. Make at least three rings
+of varying sizes. (See Fig. 60.)
+
+Playing ring toss and keeping tally makes an excellent number game.
+
+_Ten Pins._--From bogus or other heavy paper roll and paste cylinders
+about three inches in diameter and about twelve inches long. These may be
+set on end, and any of the common ten pin games played with the help of a
+soft rubber ball. Keeping tally gives excellent practice in number.
+
+_Bean Bag Game._--Draw three circles of different sizes on a large sheet
+of heavy cardboard. Carefully cut out the circles with a sharp-pointed
+knife. Mount a picture of some animal on each piece cut out.
+
+Fasten the pieces back in place by a single cloth hinge pasted on the
+back, and at the lowest part of the circle.
+
+Tack the sheet of cardboard to a light wooden frame to keep it from
+bending.
+
+Let the frame rest against the wall at a slight angle. Bean bags thrown at
+the animals will knock them down as they go through the holes. The bean
+bags should be made by the children. Various number games may be played
+with bean bags.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+HOLIDAYS
+
+
+The various holidays which come during the year mean so much to little
+children that they should receive special notice and should suggest the
+form of handwork to be done at the time.
+
+=Thanksgiving= suggests attention to harvest products, to be modeled in
+clay, cut from paper, or drawn with crayon; the making of sand-table
+scenes showing early New England life in various phases; the making of
+various utensils and commodities of the primitive home which differ from
+our own; as, for example, the making of candles, the hour glass, and the
+sundial.
+
+=Christmas= suggests the making of toys and all sorts of things suitable
+for gifts. If the work centers around the Christmas tree, it offers
+opportunity for cooperation in making trimming such as paper chains,
+pop-corn strings, etc., as well as individual gifts. If a tree is not
+obtainable, a box may be dressed up in imitation of Santa's sleigh drawn
+by cardboard reindeer. Whatever else is done in honor of the visit of St.
+Nicholas, the spirit of giving should be cultivated by making gifts to
+some younger or less fortunate groups. Picture books may be made for sick
+children, doll furniture and other toys for the orphans' home or some
+family of unfortunates. A sack might arrive a week or two before
+Christmas accompanied by a telegram from Santa requesting contributions
+to help him out in some specific way and stating that it would be called
+for at a certain time. When a "real Santa" calls for the sack, he may
+leave in its place another containing some unexpected treat for the
+children themselves. The gifts which the children contribute should be of
+their own making, that they may have a full sense of real giving and not
+merely the pleasure of delivering the parcels mother has provided.
+
+=Valentine's Day= offers an opportunity for developing appreciation of a
+higher form of art than the shop windows frequently offer, and also
+investing with pure, sweet sentiment a day which means, in some quarters,
+only vulgar sentimentality and coarse jests.
+
+=Easter= offers a similar opportunity for emphasis on the fine things in
+color and subjects for greeting cards. The season also suggests emphasis
+on study of budding plants and young animal life by means of cutting,
+painting, and modeling.
+
+=Hero days= suggest a variety of forms of handwork, such as picture making
+with crayons or cuttings, or pictures in three dimensions on the sand
+table, for intensifying important phases of the hero's life; illustrated
+stories in booklet form; and the making of "properties" for dramatic
+representations. These things offer a welcome change from the stereotyped
+"Speaking day," and stimulate originality and self-reliance.
+
+So much has been written and so many suggestions are constantly being
+offered in school journals that specific suggestions for _things to make_
+seem superfluous here.
+
+=Individual Problems.=--While community problems must form a large part of
+the handwork in the lower grades, it is desirable to have, from time to
+time, projects which seek a definite result from each pupil. In the
+community problem it is possible for the strong pupil to monopolize the
+values of the work by imposing his ideas upon his fellows and by doing all
+the work while the slower pupils are getting ready to begin. In the same
+way it is possible for the lazy pupil to shirk much of his responsibility
+through the eagerness of his companions. It is therefore necessary to
+maintain a balance by the use of individual problems of a more definite
+type. These may often be specific parts of the community problem, but this
+will not meet all the needs of the case. The special days offer excellent
+occasion for work of this sort in addition to the cooperative problems
+which are undertaken by the class as a whole.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+GENERAL SUGGESTIONS AND SUMMARY
+
+
+=Modification of Outlines.=--All the projects outlined in the foregoing
+pages are capable of modification and adaptation to the needs of several
+grades. For this reason, in nearly every problem, many more suggestions
+are offered than will often be applicable in any one instance of its
+development. The directions are, for the most part, given from the
+standpoint of the first grade, on the principle that it is easier to add
+to the detail of a problem than to simplify it. On the other hand, the
+directions are not generally specific in detail, in order to prevent as
+far as possible a mechanical copying of any project.
+
+=Emphasis on Self-expression.=--It is desired to place special emphasis
+upon the point that each project undertaken, if it is to reach its highest
+value, must come as fully as possible from the children themselves and be
+to the very fullest extent _their self-expression_.
+
+_Not any house described in this book, nor any house seen in another
+schoolroom, nor even the house which I, as teacher, plan in detail, will
+be most valuable to my class_; but rather _our house_, which _we, teacher
+and pupils_ working together, evolve to suit our own needs and fancies,
+using suggestions gathered from every available source, but adapting them
+to our own needs.
+
+=Self-directed Activity and Discipline.=--The terms "self-directed
+activity" and "self-expression" must not be confounded with the idea of
+letting the children do as they please in any random and purposeless
+fashion. If one were to start out to escort a group of children to a
+certain hilltop, it is quite probable that some of them would run part of
+the way. Others would walk in twos and threes, and these would change
+about. They would halt to look at things that attracted their attention.
+The leader would halt them to observe some interesting point which they
+might otherwise miss. Should any of them wander from the right path the
+leader would call them back, and any frail child would be helped over the
+hard places. Yet with all this freedom the group might move steadily
+forward and reach the hilltop in due time.
+
+All progress up the hill of knowledge should follow a similar plan. The
+teacher should have a very definite idea of the end to be attained. The
+children should work with a purpose, and that purpose should be of such
+immediate interest to them that they would be anxious to attain it. They
+would then work earnestly, and discipline would settle itself. Handwork
+projects should be sufficiently simple to allow each worker to see his way
+through, or at least find his way without waiting for directions at each
+step. Instead of a blind following of such directions the worker should at
+all times feel himself the master of his tools and materials and be able
+to make them obey his impulse and express his idea. This attitude toward
+work can be secured only when the work is kept quite down to the level of
+the child's ability and appreciation. Only by this means can we hope to
+establish the inspiring and strengthening "habit of success."
+
+=Introduction of New Methods.=--The question arises, How shall work of
+this sort be adapted to a course of study which is already full and does
+not provide time for handwork? Handwork takes more time than bookwork, and
+children evolve plans but slowly. If the teacher waits for the children to
+evolve plans and then carry them out on their own responsibility, the
+quantity of work produced will be small and the quality poor compared with
+the results gained by other methods.
+
+The freer method must be justified, not by its tangible results, but by
+its value as a means of individual development. If it is true that
+
+  "One good idea known to be thine own
+  Is worth a thousand gleaned from fields by others sown,"
+
+then it follows that a small quantity of crude work may often represent
+greater genuine growth than a larger quantity of nicely finished work, if
+the latter has been accomplished by such careful dictation that individual
+thought on the part of the pupils was unnecessary.
+
+Common sense is the best guide in introducing a new method of work. Any
+sudden transition is likely to be disastrous. Responsibility in new fields
+should be shifted from teacher to pupils as rapidly as they are able to
+carry it, but it should never be transferred in wholesale fashion. This is
+especially true of a class that is accustomed to wait for the teacher's
+permission or command in all the small details of schoolroom life, such as
+speaking, moving about the room, etc.
+
+The freer methods may be introduced by either of two plans. In carrying
+through the first sand-table project, for example, the teacher may plan
+the details quite as definitely as is her custom in general work, assign
+each part to a particular pupil, and guide his execution of it as far as
+necessary. With each succeeding project more and more freedom may be
+granted, as the children become accustomed to community work and learn how
+to use the materials involved. Or, the work may be introduced by allowing
+two or three very trustworthy pupils to work out, quite alone, some simple
+project which will appeal to the entire class as very desirable. Other
+projects may be worked out by other pupils as they show themselves worthy
+of trust. Such a plan sets a premium upon independence and ability to
+direct one's own actions, and has a beneficial effect upon general
+discipline. Each individual teacher must follow the plan which best
+accords with her individual habits and the conditions under which she
+works. No rule can be rated as best under any and all circumstances.
+
+=New and Different Projects.=--Teachers frequently spend time and nerve
+force seeking new projects supposedly to stimulate the interest of the
+children. Often a careful examination into the true motives back of the
+search would prove that it is not so much to stimulate the interest of the
+children as to call forth the admiration of other teachers. Because a
+house was built last year does not hinder the building of another this
+year. If the children are allowed ample freedom, the houses will not be
+alike. If the teacher is centering her interest in the development of the
+children and not in the things the children make, the projects will always
+be new because worked out in a new way by a different group of children.
+Monotony comes about through the teacher's attempt to plan out details and
+impose them upon the children, a process quite similar to the use of
+predigested foods.
+
+=Quality of Work.=--Methods such as outlined above are sometimes criticized
+because of the crudity of the results. It is sometimes argued that the
+crude work establishes low standards and that better finished work of a
+more useful type is more desirable in school projects. Certainly
+everything which is done in school should be useful. School years are too
+precious to be wasted, in any degree, on a thing which is useless. But it
+is important to have a right standard for measuring the usefulness of a
+project. Since it is the child's interest and effort which are to be
+stimulated, his work must be useful from his point of view. The things
+that he works upon must be valuable to him personally. It is not enough
+for the teacher to be satisfied with the value of the subject matter. It
+must, as far as possible, be self-evident to the child himself.
+
+In the growing period a child is always anxious to excel himself and
+attain a higher level, nearer the adult standards. He measures his growth,
+not only in inches, but in ability to run faster, jump farther, count
+higher, and so on. So long as he is stimulated by an interesting motive he
+puts forth his best effort. It is only when we set him tasks and demand
+blind obedience that he lags. If his crude work represents his best
+effort, honestly put forth, he will, and he does, desire to do something
+better each time he tries. If he is permitted to work freely upon projects
+of immediate interest to him, he not only becomes familiar with various
+materials and the purposes they may serve, but he also begins to realize
+his inability to make them always obey his impulse. As soon as he
+discovers that there are better and easier ways of working which bring
+about more satisfactory results, he is anxious to learn the tricks of the
+trade; and he comes to the later, more technical courses in handwork, not
+only with more intelligence, but also with an appreciation of their value
+which is reflected in the quality of his work.
+
+=Summary.=--The last word, as the first in this little book, would stress
+the fact that it is always possible to improve present conditions.
+
+Activity is an essential factor in a child's development in school as well
+as out. Handwork is an important phase of this necessary activity. Neither
+lack of time, scarcity of material, nor lack of training on the part of
+the teacher is a sufficient excuse for failure to use some handwork in
+every school. Much can be accomplished with materials which are to be
+found anywhere, without using more time than is ordinarily devoted to the
+subject, and with better results, if we will but realize that educative
+handwork is not confined to the making of a few books, boxes, mats, or
+baskets after a prescribed pattern, however good in themselves these may
+be, but is also a means through which we may teach other subject matter.
+
+We not only learn to do by doing, but we come to _know_ through trying to
+_do_. And we often learn more through our failures than through our
+successes. We defraud the children if we deprive them of this important
+factor in their development. Any teacher who is willing to begin with what
+she has and _let the children do_ the best they can with it, will find
+unexpected resources and greater opportunities at every hand.
+
+Let us not allow ourselves to grow disheartened through vain wishes for
+the impossible or for the advantages of some other field, but attack our
+own with vigor and determination; for
+
+  "The common problem, yours, mine, every one's
+  Is--not to fancy what were fair in life
+  Provided it could be--but, finding first
+  What may be, then find how to make it fair
+  Up to our means."
+
+
+
+
+REFERENCES
+
+
+DEWEY--The School and the Child; School and Society; The Child and the
+Curriculum.
+
+O'SHEA--Dynamic Factors in Education.
+
+SCOTT--Social Education.
+
+DOPP--The Place of Industries in Elementary Education.
+
+BONE--The Service of the Hand in the School.
+
+SARGENT--Fine and Industrial Arts.
+
+ROW--The Educational Meaning of Manual Arts and Industries.
+
+CHARTERS--Methods of Teaching.
+
+BAGLEY--The Educative Process.
+
+RUSSELL--The School and Industrial Life. Educational Review, Dec. 1909.
+
+SYKES AND BONSER--Industrial Education. Teachers College Record, Sept.
+1911.
+
+BENNETT--The Place of Manual Arts in Education. Educational Review, Oct.
+1911.
+
+RICHARDS--Handwork in the Primary School. Manual Training Magazine, Oct.
+1901.
+
+
+REFERENCES FOR CLASSROOM USE
+
+Coping Saw Work JOHNSTON
+
+School Drawing DANIELS
+
+Little Folks Handy Book BEARD
+
+World at Work Series DUTTON
+
+Big People and Little People of Other Lands SHAW
+
+How We Are Fed CHAMBERLAIN
+
+How We Are Clothed CHAMBERLAIN
+
+How We Are Sheltered CHAMBERLAIN
+
+Continents and their People CHAMBERLAIN
+
+How the World is Fed CARPENTER
+
+How the World is Clothed CARPENTER
+
+How the World is Housed CARPENTER
+
+Around the World Series TOLMAN
+
+Youth's Companion Series LANE
+
+The Bird Woman CHANDLER
+
+The Tree Dwellers DOPP
+
+The Early Cave Men DOPP
+
+The Later Cave Men DOPP
+
+
+Printed in the United States of America.
+
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] In scoring cardboard cut about halfway through the board on the
+_outside_ of the fold.
+
+[2] See Scott's "Social Education."
+
+[3] See Riverside Primer.
+
+
+
+
+      *      *      *      *      *      *
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate
+both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as
+presented in the original text.
+
+Printer's inconsistencies in hyphenation have been retained.
+
+
+
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