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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Pedagogics as a System, by Karl Rosenkranz
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Pedagogics as a System
+
+Author: Karl Rosenkranz
+
+Translator: Anna C. Brackett
+
+Release Date: December 13, 2009 [EBook #30661]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PEDAGOGICS AS A SYSTEM ***
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+  +-------------------------------------+
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+  |                                     |
+  | Many words in the text are spelled  |
+  | with or without a hyphen; these are |
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+
+  PEDAGOGICS
+  AS A
+  SYSTEM.
+
+  By Dr. KARL ROSENKRANZ,
+
+  _Doctor of Theology and Professor of Philosophy at the University
+  of Königsberg._
+
+  TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN
+
+  By ANNA C. BRACKETT.
+
+
+  (_Reprinted from Journal of Speculative Philosophy._)
+
+
+  ST. LOUIS, MO.:
+  THE R. P. STUDLEY COMPANY, PRINTERS, CORNER MAIN & OLIVE STS.
+  1872.
+
+  Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1872, by
+  WILLIAM T. HARRIS,
+  In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington.
+
+
+
+
+  ANALYSIS.
+
+     {FIRST PART.    {Its Nature.
+     {In its General {Its Form.
+     {  Idea.        {Its Limits.
+     {
+     {SECOND PART.   {Physical.
+     {In its Special {Intellectual.
+     {  Elements.    {Moral.
+     {
+     {             {          {            {Family     China.
+     {             {          {Passive.    {Caste      India.
+     {             {          {            {Monkish    Thibet.
+     {             {          {
+     {             {          {            {Military   Persia.
+     {             {National. {Active      {Priestly   Egypt.
+     {             {          {            {Industrial Phœnicia.
+     {             {          {
+     {             {          {            {Æsthetic    Greece.
+  E  {             {          {Individual. {Practical   Rome.
+  D  {             {          {            {Abstract   {Northern.
+  U  {             {          {            { Individual{ Barbarians.
+  C  {             {
+  A  {             {Theocratic. . . . . . . . . . . .  Jews.
+  T  {             {
+  I  {             {Monkish.
+  O  {THIRD PART.  {
+  N  {In its       {
+     { Particular  {
+     { Systems.    {
+     {             {Chivalric.
+     {             {
+     {             {Humanitarian. {For Special  {Jesuitic.
+     {             {              { Callings.   {Pietistic.
+     {             {
+     {             {                            {The
+     {             {              {             {Humanistic.
+     {             {For Civil     {To achieve   {
+     {             {  Life.       { an Ideal of {The
+     {             {              { Culture.    {Philanthropic
+     {             {              {             {Movement.
+     {             {              {
+     {             {              {For Free Citizenship.
+
+
+PEDAGOGICS AS A SYSTEM.
+
+
+  [Inquiries from teachers in different sections of the
+  country as to the sources of information on the subject of
+  Teaching as a Science have led me to believe that a
+  translation of Rosenkranz's Pedagogics may be widely
+  acceptable and useful. It is very certain that too much of
+  our teaching is simply empirical, and as Germany has, more
+  than any other country, endeavored to found it upon
+  universal truths, it is to that country that we must at
+  present look for a remedy for this empiricism.
+
+  Based as this is upon the profoundest system of German
+  Philosophy, no more suggestive treatise on Education can
+  perhaps be found. In his third part, as will be readily
+  seen, Rosenkranz follows the classification of National
+  ideas given in Hegel's Philosophy of History. The word
+  "Pedagogics," though it has unfortunately acquired a
+  somewhat unpleasant meaning in English——thanks to the
+  writers who have made the word "pedagogue" so
+  odious——deserves to be redeemed for future use. I have,
+  therefore, retained it in the translation.
+
+  In order that the reader may see the general scope of the
+  work, I append in tabular form the table of contents,
+  giving however, under the first and second parts, only the
+  main divisions. The minor heads can, of course, as they
+  appear in the translation, be easily located.——_Tr._]
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+§ 1. The science of Pedagogics cannot be derived from a simple principle
+with such exactness as Logic and Ethics. It is rather a mixed science
+which has its presuppositions in many others. In this respect it
+resembles Medicine, with which it has this also in common, that it must
+make a distinction between a sound and an unhealthy system of education,
+and must devise means to prevent or to cure the latter. It may therefore
+have, like Medicine, the three departments of Physiology, Pathology, and
+Therapeutics.
+
+§ 2. Since Pedagogics is capable of no such exact definitions of its
+principle and no such logical deduction as other sciences, the treatises
+written upon it abound more in shallowness than any other literature.
+Short-sightedness and arrogance find in it a most congenial atmosphere,
+and criticism and declamatory bombast flourish in perfection as nowhere
+else. The literature of religious tracts might be considered to rival
+that of Pedagogics in its superficiality and assurance, if it did not
+for the most part seem itself to belong, through its ascetic nature, to
+Pedagogics. But teachers as persons should be treated in their
+weaknesses and failures with the utmost consideration, because they are
+most of them sincere in contributing their mite for the improvement of
+education, and all their pedagogic practice inclines them towards
+administering reproof and giving advice.
+
+§ 3. The charlatanism of educational literature is also fostered by the
+fact that teaching has become one of the most profitable employments,
+and the competition in it tends to increase self-glorification.
+
+——When "Boz" in his "Nicholas Nickleby" exposed the horrible mysteries
+of an English boarding-school, many teachers of such schools were, as he
+assures us, so accurately described that they openly complained he had
+aimed his caricatures directly at them.——
+
+§ 4. In the system of the sciences, Pedagogics belongs to the Philosophy
+of Spirit,——and in this, to the department of Practical Philosophy, the
+problem of which is the comprehension of the necessity of freedom; for
+education is the conscious working of one will on another so as to
+produce itself in it according to a determinate aim. The idea of
+subjective spirit, as well as that of Art, Science, and Religion, forms
+the essential condition for Pedagogics, but does not contain its
+principle. If one thinks out a complete statement of Practical
+Philosophy (Ethics), Pedagogics may be distributed among all its grades.
+But the point at which Pedagogics itself becomes organic is the idea of
+the Family, because in the family the difference between the adults and
+the minors enters directly through the naturalness of spirit, and the
+right of the children to an education and the duty of parents towards
+them in this respect is incontestable. All other spheres of education,
+in order to succeed, must presuppose a true family life. They may extend
+and complement the business of teaching, but cannot be its original
+foundation.
+
+——In our systematic exposition of Education, we must not allow
+ourselves to be led into error by those theories which do not recognize
+the family, and which limit the relation of husband and wife to the
+producing of children. The Platonic Philosophy is the most worthy
+representative of this class. Later writers who take great pleasure in
+seeing the world full of children, but who would subtract from the love
+to a wife all truth and from that to children all care, exhibit in their
+doctrine of the anarchy of love only a sickly (but yet how prevalent an)
+imitation of the Platonic state.——
+
+§ 5. Much confusion also arises from the fact that many do not clearly
+enough draw the distinction between Pedagogics as a science and
+Pedagogics as an art. As a science it busies itself with developing _a
+priori_ the idea of Education in the universality and necessity of that
+idea, but as an art it is the concrete individualizing of this abstract
+idea in any given case. And in any such given case, the peculiarities of
+the person who is to be educated and all the previously existing
+circumstances necessitate a modification of the universal aims and ends,
+which modification cannot be provided for beforehand, but must rather
+test the ready tact of the educator who knows how to make the existing
+conditions fulfil his desired end. It is exactly in doing this that the
+educator may show himself inventive and creative, and that pedagogic
+talent can distinguish itself. The word "art" is here used in the same
+way as it is used when we say, the art of war, the art of government,
+&c.; and rightly, for we are talking about the possibility of the
+realization of the idea.
+
+——The educator must adapt himself to the pupil, but not to such a degree
+as to imply that the pupil is incapable of change, and he must also be
+sure that the pupil shall learn through his experience the independence
+of the object studied, which remains uninfluenced by his variable
+personal moods, and the adaptation on the teacher's part must never
+compromise this independence.——
+
+§ 6. If conditions which are local, temporal, and individual, are fixed
+as constant rules, and carried beyond their proper limits, are
+systematized as a valuable formalistic code, unavoidable error arises.
+The formulæ of teaching are admirable material for the science, but are
+not the science itself.
+
+§ 7. Pedagogics as a science must (1) unfold the general idea of
+Education; (2) must exhibit the particular phases into which the general
+work of Education divides itself, and (3) must describe the particular
+standpoint upon which the general idea realizes itself, or should become
+real in its special processes at any particular time.
+
+§ 8. The treatment of the first part offers no difficulty. It is
+logically too evident. But it would not do to substitute for it the
+history of Pedagogics, simply because all the conceptions of it which
+appear in systematic treatises can be found there.
+
+——Into this error G. Thaulow has fallen in his pamphlet on Pedagogics as
+a Philosophical Science.——
+
+§ 9. The second division unfolds the subject of the physical,
+intellectual and practical culture of the human race, and constitutes
+the main part of all books on Pedagogy. Here arises the greatest
+difficulty as to the limitations, partly because of the undefined nature
+of the ideas, partly because of the degree of amplification which the
+details demand. Here is the field of the widest possible differences. If
+e.g. one studies out the conception of the school with reference to the
+qualitative specialities which one may consider, it is evident that he
+can extend his remarks indefinitely; he may speak thus of technological
+schools of all kinds, to teach mining, navigation, war, art, &c.
+
+§ 10. The third division distinguishes between the different standpoints
+which are possible in the working out of the conception of Education in
+its special elements, and which therefore produce different systems of
+Education wherein the general and the particular are individualized in a
+special manner. In every system the general tendencies of the idea of
+education, and the difference between the physical, intellectual and
+practical culture of man, must be formally recognized, and will appear.
+The How is decided by the standpoint which reduces that formalism to a
+special system. Thus it becomes possible to discover the essential
+contents of the history of Pedagogics from its idea, since this can
+furnish not an indefinite but a certain number of Pedagogic systems.
+
+——The lower standpoint merges always into the higher, and in so doing
+first attains its full meaning, e.g.: Education for the sake of the
+nation is set aside for higher standpoints, i.g., that of
+Christianity; but we must not suppose that the national phase of
+Education was counted as nought from the Christian standpoint. Rather it
+itself had outgrown the limits which, though suitable enough for its
+early stage, could no longer contain its true idea. This is sure to be
+the case in the fact that the national individualities become
+indestructible by being incorporated into Christianity——a fact that
+contradicts the abstract seizing of such relations.——
+
+§ 11. The last system must be that of the present, and since this is
+certainly on one side the result of all the past, while on the other
+seized in its possibilities it is determined by the Future, the business
+of Pedagogics cannot pause till it reaches its ideal of the general and
+special determinations, so that looked at in this way the Science of
+Pedagogics at its end returns to its beginning. The first and second
+divisions already contain the idea of the system necessary for the
+Present.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST PART.
+
+The General Idea of Education.
+
+
+§ 12. The idea of Pedagogics in general must distinguish,
+
+  (1) The nature of Education in general;
+  (2) Its form;
+  (3) Its limits.
+
+
+I.
+
+_The Nature of Education._
+
+§ 13. The nature of Education is determined by the nature of mind——that
+it can develop whatever it really is only by its own activity. Mind is
+in itself free; but if it does not actualize this possibility, it is in
+no true sense free, either for itself or for another. Education is the
+influencing of man by man, and it has for its end to lead him to
+actualize himself through his own efforts. The attainment of perfect
+manhood as the actualization of the Freedom necessary to mind
+constitutes the nature of Education in general.
+
+——The completely isolated man does not become man. Solitary human
+beings who have been found in forests, like the wild girl of the forest
+of Ardennes, sufficiently prove the fact that the truly human qualities
+in man cannot be developed without reciprocal action with human beings.
+Caspar Hauser in his subterranean prison is an illustration of what man
+would be by himself. The first cry of the child expresses in its appeals
+to others this helplessness of spirituality on the side of nature.——
+
+§ 14. Man, therefore, is the only fit subject for education. We often
+speak, it is true, of the education of plants and animals; but even when
+we do so, we apply, unconsciously perhaps, other expressions, as
+"raising" and "training," in order to distinguish these. "Breaking"
+consists in producing in an animal, either by pain or pleasure of the
+senses, an activity of which, it is true, he is capable, but which he
+never would have developed if left to himself. On the other hand, it is
+the nature of Education only to assist in the producing of that which
+the subject would strive most earnestly to develop for himself if he had
+a clear idea of himself. We speak of raising trees and animals, but not
+of raising men; and it is only a planter who looks to his slaves only
+for an increase in their number.
+
+——The education of men is quite often enough, unfortunately, only a
+"breaking," and here and there still may be found examples where one
+tries to teach mechanically, not through the understanding power of the
+creative WORD, but through the powerless and fruitless appeal to
+physical pain.——
+
+§ 15. The idea of Education may be more or less comprehensive. We use it
+in the widest sense when we speak of the Education of the race, for we
+understand by this expression the connection which the acts and
+situations of different nations have to each other, as different steps
+towards self-conscious freedom. In this the world-spirit is the teacher.
+
+§ 16. In a more restricted sense we mean by Education the shaping of
+the individual life by the forces of nature, the rhythmical movement of
+national customs, and the might of destiny in which each one finds
+limits set to his arbitrary will. These often mould him into a man
+without his knowledge. For he cannot act in opposition to nature, nor
+offend the ethical sense of the people among whom he dwells, nor despise
+the leading of destiny without discovering through experience that
+before the Nemesis of these substantial elements his subjective power
+can dash itself only to be shattered. If he perversely and persistently
+rejects all our admonitions, we leave him, as a last resort, to destiny,
+whose iron rule must educate him, and reveal to him the God whom he has
+misunderstood.
+
+——It is, of course, sometimes not only possible, but necessary for one,
+moved by the highest sense of morality, to act in opposition to the laws
+of nature, to offend the ethical sense of the people that surround him,
+and to brave the blows of destiny; but such a one is a sublime reformer
+or martyr, and we are not now speaking of such, but of the perverse, the
+frivolous, and the conceited.——
+
+§ 17. In the narrowest sense, which however is the usual one, we mean by
+Education the influence which one mind exerts on another in order to
+cultivate the latter in some understood and methodical way, either
+generally or with reference to some special aim. The educator must,
+therefore, be relatively finished in his own education, and the pupil
+must possess unlimited confidence in him. If authority be wanting on the
+one side, or respect and obedience on the other, this ethical basis of
+development must fail, and it demands in the very highest degree,
+talent, knowledge, skill, and prudence.
+
+——Education takes on this form only under the culture which has been
+developed through the influence of city life. Up to that time we have
+the naïve period of education, which holds to the general powers of
+nature, of national customs, and of destiny, and which lasts for a long
+time among the rural populations. But in the city a greater complication
+of events, an uncertainty of the results of reflection, a working out of
+individuality, and a need of the possession of many arts and trades,
+make their appearance and render it impossible for men longer to be
+ruled by mere custom. The Telemachus of Fenelon was educated to rule
+himself by means of reflection; the actual Telemachus in the heroic age
+lived simply according to custom.——
+
+§ 18. The general problem of Education is the development of the
+theoretical and practical reason in the individual. If we say that to
+educate one means to fashion him into morality, we do not make our
+definition sufficiently comprehensive, because we say nothing of
+intelligence, and thus confound education and ethics. A man is not
+merely a human being, but as a reasonable being he is a peculiar
+individual, and different from all others of the race.
+
+§ 19. Education must lead the pupil by an interconnected series of
+efforts previously foreseen and arranged by the teacher to a definite
+end; but the particular form which this shall take must be determined by
+the peculiar character of the pupil's mind and the situation in which he
+is found. Hasty and inconsiderate work may accomplish much, but only
+_systematic_ work can advance and fashion him in conformity with his
+nature, and the former does not belong to education, for this includes
+in itself the idea of an end, and that of the technical means for its
+attainment.
+
+§ 20. But as culture comes to mean more and more, there becomes
+necessary a division of the business of teaching among different
+persons, with reference to capabilities and knowledge, because as the
+arts and sciences are continually increasing in number, one can become
+learned in any one branch only by devoting himself exclusively to it,
+and hence becoming one-sided. A difficulty hence arises which is also
+one for the pupil, of preserving, in spite of this unavoidable
+one-sidedness, the unity and wholeness which are necessary to humanity.
+
+——The naïve dignity of the happy savage, and the agreeable simplicity of
+country people, appear to very great advantage when contrasted on this
+side with the often unlimited narrowness of a special trade, and the
+endless curtailing of the wholeness of man by the pruning processes of
+city life. Thus the often abused savage has his hut, his family, his
+cocoa tree, his weapons, his passions; he fishes, hunts, plays, fights,
+adorns himself, and enjoys the consciousness that he is the centre of a
+whole, while a modern citizen is often only an abstract expression of
+culture.——
+
+§ 21. As it becomes necessary to divide the work of teaching, a
+difference between general and special schools arises also, from the
+needs of growing culture. The former present in different compass all
+the sciences and arts which are included in the term "general
+education," and which were classified by the Greeks under the general
+name of Encyclopædia. The latter are known as special schools, suited to
+particular needs or talents.
+
+——As those who live in the country are relatively isolated, it is often
+necessary, or at least desirable, that one man should be trained equally
+on many different sides. The poor tutor is required not only to instruct
+in all the sciences, he must also speak French and be able to play the
+piano.——
+
+§ 22. For any single person, the relation of his actual education to its
+infinite possibilities can only be approximately determined, and it can
+be considered as only relatively finished on any one side. Education is
+impossible to him who is born an idiot, since the want of the power of
+generalizing and of ideality of conscious personality leaves to such an
+unfortunate only the possibility of a mechanical training.
+
+——Sägert, the teacher of the deaf mutes in Berlin, has made laudable
+efforts to educate idiots, but the account as given in his publication,
+"Cure of Idiots by an Intellectual Method, Berlin, 1846," shows that the
+result obtained was only external; and though we do not desire to be
+understood as denying or refusing to this class the possession of a mind
+_in potentia_, it appears in them to be confined to an embryonic
+state.——
+
+
+II.
+
+_The Form of Education._
+
+§ 23. The general form of Education is determined by the nature of the
+mind, that it really is nothing but what it makes itself to be. The mind
+is (1) immediate (or potential), but (2) it must estrange itself from
+itself as it were, so that it may place itself over against itself as a
+special object of attention; (3) this estrangement is finally removed
+through a further acquaintance with the object——it feels itself at home
+in that on which it looks, and returns again enriched to the form of
+immediateness. That which at first appeared to be another than itself is
+now seen to be itself. Education cannot create; it can only help to
+develop to reality the previously existent possibility; it can only help
+to bring forth to light the hidden life.
+
+§ 24. All culture, whatever may be its special purport, must pass
+through these two stages——of estrangement, and its removal. Culture must
+hold fast to the distinction between the subject and the object
+considered immediately, though it has again to absorb this distinction
+into itself, in order that the union of the two may be more complete and
+lasting. The subject recognizes then all the more certainly that what at
+first appeared to it as a foreign existence, belongs to it as its own
+property, and that it holds it as its own all the more by means of
+culture.
+
+——Plato, as is known, calls the feeling with which knowledge must begin,
+wonder; but this can serve as a beginning only, for wonder itself can
+only express the tension between the subject and the object at their
+first encounter——a tension which would be impossible if they were not in
+themselves identical. Children have a longing for the far-off, the
+strange, and the wonderful, as if they hoped to find in these an
+explanation of themselves. They want the object to be a genuine object.
+That to which they are accustomed, which they see around them every day,
+seems to have no longer any objective energy for them; but an alarm of
+fire, banditti life, wild animals, gray old ruins, the robin's songs,
+and far-off happy islands, &c.——everything high-colored and
+dazzling——leads them irresistibly on. The necessity of the mind's making
+itself foreign to itself is that which makes children prefer to hear of
+the adventurous journeys of Sinbad than news of their own city or the
+history of their nation, and in youth this same necessity manifests
+itself in their desire of travelling.——
+
+§ 25. This activity of the mind in allowing itself to be absorbed, and
+consciously so, in an object with the purpose of making it his own, or
+of producing it, is _Work_. But when the mind gives itself up to its
+objects as chance may present them or through arbitrariness, careless as
+to whether they have any result, such activity is _Play_. Work is laid
+out for the pupil by his teacher by authority, but in his play he is
+left to himself.
+
+§ 26. Thus work and play must be sharply distinguished from each other.
+If one has not respect for work as an important and substantial
+activity, he not only spoils play for his pupil, for this loses all its
+charm when deprived of the antithesis of an earnest, set task, but he
+undermines his respect for real existence. On the other hand, if he does
+not give him space, time, and opportunity, for play, he prevents the
+peculiarities of his pupil from developing freely through the exercise
+of his creative ingenuity. Play sends the pupil back refreshed to his
+work, since in play he forgets himself in his own way, while in work he
+is required to forget himself in a manner prescribed for him by another.
+
+——Play is of great importance in helping one to discover the true
+individualities of children, because in play they may betray
+thoughtlessly their inclinations. This antithesis of work and play runs
+through the entire life. Children anticipate in their play the earnest
+work of after life; thus the little girl plays with her doll, and the
+boy pretends he is a soldier and in battle.——
+
+§ 27. Work should never be treated as if it were play, nor play as if it
+were work. In general, the arts, the sciences, and productions, stand in
+this relation to each other: the accumulation of stores of knowledge is
+the recreation of the mind which is engaged in independent creation, and
+the practice of arts fills the same office to those whose work is to
+collect knowledge.
+
+§ 28. Education seeks to transform every particular condition so that it
+shall no longer seem strange to the mind or in anywise foreign to its
+own nature. This identity of consciousness, and the special character of
+anything done or endured by it, we call Habit [habitual conduct or
+behavior]. It conditions formally all progress; for that which is not
+yet become habit, but which we perform with design and an exercise of
+our will, is not yet a part of ourselves.
+
+§ 29. As to Habit, we have to say next that it is at first indifferent
+as to what it relates. But that which is to be considered as indifferent
+or neutral cannot be defined in the abstract, but only in the concrete,
+because anything that is indifferent as to whether it shall act on these
+particular men, or in this special situation, is capable of another or
+even of the opposite meaning for another man or men for the same men or
+in other circumstances. Here, then, appeal must be made to the
+individual conscience in order to be able from the depths of
+individuality to separate what we can permit to ourselves from that
+which we must deny ourselves. The aim of Education must be to arouse in
+the pupil this spiritual and ethical sensitiveness which does not
+recognize anything as _merely_ indifferent, but rather knows how to
+seize in everything, even in the seemingly small, its universal human
+significance. But in relation to the highest problems he must learn that
+what concerns his own immediate personality is entirely indifferent.
+
+§ 30. Habit lays aside its indifference to an external action through
+reflection on the advantage or disadvantage of the same. Whatever tends
+as a harmonious means to the realization of an end is advantageous, but
+that is disadvantageous which, by contradicting its idea, hinders or
+destroys it. Advantage and disadvantage being then only _relative_
+terms, a habit which is advantageous for one man in one case may be
+disadvantageous for another man, or even for the same man, under
+different circumstances. Education must, therefore, accustom the youth
+to judge as to the expediency or inexpediency of any action in its
+relation to the essential vocation of his life, so that he shall avoid
+that which does not promote its success.
+
+§ 31. But the _absolute_ distinction of habit is the moral distinction
+between the good and the bad. For from this standpoint alone can we
+finally decide what is allowable and what is forbidden, what is
+advantageous and what is disadvantageous.
+
+§ 32. As relates to form, habit may be either passive or active. The
+passive is that which teaches us to bear the vicissitudes of nature as
+well as of history with such composure that we shall hold our ground
+against them, being always equal to ourselves, and that we shall not
+allow our power of acting to be paralyzed through any mutations of
+fortune. Passive habit is not to be confounded with obtuseness in
+receiving impressions, a blank abstraction from the affair in hand which
+at bottom is found to be nothing more than a selfishness which desires
+to be left undisturbed: it is simply composure of mind in view of
+changes over which we have no control. While we vividly experience joy
+and sorrow, pain and pleasure——inwoven as these are with the change of
+seasons, of the weather, &c.——with the alternation of life and death, of
+happiness and misery, we ought nevertheless to harden ourselves against
+them so that at the same time in our consciousness of the supreme worth
+of the mind we shall build up the inaccessible stronghold of Freedom in
+ourselves.——Active habit [or behavior] is found realized in a wide range
+of activity which appears in manifold forms, such as skill, dexterity,
+readiness of information, &c. It is a steeling of the internal for
+action upon the external, as the Passive is a steeling of the internal
+against the influences of the external.
+
+[Sidenote: _Formation of Habits._]
+
+§ 33. Habit is the general form which instruction takes. For since it
+reduces a condition or an activity within ourselves to an instinctive
+use and wont, it is necessary for any thorough instruction. But as,
+according to its content, it may be either proper or improper,
+advantageous or disadvantageous, good or bad, and according to its form
+may be the assimilation of the external by the internal, or the impress
+of the internal upon the external, Education must procure for the pupil
+the power of being able to free himself from one habit and to adopt
+another. Through his freedom he must be able not only to renounce any
+habit formed, but to form a new one; and he must so govern his system of
+habits that it shall exhibit a constant progress of development into
+greater freedom. We must discipline ourselves, as a means toward the
+ever-changing realization of the Good in us, constantly to form and to
+break habits.
+
+——We must characterize those habits as bad which relate only to our
+convenience or our enjoyment. They are often not blamable in themselves,
+but there lies in them a hidden danger that they may allure us into
+luxury or effeminacy. But it is a false and mechanical way of looking at
+the affair if we suppose that a habit which has been formed by a certain
+number of repetitions can be broken by an equal number of denials. We
+can never renounce a habit utterly except through a clearness of
+judgment which decides it to be undesirable, and through firmness of
+will.——
+
+§ 34. Education comprehends also the reciprocal action of the
+opposites, authority and obedience, rationality and individuality, work
+and play, habit and spontaneity. If we imagine that these can be
+reconciled by rules, it will be in vain that we try to restrain the
+youth in these relations. But a failure in education in this particular
+is very possible through the freedom of the pupil, through special
+circumstances, or through the errors of the educator himself. And for
+this very reason any theory of Education must take into account in the
+beginning this negative possibility. It must consider beforehand the
+dangers which threaten the pupil in all possible ways even before they
+surround him, and fortify him against them. Intentionally to expose him
+to temptation in order to prove his strength, is devilish; and, on the
+other hand, to guard him against the chance of dangerous temptation, to
+wrap him in cotton (as the proverb says), is womanish, ridiculous,
+fruitless, and much more dangerous; for temptation comes not alone from
+without, but quite as often from within, and secret inclination seeks
+and creates for itself the opportunity for its gratification, often
+perhaps an unnatural one. The truly preventive activity consists not in
+an abstract seclusion from the world, all of whose elements are innate
+in each individual, but in the activity of knowledge and discipline,
+modified according to age and culture.
+
+[Sidenote: _Protection against Temptation._]
+
+——If one endeavors to deprive the youth of all free and individual
+intercourse with the world, one only falls into a continual watching of
+him, and the consciousness that he is watched destroys in him all
+elasticity of spirit, all confidence, all originality. The police shadow
+of control obscures all independence and systematically accustoms him to
+dependence. As the tragi-comic story of Peter Schlemihl shows, one
+cannot lose his own shadow without falling into the saddest fatalities;
+but the shadow of a constant companion, as in the pedagogical system of
+the Jesuits, undermines all naturalness. And if one endeavors too
+strictly to guard against that which is evil and forbidden, the
+intelligence of the pupils reacts in deceit against such efforts, till
+the educators are amazed that such crimes as come often to light can
+have arisen under such careful control.——
+
+§ 35. If there should appear in the youth any decided moral deformity
+which is opposed to the ideal of his education, the instructor must at
+once make inquiry as to the history of its origin, because the negative
+and the positive are very closely connected in his being, so that what
+appears to be negligence, rudeness, immorality, foolishness, or oddity,
+may arise from some real needs of the youth which in their development
+have only taken a wrong direction.
+
+§ 36. If it should appear on such examination that the negative action
+was only a product of wilful ignorance, of caprice, or of arbitrariness
+on the part of the youth, then this calls for a simple prohibition on
+the part of the educator, no reason being assigned. His authority must
+be sufficient to the pupil without any reason. Only when this has
+happened more than once, and the youth is old enough to understand,
+should the prohibition, together with the reason therefor, be given.
+
+——This should, however, be brief; the explanation must retain its
+disciplinary character, and must not become extended into a doctrinal
+essay, for in such a case the youth easily forgets that it was his own
+misbehavior which was the occasion of the explanation. The statement of
+the reason must be honest, and it must present to the youth the point
+most easy for him to seize. False reasons are morally blamable in
+themselves, and they tend only to confuse. It is a great mistake to
+unfold to the youth the broadening consequences which his act may bring.
+These uncertain possibilities seem to him too powerless to affect him
+particularly. The severe lecture wearies him, especially if it be
+stereotyped, as is apt to be the case with fault-finding and talkative
+instructors. But more unfortunate is it if the painting of the gloomy
+background to which the consequences of the wrong-doing of the youth may
+lead, should fill his feelings and imagination prematurely with gloomy
+fancies, because then the representation has led him one step toward a
+state of wretchedness which in the future man may become fearful
+depression and degradation.——
+
+[Sidenote: _Reproof and Punishment._]
+
+§ 37. If the censure is accompanied with a threat of punishment, then we
+have the same kind of reproof which in daily life we call "scolding;"
+but if reproof is given, the pupil must be made to feel that it is in
+earnest.
+
+§ 38. Only when all other efforts have failed, is punishment, which is
+the real negation of the error, the transgression, or the vice,
+justifiable. Punishment inflicts intentionally pain on the pupil, and
+its object is, by means of this sensation, to bring him to reason, a
+result which neither our simple prohibition, our explanation, nor our
+threat of punishment, has been able to reach. But the punishment, as
+such, must not refer to the subjective totality of the youth, or his
+disposition in general, but only to the act which, as result, is a
+manifestation of the disposition. It acts mediately on the disposition,
+but leaves the inner being untouched directly; and this is not only
+demanded by justice, but on account of the sophistry that is inherent in
+human nature, which desires to assign to a deed many motives, it is even
+necessary.
+
+[Sidenote: _Correction_ VERSUS _Satisfaction of Justice._]
+
+§ 39. Punishment as an educational means is nevertheless essentially
+corrective, since, by leading the youth to a proper estimation of his
+fault and a positive change in his behavior, it seeks to improve him. At
+the same time it stands as a sad indication of the insufficiency of the
+means previously used. On no account should the youth be frightened from
+the commission of a misdemeanor, or from the repetition of his negative
+deed through fear of punishment——a system which leads always to
+terrorism: but, although it may have this effect, it should, before all
+things, impress upon him the recognition of the fact that the negative
+is not allowed to act as it will without limitation, but rather that the
+Good and the True have the absolute power in the world, and that they
+are never without the means of overcoming anything that contradicts
+them.
+
+——In the statute-laws, punishment has the opposite office. It must first
+of all satisfy justice, and only after this is done can it attempt to
+improve the guilty. If a government should proceed on the same basis as
+the educator it would mistake its task, because it has to deal with
+adults, whom it elevates to the honorable position of responsibility for
+their own acts. The state must not go back to the psychological ethical
+genesis of a negative deed. It must assign to a secondary rank of
+importance the biographical moment which contains the deed in process
+and the circumstances of a mitigating character, and it must consider
+first of all the deed in itself. It is quite otherwise with the
+educator; for he deals with human beings who are relatively undeveloped,
+and who are only growing toward responsibility. So long as they are
+still under the care of a teacher, the responsibility of their deed
+belongs in part to him. If we confound the standpoint in which
+punishment is administered in the state with that in education, we work
+much evil.——
+
+§ 40. Punishment as a negation of a negation, considered as an
+educational means, cannot be determined _à priori_, but must always be
+modified by the peculiarities of the individual offender and by the
+peculiar circumstances. Its administration calls for the exercise of the
+ingenuity and tact of the educator.
+
+[Sidenote: _Three Kinds of Punishment._]
+
+§ 41. Generally speaking, we must make a distinction between the sexes,
+as well as between the different periods of youth; (1) some kind of
+corporal punishment is most suitable for children, (2) isolation for
+older boys and girls, and (3) punishment based on the sense of honor for
+young men and women.
+
+§ 42. (1) Corporal punishment is the production of physical pain. The
+youth is generally whipped, and this kind of punishment, provided always
+that it is not too often administered or with undue severity, is the
+proper way of dealing with wilful defiance, with obstinate carelessness,
+or with a really perverted will, so long or so often as the higher
+perception is closed against appeal. The imposing of other physical
+punishment, e.g. that of depriving the pupil of food, partakes of
+cruelty. The view which sees in the rod the panacea for all the
+teacher's embarrassments is censurable, but equally undesirable is the
+false sentimentality which assumes that the dignity of humanity is
+affected by a blow given to a child, and confounds self-conscious
+humanity with child-humanity, to which a blow is the most natural form
+of reaction, in which all other forms of influence at last end.
+
+——The fully-grown man ought never to be whipped, because this kind of
+punishment reduces him to the level of the child, and, when it becomes
+barbarous, to that of a brute animal, and so is absolutely degrading to
+him. In the English schools the rod is much used. If a pupil of the
+first class be put back into the second at Eton, he, although before
+exempt from flogging, becomes liable to it. But however necessary this
+system of flogging of the English aristocracy may be in the discipline
+of their schools, flogging in the English army is a shameful thing for
+the free people of Great Britain.——
+
+§ 43. (2) By Isolation we remove the offender temporarily from the
+society of his fellows. The boy left alone, cut off from all
+companionship, and left absolutely to himself, suffers from a sense of
+helplessness. The time passes heavily, and soon he is very anxious to be
+allowed to return to the company of parents, brothers and sisters,
+teachers and fellow-pupils.
+
+——To leave a child entirely to himself without any supervision, even if
+one shuts him up in a dark room, is as mistaken a practice as to leave a
+few together without supervision, as is too often done where they are
+kept after school, when they give the freest rein to their childish
+wantonness and commit the wildest pranks.——
+
+[Sidenote: _Sense of Honor in the Pupil._]
+
+§ 44. (3) This way of isolating a child does not touch his sense of
+honor at all, and is soon forgotten because it relates to only one side
+of his conduct. It is quite different from punishment based on the sense
+of honor, which, in a formal manner, shuts the youth out from
+companionship because he has attacked the principle which holds society
+together, and for this reason can no longer be considered as belonging
+to it. Honor is the recognition of one individual by others as their
+equal. Through his error, or it may be his crime, he has simply made
+himself unequal to them, and in so far has separated himself from them,
+so that his banishment from their society is only the outward expression
+of the real isolation which he himself has brought to pass in his inner
+nature, and which he by means of his negative act only betrayed to the
+outer world. Since the punishment founded on the sense of honor affects
+the whole ethical man and makes a lasting impression upon his memory,
+extreme caution is necessary in its application lest a permanent injury
+be inflicted upon the character. The idea of his perpetual continuance
+in disgrace, destroys in a man all aspiration for improvement.
+
+——Within the family this feeling of honor cannot be so actively
+developed, because every member of it is bound to every other
+immediately by natural ties, and hence is equal to every other. Within
+its sacred circle, he who has isolated himself is still beloved, though
+it may be through tears. However bad may be the deed he has committed,
+he is never given up, but the deepest sympathy is felt for him because
+he is still brother, father, &c. But first in the contact of one family
+with another, and still more in the contact of an individual with any
+institution which is founded not on natural ties, but is set over
+against him as a distinct object, this feeling of honor appears. In the
+school, and in the matter of ranks and classes in a school, this is very
+important.——
+
+§ 45. It is important to consider well this gradation of punishment
+(which, starting with sensuous physical pain, passes through the
+external teleology of temporary isolation up to the idealism of the
+sense of honor), both in relation to the different ages at which they
+are appropriate and to the training which they bring with them. Every
+punishment must be considered merely as a means to some end, and, in so
+far, as transitory. The pupil must always be deeply conscious that it is
+very painful to his instructor to be obliged to punish him. This pathos
+of another's sorrow for the sake of his cure which he perceives in the
+mien, in the tone of the voice, in the delay with which the punishment
+is administered, will become a purifying fire for his soul.
+
+
+III.
+
+_The Limits of Education._
+
+§ 46. The form of Education reaches its limits with the idea of
+punishment, because this is the attempt to subsume the negative reality
+and to make it conformable to its positive idea. But the limits of
+Education are found in the idea of its nature, which is to fashion the
+individual into theoretical and practical rationality. The authority of
+the Educator at last becomes imperceptible, and it passes over into
+advice and example, and obedience changes from blind conformity to free
+gratitude and attachment. Individuality wears off its rough edges, and
+is transfigured into the universality and necessity of Reason without
+losing in this process its identity. Work becomes enjoyment, and he
+finds his play in a change of activity. The youth takes possession of
+himself, and can be left to himself.
+
+——There are two widely differing views with regard to the limits of
+Education. One lays great stress on the weakness of the pupil and the
+power of the teacher. According to this view, Education has for its
+province the entire formation of the youth. The despotism of this view
+often manifests itself where large numbers are to be educated together,
+and with very undesirable results, because it assumes that the
+individual pupil is only a specimen of the whole, as if the school were
+a great factory where each piece of goods is to be stamped exactly like
+all the rest. Individuality is reduced by the tyranny of such despotism
+to one uniform level till all originality is destroyed, as in cloisters,
+barracks, and orphan asylums, where only one individual seems to exist.
+There is a kind of Pedagogy also which fancies that one can thrust into
+or out of the individual pupil what one will. This may be called a
+superstitious belief in the power of Education.——The opposite extreme
+disbelieves this, and advances the policy which lets alone and does
+nothing, urging that individuality is unconquerable, and that often the
+most careful and far-sighted education fails of reaching its aim in so
+far as it is opposed to the nature of the youth, and that this
+individuality has made of no avail all efforts toward the obtaining of
+any end which was opposed to it. This representation of the
+fruitlessness of all pedagogical efforts engenders an indifference
+towards it which would leave, as a result, only a sort of vegetation of
+individuality growing at hap-hazard.——
+
+[Sidenote: _The Limits of Individuality._]
+
+§ 47. _The limit of Education is_ (1) _a Subjective one_, a limit made
+by the individuality of the youth. This is a definite limit. Whatever
+does not exist in this individuality as a possibility cannot be
+developed from it. Education can only lead and assist; it cannot create.
+What Nature has denied to a man, Education cannot give him any more than
+it is able, on the other hand, to annihilate entirely his original
+gifts, although it is true that his talents may be suppressed,
+distorted, and measurably destroyed. But the decision of the question in
+what the real essence of any one's individuality consists can never be
+made with certainty till he has left behind him his years of
+development, because it is then only that he first arrives at the
+consciousness of his entire self; besides, at this critical time, in the
+first place, much knowledge only superficially acquired will drop off;
+and again, talents, long slumbering and unsuspected, may first make
+their appearance. Whatever has been forced upon a child in opposition to
+his individuality, whatever has been only driven into him and has lacked
+receptivity on his side, or a rational ground on the side of culture,
+remains attached to his being only as an external ornament, a foreign
+outgrowth which enfeebles his own proper character.
+
+——We must distinguish from that affectation which arises through a
+misunderstanding of the limit of individuality, the way which many
+children and young persons have of supposing when they see models
+finished and complete in grown persons, that they themselves are endowed
+by Nature with the power to develop into the same. When they see a
+reality which corresponds to their own possibility, the presentiment of
+a like or a similar attainment moves them to an imitation of it as a
+model personality. This may be sometimes carried so far as to be
+disagreeable or ridiculous, but should not be too strongly censured,
+because it springs from a positive striving after culture, and needs
+only proper direction.——
+
+[Sidenote: _Limit in the Means of Education._]
+
+§ 48. (2) _The Objective limit of Education_ lies in the means which can
+be appropriated for it. That the talent for a certain culture shall be
+present is certainly the first thing; but the cultivation of this talent
+is the second, and no less necessary. But how much cultivation can be
+given to it extensively and intensively depends upon the means used, and
+these again are conditioned by the material resources of the family to
+which each one belongs. The greater and more valuable the means of
+culture which are found in a family are, the greater is the immediate
+advantage which the culture of each one has at the start. With regard to
+many of the arts and sciences this limit of education is of great
+significance. But the means alone are of no avail. The finest
+educational apparatus will produce no fruit where corresponding talent
+is wanting, while on the other hand talent often accomplishes incredible
+feats with very limited means, and, if the way is only once open, makes
+of itself a centre of attraction which draws to itself with magnetic
+power the necessary means. The moral culture of each one is however,
+fortunately from its very nature, out of the reach of such dependence.
+
+——In considering the limit made by individuality we recognize the side
+of truth in that indifference which considers Education entirely
+superfluous, and in considering the means of culture we find the truth
+in the other extreme of pedagogical despotism, which fancies that it can
+command whatever culture it chooses for any one without regard to his
+individuality.——
+
+§ 49. (3) _The Absolute limit of Education_ is the time when the youth
+has apprehended the problem which he has to solve, has learned to know
+the means at his disposal, and has acquired a certain facility in using
+them. The end and aim of Education is the emancipation of the youth. It
+strives to make him self-dependent, and as soon as he has become so it
+wishes to retire and to be able to leave him to the sole responsibility
+of his actions. To treat the youth after he has passed this point of
+time still as a youth, contradicts the very idea of Education, which
+idea finds its fulfilment in the attainment of majority by the pupil.
+Since the accomplishment of education cancels the original inequality
+between the educator and the pupil, nothing is more oppressing, nay,
+revolting to the latter than to be prevented by a continued dependence
+from the enjoyment of the freedom which he has earned.
+
+——The opposite extreme of the protracting of Education beyond its proper
+time is necessarily the undue hastening of the Emancipation.——The
+question whether one is prepared for freedom has been often opened in
+politics. When any people have gone so far as to ask this question
+themselves, it is no longer a question whether that people are prepared
+for it, for without the consciousness of freedom this question would
+never have occurred to them.——
+
+[Sidenote: _Arrival at the age of Majority._]
+
+§ 50. Although educators must now leave the youth free, the necessity of
+further culture for him is still imperative. But it will no longer come
+directly through them. Their pre-arranged, pattern-making work is now
+supplanted by self-education. Each sketches for himself an ideal to
+which in his life he seeks to approximate every day.
+
+——In the work of self-culture one friend can help another by advice and
+example; but he cannot educate, for education presupposes
+inequality.——The necessities of human nature produce societies in which
+equals seek to influence each other in a pedagogical way, since they
+establish by certain steps of culture different classes. They presuppose
+Education in the ordinary sense. But they wish to bring about Education
+in a higher sense, and therefore they veil the last form of their ideal
+in the mystery of secrecy.——To one who lives on contented with himself
+and without the impulse toward self-culture, unless his unconcern
+springs from his belonging to a savage state of society, the Germans
+give the name of Philistine, and he is always repulsive to the student
+who is intoxicated with an ideal.——
+
+
+
+
+SECOND PART.
+
+The Special Elements of Education.
+
+
+§ 51. Education in general consists in the development in man of his
+inborn theoretical and practical rationality; it takes on the form of
+labor, which changes that state or condition, which appears at first
+only as a mere conception, into a fixed habit, and transfigures
+individuality into a worthy humanity. Education ends in that
+emancipation of the youth which places him on his own feet. The special
+elements which form the concrete content of all Education in general are
+the Life, Cognition, and Will of man. Without life mind has no
+phenomenal reality; without cognition, no genuine, i.e. conscious, will;
+and without will, no self-assurance of life and of cognition. It is true
+that these three elements are in real existence inseparable, and that
+consequently in the dialectic they continually pass over into one
+another. But none the less on this account do they themselves prescribe
+their own succession, and they have a relative and periodical ascendancy
+over each other. In Infancy, up to the fifth or sixth year, the purely
+physical development takes the precedence; Childhood is the time of
+learning, in a proper sense, an act by which the child gains for himself
+the picture of the world such as mature minds, through experience and
+insight, have painted it; and, finally, Youth is the transition period
+to practical activity, to which the self-determination of the will must
+give the first impulse.
+
+§ 52. The classification of the special elements of Pedagogics is hence
+very simple: (1) the Physical, (2) the Intellectual, (3) the Practical.
+(We sometimes apply to these the words Orthobiotics, Didactics, and
+Pragmatics.)
+
+——Æsthetic training constitutes only an element of the education of
+Intellectual Education, just as social, moral, and religious training
+form elements of Practical Education. But because these latter elements
+concern themselves with what is external, the name "Pragmatics" is
+appropriate. In this sphere, Pedagogics should coincide with Politics,
+Ethics, and Religion; but it is distinguished from them through the
+aptitude which it brings with it of putting into practice the problems
+of the other three. The scientific arrangement of these ideas must
+therefore show that the former, as the more abstract, constitutes the
+conditions, and the latter, as the more concrete, the ground of the
+former, which are presupposed; and in consequence of this it is itself
+their principal teleological presupposition, just as in man the will
+presupposes the cognition, and cognition life; while, at the same time,
+life, in a deeper sense, must presuppose cognition, and cognition
+will.——
+
+
+FIRST DIVISION.
+
+PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
+
+§ 53. The art of living rightly is based upon a comprehension of the
+process of Life. Life is the restless dialectic which ceaselessly
+transforms the inorganic into the organic, but at the same time creates
+out of itself another inorganic, in which it separates from itself
+whatever part of the inorganic has not been assimilated, which it took
+up as a stimulant, and that which has become dead and burned out. The
+organism is healthy when its reality corresponds to this idea of the
+dialectic, of a life which moves up and down, to and fro; of formation
+and re-formation, of organizing and disorganizing. All the rules for
+Physical Education, or of Hygiene, are derived from this conception.
+
+§ 54. It follows from this that the change of the inorganic to the
+organic is going on not only in the organism as a whole, but also in its
+every organ and in every part of every organ; and that the organic as
+soon as it has attained its highest point of energy, is again degraded
+to the inorganic and thrown out. Every cell has its history. Activity
+is, therefore, not contradictory to the organism, but favors in it the
+natural progressive and regressive metamorphosis. This process can go on
+harmoniously; that is, the organism can be in health only when not only
+the whole organism, but each special organ, is allowed, after its
+productive activity, the corresponding rest and recreation necessary for
+its self-renewal. We have this periodicity exemplified in waking and
+sleeping, also in exhalation and inhalation, excretion and taking in of
+material. When we have discovered the relative antagonism of the organs
+and their periodicity, we have found the secret of the perennial renewal
+of life.
+
+§ 55. Fatigue makes its appearance when any organ, or the organism in
+general, is denied time for the return movement into itself and for
+renovation. It is possible for some one organ, as if isolated, to
+exercise a great and long-continued activity, even to the point of
+fatigue, while the other organs rest; as e.g. the lungs, in speaking,
+while the other parts are quiet; on the other hand, it is not well to
+speak and run at the same time. The idea that one can keep the organism
+in better condition by inactivity, is an error which rests upon a
+mechanical apprehension of life. Equally false is the idea that health
+depends upon the quantity and excellence of the food; without the force
+to assimilate it, it acts fatally rather than stimulatingly. _True
+strength arises only from activity._
+
+——The later physiologists will gradually destroy, in the system of
+culture of modern people, the preconceived notion which recommended for
+the indolent and lovers of pleasure powerful stimulants, very fat food,
+&c. Excellent works exist on this question.——
+
+§ 56. Physical Education, as it concerns the repairing, the motor, or
+the nervous, activities, is divided into (1) Dietetics, (2) Gymnastics,
+(3) Sexual Education. In real life these activities are scarcely
+separable, but for the sake of exposition we must consider them apart.
+In the regular development of the human being, moreover, the repairing
+system has a relative precedence to the motor system, and the latter to
+the sexual maturity. But Pedagogics can treat of these ideas only with
+reference to the infant, the child, and the youth.
+
+
+FIRST CHAPTER.
+
+_Dietetics._
+
+
+§ 57. Dietetics is the art of sustaining the normal repair of the
+organism. Since this organism is, in the concrete, an individual one,
+the general principles of dietetics must, in their manner of
+application, vary with the sex, the age, the temperament, the
+occupation, and the other conditions, of the individual. Pedagogics as a
+science can only go over its general principles, and these can be named
+briefly. It we attempt to speak of details, we fall easily into
+triviality. So very important to the whole life of man is the proper
+care of his physical nature during the first stages of its development,
+that the science of Pedagogics must not omit to consider the different
+systems which different people, according to their time, locality, and
+culture, have made for themselves; many, it is true, embracing some
+preposterous ideas, but in general never devoid of justification in
+their time.
+
+§ 58. The infant's first nourishment must be the milk of its mother. The
+substitution of a nurse should be only an exception justified alone by
+the illness of the mother; as a rule, as happens in France, it is simply
+bad, because a foreign physical and moral element is introduced into the
+family through the nurse. The milk of an animal can never be as good for
+a child.
+
+§ 59. When the teeth appear, the child is first able to eat solid food;
+but, until the second teeth come, he should be fed principally on light,
+fluid nourishment, and on vegetable diet.
+
+§ 60. When the second teeth are fully formed, the human being is ready
+for animal as well as vegetable food. Too much meat is not good; but it
+is an anatomical error to suppose that man, by the structure of his
+stomach, was originally formed to live alone on vegetable diet, and that
+animal food is a sign of his degeneracy.
+
+——The Hindoos, who subsist principally on vegetable diet, are not, as
+has been often asserted, a very gentle race: a glance into their
+history, or into their erotic poetry, shows them to be quite as
+passionate as other peoples.——
+
+§ 61. Man is omnivorous. Children have therefore a natural desire to
+taste of everything. For them eating and drinking possess a kind of
+poetry; there is a theoretic ingredient blended with the material
+enjoyment. They have, on this account, a proneness to indulge, which is
+deserving of punishment only when it is combined with disobedience and
+secrecy, or when it betrays cunning and greediness.
+
+§ 62. Children need much sleep, because they are undergoing the most
+active progressive metamorphosis. In after-life sleep and waking should
+be subjected to periodical regulation, but not too exactly.
+
+§ 63. The clothing of children should be adapted to them; i.e. it should
+be cut according to the shape of the body, and it must be loose enough
+to allow free play to their desire for movement.
+
+——With regard to this as well as to the sleeping arrangements for
+children, less in regard to food——which is often too highly spiced and
+too liberal in tea, coffee, &c.——our age has become accustomed to a very
+rational system. The clothing of children must be not only comfortable,
+but it should be made of simple and cheap material, so that the free
+enjoyment of the child may not be marred by the constant internal
+anxiety that a rent or a spot may bring him a fault-finding or angry
+word. From too great care as to clothing, may arise a meanness of mind
+which at last pays too great respect to it, or an empty frivolity. This
+last may be induced by dressing children too conspicuously.——
+
+§ 64. Cleanliness is a virtue to which children should be accustomed for
+the sake of their physical well-being, as well as because, in a moral
+point of view, it is of the greatest significance. Cleanliness will not
+endure that things shall be deprived of their proper individuality
+through the elemental chaos. It retains each as distinguished from every
+other. While it makes necessary to man pure air, cleanliness of
+surroundings, of clothing, and of his body, it develops in him a sense
+by which he perceives accurately the particular limits of being in
+general.
+
+
+SECOND CHAPTER.
+
+_Gymnastics._
+
+
+§ 65. Gymnastics is the art of systematic training of the muscular
+system. The action of the voluntary muscles, which are regulated by the
+nerves of the brain, in distinction from the involuntary automatic
+muscles depending on the spinal cord, while they are the means of man's
+intercourse with the external world, at the same time re-act upon the
+automatic muscles in digestion and sensation. Since the movement of the
+muscular fibres consists in the change of contraction and expansion, it
+follows that Gymnastics must bring about a change of movement which
+shall both contract and expand the muscles.
+
+§ 66. The system of gymnastic exercise of any nation corresponds always
+to its way of fighting. So long as this consists in the personal
+struggle of a hand-to-hand contest, Gymnastics will seek to increase as
+much as possible individual strength and adroitness. As soon as the
+far-reaching missiles projected from fire-arms become the centre of all
+the operations of war, the individual is lost in a body of men, out of
+which he emerges only relatively in sharp-shooting, in the charge, in
+single contests, and in the retreat. Because of this incorporation of
+the individual in the one great whole, and because of the resulting
+unimportance of personal bravery, modern Gymnastics can never be the
+same as it was in ancient times, even putting out of view the fact that
+the subjectiveness of the modern spirit is too great to allow it to
+devote so much attention to the care of the body, and the admiration of
+its beauty, as was given by the Greeks.
+
+——The Turners' unions and halls in Germany belong to the period of
+subjective enthusiasm of the German student population, and had a
+political significance. At present, they have been brought back to their
+proper place as an Educational means, and they are of great value,
+especially in large cities. Among the mountains, and even in the country
+towns, a special institution for bodily exercise is less necessary, for
+the matter takes care of itself. The attractions of the situation and
+the games help to foster it. In great cities, however, the houses are
+often destitute of halls or open places where the children can take
+exercise in their leisure moments. In these cities, therefore, there
+must be some gymnastic hall where the sense of fellowship may be
+developed. Gymnastics are not so essential for girls. In its place,
+dancing is sufficient, and gymnastics should be employed for them only
+where there exists any special weakness or deformity, when they may be
+used as a restorative or preservative. They are not to become Amazons.
+The boy, on the contrary, needs to acquire the feeling of
+good-fellowship. It is true that the school develops this in a measure,
+but not fully, because it determines the standing of the boy through his
+intellectual ambition. The academical youth will not take much interest
+in special gymnastics unless he can gain preëminence therein. Running,
+leaping, climbing, and lifting, are too meaningless for their more
+mature spirits. They can take a lively interest only in the exercises
+which have a warlike character. With the Prussians, and some other
+German states, the art of Gymnastics identifies itself with military
+concerns.——
+
+§ 67. The real idea of Gymnastics must always be that the spirit shall
+rule over its naturalness, and shall make this an energetic and docile
+servant of its will. Strength and adroitness must unite and become
+confident skill. Strength, carried to its extreme produces the athlete;
+adroitness, to its extreme, the acrobat. Pedagogics must avoid both. All
+immense force, fit only for display, must be held as far away as the
+idea of teaching Gymnastics with the motive of utility; e.g. that by
+swimming one may save his life when he falls into the water, &c. Among
+other things, this may also be a consequence; but the principle in
+general must always remain: the necessity of the spirit of subjecting
+its organism of the body to the condition of a perfect means, so that it
+may never find itself limited by it.
+
+§ 68. Gymnastic exercises form a series from simple to compound. There
+appears to be so much arbitrariness in them that it is always very
+agreeable to the mind to find, on nearer inspection, some reason. The
+movements are (1) of the lower, (2) of the upper extremities; (3) of the
+whole body, with relative striking out, now of the upper, now of the
+lower extremities. We distinguish, therefore, foot, arm, and trunk
+movements.
+
+§ 69. (1) The first series of foot-movements is the most important, and
+conditions the carriage of all the rest of the body. They are (_a_)
+walking; (_b_) running; (_c_) leaping: each of these being capable of
+modifications, as the high and the low leap, the prolonged and the quick
+run. Sometimes we give to these different names, according to the means
+used, as walking on stilts; skating; leaping with a staff, or by means
+of the hands, as vaulting. Dancing is only the art of the graceful
+mingling of these movements; and balancing, only one form of walking.
+
+§ 70. (2) The second series embraces the arm-movements, and it repeats
+also the movements of the first series. It includes (_a_) lifting; (_b_)
+swinging; (_c_) throwing. All pole and bar practice comes under lifting,
+also climbing and carrying. Under throwing, come quoit and
+ball-throwing, and nine-pin playing. All these movements are
+distinguished from each other, not only quantitatively but also
+qualitatively, in the position of the stretched and bent muscles; e.g.
+running is something different from quick walking.
+
+§ 71. (3) The third series, or that of movements of the whole body,
+differs from the preceding two, which should precede it, in this, that
+it brings the organism into contact with a living object, which it has
+to overcome through its own activity. This object is sometimes an
+element, sometimes an animal, sometimes a man. Our divisions then are
+(_a_) swimming; (_b_) riding; (_c_) fighting, or single combat. In
+swimming, one must conquer the yielding liquid material of water by arm
+and foot movements. The resistance met on account of currents and waves
+may be very great, but it is still that of a will-less and passive
+object. But in riding man has to deal with a self-willed being whose
+vitality calls forth not only his strength but also his intelligence and
+courage. The exercise is therefore very complicated, and the rider must
+be able perpetually to individualize it according to the necessity; at
+the same time, he must give attention not only to the horse, but to the
+nature of the ground and the entire surroundings. But it is only in the
+struggle with men that Gymnastics reaches its highest point, for in this
+man offers himself as a living antagonist to man and brings him into
+danger. It is no longer the spontaneous activity of an unreasoning
+existence; it is the resistance and attack of intelligence itself with
+which he has to deal. Fighting, or single combat, is the truly
+chivalrous exercise, and this may be combined with horsemanship.
+
+——In the single combat there is found also a qualitative modification,
+whence we have three systems: (_a_) boxing and wrestling; (_b_) fencing
+with sticks; and (_c_) rapier and broad-sword fencing. In the first,
+which was cultivated to its highest point among the Greeks, direct
+immediateness rules. In the boxing of the English, a sailor-like
+propensity of this nation, fist-fighting is still retained as a custom.
+Fencing with a stick is found among the French mechanics, the so-called
+_compagnons_. Men often use the cane in their contests; it is a sort of
+refined club. When we use the sword or rapier, the weapon becomes
+deadly. The Southern Europeans excel in the use of the rapier, the
+Germans in that of the sword. But the art of single combat is much
+degenerated, and the pistol-duel, through its increasing frequency,
+proves this degeneration.——
+
+
+THIRD CHAPTER.
+
+_Sexual Education._
+
+
+  NOTE.——The paragraphs relating to Sexual Education are
+  designed for parents rather than for teachers, the parent
+  being the natural educator of the family and sexual
+  education relating to the preservation and continuance of
+  the family. This chapter is accordingly, for the most
+  part, omitted here. It contains judicious reflections,
+  invaluable to parents and guardians.——_Tr._
+
+§ 72. Gymnastic exercises fall naturally into a systematic arrangement
+determined by the chronological order of development through infancy,
+childhood, and youth. Walking, running, and leaping belong, to the first
+period; lifting, swinging, and throwing, to the second; swimming,
+riding, and bodily contests, to the third, and these last may also be
+continued into manhood. But with the arrival at youth, a new epoch makes
+its appearance in the organism. It prepares itself for the propagation
+of the species. It expands the individual through the need which he
+feels of uniting himself with another individual of the same species,
+but who is a polar opposite to him, in order to preserve the two in a
+new individual. The blood rushes more vigorously; the muscular strength
+becomes more easily roused into activity; an indefinable impulse, a
+sweet melancholy takes possession of the being. This period demands a
+special care in the educator.
+
+§ 73. The general preventive guards must be found in a rational system
+of food and exercise. By care in these directions, the development of
+the bones, and with them of the brain and spinal cord at this period,
+may be led to a proper strength, and that the easily-moulded material
+may not be perverted from its normal functions in the development of the
+body to a premature manifestation of the sexual instinct.
+
+§ 74. Special forethought is necessary lest the brain be too early
+over-strained, and lest, in consequence of such precocious and excessive
+action, the foundation for a morbid excitation of the whole nervous
+system be laid, which may easily lead to effeminate and voluptuous
+reveries, and to brooding over obscene representations. The excessive
+reading of novels, whose exciting pages delight in painting the love of
+the sexes for each other and its sensual phases, may lead to this, and
+then the mischief is done.
+
+
+SECOND DIVISION.
+
+INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION.
+
+§ 80. _Mens sana in corpore sano_ is correct as a pedagogical maxim, but
+false in the judgment of individual cases; because it is possible, on
+the one hand, to have a healthy mind in an unhealthy body, and, on the
+other hand, an unhealthy mind in a healthy body. To strive after the
+harmony of soul and body is the material condition of all proper
+activity. The development of intelligence presupposes physical health.
+Here we are to speak of the science of the art of Teaching. This had its
+condition on the side of nature, as was before seen, in physical
+Education, but in the sphere of mind it is related to Psychology and
+Logic. It unites, in Teaching, considerations on Psychology as well as a
+Logical method.
+
+
+FIRST CHAPTER.
+
+_The Psychological Presupposition._
+
+
+§ 81. If we would have a sound condition of Philosophy, it must, in
+intellectual Education, refer to the conception of mind which has been
+unfolded in Psychology; and it must appear as a defect in scientific
+method if Psychology, or at least the conception of the theoretical
+mind, is treated again as within Pedagogics. We must take something for
+granted. Psychology, then, will be consulted no further than is
+requisite to place on a sure basis the pedagogical function which
+relates to it.
+
+§ 82. The conception of _attention_ is the most important to Pedagogics
+of all those derived from Psychology. Mind is essentially self-activity.
+Nothing exists for it which it does not itself posit as its own. We hear
+it not seldom implied that something from outside conditions must make
+an impression on the mind, but this is an error. Mind lets nothing act
+upon it unless it has rendered itself receptive to it. Without this
+preparatory self-excitation the object does not really penetrate it, and
+it passes by the object unconsciously or indifferently. The horizon of
+perception changes for each person with his peculiarities and culture.
+Attention is the adjusting of the observer to the object in order to
+seize it in its unity and diversity. Relatively, the observer allows,
+for a moment, his relation to all other surroundings to cease, so that
+he may establish a relation with this one. Without this essentially
+spontaneous activity, nothing exists for the mind. All result in
+teaching and learning depends upon the clearness and strength with which
+distinctions are made, and the saying, _bene qui distinguit bene docit_,
+applies as well to the pupil.
+
+§ 83. Attention, depending as it does on the self-determination of the
+observer, can therefore be improved, and the pupil made attentive, by
+the educator. Education must accustom him to an exact, rapid, and
+many-sided attention, so that at the first contact with an object he may
+grasp it sufficiently and truly, and that it shall not be necessary for
+him always to be adding to his acquisitions concerning it. The twilight
+and partialness of intelligence which forces us always to new
+corrections because a pupil at the very commencement did not give entire
+attention, must not be tolerated.
+
+[Sidenote: _Psychological Faculties._]
+
+§ 84. We learn from Psychology that mind does not consist of distinct
+faculties, but that what we choose to call so are only different
+activities of the same power. Each one is just as essential as the
+other, on which account Education must grant to each faculty its claim
+to the same fostering care. If we would construe correctly the axiom _a
+potiori fit denominatio_ to mean that man is distinguished from animals
+by thought, and that mediated will is not the same as thought, we must
+not forget that feeling and representing are not less necessary to a
+truly complete human being. The special direction which the activity of
+apprehending intelligence takes are (1) Perception, (2) Conception, (3)
+Thinking. Dialectically, they pass over into each other; not that
+Perception rises into Conception, and Conception into Thinking, but that
+Thinking goes back into Conception, and this again into Perception. In
+the development of the young, the Perceptive faculty is most active in
+the infant, the Conceptive in the child, and the Thinking in the youth;
+and thus we may distinguish an intuitive, an imaginative, and a logical
+epoch.
+
+——Great errors arise from the misapprehension of these different phases
+and of their dialectic, since the different forms which are suitable to
+the different grades of youth are mingled. The infant certainly thinks
+while he perceives, but this thinking is to him unconscious. Or, if he
+has acquired perceptions, he makes them into conceptions, and
+demonstrates his freedom in playing with them. This play must not be
+taken as mere amusement; it also signifies that he takes care to
+preserve his self-determination, and his power of idealizing, in
+opposition to the pleasant filling of his consciousness with material.
+Herein the delight of the child for fairy tales finds its reason. The
+fairy tale constantly destroys the limits of common actuality. The
+abstract understanding cannot endure this arbitrariness and want of
+fixed conditions, and thus would prefer that children should read,
+instead, home-made stories of the "Charitable Ann," of the "Heedless
+Frederick," of the "Inquisitive Wilhelmine," &c. Above all, it praises
+"Robinson Crusoe," which contains much heterogeneous matter, but nothing
+improbable. When the youth and maiden of necessity pass over into the
+earnestness of real life, the drying up of the imagination and the
+domination of the understanding presses in.——
+
+
+I. _The Intuitive Epoch._
+
+§ 85. Perception, as the beginning of intellectual culture, is the free
+grasping of a content immediately present to the spirit. Education can
+do nothing directly toward the performance of this act; it can only
+assist in making it easy:——(1) it can isolate the subject of
+consideration; (2) it can give facility in the transition to another;
+(3) it can promote the many-sidedness of the interest, by which means
+the return to a perception already obtained has always a fresh charm.
+
+§ 86. The immediate perception of many things is impossible, and yet
+the necessity for it is obvious. We must then have recourse to a
+mediated perception, and supply the lack of actual seeing by
+representations. But here the difficulty presents itself, that there are
+many objects which we are not able to represent of the same size as they
+really are, and we must have a reduced scale; and there follows a
+difficulty in making the representation, as neither too large nor too
+small. An explanation is then also necessary as a judicious supplement
+to the picture.
+
+§ 87. Pictures are extremely valuable aids to instruction when they are
+correct and characteristic. Correctness must be demanded in these
+substitutes for natural objects, historical persons and scenes. Without
+this correctness, the picture, if not an impediment, is, to say the
+least, useless.
+
+——It is only since the last half of the seventeenth century, i.e. since
+the disappearance of real painting, that the picture-book has appeared
+as an educational means; first of all, coming from miniature painting.
+Up to that time, public life had plenty of pictures of arms, furniture,
+houses, and churches; and men, from their fondness for constantly moving
+about, were more weary of immediate perception. It was only afterwards
+when, in the excitement of the thirty-years' war, the arts of Sculpture
+and Painting and Christian and Pagan Mythology became extinct, that
+there arose a greater necessity for pictured representations. The _Orbis
+Rerum Sensualium Pictus_, which was also to be _janua linguarum
+reserata_, of Amos Comenius, appeared first in 1658, and was reprinted
+in 1805. Many valuable illustrated books followed. Since that time
+innumerable illustrated Bibles and histories have appeared, but many of
+them look only to the pecuniary profit of the author or the publisher.
+It is revolting to see the daubs that are given to children. They are
+highly colored, but as to correctness, to say nothing of character, they
+are good for nothing. With a little conscientiousness and scientific
+knowledge very different results could be obtained with the same outlay
+of money and of strength. The uniformity which exists in the stock of
+books which German book-selling has set in circulation is really
+disgraceful. Everywhere we find the same types, even in ethnographical
+pictures. In natural history, the illustrations were often drawn from
+the imagination or copied from miserable models. This has changed very
+much for the better. The same is true of architectural drawings and
+landscapes, for which we have now better copies.——
+
+§ 88. Children have naturally a desire to collect things, and this may
+be so guided that they shall collect and arrange plants, butterflies,
+beetles, shells, skeletons, &c., and thus gain exactness and reality in
+their perception. Especially should they practise drawing, which leads
+them to form exact images of objects. But drawing, as children practise
+it, does not have the educational significance of cultivating in them an
+appreciation of art, but rather that of educating the eye, as this must
+be exercised in estimating distances, sizes, and colors. It is,
+moreover, a great gain in many ways, if, through a suitable course of
+lessons in drawing, the child is advanced to a knowledge of the
+elementary forms of nature.
+
+——That pictures should affect children as works of art is not to be
+desired. They confine themselves at first to distinguishing the outlines
+and colors, and do not yet appreciate the execution. If the children
+have access to real works of art, we may safely trust in their power,
+and quietly await their moral or æsthetic effect.——
+
+§ 89. In order that looking at pictures shall not degenerate into mere
+diversion, explanations should accompany them. Only when the thought
+embodied in the illustration is pointed out, can they be useful as a
+means of instruction. Simply looking at them is of as little value
+towards this end as is water for baptism without the Holy Spirit. Our
+age inclines at present to the superstition that man is able, by means
+of simple intuition, to attain a knowledge of the essence of things, and
+thereby dispense with the trouble of thinking. Illustrations are the
+order of the day, and, in the place of enjoyable descriptions, we find
+miserable pictures. It is in vain to try to get behind things, or to
+comprehend them, except by thinking.
+
+§ 90. The ear as well as the eye must be cultivated. Music must be
+considered the first educational means to this end, but it should be
+music inspired by ethical purity. Hearing is the most internal of all
+the senses, and should on this account be treated with the greatest
+delicacy. Especially should the child be taught that he is not to look
+upon speech as merely a vehicle for communication and for gaining
+information; it should also give pleasure, and therefore he should be
+taught to speak distinctly and with a good style, and this he can do
+only when he carefully considers what he is going to say.
+
+——Among the Greeks, extraordinary care was given to musical cultivation,
+especially in its ethical relation. Sufficient proof of this is found in
+the admirable detailed statements on this point in the "Republic" of
+Plato and in the last book of the "Politics" of Aristotle. Among modern
+nations, also, music holds a high place, and makes its appearance as a
+constant element of education. Piano-playing has become general, and
+singing is also taught. But the ethical significance of music is too
+little considered. Instruction in music often aims only to train pupils
+for display in society, and the tendency of the melodies which are
+played is restricted more and more to orchestral pieces of an exciting
+or bacchanalian character. The railroad-gallop-style only makes the
+nerves of youth vibrate with stimulating excitement. Oral speech, the
+highest form of the personal manifestation of mind, was also treated
+with great reverence by the ancients. Among us, communication is so
+generally carried on by writing and reading, that the art of speaking
+distinctly, correctly, and agreeably, has become very much neglected.
+Practice in declamation accomplishes, as a general thing, very little in
+this direction. But we may expect that the increase of public speaking
+occasioned by our political and religious assemblies may have a
+favorable influence in this particular.——
+
+
+II. _The Imaginative Epoch._
+
+§ 91. The activity of Perception results in the formation of an internal
+picture or image of its ideas which intelligence can call up at any time
+without the sensuous, immediate presence of its object, and thus,
+through abstraction and generalization, arises the conception. The
+mental image may (1) be compared with the perception from which it
+sprang, or (2) it may be arbitrarily altered and combined with other
+images, or (3) it may be held fast in the form of abstract signs or
+symbols which intelligence invents for it. Thus originate the functions
+(1) of the verification of conceptions, (2) of the creative imagination,
+and (3) of memory; but for their full development we must refer to
+Psychology.
+
+§ 92. (1) The mental image which we form of an object may be correct;
+again, it may be partly or wholly defective, if we have neglected some
+of the predicates of the perception which presented themselves, or in so
+far as we have added to it other predicates which only seemingly
+belonged to it, and which were attached to it only by its accidental
+empirical connection with other existences. Education must, therefore,
+foster the habit of comparing our conceptions with the perceptions from
+which they arose; and these perceptions, since they are liable to change
+by reason of their empirical connection with other objects, must be
+frequently compared with our conceptions previously formed by
+abstractions from them.
+
+§ 93. (2) We are thus limited in our conceptions by our perceptions, but
+we exercise a free control over our conceptions. We can create out of
+them, as simple elements, the manifold mental shapes which we do not
+treat as given to us, but as essentially our own work. In Pedagogics, we
+must not only look upon this freedom as if it were only to afford
+gratification, but as the reaction of the absolute ideal native mind
+against the dependence in which the empirical reception of impressions
+from without, and their reproduction in conceptions, place it. In this
+process, it does not only fashion in itself the phenomenal world, but it
+rather fashions out of itself a world which is all its own.
+
+§ 94. The study of Art comes here to the aid of Pedagogics, especially
+with Poetry, the highest and at the same time the most easily
+communicated. The imagination of the pupil can be led by means of the
+classical works of creative imagination to the formation of a good taste
+both as regards ethical value and beauty of form. The proper classical
+works for youth are those which nations have produced in the earliest
+stages of their culture. These works bring children face to face with
+the picture which mind has sketched for itself in one of the necessary
+stages of its development. This is the real reason why our children
+never weary of reading Homer and the stories of the Old Testament.
+Polytheism and the heroism which belongs to it are just as substantial
+an element of childish conception as monotheism with its prophets and
+patriarchs. We stand beyond both, because we are mediated by both, and
+embrace both in our stand-point.
+
+——The purest stories of literature designed for the amusement of
+children from their seventh to their fourteenth year, consist always of
+those which were honored by nations and the world at large. One has only
+to notice in how many thousand forms the stories of Ulysses are
+reproduced by the writers of children's tales. Becker's "Tales of
+Ancient Times," Gustav Schwab's most admirable "Sagas of Antiquity,"
+Karl Grimm's "Tales of Olden Times," &c., what were they without the
+well-talking, wily favorite of Pallas, and the divine swine-herd? And
+just as indestructible are the stories of the Old Testament up to the
+separation of Judah and Israel. These patriarchs with their wives and
+children, these judges and prophets, these kings and priests, are by no
+means ideals of virtue in the notion of our modern lifeless morality,
+which would smooth out of its pattern-stories for the "dear children"
+everything that is hard and uncouth. For the very reason that the
+shadow-side is not wanting here, and that we find envy, vanity, evil
+desire, ingratitude, craftiness, and deceit, among these fathers of the
+race and leaders of "God's chosen people," have these stories so great
+an educational value. Adam, Cain, Abraham, Joseph, Samson, and David,
+have justly become as truly world-historical types as Achilles and
+Patroclus, Agamemnon and Iphigenia, Hector and Andromache, Ulysses and
+Penelope.——
+
+§ 95. There may be produced also, out of the simplest and most primitive
+phases of different epochs of culture of one and the same people,
+stories which answer to the imagination of children, and represent to
+them the characteristic features of the past of their people.
+
+——The Germans possess such a collection of their stories in their
+popular books of the "Horny Sigfried," of the "Heymon Children," of
+"Beautiful _Magelone_," "Fortunatus," "The Wandering Jew," "Faust," "The
+Adventurous Simplicissimus," "The _Schildbürger_," "The Island of
+Felsenburg," "Lienhard and Gertrude," &c. Also, the art works of the
+great masters which possess national significance must be spoken of
+here, as the Don Quixote of Cervantes.——
+
+§ 96. The most general form in which the childish imagination finds
+exercise is that of fairy-tales; but Education must take care that it
+has these in their proper shape as national productions, and that they
+are not of the morbid kind which poetry so often gives us in this
+species of literature, and which not seldom degenerate to sentimental
+caricatures and silliness.
+
+——The East Indian stories are most excellent because they have their
+origin with a childlike people who live wholly in the imagination. By
+means of the Arabian filtration, which took place in Cairo in the
+flourishing period of the Egyptian caliphs, all that was too
+characteristically Indian was excluded, and they were made in the "Tales
+of Scheherezade," a book for all peoples, with whose far-reaching power
+in child-literature, the local stories of a race, as e.g. Grimm's
+admirable ones of German tradition, cannot compare. Fairy-tales made to
+order, as we often see them, with a mediæval Catholic tendency, or very
+moral and dry, are a bane to the youthful imagination in their stale
+sweetness. We must here add, however, that lately we have had some
+better success in our attempts since we have learned to distinguish
+between the naïve natural poetry, which is without reflection, and the
+poetry of art, which is conditioned by criticism and an ideal. This
+distinction has produced good fruits even in the picture-books of
+children. The pretensions of the gentlemen who printed illustrated books
+containing nothing more solid than the alphabet and the multiplication
+table have become less prominent since such men as Speckter, Fröhlich,
+Gutsmuths, Hofman (the writer of "Slovenly Peter"), and others, have
+shown that seemingly trivial things can be handled with intellectual
+power, if one is blessed with it, and that nothing is more opposed to
+the child's imagination than the _childishness_ with which so many
+writers for children have fallen when they attempted to descend with
+dignity from their presumably lofty stand-point. Men are beginning to
+understand that Christ promised the kingdom of heaven to little children
+on other grounds than because they had as it were the privilege of being
+thoughtless and foolish.——
+
+§ 97. For youth and maidens, especially as they approach manhood and
+womanhood, the cultivation of the imagination must allow the earnestness
+of actuality to manifest itself in its undisguised energy. This
+earnestness, no longer through the symbolism of play but in its
+objective reality, must now thoroughly penetrate the conceptions of the
+youth so that it shall prepare him to seize hold of the machinery of
+active life. Instead of the all-embracing Epos they should now read
+Tragedy, whose purifying process, through the alternation of fear and
+pity, unfolds to the youth the secret of all human destiny, sin and its
+expiation. The works best adapted to lead to history on this side are
+those of biography——of ancient times, Plutarch; of modern times, the
+autobiographies of Augustine, Cellini, Rousseau, Goethe, Varnhagen, Jung
+Stilling, Moritz, Arndt, &c. These autobiographies contain a view of the
+growth of individuality through its inter-action with the influences of
+its time, and, together with the letters and memoirs of great or at
+least noteworthy men, tend to produce a healthy excitement in the
+youth, who must learn to fight his own battles through a knowledge of
+the battles of others. To introduce the youth to a knowledge of Nature
+and Ethnography no means are better than those of books of travel which
+give the charm of first contact, the joy of discovery, instead of the
+general consciousness of the conquests of mind.
+
+——If educative literature on the one hand broadens the field of
+knowledge, on the other it may also promote its elaboration into ideal
+forms. This happens, in a strict sense, through philosophical
+literature. But only two different species of this are to be recommended
+to youth: (1) well-written treatises which endeavor to solve a single
+problem with spirit and thoroughness; or, (2) when the intelligence has
+grown strong enough for it, the classical works of a real philosopher.
+German literature is fortunately very rich in treatises of this kind in
+the works of Lessing, Herder, Kant, Fichte, Schleiermacher, Humboldt,
+and Schiller. But nothing does more harm to youth than the study of
+works of mediocrity, or those of a still lower rank. They stupefy and
+narrow the mind by their empty, hollow, and constrained style. It is
+generally supposed that these standard works are too difficult, and that
+one must first seize them in this trivial and diluted form in order to
+understand them. This is one of the most prevalent and most dangerous
+errors, for these Introductions or Explanations, easily-comprehended
+Treatises, Summary Abstracts, are, because of their want of originality
+and of the acuteness which belongs to it, much more difficult to
+understand than the standard work itself from which they drain their
+supplies. Education must train the youth to the courage which will
+attempt standard works, and it must not allow any such miserable
+preconceived opinions to grow up in his mind as that his understanding
+is totally unable to comprehend works like Fichte's "Science of
+Knowledge," the "Metaphysics" of Aristotle, or Hegel's "Phenomenology."
+No science suffers so much as Philosophy from this false popular
+opinion, which understands neither itself nor its authority. The youth
+must _learn how to learn to understand_, and, in order to do this, he
+must know that one cannot immediately understand everything in its
+finest subdivisions, and that on this account he must have patience, and
+must resolve to read over and over again, and to think over what he has
+read.——
+
+§ 98. (3) Imagination returns again within itself to perception in that
+it replaces, for conceptions, perceptions themselves, which are to
+remind it of the previous conception. These perceptions may resemble in
+some way the perception which lies at the basis of the conception, and
+be thus more or less symbolical; or they may be merely arbitrary
+creations of the creative imagination, and are in this case pure signs.
+In common speech and writing, we call the free retaining of these
+perceptions created by imagination, and the recalling of the conceptions
+denoted by them, _Memory_. It is by no means a particular faculty of the
+mind, which is again subdivided into memory of persons, names, numbers,
+&c. As to its form, memory is the stage of the dissolution of
+conception; but as to its content, it arises from the interest which we
+take in a subject-matter. From this interest results, moreover, careful
+attention, and from this latter, facility in the reproductive
+imagination. If these acts have preceded, the fixing of a name, or of a
+number, in which the content interesting us is as it were summed up, is
+not difficult. When interest and attention animate us, it seems as if we
+did not need to be at all troubled about remembering anything. All the
+so-called mnemonic helps only serve to make more difficult the act of
+memory. This act is in itself a double function, consisting of, first,
+the fixing of the sign, and second, the fixing of the conception
+subsumed under it. Since the mnemonic technique adds to these one more
+conception, through whose means the things with which we have to deal
+are to be fixed in order to be able freely to express them in us, it
+trebles the functions of remembering, and forgets that the mediation of
+these and their relation——wholly arbitrary and highly artificial——must
+also be remembered. The true help of memory consists in not helping it
+at all, but in simply taking up the object into the ideal regions of the
+mind by the force of the infinite self-determination which mind
+possesses.
+
+——Lists of names, as e.g. of the Roman emperors, of the popes, of the
+caliphs, of rivers, mountains, authors, cities, &c.; also numbers, as
+e.g. the multiplication table, the melting points of minerals, the dates
+of battles, of births and deaths, &c., must be learned without aid. All
+indirect means only serve to do harm here, and are required as
+self-discovered mediation only in case that interest or attention has
+become weakened.——
+
+§ 99. The means to be used, which result from the nature of memory
+itself, are on the one hand the pronouncing and writing of the names and
+numbers, and on the other, repetition; by these we gain distinctness and
+certainty.
+
+——All artificial contrivances for quickening the memory vanish in
+comparison with the art of writing, in so far as this is not looked at
+as a means of relieving the memory. That a name or a number should be
+this or that, is a mere chance for the intelligence, an entirely
+meaningless accident to which we have unconditionally to submit
+ourselves as unalterable. The intelligence must be accustomed to put
+upon itself this constraint. In science proper, especially in
+Philosophy, our reason helps to produce one thought from others by means
+of the context, and we can discover names for the ideas from them.——
+
+
+III. _The Logical Epoch._
+
+§ 100. In Conception there is attained a universality of intellectual
+action in so far as the empirical details are referred to a _Schema_, as
+Kant called it. But the _necessity_ of the connection is wanting to it.
+To produce this is the task of the thinking activity, which frees itself
+from all representations, and with its clearly defined determinations
+transcends conceptions. The Thinking activity frees itself from all
+sensuous representations by means of the processes of Conception and
+Perception. Comprehension, Judgment, and Syllogism, develop for
+themselves into forms which, as such, have no power of being perceived
+by the senses. But it does not follow from this that he who thinks
+cannot return out of the thinking activity and carry it with him into
+the sphere of Conception and Perception. The true thinking activity
+deprives itself of no content. The abstraction affecting a logical
+purism which looks down upon Conception and Perception as forms of
+intelligence quite inferior to itself, is a pseudo-thinking, a morbid
+and scholastic error. Education will be the better on its guard against
+this the more it has led the pupil by the legitimate road of Perception
+and Conception to Thinking. Memorizing especially is an excellent
+preparatory school for the Thinking activity, because it gives practice
+to the intelligence in exercising itself in abstract ideas.
+
+§ 101. The fostering of the Sense of Truth from the earliest years up,
+is the surest way of leading the pupil to gain the power of thinking.
+The unprejudiced, disinterested yielding to Truth, as well as the effort
+to shun all deception and false seeming, are of the greatest value in
+strengthening the power of reflection, as this considers nothing of
+value but the actually existing objective circumstances.
+
+——The indulging an illusion as a pleasing recreation of the
+intelligence should be allowed, while lying must not be tolerated.
+Children have a natural inclination for mystifications, for masquerades,
+for raillery, and for theatrical performances, &c. This inclination to
+illusion is perfectly normal with them, and should be permitted. The
+graceful kingdom of Art is developed from it, as also the poetry of
+conversation in jest and wit. Although this sometimes becomes
+stereotyped into very prosaic conventional forms of speech, it is more
+tolerable than the awkward honesty which takes everything in its simple
+literal sense. And it is easy to discover whether children in such play,
+in the activity of free joyousness, incline to the side of mischief by
+their showing a desire of satisfying their selfish interest. Then they
+must be checked, for in that case the cheerfulness of harmless joking
+gives way to premeditation and dissimulation.——
+
+§ 102. An acquaintance with logical forms is to be recommended as a
+special educational help in the culture of intelligence. The study of
+Mathematics does not suffice, because it presupposes Logic. Mathematics
+is related to Logic in the same way as Grammar, the Physical Sciences,
+&c. The logical forms must be known explicitly in their pure independent
+forms, and not merely in their implicit state as immanent in objective
+forms.
+
+
+SECOND CHAPTER.
+
+_The Logical Presupposition or Method._
+
+
+§ 103. The logical presupposition of instruction is the order in which
+the subject-matter develops for the consciousness. The subject, the
+consciousness of the pupil, and the activity of the instructor,
+interpenetrate each other in instruction, and constitute in actuality
+one whole.
+
+§ 104. (1) First of all, the subject which is to be learned has a
+specific determinateness which demands in its representation a certain
+fixed order. However arbitrary we may desire to be, the subject has a
+certain self-determination of its own which no mistreatment can wholly
+crush out, and this inherent immortal reason is the general foundation
+of instruction.
+
+——To illustrate; however one may desire to manipulate a language in
+teaching it, he cannot change the words in it, or the inflections of the
+declensions and conjugations. And the same restriction is laid upon our
+inclinations in the different divisions of Natural History, in the
+theorems of Arithmetic, Geometry, &c. The theorem of Pascal remains
+still the theorem of Pascal, and will always remain so.——
+
+§ 105. (2) But the subject must be adapted to the consciousness of the
+pupil, and here the order of procedure and the exposition depend upon
+the stage which he has reached intellectually, for the special manner of
+the instruction must be conditioned by this. If he is in the stage of
+perception, we must use the illustrative method; if in the stage of
+conception, that of combination; and if in the stage of reflection that
+of demonstration. The first exhibits the object directly, or some
+representation of it; the second considers it according to the different
+possibilities which exist in it, and turns it around on all sides; the
+third questions the necessity of the connection in which it stands
+either with itself or with others. This is the natural order from the
+stand-point of the scientific intelligence: first, the object is
+presented to the perception; then combination presents its different
+phases; and, finally, the thinking activity circumscribes the restlessly
+moving reflection by the idea of necessity. Experiment in the method of
+combination is an excellent means for a discovery of relations, for a
+sharpening of the attention, for the arousing of a many-sided interest;
+but it is no true dialectic, though it be often denoted by that name.
+
+——Illustration is especially necessary in the natural sciences and also
+in æsthetics, because in both of these departments the sensuous is an
+essential element of the matter dealt with. In this respect we have made
+great progress in charts and maps. Sydow's hand and wall maps and
+Berghaus's physical atlas are most excellent means of illustrative
+instruction; also Burmeister's zoölogical atlas.——
+
+§ 106. The demonstrative method, in order to bring about its proof of
+necessity, has a choice of many different ways. But we must not imagine,
+either that there are an unlimited number, and that it is only a chance
+which one we shall take; or that they have no connection among
+themselves, and run, as it were, side by side. It is not, however, the
+business of Pedagogics to develop different methods of proof; this
+belongs to Logic. We have only to remember that, logically taken, proof
+must be analytic, synthetic, or dialectic. Analysis begins with the
+single one, and leads out of it by induction to the general principle
+from which its existence results. Synthesis, on the contrary, begins
+with a general which is presupposed as true, and leads from this through
+deduction to the special determinations which were implicit in it. The
+regressive search of analysis for a determining principle is
+_Invention_; the forward progress of synthesis from the simple elements
+seeking for the multiplicity of the single one is _Construction_. Each,
+in its result, passes over into the other; but their truth is found in
+the dialectic method, which in each phase allows unity to separate into
+diversity and diversity to return into unity. While in the analytic as
+well as in the synthetic method the mediation of the individual with the
+general, or of the general with the individual, lets the phase of
+particularity be only subjectively connected with it in the dialectic
+method, we have the going over of the general through the particular to
+the individual, or to the self-determination of the idea, and it
+therefore rightly claims the title of the genetic method. We can also
+say that while the inventive method gives us the idea (notion) and the
+constructive the judgment, the genetic gives us the syllogism which
+leads the determinations of reflection back again into substantial
+identity.
+
+§ 107. (3) The active mediation of the pupil with the content which is
+to be impressed upon his consciousness is the work of the teacher, whose
+personality creates a method adapted to the individual; for however
+clearly the subject may be defined, however exactly the psychological
+stage of the pupil may be regulated, the teacher cannot dispense with
+the power of his own individuality even in the most objective relations.
+This individuality must penetrate the whole with its own exposition, and
+that peculiarity which we call his _manner_, and which cannot be
+determined _à priori_, must appear. The teacher must place himself on
+the stand-point of the pupil, i.e. must adapt himself; he must see that
+the abstract is made clear to him in the concrete, i.e. must illustrate;
+he must fill up the gaps which will certainly appear, and which may mar
+the thorough seizing of the subject, i.e. must supply. In all these
+relations the pedagogical tact of the teacher may prove itself truly
+ingenious in varying the method according to the changefulness of the
+ever-varying needs, in contracting or expanding the extent, in stating,
+or indicating what is to be supplied. The true teacher is free from any
+superstitious belief in any one procedure as a sure specific which he
+follows always in a monotonous bondage. This can only happen when he is
+capable of the highest method. The teacher has arrived at the highest
+point of ability in teaching when he can make use of all means, from the
+loftiness of solemn seriousness, through smooth statement, to the play
+of jest——yes, even to the incentive of irony, and to humor.
+
+——Pedagogics can be in nothing more specious than in its method, and it
+is here that charlatanism can most readily intrude itself. Every little
+change, every inadequate modification, is proclaimed aloud as a new or
+an improved method; and even the most foolish and superficial changes
+find at once their imitators, who themselves conceal their insolence
+behind some frivolous differences, and, with laughable conceit, hail
+themselves as inventors.——
+
+
+THIRD CHAPTER.
+
+_Instruction._
+
+
+§ 108. All instruction acts upon the supposition that there is an
+inequality between present knowledge and power and that knowledge and
+power which are not yet attained. To the pupil belong the first, to the
+teacher the second. Education is the act which gradually cancels the
+original inequality of teacher and pupil, in that it converts what was
+at first the property of the former into the property of the latter, and
+this by means of his own activity.
+
+
+I. _The Subjects of Instruction._
+
+§ 109. The pupil is the apprentice, the teacher the master, whether in
+the practice of any craft or art, or in the exposition of any systematic
+knowledge. The pupil passes from the state of the apprentice to that of
+the master through that of the journeyman. The apprentice has to
+appropriate to himself the elements; journeymanship begins as he, by
+means of their possession, becomes independent; the master combines with
+his technical skill the freedom of production. His authority over his
+pupil consists only in his knowledge and power. If he has not these, no
+external support, no trick of false appearances which he may put on,
+will serve to create it for him.
+
+§ 110. These stages——(1) apprenticeship, (2) journeymanship, (3)
+mastership——are fixed limitations in the didactic process; they are
+relative only in the concrete. The standard of special excellence varies
+with the different grades of culture, and must be varied that it may
+have any historical value. The master is complete only in relation to
+the journeyman and apprentice; to them he is superior. But on the other
+hand, in relation to the infinity of the problems of his art or science,
+he is by no means complete; to himself he must always appear as one who
+begins ever anew, one who is ever striving, one to whom a new problem
+ever rises from every achieved result. He cannot discharge himself from
+work, he must never desire to rest on his laurels. He is the truest
+master whose finished performances only force him on to never-resting
+progress.
+
+§ 111. The real possibility of culture is found in general, it is true,
+in every human being; nevertheless, empirically, there are
+distinguished: (1) Incapacity, as the want of all gifts; (2) Mediocrity;
+(3) Talent and Genius. It is the part of Psychology to give an account
+of all these. Mediocrity characterizes the great mass of mechanical
+intelligences, those who wait for external impulse as to what direction
+their endeavors shall take. Not without truth, perhaps, may we say, that
+hypothetically a special talent is given to each individual, but this
+special talent in many men never makes its appearance, because under the
+circumstances in which it finds itself placed it fails to find the
+exciting occasion which shall give him the knowledge of its existence.
+The majority of mankind are contented with the mechanical impulse which
+makes them into something and impresses upon them certain
+determinations.——Talent shows itself by means of the confidence in its
+own especial productive possibility, which manifests itself as an
+inclination, as a strong impulse, to occupy itself with the special
+object which constitutes its content. Pedagogics has no difficulty in
+dealing with mechanical natures, because their passivity is only too
+ready to follow prescribed patterns. It is more difficult to manage
+talent, because it lies between mediocrity and genius, and is therefore
+uncertain, and not only unequal to itself, but also is tossed now too
+low, now too high, is by turns despondent and over-excited. The general
+maxim for dealing with it is to remove no difficulty from the subject to
+which its efforts are directed.——Genius must be treated much in the same
+way as Talent. The difference consists only in this, that Genius, with a
+foreknowledge of its creative power, usually manifests its confidence
+with less doubt in a special vocation, and, with a more intense thirst
+for culture, subjects itself more willingly to the demands of
+instruction. Genius is in its nature the purest self-determination, in
+that it lives, in its own inner existence, the necessity which exists in
+the thing. But it can assign to the New, which is in it already
+immediately and subjectively, no value if this has not united itself to
+the already existing culture as its objective presupposition, and on
+this ground it thankfully receives instruction.
+
+§ 112. But Talent and Genius offer a special difficulty to education in
+the precocity which often accompanies them. But by precocity we do not
+mean that they early render themselves perceptible, since the early
+manifestation of gifts by talent and genius, through their intense
+confidence, is to be looked at as perfectly legitimate. But precocity is
+rather the hastening forward of the human being in feeling and moral
+sense, so that where in the ordinary course of nature we should have a
+child, we have a youth, and a man in the place of a youth. We may find
+precocity among those who belong to the class of mediocrity, but it is
+developed most readily among those possessed of talent and genius,
+because with them the early appearance of superior gifts may very easily
+bring in its train a perversion of the feelings and the moral nature.
+Education must deal with it in so far as it is inharmonious, so that it
+shall be stronger than the demands made on it from without, so that it
+shall not minister to vanity; and must take care, in order to accomplish
+this, that social naturalness and lack of affectation be preserved in
+the pupil.
+
+——Our age has to combat this precocity much more than others. We find
+e.g. authors who, at the age of thirty years, in which they publish
+their collected works or write their biography, are chilly with the
+feelings of old age. Music has been the sphere in which the earliest
+development of talent has shown itself, and here we find the absurdity
+that the cupidity of parents has so forced precocious talents that
+children of four or five years of age have been made to appear in
+public.——
+
+§ 113. Every sphere of culture contains a certain quantity of
+knowledge and ready skill which may be looked at, as it were, as the
+created result of the culture. It is to be wished that every one who
+turns his attention to a certain line of culture could take up into
+himself the gathered learning which controls it. In so far as he does
+this, he is professional. The consciousness that one has in the usual
+way gone through a school of art or science, and has, with the general
+inheritance of acquisition, been handed over to a special department,
+creates externally a beneficial composure which is very favorable to
+internal progress. We must distinguish from the professional the amateur
+and the self-taught man. The amateur busies himself with an art, a
+science, or a trade, without having gone through any strict training in
+it. As a rule, he dispenses with elementary thoroughness, and hastens
+towards the pleasure which the joy of production gives. The conscious
+amateur confesses this himself, makes no pretension to mastership, and
+calls himself——in distinction from the professional, who subjects
+himself to rules——an unlearned person. But sometimes the amateur, on the
+contrary, covers over his weakness, cherishes in himself the
+self-conceit that he is equal to the heroes of his art or science,
+constitutes himself the first admirer of his own performances, seeks for
+their want of recognition in external motives, never in their own want
+of excellence; and, if he has money, or edits a paper, is intoxicated
+with being the patron of talent which produces such works as he would
+willingly produce or pretends to produce. The self-taught man has often
+true talent, or even genius, to whose development nevertheless the
+inherited culture has been denied, and who by good fortune has through
+his own strength worked his way into a field of effort. The self-taught
+man is distinguished from the amateur by the thoroughness and the
+industry with which he acts; he is not only equally unfortunate with him
+in the absence of school-training, but is much less endowed. Even if the
+self-taught man has for years studied and practised much, he is still
+haunted by a feeling of uncertainty as to whether he has yet reached the
+stand-point at which a science, an art, or a trade, will receive him
+publicly——of so very great consequence is it that man should be
+comprehended and recognized by man. The self-taught man therefore
+remains embarrassed, and does not free himself from the apprehension
+that he may expose some weak point to a professional, or he falls into
+the other extreme——he becomes presumptuous, steps forth as a reformer,
+and, if he accomplishes nothing, or earns only ridicule, he sets himself
+down as an unrecognized martyr by an unappreciative and unjust world.
+
+——It is possible that the amateur may transcend the stage of
+superficiality and subject himself to a thorough training; then he
+ceases to be an amateur. It is also possible that the self-taught man
+may be on the right track, and may accomplish as much or even more than
+one trained in the usual way. In general, however, it is very desirable
+that every one should go through the regular course of the inherited
+means of education, partly that he may be thorough in the elements,
+partly to free him from the anxiety which he may feel lest he in his
+solitary efforts spend labor on some superfluous work——superfluous
+because done long before, and of which he, through the accident of his
+want of culture, had not heard. We must all learn by ourselves, but we
+cannot teach ourselves. Only Genius can do this, for it must be its own
+leader in the new paths which it opens. Genius alone passes beyond where
+inherited culture ceases. It bears this in itself as of the past, and
+which it uses as material for its new creation; but the self-taught man,
+who would very willingly be a genius, puts himself in an attitude of
+opposition to things already accomplished, or sinks into oddity, into
+secret arts and sciences, &c.——
+
+§ 114. These ideas of the general steps of culture, of special gifts,
+and of the ways of culture appropriate to each, which we have above
+distinguished, have a manifold connection among themselves which cannot
+be established _à priori_. We can however remark that Apprenticeship,
+the Mechanical Intelligence, and the Professional life; secondly,
+Journeymanship, Talent, and Amateurship; and, finally, Mastership,
+Genius, and Self Education, have a relationship to each other.
+
+
+II. _The Act of Learning._
+
+§ 115. In the process of education the interaction between pupil and
+teacher must be so managed that the exposition by the teacher shall
+excite in the pupil the impulse to reproduction. The teacher must not
+treat his exposition as if it were a work of art which is its own end
+and aim, but he must always bear in mind the need of the pupil. The
+artistic exposition, as such, will, by its completeness, produce
+admiration; but the didactic, on the contrary, will, through its perfect
+adaptation, call out the imitative instinct, the power of new creation.
+
+——From this consideration we may justify the frequent statement that is
+made, that teachers who have really an elegant diction do not really
+accomplish so much as others who resemble in their statements not so
+much a canal flowing smoothly between straight banks, as a river which
+works its foaming way over rocks and between ever-winding banks. The
+pupil perceives that the first is considering himself when he speaks so
+finely, perhaps not without some self-appreciation; and that the second,
+in the repetitions and the sentences which are never finished, is
+concerning himself solely with _him_. The pupil feels that not want of
+facility or awkwardness, but the earnest eagerness of the _teacher_, is
+the principal thing, and that this latter uses rhetoric only as a
+means.——
+
+§ 116. In the act of learning there appears (1) a mechanical element,
+(2) a dynamic element, and (3) one in which the dynamic again
+mechanically strengthens itself.
+
+§ 117. As to the mechanical element, the right time must be chosen for
+each lesson, an exact arrangement observed, and the suitable apparatus,
+which is necessary, procured. It is in the arrangement that especially
+consists the educational power of the lesson. The spirit of
+scrupulousness, of accuracy, of neatness, is developed by the external
+technique, which is carefully arranged in its subordinate parts
+according to its content. The teacher must therefore insist upon it that
+work shall cease at the exact time, that the work be well done, &c., for
+on these little things many greater things ethically depend.
+
+——To choose one's time for any work is often difficult because of the
+pressure of a multitude of demands, but in general it should be
+determined that the strongest and keenest energy of the thinking
+activity and of memory——this being demanded by the work——should have
+appropriated to it the first half of the day.——
+
+§ 118. The dynamical element consists of the previously developed power
+of Attention, without which all the exposition made by the teacher to
+the pupil remains entirely foreign to him, all apparatus is dead, all
+arrangement of no avail, all teaching fruitless, if the pupil does not
+by his free activity receive into his inner self what one teaches him,
+and thus make it his own property.
+
+§ 119. This appropriation must not limit itself, however, to the first
+acquisition of any knowledge or skill, but it must give free existence
+to whatever the pupil has learned; it must make it perfectly manageable
+and natural, so that it shall appear to be a part of himself. This must
+be brought about by means of Repetition. This will mechanically secure
+that which the attention first grasped.
+
+§ 120. The careful, persistent, living activity of the pupil in these
+acts we call Industry. Its negative extreme is Laziness, which is
+deserving of punishment inasmuch as it passes over into a want of
+self-determination. Man is by nature lazy. But mind, which is only in
+its act, must resolve upon activity. This connection of Industry with
+human freedom, with the very essence of mind, makes laziness appear
+blameworthy. The really civilized man, therefore, no longer knows that
+absolute inaction which is the greatest enjoyment to the barbarian, and
+he fills up his leisure with a variety of easier and lighter work. The
+positive extreme of Industry is the unreasonable activity which rushes
+in breathless chase from one action to another, from this to that,
+straining the person with the immense quantity of his work. Such an
+activity, going beyond itself and seldom reaching deliberation, is
+unworthy of a man. It destroys the agreeable quiet which in all industry
+should penetrate and inspire the deed. Nothing is more repulsive than
+the beggarly pride of such stupid laboriousness. One should not endure
+for a moment to have the pupil, seeking for distinction, begin to pride
+himself on an extra industry. Education must accustom him to use a
+regular assiduity. The frame of mind suitable for work often does not
+exist at the time when work should begin, but more frequently it makes
+its appearance after we have begun. The subject takes its own time to
+awaken us. Industry, inspired by a love and regard for work, has in its
+quiet uniformity a great force, without which no one can accomplish
+anything essential. The world, therefore, holds Industry worthy of
+honor; and to the Romans, a nation of the most persistent perseverance,
+we owe the inspiring words, "_Incepto tantum opus est, cætera res
+expediet_"; and, "_Labor improbus omnia vincit_."
+
+——"Every one may glory in his industry!" This is a true word from the
+lips of a truly industrious man, who was also one of the most modest.
+But Lessing did not, however, mean by them to charter Pharisaical
+pedantry. The necessity sometimes of giving one's self to an excess of
+work injurious to the health, generally arises from the fact that he has
+not at other times made use of the requisite attention to the necessary
+industry, and then attempts suddenly and as by a forced march to storm
+his way to his end. The result of such over-exertion is naturally entire
+prostration. The pupil is therefore to be accustomed to a generally
+uniform industry, which may extend itself at regular intervals without
+his thereby overstraining himself. What is really gained by a young man
+who has hitherto neglected time and opportunity, and who, when
+examination presses, overworks himself, perhaps standing the test with
+honor, and then must rest for months afterwards from the over-effort? On
+all such occasions attention is not objective and dispassionate, but
+rather becomes, through anxiety to pass the examination, restless and
+corrupted by egotism; and the usual evil result of such compulsory
+industry is the ephemeral character of the knowledge thus gained.
+"Lightly come, lightly go," says the proverb.——
+
+——A special worth is always attached to study far into the night. The
+student's "midnight lamp" always claims for itself a certain veneration.
+But this is vanity. In the first place, it is injurious to contradict
+Nature by working through the night, which she has ordained for sleep;
+secondly, the question is not as to the number of hours spent in work
+and their position in the twenty-four, but as to the quality of the
+work. With regard to the value of my work, it is of no moment whatsoever
+whether I have done it in the morning or in the evening, or how long I
+have labored, and it is of no consequence to any one except to my own
+very unimportant self. Finally, the question presents itself whether
+these gentlemen who boast so much of their midnight work do not sleep in
+the daytime!——
+
+§ 121. But Industry has also two other extremes: seeming-laziness and
+seeming-industry. Seeming-laziness is the neglecting of the usual
+activity in one department because a man is so much more active in
+another. The mind possessed with the liveliest interest in one subject
+buries itself in it, and, because of this, cannot give itself up to
+another which before had engrossed the attention. Thus it appears more
+idle than it is, or rather it appears to be idle just because it is more
+industrious. This is especially the case in passing from one subject of
+instruction to another. The pupil should acquire such a flexibility in
+his intellectual powers that the rapid relinquishment of one subject and
+the taking up of another should not be too difficult. Nothing is more
+natural than that when he is excited he should go back to the subject
+that has just been presented to him, and that he, feeling himself
+restrained, shall remain untouched by the following lesson, which may be
+of an entirely different nature. The young soul is brooding over what
+has been said, and is really exercising an intensive activity, though it
+appears to be idle. But in seeming-industry all the external motives of
+activity, all the mechanism of work, manifest themselves noisily, while
+there is no true energy of attention and productivity. One busies
+himself with all the apparatus of work; he heaps up instruments and
+books around him; he sketches plans; he spends many hours staring into
+vacancy, biting his pen, gazing at words, drawings, numbers, &c. Boys,
+under the protection of so great a scaffolding for work erected around
+them, often carry on their own amusements. Men, who arrive at no real
+concentration of their force, no clear defining of their vocation, no
+firm decision as to their action, dissipate their power in what is too
+often a great activity with absolutely no result. They are busy, very
+busy; they have hardly time to do this thing because they really wish or
+ought to do that; but, with all their driving, their energy is all
+dissipated, and nothing comes from their countless labors.
+
+
+III. _The Modality of the Process of Teaching._
+
+§ 122. Now that we have learned something of the relation of the teacher
+to the taught, and of the process of learning itself, we must examine
+the mode and manner of instruction. This may have (1) the character of
+contingency: the way in which our immediate existence in the world, our
+life, teaches us; or it may be given (2) by the printed page; or (3) it
+may take the shape of formal oral instruction.
+
+§ 123. (1) For the most, the best, and the mightiest things that we know
+we are indebted to Life itself. The sum of perceptions which a human
+being absorbs into himself up to the fourth or fifth year of his life is
+incalculable; and after this time we involuntarily gain by immediate
+contact with the world countless ideas. But especially we understand by
+the phrase "the School of Life," the ethical knowledge which we gain by
+what happens in our own lives.
+
+——If one says, _Vitæ non scholæ discendum est_, one can also say, _Vita
+docet_. Without the power exercised by the immediate world our
+intelligence would remain abstract and lifeless.——
+
+§ 124. (2) What we learn through books is the opposite of that which we
+learn through living. Life _forces_ upon us the knowledge it has to
+give; the book, on the contrary, is entirely passive. It is locked up in
+itself; it cannot be altered; but it waits by us till we wish to use it.
+We can read it rapidly or slowly; we can simply turn over its
+leaves——what in modern times one calls reading;——we can read it from
+beginning to end or from end to beginning; we can stop, begin again,
+skip over passages, or cut them short, as we like. To this extent the
+book is the most _convenient_ means for instruction. If we are indebted
+to Life for our perceptions, we must chiefly thank books for our
+understanding of our perceptions. We call book-instruction "dead" when
+it lacks, for the exposition which it gives, a foundation in our
+perceptions, or when we do not add to the printed description the
+perceptions which it implies; and the two are quite different.
+
+§ 125. Books, as well as life, teach us many things which we did not
+previously intend to learn directly from them. From foreign romances
+e.g. we learn, first of all, while we read them for entertainment, the
+foreign language, history or geography, &c. We must distinguish from
+such books as those which bring to us, as it were accidentally, a
+knowledge for which we were not seeking, the books which are expressly
+intended to instruct. These must (_a_) in their consideration of the
+subject give us the principal results of any department of knowledge,
+and denote the points from which the next advance must be made, because
+every science arises at certain results which are themselves again new
+problems; (_b_) in the consideration of the particulars it must be
+exhaustive, i.e. no essential elements of a science must be omitted. But
+this exhaustiveness of execution has different meanings according to the
+stand-points of those for whom it is made. How far we shall pass from
+the universality of the principal determinations into the multiplicity
+of the Particular, into the fulness of detail, cannot be definitely
+determined, and must vary, according to the aim of the book, as to
+whether it is intended for the apprentice, the journeyman, or the
+master; (_c_) the expression must be precise, i.e. the maximum of
+clearness must be combined with the maximum of brevity.
+
+——The writing of a text-book is on this account one of the most
+difficult tasks, and it can be successfully accomplished only by those
+who are masters in a science or art, and who combine with great culture
+and talent great experience as teachers. Unfortunately many dabblers in
+knowledge undervalue the difficulty of writing text-books because they
+think that they are called upon to aid in the spread of science, and
+because the writing of compendiums has thus come to be an avocation, so
+that authors and publishers have made out of text-books a profitable
+business and good incomes. In all sciences and arts there exists a
+quantity of material which is common property, which is disposed of now
+in one way, now in another. The majority of compendiums can be
+distinguished from each other only by the kind of paper, printing, the
+name of the publisher or bookseller, or by arbitrary changes in the
+arrangement and execution. The want of principle with which this work is
+carried on is incredible. Many governments have on this account fixed
+prices for text-books, and commissioners to select them. This in itself
+is right and proper, but the use of any book should be left optional, so
+that the one-sidedness of a science patronized by government as it were
+patented, may not be created through the pressure of such introduction.
+A state may through its censorship oppose poor text-books, and recommend
+good ones; but it may not establish as it were a state-science, a
+state-art, in which only the ideas, laws and forms sanctioned by it
+shall be allowed. The Germans are fortunate, in consequence of their
+philosophical criticism, in the production of better and better
+text-books, among which may be mentioned Koberstein's, Gervinus', and
+Vilmar's Histories of Literature, Ellendt's General History,
+Blumenbach's and Burmeister's Natural History, Marheineke's text-book on
+Religion, Schwegler's History of Philosophy, &c. So much the more
+unaccountable is it that, with such excellent books, the evil of such
+characterless books, partly inadequate and partly in poor style, should
+still exist when there is no necessity for it. The common style of
+paragraph-writing has become obnoxious, under the name of
+Compendium-style, as the most stiff and affected style of writing.——
+
+§ 126. A text-book must be differently written according as it is
+intended for a book for private study or for purposes of general
+circulation. If the first, it must give more, and must develop more
+clearly the internal relations; if the second, it should be shorter, and
+proceed from axiomatic and clear postulates to their signification, and
+these must have an epigrammatic pureness which should leave something to
+be guessed. Because for these a commentary is needed which it is the
+teacher's duty to supply, such a sketch is usually accompanied by the
+fuller text-book which was arranged for private study.
+
+——It is the custom to call the proper text-book the "small" one, and
+that which explains and illustrates, the "large" one. Thus we have the
+Small and the Large Gervinus, &c.——
+
+§ 127. (3) The text-book which presupposes oral explanation forms the
+transition to Oral instruction itself. Since speech is the natural and
+original form in which mind manifests itself, no book can rival it. The
+living word is the most powerful agent of instruction. However common
+and cheap printing may have rendered books as the most convenient means
+of education——however possible may have become, through the
+multiplication of facilities for intercourse and the rapidity of
+transportation, the immediate viewing of human life, the most forcible
+educational means, nevertheless the living word still asserts its
+supremacy. In two cases especially is it indispensable: one is when some
+knowledge is to be communicated which as yet is found in no compendium,
+and the other when a living language is to be taught, for in this case
+the printed page is entirely inadequate. One can learn from books to
+understand Spanish, French, English, Danish, &c., but not to speak them;
+to do this he must hear them, partly that his ear may become accustomed
+to the sounds, partly that his vocal organs may learn correctly to
+imitate them.
+
+§ 128. Life surprises and overpowers us with the knowledge which it
+gains; the book, impassive, waits our convenience; the teacher, superior
+to us, perfectly prepared in comparison with us, consults our necessity,
+and with his living speech uses a gentle force to which we can yield
+without losing our freedom. Listening is easier than reading.
+
+——Sovereigns e.g. seldom read themselves, but have servants who read to
+them.——
+
+§ 129. Oral instruction may (1) give the subject, which is to
+be learned, in a connected statement, or (2) it may unfold it by means
+of question and answer. The first decidedly presupposes the theoretical
+inequality of the teacher and the taught. Because one can speak while
+many can listen, this is especially adapted to the instruction of large
+numbers. The second method is either that of the catechism or the
+dialogue. The catechetical is connected with the first kind of oral
+instruction above designated because it makes demand upon the memory of
+the learner only for the answer to one question at a time, and is hence
+very often and very absurdly called the Socratic method. In teaching by
+means of the dialogue, we try, by means of a reciprocal interchange of
+thought, to solve in common some problem, proceeding according to the
+necessary forms of reason. But in this we can make a distinction. One
+speaker may be superior to the rest, may hold in his own hand the thread
+of the conversation and may guide it himself; or, those who mingle in it
+may be perfectly equal in intellect and culture, and may each take part
+in the development with equal independence. In this latter case, this
+true reciprocity gives us the proper dramatic dialogue, which contains
+in itself all forms of exposition, and may pass from narration,
+description, and analysis, through satire and irony, to veritable humor.
+When it does this, the dialogue is the loftiest result of intelligence
+and the means of its purest enjoyment.
+
+——This alternate teaching, in which the one who has been taught takes
+the teacher's place, can be used only where there is a content which
+admits of a mechanical treatment. The Hindoos made use of it in very
+ancient times. Bell and Lancaster have transplanted it for the teaching
+of poor children in Europe and America. For the teaching of the
+conventionalities——reading, writing, and arithmetic——as well as for the
+learning by heart of names, sentences, &c., it suffices, but not for any
+scientific culture. Where we have large numbers to instruct, the giving
+of the fully developed statement (the first form) is necessary, since
+the dialogue, though it may be elsewhere suitable, allows only a few to
+take part in it. And if we take the second form, we must, if we have a
+large number of pupils, make use of the catechetical method only. What
+is known as the conversational method has been sometimes suggested for
+our university instruction. Diesterweg in Berlin insists upon it. Here
+and there the attempt has been made, but without any result. In the
+university, the lecture of the teacher as a self-developing whole is
+contrasted with the scientific discussion of the students, in which they
+as equals work over with perfect freedom what they have heard.
+Diesterweg was wrong in considering the lecture-system as the principal
+cause of the lack of scientific interest which he thought he perceived
+in our universities. Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Schleiermacher, Wolf,
+Niebuhr, &c., taught by lectures and awakened the liveliest enthusiasm.
+But Diesterweg is quite right in saying that the students should not be
+degraded to writing-machines. But this is generally conceded, and a
+pedantic amount of copying more and more begins to be considered as out
+of date at our universities. Nevertheless, a new pedantry, that of the
+wholly extempore lecture, should not be introduced; but a brief summary
+of the extempore unfolding of the lecture may be dictated and serve a
+very important purpose, or the lecture may be copied. The great efficacy
+of the oral exposition does not so much consist in the fact that it is
+perfectly free, as that it presents to immediate view a person who has
+made himself the bearer of a science or an art, and has found what
+constitutes its essence. Its power springs, above all, from the
+genuineness of the lecture, the originality of its content, and the
+elegance of its form: whether it is written or extemporized, is a matter
+of little moment. Niebuhr e.g. read, word for word, from his manuscript,
+and what a teacher was he!——The catechetical way of teaching is not
+demanded at the university except in special examinations; it belongs to
+the private work of the student, who must learn to be industrious of his
+own free impulse. The private tutor can best conduct reviews.——The
+institution which presupposing the lecture-system combines in itself
+original production with criticism, and the connected exposition with
+the conversation, is the _seminary_. It pursues a well-defined path, and
+confines itself to a small circle of associates whose grades of culture
+are very nearly the same. Here, therefore, can the dialogue be strongly
+developed because it has a fixed foundation, and each one can take part
+in the conversation; whereas, from the variety of opinions among a great
+number, it is easily perverted into an aimless talk, and the majority of
+the hearers, who have no chance to speak, become weary.——
+
+§ 130. As to the way in which the lecture is carried out, it may be so
+arranged as to give the whole stock of information acquired, or, without
+being so exact and so complete, it may bring to its elucidation only a
+relatively inexact and general information. The ancients called the
+first method the esoteric and the second the exoteric, as we give to
+such lectures now, respectively, the names _scholastic_ and _popular_.
+The first makes use of terms which have become technical in science or
+art, and proceeds syllogistically to combine the isolated ideas; the
+second endeavors to substitute for technicalities generally understood
+signs, and conceals the exactness of the formal conclusion by means of a
+conversational style. It is possible to conceive of a perfectly
+methodical treatment of a science which at the same time shall be
+generally comprehensible if it strives to attain the transparency of
+real beauty. A scientific work of art may be correctly said to be
+popular, as e.g. has happened to Herder's _Ideas on the Philosophy of
+the History of Mankind_.
+
+——Beauty is the element which is comprehended by all, and as we declare
+our enmity to the distorted picture-books, books of amusement, and to
+the mischievous character of "Compendiums," so we must also oppose the
+popular publications which style themselves _Science made Easy_, &c., in
+order to attract more purchasers by this alluring title. Kant in his
+_Logic_ calls the extreme of explanation Pedantry and Gallantry. This
+last expression would be very characteristic in our times, since one
+attains the height of popularity now if he makes himself easily
+intelligible to ladies——a didactic triumph which one attains only by
+omitting everything that is profound or complicated, and saying only
+what exists already in the consciousness of every one, by depriving the
+subject dealt with of all seriousness, and sparing neither pictures,
+anecdotes, jokes, nor pretty formalities of speech. Elsewhere Kant says:
+"In the effort to produce in our knowledge the completeness of scholarly
+thoroughness, and at the same time a popular character, without in the
+effort falling into the above-mentioned errors of an affected
+thoroughness or an affected popularity, we must, first of all, look out
+for the scholarly completeness of our scientific knowledge, the
+methodical form of thoroughness, and first ask how we can make really
+popular the knowledge methodically acquired at school, i.e. how we can
+make it easy and generally communicable, and yet at the same time not
+supplant thoroughness by popularity. For scholarly completeness must not
+be sacrificed to popularity to please the people, unless science is to
+become a plaything or trifling." It is perfectly plain that all that was
+said before of the psychological and the logical methods must be taken
+into account in the manner of the statement.——
+
+§ 131. It has been already remarked (§ 21), in speaking of the nature
+of education, that the office of the instructor must necessarily vary
+with the growing culture. But attention must here again be called to the
+fact, that education, in whatever stage of culture, must conform to the
+law which, as the internal logic of Being, determines all objective
+developments of nature and of history. The Family gives the child his
+first instruction; between this and the school comes the teaching of the
+tutor; the school stands independently as the antithesis of the family,
+and presents three essentially different forms according as it imparts a
+general preparatory instruction, or special teaching for different
+callings, or a universal scientific cultivation. Universality passes
+over through particularizing into individuality, which contains both the
+general and the particular freely in itself. All citizens of a state
+should have (1) a general education which (_a_) makes them familiar with
+reading, writing, and arithmetic, these being the means of all
+theoretical culture; then (_b_) hands over to them a picture of the
+world in its principal phases, so that they as citizens of the world can
+find their proper status on our planet; and, finally, it must (_c_)
+instruct him in the history of his own state, so that he may see that
+the circumstances in which he lives are the result of a determined past
+in its connection with the history of the rest of the world, and so may
+learn rightly to estimate the interests of his own country in view of
+their necessary relation to the future. This work the elementary schools
+have to perform. From this, through the _Realschule_ (our scientific
+High School course) they pass into the school where some particular
+branch of science is taught, and through the Gymnasium (classical course
+of a High School or College) to the University. From its general basis
+develop (2) the educational institutions that work towards some special
+education which leads over to the exercise of some art. These we call
+Technological schools, where one may learn farming, mining, a craft, a
+trade, navigation, war, &c. This kind of education may be specialized
+indefinitely with the growth of culture, because any one branch is
+capable in its negative aspect of such educational separation, as e.g.
+in foundling hospitals and orphan asylums, in blind and deaf and dumb
+institutions. The abstract universality of the Elementary school and the
+one-sided particularity of the Technological school, however, is
+subsumed under a concrete universality, which, without aiming directly
+at utility, treats science and art on all sides as their own end and
+aim. _Scientia est potentia_, said Lord Bacon. Practical utility results
+indirectly through the progress which Scientific Cognition makes in this
+free attitude, because it collects itself out of the dissipation through
+manifold details into a universal idea and attains a profounder insight
+thereby. This organism for the purpose of instruction is properly called
+a University. By it the educational organization is perfected.
+
+——It is essentially seen that no more than these three types of schools
+can exist, and that they must all exist in a perfectly organized
+civilization. Their titles and the plan of their special teaching may be
+very different among different nations and at different times, but this
+need not prevent the recognition in them of the ideas which determine
+them. Still less should the imperfect ways in which they manifest
+themselves induce us to condemn them. It is the modern tendency to
+undervalue the University as an institution which we had inherited from
+the middle ages, and with which we could at present dispense. This is an
+error. The university presents just as necessary a form of instruction
+as the elementary school or the technological school. Not the abolition
+of the university, but a reform which shall adapt it to the spirit of
+the age, is the advance which we have to make. That there are to be
+found outside of the university men of the most thorough and elegant
+culture, who can give the most excellent instruction in a science or an
+art, is most certain. But it is a characteristic of the university in
+its teaching to do away with contingency which is unavoidable in case of
+private voluntary efforts. The university presents an organic,
+self-conscious, encyclopædic representation of all the sciences, and
+thus is created to a greater or less degree an intellectual atmosphere
+which no other place can give. Through this, all sciences and their aims
+are seen as of equal authority——a personal stress is laid upon the
+connection of the sciences. The imperfections of a university, which
+arise through the rivalry of external ambition, through the necessity of
+financial success, through the jealousy of different parties, through
+scholarships, &c., are finitudes which it has in common with all human
+institutions, and on whose account they are not all to be thrown
+away.——Art academies are for Art what universities are for Science. They
+are inferior to them in so far as they appear more under the form of
+special schools, as schools of architecture, of painting, and
+conservatories of music; while really it may well be supposed that
+Architecture, Sculpture, Painting, Music, the Orchestra, and the Drama,
+are, like the Sciences, bound together in a _Universitas artium_, and
+that by means of their internal reciprocal action new results would
+follow.——Academies, as isolated master-schools, which follow no
+particular line of teaching, are entirely superfluous, and serve only as
+a _Prytaneum_ for meritorious scholars, and to reward industry through
+the prizes which they offer. In their idea they belong with the
+university, this appearing externally in the fact that most of their
+members are university professors. But as institutions for ostentation
+by which the ambition of the learned was flattered, and to surround
+princes with scientific glory as scientific societies attached to a
+court, they have lost all significance. They ceased to flourish with the
+Ptolemies and the Egyptian caliphs, and with absolute monarchical
+governments.——In modern times we have passed beyond the abstract
+jealousy of the so-called Humanities and the Natural Sciences, because
+we comprehend that each part of the totality can be realized in a proper
+sense only by its development as relatively independent. Thus the
+_gymnasium_ has its place as that elementary school which through a
+general culture, by means of the knowledge of the language and history
+of the Greeks and Romans, prepares for the university; while, on the
+other hand, the _Realschule_, by special attention to Natural Science
+and the living languages, constitutes the transition to the
+technological schools. Nevertheless, because the university embraces the
+Science of Nature, of Technology, of Trade, of Finance, and of
+Statistics, the pupils who have graduated from the so-called high
+schools (_höhern Bürgerschulen_) and from the _Realschulen_ will be
+brought together at the university.——
+
+§ 132. The technique of the school will be determined in its details by
+the peculiarity of its aim. But in general every school, no matter what
+it teaches, ought to have some system of rules and regulations by which
+the relation of the pupil to the institution, of the pupils to each
+other, their relation to the teacher, and that of the teachers to each
+other as well as to the supervisory authority, the programme of lessons,
+the apparatus, of the changes of work and recreation, shall be clearly
+set forth. The course of study must be arranged so as to avoid two
+extremes: on the one hand, it has to keep in view the special aim of the
+school, and according to this it tends to contract itself. But, on the
+other hand, it must consider the relative dependence of one specialty to
+other specialties and to general culture. It must leave the transition
+free, and in this it tends to expand itself. The difficulty is here so
+to assign the limits that the special task of the school shall not be
+sacrificed and deprived of the means of performance which it (since it
+is also always only a part of the whole culture) receives by means of
+its reciprocal action with other departments. The programme must assign
+the exact amount of time which can be appropriated to every study. It
+must prescribe the order in which they shall follow each other; it must,
+as far as possible, unite kindred subjects, so as to avoid the useless
+repetition which dulls the charm of study; it must, in determining the
+order, bear in mind at the same time the necessity imposed by the
+subject itself and the psychological progression of intelligence from
+perception, through conception, to the thinking activity which grasps
+all. It must periodically be submitted to revision, so that all matter
+which has, through the changed state of general culture, become out of
+date, may be rejected, and that that which has proved itself inimitable
+may be appropriated; in general, so that it may be kept up to the
+requirements of the times. And, finally, the school must, by
+examinations and reports, aid the pupil in the acquirement of a
+knowledge of his real standing. The examination lets him know what he
+has really learned, and what he is able to do: the report gives him an
+account of his culture, exhibits to him in what he has made improvement
+and in what he has fallen behind, what defects he has shown, what
+talents he has displayed, what errors committed, and in what relation
+stands his theoretical development to his ethical status.
+
+——The opposition of the _Gymnasia_ to the demands of the agricultural
+communities is a very interesting phase of educational history. They
+were asked to widen their course so as to embrace Mathematics, Physics,
+Natural History, Geography, and the modern languages. At first they
+stoutly resisted; then they made some concessions; finally, the more
+they made the more they found themselves in contradiction with their
+true work, and so they produced as an independent correlate the
+_Realschule_. After this was founded, the gymnasium returned to its old
+plan, and is now again able to place in the foreground the pursuit of
+classical literature and history. It was thus set free from demands made
+upon it which were entirely foreign to its nature.——The examination is,
+on one side, so adapted to the pupil as to make him conscious of his own
+condition. As to its external side, it determines whether the pupil
+shall pass from one class to another or from one school to another, or
+it decides whether the school as a whole shall give a public
+exhibition——an exhibition which ought to have no trace of ostentation,
+but which in fact is often tinctured with pedagogical charlatanism.——
+
+§ 133. The Direction of the school on the side of science must be held
+by the school itself, for the process of the intellect in acquiring
+science, the progress of the method, the determinations of the subject
+matter and the order of its development, have their own laws, to which
+Instruction must submit itself if it would attain its end. The school is
+only one part of the whole of culture. In itself it divides into
+manifold departments, together constituting a great organism which in
+manifold ways comes into contact with the organism of the state. So long
+as teaching is of a private character, so long as it is the reciprocal
+relation of one individual to another, or so long as it is shut up
+within the circle of the family and belongs to it alone, so long it has
+no objective character. It receives this first when it grows to a
+school. As in history, its first form must have a religious character;
+but this first form, in time, disappears. Religion is the absolute
+relation of man to God which subsumes all other relations. In so far as
+Religion exists in the form of a church, those who are members of the
+same church may have instruction given on the nature of religion among
+themselves. Instruction on the subject is proper, and it is even
+enjoined upon them as a law——as a duty. But further than their own
+society they may not extend their rule. The church may exert itself to
+make a religious spirit felt in the school and to make it penetrate all
+the teaching; but it may not presume, because it has for its subject the
+absolute interest of men, the interest which is superior to all others,
+to determine also the other objects of Education or the method of
+treating them. The technical acquisitions of Reading, Writing and
+Arithmetic, Drawing and Music, the Natural Sciences, Mathematics, Logic,
+Anthropology and Psychology, the practical sciences of finance and the
+municipal regulations, have no direct relation to religion. If we
+attempt to establish one, there inevitably appears in them a morbid
+state which destroys them; not only so, but piety itself disappears, for
+these accomplishments and this knowledge are not included in its idea.
+
+——Such treatment of Art and Science may be well-meant, but it is always
+an error. It may even make a ludicrous impression, which is a very
+dangerous thing for the authority of religion. If a church has
+established schools, it must see to it that all which is there taught
+outside of the religious instruction, i.e. all of science and art, shall
+have no direct connection with it as a religious institution.——
+
+§ 134. The Church, as the external manifestation of religion, is
+concerned with the absolute relation of man, the relation to God,
+special in itself as opposed to his other relations; the State, on the
+contrary, seizes the life of a nation according to its _explicit
+totality_. The State should conduct the education of all its citizens.
+To it, then, the church can appear only as a school, for the church
+instructs its own people concerning the nature of religion, partly by
+teaching proper, that of the catechism, partly in quite as edifying a
+way, by preaching. From this point of view, the State can look upon the
+church only as one of those schools which prepare for a special
+avocation. The church appears to the State as that school which assumes
+the task of educating the religious element. Just as little as the
+church should the state attempt to exercise any influence over Science
+and Art. In this they are exactly alike, and must acknowledge the
+necessity which both Science and Art contain within themselves and by
+which they determine themselves. The laws of Logic, Mathematics,
+Astronomy, Morals, Æsthetics, Physiology, &c., are entirely independent
+of the state. It can decree neither discoveries nor inventions. The
+state in its relations to science occupies the same ground as it should
+do with relation to the freedom of self-consciousness. It is true that
+the church teaches man, but it demands from him at the same time belief
+in the truth of its dogmas. It rests, as the real church, on presupposed
+authority, and sinks finally all contradictions which may be found in
+the absolute mystery of the existence of God. The state, on the
+contrary, elaborates its idea into the form of laws, i.e. into general
+determinations, of whose necessity it convinces itself. It seeks to give
+to these laws the clearest possible form, so that every one may
+understand them. It concedes validity only to that which can be proved,
+and sentences the individual according to the external side of the
+_deed_ (overt act) not, as the church does, on its internal side——that
+of _intention_. Finally, it demands in him consciousness of his deed,
+because it makes each one responsible for his own deed. It has,
+therefore, the same principle with science, for the proof of necessity
+and the unity of consciousness with its object constitute the essence of
+science. Since the state embraces the school as one of its educational
+organisms, it is from its very nature especially called upon to guide
+its regulation in accordance with the manifestation of consciousness.
+
+[Sidenote: _The Modality of the Process of Teaching._]
+
+——The church calls this "profanation." One might say that the church,
+with its mystery of Faith, always represents the absolute problem of
+science, while the state, as to its form, coincides with science.
+Whenever the state abandons the strictness of proof——when it begins to
+measure the individual citizen by his intention and not by his deed,
+and, in place of the clear insight of the comprehending consciousness,
+sets up the psychological compulsion of a hollow mechanical authority,
+it destroys itself.——
+
+§ 135. Neither the church nor the state should attempt to control the
+school in its internal management. Still less can the school constitute
+itself into a state within the state; for, while it is only one of the
+means which are necessary for developing citizens, the state and the
+church lay claim to the whole man his whole life long. The independence
+of the school can then only consist in this, that it raises within the
+state an organ which works under its control, and which as school
+authority endeavors within itself to befriend the needs of the school,
+while externally it acts on the church and state indirectly by means of
+ethical powers. The emancipation of the school can never reasonably mean
+its abstract isolation, or the absorption of the ecclesiastical and
+political life into the school; it can signify only the free reciprocal
+action of the school with state and church. It must never be forgotten
+that what makes the school a school is not the total process of
+education, for this falls also within the family, the state, and the
+church; but that the proper work of the school is the process of
+instruction, knowledge, and the acquirement, by practice, of skill.
+
+——The confusion of the idea of Instruction with that of Education in
+general is a common defect in superficial treatises on these themes. The
+Radicals among those who are in favor of so-called "Emancipation," often
+erroneously appeal to "free Greece" which generally for this fond
+ignorance is made to stand as authority for a thousand things of which
+it never dreamed. In this fictitious Hellas of "free, beautiful
+humanity," they say the limits against which we strive to-day did not
+exist. The histories of Anaxagoras, Protagoras, Diagoras, Socrates,
+Aristotle, Theophrastus, and of others, who were all condemned on
+account of their "impiety," tell quite another story.——
+
+§ 136. The inspection of the school may be carried out in different
+ways, but it must be required that its special institutions shall be
+embraced and cared for as organized and related wholes, framed in
+accordance with the idea of the state, and that one division of the
+ministry shall occupy itself exclusively with it. The division of labor
+will specially affect the schools for teaching particular avocations.
+The prescription of the subjects to be studied in each school as
+appropriate to it, of the course of study, and of the object thereof,
+properly falls to this department of government, is its immediate work,
+and its theory must be changed according to the progress and needs of
+the time. Niemeyer, Schwarz, and others, have made out such plans for
+schools. Scheinert has fully painted the _Volkschule_, Mager the
+_Bürgerschule_, Deinhard and Kapp the _Gymnasium_. But such
+delineations, however correct they may be, depend upon the actual sum of
+culture of a people and a time, and must therefore continually modify
+their fundamental Ideal. The same is true of the methods of instruction
+in the special arts and sciences. Niemeyer, Schwarz, Herbart, in their
+sketches of Pedagogics, Beneke in his _Doctrine of Education_, and
+others, have set forth in detail the method of teaching Reading, Writing
+and Arithmetic, Languages, Natural Science, Geography, History, &c. Such
+directions are, however, ephemeral in value, and only relatively useful,
+and must, in order to be truly practical, be always newly laid out in
+accordance with universal educational principles, and with the progress
+of science and art.
+
+——The idea that the State has the right to oversee the school lies in
+the very idea of the State, which is authorized, and under obligation,
+to secure the education of its citizens, and cannot leave their
+fashioning to chance. The emancipation of the school from the State, the
+abstracting of it, would lead to the destruction of the school. There is
+no difficulty in Protestant States in the free inter-action of school
+and church, for Protestantism has consciously accepted as its peculiar
+principle individual freedom as Christianity has presented it. For
+Catholic States, however, a difficulty exists. The Protestant clergyman
+can with propriety oversee the _Volkschule_, for here he works as
+teacher, not as priest. In the Protestant church there are really no
+Laity according to the original meaning of the term. On the contrary,
+Catholic clergymen are essentially priests, and as such, on account of
+the unconditional obedience which, according to their church, they have
+to demand, they usurp the authority of the State. From this circumstance
+arise, at present, numberless collisions in the department of school
+supervision.——
+
+
+THIRD DIVISION.
+
+PRAGMATICS (EDUCATION OF THE WILL).
+
+§ 137. Both Physical and Intellectual Education are in the highest
+degree practical. The first reduces the merely natural to a tool which
+mind shall use for its own ends; the second guides the intelligence, by
+ways conformable to its nature, to the necessary method of the act of
+teaching and learning, which finally branches out into an objective
+national life, into a system of mutually dependent school organizations.
+But in a narrower sense we mean by practical education the methodical
+development of the Will. This phrase more clearly expresses the topic to
+be considered in this division than others sometimes used in Pedagogics
+[_Bestrebungs vermögen_, conative power]. The will is already the
+subject of a science of its own, i.e. of Ethics; and if Pedagogics would
+proceed in anywise scientifically, it must recognize and presuppose the
+idea and the existence of this science. It should not restate in full
+the doctrines of freedom of duty, of virtue, and of conscience, although
+we have often seen this done in empirical works on Pedagogics.
+Pedagogics has to deal with the idea of freedom and morality only so far
+as it fixes the technique of their process, and at the same time it
+confesses itself to be weakest just here, where nothing is of any worth
+without a pure self-determination.
+
+§ 138. The pupil must (1) become civilized; i.e. he must learn to
+govern, as a thing external to him, his natural egotism, and to make the
+forms which civilized society has adopted his own. (2) He must become
+imbued with morality; i.e. he must learn to determine his actions, not
+only with reference to what is agreeable and useful, but according to
+the principle of the Good; he must become virtually free, form a
+character, and must habitually look upon the necessity of freedom as the
+absolute measure of his actions. (3) He must become religious; i.e. he
+must discern that the world, with all its changes, himself included, is
+only phenomenal; the affirmative side of this insight into the emptiness
+of the finite and transitory, which man would so willingly make
+everlasting, is the consciousness of the _absolute_ existing in and for
+itself, which, in its certainty of its truth, not torn asunder through
+the process of manifestation, constitutes no part of its changes, but,
+while it actually presents them, permeates them all, and freely
+distinguishes itself from them. In so far as man relates himself to God,
+he cancels all finitude and transitoriness, and by this feeling frees
+himself from the externality of phenomena. Virtue on the side of
+civilization is Politeness; on that of morality, Conscientiousness; and
+on that of religion, Humility.
+
+
+FIRST CHAPTER.
+
+_Social Culture._
+
+
+§ 139. The social development of man makes the beginning of practical
+education. It is not necessary to suppose a special social instinct. The
+inclination of man to the society of men does not arise only from the
+identity of their nature, but is also in certain cases affected by
+particular relations. The natural starting-point of social culture is
+the Family. But this educates the child for Society, and by means of
+Society the individual passes over into relations with the world at
+large. Natural sympathy changes to polite behavior, and this to the
+dexterous and circumspect deportment, whose truth nevertheless is first
+the ethical purity which combines with the wisdom of the serpent the
+harmlessness of the dove.
+
+§ 140. (1) The Family is the natural social circle to which man
+primarily belongs. In it all the immediate differences which exist are
+compensated by the equally immediate unity of the relationship. The
+subordination of the wife to the husband, of the children to their
+parents, of the younger children to their elder brothers and sisters,
+ceases to be subordination, through the intimacy of love. The child
+learns obedience to authority, and in this it gives free personal
+satisfaction to its parents and enjoys the same. All the relations in
+which he finds himself there are penetrated by the warmth of implicit
+confidence, which can be replaced for the child by nothing else. In this
+sacred circle the tenderest emotions of the heart are developed by the
+personal interest of all its members in what happens to any one, and
+thus the foundation is laid of a susceptibility to all genuine or real
+friendship.
+
+——Nothing more unreasonable or inhuman could exist than those modern
+theories which would destroy the family and would leave the children,
+the offspring of the anarchy of free-love, to grow up in public
+nurseries. This would appear to be very humanitarian; indeed these
+socialists talk of nothing but the interests of humanity——they are never
+weary of uttering their insipid jests on the institution of the family,
+as if it were the principle of all narrow-mindedness. Have these
+fanatics, who are seeking after an abstraction of humanity, ever
+examined our foundling-hospitals, orphan asylums, barracks, and prisons,
+to discover in some degree to what an atomic state of barren cleverness
+a human being grows who has never formed a part of a family? The Family
+is only one phase in the grand order of the ethical organization; but it
+is the substantial phase from which man passively proceeds, but into
+which, as he founds a family of his own, he actively returns. The child
+lives in the Family in the common joy and grief of sympathy for all,
+and, in the emotion with which he sees his parents approach death while
+he is hastening towards the full enjoyment of existence, experiences the
+finer feelings which are so powerful in creating in him a deeper and
+more tender understanding of everything human.——
+
+§ 141. (2) The Family rears the children not for itself but for the
+civil society. In this we have a system of morals producing externally a
+social technique, a circle of fixed forms of society. This technique
+endeavors to subdue the natural roughness of man, at least as far as it
+manifests itself externally. Because he is spirit, man is not to yield
+himself to his immediateness; he is to exhibit to man his naturalness as
+under the control of spirit. The etiquette of propriety on the one hand
+facilitates the manifestation of individuality by means of which the
+individual becomes interesting to others, and on the other hand, since
+its forms are alike for all, it makes us recognize the likeness of the
+individual to all others and so makes their intercourse easier.
+
+——The conventional form is no mere constraint; but essentially a
+protection not only for the freedom of the individual, but much more the
+protection of the individual against the rude impetuosity of his own
+naturalness. Savages and peasants for this reason are, in their
+relations to each other, by no means as unconstrained as one often
+represents them, but hold closely to a ceremonious behavior. There is in
+one of Immerman's stories, "The Village Justice," a very excellent
+picture of the conventional forms with which the peasant loves to
+surround himself. The scene in which the townsman who thinks that he can
+dispense with forms among the peasants is very entertainingly taught
+better, is exceedingly valuable in an educational point of view. The
+feeling of shame which man has in regard to his mere naturalness is
+often extended to relations where it has no direct significance, since
+this sense of shame is appealed to in children in reference to things
+which are really perfectly indifferent externalities.——
+
+§ 142. Education with regard to social culture has two extremes to
+avoid: the youth may, in his effort to prove his individuality, become
+vain and conceited, and fall into an attempt to appear interesting; or
+he may become slavishly dependent on conventional forms, a kind of
+social pedant. This state of nullity which contents itself with the
+mechanical polish of social formalism is ethically more dangerous than
+the tendency to a marked individuality, for it betrays emptiness; while
+the effort towards a peculiar differentiation from others, to become
+interesting to others, indicates power.
+
+§ 143. When we have a harmony of the manifestation of the individual
+with the expression of the recognition of the equality of others we have
+what is called deportment or politeness, which combines dignity and
+grace, self-respect and modesty. We call it when fully complete,
+Urbanity. It treats the conventional forms with irony, since, at the
+same time that it yields to them, it allows the productivity of spirit
+to shine through them in little deviation from them, as if it were fully
+able to make others in their place.
+
+——True politeness shows that it remains master of forms. It is very
+necessary to accustom children to courtesy and to bring them up in the
+etiquette of the prevailing social custom; but they must be prevented
+from falling into an absurd formality which makes the triumph of a
+polite behavior to consist in a blind following of the dictates of the
+last fashion-journal, and in the exact copying of the phraseology and
+directions of some book on manners. One can best teach and practise
+politeness when he does not merely copy the social technique, but
+comprehends its original idea.——
+
+§ 144. (3) But to fully initiate the youth into the institutions of
+civilization one must not only call out the feelings of his heart in the
+bosom of the family, not only give to him the formal refinement
+necessary to his intercourse with society; it must also perform to him
+the painful duty of making him acquainted with the mysteries of the ways
+of the world. This is a painful duty, for the child naturally feels an
+unlimited confidence in all men. This confidence must not be destroyed,
+but it must be tempered. The mystery of the way of the world is the
+deceit which springs from selfishness. We must provide against it by a
+proper degree of distrust. We must teach the youth that he may be
+imposed upon by deceit, dissimulation, and hypocrisy, and that therefore
+he must not give his confidence lightly and credulously. He himself must
+learn how he can, without deceit, gain his own ends in the midst of the
+throng of opposing interests.
+
+——Kant in his Pedagogics calls that worldly-wise behavior by which the
+individual is to demean himself in opposition to others,
+Impenetrability. By its means man learns how to "manage men." In Lord
+Chesterfield's letters to his son, we have pointed out the true value of
+egotism in its relation to morals. All his words amount to this, that we
+are to consider every man to be an egotist, and to convert his very
+egotism into a means of finding out his weak side; i.e. to flatter him
+by exciting his vanity, and by means of such flattery to ascertain his
+limits. In common life, the expression "having had experiences" means
+about the same thing as having been deceived and betrayed.——
+
+
+SECOND CHAPTER.
+
+_Moral Culture._
+
+
+§ 145. The truth of social culture lies in moral culture. Without this
+latter, every art of behavior remains worthless, and can never attain
+the clearness of Humility and Dignity which are possible to it in its
+unity with morality. For the better determination of this idea
+Pedagogics must refer to Ethics itself, and can here give the part of
+its content which relates to Education only in the form of educational
+maxims. The principal categories of Ethics in the domain of morality are
+the ideas of Duty, Virtue, and Conscience. Education must lay stress on
+the truth that nothing in the world has any absolute value except will
+guided by the right.
+
+§ 146. Thence follows (1) the maxim relating to the idea of Duty, that
+we must accustom the pupil to unconditional obedience to it, so that he
+shall perform it for no other reason than that it is duty. It is true
+that the performance of a duty may bring with it externally a result
+agreeable or disagreeable, useful or harmful; but the consideration of
+such connection ought never to determine us. This moral demand, though
+it may appear to be excessive severity, is the absolute foundation of
+all genuine ethical practice. All "highest happiness theories," however
+finely spun they may be, when taken as a guide for life, lead at last to
+Sophistry, and this to contradictions which ruin the life.
+
+§ 147. (2) Virtue must make actual what duty commands, or, rather, the
+actualizing of duty is Virtue. And here we must say next, then, that the
+principal things to be considered under Virtue are (_a_) the dialectic
+of particular virtues, (_b_) renunciation, and (_c_) character.
+
+§ 148. (_a_) From the dialectic of particular virtues there follows the
+educational maxim that we must practise all virtues with equal
+faithfulness, for all together constitute an ethical system complete in
+itself, in which no one is indifferent to another.
+
+——Morality should recognize no distinction of superiority among the
+different virtues. They reciprocally determine each other. There is no
+such thing as one virtue which shines out above the others, and still
+less should we have any special gift for virtue. The pupil must be
+taught to recognize no great and no small in the virtues, for that one
+which may at first sight seem small is inseparably connected with that
+which is seemingly the greatest. Many virtues are attractive by reason
+of their external consequences, as e.g. industry because of success in
+business, worthy conduct because of the respect paid to it, charity
+because of the pleasure attending it; but man should not practise these
+virtues because he enjoys them: he must devote the same amount of
+self-sacrifice and of assiduity to those virtues which (as Christ said)
+are to be performed in secret.——
+
+——It is especially valuable, in an educational respect, to gain an
+insight, into the transition of which each virtue is empirically
+capable, into a negative as well as into a positive extreme. The
+differences between the extremes and the golden mean are differences in
+quality, although they arrive at this difference in quality by means of
+difference in quantity. Kant has, as is well known, attacked the
+Aristotelian doctrine of the ethical μεσοτες, since he was considering
+the qualitative difference of the mind as differentiating principle;
+this was correct for the subject with which he dealt, but in the
+objective development we do arrive on the other hand at the
+determination of a quantitative limit; e.g. a man, with the most earnest
+intention of doing right, may be in doubt whether he has not, in any
+task, done more or less than was fitting for him.——
+
+——As no virtue can cease its demands for us, no one can permit any
+exceptions or any provisional circumstances to come in the way of his
+duties. Our moral culture will always certainly manifest itself in very
+unequal phases if we, out of narrowness and weakness, neglect entirely
+one virtue while we diligently cultivate another. If we are forced into
+such unequal action, we are not responsible for the result; but it is
+dangerous and deserves punishment if we voluntarily encourage it. The
+pupil must be warned against a certain moral negligence which consists
+in yielding to certain weaknesses, faults, or crimes, a little longer
+and a little longer, because he has fixed a certain time after which he
+intends to do better. Up to that time he allows himself to be a loiterer
+in ethics. Perhaps he will assert that his companions, his surroundings,
+his position, &c., must be changed before he can alter his internal
+conduct. Wherever education or temperament favors sentimentality, we
+shall find birth-days, new-year's day, confirmation day, &c., selected
+as these turning points. It is not to be denied that man proceeds in his
+internal life from epoch to epoch, and renews himself in his most
+internal nature, nor can we deny that moments like those mentioned are
+especially favorable in man to an effort towards self-transformation
+because they invite introspection; but it is not to be endured that the
+youth, while looking forward to such a moment, should consciously
+persist in his evil-doing. If he does, we shall have as consequences
+that when the solemn moment which he has set at last arrives, at the
+stirring of the first emotion he perceives with terror that he has
+changed nothing in himself, that the same temptations are present to
+him, the same weakness takes possession of him, &c. In our business, in
+our theoretical endeavors, &c., it may certainly happen that, on account
+of want of time, or means, or humor, we may put off some work to another
+time; but morality stands on a higher plane than these, because it, as
+the concrete absoluteness of the will, makes unceasing demand on the
+whole and undivided man. In morality there are no vacations, no
+interims. As we in ascending a flight of stairs take good care not to
+make a single mis-step, and give our conscious attention to every step,
+so we must not allow any exceptions in moral affairs, must not appoint
+given times for better conduct, but must await these last as natural
+crises, and must seek to live in time as in Eternity.——
+
+§ 149. (_b_) From Renunciation springs the injunction of
+self-government. The action of education on the will to form habits in
+it, is discipline or training in a narrower sense. Renunciation teaches
+us to know the relation in which we in fact, as historical persons,
+stand to the idea of the Good. From our empirical knowledge of ourselves
+we derive the idea of our limits; from the absolute knowledge of
+ourselves on the other hand, which presents to us the nature of Freedom
+as our own actuality, we derive the conception of the resistless might
+of the genuine will for the good. But to actualize this conception we
+must have practice. This practice is the proper renunciation. Every man
+must devise for himself some special set of rules, which shall be
+determined by his peculiarities and his resulting temptations. These
+rules must have as their innermost essence the subduing of self, the
+vanquishing of his negative arbitrariness by means of the universality
+and necessity of the will.
+
+——In order to make this easy, the youth may be practised in renouncing
+for himself even the arbitrariness which is permitted to him. One often
+speaks of renunciation as if it belonged especially to the middle ages
+and to Catholicism; but this is an error. Renunciation in its one-sided
+form as relying on works, and for the purpose of mortification, is
+asceticism, and belongs to them; but Renunciation in general is a
+necessary determination of morals. The keeping of a journal is said to
+assist in the practice of virtue, but its value depends on how it is
+kept. To one it may be a curse, to another a blessing. Fichte, Göthe,
+Byron, and others, have kept journals and have been assisted thereby;
+while others, as Lavater, have been thwarted by them. Vain people will
+every evening record with pen and ink their admiration of the correct
+course of life which they have led in the day devoted to their
+pleasure.——
+
+§ 150. (_c_) The result of the practice in virtue, or, as it is
+commonly expressed, of the individual actualization of freedom, is the
+methodical determinateness of the individual will as Character. This
+conception of character is formal, for it contains only the identity
+which is implied in the ruling of a will on its external side as
+constant. As there are good, strong and beautiful characters, so there
+are also bad, weak, and detestable ones. When in Pedagogics, therefore,
+we speak so much of the building up of a character, we mean the making
+permanent of a direction of the individual will towards the
+actualization of the Good. Freedom ought to be the character of
+character. Education must therefore observe closely the inter-action of
+the factors which go to form character, viz., (α) the temperament, as
+the natural character of the man; (β) external events, the historical
+element; (γ) the energy of the Will, by which, in its limits of nature
+and history, it realizes the idea of the Good in and for itself as the
+proper ethical character. Temperament determines the Rhythm of our
+external manifestation of ourselves; the events in which we live assign
+to us the ethical problem, but the Will in its sovereignty stamps its
+seal on the form given by these potentialities. Pedagogics aims at
+accustoming the youth to freedom, so that he shall always measure his
+deed by the idea of the Good. It does not desire a formal independence,
+which may also be called character, but a real independence resting upon
+the conception of freedom as that which is absolutely necessary. The
+pedagogical maxim is then: Be independent, but be so through doing Good.
+
+——According to preconceived opinion, stubbornness and obstinacy claim
+that they are the foundation of character. But they may spring from
+weakness and indeterminateness, on which account one needs to be well on
+his guard. A gentle disposition, through enthusiasm for the Good, may
+attain to quite as great a firmness of will. Coarseness and meanness are
+on no account to be tolerated.——
+
+§ 151. (3) We pass from the consideration of the culture of character
+to that of conscience. This is the relation which the moral agent makes
+between himself as manifestation and himself as idea. It compares
+itself, in its past or future, with its nature, and judges itself
+accordingly as good or bad. This independence of the ethical judgment is
+the soul proper of all morality, the negation of all self-deception and
+of all deception through another. The pedagogical maxim is: Be
+conscientious. Be in the last instance dependent only upon the
+conception which thou thyself hast of the idea of the Good!
+
+——The self-criticism prompted by conscience hovers over all our
+historical actuality, and is the ground of all our rational progress.
+Fichte's stern words remain, therefore, eternally true: "He who has a
+bad character, must absolutely create for himself a better one."——
+
+
+THIRD CHAPTER.
+
+_Religious Culture._
+
+
+§ 152. Social culture contains the formal phase, moral culture the real
+phase, of the practical mind. Conscience forms the transition to
+religious culture. In its apodeictic nature, it is the absoluteness of
+spirit. The individual discerns in the depths of its own consciousness
+the determinations of universality and of necessity to which it has to
+subject itself. They appear to it as the voice of God. Religion makes
+its appearance as soon as the individual distinguishes the Absolute from
+himself as personal, as a subject existing for itself and therefore for
+him. The atheist remains at the stage of insight into the absoluteness
+of the logical and physical, æsthetic and practical categories. He may,
+therefore, be perfectly moral. He lacks religion, though he loves to
+characterize his uprightness by this name, and to transfer the dogmatic
+determinations of positive religion into the ethical sphere. It belongs
+to the province of religion that I demean myself towards the Absolute
+not only as toward that which is my own substance, and that in relation
+to it not I alone am the subject, but that to me also the substance in
+itself is a personal subject for itself. If I look upon myself as the
+only absolute, I make myself devoid of spiritual essence. I am only
+absolute self-consciousness, for which, because it as idea relates only
+to itself, there remains only the impulse to a persistent conflict with
+every self-consciousness not identical with it. Were this the case, such
+a self-consciousness would be only theoretical irony. In religion I know
+the Absolute as essence, when I am known by him. Everything else, myself
+included, is finite and transitory, however significant it may be,
+however relatively and momentarily the Infinite may exist in it. As
+existence even, it is transitory. The Absolute, positing itself,
+distinguishing itself from itself in unity with itself, is always like
+to itself, and takes up all the unrest of the phenomenal world back
+again into its simple essence.
+
+§ 153. This process of the individual spirit, in which it rises out of
+the multiplicity of all relations into union with the Absolute as the
+substantial subject, and in which nature and history are united, we may
+call, in a restricted sense, a change of heart [Gemuth]. In a wider
+sense of the word we give this name to a certain sentimental
+cheerfulness (light-heartedness), a sense of comfort——of little
+significance. The highest emotions of the heart culminate in religion,
+whose warmth is inspired by practical activity and conscientiousness.
+
+§ 154. Education has to fit man for religion. (1) It gives him the
+conception of it; (2) it endeavors to have this conception actualized in
+him; (3) it subordinates the theoretical and practical process in
+fashioning him to a determinate stand-point of religious culture.
+
+——In the _working out_ or detailed treatment of Pedagogics, the
+position which the conception of religion occupies is very uncertain.
+Many writers on Education place it at the beginning, while others
+reserve it for the end. Others naïvely bring it forward in the midst of
+heterogeneous surroundings, but know how to say very little concerning
+it, and urge teachers to kindle the fire of religious feeling in their
+pupils by teaching them to fear God. Through all their writing, we hear
+the cry that in Education nothing is so important as Religion. Rightly
+understood, this saying is quite true. The religious spirit, the
+consciousness of the Absolute, and the reverence for it, should permeate
+all. Not unfrequently, however, we find that what is meant by religion
+is theology, or the church ceremonial, and these are only one-sided
+phases of the total religious process. The Anglican High-Church presents
+in the colleges and universities of England a sad example of this error.
+What can be more deadening to the spirit, more foreign to religion, than
+the morning and evening prayers as they are carried on at Oxford and
+Cambridge with machine-like regularity! But also to England belongs the
+credit of the sad fact, that, according to Kohl's report, there live in
+Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and London, thousands of men who have
+never enjoyed any teaching in religion, have never been baptized, who
+live absolutely without religion in brutal stupidity. Religion must form
+the culminating point of Education. It takes up into itself the
+didactical and practical elements, and rises through the force of its
+content to universality.——
+
+
+I. _The Theoretical Process of Religious Culture._
+
+§ 155. Religion, in common with every content of the spirit, must pass
+through three stages of feeling, conception, and comprehension. Whatever
+may be the special character of any religion it cannot avoid this
+psychological necessity, either in its general history or in the history
+of the individual consciousness. The teacher must understand this
+process, partly in order that he may make it easier to the youth, partly
+that he may guard against the malformation of the religious feeling
+which may arise through the fact of the youth's remaining in one stage
+after he is ready for another and needs it. Pedagogics must therefore
+lay out beforehand the philosophy of religion, on which alone can be
+found the complete discussion of this idea.
+
+§ 156. (1) Religion exists first as religious feeling. The person is
+still immediately identical with the Divine, does not yet distinguish
+himself from the absoluteness of his being, and is in so far determined
+by it. In so far as he feels the divine, he is a mystery to himself.
+This beginning is necessary. Religion cannot be produced in men from the
+external side; its genesis belongs rather to the primitive depths in
+which God himself and the individual soul are essentially one.
+
+——The educator must not allow himself to suppose that he is able to
+make a religion. Religion dwells originally in every individual soul,
+for every one is born of God. Education can only aid the religious
+feeling in its development. As far as regards the psychological form, it
+was quite correct for Schleiermacher and his followers to characterize
+the absoluteness of the religious feeling as the feeling of dependence,
+for feeling is determined by that which it feels; it depends upon its
+content. But in so far as God constitutes the content of the feeling,
+there appears the opposite of all dependence or absolute emancipation. I
+maintain this in opposition to Schleiermacher. Religion lifts man above
+the finite, temporal and transitory, and frees him from the control of
+the phenomenal world. Even the lowest form of religion does this; and
+when it is said that Schleiermacher has been unjustly criticized for
+this expression of dependence, this distinction is overlooked.——
+
+§ 157. But religious feeling as such rises into something higher when
+the spirit distinguishes the content of this religious feeling from any
+other content which it also feels, represents it clearly to itself, and
+places itself over against it formally as a free individual.
+
+——But we must not understand that the religious feeling is destroyed in
+this process; in rising to the form of distinct representation, it
+remains at the same time as a necessary form of the Intelligence.——
+
+§ 158. If the spirit is held back and prevented from passing out of the
+simplicity of feeling into the act of distinguishing the perception from
+what it becomes, the conception——if its efforts towards the forming of
+this conception are continually re-dissolved into feeling, then feeling,
+which was as the first step perfectly healthy and correct, will become
+morbid and degenerate into a wretched mysticism. Education must,
+therefore, make sure that this feeling is not destroyed by the progress
+of its content into perception and conception on the side of
+psychological form, but rather that it attains truth thereby.
+
+§ 159. (2) Conception as the ideally transformed perception dissects
+the religious content on its different sides, and follows each of these
+to its consequence. Imagination controls the individual conceptions, but
+by no means with that absoluteness which is often supposed; for each
+picture has in itself its logical consequence to which imagination must
+yield; e.g. if a religion represents God as an animal, or as half animal
+and half man, or as man, each of these conceptions has in its
+development its consequences for the imagination.
+
+§ 160. We rise out of the stage of Conception when the spirit tries to
+determine the universality of its content according to its necessity,
+i.e. when it begins to think. The necessity of its pictures is a mere
+presupposition for the imagination. The thinking activity, however,
+recognizes not only the contradiction which exists between the sensuous,
+limited form of the individual conception, and the absolute nature of
+its content, but also the contradiction in which the conceptions find
+themselves with respect to each other.
+
+§ 161. If the spirit is prevented from passing out of the varied
+pictures of conception to the supersensuous clearness and simplicity of
+the thinking activity——if the content which it already begins to seize
+as idea is again dissolved into the confusion of the picture-world, then
+the religion of imagination, which was a perfectly proper form as the
+second step, becomes perverted into some form of idolatry, either coarse
+or refined. Education must therefore not oppose the thinking activity if
+the latter undertakes to criticize religious conceptions; on the
+contrary, it must guide this so that the discovery of the contradictions
+which unavoidably adhere to sensuous form shall not mislead the youth
+into the folly of throwing away, with the relative untruth of the form,
+also the religious content in general.
+
+——It is an error for educators to desire to keep the imagination apart
+from religious feeling, but it is also an error to detain the mind,
+which is on its formal side the activity of knowing, in the stage of
+imagination, and to desire to condemn it thence into the service of
+canonical allegories. The more, in opposition to this, it is possessed
+with the charm of thinking, the more is it in danger of condemning the
+content of religion itself as a mere fictitious conception. As a
+transition-stage the religion of imagination is perfectly normal, and it
+does not in the least impair freedom if, for example, one has
+personified evil as a living Devil. The error does not lie in this, but
+in the making absolute these determinate, æsthetic forms of religion.
+The reaction of the thinking activity against such æsthetic absolutism
+then undertakes in its negative absolutism to despise the content also,
+as if it were a mere conception.——
+
+§ 162. (3) In the thinking activity the spirit attains that form of the
+religious content which is identical with that of its simple
+consciousness, and above which there is no other for the intelligence as
+theoretical. But we distinguish three varieties in this thinking
+activity: the abstract, the reflective, and the speculative. The
+Abstract gives us the religious content of consciousness in the form of
+abstractions or dogmas, i.e. propositions which set up a definition as a
+universal, and add to it another as the reason for its necessity. The
+Reflective stage busies itself with the relation of dogmas to each
+other, and with the search for the grounds on which their necessity must
+rest. It is essentially critical, and hence skeptical. The explanation
+of the dogmas, which is carried on in this process of reasoning and
+skeptical investigation, is completed alone in speculative thinking,
+which recognizes the free unity of the content and its form as its own
+proper self-determination of the content, creating its own differences.
+Education must know this stage of the intelligence, partly that it may
+in advance preserve, in the midst of its changes, that repose which it
+brings into the consciousness; partly that it may be able to lead to the
+process of change itself, in accordance with the organic connection of
+its phases. We should prevent the criticism of the abstract
+understanding by the reflective stage as little as we should that of the
+imagination by the thinking activity. But the stage of reflection is not
+the last possibility of the thinking activity, although, in the variety
+of its skepticism it often takes itself for such, and, with the
+emptiness of mere negation to which it holds, often brings itself
+forward into undesirable prominence. It becomes evident, in this view,
+how very necessary for man, with respect to religion, is a genuine
+philosophical culture, so that he may not lose the certainty of the
+existence of the Absolute in the midst of the obstinacy of dogmas and
+the changes of opinions.
+
+§ 163. Education must then not fear the descent into dogmatic
+abstraction, since this is an indispensable means for theoretical
+culture in its totality, and the consciousness cannot dispense with it
+in its history. But Education has, in the concrete, carefully to discern
+in which of these stages of culture any particular consciousness may be.
+For if for mankind as a race the fostering of philosophy is absolutely
+necessary, it by no means follows that this necessity exists for each
+individual. To children, to women, e.g. for all kinds of simple and
+limited lives, the form of the religion of the imagination is well
+suited, and the form of comprehension can come only relatively to them.
+Education must not, then, desire powerfully and prematurely to develop
+the thinking activity before the intelligence is really fully grown.
+
+——The superficial thinking which many teachers demand in the sphere of
+religion is no less impractical than the want of all guidance into
+rightly ordered meditations on religious subjects. It is natural that
+the lower form of intelligence should, in contrast with the higher,
+appear to be frivolous, because it has no need of change of form as the
+higher has, and on this account it looks upon the destruction of the
+form of a picture or a dogma as the destruction of religion itself. In
+our time the idea is very prevalent that the content itself must change
+with the changing of the psychological form, and that therefore a
+religion in the stage of feeling, of conception, and of comprehension,
+can no longer be the same in its essence. These suppositions, which are
+so popular, and are considered to be high philosophy, spring from the
+superficiality of psychological inquiry.——
+
+§ 164. The theoretical culture of the religious feeling endeavors
+therefore with the freedom of philosophical criticism to elevate the
+presupposition of Reason in the religious content to self-assured
+insight by means of the proof of the necessity of its determinations.
+This is the only reasonable pedagogical way not only to prevent the
+degeneration of the religious consciousness into a miserable mysticism
+or into frivolity, but also to remove these if they are already
+existent.
+
+——External seclusion avails nothing. The crises of the world-historical
+changes in the religious consciousness find their way through the
+thickest cloister walls; the philosopher Reinhold was a pupil of the
+Jesuits, the philosopher Schad of the Benedictines.——
+
+
+II. _The Practical Process of Religious Culture._
+
+§ 165. The theoretical culture is truly practical, for it gives man
+definite conceptions and thoughts of the Divine and his relation to him.
+But in a narrower sense that culture is practical which relates to the
+Will as such. Education has in this respect to distinguish (1)
+consecration——religious feeling in general,——(2) the induction of the
+youth into the forms of a positive religion, and (3) his reconciliation
+with his lot.
+
+§ 166. (1) Religious feeling presupposes morality as an indispensable
+condition without which it cannot inculcate its ideas. But if man from a
+merely moral stand-point places himself in relation to the idea of Duty
+as such, the ethical religious stand-point differs from it in this, that
+it places the necessity of the Good as the self-determination of the
+divine Will and thus makes of practice a personal relation to God,
+changing the Good to the Holy and the Evil to Sin. Education must
+therefore first accustom the youth to the idea, that in doing the Good
+he unites himself with God as with the absolute Person, but that in
+doing Evil he separates himself from him. The feeling that he through
+his deed comes into contact with God himself, positively or negatively,
+deepens the moral conduct to an intense sensibility of the heart.
+
+§ 167. (2) The religious sense which grows in the child that he has an
+uninterrupted personal relation to the Absolute as a person, constitutes
+the beginning of the practical forming of religion. The second step is
+the induction of the child into the objective forms of worship
+established in some positive religion. Through religious training the
+child learns to renounce his egotism; through attendance on religious
+services he learns to give expression to his religious feeling in
+prayer, in the use of symbols, and in church festivals. Education must,
+however, endeavor to retain freedom with regard to these forms, so that
+they shall not be confounded with Religion itself. Religion displays
+itself in these ceremonies, but they as mere forms are of value only in
+so far as they, while externalities, are manifestations of the spirit
+which produces them.
+
+——If the mechanism of ceremonial forms is taken as religion itself, the
+service of God degenerates into the false service of religion, as Kant
+has designated it in _Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason_.
+Nothing is more destructive to the sensibility to all real religious
+culture than the want of earnestness with which prayers, readings from
+the Bible, attendance on church, the communion, &c., are often practised
+by teachers. But one must not conclude from this extreme that an
+ignorance of all sacred forms in general would be more desirable for the
+child.——
+
+§ 168. (3) It is possible that a man on the stand-point of
+ecclesiastical religious observances may be fully contented; he may be
+fully occupied in them, and perfect his life thereby in perfect content.
+But by far the greater number of men will see themselves forced to
+experience the truth of religion in the hard vicissitudes of their lot,
+since they carry on some business, and with that business create for
+themselves a past whose consequences condition their future. They limit
+themselves through their deeds, whose involuntary-voluntary authors they
+become; involuntary in so far as they are challenged to the deeds from
+the totality of events, voluntary in so far as they undertake them and
+bring about an actual change in the world. The history of the individual
+man appears therefore on the one hand, if we consider its material, as
+the work of circumstances; but on the other hand, if we reflect on the
+form, as the act of a self-determining actor. Want of freedom (the being
+determined through the given situation) and freedom (the determination
+to the act) are united in actual life as something which is exactly so,
+and cannot become anything else as final. The essence of the spiritual
+being stands always over against this unavoidable limitation as that
+which is in itself infinite, which is beyond all history, because the
+absolute spirit, in and for itself, has no history. That which one calls
+his history is only the manifesting of himself, and his everlasting
+return out of this manifestation into himself an act which in absolute
+spirit coincides with the transcending of all manifestation. From the
+nature which belongs to him there arises for the individual spirit the
+impulse towards a holy life, i.e. the being freed from his history even
+in the midst of its process. He gratifies this impulse negatively
+through the considering of what has happened as past and gone, as that
+which lives now only ideally in the recollection; and positively through
+the positing of a new actual existence in which he strives to realize
+the idea of freedom which constitutes his necessity, as purer and higher
+than before. This constant new-birth out of the grave of the past to the
+life of a more beautiful future is the genuine reconciliation with
+destiny. The false reconciliation may assume different forms. It may
+abstain from all action because man through this limits himself and
+becomes responsible. This is to despair of freedom, which condemns the
+spirit to the loss of itself since its nature demands activity. The
+abstract quietism of the Indian penitents, of the Buddhists, of the
+fanatical ascetics, of the Protestant recluses, &c., is an error of this
+kind. The man may become indifferent about the ethical determinateness
+of his deeds. In this case he acts; but because he has no faith in the
+necessary connection of his deeds through the means of freedom, a
+connection which he would willingly ascribe to mere chance, he loses his
+spiritual essence. This is the error of indifference and of its
+frivolity, which denies the open mystery of the ruling of destiny.
+Education must therefore imbue man with respect for external movements
+of history and with confidence in the inexhaustibleness of the
+progressive human spirit, since only by producing better things can he
+affirmatively elevate himself above his past. This active acknowledgment
+of the necessity of freedom as the determining principle of destiny
+gives the highest satisfaction to which practical religious feeling may
+arrive, for blessedness develops itself in it——that blessedness which
+does not know that it is circumscribed by finitude and transitoriness,
+and which possesses the immortal courage to strive always anew for
+perfection with free resignation at its non-realization, so that
+happiness and misery, pleasure and pain, are conquered by the power of
+disinterested self-sacrifice.
+
+——The escape from action in an artificial absence of all events in
+life, which often sinks to a veritable brutalizing of man, is the
+distinguishing feature of all monkish pedagogics. In our time there is
+especial need of a reconciliation between man and destiny, for all the
+world is discontented. The worst form of discontent is when one is, as
+the French say, _blasé_; though the word is not, as many fancy, derived
+originally from the French, but from the Greek βλαζειν, to wither. It is
+true that all culture passes through phases, each of which becomes
+momentarily and relatively wearisome, and that in so far one may be
+_blasé_ in any age. But in modern times this state of feeling has
+increased to that of thorough disgust——disgust which nevertheless at the
+same time demands enjoyment. The one who is _blasé_ has enjoyed
+everything, felt everything, mocked at everything. He has passed from
+the enjoyment of pleasure to sentimentality, i.e. to rioting in feeling;
+from sentimentality to irony with regard to feeling, and from this to
+the torment of feeling his entire weakness and emptiness as opposed to
+these. He ridicules this also, as if it were a consolation to him to
+fling away the universe like a squeezed lemon, and to be able to assert
+that in pure nothingness lies the truth of all things. And yet
+nevertheless this irony furnishes the point on which Education can
+fasten, in order to kindle anew in him the religious feeling, and to
+lead him back to a loving recognition of actuality, to a respect for his
+own history. The greatest difficulty which Education has to encounter
+here is the coquetry, the miserable eminence and self-satisfaction which
+have undermined the man and made him incapable of all simple and natural
+enjoyment. It is not too much to assert that many pupils of our
+_Gymnasia_ are affected with this malady. Our literature is full of its
+products. It inveighs against its dissipation, and nevertheless at the
+same time cannot resist a certain kind of pleasure in it. Diabolical
+sentimentality!——
+
+
+III. _The Absolute Process of Religious Culture._
+
+§ 169. In comparing the stages of the theoretical and practical culture
+of the religious feeling their internal correspondence appears. Feeling,
+as immediate knowledge, and the consecration of the sense by means of
+piety; imagination with all its images, and the church services with
+their ceremonial observances; finally, the comprehending of religion as
+the reconciliation with destiny, as the internal emancipation from the
+dominion of external events——all these correspond to each other. If we
+seize this parallelism all together, we have the progress which religion
+must make in its historical process, in which it (1) begins as natural;
+(2) goes on to historical precision, and (3) elevates this to a rational
+faith. These stages await every man in as far as he lives through a
+complete religious culture, but this may be for the individual a
+question of chance.
+
+§ 170. (1) A child has as yet no definite religious feeling. He is still
+only a possibility capable of manifold determinations. But, since he is
+a spirit, the essence of religion is active in him, though as yet in an
+unconscious form. The substance of spirit attests its presence in every
+individual, through his mysterious impulse toward the absolute and
+towards intercourse with God. This is the initiatory stage of natural
+religion, which must not be confounded with the religion which makes
+nature the object of worship (fetichism, &c.)
+
+§ 171. (2) But while the child lives into this in his internal life, he
+comes in contact with definite forms of religion, and will naturally,
+through the mediation of the family, be introduced to some one of them.
+His religious feeling takes now a particular direction, and he accepts
+religion in one of its historical forms. This positive religion meets
+the precise want of the child, because it brings into his consciousness,
+by means of teaching and sacred rites, the principal elements which are
+found in the nature of religion.
+
+§ 172. (3) In contradistinction to the natural basis of religious
+feeling, all historical religions rest on the authoritative basis of
+revelation from God to man. They address themselves to the imagination,
+and offer a system of objective forms of worship and ceremonies. But
+spirit, as eternal, as self-identical, cannot forbear as thinking
+activity to subject the traditional religion to criticism and to compare
+it as a phenomenal existence. From this criticism arises a religion
+which satisfies the demands of the reason, and which, by means of
+insight into the necessity of the historical process, leads to the
+exercise of a genuine toleration towards its many-sided forms. This
+religion mediates between the unity of the thinking consciousness and
+the religious content, while this content, in the history of religious
+feeling, appears theoretically as dogma, and practically as the command
+of an absolute and incomprehensible authority. It is just as simple as
+the unsophisticated natural religious feeling, but its simplicity is at
+the same time master of itself. It is just as specific in its
+determinations as the historical religion, but its determinateness is at
+the same time universal, since it is worked out by the thinking reason.
+
+§ 173. Education must superintend the development of the religious
+consciousness towards an insight into the necessary consequence of its
+different stages. Nothing is more absurd than for the educator to desire
+to avoid the introduction of a positive religion, or a definite creed,
+as a middle stage between the natural beginning of religious feeling and
+its end in philosophical culture. Only when a man has lived through the
+entire range of one-sided phases——through the crudeness of such a
+concrete individualizing of religion, and has come to recognize the
+universal nature of religion in a special form of it which excludes
+other forms——only when the spirit of a congregation has taken him into
+its number, is he ripe to criticize religion in a conciliatory spirit,
+because he has then gained a religious character through that historical
+experience. The self-comprehending universality must have such a solid
+basis as this in the life of the man; it can never form the beginning of
+one's culture, but it may constitute the end which turns back again to
+the beginning. Most men remain at the historical stand-point. The
+religion of reason, as that of the minority, constitutes in the
+different religions the invisible church, which seeks by progressive
+reform to purify these religions from superstition and unbelief. It is
+the duty of the state, by making all churches equal in the sight of the
+law, to guard religion from the temptation of impure motives, and,
+through the granting of such freedom to religious individuality, to help
+forward the unity of a rational insight into religion which is distinct
+from the religious feeling only in its form, not in its content. Not a
+philosopher, but Jesus of Nazareth freed the world from all selfishness
+and all bondage.
+
+§ 174. With this highest theoretical and practical emancipation, the
+general work of education ends. It remains now to be shown how the
+general idea of Education shapes its special elements into their
+appropriate forms. From the nature of Pedagogics, which concerns itself
+with man in his entirety, this exposition belongs partly to the history
+of culture in general, partly to the history of religion, partly to the
+philosophy of history. The pedagogical element in it always lies in the
+ideal which the spirit of a nation or of an age creates out of itself,
+and which it seeks to realize in its youth.
+
+
+
+
+THIRD PART.
+
+Particular Systems of Education.
+
+
+§ 175. The definite actuality of Education originates in the fact that
+its general idea is individualized, according to its special elements,
+in a specific statement which we call a pedagogical principle. The
+number of these principles is not unlimited, but from the idea of
+Education contains only a certain number. If we derive them therefore,
+we derive at the same time the history of Pedagogics, which can from its
+very nature do nothing else than make actual in itself the possibilities
+involved in the idea of Education. Such a derivation may be called an _à
+priori_ construction of history, but it is different from what is
+generally denoted by this term in not pretending to deduce single events
+and characters. All empirical details are confirmation or illustration
+for it, but it does not attempt to seek this empirical element _à
+priori_.
+
+——The history of Pedagogics is still in the stage of infancy. At one
+time it is taken up into the sphere of Politics; at another, into that
+of the history of Culture. The productions of some of the most
+distinguished writers on the subject are now antiquated. Cramer of
+Stralsund made, in 1832, an excellent beginning in a comprehensive and
+thorough history of Pedagogy; but in the beginning of his second part he
+dwelt too long upon the Greeks, and lost himself in too wide an
+exposition of practical Philosophy in general. Alexander Kapp has given
+us excellent treatises on the Pedagogics of Aristotle and Plato. But
+with regard to modern Pedagogics we have relatively very little. Karl v.
+Raumer, in 1843, began to publish a history of Pedagogics since the time
+of the revival of classical studies, and has accomplished much of value
+on the biographical side. But the idea of the general connection and
+dependence of the several manifestations has not received much
+attention, and since the time of Pestalozzi books have assumed the
+character of biographical confessions. Strümpell, in 1843, developed the
+Pedagogics of Kant, Fichte, and Herbart.——
+
+[Sidenote: _Particular Systems of Education._]
+
+§ 176. Man is educated by man for humanity. This is the fundamental idea
+of all Pedagogics. But in the shaping of Pedagogics we cannot begin with
+the idea of humanity as such, but only with the natural form in which it
+primarily manifests itself——that of the nation. But the naturalness of
+this principle disappears in its development, since nations appear in
+interaction on each other and begin dimly to perceive their unity of
+species. The freedom of spirit over nature makes its appearance, but to
+the spirit explicitly in the transcendent form of abstract theistic
+religion, in which God appears as the ruler over Nature as merely
+dependent; and His chosen people plant the root of their nationality no
+longer in the earth, but in this belief. The unity of the abstractly
+natural and abstractly spiritual determinateness is the concrete unity
+of the spirit with nature, in which it recognizes nature as its
+necessary organ, and itself as in its nature divine. Spirit in this
+stage, as the internal presupposition of the two previously named, takes
+up into itself on one hand the phase of nationality, since this is the
+form of its immediate individualization; but it no longer distinguishes
+between nations as if they were abstractly severed the one from the
+other, as the Greeks shut out all other nations under the name of
+barbarians. It also takes up into itself the phase of spirituality,
+since it knows itself as spirit, and knows itself to be free from
+nature, and yet it does not estrange itself as the Jews did in their
+representation of pure spirit, in reference to which nature seems to be
+only the work of its caprice. Humanity knows nature as its own, because
+it knows the Divine spirit and its creative energy manifesting itself in
+nature and history, as also the essence of its own spirit. Education can
+be complete only with Christianity as the religion of humanity.
+
+§ 177. We have thus three different systems of religion——(1) the
+National; (2) the Theocratic; and (3) the Humanitarian. The first works
+in harmony with nature since it educates the individual as a type of his
+species. The original nationality endeavors sharply to distinguish
+itself from others, and to impress on each person the stamp of its
+uniform type. One individual is like every other, or at least should be
+so. The second system in its manner of manifestation is identical with
+the first. It even marks the national difference more emphatically; but
+the ground of the uniformity of the individuals is with it not merely
+the natural common interest, but it is the consequence of the spiritual
+unity, which abstracts from nature, and as history, satisfied with no
+present, hovers continually outside of itself between past and future.
+The theocratic system educates the individual as the servant of God. He
+is the true Jew only in so far as he is this; the genealogical identity
+with the father Abraham is a condition but not the principle of the
+nationality. The third system liberates the individual to the enjoyment
+of freedom as his essence, and educates the human being within national
+limits which no longer separate but unite, and, in the consciousness
+that each individual, without any kind of mediation, has a direct
+relation to God, makes of him a man who knows himself to be a member of
+the spiritual world of humanity. We can have no fourth system beyond
+this. From the side of the State-Pedagogics we might characterize these
+systems as that of the nation-State, the God-State, and the
+humanity-State. From the time of the establishment of the last, no one
+nation can attain to any sovereignty over the others. By means of the
+world-religion of Christianity, the education of nations has come to the
+point of taking for its ideal, man as determining himself according to
+the demands of reason.
+
+
+FIRST DIVISION.
+
+THE SYSTEM OF NATIONAL EDUCATION.
+
+§ 178. The National is the primitive system of education, since the
+family is the organic starting-point of all education, and is in its
+enlargement the basis of nationality.
+
+——Education is always education of the mind. Even unorganized nations,
+those in a state of nature, the so-called savage nations, are possessed
+of something more than a mere education of the body; for, though they
+set much value upon gymnastic and warlike practice and give much time to
+them, they inculcate also respect for parents, for the aged, and for the
+decrees of the community. Education with them is essentially family
+training, and its content is natural love and reverence. We cannot deny
+that the finer forms of those to which we are accustomed are wanting.
+Besides, education among all these people of nature is very simple and
+much the same, though great differences in its management may exist
+arising from differences of situation or from temperament of race.——
+
+§ 179. National Education is divided into three special systems: (1)
+Passive, (2) Active, (3) Individual. It begins with the humility of an
+abstract subjection to nature, and ends with the arrogance of an
+abstract rejection of nature.
+
+§ 180. Man yields at first to the natural authority of the family; he
+obeys unconditionally its behests. Then he substitutes for the family,
+as he goes on his culture, the artificial family of his caste, to whose
+rules he again unconditionally yields. To dispense with this
+artificialty and this tyranny, at last he abstracts himself from the
+family and from culture. He flees from both, and becoming a monk he
+again subjects himself to the tyranny of his order. The monks presents
+to us the mere type of his species.
+
+§ 181. This absolute abstraction from nature and from culture, this
+quietism of spiritual isolation, is the ultimate result of the Passive
+system. In opposition to this, the Active system seeks the positive
+vanquishing of naturalness. Its people are courageous. They attack other
+nations in order to rule over them as conquerors. They live for the
+continuation of their life after death, and build for themselves on this
+account tombs of granite. They brave the dangers of the sea. The
+abstract prose of the patriarchal-state, the fantastic chimeras of the
+caste-state, the ascetic self-renunciation of the cloister-state, yield
+gradually to the recognition of actuality; and the fundamental principle
+of Persian education consisted in the inculcation of veracity.
+
+§ 182. But the nationality which is occupied with simple, natural
+elements——other nations, death, the mystery of the ocean——may revert to
+the abstractions of the previous stage, which in education often take on
+cruel forms——nay, often truly horrible. First, when the spirit begins
+not only to suspect its true nature, but rather to recognize itself as
+the true essence; and when the God of Light places as the motto on his
+temple the command to self-knowledge, the natural individuality becomes
+free. Neither the passive nor the active system understands the free
+self-distinction of the individual from the rest. In them, to be an
+individuality is a betrayal of the very idea of their existence, and
+even the suspicion of such a charge suffices utterly and mercilessly to
+destroy the one to whom it refers. Even the solitary individuality of
+the despot is not the one-ness of free individuality: he is only an
+example of his kind; only in his kind is he singular. Nationality rises
+to individuality through the free dialectic of its race, wherein it
+dissolves its own presupposition.
+
+§ 183. Nevertheless individuality must always proceed from naturalness.
+Esthetically it seeks nature, but the nature of the activity itself, in
+order, by penetrating it with mind, to make of it a work of art;
+practically it seeks it, partly to disdain it in gloomy resignation,
+partly to enjoy it in excessive sensual ecstasy, demoniacally to
+heighten the extravagance of its own internal feeling in wild revels.
+
+——The Germans were not savage in the common signification of this term.
+They were men each one of whom constituted himself willingly a centre
+for others, or, if this was not the case, renounced them in proud
+self-sufficiency. All the glory and all the disgrace of our race lies in
+the power of individualizing which is divinely breathed into our veins.
+As a natural element, if this be not controlled, it degenerates easily
+into intractableness, into violence. The Germans need therefore, in
+order to be educated, severe service, the imposition of difficult tasks;
+and for this reason they appropriate to themselves, now the Roman law,
+now the Greek philology, now Gallic usages, &c., in order to work off
+their superfluous strength in such opposition. The natural reserve of
+the German found its solvent in Christianity. By itself, as the history
+of the German race shows, it would have been destroyed in vain
+distraction. First of all, the German race, in the confidence of its
+immediate consciousness, ventured forth upon the sea, and managed the
+ship upon its waves as if they rode a charger.——
+
+
+FIRST GROUP.
+
+THE SYSTEM OF PASSIVE EDUCATION.
+
+§ 184. All education desires to free man from his finitude, to make him
+ethical, to unite him with God. It begins therefore with a negative
+relation to naturalness, but at once falls into a contradiction of its
+aim, which is to convert the opposition to nature into a natural
+necessity. Spirit subjects the individual (1) to the rule of the family
+as naturally spiritual; (2) to the rule of the caste as to a principle
+in itself spiritual, mediated through the division of labor, which it
+nevertheless, through its power of being inherited, joins again to the
+family; (3) to the abstract self-determination of the monkish quietism,
+which turns itself away as well from the family as from work, and
+constitutes this flight from nature and history, this absolute
+passivity, into an educational ideal.
+
+——We shall not here enter into the details of this system, but simply
+endeavor to remove from their differences the want of clearness which is
+generally found involved in any mention of them, so that the phrases of
+hierarchical and theocratical education are used without any historical
+accuracy.——
+
+
+I. _Family Education._
+
+§ 185. The Family, as the organic starting-point of all education, makes
+the beginning. The nation looks upon itself as a family. Among all
+unorganized people education is family-education, though they are not
+conscious of its necessity. Identical in principle with these people,
+but distinguished from them in its consciousness of it, the Chinese
+nation, in their laws, regulations, and customs, have constituted the
+family the absolute basis of their life and the only principle of their
+education.
+
+§ 186. The natural element of the family is found in marriage and
+relationship; the spiritual, in love. We may call the nature of family
+feeling which is the immediate unity of both elements, by the name of
+Piety. In so far as this appears not merely as a substantial feeling but
+at the same time as law, there arises from it the subordination of the
+abstract obedience of the woman as wife to the husband, of children to
+the parents, of the younger children to the elder. In this obedience man
+first renounces his self-will and his natural roughness; he learns to
+master his passions, and to conduct himself with deferential gentleness.
+
+——When the principle ruling the family is transferred to political
+relations, there arises the tyranny of the Chinese state, which cannot
+be fully treated here. We find everywhere in it an analogical relation
+to that of parents and children. In China the ruler is the father and
+mother of the country; the civil officers are representatives of a
+paternal authority, &c. It follows that in school the children will be
+ranked according to their age. The authority of parents over children is
+according to the principle entirely unconditional, but in actuality very
+mild. The abandonment of daughters by the poorest classes in the great
+cities is not objected to, for the government rears the children in
+orphan asylums, where they are cared for by nurses appointed by the
+state.——
+
+§ 187. The distinction of these relations which are conditioned by
+nature takes on the external shape of a definite ceremonial, the
+learning of which is a chief element of education. In conformity with
+the naturalness of the whole principle all crimes against it are
+punished by whipping, which does not necessarily entail dishonor. In
+order to lead man to the mastery of himself and to obedience to those
+who are naturally set over him, education develops an endless number of
+fragmentary maxims to keep attention ever watchful over himself, and his
+behavior always fenced in by a code of prescriptions.
+
+——We find in such moral sentences the substance of what is called, in
+China, Philosophy.——
+
+§ 188. The theoretical education includes Heading, Writing——i.e.
+painting the letters with a brush——Arithmetic, and the making of verses.
+But the ability to do these things is not looked at as means of culture
+but as ends in themselves, and to fit one therefore for the undertaking
+of state offices. The Chinese possess formally all the means for
+literary culture——printing, libraries, schools, and academies; but the
+worth of these is not great. Their value has been often over-rated
+because of their external resemblance to those found among us.
+
+
+II. _Caste Education._
+
+§ 189. The members of the Family are certainly immediately
+distinguished among each other as to sex and age, but this difference is
+entirely immaterial as far as the nature of their employment goes. In
+China, therefore, every man can attain any position; he who is of
+humblest birth in the great state-family can climb to the highest honor.
+But the progress of spirit now becomes so mediated that the division of
+labor shall be made the principle on which a new distinction shall arise
+in the family: each one shall perfect himself only in that labor which
+was allotted to him as his own through his birth into a particular
+family. This fatalism (caste-distinction) breaks up the life, but
+increases its tension, for spirit works on the one hand towards the
+deepening of its distinctions; on the other, towards leading them back
+into the unity which the natural determining directly opposes.
+
+§ 190. The chief work of education thus consists in teaching each one
+the rights and duties of his caste so that he shall act only exactly
+within their limits, and not pollute himself by passing beyond them. As
+the family-state concerns itself with fortifying the natural distinction
+by a far-reaching and vigorous ceremonial, so the caste-state must do
+the same with the distinction of class. A painful etiquette becomes more
+and more endless in its requisitions the higher the caste, in order to
+make the isolation more sharply defined and more perceptible.
+
+——This feature penetrates all exclusively caste-education. The
+aristocracy exiles itself on this account from its native country,
+speaks a foreign language, loves its literature, adopts foreign customs,
+lives in foreign countries——in Italy, Paris, &c. In this way man becomes
+distinguished from others. But that man should strive thus to
+distinguish himself has its justification in the mystery of his birth,
+and this is assuredly always the principle of the caste-state in which
+it exists. The castes lead to genealogical records, which are of the
+greatest importance in determining the destiny of the individual. The
+Brahmin may strike down one of a lower caste who has defiled him by
+contact, without becoming thereby liable to punishment; rather would he
+be to blame if he did not commit the murder. Thus formerly was it with
+the officer who did not immediately kill the citizen or the common
+soldier who struck him a blow, &c.——
+
+§ 191. The East Indian culture is far deeper and richer than the
+Chinese. The theoretical culture includes Reading, Writing, and
+Arithmetic; but these are subordinate, as mere means for the higher
+activities of Poetry, Speculation, Science, and Art. The practical
+education limits itself strictly by the lines of caste, and since the
+caste system constitutes a whole in itself, and each for its permanence
+needs the others, it cannot forbear giving utterance suggestively to
+what is universally human in the free soul, in a multitude of fables
+(Hitopadesa) and apothegms (sentences of Bartrihari). Especially for the
+education of princes is a minor of the world sketched out.
+
+——Xenophon's Cyropedia is of Greek origin, but it is Indian in its
+thought.——
+
+
+III. _Monkish Education._
+
+§ 192. Family Education demands unconditional obedience towards parents
+and towards all who stand in an analogous position. Caste Education
+demands unconditional obedience to the duties of the caste. The family
+punishes by whipping; the caste, by excommunication, by loss of honor.
+The opposition to nature appears in both systems in the form of a rigid
+ceremonial, distinguishing between the differences arising from nature.
+The family as well as the caste has within it a manifold fountain of
+activity, but it has also just as manifold a limitation of the
+individual. Spirit is forced, therefore, to turn against nature in
+general. It must become indifferent to the family. But it must also
+oppose history, and the fixed distinctions of division of labor as
+necessitated by nature. It must become indifferent to work and the
+pleasure derived from it. That it may not be conditioned either by
+nature or by history, it denies both, and makes its action to consist in
+producing an abstinence from all activity.
+
+§ 193. Such an indifference towards nature and history produces the
+education which we have called monkish. Those who support this sect care
+for food, clothing, and shelter, and for these material contributions,
+as the laity, receive in return from those who live this contemplative
+life the spiritual contribution of confidence in the blessings which
+wait upon ascetic contemplation. The family institution as well as the
+institution of human labor is subordinated to abstract isolation, in
+which the individual lives only for the purification of his soul. All
+things are justified by this end. Castes are found no more; only those
+are bound to the observance of a special ceremonial who as nuns or monks
+subject themselves to the unconditional obedience to the rules of the
+cloister, these rules solemnly enjoining on the negative side celibacy
+and cessation from business, and on the positive side prayer and
+perfection.
+
+[Sidenote: _Buddhistic Education——System of Active Education._]
+
+§ 194. In the school of the Chinese Tao-tse, and in the command to the
+Brahmin after he has established a family to become a recluse, we find
+the transition as it actually exists to the Buddhistic Quietism which
+has covered the rocky heights of Thibet with countless cloisters, and
+reared the people who are dependent upon it into a childlike amiability,
+into a contented repose. Art and Science have here no value in
+themselves, and are regarded only as ministering to religion. To be able
+to read in order to mutter over the prayers is desirable. With the
+premeditated effort in the state of a monk to reduce self to nothing as
+the highest good, the system of passive education attains its highest
+point. But the spirit cannot content itself in this abstract and dreamy
+absence of all action, though it demands a high stage of culture, and it
+has recourse therefore to action, partly on the positive side to conquer
+nature, partly to double its own existence in making history. Inspired
+with affirmative courage, it descends triumphantly from the mountain
+heights, and fears secularization no more.
+
+
+SECOND GROUP.
+
+THE SYSTEM OF ACTIVE EDUCATION.
+
+§ 195. Active Education elevates man from his abstract subjection to
+the family, the caste, asceticism, into a concrete activity with a
+definite aim which subjects those elements as phases of its mediation,
+and grants to each individual independence on the condition of his
+identity with it. These aims are the military state, the future after
+death, and industry. There is always an element of nature present from
+which the activity proceeds; but this no longer appears, like the
+family, the caste, the sensuous egotism, as immediately belonging to the
+individual, but as something outside of himself which limits him, and,
+as his future life, has an internal relation to him, yet is essential to
+him and assigns to him the object of his activity. The Persian has as an
+object of conquest, other nations; the Egyptian, death; the Phœnician,
+the sea.
+
+
+I. _Military Education._
+
+§ 196. That education which would emancipate a nation from the passivity
+of abstraction must throw it into the midst of an historical activity. A
+nation finds not its actual limits in its locality: it can forsake this
+and wander far away from it. Its true limit is made by another nation.
+The nation which knows itself to be actual, turns itself therefore
+against other nations in order to subject them and to reduce them to the
+condition of mere accidents of itself. It begins a system of conquest
+which has in itself no limitations, but goes from one nation to another,
+and extends its evil course indefinitely. The final result of this
+attack is that it finds itself attacked and conquered.
+
+——The early history of the Persian is twofold: the patriarchal in the
+high valleys of Iran, and the religio-hierarchical among the Medes. We
+find under these circumstances a repetition of the principal
+characteristics of the Chinese, Indian, and Buddhist educations. In
+ancient Zend there were also castes. Among the Persians themselves, as
+they descended from their mountains to the conquest of other nations,
+there was properly only a military nobility. The priesthood was
+subjected to the royal power which represented the absolute power of
+actuality. Of the Persian kings, Cyrus attacked Western Asia; Cambyses,
+Africa; Darius and Xerxes, Europe; until the reaction of the spiritually
+higher nationality did not content itself with self-preservation, but
+under the Macedonian Alexander made the attack on Persia itself.——
+
+§ 197. Education enjoined upon the Persians (1) to speak the truth; (2)
+to learn to ride and to use the bow and arrow. There is implied in the
+first command a recognition of actuality, the negation of all dreamy
+absorption, of all fantastical indetermination; and in this light the
+Persian, in distinction from the Hindoo, appears to be considerate and
+reasonable. In the second command is implied warlike practice, but not
+that of the nomadic tribes. The Persian fights on horseback, and thus
+appears in distinction from the Indian hermit seclusion and the quietism
+of the Lamas as restless and in constant motion.
+
+——The Family increases in value as it rears a large number of warriors.
+Many children were a blessing. The king of Persia gave a premium for all
+children over a certain number. Nations were drawn in as nations by war;
+hence the immense multitude of a Persian army. Everything——family,
+business, possessions——must be regardlessly sacrificed to the one aim of
+war. Education, therefore, cultivated an unconditional, all-embracing
+obedience to the king, and the slightest inclination to assert an
+individual independence was high treason and was punished with death. In
+China, on the contrary, duty to the family is paramount to duty to the
+state, or rather is itself duty to the state. The civil officer who
+mourns the loss of one of his family is released during the period of
+mourning from the duties of his function.——
+
+§ 198. The theoretical education, which was limited to reading, writing,
+and to instruction, was, in the usages of culture, in the hands of the
+Magians, the number of whom was estimated at eighty thousand, and who
+themselves had enjoyed the advantages of a careful education, as is
+shown by their gradation into Herbeds, Moheds, and Destur-Moheds; i.e.
+into apprentices, journeymen, and masters. The very fundamental idea of
+their religion was military; it demanded of men to fight on the side of
+the king of light, and guard against the prince of darkness and evil. It
+gave to him thus the honor of a free position between the world-moving
+powers and the possibility of a self-creative destiny, by which means
+vigor and chivalrous feeling were developed. Religion trained the
+activity of man into actualization on this planet, increasing by its
+means the dominion of the good, by purifying the water, by planting
+trees, by extirpating troublesome wild beasts. Thus it increased bodily
+comfort, and no longer, like the monk, treated this as a mere negative.
+
+
+II. _Priestly Education._
+
+§ 199. War has in death its force. It produces this, and by its means
+decides who shall serve and who obey. But the nation that finds its
+activity in war, though it makes death its absolute means, yet finds its
+own limit in death. Other nations are only its boundaries, which it can
+overpass in fighting with and conquering them. But death itself it can
+never escape, whether it come in the sands of the desert——which buried
+for Cambyses an army which he sent to the oracle of the Libyan Ammon——or
+in the sea, that scorns the rod of the angry despot, or by the sword of
+the freeman who guards his household gods. On this account, that people
+stands higher that in the midst of life reflects on death, or rather
+lives for it. The education of such a nation must be priestly because
+death is the means of the transition to the future life, and
+consequently equivalent to a new birth, and becomes a religious act.
+Neither the family-state, nor the caste-state, nor the monkish nor
+military-state, are hierarchies in the sense that the leading of the
+national life by a priesthood produces. But in Egypt this was actually
+the case, because the chief educational tribunal was the death-court
+which concerned only the dead, in awarding to them or denying them the
+honor of burial as the result of their whole life, but in its award
+affected also the honor of the surviving family.
+
+§ 200. General education here limited itself to imparting the ability
+to read, write, and calculate. Special education consisted properly only
+in an habitual living into a definite business within the circle of the
+Family. In this fruitful and warm land the expense of supporting
+children was very small. The division into classes was without the cruel
+features of the Indian civilization, and life itself in the narrow Nile
+valley was very social, very rich, very full of eating and drinking,
+while the familiarity with death heightened the force of enjoyment. In a
+stricter sense only, the warriors, the priests, and the kings, had,
+properly speaking, an education. The aim of life, which was to determine
+in death its eternal future, to secure for itself a passage into the
+still kingdom of Amenth, manifested itself externally in the care which
+they expended on the preservation of the dead shell of the immortal
+soul, and on this account worked itself out in building tombs which
+should last for ever. The Chinese builds a wall to secure his
+family-state from attack; the Hindoo builds pagodas for his gods; the
+Buddhist erects for himself monastic cells; the Persian constructs in
+Persepolis the tomb of his kings, where they may retire in the evening
+of their lives after they have rioted in Ecbatana, Babylon, and Susa;
+but the Egyptian builds his own tomb, and carries on war only to protect
+it.
+
+
+III. _Industrial Education._
+
+§ 201. The system of active education was to find its solution in a
+nation which wandered from the coast of the Red Sea to the foot of the
+Lebanon mountains on the Mediterranean, and ventured forth upon the sea
+which before that time all nations had avoided as a dangerous and
+destructive element. The Phœnician was industrial, and needed markets
+where he could dispose of the products of his skill. But while he sought
+for them he disdained neither force nor deceit; he planted colonies; he
+stipulated that he should have in the cities of other nations a portion
+for himself; he urged the nations to adopt his pleasures, and insensibly
+introduced among them his culture and even his religion. The education
+of such a nation must have seemed profane, because it fostered
+indifference towards family and one's native land, and made the restless
+and passionate activity subservient to gain. The understanding and
+usefulness rose to a higher dignity.
+
+§ 202. Of the education of the Phœnicians we know only so much as to
+enable us to conclude that it was certainly various and extensive: among
+the Carthaginians, at least, that their children were practised in
+reading, writing, and arithmetic, in religious duties; secondly, in a
+trade; and, finally, in the use of arms, is not improbable. Commerce
+became with the Phœnicians a trade, the egotism of which makes men dare
+to plough the inhospitable sea, and to penetrate eagerly the horror of
+its vast distances, but yet to conceal from other nations their
+discoveries and to wrap them in a veil of fable.
+
+——It is a beautiful testimony to the disposition of the Greeks, that
+Plato and others assign as a cause of the low state of Arithmetic and
+Mathematics among the Phœnicians and Egyptians the want of a free and
+disinterested seizing of them.——
+
+
+THIRD GROUP.
+
+THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL EDUCATION.
+
+§ 203. One-sided passivity as well as one-sided activity is subsumed
+under Individuality, which makes itself into its own end and aim. The
+Phœnician made gain his aim; his activity was of a utilistic character.
+Individuality as a pedagogical principle is indeed egotistic in so far
+as it endeavors to achieve its own peculiarity, but it is at the same
+time noble. It desires not to _have_ but to _be_. Individuality also
+begins as natural, but it elevates nature by means of art to ideality.
+The solution of beauty is found in culture, since this renounces the
+charm of appearance for the knowledge of the True. The æsthetic
+individuality is followed by the practical, which has indeed no natural
+basis, but proceeds from an artificial basis as a state formed for a
+place of refuge. In order internally to create a unity in this, is
+framed a definite code of laws; in order externally to assure it, the
+invincible warrior is demanded. Education is therefore, more exactly
+speaking, juristic and military practice. The morality of the state is
+loosened as it reduces into its mechanism one nation after another,
+until the individuality, become dæmonic, makes its war-hardened legions
+tremble with weakness. We characterize this individuality as dæmonic
+because it desires recognition simply for its own sake. Not for its
+beauty and culture, not for its knowledge of business and its bravery,
+only for its peculiarity as such does it claim value, and in the effort
+to secure this it is ready to hazard life itself. In its
+naturally-growing existence this individuality is deep, but at the same
+time without self-limit. The nations educate themselves to this
+individuality when they destroy the world of Roman world——that of
+self-limit and balance——which they find.
+
+
+I. _Æsthetic Education._
+
+§ 204. The system of individual education begins with the
+transfiguration of the immediate individuality into beauty. On the side
+of nature this system is passion, for individuality is given through
+nature; but on the side of spirit it is active, for spirit must
+determine itself to restrain its measure as the essence of beauty.
+
+§ 205. Here the individual is of value only in so far as he is
+beautiful. At first beauty is apprehended as natural, but then it is
+carried over into the realm of spirit, and the Good is posited as
+identical with the Beautiful. The ideal of æsthetic education remains
+always that there shall be also an external unity of the Good with the
+Beautiful, of Spirit with Nature.
+
+——We cannot here give in detail the history of Greek Education. It is
+the best known among us, and the literature in which it is worked out is
+very widely spread. Among the common abridged accounts we mention here
+only the works of Jacobs, of Cramer & Bekker's "Charinomos." We must
+content ourselves with mentioning the turning-points which follow from
+the nature of the principle.——
+
+§ 206. Culture was in Greece thoroughly national. Education gave to the
+individual the consciousness that he was a Greek and no barbarian, a
+free man and so subject only to the laws of the state, and not to the
+caprice of any one person. Thus the nationality was freed at once from
+the abstract unity of the family and from the abstract distinction of
+caste, while it appeared with the manifold talents of individuals of
+different races. Thus the Dorian race held as essential, gymnastics; the
+Æolians, music; the Ionics, poetry. The Æolian individuality was
+subsumed in the history of the two others, so that these had to proceed
+in their development with an internal antagonism. The education of the
+Dorian race was national education in the fullest sense of the word; in
+it the education of all was the same, and was open to all, even
+including the young women; among the Ionic race it was also in its
+content truly national, but in its form it was varied and unlike, and,
+for those belonging to various great families, private. The former,
+reproducing the Oriental phase of abstract unity, educated all in one
+mould; the latter was the nursery of particular individualities.
+
+§ 207. (1) Education in the heroic age, without any systematic
+arrangement on the subject, left each one perfectly free. The people
+related the histories of the adventures of others, and through their own
+gave material to others again to relate stories of them.
+
+——The Greeks began where the last stage of the active system of
+education ended——with piracy and the seizure of women. Swimming was a
+universal practice among the sea-dwelling Greeks, just as in
+England——the mistress of the ocean——rowing is the most prominent
+exercise among the young men, and public regattas are held.——
+
+§ 208. (2) In the period of state-culture proper, education developed
+itself systematically; and gymnastics, music, and grammatics, or
+literary culture, constituted the general pedagogical elements.
+
+§ 209. Gymnastics aimed not alone to render the body strong and agile,
+but, far more, to produce in it a noble carriage, a dignified and
+graceful manner of appearance. Each one fashioned his body into a
+living, divine statue, and in the public games the nation crowned the
+victor.
+
+——Their love of beautiful boys is explicable not merely by their
+interest in beautiful forms, but especially by their interest in
+individuality. The low condition of the women could not lie at the
+foundation of it, for among the Spartans they were educated as nearly as
+possible like the men, and yet among them and the Cretans the love of
+boys was recognized in their legislation. To be without a beloved
+(ἀïιτης), or a lover (εἴσπνηλας), was among them considered as
+disgraceful as the degradation of the love by unchastity was
+contemptible. What charm was there, then, in love? Manifestly only
+beauty and culture. But that a person should be attracted by one and not
+by another can be accounted for only by the peculiar character, and in
+so far the boy-love and the man-friendship which sprang from it, among
+the Greeks, are very characteristic and noteworthy phenomena.——
+
+§ 210. It was the task of Music, by its rhythm and measure, to fill the
+soul with well-proportioned harmony. So highly did the Greeks prize
+music, and so variously did they practise it, that to be a musical man
+meant the same with them as to be a cultivated man with us. Education in
+this respect was very painstaking, inasmuch as music exercises a very
+powerful influence in developing discreet behavior and self-possession
+into a graceful naturalness.
+
+——Among the Greeks we find an unrestricted delight in nature——a
+listening to her manifestations, the tone of which betrays the
+subjectivity of things as subjectivity. In comparison with this tender
+sympathy with nature of the Greeks——who heard in the murmur of the
+fountains, in the dashing of the waves, in the rustling of the trees,
+and in the cry of animals, the voice of divine personality——the sight
+and hearing of the Eastern nations for nature is dull.——
+
+§ 211. The stringed instrument, the cithern, was preferred by the Greeks
+to all wind instruments because it was not exciting, and allowed the
+accompaniment of recitation or song, i.e. the contemporaneous activity
+of the spirit in poetry. Flute-playing was first brought from Asia Minor
+after the victorious progress of the Persian war, and was especially
+cultivated in Thebes. They sought in vain afterwards to oppose the wild
+excitement raised by its influence.
+
+§ 212. Grammar comprehended Letters (γράμματα), i.e. the elements of
+literary culture, reading and writing. Much attention was given to
+correct expression. The Fables of Æsop, the Iliad, and the Odyssey, and
+later the tragic poets, were read, and partly learned by heart. The
+orators borrowed from them often the ornament of their commonplace
+remarks.
+
+§ 213. (3) The internal growth of what was peculiar to the Grecian State
+came to an end with the war for the Hegemony. Its dissolution began, and
+the philosophical period followed the political. The beautiful ethical
+life was resolved into thoughts of the True, Good, and Beautiful.
+Individuality turned more towards the internal, and undertook to subject
+freedom, the existing regulations, laws and customs, to the criticism of
+reason as to whether these were in and for themselves universal and
+necessary. The Sophists, as teachers of Grammar, Rhetoric, and
+Philosophy, undertook to extend the cultivation of Reflection; and this
+introduced instability in the place of the immediate fixed state of
+moral customs. Among the women, the _Hetæræ_ undertook the same
+revolution; in the place of the πότνια μήτηρ appeared the beauty, who
+isolated herself in the consciousness of her charms and in the
+perfection of her varied culture, and exhibited herself to the public
+admiration. The tendency to idiosyncrasy often approached wilfulness,
+caprice and whimsicality, and opposition to the national moral sense. A
+Diogenes in a tub became possible; the soulless but graceful frivolity
+of an Alcibiades charmed, even though it was externally condemned; a
+Socrates completed the break in consciousness, and urged upon the system
+of the old morality the pregnant question, whether Virtue could be
+taught? Socrates worked as a philosopher who was to educate. Pythagoras
+had imposed upon his pupils the abstraction of a common, exactly-defined
+manner of living. Socrates, on the contrary, freed his disciples——in
+general, those who had intercourse with him——leading them to the
+consciousness of their own individuality. He revolutionized the youth in
+that he taught them, instead of a thoughtless obedience to moral
+customs, to seek to comprehend their purpose in the world, and to rule
+their actions according to it. Outwardly he conformed in politics, and
+in war as at Marathon; but in the direction of his teaching he was
+subjective and modern.
+
+§ 214. This idea, that Virtue could be taught, was realized especially
+by Plato and Aristotle; the former inclining to Dorianism, the latter
+holding to the principle of individuality in nearly the modern sense. As
+regards the pedagogical means——Gymnastics, Music, and Grammar——both
+philosophers entirely agreed. But, in the seizing of the pedagogical
+development in general, Plato asserted that the education of the
+individual belonged to the state alone, because the individual was to
+act wholly in the state. On the other hand, Aristotle also holds that
+the state should conduct the education of its citizens, and that the
+individual should be trained for the interest of the state; but he
+recognizes also the family, and the peculiarity of the individual, as
+positive powers, to which the state must accord relative freedom. Plato
+sacrificed the family to the state, and must therefore have sacred
+marriages, nurseries, and common and public educational institutions.
+Each one shall do only that which he is fitted to do, and shall work at
+this only for the sake of perfecting it: to what he shall direct his
+energies, and in what he shall be instructed, shall be determined by the
+government, and the individuality consequently is not left free.
+Aristotle also will have for all the citizens the same education, which
+shall be common and public; but he allows, at the same time, an
+independence to the family and self-determination to the individual, so
+that a sphere of private life presents itself within the state: a
+difference by means of which a much broader sway of individuality is
+possible.
+
+——These two philosophers have come to represent two very different
+directions in Pedagogics, which at intervals, in certain stages of
+culture, reappear——the tyrannical guardianship of the state which
+assumes the work of education, tyrannical to the individual, and the
+free development of the liberal state-education, in opposition to
+idiosyncrasy and fate.——
+
+§ 215. The principle of æsthetic individuality reaches its highest
+manifestation when the individual, in the decay of public life, in the
+disappearance of all beautiful morality, isolates himself, and seeks to
+gain in his isolation such strength that he can bear the changes of
+external history around him with composure——"ataraxy." The Stoics sought
+to attain this end by turning their attention inward into pure
+internality, and thus, by preserving the self-determination of abstract
+thinking and willing, maintaining an identity with themselves: the
+Epicureans endeavored to do the same, with this difference however, that
+they strove after a positive satisfaction of the senses by filling them
+with concrete pleasurable sensations. As a consequence of this, the
+Stoics isolated themselves in order to maintain themselves in the
+exclusiveness of their internal unconditioned relation to themselves,
+while the Epicureans lived in companies, because they achieved the
+reality of their pleasure-seeking principle through harmony of feeling
+and through the sweetness of friendship. In so far the Epicureans were
+Greeks and the Stoics Romans. With both, however, the beauty of
+manifestation was secondary to the immobility of the inner feeling. The
+plastic attainment of the Good and the Beautiful was cancelled in the
+abstraction of thinking and feeling. This was the advent of the Roman
+principle among the Greeks.
+
+§ 216. The pedagogical significance of Stoicism and Epicureanism
+consists in this, that, after the moral life in public and in private
+were sundered from each other, the individual began to educate himself,
+through philosophical culture, into stability of character, for which
+reason the Roman emperors particularly disliked the Stoics. At many
+times, a resignation to the Stoic philosophy was sufficient to make one
+suspected. But, at last, the noble emperor, in order to win himself a
+hold in the chaos of things, was forced himself to become a Stoic and to
+flee to the inaccessible stillness of the self-thinking activity and the
+self-moving will. Stoics and Epicureans had both what we call an ideal.
+The Stoics used the expression "kingdom"; as Horace says, sarcastically,
+"_Sapiens rex est nisi——pituita molesta est_."
+
+
+II. _Practical Education._
+
+§ 217. The truth of the solution of the beautiful individuality is the
+promise of the activity conformable to its purpose [i.e. teleological
+activity], which on the one hand considers carefully end and means, and
+on the other hand seeks to realize the end through the corresponding
+means, and in this deed subjects mere beauty of form. The practical
+individuality is therefore externally conditioned, since it is not its
+own end like the Beautiful, whether Stoical or Epicurean, but has an
+end, and finds its satisfaction not so much in this after it is attained
+as in the striving for its attainment.
+
+§ 218. The education of this system begins with very great simplicity.
+But after it has attained its object, it abandons itself to using the
+results of æsthetic culture as a recreation without any specific object.
+What was to the Greeks a real delight in the Beautiful became therefore
+with the Romans simply an æsthetic amusement, and as such must finally
+be wearisome. The earnestness of individuality made itself in mysticism
+into a new aim, which was distinguished from the original one in that it
+concealed in itself a mystery and exacted a theoretically æsthetic
+practice.
+
+§ 219. (1) The first epoch of Roman education, as properly Roman, was
+the juristic-military education of the republic. The end and aim of the
+Roman was Rome; and Rome, as from the beginning an eclectic state, could
+endure only while its laws and external politics were conformable to
+some end. It bore the same contradiction within itself as in its
+external attitude. This forced it into robbery, and the plebeians were
+related to the patricians in the same way, for they robbed them
+gradually of all their privileges. On this account education directed
+itself partly to giving a knowledge of the Law, partly to communicating
+a capacity for war. The boys were obliged to commit to memory and recite
+the laws of the twelve tables, and all the youths were subject to
+military service. The Roman possessed no individuality of native growth,
+but one mediated through the intermingling of various fugitives, which
+developed a very great energy. Hence from the first he was attentive to
+himself, he watched jealously over the limits of his rights and the
+rights of others, measured his strength, moderated himself, and
+constantly guarded himself. In contrast with the careless cheerfulness
+of the Greeks, he therefore appears gloomy.
+
+——The Latin tongue is crowded with expressions which paint presence of
+mind, effort at reflection, a critical attitude of mind, the importance
+of personal control: as _gravitas morum, sui compos esse, sibi constare,
+austeritas, vir strenuus, vir probus, vitam honestam gerere, sibimet
+ipse imperare_, &c. The Etruscan element imparted to this earnestness an
+especially solemn character. The Roman was no more, like the Greek,
+unembarrassed at naturalness. He was ashamed of nakedness; _verecundia,
+pudor_, were genuinely Roman. _Vitam præferre pudori_ was shameful. On
+the contrary, the Greek gave to Greeks a festival in exhibiting the
+splendor of his naked body, and the inhabitants of Crotona erected a
+statue to Philip only because he was so perfectly beautiful. Simply to
+be beautiful, only beautiful, was enough for the Greek. But a Roman, in
+order to be recognized, must have done something for Rome: _se bene de
+republica mereri_.——
+
+§ 220. In the first education of children the agency of the mother is
+especially influential, so that woman with the Romans took generally a
+more moral, a higher, and a freer position. It is worthy of remark that
+while, as the beautiful, she set the Greeks at variance, among the
+Romans, through her ethical authority, she acted as reconciler.
+
+§ 221. The mother of the Roman helped to form his character; the father
+undertook the work of instruction. When in his fifteenth year the boy
+exchanged the _toga prætextata_ for the _toga virilis_, he was usually
+sent to some relative, or to some jurist, as his guardian, to learn
+thoroughly, under his guidance, of the laws and of the state; with the
+seventeenth began military service. All education was for a long time
+entirely a private affair. On account of the necessity of a mechanical
+unity in work which war demands, the greatest stress was laid upon
+obedience. In its restricted sense education comprised Reading, Writing,
+and Arithmetic; the last being, on account of its usefulness, more
+esteemed by the Romans than by the Greeks, who gave more time to
+Geometry. The schools, very characteristically, were called _Ludi_,
+because their work was, in distinction from other practice, regarded
+simply as a recreation, as play.
+
+——The Roman recognized with pride this distinction between the Greek and
+himself; Cicero's Introduction to his Essay on Oratory expresses it. To
+be practical was always the effort of the reflective character of the
+Romans, which was always placing new ends and seeking the means for
+their attainment; which loved moderation, not to secure beauty thereby,
+but respected it as a means for a happy success (_medium tenuere
+beati_); which did not possess serene self-limitation, or σωφροσύνη, but
+calculation _quid valeant humeri, quid ferre recusent_; but which, in
+general, went far beyond the Greeks in persistency of will, in
+_constantia animi_. The schools were at first held publicly in shops;
+hence the name _trivium_. Very significant for the Roman is the
+predicate which he conferred upon theoretical subjects when he called
+them _artes bonæ_, _optimæ_, _liberales_, _ingenuæ_, &c., and brought
+forth the practical element in them.——
+
+§ 222. (2) But the practical education could no longer keep its ground
+after it had become acquainted with the æsthetic. The conquest of
+Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt, made necessary, in a practical point of
+view, the acquisition of the Grecian tongue, so that these lands, so
+permeated with Grecian culture, might be thoroughly ruled. The Roman of
+family and property, therefore, took into his service Greek nurses and
+teachers who should give to his children, from their earliest years,
+Greek culture. It is, in the history of education, a great evil when a
+nation undertakes to teach a foreign tongue to its youth. Then the
+necessity of trade with the Greeks caused the study of Rhetoric, so that
+not only in the deliberations of the senate and people, but in law, the
+ends might be better attained. Whatever effort the Roman government made
+to prevent the invasion of the Greek rhetorician was all in vain. The
+Roman youth sought for this knowledge, which was so necessary to them in
+foreign lands, e.g. in the flourishing school of rhetoric on the island
+of Rhodes. At last, even the study of Philosophy commended itself to the
+practical Roman, in order that he might recover for himself confidence
+amid the disappointments of life. When his practical life did not bring
+him any result, he devoted himself in his poverty to abstract
+contemplation. The Greeks would have Philosophy for its own sake; the
+ataraxy of the Stoics, Epicureans, and Skeptics even, desired the result
+of a necessary principle; but the Roman, on the contrary, wished to lift
+himself by philosophemes above trouble and misfortune.
+
+——This direction which Philosophy took is noteworthy, not alone in
+Cicero and Seneca, but at the fall of the Roman empire, when Boethius
+wrote in his prison his immortal work on the consolations of
+Philosophy.——
+
+§ 223. The earnestness which sought a definite end degenerated in the
+very opposite of activity with him who had no definite aim. The idleness
+of the wealthy Roman, who felt himself to be the lord of a limitless
+world, devoted itself to dissipation and desire for enjoyment, which, in
+its entire want of moderation, abused nature. The finest form of the
+extant education was that in _belles-lettres_, which also for the first
+time came to belong to the sphere of Pedagogics. There had been a
+degeneration of art in India and Greece, and also an artistic trifling.
+But in Rome there arose a pursuit of art in order to win a certain
+consideration in social position, and to create for one's self a
+recreation in the emptiness of a soul satiated with sensual debauchery.
+Such a seizing of art is frivolous, for it no longer recognizes its
+absoluteness, and subordinates it as a means to subjective egotism.
+Literary _salons_ then appear.
+
+——In the introduction to his _Cataline_, Sallust has painted
+excellently this complete revolution in the Roman education. The younger
+Pliny in his letters furnishes ample material to illustrate to us this
+pursuit of _belles-lettres_. In Nero it became idiotic. We should
+transgress our prescribed limits did we enter here into particulars. An
+analysis would show the perversion of the æsthetic into the practical,
+the æsthetic losing thereby its proper nature. But the Roman could not
+avoid this perversion, because, according to his original aim, he could
+not move except towards the _utile et honestum_.——
+
+§ 224. (3) But this pursuit of fine art, this aimless parade, must at
+last weary the Roman. He sought for himself again an object to which he
+could vigorously devote himself. His sovereignty was assured, and
+conquest as an object could no more charm him. The national religion had
+fallen with the destruction of the national individuality. The soul
+looked out over its historical life into an empty void. It sought to
+establish a relation between itself and the next world by means of
+dæmonic forces, and in place of the depreciated nationality and its
+religion we find the eclecticism of the mystic society. There were, it
+is true, in national religions certain secret signs, rites, words, and
+meanings; but now, for the first time in the history of the world, there
+appeared mysteries as pedagogical societies, which concerned themselves
+only with private things and were indifferent to nationality. Everything
+was profaned by the roughness of violence. Man believed no longer in the
+old gods, and the superstitious faith in ghosts became only a thing fit
+to frighten children with. Thus man took refuge in secrecy, which had
+for his satiety a piquant charm.
+
+§ 225. The education of the mysteries was twofold, theoretical and
+practical. In the theoretical we find a regular gradation of symbols and
+symbolical acts through which one seemed gradually to attain to the
+revelation of the secret; the practical contained a regular gradation of
+ascetic actions alternating with an abandonment to wild orgies. Both
+raised one from the rank of the novice to that of the initiated. In the
+higher orders they formed an ethical code of laws, and this form
+Pedagogics has retained in all such secret culture, _mutatis mutandis_,
+down to the Illuminati.
+
+——In the Roman empire, its Persian element was the worship of Mithras;
+its Egyptian, that of Isis; its Grecian, the Pythagorean doctrines. All
+these three, however, were much mingled with each other. The Roman
+legions, who really no longer had any native country, bore these
+artificial religions throughout the whole world. The confusion of
+excitement led often to Somnambulism, which was not yet understood, and
+to belief in miracles. Apollonius of Tyana, the messiah of Ethnicism, is
+the principal figure in this group; and, in comparison with him,
+Jamblichus appears only as an enthusiast and Alexander of Abonoteichos
+as an impostor.——
+
+
+III. _Abstract Individual Education._
+
+§ 226. What the despair of the declining nations sought for in these
+mysteries was Individuality, which in its singularity is conscious of
+the universality of the rational spirit, as its own essence. This
+individuality existed more immediately in the Germanic race, which
+nevertheless, on account of its nature, formed first in Christianity its
+true actualization. It can be here only pointed out that they most
+thoroughly, in opposition to nature, to men, and to the gods, felt
+themselves to be independent; as Tacitus says, "_Securi adversus
+homines, securi adversus Deos_." This individuality, which had only
+itself for an end, must necessarily be destroyed, and was saved only by
+Christianity, which overcame and enlightened its dæmonic and defiant
+spirit. We cannot speak here of a system of Education. Respect for
+personality, the free acknowledgment of the claims of woman, the loyalty
+to the leader chosen by themselves, loyalty to their friends (the idea
+of fellowship),——these features should all be well-noted, because from
+them arose the feudalism of the middle ages. What Cæsar and Tacitus tell
+us of the education of the Germans expresses only the emancipation of
+individuality, which in its immediate crudeness had no other form in
+which to manifest itself than wars of conquest.
+
+——To the Roman there was something dæmonic in the German. He perceived
+dimly in him his future, his master. When the Romans were to meet the
+Cimbri and Teutons in the field, their commander had first to accustom
+them for a whole day to the fearful sight of the wild, giant-like
+forms.——
+
+
+SECOND DIVISION.
+
+THE SYSTEM OF THEOCRATIC EDUCATION.
+
+§ 227. The system of National Education founded its first stage on the
+substantial basis of the family-spirit; its second stage on the division
+of the nation by means of division of labor which it makes permanent in
+castes; its third stage presents the free opposition of the laity and
+clergy; in its next phase it makes war, immortality, and trade, by
+turns, its end; thirdly, it posits beauty, patriotic youth, and the
+immediateness of individuality, as the essence of mankind, and at last
+dissolves the unity of nationality in the consciousness that all nations
+are really one since they are all human beings. In the intermixture of
+races in the Roman world arises the conception of the human race, the
+_genus humanum_. Education had become eclectic: the Roman legions
+levelled the national distinctions. In the wavering of all objective
+morality, the necessity of self-education in order to the formation of
+character appeared ever more and more clearly; but the conception, which
+lay at the foundation, was always, nevertheless, that of Roman, Greek,
+or German education. But in the midst of these nations another system
+had striven for development, and this did not base itself on the natural
+connection of nationality, but made this, for the first time, only a
+secondary thing, and made the direct relation of man to God its chief
+idea. In this system God himself is the teacher. He manifests to man His
+will as law, to which he must unconditionally conform for no other
+reason than that He is the Lord, and man His servant, who can have no
+other will than His. The obedience of man is therefore, in this system,
+abstract until through experience he gradually attains to the knowledge
+that the will of God has in it the very essence of his own will.
+Descent, Talent, Events, Work, Beauty, Courage,——all these are
+indifferent things compared with the subjection of the human to the
+divine will. To be well-pleasing to God is almost the same as belief in
+Him. Without this identity, what is natural in national descent is of no
+value. According to its form of manifestation, Judaism is below the
+Greek spirit. It is not beautiful, but rather grotesque. But in its
+essence, as the religion of the contradiction between the idea and its
+existence, it goes beyond nature, which it perceives to be established
+by an absolute, conscious, and reasonable Will; while the Greek
+concealed from himself only mythically his dependence on nature, on his
+mother-earth. The Jews have been preserved in the midst of all other
+culture by the elastic power of the thought of God as One who was free
+from the control of nature. The Jews have a patriotism in common with
+the Romans. The Maccabees, for example, were not inferior to the Romans
+in greatness.
+
+——Abraham is the genuine Jew because he is the genuinely faithful man.
+He does not hesitate to obey the horrible and inhuman command of his
+God. Circumcision was made the token of the national unity, but the
+nation may assimilate members to itself from other nations through this
+rite. The condition always lies in belief in a spiritual relation to
+which the relation of nationality is secondary. The Jewish nation makes
+proselytes, and these are widely different from the _Socii_ of the
+Romans or the _Metoeci_ of the Athenians.——
+
+§ 228. To the man who knows Nature to be the work of a single,
+incomparable, rational Creator, she loses independence. He is negatively
+freed from her control, and sees in her only an absolute means. As
+opposed to the fanciful sensuous intuitions of Ethnicism, this seems to
+be a backward step, but for the emancipation of man it is a progress. He
+no longer fears Nature but her Lord, and admires Him so much that prose
+rises to the dignity of poetry in his telological contemplation. Since
+man stands over and beyond nature, education is directed to morality as
+such, and spreads itself out in innumerable limitations, by means of
+which the distinction of man from nature is expressly asserted as a
+difference. The ceremonial law appears often arbitrary, but in its
+prescriptions it gives man the satisfaction of placing himself as will
+in relation to will. For example, if he is forbidden to eat any
+specified part of an animal, the ground of this command is not merely
+natural——it is the will of the Deity. Man learns therefore, in his
+obedience to such directions, to free himself from his self-will, from
+his natural desires. This exact outward conformity to subjectivity is
+the beginning of wisdom, the purification of the will from all
+individual egotism.
+
+——The rational substance of the Law is found always in the Decalogue.
+Many of our modern much-admired authors exhibit a superficiality
+bordering on shallowness when they comment alone on the absurdity of the
+miracles, and abstract from the profound depth of the moral struggle,
+and from the practical rationality of the ten commandments.——
+
+§ 229. Education in this theocratical system is on one side patriarchal.
+The Family is very prominent, because it is considered to be a great
+happiness for the individual to belong from his very earliest life to
+the company of those who believe in the true God. On its other side it
+is hierarchical, as its ceremonial law develops a special office, which
+is to see that obedience is paid to its multifarious regulations. And,
+because these are often perfectly arbitrary, Education must, above all,
+practise the memory in learning them all, so that they may always be
+remembered. The Jewish monotheism shares this necessity with the
+superstition of ethnicism.
+
+§ 230. But the technique proper of the mechanism is not the most
+important pedagogical element of the theocracy. We find this in its
+historical significance, since its history throughout has a pedagogical
+character. For the people of God show us always, in their changing
+intercourse with their God, a progress from the external to the
+internal, from the lower to the higher, from the past to the future. Its
+history, therefore, abounds in situations very interesting in a
+pedagogical point of view, and in characters which are eternal models.
+
+§ 231. (1) The will of God as the absolute authority is at first to
+them, as law, external. But soon God adds to the command to obedience,
+on one hand, the inducement of a promise of material prosperity, and on
+the other hand the threat of material punishment. The fulfilment of the
+law is also encouraged by reflection on the profit which it brings. But,
+since these motives are all external, they rise finally into the insight
+that the law is to be fulfilled, not on their account, but because it is
+the will of the Lord; not alone because it is conducive to our
+happiness, but also because it is in itself holy, and written in our
+hearts: in other words, man proceeds from the abstract legality, through
+the reflection of eudæmonism, to the internality of moral sentiment——the
+course of all education.
+
+——This last stand-point is especially represented in the excellent
+Gnomic of Jesus Sirach——a book so rich in pedagogical insight, which
+paints with master-strokes the relations of husband and wife, parents
+and children, master and servants, friend and friend, enemy and enemy,
+and the dignity of labor as well as the necessity of its division. This
+priceless book forms a side-piece from the theocratic stand-point to the
+_Republic_ of Plato and his laws on ethical government.——
+
+§ 232. (2) The progress from the lower to the higher appeared in the
+conquering of the natural individuality. Man, as the servant of Jehovah,
+must have no will of his own; but selfish naturalness arrayed itself so
+much the more vigorously against the abstract "Thou shalt," allowed
+itself to descend into an abstraction from the Law, and often reached
+the most unbridled extravagance. But since the Law in inexorable might
+always remained the same, always persistent, in distinction from the
+inequalities of the deed of man, it forced him to come back to it, and
+to conform himself to its demands. Thus he learned criticism, thus he
+rose from naturalness into spirit. This progress is at the same time a
+progress from necessity to freedom, because criticism always gradually
+opens a way for man into insight, so that he finds the will of God to be
+the truth of his own self-determination. Because God is one and
+absolute, there arises the expectation that His Will will become the
+basis for the will of all nations and men. The criticism of the
+understanding must recognize a contradiction in the fact that the will
+of the true God is the law of only one nation; feared by other nations,
+moreover, by reason of their very worship of God as a gloomy mystery,
+and detested as _odium generis humani_. And thus is developed the
+thought that the isolation of the believers will come to an end as soon
+as the other nations recognize their faith as the true one, and are
+received into it. Thus here, out of the deepest penetration of the soul
+into itself, as among the Romans out of the fusion of nations, we see
+appear the idea of the human race.
+
+§ 233. (3) The progress from the past to the future unfolded the ideal
+servant of God who fulfils all the Law, and so blots out the empirical
+contradiction that the "Thou shalt" of the Law attains no adequate
+actuality. This Prince of Peace, who shall gather all nations under his
+banner, can therefore have no other thing predicated of him than
+Holiness. He is not beautiful as the Greeks represented their ideal, not
+brave and practical as was the venerated _Virtus_ of the Romans; he does
+not place an infinite value on his individuality as the German does: but
+he is represented as insignificant in appearance, as patient, as humble,
+as he who, in order to reconcile the world, takes upon himself the
+infirmities and disgrace of all others. The ethnical nations have only a
+lost Paradise behind them; the Jews have one also before them. From this
+belief in the Messiah who is to come, from the certainty which they have
+of conquering with him, from the power of esteeming all things of small
+importance in view of such a future, springs the indestructible nature
+of the Jews. They ignore the fact that Christianity is the necessary
+result of their own history. As the nation that is to be (_des
+Seinsollens_), they are merely a historical nation, the nation among
+nations, whose education——whenever the Jew has not changed and corrupted
+its nature through modern culture——is still always patriarchal,
+hierarchal, and mnemonic.
+
+
+THIRD DIVISION.
+
+THE SYSTEM OF HUMANITARIAN EDUCATION
+
+§ 234. The systems of national and theocratic education came to the
+same result, though by different ways, and this result is the conception
+of a human race in the unity of which the distinctions of different
+nations find their Truth. But with them this result is only a
+conception, being a thing external to their actuality. They arrive at
+the painting of an ideal of the way in which the Messiah shall come. But
+these ideals exist only in the mind, and the actual condition of the
+people sometimes does not correspond to them at all, and sometimes only
+very relatively. The idea of spirit had in these presuppositions the
+possibility of its concrete actualization; one individual man must
+become conscious of the universality and necessity of the will as being
+the very essence of his own freedom, so that all heteronomy should be
+cancelled in the autonomy of spirit. Natural individuality appearing as
+national determinateness was still acknowledged, but was deprived of its
+abstract isolation. The divine authority of the truth of the individual
+will is to be recognized, but at the same time freed from its
+estrangement towards itself. While Christ was a Jew and obedient to the
+divine Law, he knew himself as the universal man who determines himself
+to his own destiny; and while only distinguishing God, as subject, from
+himself, yet holds fast to the unity of man and God. The system of
+humanitarian education began to unfold from this principle, which no
+longer accords the highest place to the natural unity of national
+individuality, nor to the abstract obedience of the command of God, but
+to that freedom of the soul which knows itself to be absolute necessity.
+Christ is not a mere ideal of the thought, but is known as a living
+member of actual history, whose life, sufferings and death for freedom
+form the security as to its absolute justification and truth. The
+æsthetic, philosophical, and political ideal are all found in the
+universal nature of the Christian ideal, on which account no one of them
+appears one-sided in the life of Christ. The principle of Human Freedom
+excludes neither art, nor science, nor political feeling.
+
+§ 235. In its conception of man the humanitarian education includes both
+the national divisions and the subjection of all men to the divine law,
+but it will no longer endure that one should grow into an isolating
+exclusiveness, and another into a despotism which includes in it
+somewhat of the accidental. But this principle of humanity and human
+nature took root so slowly that its presuppositions were repeated within
+itself and were really conquered in this reproduction. These stages of
+culture were the Greek, the Roman, and the Protestant churches, and
+education was metamorphosed to suit the formation of each of these.
+
+——For the sake of brevity we would wish to close with these general
+definitions; the unfolding of their details is intimately bound up with
+the history of politics and of civilization. We shall be contented if we
+give correctly the general whole.——
+
+§ 236. Within education we can distinguish three epochs: the monkish,
+the chivalric, and that education which is to fit one for civil life.
+Each of these endeavored to express all that belonged to humanity as
+such; but it was only after the recognition of the moral nature of the
+Family, of Labor, of Culture, and of the conscious equal title of all
+men to their rights, that this became really possible.
+
+
+I. _The Epoch of Monkish Education._
+
+§ 237. The Greek Church seized the Christian principle still abstractly
+as deliverance from the world, and therefore, in the education
+proceeding from it, it arrived only at the negative form, positing the
+universality of the individual man as the renunciation of self. In the
+dogmatism of its teaching, as well as in the ascetic severity of its
+practical conduct, it was a reproduction of the theocratic principle.
+But when this had assumed the form of national centralization, the Greek
+Church dispensed with this, and, as far as regards its form, it returned
+again to the quietism of the Orient.
+
+§ 238. The monkish education is in general identical in all religions,
+in that, through the egotism of its way of living and the stoicism of
+its way of thinking, through the separation of its external existence
+and the mechanism of a thoughtless subjection to a general rule as well
+as to the special command of superiors, it fosters a spiritual and
+bodily dulness. The Christian monachism, therefore, as the fulfilment of
+monachism in general, is at the same time its absolute dissolution,
+because, in its merely abstracting itself from the world instead of
+affirmatively conquering it, it contradicts the very principle of
+Christianity.
+
+§ 239. We must notice as the fundamental error of this whole system,
+that it does not in free individuality seek to produce the ideal of
+divine-humanity, but to copy in external reproduction its historical
+manifestation. Each human being must individually offer up as sacrifice
+his own individuality. Each biography has its Bethlehem, its Tabor, and
+its Golgotha.
+
+§ 240. Monachism looks upon freedom from one's self and from the world
+which Christianity demands only as an abstract renunciation of self,
+which it seeks to compass, like Buddhism, by the vow of poverty,
+chastity, and obedience, which must be taken by each individual for all
+time.
+
+——This rejection of property, of marriage, and of self-will, is at the
+same time the negation of work, of the family, and of responsibility for
+one's actions. In order to avoid the danger of avarice and covetousness,
+of sensuality and of nepotism, of error and of guilt, monachism seizes
+the convenient way of abstract severance from all the objective world
+without being able fully to carry out this negation. Monkish Pedagogics
+must, in consequence, be very particular about an external separation of
+their disciples from the world, so as to make the work of abstraction
+from the world easier and more decided. It therefore builds cloisters in
+the solitude of deserts, in the depth of forests, on the summits of
+mountains, and surrounds them with high walls having no apertures; and
+then, so as to carry the isolation of the individual to its farthest
+possible extreme it constructs, within these cloisters, cells, in
+imitation of the ancient hermits——a seclusion the immediate consequence
+of which is the most limitless and most paltry curiosity.——
+
+§ 241. Theoretically the monkish Pedagogics seeks, by means of the
+greatest possible silence, to place the soul in a state of spiritual
+immobility, which at last, through the want of all variety of thought,
+goes over into entire apathy, and antipathy towards all intellectual
+culture. The principal feature of the practical culture consists in the
+misapprehension that one should ignore Nature, instead of morally
+freeing himself from her control. As she, again and again asserts
+herself, the monkish discipline proceeds to misuse her, and strives
+through fasting, through sleeplessness, through voluntary self-inflicted
+pain and martyrdom, not only to subdue the wantonness of the flesh, but
+to destroy the love of life till it shall become a positive loathing of
+existence. In and for itself the object of the monkish vow——property,
+the family, and will——is not immoral. The vow is, on this account, very
+easy to violate. In order to prevent all temptation to this, monkish
+Pedagogics invents a system of supervision, partly open, partly secret,
+which deprives one of all freedom of action, all freshness of thinking
+and of willing, and all poetry of feeling, by means of the perpetual
+shadow of spies and informers. The monks are well versed in all
+police-arts, and the regular succession of the hierarchy spurs them on
+always to distinguish themselves in them.
+
+§ 242. The gloomy breath of this education penetrated all the relations
+of the Byzantine State. Even the education of the emperor was infected
+by it; and in the strife for freedom waged by the modern Greeks against
+the Turks, the _Igumeni_ of the cloisters were the real leaders of the
+insurrection. The independence of individuality, as opposed to monkish
+abstraction, more or less degenerates into the crude form of soldier and
+pirate life. And thus it happened that this principle was not left to
+appear merely as an exception, but to be built up positively into
+humanity; and this the German world, under the guidance of the Roman
+Church, undertook to accomplish.
+
+
+II. _The Epoch of Chivalric Education._
+
+§ 243. The Romish Church negated the abstract substantiality of the
+Greeks through the practical aim which she in her sanctity in works
+founded, and by means of which she raised up German individuality to the
+idealism of chivalry, i.e. a free military service in behalf of
+Christendom.
+
+§ 244. It is evident that the system of monkish education was taken up
+into this epoch as one of its elements, being modified to conform to it:
+e.g. the Benedictines were accustomed to labor in agriculture and in the
+transcribing of books, and this contradicted the idea of monachism,
+since that in and for itself tends to an absolute forgetfulness of the
+world and a perfect absence of all activity in the individual. The
+begging orders were public preachers, and made popular the idea of love
+and unselfish devotion to others. They labored toward self-education,
+especially by means of the ideal of the life of Christ; e.g. in Tauler's
+classical book on the Imitation of Jesus, and in the work of
+Thomas-à-Kempis which resembles it. Through a fixed contemplative
+communion with the conception of the Christ who suffered and died for
+Love, they sought to find content in divine rest and self-abandonment.
+
+§ 245. German chivalry sprang from Feudalism. The education of those
+pledged to military duty had become confined to practice in the use of
+arms. The education of the chivalric vassals pursued the same course,
+refining it gradually through the influence of court society and through
+poetry, which devoted itself either to the relating of graceful tales
+which were really works of art, or to the glorification of woman. Girls
+were brought up without especial care. The boy until he was seven years
+old remained in the hands of women; then he became a lad (a young
+gentleman), and learned the manner of offensive and defensive warfare,
+on foot and on horseback; between his sixteenth and eighteenth year,
+through a formal ceremony (the laying on of the sword), he was duly
+authorized to bear arms. But whatever besides this he might wish to
+learn was left to his own caprice.
+
+§ 246. In contradistinction to the monkish education, Chivalry placed an
+infinite value on individuality, and this it expressed in its extreme
+sensibility to the feeling of honor. Education, on this account,
+endeavored to foster this reflection of the self upon itself by means of
+the social isolation in which it placed knighthood. The knight did not
+delight himself with common possessions, but he sought for him who had
+been wronged, since with him he could find enjoyment as a conqueror. He
+did not live in simple marriage, but strove for the piquant pleasure of
+making the wife of another the lady of his heart, and this often led to
+moral and physical infidelity. And, finally, the knight did not obey
+alone the general laws of knightly honor, but he strove, besides, to
+discover for himself strange things, which he should undertake with his
+sword, in defiance of all criticism, simply because it pleased his
+caprice so to do. He _sought adventures_.
+
+§ 247. The reaction against the innumerable number of fantastic
+extravagancies arising from chivalry was the idea of the spiritual
+chivalry which was to unite the cloister and the town, abstract
+self-denial and military life, separation from the world and the
+sovereignty of the world——an undeniable advance, but an untenable
+synthesis which could not prevent the dissolution of chivalry——this
+chivalry, which, as the rule of the stronger, induced for a long time
+the destruction of all regular culture founded on principles, and
+brought a period of absence of all education. In this perversion of
+chivalry to a grand vagabondism, and even to robbery, noble souls often
+rushed into ridiculous excesses. This decline of chivalry found its
+truth in Citizenship, whose education, however, did not, like the
+πόλις and the _civitas_ of the ancients, limit itself to itself, but,
+through the presence of the principle of Christianity, accepted the
+whole circle of humanity as the aim of its culture.
+
+
+III. _The Epoch of Education fitting one for Civil Life._
+
+§ 248. The idea of the State had gradually worked itself up to a higher
+plane with trade and industry, and found in Protestantism its spiritual
+confirmation. Protestantism, as the self assurance of the individual
+that he was directly related to God without any dependence on the
+mediation of any man, rose to the truth in the autonomy of the soul, and
+began out of the abstract phantasmagoria of monachism and chivalry to
+develope Christianity, as the principle of humanitarian education, into
+concrete actuality. The cities were not merely, in comparison with the
+clergy and the nobility, the "third estate"; but the citizen who himself
+managed his commonwealth, and defended its interests with arms,
+developed into the citizen of a state which absorbed the clergy and
+nobility, and the state-citizen found his ultimate ideal in pure
+Humanity as cognized through reason.
+
+§ 249. The phases of this development are (1) Civil education as such,
+in which we find chivalric education metamorphosed into the so-called
+noble, both however being controlled as to education, within Catholicism
+by Jesuitism, within Protestantism by Pietism. (2) Against this tendency
+to the church, we find reacting on the one hand the devotion to a study
+of antiquity, and on the other the friendly alliance to immediate
+actuality, i.e. with Nature. We can name these periods of Pedagogics
+those of its ideals of culture. (3) But the truth of all culture must
+forever remain moral freedom. After Education had arrived at a knowledge
+of the meaning of Idealism and Realism, it must seize as its absolute
+aim the moral emancipation of man into Humanity; and it must conform its
+culture by this aim, since technical dexterity, friendly adroitness,
+proficiency in the arts, and scientific insight, can attain to their
+proper rank only through moral purity.
+
+
+_1. Civil Education as such._
+
+§ 250. The one-sidedness of monkish and chivalric education was
+cancelled by civil education inasmuch as it destroyed the celibacy of
+the monk and the estrangement of the knight from his family, doing this
+by means of the inner life of the family; for it substituted, in the
+place of the negative emptiness of the duty of holiness of the celibate,
+the positive morality of marriage and the family; while, instead of the
+abstract poverty and the idleness of the monkish piety and of
+knighthood, it asserted that property was the object of labor, i.e. it
+asserted the self-governed morality of civil society and of commerce;
+and, finally, instead of the servitude of the conscience in
+unquestioning obedience to the command of others, and instead of the
+freakish self-sufficiency of the caprice of the knights, it demanded
+obedience to the laws of the commonwealth as representing his own
+self-conscious, actualized, practical Reason, in which laws the
+individual can recognize and acknowledge himself.
+
+——As this civil education left free the sensuous enjoyment, freedom in
+this was without bounds for a time, until, after men became accustomed
+to labor and to their freedom of action, the possibility of enjoyment
+created from within outward a moderation which sumptuary laws and
+prohibitions of gluttony, drunkenness, &c., could never create from the
+external side. What the monk inconsistently enjoyed with a bad
+conscience, the citizen and the clergyman could take possession of as a
+gift of God. After the first millennium of Christianity, when the earth
+had not, according to the current prophecies, been destroyed, and after
+the great plague in the fourteenth century, there was felt an immense
+pleasure in living, which manifested itself externally in the fifteenth
+century in delicate wines, dainty food, great eating of meat, drinking
+of beer, and, in the domain of dress, in peaked shoes, plumes, golden
+chains, bells, &c. There was much venison, but, as yet, no potatoes, tea
+and coffee, &c. The feeling of men was quarrelsome. For a more exact
+painting of the Education of this time, very valuable authors are
+Sebastian Brant, Th. Murner, Ulrich von Hutten, Fischart, and Hans
+Sachs. Gervinus is almost the only one who has understood how to make
+this material useful in its relation to spirit.——
+
+§ 251. In contrast with the heaven-seeking of the monks and the
+sentimental love-making of the knight, civil education established, as
+its principle, Usefulness, which traced out in things their conformity
+to a proposed end in order to gain as great a mastery over them as
+possible. The understanding was trained with all exactness that it might
+clearly seize all the circumstances. But since family-life did not allow
+the egotism of the individual ever to become as great as was the case
+with the monk and the knight, and since the cheer of a sensuous
+enjoyment in cellar and kitchen, in clothing and furniture, in common
+games and in picturesque parades, penetrated the whole being with soft
+pleasure, there was developed with all propriety and sobriety a
+house-morality, and, with all the prose of labor, a warm and kindly
+disposition, which left room for innocent merriment and roguery, and
+found, in conformity to religious services, its serious transfiguration.
+Beautiful burgher-state, thou wast weakened by the thirty years' war,
+and hast been only accidentally preserved sporadically in Old England
+and in some places in Germany, only to be at last swept away by the
+flood of modern world-pain, political sophistry, and anxiety for the
+future!
+
+§ 252. The citizen paid special attention to public education,
+heretofore wholly dependent upon the church and the cloister; he
+organized city schools, whose teachers, it is true, for a long time
+compassed only accidental culture, and were often employed only for
+tumultuous and short terms. The society of the brotherhood of the
+Hieronymites introduced a better system of instruction before the close
+of the fourteenth century, but education had often to be obtained from
+the so-called travelling scholars (_vagantes_, _bacchantes_,
+_scholastici_, _goliardi_). The teachers of the so-called _scholæ
+exteriores_, in distinction from the schools of the cathedral and
+cloister, were called now _locati_, then _stampuales_——in German,
+_Kinder-Meister_. The institution of German schools soon followed the
+Latin city schools. In order to remove the anarchy in school matters,
+the citizens aided the rise of universities by donations and
+well-invested funds, and sustained the street-singing of the city
+scholars (_currende_), an institution which was well-meant, but which
+often failed of its end because on the one hand it was often misused as
+a mere means of subsistence, and on the other hand the sense of honor of
+those to whom it was devoted not unfrequently became, through their
+manner of living, lowered to humiliation. The defect of the monkish
+method of instruction became ever more apparent, e.g. the silly tricks
+of their mnemotechnique, the utter lack of anything which deserved the
+name of any practical knowledge, &c. The necessity of instruction in the
+use of arms led to democratic forms. Printing favored the same. Men
+began to concern themselves about good text-books. Melanchthon was the
+hero of the Protestant world, and as a pattern was beyond his time. His
+Dialectics, Rhetoric, Physics, and Ethics, were reprinted innumerable
+times, commented upon, and imitated. After him Amos Comenius, in the
+seventeenth century, had the greatest influence through his _Didactica
+Magna_ and his _Janua Reserta_. In a narrower sphere, treating of the
+foundation of Gymnasial Philology, the most noticeable is Sturm of
+Strasburg. The universities in Catholic countries limited themselves to
+the Scholastic Philosophy and Theology, together with which we find
+slowly struggling up the Roman Law and the system of Medicine from
+Bologna and Salerno. But Protestantism first raised the university to
+any real universality. Tübingen, Königsberg, Wittenberg, Jena, Leipzic,
+Halle, Göttingen, &c., were the first schools for the study of all
+sciences, and for their free and productive pursuit.
+
+§ 253. The Commons, which at first appeared with the clergy and the
+nobility as the Third Estate, formed an alliance with monarchy, and both
+together produced a transformation of the chivalric education.
+Absolutism reduced the knights to mere nobles, to whom it truly conceded
+the prerogative of appointment as spiritual prelates as well as officers
+and counsellors of state, but only on the condition of the most complete
+submission; and then, to satisfy them, it invented the artificial
+drinking festivals, of a splendid life at court, and a
+temptingly-impressive sovereignty of beauty. In this condition, the
+education of the nobles was essentially changed in so far as to cease to
+be alone military. To the art of war, which moreover was made so very
+much milder by the invention of fire-arms, must be now added an activity
+of the mind which could no longer dispense with some knowledge of
+History, Heraldry, Genealogy, Literature, and Mythology. Since the
+French nation soon enough gave tone to the style of conversation, and
+after the time of Louis XIV. controlled the politics of the continent,
+the French language, as conventional and diplomatic, became a constant
+element in the education of the nobility in all the other countries of
+Europe.
+
+——Practically the education of the noble endeavored to make the
+individual quite independent, so that he should, by means of the
+important quality of an advantageous personal appearance and the
+prudence of his agreeable behavior, make himself into a ruler of all
+other men, capable of enjoying his own position, i.e. he should copy in
+miniature the manners of an absolute sovereign. To this was added an
+empirical knowledge of men by means of ethical maxims, so that they
+might discover the weak side of every man, and so be able to outwit him.
+_Mundus vult decipi, ergo decipiatur._ According to this, every man had
+his price. They did not believe in the Nemesis of a divine destiny; on
+the contrary, disbelief in the higher justice was taught. One must be so
+elastic as to suit himself to all situations, and, as a caricature of
+the ancient ataraxy, he must acquire as a second nature a manner
+perfectly indifferent to all changes, the impassibility of an
+aristocratic repose, the amphibious _sang-froid_ of the "gentleman." The
+man in the world as the man of the world sought his ideal in endless
+dissimulation, and in this, as the flowering of his culture, he took the
+highest interest. Intrigue, in love as well as in politics, was the soul
+of the nobleman's existence.——
+
+——They endeavored to complete the refinement of manners by sending the
+young man away with a travelling tutor. This was very good, but
+degenerated at last into the mechanism of the foolish travelling of the
+tourist. The noble was made a foreigner, a stranger to his own country,
+by means of his abode at Paris or Venice, while the citizen gradually
+outstripped him in genuine culture.——
+
+§ 254. The education of the citizen as well as that of the noble was
+taken possession of, in Catholic countries by the Jesuits, in Protestant
+countries by the Pietists: by the first, with a military strictness; by
+the second, in a social and effeminate form. Both, however, agreed in
+destroying individuality, inasmuch as the one degraded man into a
+will-less machine for executing the commands of others, and the other
+deadened him in cultivating the feeling of his sinful worthlessness.
+
+
+(_a_) _Jesuitic Education._
+
+§ 255. Jesuitism combined the maximum of worldly freedom with an
+appearance of the greatest piety. Proceeding from this stand-point, it
+devoted itself in education to elegance and showy knowledge, to
+diplomacy and what was suitable and convenient in morals. To bring the
+future more into its power, it adapted itself not only to youth in
+general, but especially to the youth of the nobler classes. To please
+these, the Jesuits laid great stress upon a fine deportment. In their
+colleges dancing and fencing were well-taught. They knew how well they
+should by this course content the noble, who had by preference usurped
+the name of Education for this technical way of giving formal expression
+to personality.
+
+——In instruction they developed so exact a mechanism that they gained
+the reputation of having model school regulations, and even Protestants
+sent their children to them. From the close of the sixteenth century to
+the present time they have based their teaching upon the _ratio et
+institutio Studiorum Societatis Jesu_ of Claudius Aquaviva, and,
+following that, they distinguish two courses of teaching, a higher and a
+lower. The lower included nothing but an external knowledge of the Latin
+language, and some fortuitous knowledge of History, of Antiquities, and
+of Mythology. The memory was cultivated as a means of keeping down free
+activity of thought and clearness of judgment. The higher course
+comprehended Dialectics, Rhetoric, Physics, and Morals. Dialectics
+appeared in the form of Sophistry. In Rhetoric, they favored the
+polemical-emphatic style of the African fathers of the Church and their
+pompous phraseology; in Physics, they stopped with Aristotle, and
+especially advised the reading of the books _De Generatione et
+Corruptione_, and _De Coelo_, on which they commented after their
+fashion; finally, in Morals casuistic skepticism was their central
+point. They made much of Rhetoric on account of their sermons, giving to
+it much attention, and introduced especially Declamation. Contriving
+showy public examinations under the guise of Latin School Comedies, they
+thus amused the public, disposed them to approval, and at the same time
+quite innocently practised the pupil in dissimulation.——
+
+——Diplomacy in behavior was made necessary to the Jesuits as well by
+their strict military discipline as by their system of reciprocal
+mistrust, espionage, and informing. Abstract obedience was a reason for
+any act of the pupils, and they were freed from all responsibility as to
+its moral justification. This empirical exact following out of all
+commands, and refraining from any criticism as to principles, created a
+moral indifference, and, from the necessity of having consideration for
+the peculiarities and caprices of the superior on whom all others were
+dependent, arose eye-service, and the coldness of isolation sprang from
+the necessity which each felt of being on his guard against every other
+as against a tale-bearer. The most deliberate hypocrisy and pleasure in
+intrigue merely for the sake of intrigue——this most refined poison of
+moral corruption——were the result. Jesuitism had not only an interest in
+the material profit, which, when it had corrupted souls, fell to its
+share, but it also had an interest in the process of corruption. With
+absolute indifference as to the idea of morality, and absolute
+indifference as to the moral quality of the means used to attain its
+end, it rejoiced in the superiority of secrecy, of the accomplished and
+calculating understanding, and in deceiving the credulous by means of
+its graceful, seemingly-perfect, moral language.——
+
+——It is not necessary to speak here of the morality of the Order. It is
+sufficiently recognized as the contradiction, that the idea of morality
+insists upon the eternal necessity of every deed, but that in the
+realizing of the action all determinations should be made relative and
+should vary with the circumstances. As to discipline, they were always
+guided by their fundamental principle, that body and soul, as in and for
+themselves one, could vicariously suffer for each other. Thus penitence
+and contrition were transformed into a perfect materialism of outward
+actions, and hence arose the punishments of the Order, in which fasting,
+scourging, imprisonment, mortification, and death, were formed into a
+mechanical artificial system.——
+
+
+(_b_) _Pietistic Education._
+
+§ 256. Jesuitism would make machines of man, Pietism would dissolve
+him in the feeling of his sinfulness: either would destroy his
+individuality. Pietism proceeded from the principle of Protestantism,
+as, in the place of the Catholic Pelagianism with its sanctification by
+works, it offered justication by faith alone. In its tendency to
+internality was its just claim. It would have even the letters of the
+Bible translated into the vivacity of sentiment. But in its execution it
+fell into the error of one-sidedness in that it placed, instead of the
+actuality of the spirit and its freedom, the confusion of a limited
+personality, placing in its stead the personality of Christ in an
+external manner, and thus brought back into the very midst of
+Protestantism the principle of monachism——an abstract renunciation of
+the world. Since Protestantism has destroyed the idea of the cloister,
+it could produce estrangement from the world only by exciting public
+opinion against such elements of society and culture which it
+stigmatized as _worldly_ for its members, e.g. card-playing, dancing,
+the theatre, &c. Thus it became negatively dependent upon works; for
+since its followers remained in reciprocal action with the world, so
+that the temptation to backsliding was a permanent one, it must watch
+over them, exercise an indispensable moral-police control over them, and
+thus, by the suspicion of each other which was involved, take up into
+itself the Jesuitical practice, although in a very mild and affectionate
+way. Instead of the forbidden secrecy of the cloister, it organized a
+separate company, which we, in its regularly constituted assembly, call
+a conventicle. Instead of the cowl, it put on its youth a dress like
+that of the world, but scant and ashen-colored; it substituted for the
+tonsure closely-cut hair and shaven beard, and it often went beyond the
+obedience of the monks in its expression of pining humility and prudish
+composure. Education within such a circle could not well recognize
+nature and history as manifestations of God, but it must consider them
+to be limitations to their union with God, from which death can first
+then completely release them. The soul which knew that its home could be
+found only in the future world, must feel itself to be a stranger upon
+the earth, and from such an opinion there must arise an indifference and
+even a contempt for science and art, as well as an aversion for a life
+of active labor, though an unwilling and forced tribute might be paid to
+it. Philosophy especially was to be shunned as dangerous. Bible
+lectures, the catechism and the hymn-book, were the one thing needful to
+the "poor in spirit." Religious poetry and music were, of all the arts,
+the only ones deserving of any cultivation. The education of Pietism
+endeavored, by means of a carefully arranged series of representations,
+to create in its disciples the feeling of their absolute nothingness,
+vileness, godlessness, and abandonment by God, in order to displace the
+torment of despair as to themselves and the world by a warm, dramatic,
+and living relation to Christ——a relation in which all the Eroticism of
+the mystical passion of the begging-friars was renewed in a somewhat
+milder form and with a strong tendency to a sentimental sweetishness.
+
+
+_2. The Ideal of Culture._
+
+§ 257. Civil Education arose from the recognition of marriage and the
+family, of labor and enjoyment, of the equality of all before the Law,
+and of the duty of self-determination. Jesuitism in the Catholic world
+and Pietism in the Protestant were the reaction against this
+recognition——a return into the abstract asceticism of the middle ages,
+not however in its purity, but mixed with some regard for worldly
+possessions. In opposition to this reaction the commonwealth produced
+another, in which it undertook to deliver individuality by means of a
+reversed alienation. On the one hand, it absorbed itself in the
+conception of the Greek-Roman world. In the practical interests of the
+present, it externalized man in a past which held to the present no
+immediate relation, or it externalized him in the affairs which were to
+serve him as means of his comfort and enjoyment; it created an abstract
+idealism——a reproduction of the old view of the world——or an abstract
+Realism in a high appreciation of things which should be considered of
+value only as a means. In one direction, Individuality proceeded towards
+a dead nationality; in the other, towards an unlimited
+world-commonwealth. In one case, the ideal was the æsthetic
+republicanism of the Greeks; in the other, the utilitarian
+cosmopolitanism of the Romans. But, in considering the given
+circumstances, both united in the feeling of humanity, with its
+reconciliatory and pitying gentleness toward the beggar or the criminal.
+
+
+(_a_) _The Humanitarian Ideal._
+
+§ 258. The Oriental-theocratic education is immanent in Christian
+education through the Bible. Through the mediation of the Greek and
+Roman churches the views of the ancient world were subsumed but not
+entirely subdued. To accomplish this was the problem of humanitarian
+education. It aimed to teach the Latin and Greek languages, expecting
+thus to secure the action of a purely humane disposition. The Greeks and
+Romans being sharply marked nationalities, how could one cherish such
+expectations? It was possible only relatively in contradiction, partly
+to a provincial population from whom all genuine political sense had
+departed, partly to a church limited by a confessional, to which the
+idea of humanity as such had become almost lost in dogmatic
+fault-findings. The spirit was refreshed in the first by the
+contemplation of the pure patriotism of the ancients, and in the second
+by the discovery of Reason among the heathen. In contrast to
+formlessness distracted by the want of all ideal of culture of
+provincialism and dogmatic confusions, we find the power of
+representation of ancient art. The so-called uselessness of learning
+dead languages imparted to the mind, it knew not how, an ideal drift.
+The very fact that it could not find immediate profit in its knowledge
+gave it the consciousness of a higher value than material profit. The
+ideal of the Humanities was the truth to Nature which was found in the
+thought-painters of the ancient world. The study of language merely with
+regard to its form, must lead one involuntarily to the actual seizing of
+its content. The Latin schools were fashioned into _Gymnasia_, and the
+universities contained not merely professors of Eloquence, but also
+teachers of Philology.
+
+
+(_b_) _The Philanthropic Ideal._
+
+§ 259. The humanitarian tendency reached its extreme in the abstract
+forgetting of the present, and the omitting to notice its just claim.
+Man discovered at last that he was not at home with himself in Rome and
+Athens. He spoke and wrote Latin, if not like Cicero, at least like
+Muretius, but he often found himself awkward in expressing his meaning
+in his mother-tongue. He was often very learned, but he lacked judgment.
+He was filled with enthusiasm for the republicanism of Greece and Rome,
+and yet at the same time was himself exceedingly servile to his
+excellent and august lords. Against this gradual deadening of active
+individuality, the result of a perverted study of the classics, we find
+now reacting the education of enlightenment, which we generally call the
+philanthropic. It sought to make men friendly to the immediate course of
+the world. It placed over against the learning of the ancient languages
+for their own sake, the acquisition of the more needful branches of
+Mathematics, Physics, Geography, History, and the modern languages,
+calling these the real studies. Nevertheless it often retained the
+instruction in the Latin language because the Romance languages have
+sprung from it, and because, through its long domination, the universal
+terminology of Science, Art, and Law, is rooted in it. Philanthropy
+desired to develope the social side of its disciple through an abstract
+of practical knowledge and personal accomplishments, and to lead him
+again, in opposition to the hermit-like sedentary life of the
+book-pedant, out into the fields and the woods. It desired to imitate
+life even in its method, and to instruct pleasantly in the way of play
+or by dialogue. It would add to the simple letters and names the
+contemplation of the object itself, or at least of its representation by
+pictures; and in this direction, in the conversation-literature which it
+prepared for children, it sometimes fell into childishness. It performed
+a great service when it gave to the body its due, and introduced simple,
+natural dress, bathing, gymnastics, pedestrian excursions, and a
+hardening against the influences of wind and weather. As this
+Pedagogics, so friendly to children, deemed that it could not soon
+enough begin to honor them as citizens of the world, it was guilty in
+general of the error of presupposing as already finished in its children
+much that it itself should have gradually developed; and as it wished to
+educate the European as such, or rather man as such, it came into an
+indifference concerning the concrete distinctions of nationality and
+religion. It coincided with the philologists in placing, in a concealed
+way, Socrates above Christ, because he had worked no miracles, and
+taught only morality. In such a dead cosmopolitanism, individuality
+disappeared in the indeterminateness of a general humanity, and saw
+itself forced to agree with the humanistic education in proclaiming the
+truth of Nature as the pedagogical ideal, with the distinction, that
+while Humanism believed this ideal realized in the Greeks and Romans,
+Philanthropism found itself compelled to presuppose an abstract notion,
+and often manifested a not unjustifiable pleasure in recognizing in the
+Indians of North America, or of Otaheite, the genuine man of nature.
+Philosophy first raised these conceptions to the idea of the State,
+which fashioned the cognition of Reason and of the reform which follows
+from its idea, into an organic element in itself.
+
+——The course which the developing of the philanthropic ideal has taken
+is as follows: (1) Rousseau in his writings, _Emile_ and the _Nouvelle
+Heloise_, first preached the evangel of Natural Education, the
+abstraction from History, the negation of existing culture, and the
+return to the simplicity and innocence of nature. Although he often
+himself testified in his experience his own proneness to evil in a very
+discouraging way, he fixed as an almost unlimited axiom in French and
+German Pedagogics his principal maxim, that man is by nature good. (2)
+The reformatory ideas of Rousseau met with only a very infrequent and
+sporadic introduction among the Romanic nations, because among them
+education was too dependent on the church, and retained its
+cloister-like seclusion in seminaries, colleges, &c. In Germany, on the
+contrary, it was actualized, and the _Philanthropia_, established by
+Basedow in Dessau, Brunswick, and Schnepfenthal, made experiments, which
+nevertheless very soon departed somewhat from the ultraism of Basedow
+and had very excellent results. (3) Humanity existed _in concreto_ only
+in the form of nations. The French nation, in their revolution, tried
+the experiment of abstracting from their history, of levelling all
+distinctions of culture, of enthroning a despotism of Reason, and of
+organizing itself as humanity, pure and simple. The event showed the
+impossibility of such a beginning. The national energy, the historical
+impulse, the love of art and science, came forth from the midst of the
+revolutionary abstraction, which was opposed to them, only the more
+vigorously. The _grande nation_, their _grande armée_, and
+_gloire_——that is to say, for France——absorbed all the humanitarian
+phases. In Germany the philanthropic circle of education was limited to
+the higher ranks. There was no exclusiveness in the _Philanthropia_, for
+there nobles and citizens, Catholics and Protestants, Russians and
+Swiss, were mingled; but these were always the children of wealthy
+families, and to these the plan of education was adapted. Then appeared
+Pestalozzi and directed education also to the lower classes of
+society——those which are called, not without something approaching to a
+derogatory meaning, _the people_. From this time dates popular
+education, the effort for the intellectual and moral elevation of the
+hitherto neglected atomistic human being of the non-property-holding
+multitude. There shall in future be no dirty, hungry, ignorant, awkward,
+thankless, and will-less mass, devoted alone to an animal existence. We
+can never rid ourselves of the lower classes by having the wealthy give
+something, or even their all, to the poor, so as to have no property
+themselves; but we can rid ourselves of it in the sense that the
+possibility of culture and independent self-support shall be open to
+every one, because he is a human being and a citizen of the
+commonwealth. Ignorance and rudeness and the vice which springs from
+them, and the malevolent frame of mind against the human race, which are
+bound up with crime——these shall disappear. Education shall train man to
+self-conscious obedience to law, as well as to kindly feeling towards
+the erring, and to an effort not merely for their removal but for their
+improvement. But the more Pestalozzi endeavored to realize his ideal of
+human dignity, the more he comprehended that the isolated power of a
+private man could not attain it, but that the nation itself must make
+their own education their first business. Fichte by his lectures first
+made the German nation fully accept these thoughts, and Prussia was the
+first state which, by her public schools and her conscious preparation
+for defence, broke the path for National Education; while among the
+Romanic nations, in spite of their more elaborate political formalism,
+it still depends partly upon the church and partly upon the accident of
+private enterprise. Pestalozzi also laid a foundation for a national
+pedagogical literature by his story of _Leonard and Gertrude_. This book
+appeared at first in 1784, i.e. in the same year in which Schiller's
+_Robbers_ and Kant's _Critique of Pure Reason_ announced a new phase in
+the Drama and in Philosophy.——
+
+——The incarnation of God, which was, up to the time of the Reformation,
+an esoteric mystery of the Church, has since then become continually
+more and more an exoteric problem of the State.——
+
+
+_3. Free Education._
+
+§ 260. The ideal of culture of the humanitarian and the philanthropic
+education was taken up into the conception of an education which
+recognizes the Family, social caste, the Nation, and Religion, as
+positive elements of the practical spirit, but which will know each of
+these as determined from within through the idea of humanity, and laid
+open for reciprocal dialectic with the rest. Physical development shall
+become the subject of a national system of gymnastics fashioned for use,
+and including in itself the knowledge of the use of arms. Instruction
+shall, in respect to the general encyclopædic culture, be the same for
+all, and parallel to this shall run a system of special schools to
+prepare for the special avocations of life. The method of instruction
+shall be the simple representation of the special idea of the subject,
+and no longer the formal breadth of an acquaintance with many subjects
+which may find outside the school its opportunity, but within it has no
+meaning except as the history of a science or an art. Moral culture must
+be combined with family affection and the knowledge of the laws of the
+commonwealth, so that the dissension between individual morality and
+objective legality may ever more and more disappear. Education shall,
+without estranging the individual from the internality of the family,
+accustom him more and more to public life, because criticism of this is
+the only thing which can prevent the cynicism of private life, the
+half-ness of knowledge and will, and the spirit of caste, which has so
+extensively prevailed. The individual shall be educated into a
+self-consciousness of the essential equality and freedom of all men, so
+that he shall recognize and acknowledge himself in each one and in all.
+But this essential and solid unity of all men shall not evaporate into
+the insipidity of a humanity without distinctions, but instead it shall
+realize the form of a determinate individuality and nationality, and
+shall enlighten the idiosyncrasy of its nation into a broad humanity.
+The unrestricted striving after Beauty, Truth, and Freedom, actually
+through its own strength and immediately, not merely mediately through
+ecclesiastical consecration, will become Religion.
+
+The Education of the State must rise to a preparation for the
+unfettered activity of self-conscious Humanity.
+
+
+  THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION.
+
+  A PARAPHRASE OF DR. KARL ROSENKRANZ'S
+  PAEDAGOGIK ALS SYSTEM.
+
+  BY ANNA C. BRACKETT.
+
+  ST. LOUIS:
+  G. I. JONES AND COMPANY.
+  1878.
+
+
+  Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by
+  WILLIAM T. HARRIS,
+  In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+The translation of "Pedagogics as a System" was prepared and published
+five years ago. The wide demand for it that has made itself known since
+that time, especially in normal schools, has proved the value of such
+works in the domain of education. At the same time, the difficulty the
+students have always found in its use——a difficulty inseparable from any
+translation of a German metaphysical treatise——has led us to the
+conviction that a paraphrase into a more easily understood form is a
+necessity, if the thought of Rosenkranz is to be appropriated by the
+very class who are most in need of it. As was remarked in the preface to
+the translation, we have in English no other work of similar size which
+contains so much that is valuable to those engaged in the work of
+education. It is no compendium of rules or formulas, but rather a
+systematic, logical treatment of the subject, in which the attention is,
+as it were, concentrated upon the whole problem of education, while that
+problem is allowed to work itself out before us. To paraphrase the
+text——or, rather, to translate it from the metaphysical language in
+which it at present appears into a language more easy of
+comprehension——without losing the real significance of the statements,
+is the task which is here undertaken. Free illustrations and suggestions
+have been interwoven to give point and application to the thoughts and
+principles stated. This translation, or paraphrase, follows the
+paragraphs of the original and of the first translation. The analysis of
+the whole work, as it appeared in the original translation, is appended
+at the end of the "Introduction," as a guide to the student.
+
+
+
+
+THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+§ 1. The science of Pedagogics may be called a secondary science,
+inasmuch as it derives its principles from others. In this respect it
+differs from Mathematics, which is independent. As it concerns the
+development of the human intelligence, it must wait upon Psychology for
+an understanding of that upon which it is to operate, and, as its means
+are to be sciences and arts, it must wait upon them for a knowledge of
+its materials. The science of Medicine, in like manner, is dependent on
+the sciences of Biology, Chemistry, Physics, etc. Moreover, as Medicine
+may have to deal with a healthy or unhealthy body, and may have it for
+its province to preserve or restore health, to assist a natural process
+(as in the case of a broken bone), or to destroy an unnatural one (as in
+the case of the removal of a tumor), the same variety of work is imposed
+upon Education.[1]
+
+§ 2. Since the rules of Pedagogics must be extremely flexible, so that
+they may be adapted to the great variety of minds, and since an infinite
+variety of circumstances may arise in their application, we find, as we
+should expect, in all educational literature room for widely differing
+opinions and the wildest theories; these numerous theories, each of
+which may have a strong influence for a season, only to be overthrown
+and replaced by others.[2] It must be acknowledged that educational
+literature, as such, is not of a high order. It has its cant like
+religious literature. Many of its faults, however, are the result of
+honest effort, on the part of teachers, to remedy existing defects, and
+the authors are, therefore, not harshly to be blamed. It is also to be
+remembered that the habit of giving reproof and advice is one fastened
+in them by the daily necessity of their professional work.[3]
+
+§ 3. As the position of the teacher has ceased to be undervalued, there
+has been an additional impetus given to self-glorification on his part,
+and this also——in connection with the fact that schools are no longer
+isolated as of old, but subject to constant comparison and
+competition——leads to much careless theorizing among its teachers,
+especially in the literary field.
+
+§ 4. Pedagogics, because it deals with the human spirit, belongs, in a
+general classification of the sciences, to the philosophy of spirit, and
+in the philosophy of spirit it must be classified under the practical,
+and not the merely theoretical, division. For its problem is not merely
+to comprehend the nature of that with which it has to deal, the human
+spirit——its problem is not merely to influence one mind (that of the
+pupil) by another (that of the teacher)——but to influence it in such a
+way as to produce the mental freedom of the pupil. The problem is,
+therefore, not so much to obtain performed works as to excite mental
+activity. A creative process is required. The pupil is to be forced to
+go in certain beaten tracks, and yet he is to be so forced to go in
+these that he shall go of his own freewill. All teaching which does not
+leave the mind of the pupil free is unworthy of the name. It is true
+that the teacher must understand the nature of mind, as he is to deal
+with mind, but when he has done this he has still his main principle of
+action unsolved; for the question is, knowing the nature of the mind,
+How shall he incite it to action, already predetermined in his own mind,
+without depriving the mind of the pupil of its own free action? How
+shall he restrain and guide, and yet not enslave?
+
+If, in classifying all sciences, as suggested at the beginning of this
+section, we should subdivide the practical division of the Philosophy of
+Spirit, which might be called Ethics, one could find a place for
+Pedagogics under some one of the grades of Ethics. The education which
+the child receives through the influence of family life lies at the
+basis of all other teaching, and what the child learns of life, its
+duties, and possibilities, in its own home, forms the foundation for all
+after-work. On the life of the family, then, as a presupposition, all
+systems of Education must be built. In other words, the school must not
+attempt to initiate the child into the knowledge of the world——it must
+not assume the care of its first training; that it must leave to the
+family.[4] But the science of Pedagogics does not, as a science,
+properly concern itself with the family education, or with that point of
+the child's life which is dominated by the family influence. That is
+education, in a certain sense, without doubt, but it does not properly
+belong to a science of Pedagogics. But, on the other hand, it must be
+remembered that this science, as here expounded, presupposes a previous
+family life in the human being with whom it has to deal.
+
+§ 5. Education as a science will present the necessary and universal
+principles on which it is based; Education as an art will consist in the
+practical realization of these in the teacher's work in special places,
+under special circumstances, and with special pupils. In the skillful
+application of the principles of the science to the actual demands of
+the art lies the opportunity for the educator to prove himself a
+creative artist; and it is in the difficulty involved in this practical
+work that the interest and charm of the educator's work consists.
+
+The teacher must thus adapt himself to the pupil. But, in doing so, he
+must have a care that he do not carry this adaptation to such a degree
+as to imply that the pupil is not to change; and he must see to it,
+also, that the pupil shall always be worked upon by the matter which he
+is considering, and not too much by the personal influence of the
+teacher through whom he receives it.[5]
+
+§ 6. The utmost care is necessary lest experiments which have proved
+successful in certain cases should be generalized into rules, and a
+formal, dead creed, so to speak, should be adopted. All professional
+experiences are valuable as material on which to base new conclusions
+and to make new plans, but only for that use. Unless the day's work is,
+every day, a new creation, a fatal error has been made.
+
+§ 7. Pedagogics as a science must consider Education——
+
+  (1) In its general idea;
+
+  (2) In its different phases;
+
+  (3) In the special systems arising from this general idea,
+  acting under special circumstances at special times.[6]
+
+§ 8. With regard to the First Part, we remark that by Education, in its
+general idea, we do not mean any mere history of Pedagogics, nor can any
+history of Pedagogics be substituted for a systematic exposition of the
+underlying idea.
+
+§ 9. The second division considers Education under three heads——as
+physical, intellectual, and moral——and forms, generally, the principal
+part of all pedagogical treatises.
+
+In this part lies the greatest difficulty as to exact limitation. The
+ideas on these divisions are often undefined and apt to be confounded,
+and the detail of which they are capable is almost unlimited, for we
+might, under this head, speak of all kinds of special schools, such as
+those for war, art, mining, etc.
+
+§ 10. In the Third Part we consider the different realizations of the
+one general idea of Pedagogics as it has developed itself under
+different circumstances and in different ages of the world.
+
+The general idea is forced into different phases by the varying
+physical, intellectual, and moral conditions of men. The result is the
+different systems, as shown in the analysis. The general idea is one.
+The view of the end to be obtained determines in each case the
+actualization of this idea. Hence the different systems of Education are
+each determined by the stand-point from which the general ideal is
+viewed. Proceeding in this manner, it might be possible to construct a
+history of Pedagogics, _à priori_, without reference to actual history,
+since all the possible systems might be inferred from the possible
+definite number of points of view.
+
+Each lower stand-point will lead to a higher, but it will not be lost in
+it. Thus, where Education, for the sake of the nation,[7] merges into
+the Education based on Christianity, the form is not thereby destroyed,
+but, rather, in the transition first attains its full realization. The
+systems of Education which were based on the idea of the nation had, in
+the fullness of time, outgrown their own limits, and needed a new form
+in order to contain their own true idea. The idea of the nation, as the
+highest principle, gives way for that of Christianity. A new life came
+to the old idea in what at first seemed to be its destruction. The idea
+of the nation was born again, and not destroyed, in Christianity.
+
+§ 11. The final system, so far, is that of the present time, which thus
+is itself the fruit of all the past systems, as well as the seed of all
+systems that are to be. The science of Pedagogics, in the consideration
+of the system of the present, thus again finds embodied the general idea
+of education, and thus returns upon itself to the point from whence it
+set out. In the First and Second Parts there is already given the idea
+which dominates the system found thus necessarily existing in the
+present.
+
+
+     {FIRST PART.    {Its Nature.
+     {In its General {Its Form.
+     {  Idea.        {Its Limits.
+     {
+     {SECOND PART.   {Physical.
+     {In its Special {Intellectual.
+     {  Elements.    {Moral.
+     {
+     {             {          {            {Family     China.
+     {             {          {Passive.    {Caste      India.
+     {             {          {            {Monkish    Thibet.
+     {             {          {
+     {             {          {            {Military   Persia.
+     {             {National. {Active      {Priestly   Egypt.
+     {             {          {            {Industrial Phœnicia.
+     {             {          {
+     {             {          {            {Æsthetic    Greece.
+  E  {             {          {Individual. {Practical   Rome.
+  D  {             {          {            {Abstract   {Northern.
+  U  {             {          {            { Individual{ Barbarians.
+  C  {             {
+  A  {             {Theocratic. . . . . . . . . . . .  Jews.
+  T  {             {
+  I  {             {Monkish.
+  O  {THIRD PART.  {
+  N  {In its       {
+     { Particular  {
+     { Systems.    {
+     {             {Chivalric.
+     {             {
+     {             {Humanitarian. {For Special  {Jesuitic.
+     {             {              { Callings.   {Pietistic.
+     {             {
+     {             {                            {The
+     {             {              {             {Humanistic.
+     {             {For Civil     {To achieve   {
+     {             {  Life.       { an Ideal of {The
+     {             {              { Culture.    {Philanthropic
+     {             {              {             {Movement.
+     {             {              {
+     {             {              {For Free Citizenship.
+
+
+
+
+FIRST PART.
+
+The General Idea of Education.
+
+
+§ 12. A full treatment of Pedagogics must distinguish——
+
+  (1) The nature of Education;
+
+  (2) The form of Education;
+
+  (3) The limits of Education.
+
+
+_I.——The Nature of Education._
+
+§ 13. The nature of Education is determined by the nature of mind, the
+distinguishing mark of which is that it can be developed only from
+within, and by its own activity. Mind is essentially free——_i.e._, it
+has the capacity for freedom——but it cannot be said to possess freedom
+till it has obtained it by its own voluntary effort. Till then it cannot
+be truly said to be free. Education consists in enabling a human being
+to take possession of, and to develop himself by, his own efforts, and
+the work of the educator cannot be said to be done in any sense where
+this is not accomplished. In general, we may say that the work of
+education consists in leading to a full development of all the inherent
+powers of the mind, and that its work is done when, in this way, the
+mind has attained perfect freedom, or the state in which alone it can be
+said to be truly itself.[8]
+
+The isolated human being can never become truly man. If such human
+beings (like the wild girl of the forest of Ardennes) have been found,
+they have only proved to us that reciprocal action with our fellow
+beings is necessary for the development of our powers. Caspar Hauser, in
+his subterranean prison, will serve as an example of what man would be
+without men. One might say that this fact is typified by the first cry
+of the newly-born child. It is as if the first expression of its
+seemingly independent life were a cry for help from others. On the side
+of nature the human being is at first quite helpless.
+
+§ 14. Man is, therefore, the only proper object of education. It is true
+that we speak of the education of plants and of animals, but we
+instinctively apply other terms when we do so, for we say "raising"
+plants, and "training" animals. When we "train" or "break" an animal, it
+is true that we do, by pain or pleasure, lead him into an exercise of a
+new activity. But the difference between this and Education consists in
+the fact that, though he possessed capacity, yet by no amount of
+association with his kind would he ever have acquired this new
+development. It is as if we impress upon his plastic nature the imprint
+of our loftier nature, which imprint he takes mechanically, and does not
+himself recognize it as his own internal nature. We train him for our
+recognition, not for his own. But, on the contrary, when we educate a
+human being, we only excite him to create for himself, and out of
+himself, that for which he would most earnestly strive had he any
+appreciation of it beforehand, and in proportion as he does appreciate
+it he recognizes it joyfully as a part of himself, as his own
+inheritance, which he appropriates with a knowledge that it is his, or,
+rather, is a part of his own nature. He who speaks of "raising" human
+beings uses language which belongs only to the slave-dealer, to whom
+human beings are only cattle for labor, and whose property increases in
+value with the number.
+
+Are there no school-rooms where Education has ceased to have any
+meaning, and where physical pain is made to produce its only possible
+result——a mechanical, external repetition? The school-rooms where the
+creative word——the only thing which can influence the mind——has ceased
+to be used as the means are only plantations, where human beings are
+degraded to the position of lower animals.
+
+§ 15. When we speak of the Education of the human race, we mean the
+gradual growth of the nations of the earth, as a whole, towards the
+realization of self-conscious freedom. Divine Providence is the teacher
+here. The means by which the development is effected are the various
+circumstances and actions of the different races of men, and the pupils
+are the nations. The unfolding of this great Education is generally
+treated of under the head of Philosophy of History.
+
+§ 16. Education, however, in a more restricted sense, has to do with the
+shaping of the individual. Each one of us is to be educated by the laws
+of physical nature——by the relations into which we come with the
+national life, in its laws, customs, etc., and by the circumstances
+which daily surround us. By the force of these we find our arbitrary
+will hemmed in, modified, and forced to take new channels and forms. We
+are too often unmindful of the power with which these forces are daily
+and hourly educating us——_i.e._, calling out our possibilities into
+real existence. If we set up our will in opposition to either of these;
+if we act in opposition to the laws of nature; if we seriously offend
+the laws, or even the customs, of the people among whom we live; or if
+we despise our individual lot, we do so only to find ourselves crushed
+in the encounter. We only learn the impotence of the individual against
+these mighty powers; and that discovery is, of itself, a part of our
+education. It is sometimes only by such severe means that God is
+revealed to the man who persistently misunderstands and defies His
+creation. All suffering brought on ourselves by our own violation of
+laws, whether natural, ethical, or divine, must be, however, thus
+recognized as the richest blessing. We do not mean to say that it is
+never allowable for a man, in obedience to the highest laws of his
+spiritual being, to break away from the fetters of nature——to offend the
+ethical sense of his own people, or to struggle against the might of
+destiny. Reformers and martyrs would be examples of such, and our
+remarks above do not apply to them, but to the perverse, the frivolous,
+and the conceited; to those who are seeking in their action, not the
+undoubted will of God, but their own individual will or caprice.
+
+§ 17. But we generally use the word Education in a still narrower
+sense than either of these, for we mean by it the working of one
+individual mind upon or within another in some definite and premeditated
+way, so as to fit the pupil for life generally, or for some special
+pursuit. For this end the educator must be relatively finished in his
+own education, and the pupil must possess confidence in him, or
+docility. He must be teachable. That the work be successful, demands the
+very highest degree of talent, knowledge, skill, and prudence; and any
+development is impossible if a well-founded authority be wanting in the
+educator, or docility on the part of the pupil.
+
+Education, in this narrowest and technical sense, is an outgrowth of
+city or urban life. As long as men do not congregate in large cities,
+the three forces spoken of in § 16——_i.e._, the forces of nature,
+national customs, and circumstances——will be left to perform most of the
+work of Education; but, in modern city life, the great complication of
+events, the uncertainty in the results——though careful forethought has
+been used——the immense development of individuality, and the pressing
+need of various information, break the power of custom, and render a
+different method necessary. The larger the city is, the more free is the
+individual in it from the restraints of customs, the less subjected to
+curious criticism, and the more able is he to give play to his own
+idiosyncrasies. This, however, is a freedom which needs the counterpoise
+of a more exact training in conventionalities, if we would not have it
+dangerous. Hence the rapid multiplication of educational institutions
+and systems in modern times (one chief characteristic of which is the
+development of urban life). The ideal Telemachus of Fenelon differs very
+much from the real Telemachus of history. Fenelon proposed an education
+which trained a youth to reflect, and to guide himself by reason. The
+Telemachus of the heroic age followed the customs ("use and wont") of
+his times with _naïve_ obedience. The systems of Education once
+sufficient do not serve the needs of modern life, any more than the
+defenses once sufficient against hostile armies are sufficient against
+the new weapons adopted by modern warfare.
+
+§ 18. The problem with which modern Education has to deal may be said,
+in general terms, to be the development in the individual soul of the
+indwelling Reason, both practical (as will) and theoretical (as
+intellect). To make a child good is only a part of Education; we have
+also to develop his intelligence. The sciences of Ethics and Education
+are not the same. Again, we must not forget that no pupil is simply a
+human being, like every other human being; he is also an individual, and
+thus differs from every other one of the race. This is a point which
+must never be lost sight of by the educator. Human beings may be——nay,
+must be——educated in company, but they cannot be educated simply in the
+mass.
+
+§ 19. Education is to lead the pupil by a graded series of exercises,
+previously arranged and prescribed by the educator, to a definite end.
+But these exercises must take on a peculiar form for each particular
+pupil under the special circumstances present. Hasty and inconsiderate
+work _may_, by chance, accomplish much; but no work which is not
+_systematic_ can advance and fashion him in conformity with his tenure,
+and such alone is to be called Education; for Education implies both a
+comprehension of the end to be attained and of the means necessary to
+compass that end.
+
+§ 20. Culture, however, means more and more every year; and, as the
+sum total of knowledge increases for mankind, it becomes necessary, in
+order to be a master in any one line, to devote one's self almost
+exclusively to that. Hence arises, for the teacher, the difficulty of
+preserving the unity and wholeness which are essential to a complete
+man. The principle of division of labor comes in. He who is a teacher by
+profession becomes one-sided in his views; and, as teaching divides and
+subdivides into specialities, this abnormal one-sideness tends more and
+more to appear. Here we find a parallelism in the profession of
+Medicine, with a corresponding danger of narrowness; for that, too, is
+in a process of constant specialization, and the physician who treats
+nervous diseases is likely to be of the opinion that all trouble arises
+from that part of the organism, or, at least, that all remedies should
+be applied there. This tendency to one-sideness is inseparable from the
+progress of civilization and that of science and arts. It contains,
+nevertheless, a danger of which no teacher should be unwarned. An
+illustration is furnished by the microscope or telescope; a higher power
+of the instrument implies a narrower field of view. To concentrate our
+observation upon one point implies the shutting out of others. This
+difficulty with the teacher creates one for the pupil.
+
+In this view one might be inclined to judge that the life of the savage
+as compared with that of civilized man, or that of a member of a rural
+community as compared with that of an inhabitant of a city, were the
+more to be desired. The savage has his hut, his family, his cocoa-palm,
+his weapons, his passions; he fishes, hunts, amuses himself, adorns
+himself, and enjoys the consciousness that he is the center of a little
+world; while the denizen of a city must often acknowledge that he is, so
+to speak, only one wheel of a gigantic machine. Is the life of the
+savage, therefore, more favorable to human development? The
+characteristic idea of modern civilization is: The development of the
+individual as the end for which the State exists. The great empires of
+Persia, Egypt, and India, wherein the individual was of value only as he
+ministered to the strength of the State, have given way to the modern
+nations, where individual freedom is pushed so far that the State seems
+only an instrument for the good of the individual. From being the
+supreme end of the individual, the State has become the means for his
+advancement into freedom; and with this very exaltation of the value of
+the mere individual over the State, as such, there is inseparably
+connected the seeming destruction of the wholeness of the individual
+man. But the union of State and individual, which was in ancient times
+merely mechanical, has now become a living process, in which constant
+interaction gives rise to all the intellectual life of modern
+civilization.
+
+§ 21. The work of Education being thus necessarily split up, we have
+the distinction between general and special schools. The work of the
+former is to give general development——what is considered essential for
+all men; that of the latter, to prepare for special callings. The former
+should furnish a basis for the latter——_i.e._, the College should
+precede the Medical School, etc., and the High School the Normal. In the
+United States, owing to many causes, this is unfortunately not the case.
+
+The difference between city and country life is important here. The
+teacher in a country school, and, still more, the private tutor or
+governess, must be able to teach many more things than the teacher in a
+graded school in the city, or the professor in a college or university.
+The danger on the one side is of superficiality, on the other of
+narrowness.
+
+§ 22. The Education of any individual can be only relatively finished.
+His possibilities are infinite. His actual realization of those
+possibilities must always remain far behind. The latter can only
+approximate to the former. It can never reach them. The term "finishing
+an education" needs, therefore, some definition; for, as a technical
+term, it has undoubtedly a meaning. An immortal soul can never complete
+its development; for, in so doing, it would give the lie to its own
+nature. We cannot speak properly, however, of educating an idiot. Such
+an unfortunate has no power of generalization, and no conscious
+personality. We can train him mechanically, but we cannot educate him.
+This will help to illustrate the difference, spoken of in § 14, between
+Education and Mechanical training.
+
+We obtain astonishing results, it is true, in our schools for idiots,
+and yet we cannot fail to perceive that, after all, we have only an
+external result. We produce a mechanical performance of duties, and yet
+there seems to be no actual mental growth. It is an exogenous, and not
+an endogenous, growth, to use the language of Botany.[9] Continual
+repetition, under the most gentle patience, renders the movements easy,
+but, after all, they are only automatic, or what the physicians call
+reflex.
+
+We have the same result produced in a less degree when we attempt to
+teach an intelligent child something which is beyond his active
+comprehension. A child may be taught to do or say almost anything by
+patient training, but, if what he is to say is beyond the power of his
+mental comprehension, and hence of his active assimilation, we are only
+training him as we train an animal (§ 14), and not educating him. We
+call such recitations parrot recitations, and, by our use of the word,
+express exactly in what position the pupils are placed. An idiot is only
+a case of permanently arrested development. What in the intelligent
+child is a passing phase is for the idiot a fixed state. We have idiots
+of all grades, as we have children of all ages.
+
+The above observations must not be taken to mean that children should
+never be taught to perform operations in arithmetic which they do not,
+in cant phrase, "perfectly understand," or to learn poetry whose whole
+meaning they cannot fathom. Into this error many teachers have fallen.
+
+There can be no more profitable study for a teacher than to visit one of
+these numerous idiot schools. He finds the alphabet of his professional
+work there. As the philologist learns of the formation and growth of
+language by examining, not the perfectly formed languages, but the
+dialects of savage tribes, so with the teacher. In like manner more
+insight into the philosophy of teaching and of the nature of the mind
+can be acquired by teaching a class of children to read than in any
+other grade of work.
+
+
+_II.——The Form of Education._
+
+§ 23. The general form of Education follows from the nature of mind.
+Mind is nothing but what it itself creates out of its own activity. It
+is, at first, mind as undeveloped or unconscious (in the main); but,
+secondly, it acquires the power of examining its own action, of
+considering itself as an object of attention, as if it were a quite
+foreign thing——_i.e._, it reflects (in this stage it is really ignorant
+that it is studying its own nature); and, finally, it becomes conscious
+that this, which it had been examining, and of whose existence it is
+conscious, is its own self: It attains self-consciousness. It is through
+this estrangement from itself, given back to itself again and restored
+to unity, but it is no longer a simple, unconscious unity. In this third
+state only can it be said to be free——_i.e._, to possess itself.
+Education cannot create; it can only help to develop into reality the
+previously-existent possibility; it can only help to bring forth to
+light the hidden life.
+
+§ 24. All culture, in whatever line, must pass through these two
+stages of estrangement and of reunion; the reunion being not of two
+different things, but the recognition of itself by thought, and its
+acceptance of itself as itself. And the more complete is the
+estrangement——_i.e._, the more perfectly can the thought be made to
+view itself as a somewhat entirely foreign to itself, to look upon it as
+a different and independent somewhat——the more complete and perfect will
+be its union with and acceptance of its object as one with itself when
+the recognition does finally take place. Through culture we are led to
+this conscious possession of our own thought. Plato gives to the
+feeling, with which knowledge must necessarily begin, the name of
+wonder. But wonder is not knowledge; it is only the first step towards
+it. It is the half-terrified attention which the mind fixes on an
+object, and the half-terror would be impossible did it not dimly
+forebode that it was something of its own nature at which it was
+looking. The child delights in stories of the far-off, the strange, and
+the wonderful. It is as if they hoped to find in these some solution to
+themselves——a solution which they have, as it were, asked in vain of
+familiar scenes and objects. Their craving for such is the proof of how
+far their nature transcends all its known conditions. They are like
+adventurous explorers who push out to unknown regions in hopes of
+finding the freedom and wealth which lies only within themselves. They
+want to be told about things which they never saw, such as terrible
+conflagrations, banditti life, wild animals, gray old ruins, Robinson
+Crusoes on far-off, happy islands. They are irresistibly attracted by
+whatever is highly colored and dazzlingly lighted. The child prefers the
+story of Sinbad the Sailor to any tales of his own home and nation,
+because mind has this necessity of getting, as it were, outside of
+itself so as to obtain a view of itself. As the child grows to youth he
+is, from the same reasons, desirous of traveling.
+
+§ 25. Work may be defined as the activity of the mind in a conscious
+concentration on, and absorption in, some object, with the purpose of
+acquiring or producing it. Play is the activity of the mind which gives
+itself up to surrounding objects according to its own caprice, without
+any thought as to results. The Educator gives out work to the pupil, but
+he leaves him to himself in his play.
+
+§ 26. It is necessary to draw a sharp line between work and play. If the
+Educator has not respect for work as an activity of great weight and
+importance, he not only spoils the relish of the pupil for play, which
+loses all its charm of freedom when not set off by its antithesis of
+earnest labor, but he undermines in the pupil's mind all respect for any
+real existence. On the other hand, he who does not give to the child
+space, time, and opportunity for play prevents the originality of his
+pupil from free development through the exercise of his creative
+ingenuity. Play sends the child back to his work refreshed, because in
+it he loses himself without constraint and according to his own fancy,
+while in work he is required to yield himself up in a manner prescribed
+for him by another.
+
+Let the teacher watch his pupils while at play if he would discover
+their individual peculiarities, for it is then that they unconsciously
+betray their real propensities. This antithesis of work and play runs
+through the entire life, the form only of play varying with years and
+occupations. To do what we please, as we please, and when we please, not
+for any reason, but just because we please, remains play always.
+Children in their sports like nothing better than to counterfeit what is
+to be the earnest work of their after-lives. The little girl plays with
+her dolls, and the boy plays he is a soldier and goes to mimic wars.
+
+It is, of course, an error to suppose that the play of a child is
+simply muscular. The lamb and the colt find their full enjoyment in
+capering aimlessly about the field. But to the child play would be
+incomplete which did not bring the mind into action. Children derive
+little enjoyment from purely muscular exercise. They must at the same
+time have an object requiring mental action to attain it. A number of
+children set simply to run up and down a field would tire of the
+exercise in five minutes; but put a ball amongst them and set them to a
+game and they will be amused by it for hours.
+
+Exceptional mental development is always preceded, and is, indeed,
+produced by, an exceptional amount of exercise in the form of play on
+the part of the special faculties concerned. The peculiar tendencies
+exhibited in play are due to the large development of particular
+faculties, and the ultimate giant strength of a faculty is brought about
+by play. The genius is no doubt born, not made; but, although born, it
+would dwindle away in infancy were it not for the constant exercise
+taken in play, which is as necessary for development as food for the
+maintenance of life.
+
+§ 27. Work should never be treated as if it were play, nor play as if it
+were work. Those whose work is creative activity of the mind may find
+recreation in the details of science; and those, again, whose vocation
+is scientific research can find recreation in the practice of art in its
+different departments. What is work to one may thus be play to another.
+This does not, however, contradict the first statement.
+
+§ 28. It is the province of education so to accustom us to different
+conditions or ways of thinking and acting that they shall no longer seem
+strange or foreign to us. When these have become, as we say, "natural"
+to us——when we find the acquired mode of thinking or acting just what
+our inclination leads us to adopt unconsciously, a _Habit_ has been
+formed. A habit is, then, the identity of natural inclination with the
+special demands of any particular doing or suffering, and it is thus the
+external condition of all progress. As long as we require the conscious
+act of our will to the performance of a deed, that deed is a somewhat
+foreign to ourselves, and not yet a part of ourselves. The practical
+work of the educator may thus be said to consist in leading the mind of
+the pupil over certain lines of thought till it becomes "natural" or
+spontaneous for him to go by that road. Much time is wasted in schools
+where the pupil's mind is not led aright at first, for then he has to
+unlearn habits of thought which are already formed. The work of the
+teacher is to impress good methods of studying and thinking upon the
+minds of his pupils, rather than to communicate knowledge.
+
+§ 29. It is, at first sight, entirely indifferent what a Habit shall
+relate to——_i.e._, the point is to get the pupil into the way of
+forming habits, and it is not at first of so much moment what habit is
+formed as that a habit is formed. But we cannot consider that there is
+anything morally neutral in the abstract, but only in the concrete, or
+in particular examples. An action may be of no moral significance to one
+man, and under certain circumstances, while to another man, or to the
+same man under different circumstances, it may have quite a different
+significance, or may possess an entirely opposite character. Appeal must
+be made, then, to the individual conscience of each one to decide what
+is and what is not permissible to that individual under the given
+circumstances. Education must make it its first aim to awaken in the
+pupil a sensitiveness to spiritual and ethical distinctions which knows
+that nothing is in its own nature morally insignificant or indifferent,
+but shall recognize, even in things seemingly small, a universal human
+significance. But, yet, in relation to the highest interests of morality
+or the well-being of society, the pupil must be taught to subordinate
+without hesitation all that relates exclusively to his own personal
+comfort or welfare for the well-being of his fellow-men, or for moral
+rectitude.
+
+When we reflect upon habit, it at once assumes for us the character of
+useful or injurious. The consequences of a habit are not indifferent.
+
+Whatever action tends as a harmonious means to the realization of our
+purpose is desirable or advantageous, and whatever either partially
+contradicts or wholly destroys it is disadvantageous. Advantage and
+disadvantage being, then, only relative terms, dependent upon the aim or
+purpose which we happen to have in view, a habit which may be
+advantageous to one man under certain circumstances may be
+disadvantageous to another man, or even to the same man, under other
+circumstances. Education must, then, accustom the youth to consider for
+himself the expediency or inexpediency of any action in relation to his
+own vocation in life. He must not form habits which will be inexpedient
+with regard to that.
+
+§ 31. There is, however, an _absolute_ distinction of habits as morally
+good and bad. From this absolute stand-point we must, after all, decide
+what is for us allowable or forbidden, what is expedient and what
+inexpedient.
+
+§ 32. As to its form, habit may be either passive or active. By passive
+habit is meant a habit of composure which surveys undisturbed whatever
+vicissitudes, either external or internal, may fall to our lot, and
+maintains itself superior to them all, never allowing its power of
+acting to be paralyzed by them. It is not, however, merely a stoical
+indifference, nor is it the composure which comes from inability to
+receive impressions——a sort of impassivity. It is that composure which
+is the highest result of power. Nor is it a selfish love of ease which
+intentionally withdraws itself from annoyances in order to remain
+undisturbed. It is not manifested because of a desire to be out of these
+vicissitudes. It is, while in them, to be not of them. It is the
+composure which does not fret itself over what it cannot change. The
+soul that has built for itself this stronghold of freedom within itself
+may vividly experience joy and sorrow, pain and pleasure, and yet
+serenely know that it is intrenched in walls which are inaccessible to
+their attacks, because it knows that it is infinitely superior to all
+that may chance or change. What is meant by active habit in distinction
+from passive habit is found in our external activity, as skill,
+facility, readiness of information, etc. It might be considered as the
+equipping of our inner selves for active contest with the external
+world; while passive habit is the fortifying of our inner selves against
+the attack of the external world. The man who possesses habit in both
+these forms impresses himself in many different ways on the outer world,
+while at the same time, and all the time, he preserves intact his
+personality from the constant assaults of the outer world. He handles
+both spear and shield.
+
+§ 33. All education, in whatever line, must work by forming habits
+physical, mental, or moral. It might be said to consist in a conversion
+of actions which are at first voluntary, by means of repetition, into
+instructive actions which are performed, as we say, naturally——_i.e._,
+without any conscious volition. We teach a child to walk, or he teaches
+himself to walk by a constant repetition of the action of the will upon
+the necessary muscles; and, when the thinking brain hands over the
+mechanism to the trained spinal cord, the anxious, watchful look
+disappears from the face, and the child talks or laughs as he runs: then
+that part of his education is completed. Henceforth the attention that
+had been necessary to manage the body in walking is freed for other
+work. This is only an illustration, easily understood, of what takes
+place in all education. Mental and moral acts, thoughts, and feelings in
+the same way are, by repetition, converted into habits and become our
+nature; and character, good or bad, is only the aggregate of our habits.
+When we say a person has no character, we mean exactly this: that he has
+no fixed habits. But, as the great end of human life is freedom, he must
+be above even habit. He must not be wholly a machine of habits, and
+education must enable him to attain the power of breaking as well as of
+forming habits, so that he may, when desirable, substitute one habit for
+another. For habits may be (§ 29), according to their nature, proper or
+improper, advantageous or disadvantageous, good or bad; and, according
+to their form, may be (§ 32) either the acceptance of the external by
+the internal or the reaction of the internal upon the external. Through
+our freedom we must be able, not only to renounce any habit formed, but
+to form a new and better one. Man should be supreme above all habits,
+wearing them as garments which the soul puts on and off at will. It must
+so order them all as to secure for itself a constant progress of
+development into still greater freedom. In this higher view habits
+become thus to our sight only necessary accompaniments of imperfect
+freedom. Can we conceive of God, who is perfect Freedom, as having any
+habits? We might say that, as a means toward the ever-more decided
+realization of the Good, we must form a habit of voluntarily making and
+breaking off habits. We must characterize as bad those habits which
+relate only to our personal convenience or enjoyment. They are often not
+essentially blameworthy, but there lies in them a hidden danger that
+they may allure us into luxury or effeminacy. It is a false and
+mechanical way of looking at the affair to suppose that a habit which
+had been formed by a certain number of repetitions can be broken off by
+an equal number of refusals. We can never utterly renounce a habit which
+we decide to be undesirable for us except through decision and firmness.
+
+§ 34. Education, then, must consider the preparation for authority and
+obedience (§ 17); for a rational ordering of one's actions according to
+universal principles, and, at the same time, a preservation of
+individuality (§ 18); for work and play (§ 25); for habits of
+spontaneity or originality (§ 28). To endeavor by any set rules to
+harmonize in the pupil these opposites will be a vain endeavor, and
+failure in the solution of the problem is quite possible by reason of
+the freedom of the pupil, of surrounding circumstances, or of mistakes
+on the part of the teacher, and the possibility of this negative result
+must, therefore, enter as an element of calculation into the work
+itself. All the dangers which may in any way threaten the youth must be
+considered in advance, and he must be fortified against them. While we
+should not intentionally expose the youth to temptation in order to
+prove his strength of resistance, neither should we, on the other hand,
+endeavor to seclude him from all chance of dangerous temptation. To do
+the former would be satanic; while to do the latter would be ridiculous,
+useless, and in fact dangerous in the highest degree, for temptation
+comes more from within than from without, and any secret inclination
+will in some way seek, or even create, its own opportunity for
+gratification. The real safety from sin lies, not in seclusion of one's
+self from the world[10]——for all the elements of worldliness are innate
+in each individual——but in an occupying of the restless activity in
+other ways, in learning and discipline; these being varied as time goes
+on, according to the age and degree of proficiency. Not to crush out,
+but to direct, the child's activity, whether physical or mental, is the
+key to all real success in education. The sentimentalism which has,
+during the last few years, in this country (the United States), tended
+to diminish to so great an extent the actual work to be performed by our
+boys and girls, has set free a dangerous amount of energy whose new
+direction gives cause for grave alarm. To endeavor to prevent the youth
+from all free and individual relations with the real world, implies a
+never-ending watch kept over him. The consciousness of being thus
+"shadowed" destroys in the youth all elasticity of spirit, all
+confidence, and all originality. A constant feeling of, as it were, a
+detective police at his side obscures all sense of independent action,
+systematically accustoming him to dependence. Though, as the
+tragic-comic story of Peter Schlemihl shows, the loss of a man's own
+shadow may involve him in a series of fatalities,[11] yet to be
+"shadowed" constantly by a companion, us in the pedagogical system of
+the Jesuits, undermines all naturalness. And, if we endeavor to guard
+too strictly against what is evil and wrong, the pupil reacts, bringing
+all his intelligence into the service of his craft and cunning, till the
+would-be educator stands aghast at the discovery of such evil-doing as
+he had supposed impossible under his strict supervision. Within the
+circle of whatever rules it may be found necessary to draw around the
+young there must always be left space for freedom. Pupils should always
+be led to see that all rules against which they fret are only of their
+own creation; and that as grave-stones mark the place where some one has
+fallen, so every law is only a record of some previous wrong-doing. The
+law "Thou shalt not kill" was not given till murder had been committed.
+In other words, the wrong deed preceded the law against it, and perfect
+obedience is the same as perfect freedom. No obedience except that which
+we gain from the pupil's own convictions has real educational
+significance.
+
+§ 35. If there appears in the youth any decided deformity opposed to
+the ideal which we would create in him, we should at once inquire into
+its history and origin. The negative and positive are so closely
+related, and depend so intimately on each other, in our being that what
+appears to us to be negligence, rudeness, immorality, foolishness, or
+oddity may arise from some real necessity of the pupil which in its
+process of development has only taken a wrong direction.
+
+§ 36. If it should appear, on such examination, that the wrong action
+was the result of avoidable ignorance, of caprice, or willfulness on the
+part of the pupil, this calls for a simple prohibition on the part of
+the teacher, no reason being assigned. His authority must be sufficient
+for the pupil without any reason. When the fault is repeated, and the
+pupil is old enough to understand, then only should the grounds of the
+prohibition be stated with it. This should, however, be done in few
+words, and the educator must never allow himself to lose, in a doctrinal
+lecture, the idea of discipline. If he do, the pupil will soon forget
+that it was his own misbehavior which was the cause of all the remarks.
+The statement of the reason must be honest, and must be presented to the
+youth on the side most easy for him to appreciate. False reasons are not
+only morally wrong, but they lead the mind astray. We also commit a
+grave error when we try to unfold to the youth all the possible
+consequences of his wrong act, for those possible consequences are too
+far off to affect his mind. The long lecture wearies him, especially if
+it be in a stereotyped form; and with teachers who are fault-finding,
+and who like to hear themselves talk, this is apt to be the case. Still
+more unfortunate would it be if we really should affect the lively
+imagination of a sensitive youth by our description of the wretchedness
+to which his wrong-doing, if persisted in, might lead him, for then the
+conviction that he has already taken one step in that direction may
+produce in him a fear which in the future man may become terrible
+depression and lead to degradation.
+
+§ 37. If to censure we add the threat of punishment, we have then what
+in common language is called scolding.
+
+If threats are made, the pupil must be made to feel that they will be
+faithfully executed according to the word.
+
+The threat of punishment is, however, to be avoided; for circumstances
+may arise which will render its fulfillment not only objectionable, but
+wrong, and the teacher will then find himself in the position of Herod
+and bound "for his oath's sake" to a course of action which no longer
+seems the best. Even the law in affixing a penalty to definite crimes
+allows a certain latitude in a maximum and minimum of awarded
+punishment.
+
+§ 38. It is only after other means of reformation have been tried, and
+have failed, that punishment is justifiable for error, transgression, or
+vice. When our simple prohibition (§ 36), the statement of our reason
+for the prohibiting (§ 36), and threat of punishment (§ 37) have all
+failed, then punishment comes and intentionally inflicts pain on the
+youth in order to force him by this last means to a realization of his
+wrong-doing. And here the punishment must not be given for general bad
+conduct or for a perverse disposition——those being vague
+generalities——but for a special act of wrong-doing at that time. He
+should not be punished because he is naturally bad or because he is
+generally naughty, but for this one special and particular act which he
+has committed. Thus the punishment will act on the general disposition,
+not directly, but through this particular act, as a manifestation of the
+disposition. Then it will not accuse the innermost nature of the
+culprit. This way of punishment is not only demanded by justice, but it
+is absolutely necessary in view of the fact of the sophistry inherent in
+human nature which is always busy in assigning various motives for its
+actions. If the child understands, then, that he is punished for that
+particular act which he knows himself to have committed, he cannot feel
+the bitter sense of injustice and misunderstanding which a punishment
+inflicted for general reasons, and which attributes to him a depravity
+of motives and intentions, so often engenders.
+
+§ 39. Punishment as an educational means must, nevertheless, be always
+essentially corrective, since it seeks always to bring the youth to a
+comprehension of his wrong-doing and to a positive alteration in his
+behavior, and, hence, has for its aim to improve him. At the same time
+it is a sad testimony of the insufficiency of the means which have
+been previously tried. We should on no account aim to terrify the
+youth by physical force, so that to avoid that he will refrain from
+doing the wrong or from repeating a wrong act already done. This would
+lead only to terrorism, and his growing strength would soon put him
+beyond its power and leave him without motive for refraining from
+evil. Punishment may have this effect in some degree, but it should,
+above all, be made to impress deeply upon his mind the eternal truth
+that the evil deed is never allowed in God's universe to act
+unrestrained and according to its own will, but that the good and true
+is the only absolute power in the world, and that it is never at a
+loss to avenge any contradiction of its will and design.
+
+It may be questioned whether the moral teaching in our schools be not
+too negative in its measures; whether it do not confine itself too much
+to forbidding the commission of the wrong deed, and spend too little
+force in securing the performance of the right deed. Not a simple
+refraining from the wrong, but an active doing of the right would be the
+better lesson to inculcate.
+
+In the laws of the state the office of punishment is first to satisfy
+justice,[12] and only after this is done can the improvement of the
+criminal be considered. If government should proceed on the same basis
+as the educator, it would make a grave mistake, for it has to deal, not
+with children, but with adults, to whom it concedes the dignity of full
+responsibility for all their acts. It has not to consider the reasons,
+either psychological or ethical, which prompted the deed. The actual
+deed is what it has first of all to deal with, and only after that is
+considered and settled can it take into view any mitigating
+circumstances connected therewith, or any peculiarity of the individual.
+The educator, on the other hand, has to deal with those who are immature
+and only growing toward responsibility. As long as they are under the
+care of a teacher, he is at any rate partially accountable for what they
+do. We must never confound the nature of punishment in the State with
+that of punishment as an educational means.
+
+§ 40. As to punishment, as with all other work in education, it can
+never be abstractly determined beforehand, but it must be regulated with
+a view to the individual pupil and his peculiar circumstances. What it
+shall be, and how and when administered, are problems which call for
+great ingenuity and tact on the part of the educator. It must never be
+forgotten that punishments vary in intensity at the will of the
+educator. He fixes the standard by which they are measured in the
+child's mind. Whipping is actual physical pain, and an evil in itself to
+the child. But there are many other punishments which involve no
+physical pain, and the intensity of which, as felt by the child, varies
+according to an artificial standard in different schools. "To sit under
+the clock" was a great punishment in one of our public schools——not that
+the seat was not perfectly comfortable, but that one was never sent
+there to sit unless for some grave misdemeanor. The teacher has the
+matter in his own hands, and it is well to remember this and to grade
+his punishments with much caution, so as to make all pass for their full
+value. In some schools even suspension is so common that it does not
+seem to the pupil a very terrible thing. "Familiarity breeds contempt,"
+and frequency implies familiarity. A punishment seldom resorted to will
+always seem to the pupil to be severe. As we weaken, and in fact
+bankrupt, language by an inordinate use of superlatives, so, also, do we
+weaken any punishment by its frequent repetition. Economy of resources
+should be always practiced.
+
+§ 41. In general, we might say that, for very young children, corporal
+punishment is most appropriate; for boys and girls, isolation; and for
+older youth, something which appeals to the sense of honor.
+
+§ 42. (1) Corporal punishment implies physical pain. Generally it
+consists of a whipping, and this is perfectly justifiable in case of
+persistent defiance of authority, of obstinate carelessness, or of
+malicious evil-doing, so long or so often as the higher perceptions of
+the offender are closed against appeal. But it must not be administered
+too often, or with undue severity. To resort to deprivation of food is
+cruel. But, while we condemn the false view of seeing in the rod the
+only panacea for all embarrassing questions of discipline on the
+teacher's part, we can have no sympathy for the sentimentality which
+assumes that the dignity of humanity is affected by a blow given to a
+child. It is wrong thus to confound self-conscious humanity with
+child-humanity, for to the average child himself a blow is the most
+natural form of retribution, and that in which all other efforts at
+influence at last end. The fully grown man ought, certainly, not to be
+flogged, for this kind of punishment places him on a level with the
+child; or, where it is barbarously inflicted, reduces him to the level
+of the brute, and thus absolutely does degrade him. In English schools
+the rod is said to be often used; if a pupil of the first class, who is
+never flogged, is put back into the second, he becomes again subject to
+flogging. But, even if this be necessary in the schools, it certainly
+has no proper place in the army and navy.
+
+§ 43. (2) To punish a pupil by isolation is to remove him temporarily
+from the society of his fellows. The boy or girl thus cut off from
+companionship, and forced to think only of himself, begins to understand
+how helpless he is in such a position. Time passes wearily, and he is
+soon eager to return to the companionship of parents, brothers and
+sisters, teachers and fellow-students.
+
+But to leave a child entirely by himself without any supervision, and
+perhaps in a dark room, is as wrong as to leave two or three together
+without supervision. It often happens when they are kept after school by
+themselves that they give the freest rein to their childish wantonness,
+and commit the wildest pranks.
+
+§ 44. (3) Shutting children up in this way does not touch their sense
+of honor, and the punishment is soon forgotten, because it relates only
+to certain particular phases of their behavior. But it is quite
+different when the pupil is isolated from his fellows on the ground that
+by his conduct he has violated the very principles which make civilized
+society possible, and is, therefore, no longer a proper member of it.
+This is a punishment which touches his sense of honor, for honor is the
+recognition of the individual by others as their equal, and by his
+error, or by his crime, he had forfeited his right to be their equal,
+their peer, and has thus severed himself from them.
+
+The separation from them is thus only the external form of the real
+separation which he himself has brought to pass within his soul, and
+which his wrong-doing has only made clearly visible. This kind of
+punishment, thus touching the whole character of the youth and not
+easily forgotten, should be administered with the greatest caution lest
+a permanent loss of self-respect follow. When we think our wrong-doing
+to be eternal in its effects, we lose all power of effort for our own
+improvement.
+
+This sense of honor cannot be developed so well in family life, because
+in the family the ties of blood make all in a certain sense equal, no
+matter what may be their conduct. He who has by wrong-doing severed
+himself from society is still a member of the family, and within its
+sacred circle is still beloved, though it may be with bitter tears. No
+matter how wrong he may have been, he still can find there the deepest
+sympathy, for he is still father, brother, etc. It is in the contact of
+one family with another that the feeling of honor is first developed,
+and still more in the contact of the individual with an institution
+which is not bound to him by any natural ties, but is an organism
+entirely external to him. Thus, to the child, the school and the
+school-classes offer a means of development which can never be found in
+the family.
+
+This fact is often overlooked by those who have the charge of the
+education of children. No home education, no private tutorship, can take
+the place of the school as an educational influence. For the first time
+in his life the child, on being sent to school, finds himself in a
+community where he is responsible for his own deeds, and where he has no
+one to shield him. The rights of others for whom he has no special
+affection are to be respected by him, and his own are to be defended.
+The knowledge gained at the school is by no means the most valuable
+acquisition there obtained. It must never be forgotten by the teacher
+that the school is an institution on an entirely different basis from
+the family, and that personal attachment is not the principle on which
+its rule can be rightly based.
+
+§ 45. This gradation of punishment from physical pain, up through
+occasional isolation, to the touching of the innermost sense of honor is
+very carefully to be considered, both with regard to the different ages
+at which they are severally appropriate and to the different discipline
+which they necessarily produce. Every punishment must, however, be
+always looked at as a means to some end, and is thus transitory in its
+nature. The pupil should always be conscious that it is painful to the
+teacher to punish him. Nothing can be more effectual as a means of cure
+for the wrong-doer than to perceive in the manner and tone of the voice,
+in the very delay with which the necessary punishment is administered,
+that he who punishes also suffers in order that the wrong-doer may be
+cured of his fault. The principle of vicarious suffering lies at the
+root of all spiritual healing.
+
+
+_III.——The Limits of Education._
+
+§ 46. As far as the external form of education is concerned, its limit
+is reached in the instrumentality of punishment in which we seek to turn
+the activity which has been employed in a wrong direction into its
+proper channel, to make the deed positive instead of negative, to
+substitute for the destructive deed one which shall be in harmony with
+the constructive forces of society. But education implies its real
+limits in its definition, which is to build up the individual into
+theoretical and practical Reason. When this work goes properly on, the
+authority of the educator, as authority, necessarily loses, every day,
+some of its force, as the guiding principles come to form a part of the
+pupil's own character, instead of being super-imposed on him from
+without through the mediation of the educator. What was authority
+becomes now advice and example; unreasoning and implicit obedience
+passes into gratitude and affection. The pupil wears off the rough edges
+of his crude individuality, which is transfigured, so to speak, into the
+universality and necessity of Reason, but without losing his identity in
+the process. Work becomes enjoyment, and Play is found only in a change
+of activity. The youth takes possession of himself, and may now be left
+to himself. There are two widely differing views with regard to the
+limits of education; one lays great stress on the powerlessness of the
+pupil and the great power of the teacher, and asserts that the teacher
+must create something out of the pupil.
+
+This view is often seen to have undesirable results, where large
+numbers are to be educated together. It assumes that each pupil is only
+"a sample of the lot" on whom the teacher is to affix his stamp, as if
+they were different pieces of goods from some factory. Thus
+individuality is destroyed, and all reduced to one level, as in
+cloisters, barracks, and orphan asylums, where only one individual seems
+to exist. Sometimes it takes the form of a theory which holds that one
+can at will flog anything into or out of a pupil. This may be called a
+superstitious belief in the power of education. The opposite extreme may
+be found in that system which advocates a "severe letting alone,"
+asserting that individuality is unconquerable, and that often the most
+careful and circumspect education fails of reaching its aim because the
+inherent nature of the youth has fought against it with such force as to
+render abortive all opposing efforts. This idea of Pedagogy produces a
+sort of indifference about means and ends which would leave each
+individuality to grow as its own instinct and the chance influences of
+the world might direct. The latter view would, of course, preclude the
+possibility of any science of education, and make the youth only the
+sport of blind fate. The comparative power of inherited tendencies and
+of educational appliances is, however, one which every educator should
+carefully study. Much careless generalization has been made on this
+topic, and opinion is too often based upon some one instance where
+accurate observation of methods and influences have been wanting.
+
+§ 47. Education has necessarily a definite _subjective limit_ in the
+individuality of the youth, for it can develop in him only that which
+exists in him as a possibility. It can lead and assist, but it has no
+power to create. What nature has denied to a man education cannot give
+him, any more than it can on the other hand annihilate his original
+gifts, though it may suppress, distort, and measurably destroy them. And
+yet it is impossible to decide what is the real essence of a man's
+individuality until he has left behind him the years of growth, because
+it is not till then that he fully attains conscious possession of
+himself. Moreover, at this critical time many traits which were supposed
+to be characteristic may prove themselves not to be so by disappearing,
+while long-slumbering and unsuspected talents may crop out. Whatever has
+been forced upon a child, though not in harmony with his individuality,
+whatever has been driven into him without having been actively accepted
+by him, or having had a definite relation to his culture——will remain
+perhaps, but only as an external foreign ornament, only as a parasitic
+growth which weakens the force of his real nature. But we must
+distinguish from these little affectations which arise from a
+misconception of the limits of individuality that effort of imitation
+which children and young people often exhibit in trying to copy in their
+own actions those peculiarities which they observe and admire in
+perfectly-developed persons with whom they may come in contact. They see
+a reality which corresponds to their own possibility, and the
+presentiment of a like or a similar attainment stirs them to imitation,
+although this external imitation may be sometimes disagreeable or
+ridiculous to the lookers-on. We ought not to censure it too severely,
+remembering that it springs from a positive striving towards true
+culture, and needs only to be properly directed, and never to be roughly
+put down.
+
+§ 48. _The objective limit_ of education consists in the means
+which can be applied for it. That the capacity for culture should exist
+is the first condition of success, but it is none the less necessary
+that it be cultivated. But how much cultivation shall be given to it
+must depend in very great degree on the means which are practicable, and
+this will undoubtedly again depend on the worldly possessions and
+character of the family to which the pupil belongs. If he comes of a
+cultivated and refined family, he will have a great advantage at the
+start over his less favored comrades; and, with regard to many of the
+arts and sciences, this limitation of education is of great
+significance. But the means alone will not answer. Without natural
+capacity, all the educational apparatus possible is of no avail. On the
+other hand, real talent often accomplishes incredible feats with very
+limited means; and, if the way is only once open, makes of itself a
+center of attraction which draws to itself as with magnetic power the
+necessary means. Moral culture is, however, from its very nature, raised
+above such dependence.
+
+If we fix our thought on the subjective limit——that of individuality (§
+47)——we detect the ground for that indifference which lays little stress
+on education (§ 46, end). If, on the other hand, we concentrate our
+attention on the means of culture, we shall perceive the reason of the
+other extreme spoken of——of that pedagogical despotism (§ 46) which
+fancies that it is able to prescribe and enforce at will upon the pupil
+any culture whatever, without regard to his special characteristics.
+
+§ 49. Education comes to its _absolute limit_ when the pupil has
+apprehended the problem which he is to solve, has comprehended the means
+which are at his disposal, and has acquired the necessary skill in using
+them. The true educator seeks to render himself unnecessary by the
+complete emancipation of the youth. He works always towards the
+independence of the pupil, and always with the design of withdrawing so
+soon as he shall have reached this stand-point, and of leaving him to
+the full responsibility for his own deeds. To endeavor to hold him in
+the position of a pupil after this time has been reached would be to
+contradict the very essence of education, which must find its result in
+the independent maturity of the youth. The inequality which formerly
+existed between pupil and teacher is now removed, and nothing becomes
+more oppressive to the former than any endeavor to force upon him the
+authority from which, in reality, his own efforts have freed him. But
+the undue hastening of this emancipation is as bad an error as an effort
+after delay. The question as to whether a person is really ready for
+independent action——as to whether his education is finished——may be
+settled in much the same way in education as in politics. When any
+people has progressed so far as to put the question whether they are
+ready for freedom, it ceases to be a question; for, without the inner
+consciousness of freedom itself, the question would never have occurred
+to them.
+
+§ 50. But, although the pupil may rightly now be freed from the hands of
+instructors, and no longer obtain his culture through them, it is by no
+means to be understood that he is not to go on with the work himself. He
+is now to educate himself. Each must plan out for himself the ideal
+toward which he must daily strive. In this process of
+self-transformation a friend may aid by advice and example, but he
+cannot educate, for the act of educating necessarily implies inequality
+between teacher and pupil. The human necessity for companionship gives
+rise to societies of different kinds, in which we may, perhaps, say that
+there is some approach to educating their members, the necessary
+inequality being supplied by various grades and orders. They presuppose
+education in the usual sense of the word, but they wish to bring about
+an education in a higher sense, and, therefore, they veil the last form
+of their ideal in mystery and secrecy.
+
+By the term _Philister_ the Germans indicate the man of a civilized
+state who lives on, contented with himself and devoid of any impulse
+towards further self-culture. To one who is always aspiring after an
+Ideal, such a one cannot but be repulsive. But how many are they who do
+not, sooner or later, in mature life, crystallize, as it were, so that
+any active life, any new progress, is to them impossible?
+
+
+ANALYSIS AND COMMENTARY.
+
+§ 1. Pedagogics is not a complete, independent science by itself. It
+borrows the results of other sciences [_e.g._, it presupposes the
+science of Rights, treating of the institutions of the family and civil
+society, as well as of the State; it presupposes the science of
+anthropology, in which is treated the relations of the human mind to
+nature. Nature conditions the development of the individual human being.
+But the history of the individual and the history of the race presents a
+continual emancipation from nature, and a continual growth into freedom,
+_i.e._, into ability to know himself and to realize himself in the
+world by making the matter and forces of the world his instruments and
+tools. Anthropology shows us how man as a natural being——_i.e._, as
+having a body——is limited. There is climate, involving heat and cold and
+moisture, the seasons of the year, etc.; there is organic growth,
+involving birth, growth, reproduction, and decay; there is race,
+involving the limitations of heredity; there is the telluric life of the
+planet and the circulation of the forces of the solar system, whence
+arise the processes of sleeping, waking, dreaming, and kindred
+phenomena; there is the emotional nature of man, involving his feelings,
+passions, instincts, and desires; then there are the five senses, and
+their conditions. Then, there is the science of phenomenology, treating
+of the steps by which mind rises from the stage of mere feeling and
+sense-perception to that of self-consciousness, _i.e._, to a
+recognition of mind as true substance, and of matter as mere phenomenon
+created by Mind (God). Then, there is psychology, including the
+treatment of the stages of activity of mind, as so-called "faculties" of
+the mind, _e. g_, attention, sense-perception, imagination, conception,
+understanding, judgment, reason, and the like. Psychology is generally
+made (by English writers) to include, also, what is here called
+anthropology and phenomenology. After psychology, there is the science
+of ethics, or of morals and customs; then, the Science of Rights,
+already mentioned; then, Theology, or the Science of Religion, and,
+after all these, there is Philosophy, or the Science of Science. Now, it
+is clear that the Science of Education treats of the process of
+development, by and through which man, as a merely natural being,
+becomes spirit, or self-conscious mind; hence, it presupposes all the
+sciences named, and will be defective if it ignores nature, or mind, or
+any stage or process of either, especially Anthropology, Phenomenology,
+Psychology, Ethics, Rights, Æsthetics, or Science of Art and Literature,
+Religion, or Philosophy].
+
+§ 2. The scope of pedagogics being so broad, and its presuppositions so
+vast, its limits are not well defined, and its treatises are very apt to
+lack logical sequence and conclusion; and, indeed, frequently to be mere
+collections of unjustified and unexplained assumptions, dogmatically set
+forth. Hence the low repute of pedagogical literature as a whole.
+
+§ 3. Moreover, education furnishes a special vocation, that of teaching.
+(All vocations are specializing——being cut off, as it were, from the
+total life of man. The "division of labor" requires that each individual
+shall concentrate his endeavors and be a _part_ of the whole).
+
+§ 4. Pedagogics, as a special science, belongs to the collection of
+sciences (already described, in commenting on § 1) included under the
+philosophy of Spirit or Mind, and more particularly to that part of it
+which relates to the will (ethics and science of rights, rather than to
+the part relating to the intellect and feeling, as anthropology,
+phenomenology, psychology, æsthetics, and religion. "Theoretical"
+relates to the _intellect_, "practical" relates to the _will_, in this
+philosophy). The province of practical philosophy is the investigation
+of the nature of freedom, and the process of securing it by
+self-emancipation from nature. Pedagogics involves the conscious
+exertion of influence on the part of the will of the teacher upon the
+will of the pupil, with a purpose in view——that of inducing the pupil to
+form certain prescribed habits, and adopt prescribed views and
+inclinations. The entire science of mind (as above shown), is
+presupposed by the science of education, and must be kept constantly in
+view as a guiding light. The institution of the _family_ (treated in
+practical philosophy) is the starting-point of education, and without
+this institution properly realized, education would find no solid
+foundation. The right to be educated on the part of children, and the
+duty to educate on the part of parents, are reciprocal; and there is no
+family life so poor and rudimentary that it does not furnish the most
+important elements of education——no matter what the subsequent influence
+of the school, the vocation, and the state.
+
+§ 5. Pedagogics as science, distinguished from the same as an art: the
+former containing the abstract general treatment, and the latter taking
+into consideration all the conditions of concrete individuality,
+_e.g._, the peculiarities of the teacher and the pupil, and all the
+local circumstances, and the power of adaptation known as "tact."
+
+§ 6. The special conditions and peculiarities, considered in education
+as an art, may be formulated and reduced to system, but they should not
+be introduced as a part of the _science_ of education.
+
+§ 7. Pedagogics has three parts: first, it considers the idea and nature
+of education, and arrives at its true definition; second, it presents
+and describes the special provinces into which the entire field of
+education is divided; third, it considers the historical evolution of
+education by the human race, and the individual systems of education
+that have arisen, flourished, and decayed, and their special functions
+in the life of man.
+
+§ 8. The scope of the first part is easy to define. The history of
+pedagogics, of course, contains all the ideas or definitions of the
+nature of education; but it must not for that reason be substituted for
+the scientific investigation of the nature of education, which alone
+should constitute this first part (and the history of education be
+reserved for the third part).
+
+§ 9. The second part includes a discussion of the threefold nature of
+man as body, intellect, and will. The difficulty in this part of the
+science is very great, because of its dependence upon other sciences
+(_e. g_, upon physiology, anthropology, etc.), and because of the
+temptation to go into details (_e. g_, in the practical department, to
+consider the endless varieties of schools for arts and trades).
+
+§ 10. The third part contains the exposition of the various national
+standpoints furnished (in the history of the world) for the bases of
+particular systems of education. In each of these systems will be found
+the general idea underlying all education, but it will be found existing
+under special modifications, which have arisen through its application
+to the physical, intellectual, and ethical conditions of the people. But
+we can deduce the essential features of the different systems that may
+appear in history, for there are only a limited number of systems
+possible. Each lower form finds itself complemented in some higher form,
+and its function and purpose then become manifest. The systems of
+"national" education (_i.e._, Asiatic systems, in which the
+individuality of each person is swallowed up in the substantiality of
+the national idea——just as the individual waves get lost in the ocean on
+whose surface they arise) find their complete explanation in the systems
+of education that arise in Christianity (the preservation of human life
+being the object of the nation, it follows that when realized abstractly
+or exclusively, it absorbs and annuls the mental independence of its
+subjects, and thus contradicts itself by destroying the essence of what
+it undertakes to preserve, _i.e._, life (soul, mind); but within
+Christianity the principle of the state is found so modified that it is
+consistent with the infinite, untrammelled development of the
+individual, intellectually and morally, and thus not only life is saved,
+but spiritual, free life is attainable for each and for all).
+
+§ 11. The history of pedagogy ends with the present system as the latest
+one. As science sees the future ideally contained in the present, it is
+bound to comprehend the latest system as a realization (though
+imperfect) of the ideal system of education. Hence, the system, as
+scientifically treated in the first part of our work, is the system with
+which the third part of our work ends.
+
+§ 12. The nature of education, its form, its limits, are now to be
+investigated. (§§ 13-50.)
+
+§ 13. The nature of education determined by the nature of Mind or
+Spirit, whose activity is always devoted to realizing for itself what it
+is potentially——to becoming conscious of its possibilities, and to
+getting them under the control of its will. Mind is potentially free.
+Education is the means by which man seeks to realize in man his
+possibilities (to develop the possibilities of the race in each
+individual). Hence, education has freedom for its object.
+
+§ 14. Man is the only being capable of education, in the sense above
+defined, because the only conscious being. He must know himself ideally,
+and then realize his ideal self, in order to become actually free. The
+animals not the plants may be _trained_, or _cultivated_, but, as devoid
+of self-consciousness (even the highest animals not getting above
+impressions, not reaching ideas, not seizing general or abstract
+thoughts), they are not realized for _themselves_, but only for us.
+(That is, they do not know their ideal as we do.)
+
+§ 15. Education, taken in its widest compass, is the education of the
+human race by Divine Providence.
+
+§ 16. In a narrower sense, education is applied to the shaping of the
+individual, so that his caprice and arbitrariness shall give place to
+rational habits and views, in harmony with nature and ethical customs.
+He must not abuse nature, nor slight the ethical code of his people, nor
+despise the gifts of Providence (whether for weal or woe), unless he is
+willing to be crushed in the collision with these more substantial
+elements.
+
+§ 17. In the narrowest, but most usual application of the term, we
+understand by "education" the influence of the individual upon the
+individual, exerted with the object of developing his powers in a
+conscious and methodical manner, either generally or in special
+directions, the educator being relatively mature, and exercising
+authority over the relatively immature pupil. Without authority on the
+one hand and obedience on the other, education would lack its ethical
+basis——a neglect of the will-training could not be compensated for by
+any amount of knowledge or smartness.
+
+§ 18. The general province of education includes the development of the
+individual into the theoretical and practical reason immanent in him.
+The definition which limits education to the development of the
+individual into ethical customs (obedience to morality, social
+conventionalities, and the laws of the state——Hegel's definition is here
+referred to: "The object of education is to make men ethical") is not
+comprehensive enough, because it ignores the side of the _intellect_,
+and takes note only of the _will_. The individual should not only be man
+in general (as he is through the adoption of moral and ethical
+forms——which are _general_ forms, customs, or laws, and thus the forms
+imposed by the _will_ of the _race_), but he should also be a
+self-conscious subject, a particular individual (man, through his
+intellect, exists for himself as an individual, while through his
+general habits and customs he loses his individuality and spontaneity).
+
+§ 19. Education has a definite object in view and it proceeds by grades
+of progress toward it. The systematic tendency is essential to all
+education, properly so called.
+
+§ 20. Division of labor has become requisite in the higher spheres of
+teaching. The growing multiplicity of branches of knowledge creates the
+necessity for the specialist as teacher. With this tendency to
+specialties it becomes more and more difficult to preserve what is so
+essential to the pupil——his rounded human culture and symmetry of
+development. The citizen of modern civilization sometimes appears to be
+an artificial product by the side of the versatility of the savage man.
+
+§ 21. From this necessity of the division of labor in modern times there
+arises the demand for two kinds of educational institutions——those
+devoted to general education (common schools, colleges, etc.), and
+special schools (for agriculture, medicine, mechanic arts, etc).
+
+§ 22. The infinite possibility of culture for the individual leaves,
+of course, his actual accomplishment a mere approximation to a complete
+education. Born idiots are excluded from the possibility of education,
+because the lack of universal ideas in their consciousness precludes to
+that class of unfortunates anything beyond a mere mechanical training.
+
+§ 23. Spirit, or mind, makes its own nature; it _is_ what it produces——a
+self-result. From this follows the _form_ of education. It commences
+with (1) undeveloped mind——that of the infant——wherein nearly all is
+potential, and but little is actualized; (2) its first stage of
+development is self-estrangement——it is absorbed in the observation of
+objects around it; (3) but it discovers laws and principles
+(universality) in external nature, and finally identifies them with
+reason——it comes to recognize itself in nature——to recognize conscious
+mind as the creator and preserver of the external world——and thus
+becomes at home in nature. Education does not create, but it
+emancipates.
+
+§ 24. This process of self-estrangement and its removal belongs to all
+culture. The mind must fix its attention upon what is foreign to it, and
+penetrate its disguise. It will discover its own substance under the
+seeming alien being. Wonder is the accompaniment of this stage of
+estrangement. The love of travel and adventure arises from this basis.
+
+§ 25. Labor is distinguished from play: The former concentrates its
+energies on some object, with the purpose of making it conform to its
+will and purpose; play occupies itself with its object according to its
+caprice and arbitrariness, and has no care for the results or products
+of its activity; work is prescribed by authority, while play is
+necessarily spontaneous.
+
+§ 26. Work and Play: the distinction between them. In play the child
+feels that he has entire control over the object with which he is
+dealing, both in respect to its existence and the object for which it
+exists. His arbitrary will may change both with perfect impunity, since
+all depends upon his caprice; he exercises his powers in play according
+to his natural proclivities, and therein finds scope to develope his own
+individuality. In work, on the contrary, he must have respect for the
+object with which he deals. It must be held sacred against his caprice,
+must not be destroyed nor injured in any way, and its object must
+likewise be respected. His own personal inclinations must be entirely
+subordinated, and the business that he is at work upon must be carried
+forward in accordance with its own ends and aims, and without reference
+to his own feelings in the matter.
+
+Thus work teaches the pupil the lesson of self-sacrifice (the right of
+superiority which the general interest possesses over the particular),
+while play develops his personal idiosyncrasy.
+
+§ 27. Without play, the child would become more and more a machine, and
+lose all freshness and spontaneity——all originality. Without work, he
+would develop into a monster of caprice and arbitrariness.
+
+From the fact that man must learn to combine with man, in order that the
+individual may avail himself of the experience and labors of his
+fellow-men, self-sacrifice for the sake of combination is the great
+lesson of life. But as this should be _voluntary_ self-sacrifice,
+education must train the child equally in the two directions of
+spontaneity and obedience. The educated man finds recreation in change
+of work.
+
+§ 28. Education seeks to assimilate its object——to make what was alien
+and strange to the pupil into something familiar and habitual to him.
+[The pupil is to attack, one after the other, the foreign realms in the
+world of nature and man, and conquer them for his own, so that he can be
+"at home" in them. It is the necessary condition of all growth, all
+culture, that one widens his own individuality by this conquest of new
+provinces alien to him. By this the individual transcends the narrow
+limits of particularity and becomes generic——the individual becomes the
+species. A good definition of education is this: it is the process by
+which the individual man elevates himself to the species.]
+
+§ 29. (1) Therefore, the first requirement in education is that the
+pupil shall acquire the habit of subordinating his likes and dislikes to
+the attainment of a rational object.
+
+It is necessary that he shall acquire this indifference to his own
+pleasure, even by employing his powers on that which does not appeal to
+his interest in the remotest degree.
+
+§ 30. Habit soon makes us familiar with those subjects which seemed so
+remote from our personal interest, and they become agreeable to us. The
+objects, too, assume a new interest upon nearer approach, as being
+useful or injurious to us. That is useful which serves us as a means for
+the realization of a rational purpose; injurious, if it hinders such
+realization. It happens that objects are useful in one sense and
+injurious in another, and _vice versa_. Education must make the pupil
+capable of deciding on the usefulness of an object, by reference to its
+effect on his permanent vocation in life.
+
+§ 31. But _good and evil_ are the ethical distinctions which furnish the
+absolute standard to which to refer the question of the usefulness of
+objects and actions.
+
+§ 32. (2) Habit is (a) _passive_, or (b) _active_. The passive habit
+is that which gives us the power to retain our equipoise of mind in the
+midst of a world of changes (pleasure and pain, grief and joy, etc). The
+active habit gives us skill, presence of mind, tact in emergencies, etc.
+
+§ 33. (3) Education deals altogether with the formation of habits. For
+it aims to make some condition or form of activity into a second nature
+for the pupil. But this involves, also, the breaking up of previous
+habits. This power to break up habits, as well as to form them, is
+necessary to the freedom of the individual.
+
+§ 34. Education deals with these complementary relations (antitheses):
+(a) authority and obedience; (b) rationality (_general_ forms) and
+individuality; (c) work and play; (d) habit (general custom) and
+spontaneity. The development and reconciliation of these opposite sides
+in the pupil's character, so that they become his second nature, removes
+the phase of constraint which at first accompanies the formal
+inculcation of rules, and the performance of prescribed tasks. The
+freedom of the pupil is the ultimate object to be kept in view, but a
+too early use of freedom may work injury to the pupil. To remove a pupil
+from all temptation would be to remove possibilities of growth in
+strength to resist it; on the other hand, to expose him needlessly to
+temptation is fiendish.
+
+§ 35. Deformities of character in the pupil should be carefully traced
+back to their origin, so that they may be explained by their history.
+Only by comprehending the historic growth of an organic defect are we
+able to prescribe the best remedies.
+
+§ 36. If the negative behavior of the pupil (his bad behavior) results
+from ignorance due to his own neglect, or to his wilfulness, it should
+be met directly by an act of authority on the part of the teacher (and
+without an appeal to reason). An appeal should be made to the
+understanding of the pupil only when he is somewhat mature, or shows by
+his repetition of the offence that his proclivity is deep-seated, and
+requires an array of all good influences to reinforce his feeble
+resolutions to amend.
+
+§ 37. Reproof, accompanied by threats of punishment, is apt to
+degenerate into scolding.
+
+§ 38. After the failure of other means, punishment should be resorted
+to. Inasmuch as the punishment should be for the purpose of making the
+pupil realize that it is the consequence of his deed returning on
+himself, it should always be administered for some particular act of
+his, and this should be specified. The "overt act" is the only thing
+which a man can be held accountable for in a court of justice; although
+it is true that the harboring of evil thoughts or intentions is a sin,
+yet it is not a crime until realized in an overt act.
+
+§ 40. Punishment should be regulated, not by abstract rules, but in view
+of the particular case and its attending circumstances.
+
+§ 41. Sex and age of pupil should be regarded in prescribing the mode
+and degree of punishment. Corporal punishment is best for pupils who are
+very immature in mind; when they are more developed they may be punished
+by any imposed restraint upon their free wills which will isolate them
+from the ordinary routine followed by their fellow-pupils. (Deprivation
+of the right to do as others do is a wholesome species of punishment for
+those old or mature enough to feel its effects, for it tends to secure
+respect for the regular tasks by elevating them to the rank of rights
+and privileges.) For young men and women, the punishment should be of a
+kind that is based on a sense of honor.
+
+§ 42. (1) Corporal punishment should be properly administered by means
+of the rod, subduing wilful defiance by the application of force.
+
+§ 48. (2) Isolation makes the pupil realize a sense of his dependence
+upon human society, and upon the expression of this dependence by
+coöperation in the common tasks. Pupils should not be shut up in a dark
+room, nor removed from the personal supervision of the teacher. (To shut
+up two or more in a room without supervision is not isolation, but
+association; only it is association for mischief, and not for study.)
+
+§ 44. (3) Punishment based on the sense of honor may or may not be based
+on isolation. It implies a state of maturity on the part of the pupil.
+Through his offence the pupil has destroyed his equality with his
+fellows, and has in reality, in his inmost nature, isolated himself from
+them. Corporal punishment is external, but it may be accompanied with a
+keen sense of dishonor. Isolation, also, may, to a pupil, who is
+sensitive to honor, be a severe blow to self-respect. But a punishment
+founded entirely on the sense of honor would be wholly internal, and
+have no external discomfort attached to it.
+
+§ 45. The necessity of carefully adapting the punishment to the age
+and maturity of the pupil, renders it the most difficult part of the
+teacher's duties. It is essential that the air and manner of the teacher
+who punishes should be that of one who acts from a sense of painful
+duty, and not from any delight in being the cause of suffering. Not
+personal likes and dislikes, but the rational necessity which is over
+teacher and pupil alike, causes the infliction of pain on the pupil.
+
+§ 46. Punishment is the final topic to be considered under the head of
+"Form of Education."
+
+In the act of punishment the teacher abandons the legitimate province of
+education, which seeks to make the pupil rational or obedient to what is
+reasonable, as a habit, and from his own free will. The pupil is
+punished in order that he may be _made_ to conform to the rational, by
+the application of constraint. Another will is substituted for the
+pupil's, and good behavior is produced, but not by the pupil's free act.
+While education finds a negative limit in punishment, it finds a
+positive limit in the accomplishment of its legitimate object, which is
+the emancipation of the pupil from the state of imbecility, as regards
+mental and moral self-control, into the ability to direct himself
+rationally. When the pupil has acquired the discipline which enables him
+to direct his studies properly, and to control his inclinations in such
+a manner as to pursue his work regularly, the teacher is no longer
+needed for him——he becomes his own teacher.
+
+There may be two extreme views on this subject——the one tending towards
+the negative extreme of requiring the teacher to do everything for the
+pupil, substituting his will for that of the pupil, and the other view
+tending to the positive extreme, and leaving everything to the pupil,
+even before his will is trained into habits of self-control, or his mind
+provided with the necessary elementary branches requisite for the
+prosecution of further study.
+
+§ 47. (1) The subjective limit of education (on the negative side) is to
+be found in the individuality of the pupil——the limit to his natural
+capacity.
+
+§ 48. (2) The objective limit to education lies in the amount of time
+that the person may devote to his training. It, therefore, depends
+largely upon wealth, or other fortunate circumstances.
+
+§ 49. (3) The absolute limit of education is the positive limit (see §
+46), beyond which the youth passes into freedom from the school, as a
+necessary instrumentality for further culture.
+
+§ 50. The pre-arranged pattern-making work of the school is now done,
+but self-education may and should go on indefinitely, and will go on if
+the education of the school has really arrived at its "absolute"
+limit——_i.e._, has fitted the pupil for self-education. Emancipation
+from the school does not emancipate one from learning through his
+fellow-men. Man's spiritual life is one depending upon coöperation with
+his fellow-men. Each must avail himself of the experience of his
+fellow-men, and in turn communicate his own experience to the common
+fund of the race. Thus each lives the life of the whole, and all live
+for each. School-education gives the pupil the instrumentalities with
+which to enable him to participate in this fund of experience——this
+common life of the race. After school-education comes the still more
+valuable education, which, however, without the school, would be in a
+great measure impossible.
+
+
+
+
+ERRATA.
+
+
+§ 26. Last two paragraphs should be within quotation marks, being from
+an English author.
+
+§ 29. The second and third paragraphs belong to § 30.——the numbering
+being omitted.
+
+§ 33. Line four——"instructive" should be "intuitive."
+
+
+
+
+SECOND PART.
+
+The Special Elements of Education.
+
+
+§ 51. Education is the development of the theoretical and practical
+Reason which is inborn in the human being. Its end is to be accomplished
+by the labor which transforms a condition, existent at first only as an
+ideal, into a fixed habit, and changes the natural individuality into a
+glorified humanity. When the youth stands, so to speak, on his own feet,
+he is emancipated from education, and education then finds its limit.
+The special elements which may be said to make up education are the
+life, the cognition, and the will of man. Without the first, the real
+nature of the soul can never be made really to appear; without
+cognition, he can have no genuine will——_i.e._, one of which he is
+conscious; and without will, no self-assurance, either of life or of
+cognition. It must not be forgotten that these three so-called elements
+are not to be held apart in the active work of education; for they are
+inseparable and continually interwoven the one with the other. But none
+the less do they determine their respective consequences, and sometimes
+one, sometimes another has the supremacy. In infancy, up to the fifth or
+sixth year, the physical development, or mere living, is the main
+consideration; the next period, that of childhood, is the time of
+acquiring knowledge, in which the child takes possession of the theory
+of the world as it is handed down——a tradition of the past, such as man
+has made it through his experience and insight; and finally, the period
+of youth must pave the way to a practical activity, the character of
+which the self-determination of the will must decide.
+
+§ 52. We may, then, divide the elements of Pedagogics into three
+sections: (1) the physical, (2) the intellectual, (3) the practical.
+(The words "orthobiotics," "didactics," and "pragmatics" might be used
+to characterize them.)
+
+Æsthetic training is only an element of the intellectual, as social,
+moral, and religious training are elements of the practical. But because
+these latter elements relate to external things (affairs of the world),
+the name pragmatics, is appropriate. In so far as education touches on
+the principles which underlie ethics, politics, and religion, it concurs
+with those sciences, but it is distinguished from them in the capacity
+which it imparts for solving the problems presented by the others.
+
+The scientific order of topics must be established through the fact that
+the earlier, as the more abstract, constitute the condition of their
+presupposed end and aim, and the later because the more concrete
+constitute the ground of the former, and consequently their final cause,
+or the end for which they exist; just as in human beings, life in the
+order of time comes before cognition, and cognition before will,
+although life really presupposes cognition, and cognition will.
+
+
+FIRST DIVISION.
+
+PHYSICAL EDUCATION, OR ORTHOBIOTICS.
+
+
+§ 53. Only when we rightly comprehend the process of life may we know
+how to live aright. Life, the "circle of eternal change," is constantly
+transforming the inorganic into the organic, and after using it,
+returning it again to the realm of the inorganic. Whatever it does not
+assimilate of that which it has taken in simply as a stimulant, and
+whatever has become dead, it separates from itself and rejects. The
+organism is in perfect health when it accomplishes this double task of
+organizing and disorganizing. On the comprehension of this single fact
+all laws of physical health or of hygiene are based. This idea of the
+essence of life is expressed by Goethe in his Faust, where he sees the
+golden buckets perpetually rising and sinking.[13] When the equilibrium
+of the upward and downward motion is disturbed, we have disease. When
+the motion ceases we have death, in which the whole organism becomes
+inorganic, and the "dust returns to dust."
+
+§ 54. It follows from this that not only in the organism as a whole, but
+in every organ, and every part of every organ, this restless change of
+the inorganic to the organic is going on. Every cell has its own
+history, and this history is only the same as that of the whole of which
+it forms a part. Activity is then not inimical to the organism, but is
+the appointed means by which the progressive and retrogressive
+metamorphoses must be carried out. In order that the process may go on
+harmoniously, or, in other words, that the body may be healthy, the
+whole organism, and every part of it in its own way, must have its
+period of productive activity and then also its period of rest in which
+it finds renewal of strength for another period of activity. Thus we
+have waking and sleep, inspiration and expiration of air. Periodicity is
+the law of life. When we understand the relative antagonism (their stage
+of tension) of the different organs, and their cycles of activity, we
+shall hold the secret of the constant self-renewal of life. This thought
+finds expression in the old fairy stories of "The Search after the
+Fountain of Youth." And the figure of the fountain, with its rising and
+falling waters, doubtless finds its origin in the dim comprehension of
+the endless double movement, or periodicity of life.
+
+§ 55. When to any organ, or to the whole organism, not sufficient time
+is allowed for it to withdraw into itself and to repair waste, we are
+conscious of fatigue. While the other organs all rest, however, one
+special organ may, as if separated from them, sustain a long-continued
+effort of activity even to the point of fatigue, without injury——as,
+_e.g._, the lungs in talking while all the other members are at rest.
+But, on the other hand, it is not well to talk and run at the same time.
+
+The idea that the body may be preserved in a healthy state longer by
+sparing it——_i.e._, by inactivity——is an error which springs from a
+false and mechanical conception of life. It is just as foolish to
+imagine that health depends on the abundance and excellence of food, for
+without the power of assimilating the food taken, nourishment of
+whatever kind does more harm than good; all real strength develops from
+activity alone.
+
+§ 56. Physical education, according as it relates to the repairing, the
+muscular, or the emotional activities, is divided into (1) diatetics,
+(2) gymnastics, (3) sexual education. In the direct activity of life
+these all interact with each other, but for our purposes we are obliged
+to speak of them as if they worked independently. Moreover, in the
+development of the human being, they come into maturity of development
+in a certain order: nutrition, muscular growth, sexual maturity. But
+Pedagogics can treat of these only as they are found in the infant, the
+child, and the youth; for with the arrival of mature life, education is
+over.
+
+
+FIRST CHAPTER.
+
+_Diatetics._
+
+
+§ 57. By diatetics we mean the art of repairing the constant waste of
+the system, and, in childhood, of also building it up to its full form
+and size. Since in reality each organism has its own way of doing this,
+the diatetical practice must vary somewhat with sex, age, temperament,
+occupation, and circumstances. The science of Pedagogics has then, in
+this department, only to enunciate general principles. If we go into
+details, we fall into triviality. Nothing can be of more importance for
+the whole life than the way in which the physical education is managed
+in the very first stages of development. So generally is this fact
+accepted, that almost every nation has its own distinct system, which
+has been carefully elaborated. Many of these systems, no doubt, are
+characterized by gross errors, and widely differ as to time, place, and
+character, and yet they all have a justification for their peculiar
+form.
+
+§ 58. The best food for the infant in the first months of its life is
+its mother's milk. The employment of another nurse, if a general custom,
+as in France, is highly objectionable, since with the milk the child is
+likely to imbibe to some extent his physical and ethical nature. The
+milk of an animal can never supply the place to a child of that of its
+own mother. In Walter Scott's story of _The Fair Maid of Perth_, Eachim
+is represented as timorous by nature, having been nourished by a white
+doe after the death of his mother.
+
+§ 59. When the teeth make their appearance, it is a sign that the child
+is ready for solid food; and yet, till the second teeth appear, light,
+half-solid food and vegetables should constitute the principal part of
+the diet.
+
+§ 60. When the second teeth have come, then the organism demands both
+vegetable and animal food. Too much meat is, doubtless, harmful. But it
+is an error to suppose that man was intended to eat vegetables alone,
+and that, as some have said, the adoption of animal food is a sign of
+his degeneracy.
+
+The Hindoos, who live principally on a vegetable diet, are not at all,
+as has been asserted, a mild and gentle race. A glance into their
+stories, especially their erotic poetry, proves them to be quite as
+passionate as any other people.
+
+§ 61. Man is an omnivorous being. Children have, therefore, a natural
+desire to taste of every thing. With them, eating and drinking have
+still a poetic side, and there is a pleasure in them which is not wholly
+the mere pleasure of taste. Their proclivity to taste of every thing
+should not, therefore, be harshly censured, unless it is associated with
+disobedience, or pursued in a clandestine manner, or when it betrays
+cunning and greediness.
+
+§ 62. Children need much sleep, because they are growing and changing so
+fast. In later years, waking and sleeping must be regulated, and yet not
+too exactly.
+
+§ 63. The clothing of children should follow the form of the body, and
+should be large enough to give them free room for the unfettered
+movement of every limb in play.
+
+The Germans do more rationally for children in the matter of sleep and
+of dress than in that of food, which they often make too rich, and
+accompany with coffee, tea, etc. The clothing should be not only
+suitable in shape and size, it must also be made of simple and
+inexpensive material, so that the child may not be hampered in his play
+by the constant anxiety that a spot or a rent may cause fault to be
+found with him. If we foster in the child's mind too much thought about
+his clothes, we tend to produce either a narrow-mindedness, which treats
+affairs of the moment with too much respect and concerns itself with
+little things, or an empty vanity. Vanity is often produced by dressing
+children in a manner that attracts attention. (No one can fail to remark
+the peculiar healthful gayety of German children, and to contrast it
+with the different appearance of American children. It is undoubtedly
+true that the climate has much to do with this result, but it is also
+true that we may learn much from that nation in our way of treating
+children. Already we import their children's story-books, to the
+infinite delight of the little ones, and copies of their children's
+pictures are appropriated constantly by our children's magazines and
+picture-books. It is to be greatly desired that we should adopt the very
+sensible custom which prevails in Germany, of giving to each child its
+own little bed to sleep in, no matter how many may be required; and, in
+general, we shall not go far astray if we follow the Germans in their
+treatment of their happy children.)
+
+§ 64. Cleanliness is a virtue to which children should be trained, not
+only for the sake of their physical health, but also because it has a
+decided moral influence. Cleanliness will not have things deprived of
+their distinctive and individual character, and become again a part of
+original chaos. It is only a form of order which remands all things,
+dirt included, to their own places, and will not endure to have things
+mixed and confused. All adaptation in dress comes from this same
+principle. When every thing is in its proper place, all dressing will be
+suitable to the occasion and to the wearer, and the era of good taste in
+dress will have come. Dirt itself, as Lord Palmerston so wittily said,
+is nothing but "matter out of place." Cleanliness would hold every
+individual thing strictly to its differences from other things, and for
+the reason that it makes pure air, cleanliness of his own body, of his
+clothing, and of all his surroundings really necessary to man, it
+develops in him the feeling for the proper limitations of all existent
+things. (Emerson says: "Therefore is space and therefore is time, that
+men may know that things are not huddled and lumped, but sundered and
+divisible." He might have said, "Therefore is cleanliness.")
+
+
+SECOND CHAPTER.
+
+_Gymnastics._
+
+
+§ 65. Gymnastics is the art of cultivating in a rational manner the
+muscular system. The activity of the voluntary muscles, which are under
+the control of the brain, in distinction from the involuntary, which are
+under the control of the spinal cord, renders possible the connection of
+man with the external world, and acts in a reflex manner back upon the
+involuntary or automatic muscles for the purposes of repair and
+sensation. Because the activity of muscle-fibre consists in the change
+from contraction to expansion, and the reverse, gymnastics must use a
+constant change of movements which shall not only make tense, but relax
+the muscles that are to be exercised.
+
+§ 66. The gymnastic art among any people will always bear a certain
+relation to its art of war. So long as fighting consists mainly of
+personal, hand-to-hand encounters of two combatants, so long will
+gymnastics turn its chief effort towards the development of the greatest
+possible amount of individual strength and dexterity. But after the
+invention of fire-arms of long range has changed the whole idea of war,
+the individual becomes only one member of a body, the army, the
+division, or the regiment, and emerges from this position into his
+individuality again only occasionally, as in sharpshooting, in the
+onset, or in the retreat. Modern gymnastics, as an art, can never be the
+same as the ancient art, for this very reason: that because of the loss
+of the individual man in the general mass of combatants, the matter of
+personal bravery is not of so much importance as formerly. The same
+essential difference between ancient and modern gymnastics, would result
+from the subjective, or internal character of the modern spirit. It is
+impossible for us, in modern times, to devote so much thought to the
+care of the body and to the reverential admiration of its beauty as did
+the Greeks.
+
+The Turners' Unions and Turners' Halls in Germany belonged to the period
+of intense political enthusiasm in the German youth, and had a political
+significance. Now they have come back again to their place as an
+instrument of education, and seem in great cities to be of much
+importance. In mountainous countries, and in country life generally, a
+definite gymnastic drill is of much less importance, for much and varied
+exercise is of necessity a constant part of the daily life of every one.
+
+The constant opportunity and the impulse to recreation helps in the same
+direction. In cities, on the contrary, there is not free space enough
+either in houses or yards for children to romp to their heart's and
+body's content. For this reason a gymnasium is here useful, so that they
+may have companionship in their plays. For girls this exercise is less
+necessary. Dancing may take its place, and systematic exercise should be
+used only where there is a tendency to some weakness or deformity. They
+are not to become Amazons. On the other hand, boys need the feeling of
+comradeship. It is true they find this in some measure in school, but
+they are not there perfectly on an equality, because the standing is
+determined to some extent by his intellectual ability. The academic
+youth cannot hope to win any great preëminence in the gymnastic hall,
+and running, climbing, leaping, and lifting do not interest him very
+much as he grows older. He takes a far more lively interest in exercises
+which have a military character. In Germany the gymnastic art is very
+closely united with the art of war.
+
+(The German idea of a woman's whole duty——to knit, to sew, and to obey
+implicitly——is perhaps accountable for what Rosenkranz here says of
+exercise as regards girls. We, however, who know that the most frequent
+direct cause of debility and suffering in our young women is simply and
+solely a want of muscular strength, may be pardoned for dissenting from
+his opinion, and for suggesting that dancing is not a sufficient
+equivalent for the more violent games of their brothers. We do not fear
+to render them Amazons by giving them more genuine and systematic
+exercise, both physically and intellectually.)
+
+§ 67. The main idea of gymnastics, and indeed of all exercise, is to
+give the mind control over its natural impulses, to make it master of
+the body which it inhabits, and of itself. Strength and dexterity must
+combine to give us a sense of mastership. Strength by itself produces
+the athlete, dexterity by itself the acrobat. Pedagogics must avoid both
+these extremes. Neither must it base its teaching of gymnastics on the
+idea of utility——as, _e. g_, that man might save his life by swimming,
+should he fall into the water, and hence swimming should be taught, etc.
+
+The main thought must be always to enable the soul to take full and
+perfect possession of the organism, so as not to have the body form a
+limit or fetter to its action in its dealings with the external world.
+We are to give it a perfect instrument in the body, in so far as our
+care may do so. Then we are to teach it to use that instrument, and
+exercise it in that use till it is complete master thereof.
+
+(What is said about the impropriety of making athletes and acrobats may
+with justice be also applied to what is called "vocal gymnastics;"
+whence it comes that we have too often vocal athletes and acrobats in
+our graduates, and few readers who can read at sight, without difficulty
+or hesitation, and with appreciation or enjoyment, one page of good
+English.)
+
+§ 68. There are all grades of gymnastic exercises, from the simple to
+the most complex, constituting a system. At first sight, there seems to
+be so much arbitrariness in these things that it is always very
+satisfactory to the mind to detect some rational system in them. Thus we
+have movements (_a_) of the lower extremities, (_b_) of the upper, (_c_)
+of the whole body, with corresponding movements, alternately, of the
+upper and of the lower extremities. We thus have leg, arm, and trunk
+movements.
+
+§ 69. (1) The first set of movements, those of the legs and feet, are of
+prime importance, because upon them depends the carriage of the whole
+body. They are (_a_) walking, (_b_) running, (_c_) leaping; and each of
+these, also, may have varieties. We may have high and low leaping, and
+running may be distinguished as to whether it is to be a short and
+rapid, or a slow and long-continued movement. We may also walk on
+stilts, or run on skates. We may leap with a pole, or without one.
+Dancing is only an artistic and graceful combination of these movements.
+
+§ 70. (2) The second set comprises the arm movements, which are about
+the same as the preceding, being (_a_) lifting, (_b_) swinging; (_c_)
+throwing. The use of horizontal poles and bars, as well as climbing and
+dragging, belong to lifting. Under throwing, come quoit and ball-playing
+and bowling. These movements are distinguished from each other not only
+quantitatively, but qualitatively; as, for instance, running is not
+merely rapid walking; it is a different kind of movement from walking,
+as the position of the extended and contracted muscles is different.
+
+§ 71. (3) The third set of exercises, those of the trunk, differ from
+the other two, which should precede it, in that they bring the body into
+contact with an object in itself capable of active resistance, which it
+has to subdue. This object may be an element (water), an animal, or a
+human being; and thus we have (_a_) swimming, (_b_) riding, (_c_)
+fighting in single combat. In swimming we have the elastic fluid, water,
+to overcome by means of arm and leg movements. This may be made very
+difficult by a strong current, or by rough water, and yet we always have
+here to strive against an inanimate object. On the contrary, in
+horseback riding we have to deal with something that has a self of its
+own, and the contest challenges not our strength alone, but also our
+skill and courage. The motion is therefore very complex, and the rider
+must be able to exercise either or all of these qualities at need. But
+his attention must not be wholly given to his horse, for he has to
+observe also the road, and indeed every thing around him. One of the
+greatest advantages of horseback riding to the overworked student or the
+business man lies doubtlessly in the mental effort. It is impossible for
+him to go on revolving in his mind the problems or the thoughts which
+have so wearied or perplexed him. His whole attention is incessantly
+demanded for the management of his horse, for the observation of the
+road, which changes its character with every step, and with the objects,
+far or near, which are likely to attract the attention of the animal he
+rides. Much good, doubtless, results from the exercise of the muscles of
+the trunk, which are not in any other motion called into such active
+play, but much also from the unavoidable distraction of the mind from
+the ordinary routine of thought, which is the thing most needed. When
+the object which we are to subdue, instead of being an animal, is a man
+like ourselves, as in single combat, we have exercise both of body and
+mind pushed to its highest power. We have then to oppose an intelligence
+which is equal to our own, and no longer the intelligence of an
+unreasoning animal. Single combat is the truly chivalrous exercise; and
+this also, as in the old chivalry time, may be combined with
+horsemanship.
+
+In single combat we find also a qualitative distinction, and this of
+three kinds: (_a_) boxing and wrestling, (_b_) fighting with canes or
+clubs, and (_c_) rapier and sword fencing. The Greeks carried wrestling
+to its highest pitch of excellence. Among the British, a nation of
+sailors, boxing is still retained as a national custom. Fencing with a
+cane or stick is much in use among the French artisan class. The cane is
+a sort of refined club. When the sword or rapier makes its appearance,
+we come to mortal combat. The southern European excels in the use of the
+rapier; the Germans in that of the sword. The appearance of the pistol
+marks the degeneracy of the art of single combat, as it makes the weak
+man equal to the strong, and there is therefore no more incentive to
+train the body to strength in order to overcome an enemy. (The trained
+intelligence, the quick eye, the steady hand, the wary thought to
+perceive and to take advantage of an opportunity——these are the
+qualities which the invention of gunpowder set up above strength and
+brute force. The Greek nation, and we may say Greek mythology and art,
+would have been impossible with gunpowder; the American nation
+impossible without it.)
+
+
+THIRD CHAPTER.
+
+_Sexual Education._
+
+
+[This chapter is designed for parents rather than for teachers, and is
+hence not paraphrased here. A few observations are, however, in place.]
+Great care is necessary at the period of youth that a rational system of
+food and exercise be maintained. But the general fault is in the
+omission of this care in preceding years. One cannot neglect due
+precautions for many years, and then hope to repair the damage caused,
+by extreme care for one or two years.
+
+Special care is necessary that the brain be not overworked in early
+years, and a morbid excitation of the whole nervous system thereby
+induced. We desire to repress any tendency to the rapid development of
+the nervous system. Above all, is the reading of the child to be
+carefully watched and guarded. Nothing can be worse food for a child
+than what are called sensational romances. That the reading of such
+tends to enfeeble and enervate the whole thinking power is a fact which
+properly belongs to the intellectual side of our question not yet
+reached, and may be here merely mentioned. But the effect on the
+physical condition of the youth, of such carelessly written sensational
+stories, mostly of the French type, and full of sensuous, if not sensual
+suggestions, is a point not often enough considered. The teacher cannot,
+perhaps, except indirectly, prevent the reading of such trash at home.
+But every influence which he can bring to bear towards the formation of
+a purer and more correct taste, he should never omit. Where there is a
+public library in the town, he should make himself acquainted with its
+contents, and give the children direct help in their selection of books.
+
+This is an external means. But he should never forget that every
+influence which he can bring to bear in his daily work to make science
+pleasant and attractive, and every lesson which he gives in the use of
+pure, correct English, free from exaggeration, from slang, and from
+mannerism, goes far to render such miserable and pernicious trash
+distasteful even to the child himself.
+
+Every example of thorough work, every pleasure that comes from the
+solving of a problem or the acquisition of a new fact, is so much
+fortification against the advances of the enemy; while all shallow half
+work, all pretence or show tend to create an appetite in the child's
+mind which shall demand such food.
+
+The true teacher should always have in his mind these far-away and
+subtle effects of his teaching; not present good or pleasure either for
+himself or his pupil, but the far-off good——the distant development.
+That idea would free him from the notion, too common in our day, that
+the success or failure of his efforts is to be tested by any adroitly
+contrived system of examinations; or still worse, exhibitions. His
+success can alone be tested by the future lives of his pupils——by their
+love for, or dislike of, new knowledge. His success will be marked by
+their active growth through all their lives; his failure, by their early
+arrested development.
+
+
+
+
+AN OUTLINE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY.
+
+BY WM. T. HARRIS.
+
+[TO BE USED AS AN INTRODUCTION TO PARAGRAPHS 81 TO 102 OF ROSENKRANZ'S
+PEDAGOGICS.]
+
+
+I.
+
+  What beings can be educated; the plant has reaction
+  against its surroundings in the form of nutrition; the
+  animal has reaction in the form of nutrition and feeling;
+  Aristotle calls the life of the plant the "nutritive
+  soul," and the life of the animal the "sensitive soul."
+
+  The life of the plant is a continual reproduction of new
+  individuals——a process of going out of one individual into
+  another——so that the particular individual loses its
+  identity, although the identity of the species is
+  preserved.
+
+That which is dependent upon external circumstances, and is only a
+circumstance itself, is not capable of education. Only a "self" can be
+educated; and a "self" is a conscious unity——a "self-activity," a being
+which is through itself, and not one that is made by surrounding
+conditions.
+
+Again, in order that a being possess a capacity for education, it must
+have the ability to realize within itself what belongs to its species or
+race.
+
+If an acorn could develop itself so that it could realize, not only its
+own possibility as an oak, but its entire species, and all the varieties
+of oaks within itself, and without losing its particular individuality,
+it would possess the capacity for education. But an acorn, in reality,
+cannot develop its possibility without the destruction of its own
+individuality. The acorn vanishes in the oak tree, and the crop of
+acorns which succeeds is not again the same acorn, except in _kind_ or
+species. "The species lives, but the individual dies," in the vegetable
+world.
+
+So it is in the animal world. The brute lives his particular life,
+unable to develop within himself the form of his entire species, and
+still less the form of all animal life. And yet the animal possesses
+self-activity in the powers of locomotion, sense-perception, feeling,
+emotion, and other elementary shapes. Both animal and plant react
+against surroundings, and possess more or less power to assimilate what
+is foreign to them. The plant takes moisture and elementary inorganic
+substances, and converts them into nutrition wherewith to build its
+cellular growth. The animal has not only this power of nutrition, which
+assimilates its surroundings, but also the power of _feeling_, which is
+a wonderful faculty. _Feeling_ reproduces within the organism of the
+animal the external condition; it is an ideal reproduction of the
+surroundings. The environment of the plant may be seized upon and
+appropriated in the form of sap, or in the form of carbonic acid, for
+the nourishment of that plant; but there is no ideal reproduction of the
+environment in the form of _feeling_, as in the animal.
+
+In the activity of _feeling_, the animal transcends his material,
+corporeal limits——lives beyond his mere body, and participates in the
+existence of all nature. He reproduces within himself the external. Such
+being the nature of the activity of _feeling_, which forms the
+distinguishing attribute that divides animals from plants, the question
+meets us at the outset, "Why is not the animal capable of education? Why
+can he not realize within himself his entire species or race, as man
+can?"
+
+In order to settle this fundamental question, we must study carefully
+the scope and limits of this activity, which we have termed "Feeling,"
+and which is known under many names——as, sensation, sensibility,
+sensitivity, sense-perception, intuition, and others.
+
+Education aims to develop the mind as intellect and will. It must know
+what it is to develop, and learn to distinguish higher or more complete
+stages of intellect and will from those which are rudimentary.
+
+Again, the discussion of mind begins properly with the first or most
+undeveloped manifestation——at the stage where it is common to brutes and
+human beings. Hence we may begin our study of educational psychology at
+this point where the distinction between animal and plant appears, and
+where the question of the capacity for education arises.
+
+When we understand the relation of feeling or sensibility to the higher
+manifestations of mind, we shall see in what consists a capacity for
+education, and we shall learn many essentials in regard to the matter
+and method, the _what_ and the _how_ of education.
+
+A general survey of the world discovers that there is inter-action
+among its parts. This is the verdict of science, as the systematic form
+of human experience. In the form of gravitation we understand that each
+body depends upon every other body, and the annihilation of a particle
+of matter in a body would cause a change in that body which would affect
+every other body in the physical universe. Even gravitation, therefore,
+is a manifestation of the whole universe in each part of it, although it
+is not a manifestation which exists _for_ that part, because the part
+does not _know_ it.
+
+There are other forms wherein the whole manifests itself in each part of
+it——as, for example, in the phenomena of light, heat, and possibly in
+magnetism and electricity. These forms of manifestation of the external
+world upon an individual object are destructive to the individuality of
+the object. If the nature of a thing is stamped upon it from without, it
+is an element only, and not a self; it is dependent, and belongs to that
+on which it depends. It does not possess itself, but belongs to that
+which _makes_ it, and which gives evidence of ownership by continually
+modifying it.
+
+But the plant, as we just now said, has some degree of self-activity,
+and is not altogether made by the totality of external conditions. The
+growth of the plant is through assimilation of external substances. It
+reacts against its surroundings and digests them, and grows through the
+nutrition thus formed.
+
+All beings that cannot react against surroundings and modify them, lack
+individuality. Individuality begins with this power of reaction and
+modification of external surroundings. Even the power of cohesion is a
+rudimentary form of reaction and of special individuality.
+
+In the case of the plant, the reaction is _real_, but not also _ideal_.
+The plant acts upon its food, and digests it, or assimilates it, and
+imposes its _form_ on that which it draws within its organism. It does
+not, however, reproduce within itself the externality as that external
+exists for itself. It does not form within itself an idea, or even a
+feeling of that which is external to it. Its participation in the
+external world is only that of _real_ modification of it or through it;
+either the plant digests the external, or the external limits _it_, and
+prevents its growth, so that where one begins the other ceases. Hence it
+is that the elements——the matter of which the plant is composed, that
+which it has assimilated even——still retain a large degree of foreign
+power or force——a large degree of externality which the plant has not
+been able to annul or to digest. The plant-activity subdues its food,
+changes its shape and its place, subordinates it to its use; but what
+the matter brings with it, and still retains of the world beyond the
+plant, does not exist for the plant; the plant cannot read or interpret
+the rest of the universe from that small portion of it which it has
+taken up within its own organism. And yet the history of the universe is
+impressed on each particle of matter, as well within the plant as
+outside of it, and it could be understood were there capacities for
+recognizing it.
+
+The reaction of the life of the plant upon the external world is not
+sufficient to constitute a fixed, abiding individuality. With each
+accretion there is some change of particular individuality. Every growth
+to a plant is by the sprouting out of new individuals——new plants——a
+ceaseless multiplication of individuals, and not the preservation of the
+same individual. The species is preserved, but not the particular
+individual. Each limb, each twig, even each leaf is a new individual,
+which grows out from the previous growth as the first sprout grew from
+the seed. Each part furnishes a soil for the next. When a plant no
+longer sends out new individuals, we say it is dead. The life of the
+plant is only a life of nutrition.
+
+Aristotle called vegetable life "the nutritive soul," and the life of
+the animal the "feeling," or _sensitive_ soul. Nutrition is only an
+activity of preservation of the general form in new individuals, it is
+only the life of the species, and not the life of the permanent
+individual.
+
+Therefore we see that in the vegetable world we do not possess a being
+that can be educated——for no individual of it can realize _within_
+itself the species; its realization of the species is a continual
+process of going out of itself in new individuals, but no activity of
+_return_ to itself, so as to preserve _the identity_ of an individual.
+
+
+II.
+
+  Feeling is a unity of the parts of an organism everywhere
+  present in it; feeling is also an ideal reproduction of
+  the external surroundings; feeling is therefore a
+  synthesis of the internal and external. Aristotle joins
+  locomotion and desire to feeling, as correlates; how
+  desire is a more explicit recognition of the unity of the
+  external and internal than the first form of feeling is;
+  feeling reproduces the external without destroying its
+  externality, while nutrition receives the external only
+  after it has destroyed its individuality and assimilated
+  it; desire is the side of feeling that unfolds into will.
+
+With feeling or sensibility we come to a being that reacts on the
+external world in a far higher manner, and realizes a more wonderful
+form of individuality.
+
+The animal possesses, in common with the plant, a process of
+assimilation and nutrition. Moreover, he possesses a capacity to _feel_.
+Through _feeling_, or sensation, all of the parts of his extended
+organism are united in one centre. He is one individual, and not a
+bundle of separate individuals, as a plant is. With feeling, likewise,
+are joined _locomotion_ and _desire_. For these are counterparts of
+feeling. He feels——_i.e._, lives as one indivisible unity throughout his
+organism and controls it, and moves the parts of his body. Desire is
+more than mere feeling. Mere feeling alone is the perception of the
+external within the being, hence an ideal reproduction of the external
+world. In feeling, the animal exists not only within himself, but also
+passes over his limit, and has for object the reality of the external
+world that limits him. Hence it is the perception of his finiteness——his
+limits are his defects, his needs, wants, inadequateness——his separation
+from the world as a whole. In feeling, the animal perceives his
+separation from the rest of the world, and also his union with it.
+Feeling expands into desire when the external world, or some portion of
+it, is seen as ideally belonging to the limited unity of the animal
+being. It is beyond the limit, and ought to be assimilated within the
+limited individuality of the animal.
+
+Mere _feeling_, when attentively considered, is found to contain these
+wonderful features of self-activity: it reproduces for itself the
+external world that limits it; it makes for itself an ideal object,
+which includes its own self and its not-self at the same time. It is a
+higher form than mere nutrition; for nutrition destroys the nature of
+such externality as it receives into itself, while feeling preserves the
+external in its foreign individuality.
+
+But through _feeling_ the animal ascends to _desire_, and sees the
+independent externality as an object for its acquisition, and through
+locomotion it is enabled to seize and appropriate it in a degree which
+the plant did not possess.
+
+
+III.
+
+  The various forms of feeling——its specialization: (_a_)
+  touch, the feeling of mere limits, the indifferent
+  external independence of the organism and its
+  surroundings; (_b_) taste, feeling of the external object
+  when it is undergoing dissolution by assimilation; (_c_)
+  smell, the feeling of chemical dissolution in general;
+  (_d_) hearing, the feeling of the resistance of bodies
+  against attacks: sound being vibration caused by elastic
+  reaction against attacks on cohesion; (_e_) seeing, the
+  feeling of objects in their independence, without
+  dissolution or attack; plant life, nutrition, a process in
+  which the individuality is not preserved either in time or
+  in space; animal life, as feeling, preserves its
+  individuality as regards space, but not as regards time.
+
+Having noted these important characteristics of the lower orders of
+life, and found that _reaction_ from the part against the whole——from
+the internal against the external——belongs to plant life and animal
+life, we may now briefly mention the ways in which feeling is
+particularized. In the lower animals it is only the feeling of touch; in
+higher organisms it becomes also localized as seeing, hearing, taste,
+and smell. These forms of sense-perception constitute a scale (as it
+were) of feeling. With touch, there is reproduction of externality, but
+the ideality of the reproduction is not so complete as in the other
+forms. With taste, the feeling cognizes the external object as
+undergoing dissolution, and assimilation within its own organism. We
+taste only what we are beginning to destroy by the first process of
+assimilation——that of eating. In smell, we perceive chemical dissolution
+of bodies. In seeing and hearing, we have the forms of _ideal_
+sensibility. Hearing perceives the attack made on the individuality of
+an external thing, and its reaction in vibrations, which reveal to us
+its internal nature——its cohesion, etc. In seeing, we have the highest
+form of sense-perception as the perception of things in their external
+independence——not as being destroyed chemically, like the objects of
+taste and smell; not as being attacked and resisting, like the objects
+which are known through the ear; not as mere limits to our organism, as
+in the sense of touch.
+
+Sense-perception, as the developed realization of the activity of
+feeling, belongs to the animal creation, including man as an animal.
+
+We have not yet, therefore, answered the question of capacity for
+education, so far as it concerns a discrimination between man and
+the brute. We have only arrived at the conclusion that the vegetable
+world does not possess the capacity for education, because its
+individual specimens are no complete individuals, but only transitory
+phases manifesting the species by continual reproduction of
+new individuals which are as incomplete as the old ones. Plant life
+does not possess that self-activity which returns into itself in the
+same individual——if we may so express it; it goes out of one individual
+into another perpetually. Its identity is that of the _species_,
+but not of the _individual_.
+
+How is it with the animal——with the being which possesses sensibility,
+or feeling? This question recurs. In feeling there is a reaction,
+just as in the plant. This reaction is, however, in an ideal
+form——the reproduction of the external without assimilation of it——and
+especially is this the case in the sense of _sight_, though it is true
+of all forms of sensation to a less degree.
+
+But all forms of sensibility are limited and special; they refer only
+to the _present_, in its forms of _here_ and _now_. The animal cannot feel
+what is not here and now. Even seeing is limited to what is present
+before it. When we reflect upon the significance of this limitation
+of sense-perception, we shall find that we need some higher form of
+self-activity still before we can realize the species in the individual,
+_i.e._, before we can obtain the true individual——the permanent
+individuality.
+
+The defect in plant life was, that there was neither identity of
+individuality in space nor identify in time. The growth of the
+plant destroyed the individuality of the seed with which we began,
+so that it was evanescent in time; it served only as the starting-point
+for new individualities, which likewise, in turn, served again the same
+purpose; and so its growth in space was a departure from itself as
+individual.
+
+The animal is a preservation of individuality as regards space. He
+returns into himself in the form of _feeling_ or _sensibility_; but as
+regards time, it is not so——feeling being limited to the present.
+Without a higher activity than feeling, there is no continuity of
+individuality in the animal any more than in the plant. Each new moment
+is a new beginning to a being that has feeling, but not memory.
+
+Thus the individuality of mere feeling, although a far more perfect
+realization of individuality than that found in plant life, is yet,
+after all, not a continuous individuality for itself, but only for the
+species.
+
+In spite of the ideal self-activity which appertains to feeling, even
+in sense-perception, only the species lives in the animal and the
+individual dies, unless there be higher forms of activity.
+
+
+IV.
+
+  Representation is the next form above sense-perception.
+  The lowest phase of representation is recollection, which
+  simply repeats for itself a former sense-perception or
+  series of sense-perceptions; in representation the mind is
+  free as regards external impressions; it does not require
+  the presence of the object, but recalls it without its own
+  time and place; fancy and imagination are next higher than
+  recollection, because the mind not only recalls images,
+  but makes new combinations of them, or creates them
+  altogether; attention is the appearance of the will in the
+  intellect; with attention begins the separation of the
+  transient from the variable in perception; memory is the
+  highest form of representation; memory deals with general
+  forms——not mere images of experience, but general types of
+  objects of perception; memory, in this sense, is
+  productive as well as reproductive; with memory arises
+  language.
+
+Here we pass over to the consideration of higher forms of intellect and
+will.
+
+While mere sensation, as such, acts only in the presence of the
+object——reproducing (ideally), it is true, the external object, the
+faculty of representation is a higher form of self-activity (or of
+reaction against surrounding conditions), because it can recall, at its
+own pleasure, the ideal object. Here is the beginning of emancipation
+from the limitations of time.
+
+The self-activity of representation can summon before it the object that
+is no longer present to it. Hence its activity is now a double one, for
+it can seize not only what is now and here immediately before it, but it
+can compare this present object with the past, and identify or
+distinguish between the two. Thus recollection or representation may
+become _memory_.
+
+As memory, the mind achieves a form of activity far above that of
+sense-perception or mere recollection. It must be noted carefully that
+mere recollection or representation, although it holds fast the
+perception in time (making it permanent), does not necessarily
+constitute an activity completely emancipated from time, nor indeed very
+far advanced towards it. It is only the beginning of such emancipation.
+For mere recollection stands in the presence of the special object of
+sense-perception; although the object is no longer present to the senses
+(or to mere feeling), yet the image is present to the representative
+perception, and is just as much a particular here and now as the object
+of sense-perception. There intervenes a new activity on the part of the
+soul before it arrives at memory. Recollection is not memory, but it is
+the activity which grows into it by the aid of the activity of
+attention.
+
+The special characteristics of objects of the senses are allowed to drop
+away, in so far as they are unessential and merely circumstantial, and
+gradually there arises in the mind the type——the _general form_——of the
+object perceived. This general form is the object of memory. Memory
+deals therefore with what is general, and a type, rather than with what
+is directly recollected or perceived.
+
+The activity by which the mind ascends from sense-perception to memory
+is the activity of attention. Here we have the appearance of the will in
+intellectual activity. Attention is the control of perception by means
+of the will. The senses shall no longer passively receive and report
+what is before them, but they shall choose some definite point of
+observation, and neglect all the rest.
+
+Here, in the act of attention we find _abstraction_, and the greater
+attainment of freedom by the mind. The mind abstracts its view from the
+many things before it, and concentrates on one point.
+
+Educators have for many ages noted that the habit of attention is the
+first step in intellectual education. With it we have found the point of
+separation between the animal intellect and the human. Not attention
+simply——like that with which the cat watches by the hole of a mouse——but
+attention which arrives at results of abstraction, is the distinguishing
+characteristic of educative beings.
+
+Attention abstracts from some things before it and concentrates on
+others. Through attention grows the capacity to discriminate between
+the special, particular object and its general type. Generalization
+arises, but not what is usually called generalization--only a
+more elementary form of it. Memory, as the highest form of
+representation--distinguishing it from mere recollection, which
+reproduces only what has been perceived--such memory deals with the
+general forms of objects, their continuity in time. Such activity of
+memory, therefore, does not reproduce mere images, but only the
+concepts or general ideas of things, and therefore it belongs to the
+stage of mind that uses language.
+
+
+V.
+
+  Language marks the arrival at the stage of thought——at the
+  stage of the perception of universals——hence at the
+  possibility of education; language fixes the general types
+  which the productive memory forms; each one of these
+  types, indicated by a word, stands for a possible infinite
+  of sense-perceptions or recollections; the word _tree_
+  stands for all the trees that exist, and for all that have
+  existed or will exist. Animals do not create for
+  themselves a new world of general types, but deal only
+  with the first world of particular objects; hence they are
+  lost in the variety and multiplicity of continuous
+  succession and difference. Man's sense-perception is with
+  memory; hence always a recognition of the object as not
+  wholly new, but only as an example of what he is mostly
+  familiar with. Intellectual education has for its object
+  the cultivation of reflection; reflection is the Platonic
+  "Reminiscence," which retraces the unconscious processes
+  of thought
+
+Language is the means of distinguishing between the brute and the
+human——between the animal soul, which has continuity only in the species
+(which pervades its being in the form of _instinct_), and the _human_,
+soul, which is immortal, and possessed of a capacity to be educated.
+
+There is no language until the mind can perceive general types of
+existence; mere proper names nor mere exclamations or cries do not
+constitute language. All words that belong to language are
+significative——they "_express_" or "_mean_" something——hence they are
+conventional symbols, and not mere individual designations. Language
+arises only through common consent, and is not an invention of one
+individual. It is a product of individuals acting together as a
+community, and hence implies the ascent of the individual into the
+species. Unless an individual could ascend into the species he could not
+_understand_ language. To know words and their meaning is an activity of
+divine significance; it denotes the formation of universals in the
+mind——the ascent above the here and now of the senses, and above the
+representation of mere images, to the activity which grasps together the
+general conception of objects, and thus reaches beyond what is transient
+and variable.
+
+Doubtless the nobler species of animals possess not only
+sense-perception, but a considerable degree of the power of
+representation. They are not only able to recollect, but to imagine or
+fancy to some extent, as is evidenced by their dreams. But that animals
+do not generalize sufficiently to form for themselves a new objective
+world of types and general concepts, we have a sufficient evidence in
+the fact that they do not use words, or invent conventional symbols.
+With the activity of the symbol-making form of representation, which we
+have named Memory, and whose evidence is the invention and use of
+language, the true form of individuality is attained, and each
+individual human being, as mind, may be said to be the entire species.
+Inasmuch as he can form universals in his mind, he can realize the most
+abstract thought; and he is conscious. Consciousness begins when one can
+seize the pure universal in the presence of immediate objects here and
+now.
+
+The sense-perception of the mere animal, therefore, differs from that of
+the human being in this:——
+
+The human being knows himself as subject that sees the object, while the
+animal sees the object, but does not separate himself, as universal,
+from the special act of seeing. To know that I am I, is to know the most
+general of objects, and to carry out abstraction to its very last
+degree; and yet this is what all human beings do, young or old, savage
+or civilized. The savage invents and uses language——an act of the
+species, but which the species cannot do without the participation of
+the individual.
+
+It should be carefully noted that this activity of generalization which
+produces language, and characterizes the human from the brute, is not
+the generalization of the activity of thought, so-called.
+
+It is the preparation for thought. These general types of things are the
+things which thought deals with. Thought does not deal with mere
+immediate objects of the senses; it deals rather with the objects which
+are indicated by words——_i.e._, general objects.
+
+Some writers would have us suppose that we do not arrive at general
+notions except by the process of classification and abstraction, in the
+mechanical manner that they lay down for this purpose. The fact is that
+the mind has arrived at these general ideas in the process of learning
+language. In infancy, most children have learned such words as _is_,
+_existence_, _being_, _nothing_, _motion_, _cause_, _change_, _I_,
+_you_, _he_, etc., etc.
+
+But the point is not the mere arrival at these ideas. Education does
+not concern itself with that; it does not concern itself with children
+who have not yet learned to talk——that is left for the nursery.
+
+It is the process of becoming conscious of these ideas by reflection,
+with which we have to concern ourselves in education. Reflection is
+everywhere the object of education. Even when the school undertakes to
+teach pupils the correct method of observation——how to use the senses,
+as in "object-lessons"——it all means _reflective_ observation,
+_conscious_ use of the senses; it would put this in the place of the
+_naïve_ spontaneity which characterizes the first stages of
+sense-perception.
+
+We must not underrate these precepts of pedagogy because we find that
+they are not what it claims for them——_i.e._, they are not methods of
+first discovery, and of arrival at principles, but only methods of
+reflection, and of recognizing what we have already learned. We see that
+Plato's "Reminiscence" was a true form of statement for the perception
+of truths of reflection. The first knowing is utterly unconscious of its
+own method; the second or scientific form of knowing, which education
+develops, is a knowing in which the mind knows its method. Hence it is a
+knowing which knows its own necessity and universality.
+
+
+VI.
+
+  Education presupposes the stage of mind reached in
+  productive memory; it deals with reflection; four stages
+  of reflection: (_a_) sensuous ideas perceive things; (_b_)
+  abstract ideas perceive forces or elements of a process;
+  (_c_) concrete idea perceives one process, a pantheistic
+  first principle, persistent force; (_d_) absolute idea
+  perceives a conscious first principle, absolute person.
+
+We have considered in our psychological study thus far the forms of life
+and cognition, contrasting the phase of nutrition with that of feeling,
+or sensibility. We have seen the various forms of feeling in
+sense-perception, and the various forms of representation as the second
+phase of intellectual activity——the forms of recollection, fancy,
+imagination, attention, and memory. We draw the line between the animals
+capable of education and those not capable of it, at the point of memory
+defined——not as recollection, but as the faculty of general ideas or
+conceptions, to which the significant words of language correspond.
+
+With the arrival at language, we arrive at education in the human sense
+of the term; with the arrival at language, we arrive at the view of the
+world at which thought as a mental process begins. As sense-perception
+has before it a world of _present_ objects, so thought has before it a
+world of general concepts, which language has defined and fixed.
+
+It is true that few persons are aware that language stands for a world
+of general ideas, and that reflection has to do with this world of
+universals. Hence it is, too, that so much of the so-called science of
+education is very crude and impractical. Much of it is materialistic,
+and does not recognize the self-activity of mind; but makes it out to be
+a correlation of physical energies——derived from the transmutation of
+food by the process of digestion, and then by the brain converted into
+thought.
+
+Let us consider now the psychology of thinking, or reflection, and at
+first in its most inadequate forms. As a human process, the knowing is
+always a knowing by universals——a re-cognition, and not simple
+apprehension, such as the animals, or such as beings have that do not
+use language. The process of development of stages of thought begins
+with sensuous ideas, which perceive mere individual, concrete, real
+objects, as it supposes. In conceiving these, it uses language and
+thinks general ideas, but it does not know it, nor is it conscious of
+the relations involved in such objects. This is the first stage of
+reflection. The world exists for it as an innumerable congeries of
+things, each one independent of the other, and possessing
+self-existence. It is the stand-point from which atomism would be
+adopted as the philosophic system. Ask it what the ultimate principle of
+existence is, and it would reply, "Atoms."
+
+But this view of the world is a very unstable one, and requires very
+little reflection to overturn it, and bring one to the next basis——that
+of _abstract ideas_. When the mind looks carefully at the world of
+things, it finds that there is dependence and interdependence. Each
+object is related to something else, and changes when that changes. Each
+object is a part of a process that is going on. The process produced it,
+and the process will destroy it——nay, it is destroying it now, while we
+look at it. We find, therefore, that things are not the true beings
+which we thought them to be, but processes _are_ the reality. Science
+takes this attitude, and studies out the history of each thing in its
+rise and its disappearance, and it calls this history the truth. This
+stage of thinking does not believe in _atoms_ or in _things_; it
+believes in _forces_ and _processes_——"abstract ideas"——because they are
+negative, and cannot be seen by the senses. This is the dynamic
+stand-point in philosophy.
+
+Reflection knows that these abstract ideas possess more truth, more
+reality, than the "things" of sense-perception; the force is more real
+than the thing, because it outlasts a thing,——it causes things to
+originate, and to change, and disappear.
+
+This stage of abstract ideas or of negative powers or forces finally
+becomes convinced of the essential unity of all processes and of all
+forces; it sets up the doctrine of the _correlation of forces_, and
+believes that persistent force is the ultimate truth, the fundamental
+reality of the world. This we may call a concrete idea, for it sets up a
+principle which is the origin of all things and forces, and also the
+destroyer of all things, and hence more real than the world of things
+and forces; and because this idea, when carefully thought out, proves to
+be the idea of self-determination——self-activity.
+
+Persistent force, as taught us by the scientific men of our day, is the
+sole ultimate principle, and as such it gives rise to all existence by
+its self-activity, for there is nothing else for it to act upon. It
+causes all origins, all changes, and all evanescence. It gives rise to
+the particular forces——heat, light, electricity, magnetism, etc.——which
+in their turn cause the evanescent forms which sense-perception sees as
+"things."
+
+We have described three phases:——
+
+  I. Sensuous Ideas perceive "things."
+  II. Abstract Ideas perceive "forces."
+  III. Concrete Idea perceives "persistent force."
+
+In this progress from one phase of reflection to another, the intellect
+advances to a deeper and truer reality[14] at each step.
+
+Sense-ideas which look upon the world as a world of independent objects,
+do not cognize the world truly. The next step, abstract ideas, cognizes
+the world as a process of forces, and "things" are seen to be mere
+temporary equilibria in the interaction of forces; "each thing is a
+bundle of forces." But the concrete idea of the Persistent force sees a
+deeper and more permanent reality underlying particular forces. It is
+one ultimate force. In it all multiplicity of existences has vanished,
+and yet it is the source of all particular existence.
+
+This view of the world, on the stand-point of concrete idea, is
+pantheistic. It makes out a one supreme principle which originates and
+destroys all particular existences, all finite beings. It is the
+stand-point of Orientalism, or of the Asiatic thought. Buddhism and
+Brahminism have reached it, and not transcended it. It is a necessary
+stage of reflection in the mind, just as much as the stand-point of the
+first stage of reflection, which regards the world as composed of a
+multiplicity of independent things; or the stand-point of the second
+stage of reflection, which looks upon the world as a collection of
+relative existences in a state of process.
+
+The final stand-point of the intellect is that in which it perceives the
+highest principle to be a self-determining or self-active Being,
+self-conscious, and creator of a world which manifests him. A logical
+investigation of the principle of "persistent force" would prove that
+this principle of Personal Being is presupposed as its true form. Since
+the "persistent force" is the sole and ultimate reality, it originates
+all other reality only by self-activity, and thus is self-determined.
+Self-determination implies self-consciousness as the true form of its
+existence.
+
+These four forms of thinking, which we have arbitrarily called
+_sensuous_, _abstract_, _concrete_, and _absolute_ ideas, correspond to
+four views of the world: (1) as a congeries of independent things; (2)
+as a play of forces; (3) as the evanescent appearance of a negative
+essential power; (4) as the creation of a Personal Creator, who makes it
+the theatre of the development of conscious beings in his image. Each
+step upward in ideas arrives at a more adequate idea of the true
+reality. _Force_ is more real than _thing_; persistent force than
+particular forces; Absolute Person is more real than the force or forces
+which he creates.
+
+This final form of thinking is the only form which is consistent with
+the theory of education. Each individual should ascend by education into
+participation——_conscious_ participation——in the life of the species.
+Institutions——family, society, state, church——all are instrumentalities
+by which the humble individual may avail himself of the help of the
+race, and live over in himself its life. The highest stage of thinking
+is the stage of insight. It sees the world as explained by the principle
+of Absolute Person. It finds the world of institutions a world in
+harmony with such a principle.
+
+
+  [1] The parallelism between these two sciences, Medicine
+  and Education, is an obvious point, which every student
+  will do well to consider.
+
+  [2] This will again remind the student of the theories of
+  treatment in medicine in diseases which, in the
+  seventeenth century, were treated only by bleeding and
+  emetics, are now treated by nourishing food, and no
+  medicines, etc.
+
+  [3] The teacher will do well to consider the probable
+  result of the constant association with mental inferiors
+  entailed by his work, and also to consider what
+  counter-irritant is to be applied to balance, in his
+  character, this unavoidable tendency.
+
+  [4] The age at which the child should be subject to the
+  training of school life, or Education, properly so-called,
+  must vary with different races, nations, and different
+  children.
+
+  [5] The best educator is he who makes his pupils
+  independent of himself. This implies on the teacher's part
+  an ability to lose himself in his work, and a desire for
+  the real growth of the pupil, independent of any personal
+  fame of his own——a disinterestedness which places
+  education on a level with the noblest occupations of man.
+
+  [6] See analysis.
+
+  [7] Asiatic systems of Education have this basis (see §
+  178 of the original).
+
+  [8] The definition of freedom here implied is this: Mind
+  is free when it knows itself and wills its own laws.
+
+  [9] Perhaps, however slow the growth, there is real
+  progress in liberating the imprisoned soul (?)
+
+  [10] "When me they fly, I am the wings."——_Emerson._
+
+  [11] The story of Peter Schlemihl, by Chamisso, may be
+  read in the English translation published in "Hedge's
+  German Prose Writers."
+
+  [12] That is, punishment is retributive and not
+  corrective. Justice requires that each man shall have the
+  fruits of his own deeds; in this it assumes that each and
+  every man is free and self-determined. It proposes to
+  treat each man as free, and as the rightful owner of his
+  deed and its consequences. If he does a deed which is
+  destructive to human rights, it shall destroy his rights
+  and deprive him of property, personal freedom, or even of
+  life. But corrective punishment assumes immaturity of
+  development and consequent lack of freedom. It belongs to
+  the period of nurture, and not to the period of maturity.
+  The tendency in our schools is, however, to displace the
+  forms of mere corrective punishment (corporal
+  chastisement), and to substitute for them forms founded on
+  retribution——_e. g_, deprivation of privileges. See secs.
+  42 and 43.
+
+  [13] Faust; Part I., Scene I. "How all weaves itself into
+  the Whole! Each works and lives in the other! How the
+  heavenly influences ascend and descend, and reach each
+  other the golden buckets!"
+
+  [14] Hume, in his famous sketch of the Human
+  Understanding, makes all the perceptions of the human mind
+  resolve themselves into two distinct kinds: _impressions_
+  and _ideas_. "The difference between them consists in the
+  degrees of force and liveliness with which they strike
+  upon the mind, and make their way into our thought and
+  consciousness. Those perceptions which enter with the most
+  force and violence we may name _impressions_, and under
+  this name include all our sensations, passions, and
+  emotions, as they make their first appearance in the soul.
+  By _ideas_, I mean the faint images of these in thinking
+  and reasoning." "The identity which we ascribe to the mind
+  of man is only a fictitious one."
+
+  From this we see that his stand-point is that of "sensuous
+  ideas," the first stage of reflection. The second or third
+  stage of reflection, if consistent, would not admit the
+  reality to be the object of sense-impressions, and the
+  abstract ideas to be only "faint images." One who holds,
+  like Herbert Spencer, that persistent force is the
+  ultimate reality——"the sole truth, which transcends
+  experience by underlying it"——ought to hold that the
+  generalization which reaches the idea of unity of force is
+  the truest and most adequate of thoughts. And yet Herbert
+  Spencer holds substantially the doctrine of Hume, in the
+  words: "We must predicate nothing of objects too great or
+  too multitudinous to be mentally represented, or we must
+  make our predications by means of extremely inadequate
+  representations of such objects——mere symbols of them."
+  (Page 27 of "First Principles.")
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Pedagogics as a System, by Karl Rosenkranz
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