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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Needlework As Art, by Marian Alford
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Needlework As Art
+
+Author: Marian Alford
+
+Release Date: November 14, 2009 [EBook #30472]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEEDLEWORK AS ART ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller, jenniemuse, Sam W. and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+A carat (^) is used to indicate superscripted characters.
+
+The original text contained an errata list. The corrections have been
+made to this text, and the list moved to the end of the book for
+reference purposes only.
+
+Other notes may be found at the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+                NEEDLEWORK AS ART
+
+                       BY
+
+                 LADY M. ALFORD
+
+
+                 [Illustration]
+
+
+                     London:
+  SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, AND RIVINGTON,
+       CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.
+                      1886.
+
+            [_All rights reserved._]
+
+
+
+
+                  LONDON:
+  PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,
+              ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: TELEMACHUS    PENELOPE]
+
+
+
+
+DEDICATED BY PERMISSION
+
+TO
+
+THE QUEEN.
+
+
+
+
+TO
+
+THE QUEEN.
+
+
+_Your Majesty's most gracious acceptance of the Dedication of my book
+on "Needlework as Art" casts a light upon the subject that shows its
+worthiness, and my inability to do it justice. Still, I hope I may
+fill a gap in the artistic literature of our day, and I venture to lay
+my work at your Majesty's feet with loyal devotion._
+
+                                           MARIAN M. ALFORD.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In the Preface to the "Handbook of Art Needlework," which I edited for
+the Royal School at South Kensington in 1880, I undertook to write a
+second part, to be devoted to design, colour, and the common-sense
+modes of treating decorative art, as applied especially to embroidered
+hangings, furniture, dress, and the smaller objects of luxury.
+
+Circumstances have, since then, obliged me to reconsider this
+intention; and I have found it more practicable to cast the
+information which I have collected from Eastern and Western sources
+into the form of a separate work, which in no way supersedes or
+interferes with the technical instruction supposed to be conveyed in a
+handbook. I have found so much amusement in learning for myself the
+history of the art of embroidery, and in tracing the beginnings and
+the interchanges of national schools, that I cannot but hope that I
+may excite a similar interest in some of my readers, and so induce
+those who are capable, to help and lift it to a higher place than it
+has been allowed in these latter days to occupy. If I have given too
+important a position to the art of needlework, I would observe that
+while I have been writing, decorative embroidery has come to the
+front, and is at this moment one of the hobbies of the day; and I
+would point out that it contains in itself all the necessary elements
+of art; it may exercise the imagination and the fancy; it needs
+education in form, colour, and composition, as well as the craft of a
+practised hand, to express its language and perfect its beauty.
+
+I confess that when I undertook this task, I did not anticipate the
+time I have had to spend in collecting and epitomizing the many
+notices to be found in German, French, and English authors, on what
+has been considered among us, at least in this century, as merely a
+secondary art, and therefore, as such, of little importance. Cursory
+notices of needlework are scattered through almost every book on art;
+and under the head of textiles it is usual to find embroidery
+acknowledged as being worthy of notice, though not to be named in
+company with sculpture, architecture, or painting, however beautifully
+or thoughtfully its works may be carried out. I have tried to show
+that it deserves higher estimation.
+
+My first intention was simply to consider STYLE, good or bad, as it
+influences our embroidery of to-day, and to find some rules by which
+to guide that of the future in its next phase. But when we search into
+the fluctuations of style, and their causes, we find they have an
+historical succession, and that we must begin at the beginning and
+trace them through the life of mankind.
+
+This led me to attempt a sketch of consecutive styles, their overlap
+and variations.
+
+I then found that DESIGN, PATTERNS, STITCHES, MATERIALS, each require
+a separate study.
+
+COLOUR, as applied to dyes, claims to be regarded as differing from
+pigments on the painter's palette.
+
+HANGINGS, DRESS, and ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERIES each require
+different rules, and the study of the best examples of past centuries.
+Finally, it seems natural to dwell on our own proficiency in
+decorative work. ENGLISH EMBROIDERY has always excelled; and, as we
+have again returned to this occupation, it is worth while to recollect
+what we have done of old.
+
+In writing chapters on these subjects, I have found it most convenient
+to separate the historical and æsthetic questions from the technical
+rules, and the instruction which naturally belongs to a handbook, of
+which the purpose should be to teach the easiest and most orthodox
+manner of executing the simplest, and elaborating the finest works.
+Such questions ought not to be overlaid with archæological inquiries,
+or with the information which only profits the designer; though of
+course it is best that the knowledge of design should be part of the
+education of the craft.
+
+Perhaps I may be found to have written a book too shallow for the
+learned, too deep for the frivolous, too technical for the general
+public, and too diffuse for the specialist of the craft.[1]
+
+I must deprecate these criticisms by saying that I have written it for
+the benefit of those who know nothing of the art, and are too much
+engaged to seek information here and there; who yet, being women, have
+to select and to execute ornamental needlework; or, being artists, are
+vexed at the incongruities and want of intention in the decorations in
+daily domestic use; I have also sought to help the designer, that he
+or she may know something of the history of patterns and stitches.
+
+If my readers should be aware of repetitions, they must forgive them;
+remembering that the same idea has to be looked at sometimes from a
+different point of view, according to the use to which it is to be
+fitted. The same material may be employed for wall-hangings and dress,
+and then the principles which have been formulated have to be varied.
+I do not shrink from repetitions if they make my meaning clear,
+remembering the Duke of Wellington's direction to his private
+secretary, "Never mind repetitions; and _dot_ your i's."
+
+Portions of these chapters have been already published in No. 49 of
+the _Nineteenth Century_,[2] in 1881; and more was delivered in three
+unpublished lectures the same year.
+
+I have acknowledged and noted on each page my authorities for the
+facts I have quoted. The illustrations that are not original, have
+been copied from other works by permission of authors and publishers.
+To all of these I wish to express my obligations and thanks,
+especially to Mr. Villiers Stuart, Dr. Anderson, Sir G. Birdwood, and
+Sir H. Layard, for their courtesy in allowing me the use of their
+plates. To my old and valued friend, Mr. Newton, I wish to express my
+gratitude for his unstinted gifts of time and trouble, bestowed in
+criticizing and correcting my book, encouraging me to give it to the
+public, and making it more worthy of publication.
+
+I have largely quoted Charles Blanc ("Ornament in Dress," English
+translation), Von Bock ("Liturgische Gewänder"), Dr. Rock ("The Church
+of our Fathers" and "Introduction to Textiles"), Semper ("Der Stil"),
+Yates ("Textrinum Antiquorum"), and Yule ("Marco Polo"), besides many
+others. But these authorities often differ, and, after weighing their
+arguments, I have ventured to select for my use the facts and
+theories which accord with my own views. Facts are often so
+interdependent and closely linked, that it requires great care to
+distinguish where they have been shaped or coloured (however
+unintentionally) to fit each other or the writer's preconceived ideas.
+Certain it is that facts are but useless heaps till the thread of a
+theory is found on which to hang them. This process, like that of
+stringing pearls, has to be often repeated, till each occupies its
+right place. Only those who have adopted and cherished a theory can
+appreciate the pain of cutting the thread, to displace what appeared
+to be a pearl, but which, from its false position as to date or place,
+or its doubtful origin, has proved only an empty manufactured glass
+bead of error.
+
+This has happened to me more than once; and since I read my lectures I
+have had to change my opinions in several instances. If, therefore,
+any of my readers should observe such changes, I hope they will give
+me credit for trying to convey _now_ what appears to me on each
+subject a correct impression.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [1] Besides the art, I have sought to give something of
+    the archæology of needlework. Now the qualifications for
+    being a teacher on such subjects are rarely to be met
+    with, all combined. Mr. Newton, in his "Essays on Art
+    and Archæology," p. 37, says that "the archæologist
+    should combine with the æsthetic culture of the artist,
+    and the trained judgment of the historian and the
+    philologist, that critical acumen, required for
+    classification and interpretation; nor should that
+    habitual suspicion which must ever attend the scrutiny
+    and precede the warranty of evidence, give too sceptical
+    a bias to his mind." Such authorities have been
+    interrogated on each part of my subject.
+
+    [2] Quoted by permission of the Editor.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+  INTRODUCTION.                                                      1
+
+  CHAPTER I.--STYLE.
+
+  Definition of style--Development of style--Primitive--
+  Archaic--Egyptian--Babylonian--Phœnician influences
+  on early Greek style--Decoration of hangings of the
+  Tabernacle in the wilderness--Aryan ideas--The Code of
+  Manu--Indian art--Celtic style--Greek art in dress and
+  embroideries--Homer's descriptions of embroideries--Pallas
+  Athene--Shield of Achilles--Roman art--Byzantine art--Art
+  of Central Asia--Its arrival in Europe--Art of China,
+  Japan, and Java--Christian art--Scandinavian art--The Dark
+  Ages--Sicilian textile art--Renaissance--Arabesque--
+  Grotesque--Spanish Plâteresque--Style of Queen Anne and the
+  Chippendales--Louis XV. style--Classical revival--Young
+  England's style--Nineteenth century style                         14
+
+  CHAPTER II.--DESIGN.
+
+  Artist and artisan--Prehistoric design--Naturalistic
+  design--Egyptian immutability--Slow evolution of
+  design--Greek perfection--Necessity of following rules--M.
+  Blanc's laws of ornamentation--Laws of composition--
+  Repetition--Alternation--Symmetry--Progression--Confusion--
+  Designs for hangings and dress materials--Floral design--Design
+  for carpets--The conventional--First principles                   54
+
+  CHAPTER III.--PATTERNS.
+
+  Ancestry of patterns--Classification--Their historical
+  value--Primitive patterns--The wave--Tartan--Prehistoric
+  African patterns--The naturalistic--Flowers--Shells--Indian
+  forms of naturalistic patterns--Egyptian--The lotus--
+  Sunflower--Celtic Zoomorphic patterns--The human figure on
+  Greek textiles--Animal forms in Oriental patterns--Symbolical
+  and conventional patterns--The wave patterns--The palm leaf--
+  The cone--Gothic--Arab--Moresque--The Sacred Hom--Egg and
+  tongue--The cross--Swastika--Fylfote--Gammadion--The
+  crenelated pattern--The Ninevite daisy--Emblematic
+  patterns--Bestiaria--Volucraria--Lapidaria--Byzantine
+  patterns--Gothic--Renaissance--The cloud pattern--The
+  fundata--Italian--French patterns--Radiated patterns--The
+  shell--Patterns by repetition--Balcony pattern--Chinese
+  wicker-work--Survival of a pattern--Opus
+  Alexandrinum--Quilting patterns                                   82
+
+  CHAPTER IV.--MATERIALS.
+
+  Raw materials--Revelations of the microscope--Hemp--Jute--
+  Honduras grass--Spartum--Pinna silk--Hair--Leather--
+  Feathers--Asbestos--Coral--Pearls--Beads--Wool--Classical
+  notices of wool--Careful improvement of wool by the
+  ancients--Tanaquil--Homeric woollen carpets--Crimson
+  textile fragments--Scandinavian woollen garments--Qualities
+  of wool--English wool--Goats' hair--Flax--Lake cities--
+  Byssus--Fine linen of Egypt--The Atrebates--Embroidery on
+  linen--Cotton--Indian origin--Carbasa--Buckram--Cotton
+  fabrics--Gold--Silver--Gold brocades--Jewish--Indian--
+  Chinese--Dress of Darius--Attalus--Attalic textiles--
+  Agrippina's golden garments--St. Cecilia's mantle--Roman
+  tombs--Gold wire--Anglo-Saxon tomb--Childeric's tomb--Proba's
+  gold thread--Golden wrappings from tombs of Henry I. and Henry
+  III.--Gold embroideries and jewellers' work of Middle
+  Ages--Spangles--Enamels--Purl--Modern schools of gold
+  embroidery--Silk--Pamphile of Cos--Early specimens of silk
+  stuffs--Chinese silks--The Seres--Mela--Seneca--M. Terrien
+  de la Couperie--Empress Si-ling-chi--Princess of
+  Khotan--Euripides--Lucan--Pliny--Silk in Rome--Ælius
+  Lampridius--Flavius Vopiscus--Tailor's bill--Justinian's
+  codex--Imperial monopoly--Paul the Silentiary--Bede--King
+  John's apparition--Greek and Sicilian manufactories of
+  silk--Distinctive marks of different periods--Lyons--Spain--
+  Italy--Flemish towns--Marco Polo--Satin--Welsh poem, "Lady of
+  the Fountain"--Chaucer--Velvet--Transference of work to new
+  materials                                                        118
+
+  CHAPTER V.--COLOUR.
+
+  Harmony and dissonance--Names of tints--Authorities for
+  theories--Art of colouring--Expression of colouring--
+  Purple--Red--Crimson--Blue--Yellow--Pliny--Renouf--Chinese
+  colours--Indian dyes--Persian colours--Dyes of the
+  Gauls--Romans--Scotch--Scales of colour--MM. Charton and
+  Chevreul on tones of colour--Gas colours                         175
+
+  CHAPTER VI.--STITCHES.
+
+  Stitches--Part I.: The needle--Gammer Gurton's needle--Art
+  of needlework--Lists of stitches--Part II.: Plain work--
+  The seam--Mrs. Floyer--White embroidery--Nuns' work--
+  Greek--German--Spanish--Italian white work--Semper's
+  rules for white work--Part III.: Opus Phrygium--Gold
+  embroideries--Part IV.: Opus pulvinarium--Cushion stitches--
+  Mosaic stitches--Traditional decorations from Chaldea and
+  Assyria--German and Italian pattern-books--Part V.: Opus
+  plumarium--The Plumarii--Feather-work of India--Islands of
+  the Pacific--African work--Mexican and Peruvian--Cluny
+  triptych--Mitre of St. Charles Borromeo--Essay by
+  Denis--Chinese and Japanese feather-stitches--Part VI.:
+  Opus consutum or cut work--Patchwork--Egyptian and Greek
+  examples--Irish cut work--Chaucer--Francis I.'s hangings
+  at Cluny--Lord Beauchamp's curtains--Spanish examples--
+  Remarks--Art of application--Part VII.: Lace--Opus
+  filatorium--Mrs. Palliser--M. Blanc--Guipure--Sir Gardiner
+  Wilkinson--Netted lace--Homer--Solomon's Temple--Bobbin
+  laces--Yak--Coloured laces--Venetian sumptuary laws--Golden
+  laces--Point d'Alençon--Mr. A. Cole's lectures--M. Urbani
+  de Gheltof on Venice laces--Lace stitches--Revival of lace
+  school at Burano--English laces--Part VIII.: Tapestry--Opus
+  pectineum--Modes of weaving tapestry--Its great antiquity--
+  Egyptian looms--Albert Castel on tapestries--Homeric
+  picture-weaving--Arachne--A paraphrase by Lord Houghton--
+  Nomenticum--Sidonius Apollinaris--Saracenic weaving--Arras--
+  Brussels--Italian tapestries from Florence, Milan, and
+  Mantua--French tapestries--Cluny Museum collection--Gobelins--
+  Beauvais--English tapestry--Comnenus--Matthew Paris--Early
+  trade with Arras--Coventry tapestries--Chaucer--Tapestry
+  "of verd"--Hatfield tapestries--Armada tapestries--Sir F.
+  Crane--Mortlake manufactory--Francis Cleyne--Raphael
+  cartoons--Percy tapestry from Lambeth                            194
+
+  CHAPTER VII.--HANGINGS.
+
+  Classical hangings--Babylonian and Persian--Semper's
+  theory--Sanctuary in the wilderness--St. Peter's at
+  Rome--Abulfeda--Akbar's tent--Nadir Shah's tent--Tent
+  of Khan of Persia--Tents of Alexander the Great at
+  Alexandria--Roman hangings--Funeral pyres--Kosroes'
+  tent--Semper's rules for hanging decorations--Ancient
+  carpets--English and French hangings--Rules for designs
+  of hangings                                                      260
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.--FURNITURE.
+
+  Penelope's couch--Chaldean furnished house--The bed--Earl
+  of Leicester's inventories--State apartment of Alessandri
+  Palace--Indian embroideries for furniture--The sofa and
+  chair--The footstool--Furniture stitches--The table
+  cover--The screen--Book covers--Morris on furniture              280
+
+  CHAPTER IX.--DRESS.
+
+  Art of dress--Ancient splendour--Persian, Greek, and
+  Roman--Indian--Homeric--Early Christian--Charlemagne's
+  mantle and robe--Objects of dress--Embroidered garments          294
+
+  CHAPTER X.--ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERY.
+
+  Christian art--Dark ages--Greek and Roman ecclesiastical
+  dress--Northern influence--Continuity of ecclesiastical
+  art--Authorities--Anglo-Saxon orthodox colours--Veils of
+  the Temple--Hangings in Pagan temples and Christian
+  churches--Russian use of veils--Art in the early Church--
+  Rare examples--Destruction by the iconoclasts--Early
+  embroiderers--Empress Helena--Bertha, mother of
+  Charlemagne--His dalmatic--Pluvial of St. Silvester--Pluvial
+  of museum at Bologna--Daroca cope--Cope of Boniface VIII.--
+  Style of the twelfth century--Mantle of St. Stephen of
+  Hungary--Kunigunda's work for Henry II.--The Romanesque--
+  Movement perfecting Gothic art, thirteenth century--Opus
+  Anglicanum--Syon cope--Embroidery on the stamp--Pictures in
+  flat stitches--Flemish work--Renaissance--Work of some royal
+  ladies--French--Spanish--Sicilian and Neapolitan--German
+  work--Sacred symbolism--Melito's "The Key"--Mystical
+  colours--Prehistoric cross--Many forms of the cross--The
+  roës--The chrysoclavus--Modern decoration--Principles and
+  motives for church embroideries--The altar-cloth--The
+  reredos--The pulpit and reading-desk--The ancient
+  Paschal--The banner of St. Cuthbert--The fringe--Lay
+  heraldry of the Church--South Kensington Museum                  303
+
+  CHAPTER XI.--ENGLISH EMBROIDERY.
+
+  First glimpse of art in England--Dyeing and weaving in
+  Britain in early times--Cæsar's invasion--Roman
+  civilization--Anglo-Saxon times and art--Adhelme's
+  poem--Icelandic Sagas--Saga or story of Thorgunna--English
+  work in the eighth century--The Benedictines--Durham
+  embroideries--Aelfled--St. Dunstan--Queen Emma's
+  work--William of Poitou--The Bayeux tapestry--Abbess of
+  Markgate--Gifts to Pope Adrian IV.--Robes of Thomas à
+  Becket at Sens--Innocent III.--English pre-eminence in
+  needlework from the Conquest to the Reformation--John
+  Garland on hand-looms--Blode-bendes and lacs d'amour--Opus
+  Anglicanum--English peculiarities in ecclesiastical
+  design--Penalties against luxury in dress--Protection the
+  bane of art--Dunstable pall--Stoneyhurst cope--Destruction
+  of fine works at the Reformation--Much on the Continent,
+  much collected in our old Catholic houses--Field of the
+  Cloth of Gold--Mary Tudor's Spanish stitches--Queen
+  Elizabeth's embroideries--Institution of Embroiderers'
+  Company--East India Company--Oriental taste discouraged on
+  Protectionist grounds--Decay of the art in England--Style
+  of James I.--Dutch style--Cushion stitches--Miss Linwood--
+  Miss Moritt--Mrs. Delany--Mrs. Pawsey--Postscript--Revival
+  of the art of needlework--"Royal School of Art Needlework"       356
+
+
+  APPENDIX
+
+     I. Charles T. Newton on Votive Dresses                        400
+
+    II. The Moritzburg Feather Hangings                            401
+
+   III. The Story of Arachne, translated by Earl Cowper            402
+
+    IV. Charlemagne's Dalmatic, by Lord Lindsay                    405
+
+     V. Notices of various Mediæval Embroideries by the Hon.
+          and Rev. W. Ignatius Clifford                            407
+
+    VI. Syon Cope, Rock's Introduction, "Textile Fabrics"          408
+
+   VII. Assyrian Fringes                                           412
+
+  VIII. Hrothgar's House Furniture: Poem of Beowulf                412
+
+    IX. Thorgunna, by Sir G. Dasent                                413
+
+     X. Pedigree of Aelswith                                       414
+
+    XI. Statutes at Large                                          414
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+CUTS.
+
+  Fig.|Page.|
+  ----+-----+
+   1  |  20 | Egyptian corselet. Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," p.
+      |     |   332.
+   2  |  25 | Tabernacle of Balawat. Temp. Shalmaneser. British
+      |     |   Museum.
+   3  |  30 | Zoomorphic Celtic pattern.
+   4  |  32 | Pallas Athene attired in the sacred peplos. Panathenaic
+      |     |   vase, British Museum.
+   5  |  62 | Wave pattern.
+   6  |  63 | Key pattern.
+   7  |  63 | Metopes and triglyphs.
+   8  |  73 | Persian carpet. Egyptian symbolic patterns.
+   9  |  91 | Gothic sunflower. R. S. A. N.
+  10  |  98 | Wave.
+  11  | 104 | Egyptian ally and enemy. Temp. Rameses II. Wilkinson's
+      |     |   "Ancient Egyptians," iii. p. 364.
+  12  | 105 | Assyrian crenelated pattern.
+  13  | 107 | Gothic type of trees, Bayeux tapestry.
+  14  | 111 | Radiated pattern.
+  15  | 111 | Radiated sunflower.
+  16  | 112 | Shell pattern.
+  17  | 112 | Balcony pattern.
+  18  | 115 | Varied adjustments of square and circle.
+  19  | 146 | Spangles.
+  20  | 195 | Needles.
+  21  | 208 | Feather patterns. Egyptian.
+  22  | 216 | Application. Egyptian. Auberville's "Tissus."
+  23  | 217 | Embroidered border on mantle. Crimea. "Compte Rendu."
+  24  | 281 | Babylonian or Chaldean house and furniture.
+  25  | 311 | Italian fifteenth-century pattern. Celtic type.
+  26  | 377 | Barbed quatrefoil.
+  27  | 380 | Holbein pattern. Sampler.
+  28  | 388 | Arms of Embroiderers' Guild; given by Queen Elizabeth.
+  29  | 393 | Portion of James II.'s coronation dress; from an old
+      |     |   print.
+
+
+PLATES.
+
+  Plate|Page.| Ref.|
+  -----+-----+-----|
+       |     |     | TITLE-PAGE. Penelope at her loom, reproached by her
+       |     |     |   son Telemachus. From vase found at Chiusi, in
+       |     |     |   Etruria. "Monum. d. Inst. Arch. Rom." ix. Pl. 42.
+     1 |  22 |  93 | ASSURBANIPAL (Sardanapalus). Sculptures from Nineveh.
+       |     |     |   British Museum.
+     2 |  22 |  93 | Portion of royal Babylonian mantle. From Layard's
+       |     |     |   "Monuments," Series i. pl. 9.
+     3 |  29 |     | ST. JOHN. From King Alfred's Celtic Book of the
+       |     |     |   Gospels. Lambeth Palace Library.
+     4 |  30 |     | A PAGE of the Book of St. Cuthbert, or Book of
+       |     |     |   Lindisfarne.
+     5 |  33 |     | SILVER BOWL from Palestrina. From Clermont Ganneau's
+       |     |     |   "Journal Asiatique, Syro-Egyptien-Phœnicien."
+     6 |  40 |  93 | EMPRESS THEODORA. Ravenna Mosaic.
+     7 |  42 |     | ITALIAN EMBROIDERY, fifteenth century. South
+       |     |     |   Kensington Museum.
+     8 |  43 |     | ITALIAN and SPANISH orphrey, sixteenth century.
+     9 |  45 |     | PLÂTERESQUE DESIGN. Spanish coverlet, green velvet
+       |     |     |   and gold, sixteenth century. Goa work.
+    10 |  87 |     | WAVE PATTERN. 1, 4, 9, 12, 13. Greek wave pattern.
+       |     |     |   2. Key or Mæander Greek wave. 3. Greek broken wave.
+       |     |     |   5, 6, 7. Egyptian smooth and rippling wave pattern.
+       |     |     |   8. Mediæval wave. 10, 11, 14. Babylonian and
+       |     |     |   Chaldean. 15. Persian or Greek, from glass bowl,
+       |     |     |   British Museum. 16. English wave (or cloud). Durham
+       |     |     |   embroideries, tenth century.
+    11 |  88 |     | SIMPLE PATTERNS. 1. Persian. 2. Lotus border,
+       |     |     |   Egyptian.
+    12 |  90 |     | LOTUS BORDERS. 1. Indian. 2, 3. Egyptian. 4, 5, Greek.
+       |     |     |   6. Indian.
+    13 |  95 | 102 | INDIAN LOTUS. 1. With Assyrian daisy. 2. Lotus. 3. The
+       |     |     |   egg and tongue, or Vitruvian scroll from Vignola.
+       |     |     |   "Regole di Ordine di Architettura."
+    14 |  91 |     | SUNFLOWER PATTERN. R. S. A. N. Nineteenth century.
+    15 |  92 |     | PORTION OF A PAGE of the Book of Kells. Dublin
+       |     |     |   University Library.
+    16 |  93 | 114 | DEMETER. Greek fictile vase. British Museum.
+    17 |  93 | 217 | 1. GREEK EMBROIDERY, 300 B.C. From tomb of the Seven
+       |     |     |   Brothers, Crimea.
+       |     |     | 2. EGYPTIAN painted or embroidered linen. The cone,
+       |     |     |   bead, daisy, wave. Lotus-under-water patterns are
+       |     |     |   represented on this fragment.
+    18 |  93 |     | EGYPTIAN Tapestry weaving finished with the needle.
+       |     |     |   British Museum.
+    19 |  97 | 114 | EGYPTIAN key patterns. Wilkinson's "Ancient
+       |     |     |   Egyptians," p. 125.
+    20 |  99 | 101 | TREES OF LIFE. 1, 2, 3. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian silk.
+       |     |     |   5. Mediæval. Birdwood's "Indian Arts."
+    21 | 101 |     | TREES OF LIFE. 1. Sculpture over gate of Mycenæ.
+       |     |     |   2. Sicilian silks; Persian type.
+    22 | 101 |     | LOTUS MERGED INTO TREE OF LIFE. 1. Split Chinese
+       |     |     |   Lotus. 2. Split Persian Lotus, from a frieze by
+       |     |     |   Benozzo Gozzoli. Ricardi Palace, Florence. 3. Petal
+       |     |     |   of flower. Greek glass bowl from tomb in Southern
+       |     |     |   Italy.
+    23 | 101 |     | TREES OF LIFE. Sicilian silks. Auberville. 1, 2, 3,
+       |     |     |   4, 5, 10. Persian type. 6, 7, 8, 9, 11. Indian type.
+    24 | 101 |     | TREE OF LIFE transformed into vine. Modern pattern of
+       |     |     |   work from the Principalities.
+    25 | 103 |     | TYPICAL CROSSES. 1. Swastika fire-stick cross. 2.
+       |     |     |   From Greek vase, British Museum, 765 B.C. 3.
+       |     |     |   Sectarial mark of Sakti race. India. 4. Sectarial
+       |     |     |   mark of Buddhists and Jainis. 5. On early Rhodian
+       |     |     |   pottery. 6. Egyptian prehistoric cross. 7. Tau
+       |     |     |   cross. 8. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite.
+       |     |     |   9. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite. 10. Clavus,
+       |     |     |   "nail" or "button," or sun-cross. 11, 12, 13.
+       |     |     |   Scandinavian sun and moon crosses. 14, 15, 16.
+       |     |     |   Celtic. 17. Chrysoclavus. 18, 19. Stauracin
+       |     |     |   patterns. 20. Norwegian. 21. Runic. 22. Cross in
+       |     |     |   Temple of the Sun, Palenque. 23. Scotch Celtic
+       |     |     |   cross. 24. Cross at Iona. 25, 26. Runic and
+       |     |     |   Scandinavian crosses. 27. Cross diapered on
+       |     |     |   Charlemagne's dalmatic. 28. From mantle of Henry
+       |     |     |   II., Emperor of Germany.
+    26 | 103 |     | PREHISTORIC CROSSES. 1. Greek. Pallas, with plaited
+       |     |     |   tunic worked with Swastika. 2. Greek. Ajax playing
+       |     |     |   at dice with Achilles. Cloak embroidered with
+       |     |     |   Swastika and other prehistoric patterns. Fictile
+       |     |     |   vase, Vatican Museum.
+    27 | 105 |     | ASSYRIAN CARPET carved in stone, British Museum.
+    28 | 107 |     | GOTHIC. 1. Dress patterns from old MS. 2, 3. Old
+       |     |     |   English tiles.
+    29 | 109 |     | CLOUD PATTERNS. 1, 2, 3, 7. Japanese. 5, 8, 9.
+       |     |     |   Mediæval. 4. Chinese. 6. Badge of Richard II.
+    30 | 109 |     | INDO-CHINESE COVERLET. Hatfield. Supposed to have
+       |     |     |   belonged to Oliver Cromwell.
+    31 | 109 |     | FUNDATA PATTERNS. 1. On Phœnician silver bowl.
+       |     |     |   ("L'Imagerie Phénicienne.") 2, 3. From tomb at
+       |     |     |   Essiout, Egypt. Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians,"
+       |     |     |   ii. p. 125. 1600 B.C.
+    32 | 124 |     | PART OF BORDER of silk, gold, and pearls. Worked by
+       |     |     |   Blanche, wife of Charles IV. of Bohemia. Bock's
+       |     |     |   "Lit. Gew." ii. p. 246.
+    33 | 147 |     | EMBROIDERED WINDOW HANGING from portrait of Mahomet
+       |     |     |   II., by Gentil Bellini; belonging to Sir Henry
+       |     |     |   Layard.
+    34 | 153 | 110 | CLASSICAL SILKS. 1. Greek. 2. Roman.
+    35 | 163 |     | DURHAM RELICS. Persian type of silk weaving.
+    36 | 164 |     | DURHAM RELICS. Norman and Persian types mixed.
+    37 | 164 |     | DURHAM RELICS. Græco-Egyptian type.
+    38 | 164 |     | EGYPTIAN BOAT with embroidered and fringed sails,
+       |     |     |   and floating scarves. Wilkinson's "Ancient
+       |     |     |   Egyptians," iii. p. 211.
+    39 | 200 |     | WHITE EMBROIDERY from sculptured tomb of a knight,
+       |     |     |   fifteenth century. Ara CÅ“li, Rome.
+    40 | 201 |     | PROCESSIONAL CLOAK, Spanish work, temp. Henry VIII.,
+       |     |     |   belonging to Lord Arundel of Wardour.
+    41 | 204 |     | OPUS PULVINARIUM. Counted stitches. 1. Italian. 2.
+       |     |     |   Scandinavian. 3. Ancient Egyptian. Turin Museum.
+    42 | 206 |     | ITALIAN MOSAIC STITCH work, sixteenth century.
+       |     |     |   Alford House.
+    43 | 214 |     | JAPANESE OPUS PLUMARIUM. White silk.
+    44 | 216 |  25 | OPUS CONSUTUM. Funeral tent of an Egyptian queen.
+    45 | 219 | 123 | OPUS CONSUTUM. "Inlaid" and "onlaid." Italian,
+       |     |     |   seventeenth century.
+    46 | 235 |     | EGYPTIAN GOBELINS finished with the needle.
+    47 | 236 |     | RHEIMS CATHEDRAL TAPESTRY. The Virgin weaving and
+       |     |     |   embroidering on frame a "basse-lisse."
+    48 | 243 |     | TENT OF CHARLES THE BOLD, taken at Grandson, now in
+       |     |     |   museum at Berne. The badge is that of the Golden
+       |     |     |   Fleece.
+    49 | 252 |     | ENGLISH TAPESTRY belonging to Lord Salisbury, at
+       |     |     |   Hatfield House, temp. Henry VIII.
+    50 | 294 |     | ITALIAN KNIGHT of fifteenth century armed for
+       |     |     |   conquest. Gentile da Fabriano. Academia, Florence.
+    51 | 309 |     | ST. MARK. Anglo-Saxon Book of the Gospels. York
+       |     |     |   Minster Library.
+    52 | 312 |     | CLASSICAL PATTERN adapted into Christian art.
+    53 | 318 |     | CHARLEMAGNE'S DALMATIC. Vatican Treasury.
+    54 | 318 |     | CHARLEMAGNE'S DALMATIC. Vatican Treasury.
+    55 | 318 |     | PORTION OF CHARLEMAGNE'S DALMATIC. Half-size.
+    56 | 319 |     | ST. SILVESTER'S PLUVIAL. Treasury of St. John
+       |     |     |   Lateran, Rome. Opus Anglicanum, thirteenth
+       |     |     |   century.
+    57 | 319 |     | PORTION OF ST. SILVESTER'S PLUVIAL, showing its
+       |     |     |   condition.
+    58 | 319 |     | BOLOGNA COPE. Museo del Municipio. Opus Anglicanum.
+    59 | 319 |     | DAROCA COPE. Archæological Museum at Madrid. Opus
+       |     |     |   Anglicanum.
+    60 | 319 |     | BONIFACE VIII.'S COPE from Anagni, his native place;
+       |     |     |   now in Vatican Treasury; twelfth century.
+    61 | 319 |     | ALTAR FRONTAL at Anagni, Italy. Italian work,
+       |     |     |   fourteenth century.
+    62 | 320 |     | WORCESTER RELICS of the tenth century. 1. From tomb
+       |     |     |   of Walter de Cantilupe. 2. From Aix, in Switzerland.
+       |     |     |   Same type.
+    63 | 320 |     | 1. MITRE OF THOMAS À BECKET. 2. The cross with twelve
+       |     |     |   leaves, "for the healing of the nations." Coronation
+       |     |     |   vestments at Rheims.
+    64 | 321 |     | ANGLO-SAXON WORK, purple and gold, from tomb of
+       |     |     |   William de Blois, Worcester. He died Bishop in 1236.
+    65 | 321 |     | A PORTION OF ST. STEPHEN OF HUNGARY'S MANTLE, worked
+       |     |     |   by his Queen Gisela. From Bock's "Kleinodien."
+    66 | 322 |     | PORTION OF MANTLE OF HENRY II., worked by his Empress
+       |     |     |   Kunigunda. From Bock's "Kleinodien."
+    67 | 325 |     | THE SYON COPE. South Kensington Museum.
+    68 | 329 |     | ITALIAN EMBROIDERIES designed by Pollaiolo; worked by
+       |     |     |   Paolo da Verona. Sixteenth century.
+    69 | 330 |     | SPANISH ALTAR FRONTAL. THE ARMS OF CASTILE embroidered
+       |     |     |   in gold with pearls. Ashridge. Plâteresque style,
+       |     |     |   seventeenth century.
+    70 | 337 | 113 | CONSULAR IVORIES. Two diptychs. 1. Zurich,
+       |     |     |   Wasser-Kirche. Inscribed to Consul Areobindus,
+       |     |     |   A.D. 434. 2. At Halberstadt. No date. From Bock's
+       |     |     |   "Lit. Gew."
+    71 | 363 |     | AELFLED'S ORPHREY, signed by her. Durham Cathedral
+       |     |     |   Library.
+    72 | 363 |     | ST. GREGORY AND ST. JOHN (PROPHET), from Aelfled's
+       |     |     |   orphrey. Durham. English work, tenth century.
+    73 | 365 |     | ST. DUNSTAN in adoration, drawn by himself. Bodleian
+       |     |     |   Library, Oxford. Tenth century.
+    74 | 369 |     | SMALL PARSEMÉ PATTERNS from Strutt's "Royal and
+       |     |     |   Ecclesiastical Antiquities of the English from
+       |     |     |   1100 to 1530."
+    75 | 369 |     | ENGLISH PATTERNS of embroidery. 1. Panel of a screen
+       |     |     |   in Hornby Church, Yorkshire. 2. Dress on a painted
+       |     |     |   window in St. Michael's Church, York. 3. Woven
+       |     |     |   material of the Towneley Copes.
+    76 | 375 |     | OPUS ANGLICANUM, twelfth century. British Museum.
+    77 | 376 |     | TYPICAL ENGLISH ORNAMENTS for ecclesiastical
+       |     |     |   embroideries, twelfth century.
+    78 | 377 |     | DUNSTABLE PALL. Temp. Henry VII.
+    79 | 378 |     | VINTNERS' COMPANY PALL. Henry VII.
+    80 | 378 |     | HENRY VII.'S COPE, from Stoneyhurst; designed by
+       |     |     |   Torrigiano, the sculptor of his tomb.
+    81 | 382 |     | SPANISH WORK. Temp. Henry VIII.
+    82 | 383 |     | ENGLISH "SPANISH WORK." Temp. Henry VIII.
+    83 | 389 |     | CUSHION COVER, Hatfield House. Temp. Elizabeth.
+    84 | 390 |     | ORIENTAL "TREE AND BEAST" PATTERN. Cockayne-Hatley.
+       |     |     |   Temp. James I.
+    85 | 391 |     | ENGLISH CREWEL WORK. Indian design. Temp. James I.
+
+
+
+
+NEEDLEWORK AS ART.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The book of the Science of Art has yet to be written. Art has been
+called the Flower of Life, and also the Consoler;--adorning the
+existence of the strong and bright,--sheltering and comforting the sad
+and solitary ones of the earth. But, rather, it resembles a
+wide-spreading tree, covered with varied blossoms--bearing many
+fruits.
+
+To point out the history and the possibilities in the future of each
+branch that shades, refreshes, and gives wholesome fruit to the world,
+would be a task worthy of a master-hand and a pen of gold. But less
+ambitious labourers in the field of investigation which is only as yet
+partly cultivated, may each assist, by carefully collecting a little
+heap of ascertained facts; and it is, indeed, the duty of each as he
+passes to add his pebble to the slowly accumulating cairn of recorded
+human knowledge.
+
+Some one has said, "Build your house of little bricks of facts, and
+you will soon find it inhabited by a body of truth; and that truth
+will ally itself with other houses of facts, and in time a
+well-ordered, cosmical city will arise."
+
+My pebble is not yet polished. It is neither a diamond nor a ruby, but
+I think there are a few streaks of golden light in it, which I may
+venture to add to the daily accumulating treasure in the house of
+human artistic knowledge.
+
+My object in writing this volume is to fill up an empty space in the
+English library of art.
+
+The great exponents of poetic thought--verse, sculpture, painting, and
+architecture--have long since been well interpreted and appreciated.
+Men and women have written much and well on these large subjects, and
+we may hope for more ere long. The secondary or smaller arts have been
+hitherto neglected by us,--either treated merely as crafts, to which
+artistic education may give help, or as the natural or inferior
+outcome of the primal arts, having no claim to the possession of
+special laws and history. And yet, when Moses wrote and Homer sang,
+needlework was no new thing. It was already consecrated by legendary
+and traditionary custom to the highest uses. The gods themselves were
+honoured by its service, and it preceded written history in recording
+heroic deeds and national triumphs.
+
+It may be said that ivory carving is sculpture, and illuminated
+manuscripts and coloured glass windows are painting. But for metal
+work, whether in iron or gold, a place must be kept apart; and the
+same privileges are due to embroidery and to metallurgy. All arts must
+of necessity have their own laws and rules, which ensure their beauty
+of execution and their special forms of design; these two last, from
+the nature of their materials, and the modes of working them, must be
+studied independently of any connection with painting, architecture,
+or sculpture.
+
+Yet, if the unity of nature is an accepted fact,[3] then the
+acceptance of the unity of art must follow. Art must be considered as
+the selection of natural phenomena by individual minds capable of
+assimilating and reproducing them in certain forms and with certain
+materials adapted to the national taste, needs, and power of
+appreciation. If man cannot originate materials, he can invent
+combinations;--and this is Art.
+
+If proportion, colour, and sound alike depend on certain mathematical
+measurements, and on rhythmical vibrations, there must be a real and
+tangible relation between these elements, though applied to obtain
+different results. In music, as in all art, harmony is, or ought to
+be, a first consideration. We have seen by experiment how a note of
+our scale can by touch form geometrical figures with sand on a sheet
+of glass,--here form obeys the force of harmony. But what is harmony?
+
+By analogy we may argue from the art of music. We who believe that we
+have acquired the knowledge of music as a science, beyond all
+preceding knowledge of the subject, have in Europe been able to enjoy
+only our own musical scales; whereas throughout the East, those
+accepted by the human ear are very various, and appear to depart from
+what to our senses is harmony. Those Oriental musics have either been
+adapted to the Oriental ear, or the ear has been adapted to appreciate
+the forms and laws of harmony with which it came in contact.
+
+The same questions occur to us while examining into the different
+forms of decorative art; and we are constantly reminded that the laws
+which should govern them, are perhaps, infinitely larger and wider
+than we with our limited human capacities and experience, have
+hitherto been able to appreciate.
+
+"Ars longa--vita brevis" has been so often said, that from a proverb
+it has become a truism; but it must continue to be the refrain of
+those who write upon art. The subject is so long, and its
+ramifications are so intricate, that it is difficult to include them
+all under one category.
+
+My furthest aim here is to trace back the art of needlework to its
+beginning, without turning my eyes to the right or the left, though I
+cannot help feeling myself drawn aside almost irresistibly by casual
+glimpses of architecture, sculpture, and painting, which here and
+there touch very nearly the history of needlework.
+
+Except where they visibly influence each other, I avoid dealing with
+the greater arts, leaving them to the study of the learned in each
+special branch.
+
+All art, however, throws reflected lights, and gleaning in the track
+of those authors who have preceded us, we often pick up valuable hints
+which we accept, and make use of them gladly.
+
+Some writers have thought it incumbent on them to give a local
+habitation and an abiding place to needlework, and they have regarded
+it as a branch of painting. But I cannot endorse this classification.
+According to Semper, indeed, it is the mother-art of sculpture and
+painting, instead of being the offspring of either or both, as others
+have maintained.[4] They have, indeed, such distinct functions that
+each may justly boast its own original sources. Painting is the art of
+colour; sculpture is that of form; embroidery is the art of clothing
+forms. They are all so ancient, that in seeking to ascertain their
+beginnings and dates. It is difficult to fix the precedence of one
+over another. We may compare, distinguish, and yet again change our
+opinions as fresh facts come under our observation.
+
+The art of needlework reached its climax long ago, and is now very
+old. History and faded rags are the only witnesses to its fabulous
+glories, in Classical, Oriental, and early Mediæval days. It would
+appear that nothing new remains to be invented. Copies of past styles,
+and selections from the scraps we retain and value as models, are all
+that we can boast of now.
+
+Dr. Rock truly says that few persons of the present day have the
+faintest idea of the labour, the money, the time, often bestowed of
+old upon embroideries which had been designed as well as wrought by
+the hands of men and women, each in their own craft the best and
+ablest of their day.
+
+Time is too short, our life too densely crowded, to allow leisure for
+the extravagance of what is, after all, only a luxury of art--no
+longer a civilizer, as of old, but just an efflorescence of our
+culture.
+
+Embroidery is now essentially "decoration," and nothing more. It is
+intended to appeal to the sense of beauty of the eye, rather than to
+the imagination. The designer for needlework should be an artist, but
+he need not be a poet. You may omit this art altogether, and you need
+be none the less sumptuously clothed and lodged. Yet it is worthy of
+careful study as historical evidence, and that in the present and
+future, as in the past, it may be an _art_, and not merely a _craft_.
+
+For the great web of history is composed of many threads of divers
+colours, and the warp and the woof are often exchanged, yet so
+connected and knotted together that the continuity is never broken. On
+this web, Time has drawn the picture of the past--sometimes faintly,
+sometimes with indelible tints and pronounced forms. By poetry; by
+architecture and its decorations; by dress, which represents and
+distinguishes nationalities; by customs, such as the different forms
+of burial; or even by such details as painting the eyes; also by the
+tradition and outcome of the laws of the tribes that flowed
+consecutively over Europe from the East; by the institutions which
+remained immutably fixed on their native soil, such as those of the
+Code of Manu, and those of Babylon, inscribed on bricks or clay; or by
+the words, their form and lettering, in which these are handed down to
+us;--out of all these the history of man is being reconstructed.
+
+How valuable is every witness to the ancient records, which were
+fading into myths in the memories of men. How joyfully is each little
+fact hailed as a landmark, in the general fog of doubt!
+
+Now embroidery may boast that it is a source of landmarks for all
+time.
+
+Without presuming to fix a date for its first beginning, that which I
+wish to impress on the mind of the reader is the long continuity of
+the art of needlework.
+
+The sense of antiquity induces reverence, and I claim for the needle
+an older and more illustrious age than can be accorded to the brush.
+While the great pendulum of Time has swung art in sculpture, painting,
+and architecture, from its cradle as in Mycenæ, to its throne in
+Athens in the days of Pericles, and then back again to the basest
+poverty of decaying Rome--needle work, continually refreshed from
+Eastern inspiration, never has fallen so low, though it had never
+aspired as high as its greater sister arts.
+
+The stuffs and fabrics of various materials of the Egyptians, Chinese,
+Assyrians, and Chaldeans are named in the earliest records of the
+human race. How much these decorations depended on weaving, and how
+much on embroidery with the needle, may in each case be disputed. The
+products of the Babylonian looms are alluded to in the Book of Joshua.
+Their beauty tempted Achan to rescue them when Jericho fell;[5] and
+Ezekiel speaks of the embroideries of Canneh, Haran, and Eden, as well
+as of their cloths of purple and blue, and their chests of garments of
+divers colours[6].
+
+All these fabrics are named as merchandise, and were carried to the
+sea-coast, and thence over the ancient world, by the Phœnicians,
+the great shipowners and dealers of the East.
+
+Indian needlework and design is 4000 years old; and the long
+perspective of Egyptian art, while leading us still further back into
+unlimited periods, shows it changing so slowly, that we feel as if it
+had been all but stationary from the beginning.
+
+The Chinese claim 5000 years as the life of their history; but if, as
+is now suggested, their civilization is Accadian or Proto-Babylonian,
+their wonderful artistic and scientific knowledge may have been
+fragments of the great dispersal, secreted and preserved behind the
+wonderful wall[7] of stone, silence, and law, where it has lain
+fossilized ever since. One cannot but wonder at the perfection of the
+textile manufactures of the Chinese, their marvellous embroideries,
+and the peculiar modes of construction and design throughout their
+arts, which have shown but few moments of change in growth--scarcely a
+sign of evolution. And we may fairly surmise that this Accadian
+culture (if such it be) is reflected from antediluvian tradition.
+
+The archæology of Oriental art is most interesting. We contemplate
+with awe the vast splendours of the consecutive civilizations of the
+East; the ancient richness and fertility of the whole of the Asiatic
+continent; the genius for empire and for commerce; the creative power
+which seemed to pour itself forth, unchecked by wars and conquests;
+the great dynasties which rose and fell, leaving behind them gigantic
+works, and the records of fabulous luxury in the empires of China,
+Assyria, India, and Persia, of which the remains have been of late
+years excavated, deciphered, and confronted with the historical texts
+which we have inherited, and had only partly believed. And studying
+these new aspects of history, we are saddened, thinking that the
+sunrise comes to us from shining over desert sands or the mounds of
+empty cities, where the lion and the jackal "reassert their primeval
+possession," or where the European and the Tartar, from the West and
+from the East, dispute their rights to suzerainty. We are dazzled and
+confused when we look back to those great days when the over-peopled
+kingdoms sent forth whole tribes, eastward to the confines of Asia,
+southward over India, and westward over Europe; and we bow reverently
+before the mighty Power that led the Jews, by a promise and a hope,
+across the seething nationalities, through the long passage of time
+from Abraham to Solomon; and which is again giving into the hands of
+those Oriental-looking men, so much power in shaping the destiny of
+mankind through their great riches.
+
+Moses commanded the Hebrew people to lend and never to borrow. They
+have obeyed his precept, except in art; to that they have lent or
+given nothing. There is no national Jewish art. For music only do they
+show artistic genius, and that is European and not Oriental. As
+illustrating their lack of intuitive decorative art, one need only
+refer to the architecture of the first, second, and third Temple
+buildings, which apparently reflected Babylonian and Semitic
+influences on an early Chaldean type. The embroideries mentioned by
+different writers, from Moses to Josephus, appear to have had always a
+Babylonian, or later a Persian inspiration.
+
+This absence of artistic genius is very remarkable in a people that
+had its origin in the Eastern centre from whence all art has radiated.
+
+The reason that so little survives of ancient embroidery is evident.
+Woollen stuffs and threads decay quickly--the moth and rust do corrupt
+them--and the very few ancient bits that remain, have been preserved
+by the embalming process, which has kept the contents of tombs from
+becoming dust.
+
+As to more modern embroideries, we ought to be thankful that the art
+has had its fashions; otherwise, the world would be overwhelmed with
+shabby rags. Human nature has a tendency to dislike the
+"old-fashioned"--i.e. the fashion of the last generation. That which
+our mothers worked or wore, is an object for affectionate sentiment,
+and the best specimens alone are preserved. That which belonged to our
+grandfathers and grandmothers has receded into the rococo; and a few
+more generations take us back to the antique, of which so little
+survives, from wear and tear, carelessness and theft, that we put away
+and preserve it as being curious and precious. We may hope that the
+general law of the survival of the fittest has guarded what is most
+remarkable.
+
+Certain works have been consecrated by the hands that executed them,
+or by that of the donor, or by the purpose for which they were
+bestowed, and are mostly preserved in churches or national museums. Of
+these there are vestments and altar decorations worked by royal and
+noble ladies; and coronation garments given by Queens and Empresses,
+such as Queen Gisela's and the Empress Kunigunda's at Prague and
+Bamberg, and Charlemagne's dalmatic at the Vatican, described in the
+chapter on ecclesiastical embroideries. Sculptured effigies help us as
+to embroidered patterns; for our forefathers often actually copied in
+bronze or stone the patterns of the garments in which the body was
+buried, or at any rate, those the man had worn in his life. Of these,
+King John's monument at Worcester, and the surcoat of the Black Prince
+at Canterbury, are remarkable examples.[8]
+
+The succeeding chapters will contain sketches of the history of the
+different stitches, and of the best examples of stitch and style
+remaining to us; and I shall try to extract from both the best
+suggestions for guidance in design and handicraft.
+
+Embroidery from its nature is essentially the woman's art.[9] It needs
+a sedentary life, industry and patience. It does not require a room to
+itself, and the worker may leave it at any moment between two stitches
+when called to other duties. Nunneries produced the finest work of the
+dark and middle ages; and their teaching inaugurated the workrooms in
+the palaces and castles, where young girls, whether royal, noble, or
+gentle, were trained in embroidery as an accomplishment and a
+household duty.
+
+The history of domestic embroidery ought to be looked upon as that of
+an important factor in the humanizing effect of æsthetic culture.
+
+The woman of the house has always been strong to fulfil her part in
+this civilizing influence with the implement which custom has awarded
+to her. Every man in the ancient East began his life under the tent or
+in the palace adorned by the hands of his mother and her maidens, and
+his home was made beautiful by his wife and his sisters and their
+slaves. There, as in mediæval homes, lessons of morality and religion,
+and the love and fame of noble deeds, were taught by the painting of
+the needle to the minds of the young men, who would have scorned more
+direct teaching; and the children felt the influence, as the women
+wove what the bards sang.
+
+Alas! we have but few specimens of embroideries of which we know the
+history, earlier than the tenth and eleventh centuries.[10] Yet from
+the days of the books of the Old Testament and the song of the siege
+of Troy, down to the present time, the woman of the house has adorned
+not only herself and her dear lord, but she has hung the walls, the
+seats, the bed, and the tables with her beautiful creations.
+
+Homer's women were all artists with the needle. Venus seeking Helen,--
+
+    "Like fair Laodice in form and face,
+    The loveliest nymph of Priam's royal race,
+    Here in the palace at her loom she found:
+    The golden web her own sad story crown'd.
+    The Trojan wars she weaved (herself the prize),
+    And the dire triumph of her fatal eyes."[11]
+
+This must have been intended for hangings.
+
+Hecuba's wardrobe is thus described:--
+
+    "The Phrygian queen to her rich wardrobe went,
+    Where treasured odours breathed a costly scent;
+    There lay the vestures of no vulgar art,
+    Sidonian maids embroider'd every part.
+    Here, as the queen revolved with careful eyes
+    The various textures and the various dyes
+    She chose a web that shone superior far,
+    And glow'd refulgent as the morning star."[12]
+
+The women of the Middle Ages were great at the loom and frame. From
+the Kleine Heldenbuch of the thirteenth century, Rock quotes these
+lines:--
+
+    "Who taught me to embroider in a frame with silk,
+    And to sketch and design the wild and tame
+    Beasts of the forest and field?
+    Also to picture on plain surfaces;
+    Round about to place golden borders--
+    narrow and a broad one--
+    With stags and hinds, lifelike."
+
+Gudrun, like the women of Homer, embroidered history--that of the
+ancestors of Siegfried.
+
+But in the Middle Ages the embroiderers were ambitious artists. The
+deeds of Roland and the siege of Troy, all romantic and classical
+lore, provided subjects for the needle.
+
+Shakespeare gives a pretty picture of the graceful weaver and
+embroiderer:--
+
+    * * * "Would ever with Marina be:--
+    Be't when she weaves the sleided silk,
+    With fingers long, small, white as milk;
+    Or when she would with sharp neeld wound
+    The cambric, which she makes more sound
+    By hurting it....
+    Deep clerks she dumbs; and with her neeld composes
+    Nature's own shape, of bud, bird, branch, or berry,
+    That even her art sisters the natural roses."[13]
+
+Before closing this Introduction, I will take the opportunity to
+protest against the abuse of the phrase "High Art." It is generally
+appropriated by that which is the lowest and most feeble.
+
+An old design for a chair or table, by no means remarkable originally,
+but cheaply copied, and covered with a quaint and dismal cretonne or
+poorly worked pattern, of which the design is neither new nor
+artistic, is introduced by the upholsterer as belonging to "High Art
+furniture." The epithet has succeeded to what was once "fashionable"
+and "elegant." To get rid of carpets, and put down rugs, to hang up
+rows of plates instead of family portraits--this also is "high art."
+Likewise gowns lumped upon the shoulders, with all the folds drawn
+across, instead of hanging draperies. The term is never used when we
+speak of the great arts--painting, sculpture, and architecture. It is,
+in fact, only the slang of the cabinet-maker, the upholsterer, and
+milliner.
+
+All true Art is very high indeed and apparent; and needs not to be
+introduced with a puff. It sits enthroned between Poetry and History.
+Even those who are ignorant of its laws feel its influence, and the
+soothing grace which it sheds, falling like the rain, equally upon the
+just and the unjust. Man's nature always responds to the truly high
+and beautiful; only the most degraded are deprived of this source of
+happiness. And there are but few women, till debased by cruelty,
+misery, or drink, that do not try in some humble way (but especially
+with their needle) to adorn their own persons, their children, and
+their homes; and if their art is not high, it yet has the power to
+elevate them.[14] While the most ambitious women try a higher flight,
+into the regions of poetry, literature, painting, and even sculpture
+(why has no woman ever been an architect?), millions have enjoyed the
+art of the needle for thousands of years, and it will continue to be a
+solace and a delight as long as the world lasts, for, like all art, it
+gives the ever new joy of creation.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [3] See Duke of Argyll's "Unity of Nature."
+
+    [4] Walls, pillars, and roofs were certainly hung with
+    textile ornament before they were carved or painted.
+    This is Semper's theory, and though Woltmann and
+    Woermann ("History of Painting," Eng. Trans., Sidney
+    Colvin, p. 38) hardly accept this view, they do not
+    gainsay it. The women who wove hangings for the grove,
+    or more literally, "coverings for the houses" of the
+    grove, were probably the priestesses of Astarte, and
+    wove and worked the hangings of various colours. 2 Kings
+    xxii.; Ezek. xvi. 16-18.
+
+    "It is probable that the earliest kind of pictures were
+    either woven or embroidered upon figured stuffs of
+    various colours; and that in these decorations the
+    Greeks in the first instance imitated the Semitic races,
+    who had practised them from time immemorial." See
+    Woltmann and Woermann's "History of Painting" (Eng.
+    Trans.), p. 38.
+
+    [5] Joshua vii.
+
+    [6] Ezek. xxvii. 23.
+
+    [7] The wall of China, which, both figuratively and
+    literally, enclosed its civilization, and fenced off
+    that of the outer world, for thousands of years.
+
+    [8] When the tomb of King John was opened, the body was
+    found wrapped in the same dress as that sculptured on
+    his effigy. The surcoat of the Black Prince, of
+    embroidered velvet, still hangs above his monument, on
+    which it is exactly reproduced.
+
+    [9] Yet men, too, have wielded the embroidering needle.
+
+    [10] These remnants are not, like the straws in amber,
+    only precious because they are curious; they are most
+    suggestive as works of art.
+
+    [11] Pope's Homer, Iliad, book iii.
+
+    [12] Ibid. book vi.
+
+    [13] Shakespeare, "Pericles, Prince of Tyre," act iv.
+    20; v. 5.
+
+    [14] Surely it is a humanizing and Christian principle
+    which in Italy permits artistic work to be done in the
+    prisons where criminals are confined for life. Sisters
+    of Mercy teach lace-making to the wretched women who,
+    having committed great crimes, may never be seen again.
+    The produce of the work helps to pay the expense of the
+    prison, and at the same time a very small percentage is
+    given to the prisoners to send to their friends, or to
+    spend on little comforts, thus encouraging the poor
+    human creatures to exercise their best powers. We
+    believe this is sometimes allowed also in England and
+    France.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+STYLE.
+
+
+In venturing to approach so great a subject as the history of style, I
+would beg my readers to believe how well I am aware that on each point
+much more has been already carefully treated by previous writers, than
+will fall within the limits of a chapter that is intended only to
+throw light on textile art, and especially on embroidery.
+
+I suppose it is the same in all subjects of human speculation which
+are worthy of serious study; and therefore I ought not to have been
+surprised to find how much has already been written on needlework and
+embroidery, and how unconsciously I, at least, have passed by and
+ignored these notices, till it struck me that I ought to know
+something of the history and principles of the art which with others,
+I was striving to revive and improve.
+
+Then new and old facts crowded round me, and became significant and
+interesting. I longed to know something of the first worker and the
+first needle; and behold the needle has been found!--among the débris
+of the life of the Neolithic cave-man, made of bone and very neatly
+fashioned.
+
+Alas! the workwoman and her work are gone to dust; but _there_ is the
+needle!--proof positive that the craft existed before the last glacial
+period in Britain.[15] How long ago this was, we may conjecture, but
+can never finally ascertain. Then I find embroidery named by the
+earliest historians, by every poet of antiquity, and by the first
+travellers in the East; and it has been the subject of laws and
+enactments from the date of the Code of Manu in India, to the present
+century. One becomes eager to systematize all this information, and to
+share with the workers and thinkers of the craft, the pleasure found
+in its study.
+
+Perhaps what is here collected may appear somewhat bald and
+disjointed; but antiquity, both human and historical, is apt to be
+bald; and its dislocation and disjointed condition are owing to the
+frequent cataclysms, physical, political, and social, which needlework
+has survived, bringing down to us the same stitches which served the
+same purposes for decoration under the Code of Manu, and adorned the
+Sanctuary in the wilderness; and those stitches probably were not new
+then.
+
+I propose to give a slight sketch of the origin of the styles[16] that
+have followed each other, noting the national influences that have
+displaced or altered them, and the overlap of style caused by outside
+events.
+
+First, I would define what "STYLE" means.
+
+Style is the mark impressed on art by a national period, short or
+long. It fades, it wanes, and then some historical element enters on
+the scene, which carries with it new materials, needs, and tastes
+(either imported or springing up under the new conditions). The style
+of the day in art and literature alters so perceptibly, that all who
+have had any artistic training are at once aware of the difference.
+
+Of late years, the science of history has been greatly assisted by the
+science of language. When the mute language of art shall have been
+patiently deciphered, the historian will be furnished with new powers
+in his researches after truth.
+
+The first "ineffaceable" is a _word_; the second a _pattern_. This is
+proved by the history of needlework.
+
+As the world grows old, its youth becomes more interesting. Alas! the
+childhood of mankind is so distant, and it was so long before it
+learned its letters, that but few facts have come down to us, on which
+we may firmly build our theories; yet we must acknowledge the great
+stride that has been made in the last few years, in the scientific
+mode of extracting history from the ruins and tombs, and even the
+dust-heaps, of the past. Whole epochs, which fifty years ago were as
+blank as the then maps of Central Africa, are being now gradually
+covered with landmarks.
+
+Layard, Rawlinson, C. T. Newton, Botta, Rassam, Schliemann, Birch, G.
+Smith, and a crowd of archæologists, and even unscientific explorers,
+are collecting the materials from which the history of mankind is
+being reconstructed.
+
+From them I have sought information about the art of embroidery, and I
+find that Semper gives it a high pre-eminence as to its antiquity,
+making it the foundation and starting-point of all art. He clothes not
+only man, but architecture, with the products of the loom and the
+needle; and derives from them in succession, painting, bas-relief, and
+sculpture.[17]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Style has to be considered in two different aspects, from two
+different standpoints. First, historically and archæologically,
+distinguishing and dating the forms which follow upon each other; and
+tracing them back in the order of their natural sequence; so as to
+guide us to the root, nay, to the seed[18] of each and all art.
+
+The subsidiary art of embroidery, in its highest form the handmaid of
+architecture, is full of suggestion, and may assist us greatly in the
+search which culminates in the text of "In the beginning."
+
+The other point of view from which style should be considered is the
+æsthetic. This enables us to criticize the works of different periods;
+extracting, as far as we may, rules for the beautiful and the
+commendable, and seeking to find the "why?" also observing the
+operation of the law by which decay follows too soon after the best
+and highest efforts of genius, thought, and invention in art.
+
+My present object is the history of consecutive styles, in so far as
+they concern needlework.
+
+Alas! nothing endures. This law is acknowledged by Goethe, when he
+makes Jove answer Venus, who bewailed that all that is beautiful must
+die,--that he had only bestowed beauty on the evanescent.
+
+It seems as if the moment the best is attained, men, ceasing to
+struggle for the better, fall back at once hopelessly and become mere
+imitators. They no longer follow a type, but copy a model, and then
+copy the copy. Imitation is a precipice, a swift descent through
+poverty of thought into the chaos of mannerism, in the place of style.
+
+The imitative tendency, as existing in all human minds, cannot be
+ignored or despised. In individuals it accompanies enthusiasm for the
+beautiful, and the graceful charm of sympathy. It maintains continuity
+between specimen and specimen, between artist and artist, between
+century and century; and it is this which enables an adept to say with
+certainty of consecutive styles, "This is Spanish work of the
+sixteenth century; that is Flemish or German work of the seventeenth
+century."
+
+The theory of development and of the survival of the fittest has been
+worked so hard, that it sometimes breaks down under the task imposed
+upon it. It would need to include Death in its procedure. In our
+creed, Death, means the moment of entrance into a higher existence;
+but in art it means extinction, leaving behind neither a history nor
+an artisan--only, perhaps, an infinitely small tradition, like the
+grain of corn preserved in the wrappings of a mummy, from which at
+first accident, and then care and culture, may evoke a future life.
+
+The various ways in which art has appeared at the beginning cannot
+here be discussed; nor how the Chinese and Hindu may have leapt into a
+perfection which has stood still for thousands of years, protected
+alike from expansion as from destruction, by the swaddling bands of
+codified custom; while Greek art rose like the sun, shone over the
+civilized world, and set--never again to see another epoch of glory.
+These subjects must be left for the study of the anthropological
+philosopher, who is working for the assistance and guidance of the
+future historian of art.
+
+Style in needlework has passed through many phases since the
+aboriginal, prehistoric woman, with the bone needle, drew together the
+edges of the skins of the animals she had prepared for food.
+
+For absolute necessity, in forming the garments and covering the tent,
+needlework need go no further than the seam. This, however, in the
+woven or plaited material, must fray where it is shaped, and become
+fringed at the edges. Every long seam is a suggestion, and every
+shaped edge a snare.
+
+The fringe lends itself to the tassel, and the shaped seam suggests a
+pattern; up-stitches are needed for binding the web, and before she is
+aware of it, the worker finds herself adorning, _embroidering_; and
+the craft enters the outskirts of the region of art.
+
+The humble early efforts at decoration, called by the French
+"primitif," are the first we know and class, and are found in all
+savage attempts at ornament. This style consists mainly of straight
+lines, zigzags, wavy lines, dots, and little discs.[19]
+
+Gold discs of many sizes, and worked with a variety of patterns, are
+found equally in the tomb of the warrior at Mycenæ, and in Ashantee,
+accompanied in both cases with gold masks covering the faces of the
+dead. The discs or buttons remind us of those found in Etruscan tombs,
+though the execution of these last is more advanced. They appear to be
+the origin of the "clavus" or nail-headed pattern woven into silks in
+the Palace of the Cæsars. The last recorded survival of this pattern
+is in woven materials for ecclesiastical purposes in the Middle Ages.
+
+Of very early needlework we only find here and there a fragment,
+illustrated occasionally by passing allusions in poetry and history.
+
+The ornamental art of Hissarlik[20] is so primitive that we cannot
+feel that it has any resemblance to that described as Trojan by Homer,
+who probably adorned his song with the art he had known elsewhere.[21]
+
+We know not what the actual heroes of the Iliad and Odyssey wore; but
+we do know that what Homer describes, he must have seen. Was Homer,
+therefore, the contemporary of the siege of Troy?--or does he not
+rather speak of the customs and costumes of his own time, and apply
+them to the traditions of the heroic ages of Greece? Whatever be the
+date of Homer himself, we can, with the help of contemporary
+survivals, reconstruct the house and the hall, and even furnish them,
+and clothe the women and the princes, the beggars and the herdsmen.
+
+From the remains of Egyptian, Babylonian, and Assyrian art we can
+perceive their differences and their affinities. It is from textile
+fragments, found mostly in tombs, that we obtain dates, and can
+suggest them for other specimens.
+
+The funeral tent of Shishak's mother-in-law, at Boulac, is most
+valuable as showing what was the textile art of that early period.[22]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 1.
+    Egyptian corselet. (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians.")]
+
+The corselet which, according to Herodotus, was given by Amasis, King
+of Egypt, to the Temple of Minerva at Lindos, in Rhodes, was possibly
+worked in this style; for Babylonian embroidery was greatly prized in
+Egypt, and imitated.
+
+The second corselet given by Amasis to the Lacædemonians was worked in
+gold and colours, with animals and other decorations. This was of the
+seventh century B.C.[23]
+
+Amongst the arms painted on the wall of the tomb of Rameses, at Thebes
+(in Egypt), is a corselet, apparently of rich stuff,[24] embroidered
+with lions and other devices. (Fig. 1.)
+
+The Phœnicians imbibed and reproduced the styles they met with in
+their voyages. The bowls found in Cyprus described and engraved in the
+September number of the "Magazine of Art" (1883), are most interesting
+illustrations of the meeting of two national styles, the Assyrian and
+the Egyptian.[25]
+
+Homer's "Shield of Achilles"[26] must, in general design, have
+resembled these bowls (see Pl. 5). They also recall the description by
+Josephus of the Temple veils at Jerusalem, which were Babylonian.[27]
+
+Phœnicia, which was the carrier of all art, dropped specimens here
+and there, for many hundred years, along the borders of the
+Mediterranean and the coasts of Spain. We fancy we can trace her
+ocean-path by the western shores of Africa, and even to America;
+otherwise, how could it happen that a mummy-wrapping in Peru should so
+nearly resemble some of those wrappings found at Saccarah,[28] in
+Egypt, woven in precisely the same tapestry fashion?
+
+Among the puzzling phenomena due probably to Phœnician commerce, is
+the complete suite of the sacerdotal ornaments of a High Priest, found
+in his tomb,[29] now in the Vatican Museum. This reminds us of other
+specimens of archaic art from distant sources, that our attention is
+forcibly arrested, and we wonder whence they came, and whether they
+were collected from alien civilizations by the Phœnicians before
+they dispersed them.[30]
+
+Certain Egyptian sculptures of deformed and repulsive
+divinities--idols of the baser sort--are most interesting and puzzling
+by their affinity in style to the Indo-Dravidian and the art of
+Mexico, while they are entirely unlike that of Egypt. If Atlantis and
+its arts never existed, it may be suggested that it was the eastern
+coast of America that was spoken of under that name by the Egyptian
+priest with whom Herodotus conversed.
+
+The Babylonian and Ninevite embroideries, carefully executed on their
+bas-reliefs, have a masculine look, which suggests the design of an
+artist and the work of slaves. There is no following out of graceful
+fancies; one set of selected forms (each probably with a symbolical
+intention) following another. The effect, as seen on the sculptures in
+the British Museum, is royally gorgeous; and one feels that creatures
+inferior to monarchs or satraps could never have aspired to such
+splendours. Probably the embroidery on their corselets was executed in
+gold wire, treated as thread, and taken through the material; and the
+same system was carried out in adorning the trappings of the horses
+and the chariots. The solid masses of embroidery may have been
+afterwards subjected to the action of the hammer, which would account
+for their appearing like jeweller's work in the bas-reliefs (Pl. 1 and
+2).
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 1.
+    Assurbanipal fighting lions.
+    British Museum.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 2.
+    Portion of a Babylonian Royal Mantle. Layard's "Monuments," series
+        i., pl. 9.]
+
+The style of the Babylonian embroideries appears to have been
+naturalistic though conventionalized. We may judge of their styles for
+different purposes by the reliefs in the British Museum. From their
+veils and curtains at a later date, when they had crossed their
+art with that of India, we may imagine the mystical design of the
+Temple curtain as described by Josephus; in fact, as much as possible
+embracing all things on the earth and above it, excepting the images
+of the heavenly bodies.[31]
+
+Small carpets from Persia of the Middle Ages, as well as those woven
+and embroidered even to the present day, are echoes of the ancient
+Babylonian style, and most interesting as historical records of the
+traditions of human taste. Our artistic interests are stirred when we
+read in Ezekiel lists of the fabrics and materials of which Tyre had
+become the central depôt, and we enjoy tracing them to the various
+looms, named in verse and history, where they were adorned with
+embroidery, and then either became articles of commerce, or were
+stored away to be kept religiously as heirlooms, or presented as gifts
+to the temples or to honoured guests.
+
+Mr. G. Smith, after saying that the Babylonian is without doubt the
+oldest of civilizations, continues thus:--"To us the history of
+Babylonia has an interest beyond that of Egypt, on account of its more
+intimate connection with our own civilization.[32] Babylon was the
+centre from which it spread into Assyria, thence to Asia Minor and
+Phœnicia, then to Greece and Rome, and so to all Europe. The Jews
+brought the traditions of the creation and of early religion from Ur
+of the Chaldees,[33] and thus preserved they became the heritage of
+all mankind; while the science and civilization of that wonderful
+people (the Babylonians) became the basis of modern research and
+advancement."[34]
+
+The hangings of the Tabernacle are so carefully described in the book
+of Exodus, that we can see in fancy the linen curtains, blue or white,
+embroidered in scarlet, purple, blue, and gold; the cherubim in the
+woven material; the fringes enriched with flowers, buds, fruit, and
+golden bells: and we can appreciate how little of Egyptian art and
+style the children of Israel brought back from their long captivity,
+and how soon they reverted to their ancient Chaldean proclivities,
+after returning to their wandering life of the tent.
+
+On the bronze gates from the mound of Balawat, near Nimroud, set up by
+Shalmaneser to celebrate his conquest of Tyre and Sidon,[35] we find a
+portable tabernacle, evidently meant to accompany the army on a march.
+It is not much larger than a four-post bed, with transverse poles for
+drawing the curtains, all fringed with bells and fruit. This is an
+illustration of the motive for the Tabernacle of the forty years'
+wandering in the desert. (Fig. 2.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2.
+    Tabernacle on gates of Balawat, time of Shalmaneser II. (British
+        Museum).]
+
+Egyptian textile art is, perhaps, that of which we have the most early
+specimens. These are to be seen at Boulac, at Vienna, Turin, and the
+British Museum.[36] The Hieroglyphic, the Archaic, and the
+Græco-Egyptian are all unmistakably the consecutive outcome of the
+national original style, which had totally disappeared in the
+beginning of our era. Few of the embroideries are more than two
+thousand five hundred years old. But the great piece of patchwork in
+leather, "the funeral tent of an Egyptian queen," as it covered the
+remains of a contemporary of Solomon,[37] absolutely exhibits the
+proficiency of the designer and the needlework of the eleventh century
+B.C. (Pl. 44.)
+
+The connection between Indian and Egyptian early art appears to have
+existed only in their use of the lotus as an emblem and a constant
+decoration; but their manner of employing it was characteristically
+different. (Pl. 12 and 13.)
+
+The Phœnicians carried with them the seeds of the Egyptian style
+over the ancient world; but these seeds only took root and flourished
+on the soil of Greece. The imitations of Egyptian style reappeared in
+Rome, and again in France "under the two Empires." In both cases they
+were only imitations, and neither had any permanent influence on the
+art of their day.
+
+I shall have to allude very often to our Eastern sources of artistic
+culture.
+
+Our own Aryan ancestors were so impregnated with beautiful ideas, that
+we must believe that we inherit from them all our graceful
+appreciation of naturalistic ornament. But even Aryan art met with
+reverses on its Eastern soil, from which it constantly rose again and
+renewed itself.
+
+The Mongols crushed for a time the element of beauty in India. They
+introduced a barbarous and hideous style which has its only
+counterpart in that of Central America. It was the produce of a
+religion, superstitious, cruel, and devilish.
+
+The Aryan art of India, which was elegant and spiritual, was revived
+by the kindred influence of Persia, and by the Renaissance in Europe.
+Italian and other artists were employed in India, and "the spirit of
+aerial grace, and the delicate sense of beauty in natural forms,
+blossomed afresh and flourished for 300 years. Birds, flowers, fruit,
+butterflies, became once more the legitimate ornament of every
+material."[38]
+
+I continue to quote from Sir G. Birdwood's "Arts of India." "The Code
+of Manu, from 900 to 300 B.C., has secured to the village system of
+India a permanent class of hereditary artistic workmen and artisans,
+who have through these 2500 years, at least, been trained to the same
+manipulations, and who therefore translate any foreign work which is
+placed before them to copy, into something characteristically
+Indian."[39] Indian art has borrowed freely from all sources without
+losing its own individuality. It has been said, "There is nothing
+newer in it than of the sixteenth century; and even then nothing was
+original, especially in the minor arts." But this is owing to the
+Hindu being equally endowed with assimilative and receptive
+capacity,[40] so that in the hands of the Indian craftsman everything
+assumes the distinctive expression of ancient Indian art.
+
+In India everything is hand-wrought; but as the spirit of its
+decorative art "is that of a crystallized tradition, its type has
+remained almost unaltered since the Aryan genius culminated in the
+Ramâyana and Mahabhârata--and yet each artisan in India is a true
+artist."[41] In art, unfortunately, "the letter killeth;" and true
+artists as they are, the ancient traditions bind and cramp them,
+while the ancient materials, the dyes, and the absolute command of
+time are failing: so that the beauty of Indian embroideries and other
+decorations is gradually reducing itself to mannerism, which is more
+dangerous to art than even had been the vicissitudes of war; for when
+peaceful days returned, and the waves of conquest had subsided, the
+ancient arts were found again deeply embedded in the traditions of the
+people. They gradually returned to their old ways, which are so
+indelible in the Hindu mind, that they will perhaps survive even the
+fashions of to-day.[42]
+
+From Yates' account it would appear that Europe had been fertilized
+with taste in art and manufactures from the East by three different
+routes.
+
+The Egyptian civilization, with all its Eastern antecedents and
+traditions, came to us by the Mediterranean and the Adriatic; the
+Phœnicians being the merchants who brought it through those
+channels. The Etruscans, who were the pedlars of Europe, travelled
+north, conveying golden ornaments and coral, and bringing back jet and
+amber. Their commercial track is to be traced by the contents of tombs
+on their path.[43]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 3.
+    St. John. From King Alfred's Celtic Book of the Gospels. Lambeth
+        Palace Library.]
+
+Secondly, there was also a Slavonian route from Eastern Asia, which
+conveyed Oriental art to the north of Europe. Celtic art, which
+certainly has something of the Indo-Chinese style, came to us probably
+by this route. Another branch of the Celtic family was settled on the
+north-eastern shores of the Adriatic. Celtic ideas and forms in art
+probably crossed Europe from this point,[44] and came to us meeting a
+cognate influence,[45] arriving from the north.[46] (Pl. 3.)
+
+Thirdly, Oriental taste and textiles came from the Byzantine Empire in
+the early days of Christianity, spreading to Sicily, Italy, Spain, and
+finally to France, Germany, and Britain.
+
+Runic art, whether Scandinavian or our own purer Celtic, is so
+remarkable for its independence of all other European national and
+traditional design, that I cannot omit a brief notice of it, though we
+have no ascertained relics of any of its embroideries.[47] It appears
+to have received, in addition to its own universal stamp--evidently
+derived from one original source--certain influences impressed on it
+like a seal by each country through which it flowed.[48] Wherever the
+Runes are carved in stone, or worked on bronze, gold, silver, ivory,
+or wood, or painted in their splendid illuminations (pl. 4), the
+involved serpent, which was the sign of their faith, appears,
+sometimes covered with Runic inscriptions; and this inscribed serpent,
+later, is twined round or heaped at the foot of the peculiar
+Scandinavian-shaped cross, the type of conversion. The serpent was
+sometimes altered into the partial semblance of a four-footed animal,
+the body and tail being lengthened and twined, and sometimes split, to
+give a new turn to the pattern. (Fig. 3.) All these zoomorphic
+patterns, as well as the human figures seen in the Book of Kells, the
+missal at Lambeth, and the Lindisfarne Book (which is, however, more
+English in its style), are yet of an Indo-Chinese type; the
+wicker-work motives often replacing the involved serpent design.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.
+    Celtic Zoomorphic pattern.]
+
+The Paganism of our own Celtic art, when it appears, is an
+interpolation between our first and second Christian conversions, and
+was brought to us in the incursions of the Vikings over Scotland and
+into England.
+
+  [Illustration: Page from the Lindisfarne MSS. British Museum]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 5.
+    Silver bowl from Palestrina. Ganneau. "Journal Asiatique, Coupe de
+        Palestrina." 1880.]
+
+Our knowledge of their advanced and most singular art comes out
+of their tombs, in which the warrior was laid with all his arms and
+his horse and his precious possessions, splendidly clothed according
+to his degree--in the belief that he would need them again in a future
+world.
+
+This northern tradition was so long-lived, that Frederick Casimir, a
+knight of the Teutonic Order, was buried with his sword and his horse
+at Treves, in 1781.[49]
+
+Greek embroideries we can perfectly appreciate, by studying Hope's
+"Costumes of the Ancients," and the works of Millingen and others;
+also the fictile vases in the British Museum and elsewhere. On these
+are depicted the Hellenic gods, the wars, and the home life of the
+Greeks. The worked or woven patterns on their draperies are infinitely
+varied, and range over many centuries of design, and they are almost
+always beautiful. It is melancholy to have to confess that in this, as
+in all their art, the Greek taste is inimitable; yet we may profit by
+the lessons it teaches us. These are: variety without redundancy;
+grace without affectation; simplicity without poverty; the
+appropriate, the harmonious, and the serene, rather than that which is
+astonishing, painful, or awe-inspiring. These principles were carried
+into the smallest arts, and we can trace them in the shaping of a cup
+or the decoration of a mantle, as in the frieze of the Parthenon.
+
+Homer makes constant mention of the women's work. Penelope's web is
+oftenest quoted. This was a shroud for her Father-in-law. Ulysses
+brought home a large collection of fine embroidered garments,
+contributed by his fair hostesses during his travels.
+
+Pallas Athene patronized the craft of the embroiderers; and the sacred
+peplos which robed her statue, and was renewed every year, was
+embroidered by noble maidens, under the superintendence of a
+priestess of her temple. It represented the battles of the gods and
+the giants (fig. 4), till the portraits of living men were profanely
+introduced into the design. The new peplos was carried to the temple,
+floating like a flag, in procession through the city.
+
+The goddess to whom the Greeks gave the protection of this art was
+wise as well as accomplished, and knew that it was good for women
+reverently to approach art by painting with their needles. She always
+was seen in embroidered garments, and worked as well as wove them
+herself. She appeared to Ulysses in the steading of Eumœus, the
+swineherd, as a "woman tall and fair, and skilful in splendid
+handiwork."[50]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 4.
+    Pallas Athene attired in the sacred peplos.
+    (Panathenaic Vase, British Museum.)]
+
+Homer never tires of praising the women's work, and the chests of
+splendid garments laid up in the treasure-houses.[51] Helen gave of
+her work to Telemachus: "Helen, the fair lady, stood by the coffer
+wherein were her robes of curious needlework which she herself had
+wrought. Then Helen, the fair lady, lifted it out, the widest and most
+beautifully embroidered of all--and it shone like a star; and this she
+sent as a gift to his future wife."[52]
+
+Semper's theory is, that the one chief import of Oriental style being
+embroideries, therefore the hangings and dresses arriving from Asia
+gave the poetic Greek the motives for his art, his civilization, his
+legends, and his gods.[53] This may or may not be; there is no doubt
+that they influenced them.[54]
+
+Böttiger accordingly believes that Homer's descriptions of beautiful
+dress and furnishings are derived from, or at least influenced by,
+what he had learnt of the Babylonian and Chaldean embroideries. This
+is very probable, and would account for his poetical design on the
+shield of Achilles, in which his own inspiration dictated the
+possibilities of the then practised arts of Asia, of which the fame
+and occasional glimpses were already drifting westward. (Plate 5.)
+
+The description of the shield of Achilles is as follows: Hephaistos,
+"the lame god," "threw bronze that weareth not, into the fire; and
+tin, and precious gold and silver." "He fashioned the shield great and
+strong, with five folds (or circles) in the shield itself." "Then
+wrought he the earth and the sea, and the unwearying sun, and the moon
+waxing to its full, and the signs, every one wherewith the heavens are
+crowned." "Also he fashioned therein two cities of mortal men; and
+here were marriage feasts, and brides led home by the blaze of
+torches--young men whirling in the dance, and the women standing each
+at her door marvelling." Then a street fight, and the elders sitting
+in judgment. The other city was being besieged; and there is a
+wonderful description of the battle fought on the river banks, and
+"Strife, Tumult, and Death" personified, and mingling in the fight.
+Then he set in the shield the labours of the husbandman. This is so
+exquisitely beautiful that with difficulty I refrain from quoting it
+all. "He wrought thereon a herd of kine with upright horns, and the
+kine were fashioned of gold and tin," "and herdsmen of gold were
+following after them." "Also did the glorious lame god devise a
+dancing-place like unto that which once, in wide Knosos, Daidalos
+wrought for Ariadne of the lovely tresses. There were youths dancing
+and maidens of costly wooing, their hands upon their waists." "And now
+would they run round with deft feet exceedingly lightly"--"and now
+would they run in lines to meet each other." "And a great company
+stood round the lovely dance in joy; and among them a divine minstrel
+was making music on his lyre; and through the midst of them, as he
+began his strain, two tumblers whirled. Also he set therein the great
+might of the River of Ocean, around the utmost rim of the
+cunningly-fashioned shield."[55]
+
+There is, indeed, every proof that Greek art was the joint product of
+the Egyptian and Assyrian civilizations. Their amalgamation gave birth
+to the archaic style, struggling to express the strength and the
+beauty of man--half heroic, half divine. Gradually, all the
+surrounding decorations of life assumed as a governing principle and
+motive, the worth of noble beauty.
+
+The Greeks were the first artists. They broke away from the ancient
+trammels of customary forms, and replaced law with liberty of thought,
+and tradition with poetry.
+
+They destroyed no old ideas, but they selected, appropriated, and
+evoked beauty from every source. From the great days of Athens we may
+date the moment when materials became entirely subservient to art, and
+the minds of individual men were stamped on their works and dated
+them. Phases indeed followed each other, showing the links of
+tradition which still bound men's minds together to a certain extent,
+and formed the general style of the day. Yet there was in art from
+that time--life, sometimes death,--but then a resurrection.
+
+It appears from classical writers that about 300 B.C. Greek art had
+thrown itself into many new forms. Painting, for example, had tried
+all themes excepting landscapes. We are told that within the space of
+150 years the art had passed through every technical stage; from the
+tinted profile system of Polygnotus to the proper pictorial system of
+natural scenes, composed with natural backgrounds; and Peiraiïkos is
+named as an artist of genre--a painter of barbers and cobblers,
+booths, asses, eatables, and such-like realistic subjects.[56]
+
+I suppose there is no doubt that all the Romans knew or felt of art
+was borrowed directly or indirectly from Greece,[57] first through
+Phœnician and perhaps Etruscan sources, and finally by conquest.
+Everything we have of their art shows their imitation of Grecian
+models. Their embroideries would certainly have shown the same
+impress.
+
+Greece--herself crushed and demoralized--even as late as the Eastern
+Empire gave to Rome the fashion of the Byzantine taste, which she at
+once adopted, and it was called the Romanesque. This style, which was
+partly Arab, still prevails in Eastern Europe, having clung to the
+Greek Church. In her best days, Roman poetry, architecture, and
+decorative arts were Greek of Greece, imitating its highest types, but
+never creating.
+
+It is surely allowable to quote here one of Virgil's Homeric echoes,
+which touches upon our especial subject,--
+
+    "Mournful at heart at that supreme farewell,
+    Andromache brings robes of border'd gold;
+    A Phrygian cloak, too, for Ascanius.
+    And yielding not the palm in courtesy,
+    Loads him with woven treasures, and thus speaks:
+    'Take these gifts, too, to serve as monuments
+    Of my hand-labour, boy; so may they bear
+    Their witness to Andromache's long love,
+    The wife of Hector:--take them, these last gifts
+    Thy kindred can bestow; in this sad world
+    Sole image left of my Astyanax!'"[58]
+
+It is sad to mark how not only the refinements of taste, but even the
+guiding principles of art, were gradually lost in the humiliation of a
+conquered people, the dulness and discouragement which followed on the
+expatriation or destruction of their accumulated treasures, and the
+deterioration of the Greek artist and artisan, carried prisoners to
+Rome, and settled there because it was the seat of luxury and empire.
+As the captive Jews hung their harps on the willow-trees by the waters
+of Babylon, and refused to sing, so Greek genius succumbed, weighed
+down by Roman chains. It sickened and died in exile.
+
+Late Roman art reminds us of the art of Etruria in its archaic days,
+except that the freshness and promise are wanting, and that the one
+was in its first, the other its second childhood.
+
+Before entering on the subject of Christian art, I must again refer,
+however briefly, to the Eastern origin of all art. It is evident that
+this had always flowed in streams of many types from that high
+watershed of Central Asia, where our human race is said to have been
+created, and whence all wisdom and knowledge have emanated. In the
+image of the Creator, man issued from thence, endowed with the gift of
+the creative power. Wave after wave of fresh and apparently differing
+nationalities followed each other; partially submerging those that had
+gone before, and spreading till it had reached the furthest shores of
+the Northern seas and the Atlantic, and encircled the Mediterranean.
+They all followed the same course from east to west. The Greek
+civilization was indeed so dazzling and strong, that it lighted the
+world all around; and India, Persia, and Assyria felt its influence
+reflected back on its old Asian cradle.
+
+But from the same high watershed[59] flowed other tribal types towards
+China, Java, and Japan, that had no affinity with any western
+civilization; and while the Assyrian, Persian, Indian, and Mongolian
+styles mixed and overlapped so near their sources, that it is
+sometimes hardly possible to reason out and classify their
+resemblances and their differences, the tribes flowing Eastward turned
+aside and went their own way, and have remained till now perfectly
+distinct.[60]
+
+In spite of their matchless dexterity in the manipulation of their
+materials, the infinite variety of their stitches, and exquisite
+finish in execution, carrying out to the utmost point the intended
+effect, yet Chinese and Japanese textile art differs in its inner
+principles from all our accepted canons of taste; so that their want
+of harmony, and sometimes their absurdity, is a puzzle of which we
+cannot find the key. This I have already alluded to (p. 3).
+
+I purposely avoid the questions suggested by Chinese art. The immense
+antiquity it claims cannot be allowed without hesitation. M. Terrien
+de la Couperie, however, believes that he has found the actual point
+of departure of Chinese civilization, and he considers it to be an
+early offshoot from Babylon.[61] He supports his theory on linguistic
+grounds, and we must anxiously wait to see if it is corroborated by
+further researches into the earliest records of the archaic Chinese
+literature. But immobility in art is a Chinese characteristic, and no
+national cataclysms seem to have disturbed it. The oldest specimens
+known are very like the most modern. Yet an adept, learned in Chinese
+art, can detect the signs which mark its different epochs.
+
+In this they differ from the Japanese, who, added to their inherited
+exquisite appreciation of natural beauty, have a power of assimilation
+that might lead in time to their possessing a school of art which,
+being really original, might become the style of the future. The
+civilization of Japan is not older than the fifth century A.D., and
+was probably then imported from Corea. Some of the earliest specimens
+we know of their art are embroidered religious pictures by the son of
+a Mikado Sholokutaiski, who was in the seventh century the great
+apostle of Buddhism in Japan; and the next earliest works are by the
+first nun, Honi, in the eighth century. We have European work as old,
+and it is most interesting to compare the differences of their styles
+and stitches.
+
+We must now return to the beginning of our era, when we find Greek
+taste, such as it was, still influencing and colouring art in Italy,
+and throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa, wherever Roman colonies were
+founded, till the eighth century. It died hard; but by that time the
+barbarians had poured from the east and north in successive waves, and
+conquered and suppressed the classical civilization.
+
+Nothing is so puzzling in textile art as the mixture of styles during
+the first 1000 years A.D. The Græco-Roman, the Byzantine, and the
+Egyptian, crossed by the Arabian, Persian, and Indian styles, were
+reproduced in the Sicilian looms. Certain stock patterns, such as the
+reclining hares or fawns, as we find them on the Shishak pall, or that
+of the Tree of Life, approached by worshipping men or animals,
+originating in Assyrian art, are employed as borders, and fill up
+vacant spaces. The information collected from the tombs in the Crimea
+immediately preceding our era, is supplemented by the variety in style
+and materials from the Fayoum, now placed by Herr Graf'schen in the
+Museum at Vienna.
+
+Christian art, which began in Byzantium, gradually grew, and formed
+itself into the Gothic,[62] which in time overcame the general chaos
+of style.
+
+Eastern art continued to flow westward, modifying and suggesting.
+When the Phœnicians and Carthaginians had laid down their ancient
+commercial sceptre, it was taken up by the Greeks, and later by the
+Venetians and Genoese, always trading with Asiatic goods. Then the
+arts of the Scandinavians[63] and of the Celts (who were the weavers),
+though barbaric, still retained and spread certain Oriental
+traditions. Luxury was born in Babylon, and Persia became its nurse,
+whence all its glories and refinements spread over the world. But if
+luxury was Babylonian, art was Greek. Alas! the love of luxury
+survived in Rome the taste for art.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 6.
+    The Empress Theodora. Mosaic at Ravenna. Church of San. Vitale.]
+
+At Ravenna we learn much of the early Christian period from the
+mosaics in the churches. The Empress Theodora and her ladies appear to
+be clothed in Indian shawl stuffs. (Plate 6.) These, of course, had
+drifted into Rome, as they had long done into the Greek islands, by
+the Red Sea or by land through Tyre. Ezekiel (590 B.C.) mentions the
+Indian trade through Aden. Theodora's dress has a deep border of gold,
+embroidered with classical warriors pursuing each other with
+swords.[64] Works enriched with precious stones and pearls now appear
+for the first time in European art, and testify to its Oriental
+impress.
+
+The Byzantine Christian style was essentially the art of mosaic. Its
+patterns for architecture or dress, easily square themselves into
+little compartments, suggesting the stitches of "counted" embroideries
+("opus pulvinarium").
+
+In the beginning of the fourth century, when Greek influence was still
+languishing, we may date the commencement of ecclesiastical art. It
+was a new birth, and had to struggle through an infancy of nearly 800
+years, ignoring, or unconscious of all rules of drawing, colouring,
+and design. Outlines filled in with flat surfaces of colours
+represented again the art of painting, which had returned to archaic
+types, and in no way differed from the essential properties of the art
+of "acu pingere" or needlework, which was in the same phase--being,
+fortunately for it, that to which it was best suited.
+
+Therefore fine works of art were then executed by the needle, of which
+a very few survive, either in description or copied into more lasting
+materials; and showing that, with the minor arts of mosaic and
+illumination, it was in a state of higher perfection than the greater
+arts, which till the twelfth century were all but in abeyance.
+
+In discussing textile art, I am obliged to pass over a part of the
+dark ages, and to approach the period when it must be studied chiefly
+in Sicily, which became the half-way house on the high road to the
+East, and later the resting-place of the Crusaders to and from the
+Holy Land.
+
+Sicily, which had succeeded to Constantinople as being the great
+manufacturing mart during the Middle Ages, was in the hands of the
+Moors, the origin and source of all European Gothic textile art. Yet
+even at Palermo and Messina this art was long controlled by the
+traditions of Greece, ancient and modern, while fertilized by Persian
+and Indian forms and traditional symbolisms.
+
+The next European phase was the Gothic.[65] This was Arab and Moresque
+steeped in northern ideas; and finding its congenial soil, it grew
+into the most splendid, thoughtful, and finished style, far
+transcending anything that it had borrowed from eastern or southern
+sources.
+
+All its traditions were carried out in the smaller decorative
+arts--mosaics, ivories, and metal works; and, last and not least,
+beautiful embroideries, to adorn the altars and the dresses of
+monarchs and nobles. (Plate 7.)
+
+When taste was imperfect or declined, then the decorations were all
+rude, and the embroideries shared in the general rudeness or poverty;
+but as these crafts rose again, adding to themselves grace and beauty
+by study and experience, then needlework in England, Germany, France,
+Italy, and Spain grew and flourished.[66]
+
+  [Illustration: Italian embroidery XV. Century
+    Kensington Museum]
+
+  [Illustration: Italian orphreys XVI. Century
+    South Kensington Museum]
+
+  [Illustration: Orphreys French and Spanish
+    XVI. Century]
+
+Then came the Reformation, which, in Germany and England especially,
+gave a blow to the arts which had reserved their best efforts for the
+Church; and the change of style effected by the Renaissance was not
+suited to the solemnity of ecclesiastical decoration.
+
+The styles of the fifteenth and sixteenth century embroideries are
+better adapted for secular purposes; though their extreme beauty as
+architectural ornament in Italy, reconciles one to their want of
+religious character, on the principle that it was allowable to
+dedicate to the Church all that in its day was brightest and best.
+(Plate 8.)
+
+We possess much domestic embroidery of the Renaissance which is
+exceedingly beautiful--Italian, Spanish, and German. English
+needlework had lost its prestige from the time of the Reformation.[67]
+
+The best efforts of the German schools of embroidery preceded the
+Reformation, while those of Belgium never lost their excellence,[68]
+and still hold their high position among the workers of golden
+orphreys. In Italy they always retained much of the classical element.
+Probably the ancient frescoes which served as models were originally
+painted by Greek artists and their Roman imitators. This style
+flourished for a hundred years. The French adopted and modified it.
+
+The decorative style of that period is sometimes called the Arabesque,
+and sometimes the Grotesque. The fashion was really copied from the
+excavated palaces and tombs of the best Roman era. Raphael admired,
+and caused his pupils to imitate and copy them; and they influenced
+all decorative art for a considerable period. As long as beautiful
+forms of flowers, fruit, birds, and animals were adhered to, the
+Arabesque was a charming decoration, gay and brilliant; but when the
+beautiful was set aside, and the ugly ideas were reproduced, the style
+became the Grotesque, which word only means the grotto, cave, or tomb
+style, and is as undescriptive to us as the word Arabesque, which has
+nothing to do with the Arabs or their arts.
+
+It would appear that if the beautiful only is permissible in
+decorative art, and that if without beauty there is no reason that it
+should exist at all, then the Grotesque should not be allowed, except
+as a scherzo of the pencil; to be relegated, like all other
+caricatures, to the portfolio.
+
+A grotesque is something startling, laughable, perhaps ridiculous. A
+woman with the head of a goose and a flowery tail may be a symbolical,
+but it never can be an agreeable object. When the idea conveyed is a
+great one, then it is excusable. The Ninevite bull, with a human head
+and five legs, is a grotesque, but it is also a symbol of majesty and
+might. A Satyr is a grotesque, but he has been so long recorded and
+accepted that he has ceased to surprise us; and the Greeks spent so
+much genius in making him a graceful creature, that he has become
+picturesque, if not beautiful.
+
+Arabesques and Grotesques have now so long prevailed in decoration,
+that we have ceased to criticize them on principle, and accept them
+gratefully, in proportion to the gay fancy and reticent genius of the
+designer. Most Arabesques are, in fact, only graceful nonsense.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 9.
+    Spanish Coverlet, from Goa. Velvet and gold, Plâteresque style,
+        seventeenth century.]
+
+Vitruvius (writing first century B.C.) says, that "in his time, on the
+covering of the walls were painted rather monstrosities than images
+of known things. Thus, instead of columns you will see reeds with
+crisp foliage, and candlesticks supporting temples; and on the top of
+these there are rods and twisted ornaments, and in the volutes
+senseless little figures sitting there; likewise flowers with figures
+growing out of their calyxes. Here a human head, there an
+animal's."[69] Evidently Vitruvius did not approve of grotesques, and
+his contemporary criticism is most valuable and amusing.
+
+In the Louis Quatorze period, a species of vegetable grotesque was the
+fashion, from which we suffer even now, and it deserves censure.
+Leaves and flowers of different plants were made to grow from the same
+stem, as only artificial flowers could do. The Greeks introduced into
+their decorations sprays and wreaths of bay, olive, oak, ivy, and
+vine, with their fruits; which are exquisitely composed and carefully
+studied from nature. It is true that they sometimes invented flowers
+of different shapes, following each other on the same stem, and
+untrammelled by any natural laws. These classical freaks of fancy are
+so graceful that their want of truth does not shock us, but they are
+more safely copied than imitated.
+
+The Renaissance was particularly marked in Spain and Portugal by the
+embroideries which the latter drew from their Indian possessions in
+Goa, whilst we in England were sedulously thrusting from our shores
+any beautiful Indian textiles that we imagined could injure our own
+home manufactures. It was, consequently, the worst phase of needlework
+with us, while Spanish and Portuguese embroideries of the sixteenth
+and seventeenth centuries are especially fine, their designs being
+European, and their needlework Oriental. Their Renaissance, which went
+by the name of the Plâteresque, is a style apart. (Pl. 9.) The reason
+of its name is that it seems to have been originally intended for, and
+is best suited to, the shapes and decorations of gold and silver
+plate. It is extremely rich and ornate; not so appropriate to
+architecture as to the smaller arts, and wanting, perhaps, the
+simplicity which gives dignity. The style called Louis Quatorze
+following on the Renaissance in Germany, England, Spain, Italy, and
+France, assumed in each of these countries distinguishing
+characteristics, into which we have not time to enter now. In this
+style France took the lead and appropriated it, and rightly named it
+after the magnificent monarch who fostered it. This was a splendid
+era; and its furniture and wall decorations, dress, plate, and books
+shine in all the fertile richness and grace of French artistic
+ingenuity.[70] The new style asserted itself everywhere, and
+remodelled every art; but the long reign of Louis Quatorze gave the
+fashion time to wane and change. Under Louis XV. the defects increased
+and the beauties diminished. The fine heavy borders were broken up
+into fragmentary forms; all flow and strength were eliminated; and
+what remained of the Louis Quatorze style became, under its next
+phase, only remarkable for the sparkling prettiness which is inherent
+in all French art.
+
+In Italy this very ornate style was distinguished as the
+"Sette-cento," and was a chastened imitation or appropriation of the
+Spanish Plâteresque and the French Louis Quatorze. In Germany it was a
+decided heavy copy of both, of which there are splendid examples in
+the adornment of the German palaces, royal and episcopal. In England
+the Continental taste was faintly reflected during the reign of Queen
+Anne and the first Georges; but except in the characteristic
+upholstery of the Chippendales, and one or two palaces, such as
+Blenheim and Castle Howard, we did not produce much that was original
+in the style of that day.
+
+Under Louis XV., Boucher and Watteau, in France, produced designs that
+were well suited to tapestries and embroideries. All the heathen gods,
+with Cupids, garlands, floating ribbons, crowns, and cyphers were
+everywhere carved, gilded, and worked. It was the visible tide of the
+frivolity in which poor Marie Antoinette was drowned; though before
+the Revolution she had somewhat simplified the forms of decoration,
+and straight lines instead of curves, and delicacy rather than
+splendour, had superseded, at least at court, the extravagant richness
+of palatial furniture.
+
+This was followed by the Revolution; and then came the attempt at
+classical severity (so contrary to the French nature) which the
+Republic affected.[71] Dress was adorned with embroidered spots and
+Etruscan borders, and the ladies wore diadems, and tried to be as like
+as possible to the Greek women painted in fictile art. Napoleon
+attempted a dress which was supposed to be Roman at his coronation.
+Trophies were woven and embroidered, and the "honeysuckle," "key," and
+"egg and anchor" patterns were everywhere. With the fall of the Empire
+the classical taste collapsed, and the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman
+furniture were handed over to hotels and lodging-houses. In most of
+the palaces on the Continent an apartment is still to be seen,
+furnished in this style. It was the necessary tribute of flattery to
+the great conqueror, who in that character inhabited so many of them
+for a short time. But there was no sign of the style being taken up
+enthusiastically anywhere out of France.
+
+After the fall of the Empire, all pretence of style was in abeyance,
+and it was then gradually replaced by a general craving for the
+"antique," the "rococo," and finally the "baroc," as the outcome of
+that part of a gentleman's education called the "grand tour." Every
+one bought up old furniture; Italy and Spain were ransacked; and
+foreign works of all ages were added to the hereditary house
+furnishings. Every wealthy home became a museum. Now the numerous
+exhibitions of the last few years, bringing together the works of all
+Europe and other continents, have enabled us to continue to collect
+and compare and furnish, without any reference to a particular style.
+
+Meantime "Young England" had become æsthetic. Bohemianism was the
+fashion, and the studio had to be furnished as a picturesque
+lounge:--ragged tapestries for backgrounds; antique chairs and bits of
+colour as cushions and draperies; shiny earthenware pots to hold a
+flower and to catch a high light. All these bridged the space between
+the new æstheticism and the old family museums; and from their
+combination arose the style called by courtesy the "Queen Anne"--a
+style which can be brought within the reach of the most moderate
+fortunes. In humble mansions you will be aware of the grouping of the
+old pieces of furniture, culminating perhaps in "my grandmother's
+cabinet," and her portrait by Hogarth; or "my great-grandfather's
+sword and pistols, which he carried at Culloden;" and his father's
+clock, a relic perhaps of the Scotch Dutch.
+
+The English style of to-day is really a conglomerate of the preceding
+two hundred years, and it is formed from the débris of our family
+life. It belongs mostly to the period of the pigtail; but it
+stretches back, and includes all that followed the Protectorate, and
+is therefore coeval with the wig. The name of "Queen Anne" would
+really do as well as any other, only that the style of her reign,
+which was heavy Louis Quatorze, is looked upon with suspicion, and
+never admitted for imitation. The "Nineteenth Century" would be a
+better name, for it has formed itself only within the last thirty
+years, in the very heart of the century, and is, in fact, a fortunate
+result of preceding conditions. It owes its existence, as I have said,
+partly to the archæological tendencies of the day.
+
+The maimed tables and chairs, which had painfully ascended from saloon
+to bedroom, nursery, and attic, till they reposed in the garret (the
+Bedlam of crazy furniture), now have descended in all the prestige of
+antiquarian and family interest. Their history is recorded; the old
+embroideries are restored, named, and honoured. What is not beautiful,
+is credited with being "quaint"--the "quaint" is more easily imitated
+than the beautiful; and we have elected this for the characteristic of
+our new decorations. To be quaint, is really to be funny without
+intending it, and its claim to prettiness is its _naïveté_, which is
+sometimes touching as well as amusing: this was the special
+characteristic of the revival in the Middle Ages. To imitate
+quaintness must be a mistake in art; as in life it is absurd to
+imitate innocence.
+
+The nineteenth century "Queen Anne" has its merits.[72] It combines
+simplicity, roominess and comfort, colour, light and shade. Soft
+colouring to harmonize the new furniture with the tender tints of the
+faded quaintnesses just restored to society; care in grouping even the
+commonest objects, so as to give pleasure to the eye; a revived taste
+for embroidered instead of woven materials, giving scope to the
+talents of the women of the house;--all these are so much gained in
+every-day domestic decoration. The poorest and most trivial
+arrangements are striving to attain to a something artistic and
+agreeable. This is still confined to the educated classes; but as good
+and bad alike have to begin on the surface, and gradually filter
+through to the dregs of society, we may hope that the women who wore
+the last chignon and the last crinoline may yet solace their sordid
+lives in flowing or tight woollen garments, adorned with their own
+needlework; and that the dark-stained floor of the cottage or humble
+lodging will set off the shining brass kettle, and the flower in a
+brown or blue pot, consciously selected with a view to the
+picturesque, and enjoyed accordingly.
+
+From what we know, it would seem that a vital change in a national
+style is never produced by the inspiration of one individual genius or
+great original inventor. It invariably evolves itself slowly, by the
+patient, persistent efforts of generations, polishing and touching up
+the same motive, and at last reaching human perfection.
+
+The annihilation of a style is oftenest caused by war passing over the
+land, or revolution breaking up the fountains of social life, and
+swamping the art and the artist.
+
+But another cause of such an extinction--perhaps the saddest--is that
+having reached perfection as far as it may, it deteriorates, sickens,
+corrupts, and finally is thrown aside--superseded, hidden, and
+overlapped by a newer fashion; and the worst and latest effort
+discredits in the eyes of men, the splendid successes that preceded
+its fall. Though the next succeeding phase may be less worthy to live
+than the last, yet, carrying with it the freshness of a new spring, it
+is acceptable for the time being.
+
+The moral I should draw from this is, that you cannot force style; you
+may prune, direct, and polish it, but you must accept that of your
+day, and only in accordance with that taste can your work be useful.
+Not accepting it idly or wearily, but cheerfully, on principle,
+seeking to raise it; refusing by word or deed to truckle to the false,
+the base, or the lawless in your art, or to act against the
+acknowledged canons of good taste. Not for a moment should ambition be
+checked, but it should always be accompanied by the grace of modesty.
+
+To the young decorator or artist who feels the glow of original design
+prompting him to reject old lines, and follow his own new and perhaps
+crude ideas, a few words of warning, and encouragement also, may be of
+use.
+
+In art, as in poetry, we may recognize the Psalmist's experience: "My
+heart burned within me, and at the last I spake with my tongue."
+
+In small as in great things, crude ideas should not be brought to the
+front. No one should give his thoughts to the world till his heart has
+_burned_ within him, and he has been _forced_ to express himself.
+
+Another wise saying, "Read yourself full, and then write yourself
+empty," also applies to art. Knowledge must first be accumulated
+before you can originate.
+
+Wait till your experience and your thoughts insist on expression;
+then subject the expressed idea to cultivated criticism, and profit by
+the opinion you would respect if another's work, and not your own,
+were under discussion.
+
+It is true that taste is surprisingly various. Some will dislike your
+design, because its style is a reflection of the Gothic; another may
+be objected to as being frivolously Oriental-looking and brilliant,
+whereas the critic likes only the sober and the dull. Few are
+sufficiently educated to appreciate style: and we cannot rule our own
+by anybody's opinion; but we can generalize and find something that
+shall be agreeable to all--something approaching to a golden mean. The
+artist for decoration should be sensitively alive to any suggestion
+from the style of that which he is to adorn, remembering the
+antecedent motives of its form, its history, and its date. He should
+try to make his new work harmonize with the old; but of one thing he
+may be certain--unless he absolutely copies an old design, his own
+will carry the visible and unmistakable stamp of his day.
+
+Even while suggesting copies this difficulty arises--how can a perfect
+facsimile be obtained? No reproduction is ever really exact, unless
+cast off by the hundred, stamped or printed by a machine.
+
+It has been said that the translator of a poem adds to, or takes from
+the original, that which he has or has not of the same poetical power;
+and in art the copy requires the same qualities to guide the hand that
+transmits the original motive to another material. An artist usually
+carries out his own ideas from the first sketch blocked out on the
+canvas, or scribbled on the bit of waste paper, to the last finishing
+touch. It is, as far as it can be in human art, the visible transcript
+of his own thought. In needlework this can hardly ever be. The
+designer, whether he be St. Dunstan, Pollaiolo, Torrigiano, or Walter
+Crane, only executes a drawing which leaves his hands for good, and is
+translated into embroidery by the patient needlewoman who simply fills
+in an outline, ignorant of art, unappreciative of its subtleties, and
+incapable of giving life and expression, even when she is aware that
+they are indicated in the original design. This is almost always the
+case; but there are exceptions. Charlemagne's dalmatic, for instance,
+shows signs of having been either the work of the artist himself, or
+else carried out under his immediate supervision.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [15] Boyd Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain," p. 285. See
+    also chapter on stitches (_post_), p. 195.
+
+    [16] Some of these styles survive; some are still
+    perceptible as traditions or echoes; some have totally
+    disappeared in our modern art, such as the Primitive or
+    the Egyptian.
+
+    [17] See Semper, "Der Stil."
+
+    [18] The history of Gaul begins in the 7th, and that of
+    Britain in the 1st century B.C., while the civilization
+    of Egypt dates back to more than 4000 B.C.; therefore
+    the historical overlap is very great. It is probable
+    that a large portion of Europe was in its neolithic age,
+    while the scribes were composing their records of war
+    and commerce in the great cities on the Nile, and that
+    the neolithic civilization lingered in remote regions
+    while the voice of Pericles was heard in Athens, and the
+    name of Hannibal was a terror in Italy.--See Boyd
+    Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain," p. 481.
+
+    [19] See chapter on patterns.
+
+    [20] In the Troad.
+
+    [21] Some of the Egyptian arts we know are pre-Homeric
+    (if Homer really sang 800 B.C.), and Asiatic art was
+    then in its highest development.
+
+    [22] See chapter on stitches, cut work (_post_). This
+    funeral tent is a monumental work, inasmuch as the
+    inscription inwrought on it gives us the name and title
+    of her in whose honour it was made, and whose remains it
+    covered. See Villiers Stewart's "Funeral Tent of an
+    Egyptian Queen."
+
+    [23] Herodotus, book ii. c. 182; book iii. c. 47
+    (Rawlinson's Trans.). See Rock's Introduction, p. xiv.
+
+    [24] Homer mentions "Sidonian stuffs and Phœnician
+    skill" (Iliad, v. 170); also "Sidonian Embroidery."
+    Ibid. vi. 287-295.
+
+    [25] The Assyrian designs are such as are now still
+    worked at Benares, and being full of animals, they are
+    called Shikurgah, or "happy hunting-grounds." See Sir G.
+    Birdwood's "Industrial Arts of India," p. 236. See also
+    Plate 4.
+
+    [26] See Perrot and Chipiez (pp. 737-757); also Clermont
+    Ganneau's Histoire de l'Art, "L'Imagerie Phénicienne,"
+    Plate 1, pt. 1. Coupe de Palestrina. He says that
+    certain scenes from the "Shield of Achilles" are
+    literally to be found on Phœnician vases that have
+    come down to us--vases of which Homer himself must have
+    seen some of analogous design.
+
+    [27] Homer speaks of Sidonian embroideries, "Iliad,"
+    vi., 287-295.
+
+    [28] See Egyptian fragments in the British Museum, and
+    the specimens of Peruvian textiles; and Reiss and
+    Stübel's "Necropolis of Ancon in Peru."
+
+    [29] At Cervetri, Dennis' "Etruria," ed. 1878, i. p.
+    268.
+
+    [30] The restless activity of the Phœnicians has
+    often helped to confuse our æsthetic knowledge, and has
+    caused the waste of much speculation in ascertaining how
+    certain objects of luxury, belonging to distant
+    civilizations, can possibly have arrived at the places
+    where we find them.
+
+    [31] "The Beautiful Gate of the Temple was covered all
+    over with gold. It had also golden vines above it, from
+    which hung clusters of grapes as tall as a man's
+    height.... It had golden doors of 55 cubits altitude,
+    and 16 in breadth: but before these doors there was a
+    veil of equal largeness with the doors. It was a
+    Babylonian curtain of blue, fine linen, and scarlet and
+    purple; of an admixture that was truly wonderful. Nor
+    was the mixture without its mystical interpretation; but
+    was a kind of image of the universe. For by the scarlet
+    was to be enigmatically signified fire; by the fine
+    flax, the earth; by the blue, the air, and by the
+    purple, the sea;--two of them having their colours for
+    the foundation of this resemblance; but the fine flax
+    and the purple have their own origin for this
+    foundation, the earth producing the one, and the sea the
+    other. This curtain had also embroidered upon it all
+    that was mystical in the heavens excepting the twelve
+    signs of the zodiac, representing living creatures."
+    Josephus (Trans. by Whiston), p. 895.
+
+    [32] See also M. E. Harkness and Stuart Poole, "Assyrian
+    Life and History," p. 66.
+
+    [33] The visions of Ezekiel and St. John remind us of
+    the composite figures and animals in Ninevite
+    sculptures, and the prophetic poetry helps us to
+    interpret their symbolism.
+
+    [34] G. Smith's "Ancient History of the Monuments,"
+    Babylonia, p. 33. Edited by Sayce.
+
+    [35] In the British Museum. See "Bronze Ornaments of
+    Palace Gates, Balawat," pl. E 5.
+
+    [36] See Auberville's "Ornement des Tissus," pl. 1.
+
+    [37] The Egyptian queen in question was mother-in-law to
+    Shishak, whose daughter married Solomon. After his
+    son-in-law's death, Shishak plundered the "King's
+    House," and carried to Egypt the golden shields or
+    panels (1 Kings xiv. 26). The golden vessels went to
+    Babylon later, and the golden candlesticks to Rome.
+
+    [38] Sir G. Birdwood repeatedly points out that the
+    Vedic was the art that worshipped and served nature. The
+    Puranic is the ideal and distorted. The Moguls, about
+    700 B.C., introduced their ugly Dravidian art. Through
+    the Sassanian art of Persia, that of India was
+    influenced. Possibly the very forms which in India are
+    copied from Assyrian temples and palaces, may have
+    travelled first to Assyria upon Indian stuffs and
+    jewellery (Sir G. Birdwood's "Industrial Arts of India,"
+    i. p. 236).
+
+    [39] Ibid., p. 130 (ed. 1884).
+
+    [40] Nearchus (Strabo, XV. i. 67) says that the people
+    of India had such a genius for imitation that they
+    counterfeited sponges, which they saw used by the
+    Macedonians, and produced perfect imitations of the real
+    object. See Sir G. Birdwood's "Industrial Arts of
+    India," ii. p. 133 (ed. 1884).
+
+    [41] Ibid., ii. p. 131 (ed. 1884).
+
+    [42] See Sir G. Birdwood, p. 129 (ed. 1884). If
+    Fergusson is right in suggesting that the art of Central
+    America was planted there in the third or fourth century
+    of our era, it would, perhaps, appear to have taken
+    refuge in America when it was driven out of India by the
+    Sassanians, and was really Dravidian. He gives to the
+    Turanian races all the mound buildings, as well as the
+    fylfot or mystic cross, and he looks in Central India
+    for the discovery of some remains that will give us the
+    secret of the origin of the Indo-Aryan style. He thinks
+    the Archaic Dravidian is allied with the Chinese. See
+    Fergusson's "Architecture."
+
+    [43] Etruscan and Indian golden ornaments, including the
+    "Bolla" and the "Trichinopoly" chains and coral, are to
+    be found throughout Scandinavia and in Ireland. See
+    "Atlas de l'Archéologie du Nord," par la Société Royale
+    des Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1857.
+
+    [44] Arrian tells us of the Celts, "a people near the
+    Great Ionian Bay," who sent an embassy to Alexander
+    before the battle of the Granicus--"a people strong and
+    of a haughty spirit." Alexander asked them if they
+    feared anything. They answered that they feared the "sky
+    might fall upon their heads." He dismissed them,
+    observing that the Celts were an arrogant nation
+    (Arrian, i. 4, 10).
+
+    [45] According to Yates, the merchandise of Eastern Asia
+    passed through Slavonia to the north of Europe in the
+    Middle Ages, without the intervention of Greece or
+    Italy. This may account for certain terms of
+    nomenclature which evidently came with goods transported
+    straight to the north. Yates' "Textrinum Antiquorum,"
+    vol. i. p. 225-246.
+
+    [46] These northern ideas, spreading over Germany,
+    England, and France, flourished especially on German
+    soil; and Oriental-patterned embroideries for hangings
+    and dress were worked in every stitch, on every
+    material, as may be seen in the museums and printed
+    catalogues of Vienna, Berlin, Munich, &c.
+
+    [47] Except, perhaps, the Serpent and Tree cope in
+    Bock's Kleinodien.
+
+    [48] The different Celtic nationalities are always
+    recognizable. There was found in a grave-mound at Hof,
+    in Norway, a brooch, showing at a glance that it was
+    Christian and Celtic, though taken from the grave of a
+    pagan Viking. Another at Berdal, in Norway, was at once
+    recognized by M. Lorange as being undoubtedly Irish.
+    There are many other instances of evident Celtic
+    Christian art found on the west coast of Norway under
+    similar conditions--probably spoil from the British
+    Islands, which were subject to the descents of the pagan
+    Vikings for centuries after the time of St. Columba's
+    preaching of Christianity in Scotland. For information
+    on the subject, see G. Stephen's "Monuments of Runic
+    Art," and F. Anderson's "Pagan Art in Scotland."
+
+    [49] "Scotland in Pagan Times," by J. Anderson, pp. 3-7.
+
+    [50] On a vase in the British Museum, Minerva appears
+    with her ægis on her breast, and clothed in a petticoat
+    and upper tunic worked in sprays, and a border of
+    kneeling lions. On another Panathenaic vase she has a
+    gown bordered with fighting men, evidently the sacred
+    peplos. (Fig. 4.)
+
+    [51] See the account of the veil of Herè in the Iliad,
+    and that of the mantle of Ulysses in the Odyssey.
+
+    [52] See Butcher and Lang's Odyssey.
+
+    [53] "Der Stil."
+
+    [54] The Greeks collected into one focus all that they
+    found of beauty in art from many distant
+    sources--Egyptian, Indian, Assyrian--and thus fired
+    their inborn genius, which thenceforth radiated its
+    splendour over the whole civilized world.
+
+    [55] Homer's Iliad, xviii. 480-617 (Butcher and Lang).
+
+    [56] See "Woltmann and Woermann." Trans. Sidney Colvin,
+    p. 64.
+
+    [57] Except, perhaps, the keystone arch.
+
+    [58] Virg. Æneid iii. Trans. G.L.G.
+
+    [59] The Indian Cush.
+
+    [60] Except in the art of the Celts, whose Indo-Chinese
+    style shows evidence of Mongolian importation, and later
+    we find traces of a similar influence: for instance,
+    "Yarkand rugs are semi-Chinese, semi-Tartar, resembling
+    also the works of India and Persia. It is easy to
+    distinguish from what source each comes, as one
+    perceives the influence of the neighbouring native art"
+    ("On Japan," by Dresser, p. 322).
+
+    [61] See a paper by M. Terrien de la Couperie in the
+    Journal of the Society of Arts, 1881.
+
+    [62] "Rome had to be overthrown that the new religion
+    and the new civilization might be established.
+    Christianity did its work in winning to it those
+    Teutonic conquerors, but how vast was the cost to the
+    world, occasioned by the necessity of casting into the
+    boiling cauldron of barbarous warfare, that noble
+    civilization and the treasures which Rome had gathered
+    in the spoil of a conquered universe! Had any old Roman,
+    or Christian father been gifted with Jeremiah's
+    prescience, he might have seen the fire blazing amidst
+    the forests of Germany, and the cauldron settling down
+    with its mouth turned towards the south, and would have
+    uttered his lamentation in plaintive tones, such as
+    Jeremiah's, and in the same melancholy key" ("Holy
+    Bible," with Commentary by Canon Cook, Introduction to
+    Jeremiah, vol. i. p. 319).
+
+    [63] Scandinavian art became strongly tinctured with
+    that of Byzantium. The Varangian Guards were, probably,
+    answerable for this, by their intercourse between Greece
+    and their native land, which lasted so many centuries.
+    There have come down to us, as witnesses of this
+    intercourse, many coins and much jewellery, in which all
+    that is Oriental in its style has been leavened by its
+    passage through Byzantine and Romanesque channels.
+    Gibbon, writing of this period, says: "The habits of
+    pilgrimage and piracy had approximated the countries of
+    the earth" (see Gibbon's "Decline and Fall," chap. lv.).
+
+    Greek embroidered patterns and Greek forms of dress
+    still linger in Iceland. There was lately brought to
+    England a bride's dress, which might have belonged to
+    the Greek wife of a Varangian guardsman. It is
+    embroidered with a border in gold of the classical
+    honeysuckle pattern; and the bridal wreath of gilt metal
+    flowers might, from its style, be supposed to have been
+    taken from a Greek tomb.
+
+    [64] Evidently an imitation of the peplos of Minerva
+    (see fig. 4, p. 32).
+
+    [65] The descent from the Persian of Arab or Moorish
+    art, as we generally call it when speaking of its
+    Spanish development, is to be accounted for by the
+    presence of a considerable colony of Persians in Spain
+    in the time of the Moors, as attested by numerous
+    documents still in existence. See Col. Murdoch Smith's
+    "Preface to Persian Art," Series of Art Handbooks of the
+    Kensington Museum.
+
+    [66] Ronsard, poet, politician, and diplomatist,
+    compares the Queen of Navarre to Pallas Athene:--
+
+        "Elle adonnait son courage
+        A mainte bel ouvrage
+        Dessus la toile, et encor
+        A joindre la soie et l'or.
+        Vous d'un pareil exercise
+        Mariez par artifice
+        Dessus la toile en mainte traits
+        L'or et la soie en pourtraict."
+
+    [67] Mary de Medici brought back with her from Italy
+    Federigo Vinciolo as her designer for embroideries.
+
+    [68] See "Art Needlework," by E. Maxse, and "Manuel de
+    la Broderie," by Madame E. F. Celnart.
+
+    [69] From the Italian translation by Signor Minghetti.
+
+    [70] Gaston, Duke of Orleans (died 1660), kept hothouses
+    on purpose to supply models for floral textile designs.
+    Le Brun often drew the embroideries for the hangings in
+    rooms he had himself designed and decorated.
+
+    [71] We have all seen the dining-room wine-coolers
+    modelled in imitation of Roman tombs; and there is a
+    drawing-room in a splendid mansion still furnished with
+    cinerary urns covering the walls, while curule chairs
+    most uncomfortably furnish the seats.
+
+    [72] In his designs for papers and textiles, Mr. Morris'
+    poetical and artistic feeling--his admiration and
+    sensitiveness for all that is beautiful and graceful (as
+    well as quaint)--his respect for precedent, added to his
+    own fanciful originality,--have given a colour and seal
+    to the whole decorative art of England of to-day. It is
+    a step towards a new school. The sobriety and tenderness
+    of his colouring gives a sense of harmony, and
+    reconciles us to his repetitions of large vegetable
+    forms, which remind us sometimes of a kitchen-garden in
+    a tornado. For domestic decoration we should, as far as
+    possible, adhere to reposing forms and colours. Our
+    flowers should lie in their allotted spaces, quiet and
+    undisturbed by elemental struggles, which have no
+    business in our windowed and glass-protected rooms.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DESIGN.
+
+    _Gorgo._ Behold these 'broideries! Finer saw you never.
+
+    _Praxinoè._ Ye gods! What artists work'd these pictures in?
+    What kind of painter could these clear lines limn?
+    How true they stand! nay, lifelike, moving ever;
+    Not worked--_created!_ Woman, thou art clever!
+
+      (Scene at a Festival) _Theocritus_, Idyll xv. line 78.
+
+
+The word design, as applied to needlework, includes the principles and
+laws of the art: the motives and their hereditary outcome; the art
+creating the principles; the laws controlling the art.
+
+Design means intention, motive, and should as such be applied to the
+smallest as to the greatest efforts of art. That which results from
+it, either as picture or pattern, is a record of the thoughts which
+produced it, and by its style fixes the date, of its production.
+
+I will first consider the principles of design, and afterwards, in
+another chapter, inquire into the origin of patterns; investigating
+their motives, and using them as examples, and also as warnings.
+
+The individual genius of the artist works first in design, though his
+work is for the use of the craftsman or artisan, his collaborator; for
+the two, head and hands, must work together, or else will render each
+other inoperative or ineffective.
+
+The artisan, by right of his title, claims a part in the art itself;
+the craftsman, by his name, points out that he, too, has to work out
+the craft, the mystery, the inner meaning, of the design or intention.
+
+The designer himself is subject to the prejudices called the taste of
+his day. He is necessarily under the influence which that taste has
+imposed upon him, and from which no spontaneous efforts of genius can
+entirely emancipate him. Whether he is conceiving a temple for the
+worship of a national faith, or the edging for the robe of a fair
+votaress, or the pattern on the border of a cup of gold or brass, he
+cannot avoid the force of tradition and of custom, which comes from
+afar, weighted with the power of long descent, and which crushes
+individuality, unless it is of the most robust nature.
+
+Of very early design we have most curious and mysterious glimpses. The
+cave man was an artist. The few scratches on a bone, cleverly showing
+the forms of a dog or a stag, a whale or a seal, nay, the figure of a
+man, have enabled us to ascertain and to classify the Palæolithic cave
+man; from whom his less civilized successor, the Neolithic man, may be
+distinguished by his absence of all animal design.[73]
+
+These fragmentary scraps of information, pieced together only in these
+later years, teach us the value of very small facts which time and
+care are now accumulating, and which, being the remains of lives and
+nations passed away, still serve as the soil in which history can be
+fertilized.
+
+We have no means of judging whether the cave man was an artist on a
+greater or more advanced scale than is actually shown by the
+bone-scratchings; the only other relic of his handiwork is the
+needle.[74]
+
+It is evident that a direct imitation of nature, such as is seen in
+these "graffiti," and at an immense distance in advance of them, in
+the earliest known Egyptian sculptures, preceded all conventional art.
+Some of the earliest portrait statues in the Museum at Boulac exhibit
+a high degree of naturalistic design before it became subservient to
+the expression of the faith of the people. As soon as art was found to
+be the fittest conveyance of symbolism, it became the consecrated
+medium for transmitting language, thought, and history, and was
+reduced to forms in which it was contented to remain petrified for
+many centuries, entirely foregoing the study or imitation of
+nature.[75] It recorded customs, historical events, and religious
+beliefs; receiving from the last the impress of the unchangeable and
+the absolute, which it gave to the other subjects on which it touched.
+It ceased to be a creative art (if it had ever aspired to such a
+function), and was never the embodiment of individual thought. This
+phase prevailed under different manifestations in Assyria and China.
+Pictorial art had, in fact, become merely the nursing mother of the
+alphabet, guiding its first steps--the hieroglyphic delineation or
+expression of thoughts and facts.[76]
+
+In Egypt, the change from the first period of actual imitation of
+nature was succeeded by many centuries of the very slowest progress.
+Renouf speaks,[77] however, of "the astonishing identity that is
+visible through all the periods of Egyptian art" (for you could never
+mistake anything Egyptian for the produce of any other country). "This
+identity and slow movement," he says, "are not inconsistent with an
+immense amount of change, which must exist if there is any real life."
+In fact, there were periods of relative progress, repose, and decay,
+and every age had its peculiar character. Birch, Lepsius, or Marriette
+could at once tell you the age of a statue, inscription, or
+manuscript, by the characteristic signs which actually fix[78] the
+date.
+
+Design, unconsciously has a slowly altering and persistently onward
+movement, which but seldom repeats itself. It is one of the most
+remarkable instances of evolution. But it also has its cataclysms
+(however we may account for them), of which the Greek apotheosis of
+all art is a shining example, and the total disappearance of classical
+influence in Europe before the Renaissance is another.
+
+I will instance one prevailing habit of Egyptian art.[79] In the long
+processional subjects, and in individual separate figures, it was
+usual to draw the head in perfect profile, the body facing you, but
+not completely--a sort of compromise with a three-quarter view of
+it--and the feet following each other, on the same line as the
+profile. This mode of representing the human figure was only effaced
+gradually by the introduction of Greek art, and continued to be the
+conventional and decorative method even in the latest days of Egyptian
+art; and it is curious to observe, that in the Dark ages European
+design fell into the same habit. We cannot imagine that this distorted
+way of drawing the human figure could have any intentional meaning,
+and therefore may simply believe that it had become a custom; and that
+when art has so stiffened and consolidated itself by precedent and
+long tradition, as in Egypt and in India, certain errors as well as
+certain truths become, as it were, ingrained into it. Plato remarked
+of Egyptian art, that "the pictures and statues they made ten thousand
+years ago were in no particular better than those they make now."[80]
+
+One day, however, the Greek broke away from the ancient bonds of
+custom. The body was made to accompany the head, and the feet followed
+suit. But the strange fact remains that for several thousand years men
+walked in profile, all out of drawing. Evidently originality was not
+in much estimation among the Egyptian patrons of art. Design seemed to
+have restricted itself to effective adaptations in a few permitted
+forms in architecture and painting, and the illumination of the
+papyrus MSS.
+
+Egyptian elasticity of design found some scope in its domestic
+ornamentation, in jewellery and hangings, but especially in its
+embroideries for dress. Here much ingenuity was shown, and the
+patterns on walls and the ceilings of tombs give us the designs which
+Semper considers as having been originally intended for textile
+purposes. He strains to a point to which I can hardly follow him, the
+theory that all decorations were originally textile (except such as
+proceeded in China from the lattice-work motive); though I willingly
+accept the idea that textile decoration was one of the first and most
+active promoters of design.
+
+It is not possible for us to trace systematically the different points
+at which Egyptian and Asiatic art touch, but we can see that they were
+always acting and reacting on each other in the later centuries before
+our era, and that Greece profited by them. The first efforts of both
+to break through this chrysalis stage, resulted in the early Greek
+archaic style. Its strongly marked, muscular humanity reminds one of
+all the conflicting impressions struggling in the conception of the
+great artist who first embodied them. They appear to be breaking out
+from the trammels of Egyptian and Assyrian styles, which by meeting
+had engendered life; and Greek art was the child of their union. Then
+art, having shaken off symbolism as its only purpose, and seeking to
+represent the forms of men, yet possessed by a guiding spirit, first
+sought to convey the idea of expression. The worship of humanity,
+mingling with that of their gods, produced the Heroic ideal; and all
+the attributes of their heroes--majesty, beauty, grace, and
+passion--had to be depicted; as well as rage, sorrow, despair, and
+revenge. These were soon to be surrounded with all the splendours of
+the arts of decoration.
+
+Greece had prepared for this outburst of excellence and the perfect
+science of art, by collecting the traditions, the symbols, the
+experience in colouring, and the knowledge of beautiful forms, human
+and ideal. All that was needed for the advent of the man who could
+design and create types of beauty for all ages was thus accumulated,
+and the man came, and his name was Pheidias. A crowd followed him, all
+steeped in the same flood of poetry and art; and for several
+centuries they filled the world with the sense and science of beauty.
+Then the function of the designer--the artist--was changed and
+elevated, and he became, through the great days of Greek and Roman
+Pagan art, and afterwards through the rise of that of Christianity,
+the exponent of all that was poetical and ennobling in the life of
+man.
+
+But though the Greek artist had broken the chains of prescribed form,
+he still adhered to the "motive"--the inner symbolical thought--and
+strove to express it as it had never been expressed before.[81] New
+principles were evoked, and the artist, while revelling in the
+"sweetness and light" of freedom, framed for himself standards of
+taste and refinement, which he left as a heritage to all succeeding
+generations.
+
+I fear that I am repeating a platitude when insisting that freedom in
+all design, but especially that employed in decoration, must be kept
+within certain boundaries; otherwise it becomes lawless. Rules, like
+all other controlling circumstances, are of the greatest service to
+the artist, as they suggest what he can do, as well as decide what he
+ought not to attempt. All boundaries are highly suggestive; the size
+of a sheet of paper--the form of a panel--the colours in the box of
+pigments--even the touch of the brush which comes to hand,--all these
+help to shape the idea to our ends, and assist us in giving to the
+original motive the form which is most suitable. These restrictions
+are often regarded as impediments by the impatient artist; whereas he
+ought to look on them as hints and suggestions, and claim their
+assistance, instead of struggling against them. Let us accept the
+principle that it is good for each of our efforts at decoration that
+we are controlled by the space allotted to its composition. The
+relative size (small, perhaps, for a table-cover, but large for that
+of a book) and the shape to which we are limited, alter all the
+conditions of a design. Whether it is square or oblong, or lengthened
+into a frieze; whether it must be divided into parts, including more
+than one motive, or be grouped round one centre; whether it is to be
+repeated more than once within the range of the eye, or whether it is
+to disappear into space upwards or horizontally; and whether it is to
+stand alone, or be framed with lines or a border,--all these
+restrictions must govern the design, or, in its highest phase, the
+composition.
+
+The composition must consist of supporting lines well balanced, and
+"values" filling up the whole surface of the space, which is to
+contain it, and beyond which it must not seek to extend. As we have in
+embroidery no distances--only a foreground--the design must be placed
+all on one plane. The title of "composition" cannot be granted to a
+bouquet or a bird cast on one corner of a square of linen, however
+gracefully it may be drawn. It does not cover the space allotted to
+it.
+
+If we carefully study the great and guiding principles that have been
+distinctly formulated by some of the Continental authorities on
+decorative art, we shall find much help in composing our designs.
+Nothing is more interesting than to search for the foundation of the
+structure which centuries have helped to raise, and to dig out, as it
+were, the original plan or thought of the founder. So it is most
+instructive to learn the fundamental rules by which such results are
+secured.
+
+M. Blanc[82] says of the general laws of ornamentation: "There can be
+no nobler satisfaction to the mind, than to be able to unravel what is
+beyond measure complicated, to diminish what is apparently immense,
+and to reduce to a few clear points what has been till now involved in
+a haze of obscurity. Just as the twenty-six letters of the alphabet
+have been, and always will be sufficient to form the expression of the
+words necessary for all human thought, so certain elements susceptible
+of combination among themselves have sufficed, and will suffice, to
+create ornament, whose variety may be indefinitely multiplied."
+
+He reduces ornamental design to five principles, Repetition,
+Alternation, Symmetry, Progression, and Confusion.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 5.
+    Wave Pattern.]
+
+First, Repetition. "You may act on the mind, through sight, by the
+same means as those that will excite physical sensations. A single
+prick of a pin is nothing, but a hundred such will be intolerably
+painful. Repetition produces pleasurable sensations, as well as
+painful ones." An insignificant form can become interesting by
+repetition, and by the suggestion which, singly, it could not
+originate. For example, the rolling of the Greek scroll or wave
+pattern awakens in us the idea of one object following another. "It
+also suggests the waves of the ocean; or the poet may see in it a
+troop of maidens pursuing each other in space, not frivolously, but in
+cadence, as if executing a mystic dance." Change the curves into
+angular forms, as making the key pattern, and it will no longer flow,
+but become as severe as the other was graceful. No principle gives
+greater pleasure than repetition, and next to it, _alternation_.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 6.
+    Key Pattern.]
+
+Variety is here added to the law of repetition. "There can be
+repetition without alternation, but no alternation without
+repetition." Alternation is, then, a succession of two objects
+recurring regularly in turn; and the cadence of appearance and
+disappearance gives pleasure to the senses, whether it be addressed to
+taste, hearing, or sight. Alternate rhymes, and even short and long
+lines, soothe the ear in verse. In form, the alternations are the more
+agreeable, the more they differ. Such are, in architecture, a
+succession of metopes and triglyphs on a Doric frieze, where the
+circle and the straight lines relieve each other.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 7.
+    Metopes and Triglyphs.]
+
+Symmetry. The correspondence of two parts opposite to each other is
+symmetrical. "A living being, man or animal, is composed of two parts,
+which appear to have been united down one central line. Without being
+identical, if you folded them down the line, they would overlap and
+perfectly cover each other. Man is born with the sense of symmetry, to
+match his outward form; and he appreciates its existence, and
+instinctively feels the want of it. Symmetry is another word for
+justness of proportion. The Greeks understood by symmetry, the
+condition of a body of which the members have a common measure among
+themselves. We expect the two sides of a living being to correspond,
+and we look for these proportions in the living body to balance each
+other, which we do not expect to find in any other natural object. A
+large leaf at the end of a slender stem may be as appropriate, and
+give as much pleasure, as a small leaf in the same position; but a
+huge hand at the end of an arm is not so agreeable to our sense of
+symmetry as one of the size and outline which we naturally expect to
+see.
+
+"The mind of man expects to find, outside of himself and his own
+proportions, something which he feels is proportionate and
+symmetrical; in fact, he at once detects the want of it. The Japanese,
+with delicacy and taste, often substitute for symmetry its
+corollary--balance. The Chinese or Japanese vase will often have an
+appreciable affinity and resemblance to a Greek one, each preserving a
+secret balance, even in the extremest whimsicality of its composition.
+Proportion is another corollary to symmetry, if it is not another word
+for some of its qualities."
+
+"Progression. In this principle are included long perspectives,
+pyramidal forms in architecture, and certain processional
+compositions."
+
+"For pyramidal surfaces, such as pediments, a progressive ornament is
+the fittest. All the buildings in the East, and in the ancient cities
+of Central America, which are raised on pyramids of steps, show the
+tendency to this species of effect in giving dignity to the buildings
+placed on such platforms."
+
+"Perspectives are highly attractive specimens of progression, which,
+when made use of in the decorations of a theatre, produce delightful
+illusions."
+
+M. Blanc quotes Bernardin de St. Pierre, who says: "When the
+branches of a plant are disposed in a uniform plan of diminishing
+size, as in the pyramidal shape of a pine, there is progression; and
+if these trees be planted in long avenues, diminishing in height and
+colour, as each tree does in itself, our pleasure is redoubled,
+because progression here becomes infinite. It is owing to this
+feeling of infinity that we take pleasure in looking at anything that
+presents progression, such as nurseries in different stages of
+growth, the slopes of hills retreating to the horizon at different
+levels--interminable perspectives."
+
+All floral compositions which give the effect or impression of growth
+may be included in the progressive principle. A composition which,
+beginning as it were with a stem, spreads and floreates equally on
+each side; thrusting outwards and upwards, and ending in a topmost
+twig or bud, is governed by this principle.
+
+Confusion. Boileau is quoted by M. Blanc as saying, "A fine disorder
+is often the effect of art;" and he adds, "But before he said it,
+nature had shown it." Here we must observe that the confusions or
+disorders of nature are all subject to certain laws; and it is in
+adopting this idea, that an artistic confusion may give us the sense
+of its being ordered by, and subject to definite rules. These rules
+act as the frame affects the picture, circumscribing its
+irregularities, and restricting them to a certain area. "The
+artist-painter is, in a small space, permitted to employ confusion,
+because the art of the cabinet-maker will keep the geometrical effect
+in view." When the Japanese throw their ornaments, apparently without
+rule, here and there on the japanned box, they reckon on the square
+shape being sufficiently marked to the eye by its shining surface and
+sharp corners.
+
+The confusion in a Japanese landscape is so beautiful that one
+appreciates the innate sense of balance, which modifies the
+confusion--rules and orders it.
+
+"In the hands of the designer, confusion is only a method of rendering
+order visible in a happy disorder. Here contraries meet and touch....
+Admit these as the principles of all decoration, and you will find
+that, by following and combining them, you may produce varieties as
+numberless as the sands of the sea, and that a latent equilibrium will
+reduce nearly every complication and confusion to perfect harmony."
+
+Each of the five principles we have discussed has its corollary, which
+adds to the resources of the decorative artist. These are as
+follows:--To Repetition belongs harmony, or consonance; to
+Alternation, contrast; to Symmetry, radiation; to Progression,
+gradation; to balanced Confusion, deliberate complication.[83]
+
+_Harmonies_ in form and in colour are produced in different
+ways--sometimes by repetition with variation; sometimes by the
+different parts being rather reflected on each than repeated. This
+explains the harmony that may be called consonance, if I rightly
+understand M. Blanc's theory.
+
+_Contrast_ is most generally understood as a common resource in the
+hands of the artist for producing strong effects; but M. Blanc
+cleverly expresses the reticence needed to ensure contrast being
+pleasurable, not painful. "To adorn persons or things," he says, "is
+not simply for the purpose of causing them to be conspicuous; it is
+that they may be admired. It is not simply to draw attention to them,
+but that they may be regarded with feelings of pleasure.... If
+contrast be needed, let it be used as the means of rendering the whole
+more powerful, brilliant, and striking. For instance, if orange is
+intended to predominate in a decoration, let blue be mingled with it,
+but sparingly. Let the complementary colour be its auxiliary, and not
+its rival." Contrasts are always unpleasant, if the two forces
+struggle with each other for pre-eminence, whether it be in form or in
+colour. The rule to be observed in all ornamental design is this:
+"that contrasting objects, instead of disturbing unity, should assist
+it by giving most effect to that we wish to bring forward and
+display."
+
+_Radiation_ belongs to the principle of symmetry, starting from a
+centre from which all lines diverge, and to which all lines point.
+This is to be found throughout nature, from the rays of the sun to the
+petals of the daisy. All decorative art employs and illustrates it.
+
+"_Gradation_ in colour, as in form, is not quite synonymous with
+progression, but expresses a series of adroitly managed transitions.
+The English intermingle in their decoration, colours very finely
+blended; nor do they find any transition too delicate. This, as in all
+principles of ornament, has to be employed according to the feelings
+intended to be produced on the mind of the spectator--whether for
+absolute contrast or for imperceptible progression, when the tenderest
+colours are needed."
+
+_Complication_ is illustrated by M. Blanc, by a quotation from
+"Ziegler."[84] "Complication is another aspect of the art which owns
+the same sentiment as that expressed by Dædalus in his labyrinth,
+Solomon in his mysterious seal, the Greeks in their interlacing and
+winding ornaments, the Byzantines, the Moors, and the architects of
+our cathedrals in their finest works. Intertwined mosaics, and
+intersection of arches and ribs, all spring from complication."
+
+To follow the interlacing line of an ornament, gives the mind the
+pleasure of untying the Gordian knot, without cutting it. It gives the
+excitement of curiosity, pursuit, and discovery. "When we see these
+traceries so skilfully plaited, in which straight lines and curves
+intermingle, cross, branch out, disappear and recur, we experience a
+high pleasure in unravelling a puzzle which at first, perhaps,
+appeared to be undecipherable; and in acknowledging that a latent
+arrangement may be recognized in what at first, and at a distance,
+seems an inextricable confusion." The Celtic, Moorish, and Gothic
+styles illustrate and are explained by these remarks; and they are
+well worthy the attention of the designer.
+
+Having so freely borrowed from M. Blanc's chapter on the general laws
+of ornamentation, I will finish my quotations with the words with
+which he concludes: "There is no decoration in the works of nature or
+the inventions of men which does not owe its birth to one of the
+original principles here enumerated, viz. Repetition, Alternation,
+Symmetry, Progression, and Balanced Confusion; or else to one of their
+secondary causes, consonance, contrast, radiation, gradation, and
+complication; or lastly, to a combination of these different elements,
+which all finally lose themselves in a primordial cause--the origin of
+the movements of the universe--ORDER."[85]
+
+The extracts from M. Blanc's works I have carefully placed between
+commas, being most anxious to express my obligation to him for his
+carefully formulated epitome of the laws of design. But though I have
+largely quoted, there remains still much most interesting and
+suggestive matter, which I recommend the reader to seek in his book.
+
+Though we should call to our aid the general laws of design for all
+art, we must select from them what is specially appropriate for the
+needs of our craft. From the art of needlework we should eliminate
+as much as possible all ideas of _roundness_, all variety of surface
+and effects of light and shadow and contrasting colours. Unity,
+softness, grace, refinement, brightness, cheerfulness, pleasant
+suggestions,--these should be the objects in view when we design the
+panels for the drawing-room or boudoir, the hangings for the bed, or
+the cover for the table--harmony which will satisfy the eye, thoughts
+that shall please the mind.
+
+The objects in nature that give us the most unalloyed pleasure--birds
+and flowers--are those that from all time have served as the materials
+for decorative design, and therefore have been moulded into the
+traditional patterns which have descended to us from the earliest
+times. Design must follow the scientific laws of art, and shape the
+variations of traditional forms from which we cannot escape. In our
+present search after these inner truths, I repeat that we have nothing
+to do with the rules of painting, sculpture, and architecture, or any
+other of the secondary arts, such as wood carving, metal work, &c.;
+these having each their own intrinsic principles, which must be worked
+out as corollaries from the general laws of composition which govern
+all Aryan art.[86]
+
+It is curious that in drawing on the flat, in ancient frescoes, there
+appear to be no acknowledged rules of perspective--hardly more in
+Pompeii, than on early Chinese screens and plates; or than later in
+the Bayeux tapestries. And yet the Greeks, with their unerring
+instinct, actually made use of false architectural perspectives to add
+to the effects of height and depth in their colonnaded buildings.[87]
+They sensibly diminished the circumference of the columns, and used
+other means in their designs for this purpose. They understood the
+principle, but they did not carry it into flat decorative art. They
+did not attempt, when they painted a landscape on the wall, to do more
+than recall the idea they were sketching; and never thought of vying
+in scientific or naturalistic imitation with the real landscape they
+saw through the window; they did not wish to interfere with the effect
+of the statue, or the human figures grouped in front of it, to which
+the wall served as a background. Those threw shadows and cast lights;
+but in the flat there were no shadows, no perspective--all was
+flat.[88] We must draw from this the deduction that the Greeks held
+that flatness was an essential quality of wall decoration (except in
+friezes) as well as of all textile ornament; and for every reason we
+must accept this flatness as a general law for designs in embroidery.
+
+In hangings and dress materials, flatness is more agreeable than a
+complicated shaded design, especially when it is further confused by
+folds, disturbing and interrupting the flow of the lines of the
+pattern.
+
+The reader will perceive that the laws of composition for textiles
+quoted from M. Blanc, apply perfectly to designs on the flat, and to
+outlined sketches in black and white, as well as to the most
+elaborate compositions for pictures, either historical or "genre."
+They are rules which should be understood and employed by the man who
+draws for a wall-paper or an area railing; and certainly by him who
+makes patterns for our schools of design.
+
+It may therefore be laid down as a general rule, that all designs for
+embroidery should be considered first as outlined drawings, covering a
+flat surface, and then filled in with colour. The outlines should as
+little as possible overlap one another, as flatness is one of the
+first objects to be remembered; and this, of course, will be disturbed
+by the parts passing over or under each other. Indian designs in
+flowers have invariably a wonderful flatness, in the absence of all
+light and shadow; joined to a naturalistic suggestion of detail, which
+is accounted for by their traditional mode of copying from nature. The
+branch or blossom to be copied, is laid on the ground and pegged down
+with care, to eliminate every variety of surface, and every branch and
+twig so arranged that they may not cross or touch each other. This
+conventional composition is then drawn, and every natural distinction
+in the form carefully copied. I would suggest that this idea should be
+accepted as useful for imitation among ourselves in certain
+conventional compositions of vegetable forms. Perhaps it is our Aryan
+ancestry that has given us a prevailing taste for such decorations;
+and it is worth while to consider how best to manipulate them.[89]
+
+Clinging as we do to these floral designs, we can see that they are
+the only ones that bear repetition, whether covering the surface of
+the material in the rich irregularity of the flowers in a field, or
+conventionalized into a form or a pattern.
+
+The eye is never shocked or fatigued by such repetitions in orderly
+confusion, or trained by the hand into artistic shapes or meanderings
+of tracery. But when embroidery or weaving attempts to represent
+animals or typical human figures, repetition immediately becomes
+tiresome. A Madonna surrounded by angels, comes in badly, repeated
+over and over again as a pattern, broken up by folds, cut up by a
+seam, dislocated in the joining, and repeated in tiers. Such a design
+is figured in Auberville's book.[90] The drawing is beautiful, but by
+repetition it becomes ridiculous. I therefore deprecate this kind of
+ornament in textile work. For this reason embroidery, which can be
+fitted to each space that is to be covered, is preferable to woven
+designs, however richly or perfectly they may be carried out.
+
+Another class of design, which must be considered apart, is the
+conventional-geometrical, of which the special distinction appears to
+be that it consists of echoes or fragments of what we have seen
+elsewhere. These conventional patterns are often merely the _detritus_
+of past styles or motives crushed and placed by time in a sort of
+kaleidoscope. They remind one of the little wreaths of broken shells
+and coloured sea-weeds left on the sands by the retiring waves after a
+storm, and are sometimes full of beauty and suggestion. (Pl. 17.) We
+trace in these fragmentary patterns forgotten links with different
+civilizations; and we ponder on the historical events which have
+brought them into juxtaposition. These kaleidoscope patterns are to be
+seen in Persian and Turkish carpets of the present day, and we find,
+on examination, little bits which can only be the remnants of a
+broken-up motive, probably as much lost now to the designer who
+inherits the traditional form, as to us who can only see the vague
+results.
+
+I illustrate this remark by giving the border of a modern Persian
+carpet which has certainly had Egyptian ancestry. The boat, the
+beetle, and the prehistoric cross are to be found in it.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 8.
+    Persian Carpet.]
+
+Many conventional patterns of to-day are descendants of the
+lattice-work of Chinese art, and of the zigzags, lines, and discs of
+barbarous primitive ornamentation.
+
+The traceries in Indian stone windows show some of the most charming
+geometrical forms, and are akin to the Persian and Russian modes of
+composing conventional patterns. They appear on very ancient metal
+work, and are the motives of all the embroideries in the Greek islands
+and the principalities, and of the linen embroideries of Russia. Their
+Byzantine origin gave its impress to the European schools of the
+Middle Ages, and the pattern-books of Germany and Venice of the
+sixteenth century are full of them. They are best suited for the
+mosaic stitches, and, kept in their places as decoration, they are
+useful for carpets and borders.
+
+It should be impressed on our young artists, that, in composing their
+designs, they must be influenced by the materials to be employed, and
+the purpose for which the decoration is intended. Thus in textile
+design for dress and hangings (excepting for tapestries) the fact must
+never be lost sight of that they will be subject to disturbance by
+crossing folds and crumplings, which will break up the lines of the
+pattern. It is therefore evident that a design fitted for a rigid
+material in a fixed place, such as an architectural decoration in
+wood, stone, or stucco, must be subject to a treatment different from
+that which befits an embroidered curtain or panel.
+
+Stone and wood, being materials of uniform colour, require all the
+help of recessed shadows and projections to catch the light; whereas
+in textiles, form is assisted by colour, and smoothness of surface is
+a primary consideration. The strongly accentuated design for
+wood-carving becomes poor and lifeless when deprived of its essential
+conditions and _raison d'être_, and the pattern which looks charming,
+outlined and filled in with colour, could be hardly seen incised on a
+flat stone surface. This seems a truism, but the neglect of these
+plain axioms causes many mistakes in decorative art. Mr. Redgrave
+says: "A design must be bad which applies the same treatment to
+different materials." He further says: "The position of the ornament
+requires special consideration. The varied quantities, bolder relief,
+and coarser execution are not only allowable, but absolutely
+necessary, at heights considerably above the eye. Moreover, each
+fabric has its own peculiar lustre, texture, &c. Thus, in the use of
+hangings, curtains, &c., the design might be suitable in silk, and
+coarse or dull in woollen."[91]
+
+Here I venture to differ from Mr. Redgrave. Perspective is as much to
+be respected in decoration as in pictures, near to the eye; and the
+gradation in size and colour, as the ornament travels up into height
+or fades into distance, is a phase of pleasure which should not be
+checked by enlargement of form or reinforcement of colouring.
+
+It is hardly necessary to warn our artists against a sort of design
+which is conventional, yet had its own meaning in the beginning. This
+is to be found in Indian carvings and embroideries of a certain date,
+or imitating the works of that distant period. It proceeded from a
+hideous worship of monstrous Dravidian divinities. Their statues are
+to be found, surrounded by coarsely designed patterns, in the temple
+architecture of the first and second centuries. Its characteristics
+are idols in niches or shrines, distorted in form or attitude; foliage
+of unnatural, twisted plants, added to the recurring of the lotus and
+tree of life; or animals destroying each other, or kneeling in worship
+to the idols. These ugly designs are purely conventional. Fergusson
+suggests that they were introduced into Mexico in the fourth or fifth
+centuries A.D. by Buddhism.[92]
+
+Those many-armed, sometimes many-faced divinities drove out the
+beautiful Aryan types, which, however, resumed their sway when the
+wave of the Renaissance flowed back to India, and was remodelled by
+Oriental taste to the lovely designs we find in the Taj Mahal.
+
+In M. Blanc's classification of ornament, he has placed Gothic design
+under the head of deliberate complication. The whole of the Gothic
+decorations, which are a gradual growth in one direction, arose from
+the study of interlacing boughs and stems, employed as the enrichment
+of the newly-grown forms of the vaulted roofs. The possibilities of
+great size and height covered these designs and inspired all their
+decoration; and the effect of reiteration and long recurring lines in
+perspective was essentially the motive of these avenues in stone.[93]
+
+Here enter the principles of repetition and progression, and you will
+find how carefully the designers of the twelfth, thirteenth, and
+fourteenth centuries worked up to these ideas. You will see in their
+embroideries, shining figures or pictures in gold, silver, and
+coloured silks, shimmering on dark velvet backgrounds, each design
+terminating a perspective of architectural forms which enhances their
+brilliancy. The most effective, probably, were generally employed for
+the adornment of the high altar, so as to be seen from a great
+distance. The smaller and less distinct and more delicate ornaments
+were reserved for the side chapels or for smaller churches, where such
+distant effects were inappropriate. But the motives of ecclesiastical
+embroidery will be discussed in a future chapter.
+
+All attempts at pictorial art are a mistake in textiles. It does not
+enter into such designs; and when by chance it is allowed to be so
+used, it is an error of judgment, and only exhibits a laborious and
+useless ingenuity. It is no longer an artistic delineation of a
+natural object, but becomes an imitation of another way of rendering
+such objects.
+
+Mr. Redgrave says that pictorial art in our manufactures is one of our
+great mistakes. "The picture must be independent of the material, the
+thought alone should govern it; whereas in decoration the material
+must be one of the suggestors of the thought, its use must govern the
+design."
+
+Perhaps it will appear to my readers that here I repeat, in different
+forms, what has been said in a previous chapter on the history of
+style. I think that it is better to do so, than to omit to show where
+style and design must accompany each other. Style, without any
+reference to design, would be but a barren subject; and design,
+without reference to style, would become lawless, and soon be lost in
+the mazes of bad taste and mannerism. Both subjects are of so large
+and important a nature that I do not attempt to do more than point out
+how, in their history and their influence, they belong to the craft of
+embroidery.
+
+Such influences belong to all art; and though I am anxious to confine
+myself to only one section of it, I find it difficult to resist the
+temptation to generalize and stray from the prescribed path, when
+large and important views are opened on every side, as I travel on
+from point to point.
+
+In sketching the history of design, as well as I may in so short a
+space, it is only considered in the light in which it illustrates our
+craft.
+
+I repeat that the design should be informed by the motive which
+suggested it, and by the need which has called it forth; and it must
+be moulded to the space it has to fill, and the position it will
+occupy. The design must be modified into different outward forms,
+according to whether it is to be fitted to the edge of a building
+against the sky; to a high panelled wall; to be applied as a frieze,
+or round the capital of a pillar; to the embroidered cover of an
+altar, or the silken hangings of a bed, or the framed flat spaces on
+the walls of a saloon. In fact, "intention," "place," and "shape" are
+necessary motives and limits to a flat design.
+
+Leaving aside all architectural ornamentation, and adhering only to my
+own subject, embroidery, I will limit my observations to the three
+purposes here suggested. Firstly, as the central effect of the holiest
+part of a church; secondly, in the domestic and comfortable room, to
+be adorned and made cheerful; and thirdly, as decking the refined and
+gay saloon or banqueting-hall.
+
+To the church we should devote the most splendid and effective
+contrasts, to blaze unframed against dark empty backgrounds, or amidst
+stone and marble decorations; something set apart from its
+surroundings, and asserting that separation, is the desirable effect
+to be attained.
+
+A totally different set of rules come into play when we have to select
+the decorations of a bedroom. Here a background does not exist. We are
+surrounded by four walls very near to the eye, so that perspectives
+are a secondary interest, if indeed they can claim any consideration;
+severe and magnificent ornamentation is out of place, except perhaps
+in that time-honoured institution--to be found in every great house
+possessing a suite of reception-rooms--the State bedroom, where the
+display of hangings and embroideries was the first motive of the
+decoration of the past, clothing and garnishing the bare spaces on the
+lofty walls. Space and separateness are not the object or aim of the
+bedroom of to-day; but lightness, snugness, and cheerful comfort, with
+which the design of the textile ornaments have much to do. This will
+in a later chapter come under the head of furniture.
+
+For the saloon we may accept any splendour of rich and costly design,
+and the variously shaped panels assist in suggesting the form of the
+decoration. The plain or moulded panels, called in Italian "targhe,"
+or shields, seem to be descended from the actual shields of gold which
+Solomon hung on the walls of the king's house in the Forest of
+Lebanon.[94] The motive was apparently Tyrian, and traces of it are
+also to be found in Assyrian sculpture.[95]
+
+The practice of framing the design gives opportunities for change of
+materials, colour, and pattern, permitting the employment of different
+flat surfaces laid on each other, and scope for endless enrichment;
+the framed picture being, perhaps, the central culminating attraction,
+crowning, as it were, the textile ornamentation.
+
+I merely give these instances as illustrating the rule that we have
+more than once laid down, that a design cannot fitly be employed
+except in the position for which the artist has composed it. I will,
+however, add that though it is right to give due consideration to the
+preparation of each work for its intended use, yet we often have
+charming suggestions offered to us, by the chance acquisition of a
+beautiful artistic specimen, which finds its own place and
+accommodates itself to the surrounding colours and forms. These are
+the happy accidents of which the cultivated artistic eye takes
+advantage, adding them to the experience which may help those who are
+seeking for the rules of harmony and contrast in design.
+
+Research into the mysteries and principles of design applies to woven
+arabesques and patterns, and must include machine-made textile
+ornament, and all decorative needlework. It is, in fact, the fabric
+for the million which most especially needs the careful study of
+guiding rules. When a plant sends forth hundreds of winged, wind-blown
+seeds, like the thistle, it spreads itself over wide fields, and is
+more mischievous than a more noxious growth, such as the deadly
+nightshade, which only drops an occasional berry into the earth. So a
+common cheap chintz or carpet, with a poor, gaudy, motiveless design,
+carries a bad style into thousands of homes wherever our commerce
+extends; disgracing us, while it corrupts the taste of other nations.
+
+In addressing our young designers, I would remind them that in art the
+race is not always to the strong. Prudence and educated powers,
+thoughtfulness and study, often carry us where unassisted and
+uncultivated genius has signally failed. Even such facilities as are
+afforded by the acquirement of freehand drawing, as taught in our
+schools of art, are not to be despised. The workman should thoroughly
+master his tools, or they will hamper him. The first step towards
+design is that you should learn to draw. After this, appreciation and
+observation are necessary, and due balance in outline and colour
+should be studied; and all this is as much needed in drawing a
+pattern as in composing a picture. The difference lies in our art
+being only decorative, wherein beauty and fitness are to be
+remembered, and nothing else; whereas the picture may have to record
+historical facts, or to inspire poetical thoughts--to awe or to touch
+the beholder. A decorative design is only asked to delight him.
+Intelligent delight, however, can only be evoked by intelligent art,
+and to this, decoration must be subjected.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [73] The earliest art we know (the bone-scratching) is
+    naturalistic and imitative. We are unaware of any
+    attempt at a pattern of the prehistoric period. The lake
+    cities are of so vague a date that their ornaments on
+    pottery are puzzling rather than instructive. The
+    earliest Hellenic pottery was scratched or painted.
+    Cuttle-fish, repeated over and over again, are among the
+    earliest attempts at a pattern, by repetition of a
+    natural object. Naturalism soon fell into symbolism,
+    which appropriated it and all art, and the upheaval of a
+    new culture was needed to lift it once more into the
+    region of individual creation. See Boyd Dawkins' "Early
+    Man in Britain;" also General Pitt Rivers's Museum of
+    Prehistoric Art, lately presented to the University of
+    Oxford.
+
+    [74] See Boyd Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain."
+
+    [75] "I hope, indeed, to enable them" (the members of
+    his class) "to read, above all, the minds of
+    semi-barbarous nations in the only language by which
+    their feelings were capable of expression; and those
+    whose temper inclines them to take a pleasure in mythic
+    symbols, will not probably be induced to quit the
+    profound fields of investigation which early art will
+    open to them, and which belong to it alone. For this is
+    a general law, that supposing the intellect of the
+    workman the same, the more imitatively complete his art,
+    the less he will mean by it, and the ruder the symbol,
+    the deeper the intention."--Ruskin's "Oxford Lectures on
+    Art," 1870, p. 19.
+
+    [76] See Isaac Taylor's "History of the Alphabet."
+
+    [77] Renouf's Hibbert Lectures, 1879, p. 67.
+
+    [78] Now there is a point of view in which we may regard
+    the imitative art of all races, the most civilized as
+    well as the most barbarous--in reference to the power of
+    correctly representing animal and vegetable forms, such
+    as they exist in nature. The perfection of such
+    imitation depends not so much on the manual dexterity of
+    the artist as on his intelligence and comprehension of
+    the type of the essential qualities of the form he
+    desires to represent. See Ch. T. Newton's "Essays on Art
+    and Archæology," p. 17.
+
+    [79] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians."
+
+    [80] Plato's Second Book of Laws, p. 656.
+
+    [81] "The religion of the Greeks penetrated into their
+    institutions and daily life. The myth was not only
+    embodied in the sculptures of Pheidias on the Parthenon,
+    and portrayed in the paintings of Polygnotus in the Stoa
+    Poikile; it was repeated in a more compendious and
+    abbreviated form on the fictile vase of the Athenian
+    household, on the coin circulated in the market-place,
+    on the mirror in which the Aspasia of the day beheld her
+    charms. Every domestic implement was made the vehicle of
+    figurative language, or fashioned into a
+    symbol."--Newton's "Essays on Art and Archæology," p.
+    23.
+
+    [82] "Art in Ornament and Dress," by M. Charles Blanc,
+    formerly Director of the French Institute. Eng. Trans.,
+    Chapman and Hall, London.
+
+    [83] See Charles Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress," p.
+    31.
+
+    [84] Charles Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress," p. 43.
+
+    [85] Charles Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress," pp.
+    43, 45, 46.
+
+    [86] Chinese design shows naturalistic art arrested and
+    perpetuated on totally different principles. Their
+    representations are all equally allied to their art of
+    picture-painting, whether on china with the brush, or on
+    textiles with the needle. The flatness of the picture is
+    still preserved by their ignorance of perspective. When
+    they attempted to express different distances, they did
+    so by placing them one above another, so that in reading
+    the composition the eye first takes in the distant
+    horizon; next below it, the middle distance; and being
+    thus prepared, it comes down to the actual living
+    foreground, on which rests the dramatic action and
+    interest addressed to the spectator. The Chinese
+    understood many of the secrets of art, yet never
+    achieved perspective.
+
+    [87] See Mr. Penrose's work on the measurements of the
+    Parthenon at Athens. Published by the Society of the
+    Dilettanti.
+
+    [88] Marked outlines in embroidery add to the flatness,
+    and enable us to omit cast shadows. In this it differs
+    entirely from pictorial art, where one of the great
+    objects is to avoid flatness.
+
+    [89] Semper's theory, already mentioned, is that textile
+    design was certainly flat; that it was the first form of
+    decoration, and was followed by bas-relief, which could
+    not at once rid itself of the original motive.
+
+    [90] Auberville's "Ornamentation des Tissus" (eleventh
+    century).
+
+    [91] Redgrave's "Manual of Design," pp. 43-45.
+
+    [92] This idolatrous type was introduced into England by
+    the Buccaneers, and reflected on our carvings and
+    embroideries of the time of James I., slightly modified
+    by the Italian Renaissance of that period. As this sort
+    of vulgar ornamentation has once prevailed, let us
+    protect ourselves against its possible recurrence.
+
+    [93] While making this passing allusion to the theory
+    that the origin of all Gothic decoration is mainly
+    founded on the motive of interlacing stems and foliage,
+    I wish to guard myself against being supposed in any way
+    to argue against other beginnings, whenever they can be
+    proved. I have said before that most decorations have a
+    mixed ancestry. But when I see single or clustered
+    columns starting from the ground--spreading at the base
+    like the gnarled root, and growing till they culminate
+    in crowns of foliage, forming symmetrical capitals, like
+    the first clusters of leaves on a strong young
+    sapling--then the branches spreading and interlacing,
+    only checked at equal intervals by a lovely leaf or
+    burgeon, till they meet in blossoms on the highest point
+    of the arch,--I cannot but adhere to the old idea that
+    rows of trees meeting overhead suggested Gothic ornament
+    as well as Gothic Architecture. The Spanish or Moresque
+    Gothic was overloaded with leaves and flowers, and the
+    German Gothic was enriched with fantastic trees and
+    flowers, each according to its national taste and
+    fashion. A Gothic tree is a very conventional plant; and
+    generally carries only one leaf on each branch. I have
+    given a specimen of archaic trees from the Bayeux
+    tapestry. They are typical of the Gothic botanical idea
+    and style down to the fourteenth century. (Fig. 13.)
+
+    Nor is this interpretation of Gothic design other than a
+    result of its descent from the Egyptian ancestral
+    motive, where the temple columns represented the single
+    stem of the lotus with one large blossom for its
+    capital, or else a bundle of stems of the lotus, palm,
+    and convolvulus flowering together into a beautiful
+    cluster. Even the gigantic columns of the great
+    hypæthral hall at Karnac are only a stupendous
+    exaggeration of the same stalk and flower motive. From
+    these were derived the forms of the early Greek
+    column--soon enriched by substituting the Acanthus for
+    the Lotus, but often retaining the convolvulus.
+
+    [94] 1 Kings x.; Ezek. xxvii. 10, 11. See Stanley's
+    "Lectures on the Jewish Church."
+
+    [95] Layard's "Nineveh and its Remains," vol. ii. p.
+    388; Rawlinson's "Ancient Monarchies," vol. ii. p. 2.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+PATTERNS.
+
+
+In the last chapter on design I have described patterns as the
+examples or illustrations of the art of decoration, and as being the
+records of the motives which produced them in different eras. My
+present object is to class and define patterns as decorative art.
+
+It is argued by some archæologists that the recurrence of a pattern,
+for instance the "wave," over the whole world, proves that it really
+came from many sources, under the same conditions of life and art;
+showing also that a pattern is a thing that, like a flower, must grow,
+if the culture of the race be equal. I do not believe this. We can
+nearly always trace the family history of a pattern to its original
+motive; and in the very few cases where we are unable to do so, it is
+hardly necessary to cover our ignorance by stretching the fashionable
+theory of development over the few instances that are as yet
+unaccountable.
+
+I have been repeatedly asked to procure or to invent a new pattern.
+Such is my respect for the decorative achievement called a "pattern,"
+that I cannot hope for the moment of inspiration in which I might
+create such a thing. If any one has in his lifetime invented a
+pattern, he has done something truly remarkable, and as rare as is a
+really original thought on any subject. Patterns are commonly, like
+men, the result of many centuries of long descent from ancestors of
+remote antiquity.
+
+Individuals differ from their ancestors through inherited and
+surrounding conditions, and through the modifying powers of evolution,
+climate, and education. So also a pattern has, besides its ancestry
+and descent, the unconscious mark or seal of its day; and it is easy
+to trace whence it comes, if we set ourselves to examine the style of
+it seriously.
+
+The patterns of which we can nearly always name at once the
+nationality, are the Assyrian, the Chinese, the Egyptian, the Hindu
+(Aryan and Turanian), the Persian, the Archaic and the highly
+developed Grecian; the Roman, the Celtic, the Byzantine, the Arabian,
+the Gothic, the Renaissance, the Spanish Plâteresque, the Louis
+Quatorze, and those of the art of Central America.
+
+The pattern cannot exist without design. Design means intention and
+motive. Many of the motives in Oriental textile decorations are
+suggestive of intention, as is shown by their names. Among Indian
+patterns we meet with "ripples of silver," "sunshine and shade,"
+"pigeon's eye," "peacock's neck," &c.[96]
+
+Patterns must be classed either by their dates, when ascertained, or
+according to their style, which must generally be allowed to cover
+vast areas and periods irregularly drifting down, overlapping, or
+being absorbed or effaced by the circumstances they have encountered.
+
+Only when a national style has been obstinately fixed, as in China,
+and bound down by strict laws and religious formulas, suited exactly
+to the people for whom they were evolved out of the national life, and
+imprinted on it by their own lawgivers, philosophers, and priests; and
+neither imposed by conquerors, nor swept over by the waves of a new
+civilization;--only in such cases can we find a continuity of
+decorative art which leads us far back on its traces. Then, on this
+long track, we learn how little, man, the decorating animal, has
+really advanced in his powers of creation. He has gone more than once
+to a certain point, and has then either been petrified by law and
+custom--turned into a pillar of salt, like Lot's wife, because he has
+looked back instead of striving to advance, or else through poverty or
+satiety has fallen into the last stage of the Seven Ages, "_sans_
+eyes, _sans_ teeth--_sans_ everything." When what is good is neither
+perceived nor desired, then the arts, small and great, dwindle and
+disappear, and nothing remains to show that they have been, but a
+name, and perhaps a pattern.
+
+Chinese design is the most striking example of the first of these
+phases; and the extinction of all classical art with the fall of
+Paganism in Rome is an instance of the second.
+
+In the chapter on style it is said that a pattern is as ineffaceable
+as a word. But one will occasionally disappear for a time, till the
+ruin that covers it is cleared away, and the lost design recovered and
+employed simply as a decoration, if it is beautiful; or perhaps fitted
+with a new meaning, and so it makes a fresh start.
+
+The importance of patterns, when traceable to their origin, as a means
+of investigating historical influences cannot be too much insisted on,
+and their history is full of suggestion as a guide to the decorator.
+Much has been argued and much ascertained from the evidence of these
+fragments of national civilizations, showing how an idea or a myth has
+been, as it were, engrafted into the essence of another national idea,
+partly altering what it finds, and changing to fit itself to its new
+surroundings. Eastern patterns have travelled far, and lasted long;
+and continue still to hold the fancy, and exercise the ingenuity, of
+the artist and decorator. When we find a pattern of which the
+nationality is strongly marked, it is worth our while to ascertain its
+date and history, which will help us to recognize cognate design
+wherever we may meet it. However, this is often not to be done; and
+then it is best to set these puzzling examples aside, and to await
+patiently the elucidation, which may come from some source of which we
+are as yet ignorant.
+
+In very early art we have little remaining but patterns, on which we
+may found theories by tracing them home to their original source. The
+oldest patterns had each a meaning and an intention. When a pattern
+has been enduring and far spread, it is because it was originally the
+expression of an idea or a symbol.
+
+In the earliest dawn of civilization, the arts were the repositories
+of the myths and mysteries of national faiths. Embroidery was one of
+these arts, and the border which edged the garment of a divinity, the
+veil which covered the grave of a loved one, or the flower-buds and
+fruit which fringed the hangings and curtains in the sanctuary, each
+had a meaning, and therefore a use. These symbolical designs and forms
+were constantly reproduced; and all human ingenuity was exercised in
+reforming, remodelling, and adding perfect grace to the expression of
+the same idea.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Patterns may be ranged under four heads--the Primitive, the
+Naturalistic, the Conventional, and the Geometrical.
+
+The primitive are those of which we know not the ancestry, and rarely
+can guess the motive. To us they are, in general, simply rude
+decorations. The naturalistic are those which are borrowed from
+natural forms, and are either only imitative, or else convey some
+hidden meaning. The conventional are those which, by long descent,
+have come to be accepted simply as ornamental art, with or without
+reference to an original motive, now lost. The geometrical or
+symmetrical are founded on form only, and in so far resemble our
+experience of the primitive; they express no meaning, and only serve
+to satisfy the eye by their balance and their ingenuity.
+
+
+PRIMITIVE.
+
+The first patterned forms with which we are acquainted are the
+primitive. They are found in all parts of the inhabited world. In our
+present ignorance as to the beginnings of the scattered tribes of men,
+we cannot judge if these are the remains of an earlier art or the
+first germs of a new one. Of one thing there is no doubt: this
+primitive decoration consists entirely of pattern; that is to say, of
+the repetition of certain (to us) inexpressive forms, which by
+reiteration assume importance and in some degree express beauty--the
+beauty of what Monsieur Blanc calls "cadence."
+
+After these first unintelligible forms, which simply by repetition
+become accepted patterns, come those called the Prehistoric, of which
+we know or guess something as to their original meaning, and which,
+having been reduced from the hieroglyphic-symbolical to the
+conventional, have thus crystallized themselves, by constant use, into
+a pattern. Such, for instance, is the simplest form of the "wave"
+pattern, which in very early art was a representation of water.
+
+The prehistoric water or wave patterns had other forms; for instance,
+zigzags, upright or horizontal, and undulating lines which are
+intelligible as expressing smooth or rough water. In general, however,
+the primitive and prehistoric patterns convey no idea, and consist, as
+we have said elsewhere, of lines, straight or wavy, sometimes
+intersected; of angles, zigzags, groups of dots, rings and little
+discs, and crosses of the Swastika shape. (Plate 10.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 10.
+    WAVE PATTERNS.
+    1, 4, 9, 12, 13. Greek Wave Patterns. 2. Key or Mæander, Greek
+        Wave. 3. Greek Broken Wave. 5, 6, 7. Egyptian Smooth and
+        Rippling Water Patterns. 8. Mediæval Wave. 10, 11, 14.
+        Assyrian. 15. Persian or Greek (from Glass Bowl, British
+        Museum). 16. English Waves (Durham Embroideries.)]
+
+Where shall the tartan be placed? It is certainly primitive, and
+apparently had no intention beyond that of employing as many coloured
+threads as there were dyes, so as to form the brightest contrasts, or
+else to be as invisible as possible either in the sunshine or in the
+shade. The Gauls brought this kind of weaving with them from the East,
+and probably invented the pattern, if such a motiveless design can be
+so called. It had its classical name, "Polymita," and was admired in
+Rome when newly imported, as being something original and barbaric.
+The Romans found it in Britain, and Boadicea wore a tartan dress on
+the day of her defeat. Perhaps even then fashions came from France,
+and it may have been her best tunic from across the Channel. This
+fabric may have been imported by the Belgic Gauls, and was so easily
+woven on house looms, that it became in time the feudal dress of the
+Scottish tribes and clans, and the colours were ingeniously arranged
+to show the most different effects. The tartan has always been a
+resource for the woollen trade, and the fashion constantly recurs in
+France, either from sentiment or the actually inherited Gallic taste;
+but it remains a primitive pattern, and nothing can make it artistic.
+No embroidery can soften the constantly recurring angles, and only
+fringes can be employed to decorate a tartan costume. Pliny tells us
+of the ingenuity of Zeuxis, who, to show his wealth, had his name
+embroidered in gold in the squared compartments of his outer
+garment.[97]
+
+Primitive patterns still linger in many savage nations, but especially
+throughout uncivilized Africa. Curious to say, the very ancient
+fossilized early art of Egypt does not assist us to trace it back to
+a prehistoric style, though it may lead us into prehistoric times.
+
+
+NATURALISTIC.
+
+The phases of the naturalistic patterns are constantly recurring. Art
+is always tending to realism, in the laudable effort to reach the
+motive without the shackles of rules. Each phase has fallen a prey to
+symbolism, to conventionalism, or to mannerism, which last symptom
+marks the decline and fall of art. We shall find these phases
+everywhere in the design of patterns.
+
+Naturalism has always striven, by simple repetition, to reduce to
+patterns the forms of flowers, fruits, animals, birds, insects,
+reptiles, and other natural objects.
+
+In flower patterns the simplest forms by repetition make sometimes the
+richest patterns, and the most effective. (Plate 11, Nos. 1 and 2.)
+
+It is remarkable that one very beautiful class of natural objects is
+rarely employed in ancient decoration[98]--shells and corals. The
+barbarous tribes of the West Coast of Africa alone seem to have
+appreciated their forms, and added them to their small repertory of
+naturalistic patterns. They do not appear in any European or Asiatic
+textiles till the seventeenth century, when shells were much used in
+the decorations of the reigns of Queen Anne and Louis Quatorze.
+
+The first change from naturalism into the conventional was through
+symbolism, and belonged to the time when unwritten thought was first
+recorded by pictured signs, which then ceased to be merely decoration.
+We find that the naturalism of the earliest Egyptians and Asiatics was
+soon entirely absorbed by the effort to express some hidden meaning or
+mystery, and then to fit the representation to a special place and
+purpose, and to restore it, as it were, to decorative art.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 11.
+    1. Persian Flower Border.
+    2. Egyptian Border, composed of Head-dress of the god Nile
+        (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians").
+    3. Assyrian.
+    4. Assyrian.]
+
+The lotus and the patterns founded on its forms, and the many
+emblematic meanings attached to them, are notable examples of these
+transmutations in style and intention, and of the value given to their
+intention and use in Egypt and India, where each development was
+immediately crystallized into a recognized pattern, and given its
+place and language. It received its "_mot d'ordre_," and continued to
+act upon it long after the meaning was forgotten or out of date.
+
+The rolling pattern which had so long represented only the "wave," was
+given to the really straight stem of the lotus, and its blossom,
+substituted for the wave's crest, now filled many a frieze in Indian
+temple architecture; whereas the lotus stems in Egypt were still bound
+in sheaves to form columns, and the flowers, buds, and leaves spread
+and blossomed into capitals. Here we have symbolism and
+conventionalized naturalism, all combined, showing how their
+principles, though quite distinct, can mix and unite. The conventional
+form often superseded and effaced the naturalistic, and became the
+sign of an idea, or the hieroglyphic picture of a thing; immovable and
+unalterable in Egypt, where every effort was made to secure eternity
+on earth, but continually returning to naturalism in India, where the
+Aryan tendency, with the assistance of the "Code of Manu," always
+recurred to the restoration of the ancient naturalistic motive.
+
+In the India Museum we may see the "wave" motive converted into a
+lotus pattern by rolling the long stems, and filling up the spaces
+between with the full-faced blossom. Sometimes the pattern is started
+by the figure of an elephant, from whose mouth the stem of the flower
+of the sun proceeds. This occurs so often that it must originally
+have had a meaning. Sometimes the sacred convolvulus takes the place
+of the lotus. (Plate 12.)
+
+On an Egyptian mural painting are seen parties of men snaring ducks
+among papyrus and lotus plants. These are entirely conventional, and
+are, in fact, a sort of recognized hieroglyphic representing the idea
+of a lotus.[99]
+
+The lotus was the accepted emblem of the sun, and reduced to a
+many-leaved radiating pattern may be found as an architectural
+ornament on the outside of the Buddhist "topes," of which the models
+are on the staircase of the British Museum.[100] (Plate 13.)
+
+We have Sir G. Birdwood's authority for believing that, though the
+actual lotus was a native of India, and carried thence to Egypt, its
+decorative use as a pattern was Egyptian, and so returned to India.
+Both accepted it as their "sunflower."[101]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 12.
+    1. Indian Rolling Lotus Pattern.
+    2, 3. Indian Lotus Patterns.
+    4, 5. Egyptian Lotus Patterns.
+    6. Sacred Convolvulus. Indian (seventeenth century).]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 13.
+    1, 2. Indian Designs of Assyrian Daisy and Egyptian Lotus.
+    3. Vitruvian Scroll. Vignola. Architecture.]
+
+Can it be our Aryan descent which induces in us the earnest adoration,
+in our art of to-day, of our northern prototype of the sun's emblem? I
+fear that we must acknowledge that our æsthetic worship of our
+sunflowers is somewhat false and affected. Æstheticism is not art.
+Sunflowers, painted or embroidered as decoration, do not "take" if
+they are ordered and ranged, and reduced to a pattern like those of
+Egypt. They must be naturalistic, and, if possible, remind us of a
+disorderly cottage garden; whereas in India they were adapted
+from nature on fixed principles, which immediately reduced them to
+the conventional.
+
+  [Illustration: Sunflower pattern, R. S. A. N.
+    XIX. Century]
+
+I give an illustration of a Gothic sunflower resembling a transfigured
+rose; and another of an ordered naturalistic sunflower pattern, from a
+design of the Royal School of Art Needlework. (Plate 14.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 9.
+    Gothic Sunflower. From Christ's College Chapel, Cambridge.]
+
+I have given this account of the patterns founded on the lotus, as we
+can almost from this distance of time take a bird's-eye view of its
+rise in naturalism, its spread, dispersion, and its crystallization
+into conventional forms; also we can trace how the lotus patterns of
+Indian art have resulted, when accepted in Europe, in nothing but the
+rolling wave, carrying flower forms which no longer represent a lotus;
+and how the lotus bud and flower pattern has become in time the
+classical "egg and tongue;" which, however, may have resulted also
+from a combination of other motives.
+
+Representations of animal forms are sometimes very remarkable in
+phases of naturalism. The few remains of Celtic art that have survived
+are entirely animal, or very nearly so. In their stone, gold, silver,
+and bronze work, and in illuminated MSS., we meet with only animal
+forms; never a flower or a leaf.
+
+Besides the Indo-Chinese patterns in Celtic art, which suggest the
+Chinese lattice-work (so strongly insisted on by Semper as a constant
+motive), we also find in all their decorations compartments containing
+involved patterns of cords or strings knitted or plaited, suggesting
+the entrails of animals, which by these hunting people were consulted
+as being mysteriously prophetic of approaching events, especially
+success or failure in the chase, and impending warlike raids.[102]
+There is no other way of accounting for these designs, which are
+peculiar to the race, unless we believe they always represent snakes.
+(Pl. 15.)
+
+In England much that was characteristic of the style was lost as soon
+as the Saxons drove out the Celts, who carried it to Ireland, as may
+be seen in the Book of Kells, and the carving of the Harp of Tara, and
+the Celtic jewels in the Irish museums; but the interlacing patterns
+survived throughout Anglo-Saxon art, and were marvellously ingenious
+and beautiful; witness the Durham Book of St. Cuthbert.
+
+We have no Celtic textiles remaining to us, unless some embroidery in
+the Marien-Kirche collection at Dantzic may be of that style and time.
+This is suggested by its altogether Indo-Chinese and very barbarous
+character;[103] and one of the coronation mantles in Bock's
+"Kleinodien" is Runic in its peculiar serpent design.
+
+  [Illustration: Illumination from the Lindisfarne Gospels, about A.D.
+      700]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 16.
+    Demeter. From a Greek Vase in the British Museum.]
+
+"Judging from their illuminated MSS.," it is said, "the elements
+borrowed from textile art by the Celts are plaits, bows, zigzags,
+knots, geometrical figures in various symmetrically developed
+combinations, crosses, whorls, and lattice-work; next, those taken from
+metal work, such as spirals and nail-heads let into borders; thirdly,
+simple or composite zoomorphic forms, such as bodies of snakes, birds'
+heads on long necks, lizards, dogs, dragons, and the like."[104] They
+well understood how to make a pattern by the repetition of objects of
+any class.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 17.
+    1. Embroidery on a Greek Mantle, third century B.C., from the Tomb
+        of the Seven Brothers, Crimea.
+    2. Egyptian Painted and Embroidered Linen. The cone, the bead, the
+        daisy, the wave, the lotus under water, are all shown on this
+        fragment.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 18.
+    EGYPTIAN TAPESTRY.
+    1. Woven and embroidered on a Sleeve. 2. Woven and embroidered. 3.
+        Painted and embroidered.]
+
+Representations of human figures in embroideries probably originated
+in hangings for the wall; but have been treated as decorative forms,
+both by the Indians and the Greeks, for wearing apparel. The peplos of
+Minerva was bordered with fighting gods and giants, and the Empress
+Theodora's dress in the Ravenna mosaic repeats exactly the same
+motive. (See Fig. 4, and Pl. 6.)
+
+There are two other examples of such Greek patterns. The mantle of
+Demeter on a Greek vase in the British Museum, of the best period (Pl.
+16), is embroidered with flying genii and victorious chariots; and the
+embroidered mantle lately found in a Crimean tomb, is of precisely the
+same style of design, and the one illustrates the other. These
+instances are so exceptional, that it is curious that here, as in the
+case of the peplos, in each case there should happen to be a
+duplicate. (Plates 16 and 17, No. 1.)
+
+In Babylonian, Assyrian, and Chaldean art we constantly find animal
+forms in patterns. The lion and the hare, birds and insects, are the
+commonest; and there are some instances of human figures reduced to a
+pattern in these sculptured representations of textiles. (Plate 2.)
+
+There are curiously woven little human figures finished with the
+needle on the sleeve of an Egyptian dress in the British Museum, from
+Saccarah (Pl. 18), and, of course, when such a design is small, it
+ceases to be very objectionable. On the whole, however, naturalistic
+designs for embroideries are more safely confined to floral
+decorations, excepting always flat tapestries for walls, which,
+representing pictures, may be as naturalistic as their purpose and
+style will admit.
+
+Animal forms are often reduced to patterns by repetition in Indian
+and Persian embroidery.[105] The drawing is naturalistic, but the
+colouring is fanciful. We may see any day, on Persian rugs, scarlet
+lions pursuing and capturing blue or yellow hares. The flatness and
+want of all shadows tends to the conventional. Lions, bulls, cats,
+beetles, and serpents abound especially in Egyptian design; insects,
+reptiles, and fish in Asiatic patterns, where animals are sometimes
+made to walk in pairs, with their heads and tails twisted into a
+pattern.
+
+Though landscapes are so rarely worked that the subject is, perhaps,
+hardly worthy of notice, yet such mistaken specimens of ingenuity have
+occurred. An altar frontal was exhibited at Zurich, in 1883,
+containing some really exquisitely worked landscapes, which were quite
+out of place, both as art and as decoration, for an ecclesiastical
+purpose. This was of the beginning of the last century.[106]
+
+While we appreciate and should take advantage of our national tendency
+to naturalistic design, we must beware of looking on fixed rules as
+bonds which cramp our liberty, and of thinking that nature should be
+our only guide to an otherwise unassisted and unfettered inspiration.
+Without the wholesome checks of experience and educated taste, and the
+knowledge which teaches us what to avoid, as well as what to imitate,
+founded on the successes and failures of others, we fall into weak
+imitations of natural objects.
+
+Mr. Redgrave points out how unpleasant and jarring to our sense of
+what is appropriate, and therefore how offensive to good taste and
+common sense, it is to tread on a carpet of water-lilies swimming in
+blue pools, or on fruits and flowers heaped up and casting shadows
+probably towards the light.[107] Woollen lions and tigers, as large as
+life, basking before the fire in a wreath of roses, are alarming
+rather than agreeable, and are of the nature of a practical joke in
+art. It is the search for novelty in naturalism that leads to such
+astonishing compositions; and these, being successively rejected in
+the heart of our civilization and culture, are drifted away to
+vulgarize our colonies, or to be sold cheap to furnish Continental
+hotels, and make the English traveller blush for his home
+manufactures.
+
+
+SYMBOLICAL AND CONVENTIONAL.
+
+Though it is true that the highest art, pictorial and sculptural, is
+always struggling towards naturalism, the art of decoration is, by its
+nature, constantly tending to conventionalism. Patterns, if not
+absolutely geometrical or naturalistic, must be classed under this
+principle. Let us examine what is meant by a conventional pattern.
+
+It may be said that the conventional includes every form--the
+symbolic, the naturalistic, or even the hieroglyphic--that is selected
+and consecrated to convey a certain idea. The lily of Florence, which
+is something between a lily and an iris, but unlike either, is a
+conventional form; likewise the lily of France, which it is said was
+once a conventional frog. The rose of England, the shamrock, and the
+thistle have always been more naturalistic than is usual in such
+heraldic designs; but the parti-coloured rose of York and Lancaster
+was decidedly conventional, and heraldic.
+
+Conventional patterns now are those which, having been originally
+naturalistic in style, but perhaps emblematic as to their motive, have
+been repeated till the meaning and form have been lost; or else, as in
+the case of the lotus, the emblem is forgotten, and nothing remains
+but the recognized conventional form.
+
+One conventional pattern which, having commenced by being a symbol,
+has been repeated and varied till it has allowed the original
+essential meaning to escape, is the "palm-leaf" or "cone" pattern on
+French or Paisley shawls, which, having been a sacred emblem--the tree
+of life--in Persia, became in Europe, when the religious myth was
+lost, only a shawl pattern--merely a leaf, with plant painted within
+its outlines. (Plate 23, Nos. 10, 11.)
+
+Decorative designs become conventional in spite of the intention of
+the designer. He is overruled by the spaces to be covered and the
+materials to be employed. His design must produce a flat pattern; he
+must repeat it again and again; he must give it a strong outline; he
+must distribute it regularly at certain intervals. Repetition at once
+conventionalizes the most naturalistic drawing, and the most sacred
+and mysterious emblem. Alternation is equally a source of
+conventionalism. There is no motive that cannot be conventionalized
+into a pattern by repetition. A Gothic crown and a true lily,
+repeated, will make an ecclesiastical conventional pattern. Then come
+all the Arabian and Moresque forms (which are mostly geometric), and
+also the Gothic (which are partly geometric and partly naturalistic,
+especially those in German and debased Spanish and Portuguese Gothic
+design).
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 19.
+    1. Key Pattern.
+    2. Broken-up Key.
+    3. Beads.
+    4. Key and sign of Land.
+    5. Wave and Babylonian Daisy.
+    6. Key and Fundata.
+    7. Wave and Bead.
+    8. Wave and Daisy.
+    9. Key and Sun Cross.
+    These Key Patterns from Ceiling of a Tomb at Saccarah, in Egypt.
+        (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians.")]
+
+Then we must accept as conventional all those which may be called
+kaleidoscope patterns, which are broken fragments of old motives,
+repeated or "radiated" so as to become partly geometrical, wholly
+conventional. (See Pl. 17, No. 2.)
+
+Conventional patterns may be reduced into three kinds.
+
+First, the naturalistic, which have by repetition been adapted for
+decorative art.
+
+Secondly, the symbolical--Pagan or Christian, religious or historical,
+including the Heraldic.
+
+Thirdly, those conventional forms which may never have had any inner
+meaning, or else, having originally had one, have lost it.
+
+All these exist, sometimes apart and sometimes mingled; so that some
+thought must be expended in seeking the motive which has brought them
+together, and finding in each the internal evidence of its descent.
+
+It is evident that patterns, conventionalized and brought from distant
+sources, sometimes meet and amalgamate. When the origin of a
+conventional pattern is disputed, it is worth while to examine if it
+has a double parentage. Let me give, as an instance, the key pattern.
+It may have been, as Semper believes, originally Chinese, and derived
+from wicker-work design. It represents also the broken or dislocated
+"wave," the symbol of the River Mæander,[108] and for water generally.
+We find it everywhere in company with the wave, which never could have
+had any connection with wicker-work, not only in China, but in Persia,
+India, Egypt, Arabia, Greece, Rome, and Central America. (Pl. 19.)
+
+Can any invention of man show a more symbolical intention than the
+wave pattern? The airy leap drawn downwards by the force of
+gravitation; controlled, and again made to return, but strong to
+insist on its own curve of predilection, rushing back under the same
+circle; strengthened by the downward movement to spring again from its
+original plane; beginning afresh its Sisyphus labour, and facing the
+next effort with the same grace and agility. Undying force, and
+eternal flowing unrest--these are the evident intention and symbol of
+the wave pattern. Though I believe the key pattern to be a
+modification of the wave form, yet the locking and unlocking movement
+suggests a repetition of the Tau, or key of life.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+When we admire the friezes of garlands hung between the skulls of oxen
+and goats, we cannot for a moment doubt the sacrificial idea on which
+the design was founded. When the wreaths are carried by dancing
+children, we recognize the impersonation of the rejoicing of the dædal
+earth.
+
+The Greeks, however strongly they exerted themselves to throw off the
+shackles of conventionality in sculpture, painting, and architecture,
+yet yielded to the traditional force of the symbolical pattern, and
+accepted most of the Oriental forms, merely remodelling them for their
+own use, and adding to their significance what their culture required;
+at the same time giving infinite variety, as their perfect taste
+dictated.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 20.
+    TREES OF LIFE.
+    1, 2, 3, 5. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian Silk. (Birdwood's "Indian Arts,"
+        pp. 331, 335, 336, 337.)]
+
+Aristophanes, in "The Frogs," laughs at the Persian carpet
+patterns--their unnatural birds and beasts and flowers--whilst he
+claims for his own frogs, that they at least have the merit of being
+natural.[109] This little touch of art throws a gleam of inner
+light on the struggle towards originality and truth which
+characterized the Greek principles of beauty and fitness in literature
+and art, in direct contrast to that which was always turning back to
+those fossil forms which were only respectable on account of their age
+and their mystery, but of which the tradition and intention were
+already lost.
+
+Roman patterns were merely Greek adaptations with an Etruscan flavour,
+which was a survival of the earliest Italian art. Perhaps the
+indigenous element had been already modified by Phœnician
+influence.
+
+In taking stock of Oriental symbolical patterns, we find that one of
+those of the widest ancestry and longest continuity is the "Sacred
+Hom."[110] (Pl. 20-24.) This is to be found in Babylonian,
+Persian,[111] Indian, Greek, and Roman art; and consequently it
+prevails in all European decoration (except the Gothic), where it was
+reduced to unrecognizable forms.
+
+Sir George Birdwood says the Hom or Homa was the Sanskrit Soma, used
+as an intoxicating drink by the early Brahmins, and was extracted from
+the plant of that name, an almost leafless succulent Asclepiad. It
+appears to have changed its conventional form as other plants by
+fermentation came to the front, containing what appeared to be the
+"spirit of life"--the _aqua vitæ_.
+
+The palm, with its wonderful fruit, which is convertible into
+intoxicating drinks, and afterwards the vine itself, were each of them
+moulded into analogous conventional fruit forms, which keep as much as
+possible within the limits of the original cone shape. (Pl. 21.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 21.
+    1. Tree of Life and Lions. Gate of Mycenæ. 2. Persian or Sicilian
+        Silk. Tree of Life and Leopards.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 22.
+    1. Split Lotus Fruit on Chinese Bowl. 2. Split Lotus resembling
+        Tree of Life. Frieze by Benozzo Gozzoli, Ricardi Palace,
+        Florence. 3. Petal of Flower on Glass Bowl from Southern
+        Italy. British Museum.]
+
+There is a palm-tree which absolutely carries a cone in the heart of
+its crown of fronds.[112] This may have helped to preserve the
+original motive of the sacred tree of life. The cone form in classical
+art was drawn from the pine cone and the artichoke; and in mediæval
+art these were sometimes replaced by the pomegranate, and in the late
+Renaissance by the pine-apple, newly arrived from the West
+Indies.[113] It is a good example of the blending of one vegetable
+form into another, making the sequence, of which each phase in the
+East had an historical cause or a symbolical meaning,[114] but which
+in Europe had gradually lost all motive, and was simply an
+acknowledged decorative form.[115] In architectural ornament it is
+called the honeysuckle,[116] which it had grown to resemble in the
+days of Greece.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 23.
+    Different forms of Tree of Life, from Sicilian Silks.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 24.
+    Modern Embroidery from the Principalities, in which the cone-shaped
+        tree grows into a vine, and the two animals at the foot have
+        lost their shape and intention.]
+
+This sacred tree, the Homa of Zoroaster and of the later Persians, has
+so early a beginning that we find it on Assyrian monuments.[117] Rock
+says "that, perhaps, it stood for the tree of life, which grew in
+Paradise." It is represented as a subject of homage to men and
+animals, and it invariably stands between priests and kings, or beasts
+kneeling to it. It is figured on the small bucket for religious rites,
+carried in the hands, or embroidered in the upper sleeve of the
+monarch's tunic. It always represents a shrub, sometimes bearing a
+series of umbels of seven flowers each. (Pl. 2, 20.)
+
+Sometimes the expression of the symbol is reduced to the cone-fruit of
+the homa alone; or even to a blossom, as in the two glass bowls in the
+Slade collection in the British Museum, from a tomb at Chiusi, in
+Etruria. Here the design is a flower, of which each petal contains the
+essential emblem--a plant within a plant. These bowls, pronounced to
+be Greek of the fourth century B.C., have yet to me a strong Oriental
+character. (Pl. 22, No. 3.)
+
+I have spoken of the lotus as a naturalistic pattern. One mode of
+drawing and embroidering its flower in India, is to cut it in two;
+half the blossom is then carefully and almost botanically copied, thus
+conveying the inner meaning of the sacred flower. (Pl. 22, No. 3.)
+
+Another conventional pattern, common to all times of art and all
+nations, is that called in architecture the "egg and tongue" pattern.
+(Pl. 13.) This, as I have already said, is supposed to be derived
+directly from the lotus. The Egyptians formed it from the bud and
+blossom; and the pattern is found in India, Greece, and Rome, changing
+continually and yet retaining its identity. Vitruvius claimed to have
+given it the last touch and finish, so that in Italy it was called the
+Vitruvian scroll; and it is common to all decoration, even in
+textiles, though it is hardly suited for weaving or embroidery. This
+is one of the earliest patterns which, having ceased long ago to be a
+religious emblem or sign, still survives by its decorative fitness,
+and perpetuates the echoes of its origin.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 25.
+    TYPICAL CROSSES.
+    1. Swastika. 2. From a Greek Vase, 765 B.C. 3. Indian Sectarial
+        Mark of Sakti race. 4. Buddhist and Jainis mark. 5. Early
+        Rhodian Pottery. 6. Egyptian prehistoric Cross. 7. Tau Cross.
+        8. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite. 9. Ditto. 10. Clavus.
+        11, 12, 13. Scandinavian Sun and Moon Crosses. 14, 15, 16.
+        Celtic. 17. Chrysoclavus. 18, 19. Stauracin patterns. 20.
+        Scandinavian, from Norway. 21. Runic Cross. 22. Cross at
+        Palenque, in Temple of the Sun. 23. Scotch Celtic Cross. 24.
+        Cross from Iona. 25, 26. Runic Crosses. 27. Cross on the
+        Dalmatic of Charlemagne. 28. From the Mantle of Henry II.,
+        Emperor of Germany.]
+
+Of the conventional symbolical forms of the early Christian Church I
+shall speak more fully in the chapter on ecclesiastical art, and
+therefore would only point out here, while touching on symbolical
+decoration, how that phase of Christian art is a great historical
+instance of the deep ancient meanings it illustrates; showing the
+motive to be often in accordance with the inherited pagan symbol, and
+yet differing from it. Pre-eminent among these is the emblem of the
+Cross, so early and universally used, full of mysterious secret
+allusions to the groping faiths of idolatrous nations, before the
+great fundamental idea of the "Word" was attached to it. This was one
+of the old signs used as a pattern, and transfigured into a fresh
+type, of which the radiance reflected back light upon all that
+preceded it, even as Chinese ancestors are ennobled by the deeds
+of their descendants.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 26.
+    1. Pallas Athene, from a vase in Lord Northampton's Collection.
+        2. Ajax in a cloak embroidered with swastika, sun cross, and
+        prehistoric water patterns. Etruscan Museum. Vatican.]
+
+The cross (Pl. 25), was a sign and a pattern in prehistoric art. It
+was the double of the Tau, the Egyptian emblem of life; and while the
+Jews reject the Christian cross, they still claim to have warned off
+the destroying angel by this sign in blood over the lintels of their
+doors in the first Passover.
+
+But the most ancient and universal form of the cross is that of the
+Swastika, or Fylfote. This "prehistoric cross" is said to be formed of
+two fire-sticks, belonging to the ancient worship of the sun, laid
+across each other ready for friction; but losing that meaning, from an
+emblem they fell into a pattern, and this you will still find, utterly
+meaningless, on Persian carpets of to-day.
+
+Sir G. Birdwood gives the Swastika as the sectarial mark of the Sakti
+sects in India. Fergusson names it with the mound buildings, as
+belonging to all Buddhist art; and examples of the Swastika are to be
+found on Rhodian pottery from the Necropolis of Kamiros, where we find
+also the key pattern.
+
+In early Greek art the Swastika and Gammadion are everywhere,
+especially as embroidery on dress. Minerva's petticoats are sometimes
+worked all over with the latter. On an early Greek vase in the Museo
+Gregoriano, are painted Ajax and Achilles playing at dice; and the
+mantle of Ajax is squared into an embroidered pattern that alternately
+represents a sun or star and a Gammadion (Pl. 26, No. 2). But it is
+unnecessary to multiply classical examples, which are endless.
+
+The Christian Cross was often formed by converting the Tau into the
+Gamma, the sacred letter of the Greeks. It is said to have been the
+emblem of the corner-stone, and as a pattern, was called, down to the
+thirteenth century, the "Gammadion;" and though it had lost its
+original motive, it continued to preserve the idea of a secret and
+mystical meaning.
+
+The Gammadion, as well as the Swastika, enters largely into the
+illuminations of the Celtic Book of Kells and those of the Lindisfarne
+MSS.; also it is to be found on the Celtic shields in the British
+Museum, together with the Swastika. Both appear in the Persian carpets
+of to-day, and as patterns were, in ecclesiastical decoration,
+employed down to the fifteenth century, both for European and British
+textiles. The Swastika, as well as the wave pattern, is of mysterious
+and universal antiquity, and has certainly traversed four thousand
+years,--how much more we dare not say. It is to be found throughout
+Egyptian and Indian art--never in that of Assyria.
+
+Of the time of Rameses the Second we have two figures in a mural
+painting, an ally and an enemy, a guest and a prisoner, both clothed
+in embroidered garments, _parsemés_ with the prehistoric cross.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 11.
+    Egyptian Enemy and Ally.]
+
+In the chapter on ecclesiastical art I shall again refer to this
+immemorial symbolical and conventional pattern. I much regret that, in
+the absence of a translation, I am prevented from availing myself of
+the accumulated learning on the subject of "The Prehistoric Cross," by
+Baron Ernest de Bunsen.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 27.
+    Imitation of a Carpet carved in stone, from Nineveh, showing the
+        Indian Lotus and the Assyrian Daisy. (In the British Museum.)]
+
+There was a pattern called the "crenelated" which apparently was
+derived from the Assyrian battlement, and is found throughout classic
+art, somewhat conventionalized.[118] It is named as an embroidered
+pattern in the inscription recording votive offerings of dresses in
+the temple of Athene at Athens.[119]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 12.
+    Crenelated Pattern.]
+
+We know something of the conventional and symbolical embroideries of
+Nineveh, which are quite unlike those of India, except in the adoption
+of the lotus for decoration.[120] These are best understood by
+illustrations; and, therefore, I give one of the beautiful sculptured
+carpets from Nineveh, in the British Museum (Pl. 27), showing the
+Assyrian use of the lotus and cone, and the embroidered garment of a
+king from one of the sculptures in low relief (Plate 1). These are
+very stately--perfectly conventional and decorative; and we feel that
+they have grown where we find them, and are not borrowed from another
+civilization. What strikes us most, is the constant repetition and the
+little variety of ornament in these patterns. The forms are strongly
+marked--wheels or whorls, or daisies, often repeated. (The daisy
+belongs to Assyria as the lotus to Egypt.) The flowers are simply
+leafless blossoms. Splendid embroideries of sacred emblematical
+designs are, however, occasionally found, such as those from Layard's
+"Monuments" (Plate 2).
+
+Much has been written on the early symbolism of plants and flowers.
+The sun-myths have enlisted all floral legendary lore, and
+conventional ornament was largely drawn from them.
+
+Many symbols are present to us when we name certain plants. The lily
+is the acknowledged sign of purity, the rose of love, the honeysuckle
+of enduring faith, the laurel of poetry, and the palm of victory; the
+oak of strength, the olive of peace. Some plants have accumulated more
+than one meaning. The vine has many attributes. It is an emblem of the
+mysteries of the Christian Church. It symbolizes plenty, joy, the
+family. Ivy means friendship, conviviality, remembrance.
+
+The symbolism of beasts (_bestiaria_),[121] of birds (_volucraria_),
+and of stones (_lapidaria_) filled many volumes in the mediæval ages,
+and are well worthy of the study of the decorative artist. The
+symbolism of animals and birds especially, constantly attracts our
+attention in the Oriental and Sicilian textiles of the early Christian
+times, and to the end of the thirteenth century. Later, in European
+textile decoration, most animals were accepted as emblematic in
+Christian art, beginning with the symbols of the four Evangelists. All
+the virtues and all the vices found their animal emblems
+conventionalized, and were thus woven, embroidered, and painted.[122]
+
+Reptiles and insects are included under the head of "beasts," and
+perhaps fishes also. Each was dowered with a symbolical meaning; and
+thus admitted into art, they were conventionalized by being strongly
+outlined, coloured flat; and by repetition without variation, were
+converted into patterns.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 28.
+    1, 2. Gothic Tiles. 3. Gothic Border of a Dress. 4. Gothic Vine.
+        Westminster Abbey.]
+
+When the use of heraldic illustration was added to the already
+accepted symbolism, animal decoration became very common, and soon
+forgot its symbolical motives, which were succeeded by Renaissance
+fanciful patterns; and then the conventionalized beast and its
+symbolism disappeared from European decoration, except when it was
+a direct copy of an Oriental design.
+
+Certain symbolical forms have, however, survived. The eagle has always
+meant empire, and the double-headed eagle, a double royalty.[123]
+Ezekiel represents Babylon and Egypt, symbolically, as two
+eagles.[124] But here we approach the subject of heraldry, which
+became a science in mediæval days; and every man and woman in any way
+remarkable, every chivalrous action and national event, became a
+subject for textile art, and was woven or worked with the needle on
+banner, hanging, or dress. The altar decorations received a new
+stimulus as historical records, as well as religious symbols, and
+pride and piety were equally enlisted in these gifts to the Church.
+
+Byzantine patterns have a barbaric stamp, and yet have much of the
+grandiose about them; but they are to the last degree conventional. In
+the early mosaics, both in Constantinople and Rome, every face and
+head, every flower and animal, represents a type and not an
+individual.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 13.
+    Gothic Trees, from Bayeux tapestry.]
+
+Gothic foliage patterns, in England and elsewhere, are a struggle
+between the naturalistic and the conventional. The Norman style and
+the Romanesque, which preceded it, and from which it was modified and
+elevated, show their vegetable forms thick-stemmed and few-leaved,
+whereas the Gothic aspired to a developed gracefulness; and the
+Renaissance, which succeeded it, assumed all the freedom of natural
+flowers and plants, floating in the breeze, on their delicate stems.
+(Pl. 28.)
+
+All the Renaissance patterns, which, as their name denotes, were born
+again, like butterflies to frolic for a day of gay enjoyment, are
+purely decorative. Their generally charming, graceful forms group
+together to cover empty spaces with every regard to the rules of
+design and composition, but without any inner meaning. If we take
+these arabesques to pieces, we generally find the parts come from
+various sources; and having served last in pagan Rome for pagan
+purposes, had been slightly refashioned for Christian decorative
+art,[125] before the Byzantine inartistic taste, and barbaric
+splendour of metal-work patterns, had extinguished all the gay fancy
+of the arts of Southern Europe.
+
+The mediæval revival was a return to the light and fantastic, and a
+protest against the solemnity of all Gothic art, which had had its
+great day, had culminated, and died out. The patterns of the
+Renaissance are all guided by the principles of repetition and
+duplication, or that of doubling the pattern, which repeats itself to
+right and left, as if folded down the middle.
+
+The principal lines thus echoed one another; but the artist was
+permitted to vary the conventionalism of the general forms of figures,
+flowers, fruit, or butterflies, so as to balance and yet differ in
+every detail.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 29.
+    CLOUD PATTERNS.
+    1, 2, 3, 7. Japanese.
+    4. Chinese.
+    5, 8, 9. Mediæval.
+    6. Badge of Richard II.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 30.
+    Indo-Chinese Coverlet, supposed to have belonged to Oliver
+        Cromwell. Hatfield House.]
+
+Amongst the conventional patterns which have descended to us, and are
+in general use without any particular symbolical meaning being
+attached to them, we must instance those derived from the Cloud
+pattern. This is to be found in early Chinese and Indian art, but I do
+not recognize it in Egyptian or Greek decoration. It came through
+Byzantium, and took its place amongst early Christian patterns. (Pl.
+29.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 31.
+    THE FUNDATA OR NETTED PATTERN.
+    Portion of a Phœnician Bowl from Cyprus.
+    Egyptian.
+    Egyptian.
+    Egyptian.]
+
+The cloud pattern is also Japanese, and is supposed to have been
+originally derived from Central Asia. It varies in shape, and is found
+as an ornament on the head of the sceptre in the collection at Nara,
+in Japan, which is twelve or thirteen hundred years old. There is an
+example of the cloud pattern in Aelfled's embroidery at Durham; and it
+is often found under the feet of saints in painted glass and
+embroideries before the fourteenth century. A curious Indian example
+exists in a coverlet belonging to the Marquis of Salisbury, said to
+have been the property of Oliver Cromwell, on which the central
+medallion is filled with white horses careering amidst the cloud
+pattern.[126] (Pl. 30.)
+
+The _netted_ pattern called Fundata is extremely ancient. We find it
+in Egyptian mural paintings, as well as in the centre of a
+Phœnician bowl from Cyprus, now in the Louvre. The mediæval Fundata
+was a silk material, covered with what appeared to be a gold network
+covering the stuff. It is supposed to be the same as that worn by
+Constantine,[127] and is named in ecclesiastical inventories as late
+as the fifteenth century. (Pl. 31.)
+
+All the wheel patterns are very ancient, and appear to be simply
+conventional wheels. In France they were called _roés_. There is a
+fine instance of this wheel pattern in Auberville's "Tissus." The
+wheels sometime enclose triumphal cars and other pictorial subjects.
+(Pl. 34.)
+
+The patterns which are apparently composed with the intention of
+avoiding all meaning, are the Moorish. They are neither animal,
+vegetable, nor anything else. They show no motive in their complicated
+domes, their honeycombing, and their ingenious conventional forms; but
+cover equally textile fabrics or stucco ceilings without suggesting
+any idea, religious or symbolical.
+
+All the splendid Italian brocades and velvet damasks were of
+conventional patterns, and like their Arab and Sicilian models, and
+also like their Spanish contemporaries, represented, and sought to
+represent nothing on earth. It was all floreated and meandering
+design; the motive reminding one of the pine-apple and the acanthus,
+or of vine stems meeting or parting, but never anything naturalistic
+for a moment. When animals were introduced it was always as a pattern
+doubled face to face, as if folded down a straight line.
+
+We may say the same of the succeeding Louis Quatorze and the Louis
+Quinze styles, which were of the culminating period of clever and
+fantastic conventional decoration.
+
+Our modern designs have phases of imitation, and the patterns of rich
+brocades which our great-grandmothers wore, came into fashion again
+about the third decade of this century. Now we have been trying to
+find our inspirations further back, and some of our copies of the
+simpler Sicilian patterns, with an occasional pair of birds, or a
+conventional plant, imitating the motive of the tree of life, have
+been very pretty. The only defect is the poverty which results from
+the absence of any active and informing motive. It is, however, easier
+to criticize than to create.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 14.
+    Radiated Pattern.]
+
+I would venture here to find fault with a very common method of
+converting a natural object into a conventional pattern, by radiation.
+Certain modes of repetition are very objectionable. A pattern, for
+instance, repeated four times round a centre, or a natural flower
+repeated exactly, but lying north, south, east, and west, are more or
+less inartistic, we may say vulgar. (Fig. 14.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 15.
+    Radiated Sunflower.]
+
+A natural flower may be conventionalized and radiated by placing it in
+the centre of the composition facing you; and the leaves arranged
+surrounding it, so as to formalize the design, though there is nothing
+really unnatural in the way in which they are made to grow. The
+illustration of a radiated sunflower explains my meaning.
+
+It has been already observed that by repetition almost any object may
+be reduced to a pattern, but taste must be exercised in the selection
+of what is appropriate and beautiful. Radiation is also really a
+useful factor in conventional art, but common sense must guide the
+artist here as well as taste. In radiating the forms of a flower,
+nature gives endless hints of beauty; but a radiating pattern of human
+figures would be ridiculous, and even the branches of a tree cannot be
+so treated.
+
+The awning of the classic hypæthral hall or court was often reproduced
+in Roman arabesques. Sometimes we find it in a classical tomb, painted
+over the ceiling, and recalling its original use. This was revived in
+the Cinque-cento Renaissance; and again in Adams' "Eighteenth Century
+Decorations," it became an accepted pattern, called "the shell,"
+losing its original motive, and descending to fill up the panels of
+tea-caddies and surround keyholes. When thus reduced to the appearance
+of a little ruff, it needs some thought to recognize it, and give it
+credit for its first motive.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+It is amusing to find how a form which it seems impossible to reduce
+to a pattern, will yet fall into one by a judicious arrangement of
+light and shadow, and by repetition. There is a little frieze in one
+of the Indian cases on the staircase in the British Museum, which is
+extremely pretty and effective. It consists of a repetition of little
+balconies with recesses and pillars and figures in pairs. I give it as
+illustrating the way conventional patterns grow. This balcony pattern
+is of the sixth century, A.D.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 17.
+    Indian Balcony Pattern, from steps of tope of Jamal-Zartri,
+        Afghanistan. British Museum.]
+
+The ancient palmated pattern called Chrysoclavus, from the beginning
+of our era to the thirteenth century was partly a nail-headed design,
+and had become a Christian symbol. It was, probably, originally the
+primitive spot pattern; afterwards promoted to being an ornament of
+discs in colour or metal: this was Assyrian, Etruscan, and
+Mycenæan.[128] (Pl. 70.)
+
+Among the conventional patterns which have apparently no hidden
+meaning, but which clearly show their descent, are the Chinese and
+Japanese wicker and lattice-work designs. The beauty of these is
+wonderful.
+
+Semper shows that wicker (including bamboo work) was the foundation of
+all Chinese civilized life, for constructing houses, bridges,
+utensils, and for decoration. He gives this wicker-work origin to the
+universal key pattern, which may, however, have a double source--the
+wave, and the wicker-work.
+
+We find the Key pattern in a tomb at Essiout, in Egypt, painted
+perhaps about 1600 B.C., in company with some other very old
+friends,[129] the Tuscan border, the Egg and Tongue, and the Bead, the
+Daisy, and the Wave. (Pl. 17, No. 2.) We meet it everywhere in ancient
+and modern decoration. There are several forms of it on a large
+terra-cotta vase in the British Museum from Kameiros in Rhodes, and on
+Chinese fictiles and embroideries. It is found also on garments in
+Iceland, whither the Greek patterns must have drifted through Norway,
+and, as they could go no further, there they remained.
+
+I have often spoken of the extraordinary survival of a pattern. This
+is easy to account for when fashion, "the disturber," had not yet
+existed. Then the ancient motive told its own tale, and its great age
+was its claim to perpetual youth; but it is more remarkable where we
+meet with revivals at distant periods, and apparently without any
+connecting link of ancestry or style.
+
+For instance, the women of Genoa wore large cotton veils, printed with
+the Indian conventional tree and beast pattern, down to thirty years
+ago, when the fashion changed, and winter bonnets and summer muslin
+veils displaced the old costume. These patterns are now being printed
+in England on scores of cotton curtains for beds and windows.
+
+
+GEOMETRICAL.
+
+Geometrical patterns may be reduced to a very few primitive elements.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 18.
+    Varied adjustments of Square and Circle.]
+
+1. The Line, including straight and wavy lines.
+
+2. The Angular Forms, including squares, oblongs, cubes, &c.
+
+3. The Triangular, including zigzags, diamonds, &c.
+
+4. The Circular, including all spots, discs, and radiations.
+
+All these can be blended or mixed so as to form endless varieties. For
+instance, the square and the circle can intersect each other in
+different proportions, so as to give an entirely new effect to the
+pattern, each time the balance is altered or the phase of the
+repetition varied. The illustration will explain this. (Fig. 18.)
+
+Right angles may intersect each other so as to produce the whole gamut
+of Chinese lattice-work decoration, and all the Celtic and
+Scandinavian entwined patterns, from which so many of the embroideries
+in the Italian pictures of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are
+probably descended.
+
+The Moorish patterns are geometrical, and are created on the principle
+of avoiding in art the representation of any created thing. They show
+much ingenuity in keeping clear of any possible meaning. Most of these
+conventional patterns are founded on the ogee-arch and a kind of
+honeycomb pattern, involved and inverted. Their tiles, which nearest
+approach textile design, have, indeed, certain vegetable forms added
+to the others, but always geometrically arranged as no vegetables ever
+grew.
+
+Geometrical patterns begin with primitive forms, and come down to the
+floor-cloth designs of to-day. They can be extracted in endless
+variety from the combinations of the kaleidoscope. This style is well
+suited for pavements in mosaic--either secular or ecclesiastical.
+
+The Opus Alexandrinum furnishes us with most beautiful examples and
+adaptations for large or small spaces, so as to form the richest or
+the simplest floor decorations. How worthily a church may be thus
+adorned may be seen on the vast area of the floor of Santa Maria
+Maggiore in Rome, or that of the Church of St. Mark in Venice.
+
+The nearest approach to the Opus Alexandrinum in textiles has been in
+Patchwork, of which a more artistic use may yet be made. We might
+exercise ingenuity in this direction, giving really fine and effective
+designs to our workers in patches, whose productions are, in general,
+simply alarming.
+
+The fine quilting patterns of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
+are almost always geometrical, and make the best background to more
+resplendent embroideries overlying them, which is partly owing to
+their being only forms, and conveying no idea or inherited meaning.
+These expressionless designs are well fitted for spaces and borders in
+which the centres are elaborated, and require enclosing or framing;
+likewise, they are suited for large areas, which must not be perfectly
+plain, and yet not too disturbing to the eye, so as to distract it
+from the more important ornaments on the wall or ceiling. They suit
+carpets in passages or on staircases much better than any other kind
+of design, and form the best figured backgrounds for pictures. Both
+eye and mind often need repose, and therefore the simpler the
+geometrical pattern is, the better. Complicated and too ingenious
+combinations are painfully fatiguing. Simplicity and flatness are the
+greatest merits in such forms, as in shadowless patterns for textiles,
+and especially for embroideries.
+
+If we turn to nature to assist us with new geometrical patterns, we
+shall find the most exquisite forms in the crystals of every
+newly-fallen snowflake, and in the nodal-points on a plate of metal or
+glass, covered with sand, and struck by sound. We shall hardly ever
+find in these a repetition of exactly the same combination, and their
+variety is only equalled by their beauty.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [96] Sir G. Birdwood tells us of patterns of an Indian
+    brocade called "Chundtara" (moon and stars), figured all
+    over with representations of heavenly bodies.
+
+    [97] Pliny, "Natural History," lib. xxx. c. 8, § 34.
+
+    [98] There is a shell pattern in gold on a twelfth
+    century fragment of a Bishop's garment at Worcester.
+
+    [99] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," vol. iii. pp.
+    132, 133, 350, 553.
+
+    [100] Bötticher, in his "Tektonik," will allow of but
+    one origin for the "egg and tongue" pattern. I cannot
+    give up the evident descent from the lotus flower and
+    bud; but I have said before that a pattern has sometimes
+    a double parentage, and it may be so in this case.
+
+    [101] The lotus is almost entirely lost as a native
+    growth in India, and is fast disappearing in Egypt. The
+    lotus blossom in Egypt was not only a sacred emblem, but
+    also an _objet de luxe_. At their feasts, the honoured
+    guests were presented with the flowers, and as they
+    faded, slaves carried round baskets of fresh blossoms.
+    See Wilkinson's "Manners and Customs of the Ancient
+    Egyptians."
+
+    [102] See the Book of Lindisfarne, and the two Celtic
+    bronze shields in the British Museum. These last are
+    very curious. The long involved lines show their origin,
+    and the shields are enriched with enamel and corals, in
+    repetitions of the prehistoric cross.
+
+    [103] See "Album of Photographs of the Marien-Kirche,
+    Dantzic," Taf. 31.
+
+    [104] Woltmann and Woermann, Eng. Trans., p. 202.
+
+    [105] Charlemagne's dress, in his tomb, was covered with
+    golden elephants. This must have been Indian. His mantle
+    was "_parsemé_" with golden bees.
+
+    [106] Elsewhere there is a notice of Miss Morritt's
+    really beautifully embroidered landscapes at Rokeby; and
+    all who saw them will remember the extremely clever and
+    effective pictures in crewels by an accomplished
+    American lady, Mrs. Oliver Wendell Holmes, exhibited in
+    London a few years ago. These exceptional cases do not,
+    however, disprove the objections against employing the
+    most unfit and unmanageable materials for producing
+    subjects alien to the art of embroidery.
+
+    [107] See Redgrave's "Manual of Design," pp. 50-61.
+
+    [108] See Appendix 21, by Ch. T. Newton, to the first
+    edition of Ruskin's "Stones of Venice." He gives, as
+    instances of this pattern, certain coins from Prienè,
+    where the River Mæander is symbolized by the angular key
+    pattern. Appendix, No. 1.
+
+    [109] "(Euripides _loquitur_) Not horse-cocks, nor yet
+    goat-stags, such as they depict on Persian carpets"
+    (Aristophanes, "The Frogs," v. 939-944). The Persian
+    carpets, which are the legitimate descendants of
+    Babylonian art, are curiously fragmentary. In a modern
+    design are to be seen birds, indicated by a head, bill,
+    and eyes; little coffee-pots, and flowers broken off at
+    the stalks, and small quadrupeds without any particular
+    form; also the prehistoric cross, the Tau, and bits of
+    broken-up wave and key patterns. All these, repeated
+    into a pattern, remind us of scraps in a kaleidoscope,
+    thrown together accidentally, or else taken up by chance
+    where history and art have dropped them.
+
+    [110] "Soma" or "Homa" ("Sarcostemma Viminale vel
+    Brevistigma"), from Cashmere and the Hindu Cush, still
+    used by the Brahmins, and the juice of which was the
+    first intoxicant of the human race. See Birdwood's
+    "Indian Art," vol. ii. pp. 336, 337.
+
+    [111] "The Hom, the sacred Persian tree, is constantly
+    placed between two animals, chained to it." See Pl. 23,
+    Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
+
+    [112] The Hom or Homa, the sacred tree of Assyrian and
+    Persian sculpture and textiles, is accounted for as a
+    pattern by Dr. Rock, who says: "From the earliest
+    antiquity a tradition came down through middle Asia, of
+    some holy tree, perhaps the tree of life spoken of as
+    growing in Paradise." It is always represented as
+    something like a shrub, and is a conventional portrait
+    of a palm; but Rock says it has every look of having
+    belonged to the family of the Asclepiadeæ. For its last
+    transformation into a vine, see Pl. 24.
+
+    [113] Rock's "Introduction," p. cxxxi.
+
+    [114] Sir George Birdwood says: "The intimate absorption
+    of Hindu life in the unseen realities of man's spiritual
+    consciousness is seldom sufficiently acknowledged by
+    Europeans, and, indeed, cannot be fully comprehended by
+    men whose belief in the supernatural has been destroyed
+    by the prevailing material ideas of modern society.
+    Every thought, wish, and deed of the Hindu belongs to
+    the world of the unseen as well as the seen; and nothing
+    shows this more strikingly than the traditionary works
+    of India. Everything that is made has a direct religious
+    use, or some religious symbolism. The materials of which
+    different articles are fashioned, their weight, and the
+    colours with which they are painted, are fixed by
+    religious rule. An obscured symbolism of material and
+    colour is to be traced also in the forms of things, even
+    for the most domestic uses. Every detail of Indian
+    decoration, Aryan or Turanian, has a religious meaning,
+    and the arts of India will never be rightly understood
+    until there are brought to their study, a familiar
+    acquaintance with the character and subjects of the
+    religious poetry, national legends, and mythological
+    scriptures that have always been their inspiration, and
+    of which they are the perfected imagery." See Sir George
+    Birdwood's "Indian Arts," part i. p. 2.
+
+    [115] The Persian tree of life was not alien to the
+    worship of the Zoroastrian religion of the Sassanides,
+    and is said to have been the origin of the worship of
+    Bacchus. It was introduced by Oriental weavers into
+    Sicilian and Spanish stuffs.
+
+    [116] Sir G. Birdwood suggests that the honeysuckle
+    pattern is derived from the Tree of Life, cone, and
+    palm, refashioned and combined with the graceful
+    ingenuity of Greek art, and covering a mixture of sacred
+    traditional emblems.
+
+    [117] Haug, in his "Essays on the Sacred Writings of the
+    Parsees" (pp. 132, 239), tells us that these people
+    still hold the homa to be sacred, and from it squeeze a
+    juice used by them in their religious ceremonies.
+
+    [118] See Perrot et Chipiez, "Histoire de l'Art," vol.
+    ii. pp. 260, 267, Pl. xiv.
+
+    [119] See Appendix, No. 1.
+
+    [120] India, in return, afterwards influenced Persia,
+    the successor of Babylon.
+
+    [121] In India, the elephant is a very common element in
+    a pattern; in Egypt, the serpent; in Persia, the lion.
+    In animal patterns, certain emblems were grouped
+    together. The lion and the goose represent strength and
+    prudence; the lion and eagle, strength and dominion; the
+    lion and dove, strength and gentleness. We may see these
+    double emblems on Sicilian textiles.
+
+    [122] Chinese art is crowded with symbolisms.
+
+    [123] The double-headed eagle was the badge of Saladin,
+    as well as that of the Holy Roman Empire.
+
+    [124] Ezekiel xvii.
+
+    [125] In the earliest days of Christianity.
+
+    [126] "A cloud pattern from which issue two clasped
+    hands is the device of Guizot Marchand or Guido
+    Mercator, printer, in 1498. He lived at the College of
+    Navarre."--Dibdin's "Decameron," ii. pp. 33-36.
+
+    [127] See Gori (tom. iii. pp. 20, 84), as cited by Rock,
+    Introduction, p. liii. The same netted pattern was found
+    in the grave of an Archbishop of York of about the end
+    of the thirteenth century. Its name, _fundata_, is
+    derived from _funda_, the fisherman's net; also, in
+    later times, it was called _laqueata_. See Rock's
+    Introduction (p. liv.). See also M. Ch. Clermont
+    Ganneau's "L'Imagerie Phénicienne," Coupe de Palestrina;
+    and Chaldée et Assyrie, in Perrot and Chipiez, ii. p.
+    736. Another instance is shown here of the fundata
+    occurring in the bronze flat bowl copied from Layard's
+    "Monuments," 2nd series, plate 62. The whole design of
+    the bowl is Babylonian, consisting of a rich border of
+    repetitions of the tree of life; each has the peculiar
+    ornament of little knobs often seen on their
+    head-dresses.
+
+    [128] See Bock's "L. Gewänder," p. 129; Gori, "Thes.
+    Dipt." ii. pp. 20, 275; Marquardt, "Handbuch Röm. Alt."
+    vii. pp. 527-31 (Eng. Trans.). Authorities differ in
+    describing the Chrysoclavus. Sir G. Birdwood calls it a
+    button pattern ("Indian Arts," vol. ii. p. 241). The
+    "Chrysoclavus" was the name given to the palmated or
+    triumphal pattern with which the consular robes are
+    invariably embroidered in the Roman Consular ivories at
+    Zurich, Halberstadt, and in the South Kensington Museum.
+    The tenacious life of this pattern is curiously shown in
+    the way it appears in the fifteenth century on Italian
+    playing-cards. (See "Cartes à Jouer," an anonymous
+    French book in the print-room of the British Museum.)
+    The kings and knaves wear the Byzantine humeral, and the
+    Chrysoclavus pattern is carved on their chairs. Till
+    lately English playing-cards showed the same
+    dress-pattern. I shall discuss the Latin Clavus and the
+    Chrysoclavus amongst ecclesiastical embroideries, pp.
+    308, 336 (_post_).
+
+    [129] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," i. p. 125.
+    The date of these mural paintings may, however, be even
+    as late as the time of Alexander the Great.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+MATERIALS.
+
+
+1. RAW MATERIALS.
+
+The history of an art must, more or less, include that of its raw
+material.
+
+This is too true to be disputed, but in the art of embroidery it opens
+out such endless avenues, through such vast regions of technical
+study, that we must acknowledge the difficulty, or rather the
+impossibility, of including in one volume even a tithe of the
+information already collected.
+
+I shall, therefore, only dedicate a few pages to the history of those
+fibres which have always been most important in the different phases
+of our civilization.
+
+Among books on textile materials, I must again name the "Textrinum
+Antiquorum," by Yates. His premature death, and the loss that the
+world of art and manufacture has sustained by the chain of his
+invaluable researches being broken, cannot be appreciated but through
+the study of the first and only volume of this already rare book, from
+which I venture to quote largely.
+
+Semper's "Der Stil" is a work of reference on this subject, so
+valuable that it should, by a good translation, be placed within the
+reach of non-German scholars.
+
+From Colonel Yule's "Marco Polo," and his abundant notes, we learn
+much of Asiatic textile art in the thirteenth century, and its early
+traditions in the immutable East, and Sir G. Birdwood's books on this
+Indian art are most instructive.
+
+Egyptian textiles are splendidly illustrated by Sir Gardiner
+Wilkinson. All these modern writers quote Pliny and the Periplus;[130]
+and Pliny quotes all the classic authors, from Homer to his day. Here
+is a wide field for gathering information regarding the materials for
+embroidery in past ages.
+
+When we use the phrase "raw material" so glibly, with an æsthetic
+contempt for that which the art of man has neither manipulated nor
+reorganized, we show our own coarse appreciation, if not ignorance, of
+the wonderful inherent beauty and microscopic delicacy of form,
+colour, and substance of those materials which we fashion for our own
+uses.
+
+Few know the structure of the tender filaments of wool, flax, cotton,
+and silk; or that each has its peculiar form and attributes, and its
+individual capabilities for the purposes for which they appear to us
+to have been created, i.e. the clothing and adornment of man's dress
+and his home.
+
+I should like to draw attention to these well-attested facts.
+
+Seen through a microscope, the forms of these raw materials differ
+greatly.
+
+Flax is difficult to describe, as it varies according to the soil and
+climate it comes from. Its fibre, however, has always a shiny outer
+surface, and is transparent, cylindrical, and pipe-like; apparently
+with breaks or joints like those of a cane.
+
+Cotton also varies so much in its own kind, that every description is
+different and somewhat puzzling. Semper says that it approaches the
+ribbon form, with thickened edges, and is like a half-cylinder twisted
+spirally; but when wetted with oil, it swells into a complete
+cylinder.[131]
+
+Wool and hair are hollow pipes without joints. Woollen fibres look
+like cylindrical snakes with a scaly surface. This roughness gives
+wool a clinging power which exceeds that of any other material, except
+the hair of some few animals.[132]
+
+Silk threads consist of twin pipes laid parallel, and held together by
+the varnish with which they are glazed. Silk is tough and elastic.
+
+The qualities needed for textile materials may be thus enumerated:
+Pliability, toughness (i.e. tensile strength), and intrinsic
+durability.
+
+Of course, the material must to a certain degree influence the style
+of the fabric, and its selection must be according to the effect
+intended to be produced.[133] The fashions of the day, and the needs
+of the special manufacture, must greatly modify the choice of
+materials, which fluctuate, often disappear, and sometimes revive
+again.
+
+Certain materials which have been, at one period, much admired, have
+been entirely lost; and indeed we may say that the only permanently
+employed textiles are wool, flax, cotton, and silk, which apparently
+never can be superseded. With them, all domestic requirements can be
+satisfied, and all artistic and decorative fabrics produced, varied,
+and perfected; and these, from all time recorded in history, have been
+enriched and glorified with gold, either inwoven or embroidered.
+
+The game of "animal, vegetable, or mineral" might well be played with
+textiles only. Nothing has been alien to the crafts which from time
+immemorial have spun, woven, felted, netted, and embroidered.
+
+The materials now in general use, and which, once known, have never
+been abandoned, I have already named, and shall discuss their history
+separately; they are wool, flax, cotton, and silk. To these I must add
+hemp, both wild and cultivated.
+
+Hemp is a kind of nettle. It was grown in Colchis, and in those cool
+regions which did not produce flax. Hemp is hardly grown in India,
+except to extract from it the narcotic, Cannabis Indica. It was a
+northern production used throughout Scandinavia. Herodotus (iv. 14)
+says, "Hemp grows in the land of the Scythians, in a wild state, but
+it is now cultivated." From its Latin name, _cannabis_, comes our
+canvas, which has always been much used as a ground for counted
+stitches and backing for embroidery, its stiffness being its
+qualification for such purposes.[134]
+
+Jute (a rough sort of hemp) has been long an article of commercial
+importance for the manufacture of coarse-figured fabrics, dyed and
+woven, sometimes embroidered.
+
+The fibre of the Aloe has been used in the Riviera for laces and
+"macrami" (knotted fringes).
+
+The fibres of grasses, such as the "Honduras silk grass" (Rhea or
+Ramie), valuable for beauty, fineness, and toughness, have been worked
+or woven into stuffs.[135] This material is now coming into notice.
+
+Spartum is often named for coarse weaving;[136] also the fibres of
+barks, especially those of palm branches.[137]
+
+Another substance of classic use, and even now employed, though rather
+as a curiosity than as an article of commerce, is the silky filament
+produced by the shell-fish pinna; and also the fibres of certain
+sea-weeds.
+
+Fur and hair, especially that of camels and goats, has always been
+much prized.[138] We have seen both African and Indian striped or
+primitively decorated rugs of wool, touched here and there with scraps
+of cotton or silk, or some other odd material; and amongst them, tufts
+of human hair. The sentiment that motived the use of human hair has
+been either love or hate--the votive or the triumphal. We know that
+Delilah was not a stranger to this art. She wove into her web Samson's
+seven locks of strength, and "fastened them with a pin" (Judges xvi.).
+
+In the thirteenth century it was the custom for ladies to weave their
+own hair into their gifts to favoured knights. King Ris, if he had
+received any such token from his lady-love, returned it with
+interest; for he sent her a mantle in which were inwoven the beards of
+nine conquered kings, a tenth space being left for that of King
+Arthur, which he promised to add in course of time.[139]
+
+Leather has been from the remotest antiquity employed for the art of
+embroidery, either for the ground, as in the mantle of Boadicea, made
+of skins with the fur turned inwards and the leather outside, dressed,
+and embroidered on the seams;[140] or else as fine inlaid and onlaid
+application, as in the "funeral tent of an Egyptian queen" in the
+museum at Boulac, which is certainly the earliest specimen of
+needlework decoration that exists.[141] (Pl. 44.) The old Indian
+embroideries in leather are generally applied one on another. The
+North American Indians also embroider on leather.[142]
+
+Feather work will be discussed under the heading of "Opus
+Plumarium."[143]
+
+On the surface of textiles many substances have been fastened down, in
+order to give brilliancy to the general effect--skins of insects,
+beetles' wings, the claws and teeth of various animals.[144]
+
+Asbestos linen is the only mineral substance, besides gold, silver,
+and tin,[145] that has been employed in embroidery. It has the
+remarkable quality of indestructibility by fire. Asbestos linen can be
+cleansed by fire instead of water.[146] It is a soapy crystal, found
+in veins of serpentine and cipolino in Cyprus, and other Greek
+islands. Pliny says it was woven for the funeral obsequies of
+monarchs, as it preserved the ashes apart, being itself unharmed by
+the fires of cremation. There are several fragments existing, found in
+tombs. One of these is in the British Museum.[147]
+
+Marco Polo speaks of a stone fibre found at Chinchin, which answers in
+description to asbestos. It was spun by mixing it with threads of flax
+soaked in oil; and when woven, was passed through the fire to remove
+the flax and the oil.[148]
+
+A miraculous napkin of asbestos was long kept at Monte Casino.
+
+Coral, pearls, and beads of many forms have been used for the
+enrichment of embroideries, and for decorating textiles. The whole
+surface of the original fabric has often been entirely covered with
+them, or the pattern itself has been worked in nothing else. Pearls
+are constantly seen worked on dress, coats-of-arms, and embroidered
+portraits. Seed pearls, large coarse pearls, and sometimes fine and
+precious ones, were surrounded with gold thread embroidery. Coral was
+so much used in Sicilian embroideries, and so little elsewhere, that
+one gives the name of "Sicilian" to all such work; but occasionally we
+find coral embroideries in Spain and elsewhere (Pl. 32).
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 32.
+    Portion of Dalmatic embroidered by Blanche, Queen of Charles IV.
+        of Bohemia (fifteenth century). The figures in pearls, on a
+        background of beaten gold. Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder."
+        Vol. i. taf. xi.]
+
+Beads of glass were common in Egypt from the earliest times, strung
+together by threads so as to form breastplates rather than necklaces.
+Whence beads originally came we cannot tell, but it seems that the
+Phœnicians dropped them on all the shores of the world. Then, as
+now, savages had a passion for beads, and civilized men and women
+still admire them as trimmings. In the Middle Ages they were sometimes
+worked into pictures.[149]
+
+In as far as materials are essential to the art of embroidery, I must
+restrict myself to the history of silk, wool, flax, cotton, and gold.
+With these all the finest works have been executed for the artistic
+adornment of dress and hangings. All other materials have been
+occasional experiments, or else were resorted to in the absence or
+ignorance of the above five most important factors in our domestic
+civilization. The history of wool must take precedence as being that
+of the original, if not the first, of textile materials.
+
+
+2. WOOL.
+
+The wool of sheep and the hair of goats were used very early in the
+world's history for clothing, and probably also for hangings. The
+earliest civilizations plaited, span,[150] wove, and felted them.
+
+There is no reason to suppose that goats and sheep preceded the
+creation of man. No early fossils record them. Our sheep are supposed
+by zoologists to be descended from the Argali or Ovis Ammon of
+Linnæus, inhabiting the central regions of Asia.[151]
+
+It is possible that plaited grasses may have preceded wool. But though
+certain prehistoric specimens are supposed to have been found in
+Spain, yet of this there is but imperfect proof.
+
+The pastoral tribes wandering over those fair regions that extend from
+Khotan to Arabia, following their flocks and herds, and studying where
+best to feed, increase, and multiply them, and obtain from them the
+finest texture of wool, are spoken of nowhere more than in the
+collected books of the Old Testament, open to us all; and there we
+learn how important a place these shepherds held in the world's
+civilization. "Watching their flocks by night," they watched the stars
+also, and they were astronomers; seeking the best pastures and fodder,
+they learned to be botanists, florists, and agriculturalists. They
+became also philosophers, poets, prophets, and kings.[152] Job and his
+country were enriched through the breeding of sheep. The seven
+daughters of Jethro, the High-priest, tended their father's flocks.
+
+The Arabians were always great breeders of sheep. The Greeks and
+Romans, from Homer to Virgil, sang of the herdsman's life. Our Lord
+Himself did not disdain to be called "the Good Shepherd."[153]
+
+The merchants who traded from the Arabian Gulf to Egypt, and across
+thence to the shores of the Mediterranean, and the Phœnicians of
+Sidon who brought overland their bales of raw material and
+manufactured Oriental fabrics, knew well where to find the best goods
+for their customers; and we hear frequently whence came this or that
+coloured wool. Chemmis, the city of Pan, retained its celebrity in the
+woollen trade down to the conquest of Egypt by the Romans. Nineveh and
+Babylon encouraged the manufactures and commerce in woollen tents,
+wall-hangings, and carpets. Nowhere were they so richly
+embroidered.[154]
+
+Solomon purchased woollens from Egypt. Damascus supplied the Tyrians
+with wool for their rugs. The stuffs and textile fabrics of wool, of
+the Chinese, Assyrians, and Chaldeans, are recorded in the earliest
+writings of the human race. How much their decoration depended on
+weaving, and how much on embroidery, we cannot tell. The products of
+the Babylonian looms are alluded to in the Book of Joshua,[155] and
+also by Ezekiel.[156]
+
+Assyrian stuffs were always celebrated for their splendid colours and
+various designs; among which were hunting scenes, battles, and special
+emblematic adornments.[157]
+
+From Miletus came the wool valued most highly by the Greeks. Spain
+produced the best black, and the north of Italy the best white wool.
+The Narbonensian and Egyptian wools were supposed to be the most
+durable, and when they became shabby, were dipped again and served
+another generation.
+
+From Yates' account of the great variety of wools, remarkable for
+their fine texture, their whiteness,[158] their blackness,[159] or
+their redness, their cool or their warm tints, it is evident that the
+ancients valued highly these different qualities.[160] The cloths that
+were of greatest account were of the finest or the warmest kinds. The
+sheep of Miletus, Attica, Megaris, and Tarentum were clothed in
+jackets, in order to preserve the fineness and whiteness of their own
+coats, and to protect them from being torn by the thorny bushes in
+their pastures. Columella calls them the "covered" and the "soft," and
+says they were often kept in the house.
+
+We find notices of the peculiarities of the various national breeds,
+caused by the soil on which their pasture grew, and the rivers and
+streams at which they drank, and these peculiarities were, if
+possible, encouraged. There is evidence also that some improvement of
+the breeds by crossing was practised in early times.
+
+As in all the life of the Greeks, the religious element had much
+influence in perfecting their flocks of sheep--only the most beautiful
+animals were considered worthy of sacrifice to the gods.
+
+A few of the rare specimens of stuffs which have been rescued from
+tombs, especially in the Crimea, and in the Fayoum, in Egypt, show a
+wool so fine and shining that it might be taken for silk, and the
+beauty of the weaving is marvellous, and much varied in style.
+
+A warrior's tomb in the district of Kuban contained a funeral pall,
+covering the sarcophagus, measuring at least three metres and a half
+each way, woven of brown wool, in twelve narrow strips sewn together
+and afterwards painted. The ground is yellowish, the design brown. The
+figures repeat mythical subjects, and alternate with patterns, and
+there is a border. One strip contains a scene from the story of Peleus
+and Thetis. Apparently this is Attic design. The coloured dresses worn
+by women of rank, and hung on the statues of the gods, were sometimes
+painted, sometimes stamped, and often embroidered, and they were
+nearly all of woollen fabrics.
+
+One of the great advantages of wool is its power of absorbing colour,
+as the pigment sinks into its very fibre, instead of clinging to the
+surface. It can be dyed of deeper colours than flax, cotton, or silk.
+
+Pliny tells us that Tanaquil combed, span, and wove her wool, and she
+herself made the royal mantle which Servius Tullius used to wear, and
+it was covered with a wavy pattern (undulata). Thence came the custom
+that when a maiden became a bride, her attendants carried a distaff
+trimmed with combed wool, and a spindle with yarn upon it. The robes
+worked by Tanaquil were dedicated by Servius Tullius to the statue of
+Fortune in her temple at Rome, and were still hanging there in the
+days of Tiberius.[161] Pliny remarks that it was a wonder that it
+neither fell from the image, nor was eaten by the moths, during five
+hundred and sixty years.
+
+He gives us interesting details of the weaving of woollen cloths, and
+speaks of the thick coarse wool with "great thick hair," used for
+carpets from the time of Homer. The same passage mentions felt. He
+tells us of the cloths with a curly nap, used in the days of Augustus;
+of the "papaverata" woven with flowers resembling poppies; and we hear
+from him of the cloth of divers colours woven in Babylon, and called
+thence Babylonica; and the Alexandrian webs, with many-coloured
+threads (polymita)[162], comparing them with those made in Gaul; and
+those woven by the Parthians.[163]
+
+We have already said that the wool of Miletus was a proverbial
+favourite with the Greeks. Eustathius speaks of the excellence of the
+Milesian carpets and hangings. Virgil represents the virgins of Cyrene
+spinning Milesian wool dyed of a deep sea-green.[164]
+
+In the British Museum is a fragment of Egyptian woollen or worsted
+embroidery on white linen, discoloured by its use as mummy wrapping;
+but the stitches of worsted remain a perfectly clear bright crimson
+and indigo blue. This shows how wool absorbs the colour and retains
+it. Even when the surface is faded, it can be made to emit it again by
+chemical processes.
+
+In tombs in the Crimea have been found variously woven and adorned
+woollen fabrics. There are fragments resembling in their texture a
+fine rep--a sort of corded stuff; another material resembling a
+woollen crêpe, or fine "nun's gauze." This veiled a golden wreath.
+Then there is a stuff like what is now called "atlas"--a kind of
+woollen satin. Some woollens are woven simply like linen; some are
+wide, some very narrow, sewn together in strips, woven in meandering
+designs. One, like a piece of Gobelin tapestry, has a border of ducks
+with yellow wings and dark green heads and throats,[165] and then
+another with a pattern of stags' heads. This description recalls the
+specimens on plate 16 and plate 39.
+
+From these tombs are collected stuffs of wool, woven and embroidered
+in gold with combinations of many colours; and, in fact, through this
+collection, now placed in the Museum at St. Petersburg, we become
+aware that 300 B.C. the Greeks had learned all the secrets of the art
+of weaving wool. They, however, lost it, and it is only in India that
+its continuity was never broken. Indian looms still weave, of the
+finest fleeces, such shawls of Babylonian design as repeat the texture
+of the ancient Greek garments. But were they Greek? or did those
+beautiful woven fabrics come from Persia or India?[166]
+
+The first we know of Scandinavian wool for dress, is a fragment from a
+Celtic barrow in Yorkshire--a woollen plaited shroud. This fabric was
+an advance upon the original northern savage costume--a sheep-skin
+fashioned and sewn with a fish-bone for a needle, sinews for thread,
+and a thorn for a pin. But we must imagine that some use was made,
+besides plaiting, of the spun wool, of which the early northern women
+have left us evidence, in the whorls of their spindles, from
+prehistoric times.
+
+Wool has always appeared to be a natural material for dress. It is
+warm in winter, light in summer, and is always beautiful as it hangs
+in lovely soft draperies, heavy enough to draw the fabric into
+graceful curved lines, and yet capable of yielding to each movement
+in little rippling folds, covering, but not concealing the forms to
+which they cling. Classical draperies are explained by it. What the
+Italians call the "eyes of the folds," are particularly beautiful in
+woollens, and lend themselves to sculpturesque art.
+
+The other natural use of wool is for carpets. We have the evidence of
+the imitations, in mosaic, of carpets from the stone floors in Nineveh
+(now in the British Museum), that the art of weaving large and small
+rugs, and the principles of composition for such purposes was at that
+date well understood. The carpet-weaving traditions of Babylon appear
+to have been inherited by the occupiers of the soil, as it is supposed
+that the Saracens learned from Persia the art of weaving pile carpets,
+and imported thence craftsmen into Spain. We can trace Persian carpet
+patterns in Indian floor coverings. The Greeks called them _tapetes_;
+and the Latins adopted the name; and hence the Italian _tapeti_,
+French _tapis_, and our word tapestry.
+
+As artistic material, to which the world owes much beauty and comfort,
+woollens have always played a great part in the decorations of our
+houses, as of our garments. Fabrics have been made of them of every
+description, from the cheapest and commonest to the most refined; but
+if woollen stuffs are to be beautiful, they must be _fine_, and worked
+or embroidered by hand.
+
+Woollens brocaded or figured are not so effective as silken hangings.
+Woollen velvets are without light, dull and heavy. Still, even amongst
+our English fabrics, there have always been varieties of texture[167]
+and adaptations to different effects, and some are beautiful.
+
+Worsted thread, so called from Worsted, in Norfolk, where the
+materials for weaving and embroidering are manufactured, has always
+been very important in embroidery. Worsteds after a time gave way to a
+very beautiful material, called "German wool," which again has yielded
+the supremacy to "crewels"[168] (resembling the old worsteds). These
+crewels are nearly the same in substance and in their loose texture as
+the threads prepared from wool for tapestry weaving.
+
+We may claim, in England, the superiority in this manufacture, though
+we are constantly receiving from France novelties which give us good
+hints, and urge us to keep pace with the science of the Gobelins in
+their woollen dyes. The French, in return, employ our wools,
+especially those of Lincolnshire, in their tapestry workshops.
+
+The wool and hair of goats should be a study by itself. They have from
+the earliest times been used in India for the finest and softest
+fabrics, such as the lovely shawls of Cashmere and the neighbouring
+provinces. Cloth of Tars in the Middle Ages is supposed to be what is
+now called Cashmere.
+
+
+3. FLAX.
+
+Boyd Dawkins tells us that "The art of spinning and the manufacture of
+linen were introduced into Europe in the Neolithic age, and have been
+preserved with little variation from that period to the present day,
+in certain remote parts of Europe, having only been superseded in
+modern times by the complicated machinery so familiar to us. The
+spindle and distaff, or perforated spindle whorls, are of stone,
+pottery, or bone, such as are constantly found in Neolithic tombs and
+habitations. Thread from the Swiss lake cities is proved to be of
+flax, and there is evidence of weaving in some sort of loom."[169]
+
+The meaning of the word Byssus has been disputed; some authorities
+asserting that it includes both flax and cotton fabrics. Without the
+aid of the microscope, the dispute as to whether the material of the
+Egyptian mummy wrappings was cotton or flax, or a mixture of the two,
+would never have been settled; but now that the difference of the
+structure of each has been clearly ascertained, we know that cotton
+was never employed in Egypt, except for certain domestic uses. The
+mummy wrappings are entirely linen. Cotton was forbidden for the
+priests' dress in the temple, though they might wear it when not on
+duty.[170]
+
+There are specimens of Egyptian painted or printed patterns on fine
+linen in the British Museum;[171] and it is curious to see in Egyptian
+mural paintings the same patterned chintzes on furniture that were
+common a hundred years ago in England. Both must have come from India,
+and therefore were certainly cotton fabrics.
+
+Herodotus says the mummy cloths were of "byssine sindon," which may be
+translated "linen cloth."[172] Cotton he calls "tree wool."
+
+Yates has carefully argued the whole question, and, we think, has
+proved that byssus was flax, and not cotton.[173] He quotes Philo,
+who certainly must have believed that it was made of flax, from the
+description he gives of its appearance and qualities, which in no way
+apply to cotton or hemp. He says that "The Jewish high priests wore a
+linen garment of the purest byssus--which was a symbol of firmness,
+incorruption, and of the clearest splendour, for fine linen is very
+difficult to tear. It is made of nothing mortal, and becomes brighter
+and more resembling light, the more it is cleansed by washing."[174]
+
+Here is another quotation: "Cloth of byssus symbolizes firm faith. Its
+threads surpass even ropes of broom in firmness and strength."[175]
+Pliny says the flax grown in Egypt was superior to any other, and it
+was exported to Arabia and India.[176] The first known existing
+fragment of flax linen in Europe was taken from the tomb of the Seven
+Brothers in the Crimea. Its date is 300 B.C.
+
+In Solomon's time the Jews evidently depended upon Egypt for their
+fine linen. Herodotus describes the corselet of Amasis, the fineness
+of the linen, and the embroidered decorations of men and animals,
+partly gold and partly tree wool (i.e. cotton).[177]
+
+All the finest linen certainly came then from Egypt, and was much
+finer than any that is now made. That we call cambric, was woven there
+many centuries before it was made in Cambray.[178]
+
+Through the Phœnicians the fine linen came to Rome, as appears
+from the following notice of embroidery on linen by Flavius Vopiscus,
+in his "Life of the Emperor Carinus:" "Why should I mention the linen
+cloths brought from Tyre and Sidon, which are so thin as to be
+transparent, which glow with purple, or are prized on account of their
+laborious embroideries?"[179]
+
+The history of a fine embroidered linen curtain for a Roman house
+might have been this:--Grown in Egypt; carried to Nomenticum (Artois),
+and there woven; taken to India to be embroidered, and thence as
+merchandise to Rome.
+
+While flax was making its way northward, the Celts must also have
+taken it across Europe from their resting-place, after emigrating from
+the East. The word _linen_--_lin-white_--is a Celtic epithet, whereas
+_flax_ is an Anglo-Saxon word.[180]
+
+The Atrebates wove linen in Artois, 1800 years ago. Jerome speaks of
+their "indumenta," or shirts of fine linen; and the great weavers of
+to-day are still the Flemish descendants of the Atrebates. Their
+Celtic descent is witnessed in the Irish by their superiority in the
+crafts of the loom.
+
+The fine laces of Venice, France, and Belgium are all of linen, i.e.
+flaxen thread. Clearness and strength in these delicate fabrics cannot
+be obtained with cotton, which, especially when it is washed, swells
+and fluffs, and never has the radiant appearance and purity of flax.
+
+Embroidery is always a natural accompaniment of fine linen. Those that
+are still preserved to us from early and Middle-Age times are nearly
+all on linen, if not on silk. The woollen fragments are very few and
+imperfect. They have been invariably "fretted" by the moth.
+
+White needle embroidery is mostly worked in linen-thread, though
+cotton-thread has been used a great deal, and is very fit for the
+purpose.
+
+
+4. COTTON.
+
+Cotton was native to India,[181] as flax was to Egypt. It not only was
+grown, woven, and printed there from the remotest antiquity, but was
+cultivated nowhere else. The Egyptians do not appear to have grown it
+till the fourteenth century A.D., though they had long imported it as
+raw material, and as plain and printed webs.[182] It was called
+tree-wool.
+
+It was first woven in Italy in the thirteenth century, and used for
+making paper; and in the sixteenth, the plant was grown in the south
+of Europe. From Italy it was carried into the Low Countries, and only
+reached England in the seventeenth century,[183] so lately has the
+great staple of our manufactures first belonged to us.
+
+The fibre of cotton has neither the strength nor the durability of
+flax or silk, but it is the third in the group of the most universally
+qualified materials for all purposes of domestic textile art, ranging
+from carpets and sails, to fine chintzes for dress, and filmy muslins.
+The cloudy effect of these delicate fabrics is their own peculiar
+beauty. Muslins for hangings, printed or embroidered, have always
+been a luxury from India; they were called "carbasa," and were much
+esteemed in Rome as a protection against the sun.[184]
+
+But we have much earlier notice of them, as being the curtains
+described in the Book of Esther, hung with silver rings to the pillars
+of marble in the banqueting hall at Susa or Shushan: "blue and white
+muslin" (i.e. carpas,[185] mistranslated "green" in the Authorized
+Version), "fastened with cords of fine linen and purple."
+
+The word "carbasina" occurs in a play by Statius, evidently translated
+from a writer of the new Greek comedy period. It may be inferred,
+therefore, that the Greeks used cotton 200 B.C.[186] A century before,
+Nearchus (one of Alexander's admirals) speaks of the cotton-trees in
+India as if they were a new discovery. Yates gives us many quotations
+from Latin classical authors, proving the common use of cotton. Its
+Latin name was _bambacinum_, from _bombax_, hence the Italian
+_bambagio_, _bambagino_, _bambasino_.
+
+The variety of cotton fabrics in India is very numerous, each having
+its distinctive beauties and qualities inherited by tradition from
+early times. They are enumerated and described in Sir G. Birdwood's
+"Arts of India." Almost all of them have been made to carry
+embroideries--the transparent muslins,[187] as well as the fine
+cloths, and the stronger and thicker fabrics.[188]
+
+Most old English houses contain some hangings of thickly woven cotton,
+probably Indian, worked in crewel or worsted, of the time of James I.,
+or a little earlier; and beautiful patterns wrought in silk or thread,
+on fine cotton linen, reminding one of the arabesques of the Taj
+Mahal, succeeded those of the Jacobean style.
+
+Transparent muslins were often embroidered in gold and silver, or
+spangled and embossed with beetles' wings; and gold, silver, and silk
+were lavished on Indian cotton grounds, as well as on silken stuffs.
+Linen was not much embroidered in India, but often printed like
+chintz.
+
+Buckram, or plush of cotton, was certainly imported from the East to
+England, from the thirteenth century to the time of Elizabeth. There
+is at Ashridge, in Hertfordshire, a small jacket of very fine
+cotton-plush amongst the baby linen prepared by Elizabeth for the
+expected heir of Philip and Mary, and there are other small dresses of
+this material of the date of James I. A similar material called
+fustian is also named by Marco Polo as a cotton fabric; it is supposed
+to have been made in Egypt by the Arabs. This sort of cotton-plush,
+variously manipulated, is repeatedly mentioned by Herr Graf'schen in
+his "Catalogue of Egyptian Textiles from the Fayoum."
+
+Plano Carpini says the tunics of the Tartars were "bacramo," or else
+of baudichin (cloth of gold). Falstaff's "men in buckram" may be thus
+explained.[189]
+
+I have already said that cotton is inferior in its qualities to silk
+and flax, except in the production of transparent muslins. Its
+peculiarity is its tendency to "crinkle" or crumple in wearing,
+therefore it does not present a smooth flat surface, except by means
+of dressing, which unfits it for clinging effects but suits printed
+patterns. Such stuffs as workhouse sheeting, imitating certain fabrics
+of the sixteenth century, and which it has been the fashion of late to
+cover with embroidery, do not repay, by effective beauty, the trouble
+bestowed upon them.
+
+
+5. GOLD.
+
+A somewhat profane French writer, giving his ideas on the Creation,
+says that gold, the latest metal, was expressly created for the
+demoralization of mankind. This is an ugly version of the fact that it
+is found on the surface of the earth's crust, and that its beauty and
+worth makes it a desirable possession for which men will ever contend.
+
+Gold adorns every work of the artistic animal--man. It is the most
+becoming setting to all other beautiful things, the most gorgeous
+reflection of light and colour, the richest and softest background,
+the most harmonious medium for high lights. In all works of decoration
+it represents sunshine where it is not, and doubles it where it is.
+The word "illumination" in books belongs to the gilded illustrations
+of immortal thoughts.
+
+In embroideries, as grounding or as pattern, gold gives the glory:
+"Her clothing is of wrought gold." The raiment of needlework is
+comparatively ineffective without golden lights or background. As
+colour, it never can offend the eye, except when used to accentuate
+aggressively a vulgar pattern, or when it flashes and dazzles from
+over-polish and too lavish expenditure.
+
+Silver follows gold as a splendid element in decoration,[190] but it
+is not of such universal application and use; and when employed
+together, the proportion of gold should preponderate. Golden tissues
+belong to the earliest civilizations.
+
+Sir G. Birdwood says that "The art of gold brocades is older than the
+Code of Manu.... The excellence of the art passed in the long course
+of ages, from one place to another; and Babylon, Tarsus, Alexandria,
+Baghdad, Damascus, Antioch, Tabriz, Sicily, and Tripoli successively
+became celebrated for their gold and silver-wrought tissues, silks,
+and brocades.... Through every disguise (and mingling of style) it is
+not impossible to infer the essential identity of the brocades with
+the fabrics of blue, purple, and scarlet, worked in gold, of ancient
+Babylonian art."[191]
+
+The Israelites wove gold with their coloured woollens for the use of
+the sanctuary, and probably brought the art from Egypt; though I am
+not aware of any gold-woven stuffs from Egyptian tombs.[192]
+
+Indian and Chinese stuffs were from time immemorial woven with gold.
+
+The historians of Alexander the Great continually name gold as a
+material in dress.[193] Arrian, Justin, and Quintus Curtius, all speak
+of golden tissues as part of the luxury of the East.
+
+We hear of Darius' dress woven with golden hawks; and of the golden
+spoils of Persepolis; the dresses worn by Alexander's generals, and
+all his attendants clothed in purple and gold. Then, perhaps, the
+Babylonian tradition was brought to Europe; and ever after, purple and
+gold became the state apparel for courtiers as well as kings.[194]
+
+The hangings of scarlet, purple, and gold used at the nuptials of
+Alexander, and at his funeral, and his pall of the same material, point
+to the fact that gold was a recognized element in splendid textile
+weaving, as well as in the earliest ornamental embroideries.[195]
+
+Attalus II., king of Pergamus, was credited with being the inventor of
+gold weaving, but this must have been a mistake, as it was practised
+long before his time; but he may have devised some splendid golden
+tissues, which were called "Attalic," in honour of the king's
+patronage.[196] As, however, the gold flat plate or wire was probably
+that woven before his time,[197] it is possible that he may have
+invented or patronized the making of thread of gold, by twining it
+round flax or cotton.[198]
+
+Pliny says gold may be woven or spun like wool without any admixture
+of wool or flax,[199] and he quotes as examples the golden garment of
+Agrippina, and that worn by Tarquinius Priscus, mentioned by Verrius.
+
+It appears that the Egyptians knew the art of drawing gold wire, as
+some pieces have been found in their jewellery;[200] but we know not
+by what process it was worked, either then, or in the dark ages.
+
+A mechanic of Nuremberg, in the fourteenth century, invented a machine
+for the purpose; and this art of drawing wire was introduced into
+England 200 years later, in 1560.
+
+The pure cut gold was in use in Rome to a late date.[201] St. Cecilia,
+martyred 230 A.D., was buried with her golden mantle lying at her
+feet; and in 821, when Pope Pascal opened her grave, he found the
+evidence of her martyrdom in that splendid garment, showing that it
+had been soaked in blood.[202]
+
+There were found under the foundations of the new Basilica of St.
+Peter's, the bodies of Probus Anicius and his wife, Proba Faltonia, in
+a wrapping of gold.
+
+Dr. Rock gives us more examples,[203] but we will only add that of the
+wife of the Emperor Honorius, who in the year 400 A.D. was buried in
+a golden dress, which in 1544 was removed from her grave, and being
+melted, weighed 36 lbs.[204]
+
+The Anglo-Saxon tomb opened at Chessell Down, in the Isle of Wight,
+contained fragments of a garment or wrapping woven with flat gold
+"plate." These remains are now in the British Museum.
+
+Childeric was buried at Tournai, 485 A.D., and his dress of strips of
+pure gold was discovered and melted in 1653. But gold _thread_ also
+was then very generally used in weaving gold tissues.
+
+Claudian describes a Christian lady, Proba, in the fourth century,
+preparing the consular robes for her two sons on their being raised to
+the consulate:[205]--
+
+    "The joyful mother plies her knowing hands,
+    And works on all the trabea golden bands;
+    Draws the thin strips to all the length of gold,
+    _To make the metal meaner threads enfold_."
+
+Pure gold was woven in the dark ages in England. St. Cuthbert's
+maniple at Durham is of pure gold thread. John Garland says the ladies
+wove golden cingulæ in the thirteenth century; and Henry I., according
+to Hoveden, was clothed in a robe of state of woven gold and gems of
+almost "divine splendour."[206]
+
+A wrapping of beautiful gold brocade covered the coffin of Henry III.
+when his tomb was opened in 1871.[207]
+
+The cope of St. Andrew at Aix, in Switzerland, is embroidered in a
+very simple pattern, with large circles containing St. Andrew's
+crosses.[208] This is worked in silver wire gilt, and is Byzantine of
+the twelfth century.
+
+In the writings of the Middle Ages we find constant reference to
+different golden fabrics. Among them are "samit" or "examitur" (a
+six-thread silk stuff, preciously inwoven with gold threads);[209] and
+"ciclatoun,"[210] which was remarkable for the lightness of its
+texture, and was woven with shining gold threads--but though light, it
+was stiff enough to carry heavy embroidery. We hear also of
+"baudekin," "nak," and cloth of pall. "Camoca" is "kincob."
+
+There appears to be a link between embroidery in gold and the
+jewellers' work which in the Dark and Middle Ages was so often applied
+to ecclesiastical and royal dress and hangings. This link was beaten
+gold work, "aurobacutos," "beaten work," or "batony."[211] Beauchamp,
+Earl of Warwick in the time of Henry VI., went over to France, having
+a "coat for my lord's body, beat with fine gold (probably heraldic
+designs). For his ship, a streamer forty yards long and eight broad,
+with a great bear and griffin, and 400 'pencils' with the 'ragged
+staff' in silver." This mode lasted some time; for in 1538, Barbara
+Mason bequeathed to a church a "vestment of green silk beaten with
+gold." Probably this beaten gold was really very thick gold-leaf laid
+on the silk or linen ground, as we see still in some Sicilian and Arab
+tissues. The embroidered banners taken from Charles le Téméraire, at
+Grandson, are finished with broad borders of gilded inscriptions, such
+as might be called beaten gold work.[212]
+
+But besides this thick gold-leaf, there was another mode of enriching
+embroideries. Laminæ of gold were cut into shapes, and finished the
+work by accentuating the design in Eastern embroideries; They are
+found also in Greek tombs, and in the Middle Ages they varied from the
+little golden spangle to many other forms--circular rings, stars,
+crescents, moons, leaves, and solid pendant wedges of gold, all which
+approached the art of the goldsmith.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 19.
+    Spangles.]
+
+Enamel was soon added to the enrichment of these golden spangles,
+plates, or discs, which were enlarged to receive a design.[213] Of
+this style of embellishment we know none so striking as the saddle in
+the Museum at Munich, said to have been taken from a Turkish general
+in the fifteenth century. This is Italian of the finest cinque-cento
+style: blue velvet, covered with beautiful gold embroidery, and
+every vacant space filled with spangles of endless forms, and of
+precious goldsmiths' and enamellers' work. The Persian stirrups
+attached to it are of a totally different style of enamelling and
+jewellery, and speak for themselves, and for the school they came
+from.[214]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 33.
+    Window Hanging, by Gentil Bellini, from a Portrait of Mahomet II.,
+        property of Sir H. Layard.]
+
+Dr. Rock describes part of a chasuble wrought by Isabella of Spain and
+her maids of honour, in which the flowing design is worked out in
+small moulded spangles of gold and silver, set so as to overlap each
+other and give the effect of scales.
+
+To a late period, gold and silver embroideries, enriched with
+spangles, have been lavished on the head-dresses and stomachers of the
+peasantry throughout the north of Europe and Switzerland.[215]
+
+Pearls and gems, either threaded like beads, or in golden settings,
+are to be studied in the early pictures of the German and French
+schools; and the Anglo-Saxons excelled in such enrichments.
+
+Sir Henry Layard has a portrait of the fifteenth century, of the
+Sultan Mahomet II., by Gentil Bellini, from which has been copied the
+accompanying beautiful embroidered design of a window-hanging.[216]
+The grace of the lines, and the delicate taste with which the gems are
+set in the work, are a lesson in art (pl. 33).
+
+India sent to Europe more art in gold thread than has ever been
+produced amongst us from our own workshops.[217]
+
+The people of Goa, mostly Arabs, embroidered for the Portuguese those
+wonderful fabrics, glittering with gold and radiant with colours,
+which cover the beds and hang the rooms throughout Portugal and
+Spain.[218] The precious metals (often forming the whole grounding)
+were employed without stint; the patterns being either embroidered in
+coloured silks and gold; or on velvets or satins, with gold alone or
+mixed with silver.
+
+The fine gold threads for embroidery, which have preserved their
+brilliancy for so many centuries, such as we find worked in
+Charlemagne's dalmatic, in Aelfled's maniple, and in the mitres of
+Thomas à Becket, are certainly Oriental. To England they came in the
+bales of the merchants who brought us our silk, and even our needles,
+from India. Later we imported and copied the different ways of giving
+effect to inferior metals, and the Spaniard's gilt parchment thread
+reached us from their Moorish manufactories.[219]
+
+Designs were sometimes, in the sixteenth century, worked in gold
+twisted with coloured silks, sometimes only stitched down with them.
+The badges of the Order of the Dragon, instituted by the Emperor
+Sigismund, were thus embroidered, and placed on the cloaks of the
+knights. The work was so perfect that it resembled jewels of enamelled
+gold. Two ancient ones are in the Museum at Munich.
+
+Gold or silver or base metal wire was, in the later Middle Ages and
+down to our own times, much employed in the form of what is called
+"purl," i.e. coiled wire cut into short lengths, threaded on silk, and
+sewn down. German, Italian, and English embroideries were often
+enriched with this fabric. Sometimes the wire was twisted with
+coloured silks before it was coiled. There are beautiful specimens of
+this work of the days of Queen Elizabeth.
+
+Still, throughout Europe the best works were carried out with the best
+materials, and these always came from the East. But we sometimes find
+that the pressure of circumstances has for a time caused the
+employment of adulterated metals that have perished; and thus many
+fine works of art have been spoiled.[220]
+
+The use of bad materials has therefore been as unfortunate for art as
+that of pure gold, which has tempted so many ignorant persons to burn
+golden embroideries and tapestries, and melt down the ore they
+contain. How little of all that human skill and invention have
+carefully elaborated is now preserved to us! To gold and silver
+textiles their materials have been often a fatal dower.
+
+It has sometimes puzzled any but the most experienced embroiderers to
+distinguish between the stuffs woven with the golden threads on the
+surface, and finely brocaded or patterned in the loom; and those other
+cloths, embroidered by hand, which have been so manipulated that
+hardly an atom of the gold can be detected at the back. This is done
+by a technical mode of treating the surface, which is more easily
+shown than described. The gold is really drawn into the spaces between
+the threads of the canvas or linen grounding, but never pulled
+through. For many reasons this is an advantage, and when executed
+cunningly, as it was in England in the twelfth century, it is rich,
+beautiful, lasting, and economical. It is a peculiar mark of the "opus
+Anglicanum," and it is to be seen in the mitre at Munich, where this
+stitch is employed on a white satin ground;[221] also in the working
+of the two pluvials at San Giovanni Laterano at Rome, and at the
+Museum at Bologna, as well as that at Madrid, which are all three
+English of the thirteenth century, by design as well as by stitches.
+
+I cannot close this chapter without naming the many schools of gold
+embroidery in Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. The King of
+Bavaria has an establishment for gold work, and this is very finely
+carried out, highly raised, and richly designed.[222] In Spain there
+is also a Royal School, where stately works are executed.
+
+It is to be regretted that the modern designs are motiveless, and not
+so beautiful as the old ones, and it is very difficult to have any
+ancient piece of work copied exactly. Little modernisms creep in
+wherever the pattern has to be fitted into a new shape; for the
+accomplished needlewoman is seldom an artist.
+
+All honour is due to certain manufacturers at Lyons who are working in
+the spirit of the old masters, and have been seriously considering how
+best to reproduce the beautiful soft surface of the gold thread of
+which the secret was lost in the fifteenth century.[223]
+
+The old Chinese flat gold was, about the sixteenth century, superseded
+by what was manufactured in Spain, and is no longer imported or,
+perhaps, even made.
+
+
+6. SILK.
+
+The origin and history of silk is learnedly and elaborately discussed
+in Yates' "Textrinum Antiquorum." He gives us his authorities, and
+literal translations for the benefit of the unlearned, who cannot read
+the original texts. I have availed myself without hesitation of his
+quotations, and of the carefully considered opinions he has drawn from
+them.
+
+It has been already said that wool and flax preceded silk in Egyptian,
+Greek, and Roman manufactures. There is no certain mention of silk in
+the Books of the Old Testament.[224] Silk is, however, named in the
+Code of Manu.[225]
+
+No shred of silk has been found in any Egyptian tomb, nor till
+lately, and with one exception only, in those of the Greeks.
+
+Auberville says, "La soie ne fit son apparition en Europe que 300 ans
+avant notre ère."[226]
+
+Pamphile, daughter of Plates, of Cos, is said by Aristotle to have
+there first woven silk (300 B.C.). Probably raw silk was brought to
+Cos from the interior of Asia, and Pamphile is by some supposed to
+have "effilèd" the solid manufactured silks, and woven them again into
+gauzy webs. Yates suggests that it is possible that Pamphile obtained
+cocoons and unwound them, as the passage in Aristotle may be so
+interpreted.
+
+The specimen of early silk-weaving which we have above alluded to, was
+taken out of the "Tomb of the Seven Brothers" at Kertch, in the
+Crimea, and is of the third century B.C. It consists of several bits
+of very transparent painted silk. These fragments are an actual and
+yet a contemporary witness to the truth of the tradition of Pamphile's
+Coan webs, which are of the same date: possibly they were her
+handiwork.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 34.
+    1. Classical Silk. Greek. (Semper's "Der Stil," p. 192.) 2.
+        Classical Silk. Roman. (Auberville, pl. 4.)]
+
+Whether Pamphile's silk gauzes were the only fine webs of Cos,[227] is
+a disputed question. She has the credit of being the first to clothe
+victorious generals in triumphal garments, and she has been
+immortalized by her cleverness and industry. Both Aristotle and Pliny
+assert that she first invented the Coan webs, and that some of them
+were of silk is undoubted. The question is, How came it there?
+whence and by what route? and what country was its original home and
+birthplace?
+
+After stating the _pros_ and _cons_ of the question, how and where did
+silk first make its appearance, Sir G. Birdwood concludes that both
+the worm and the cocoon were known to the Greeks and Romans, by report
+and rare specimens, from the time of Alexander's return from his
+Indian campaign.[228]
+
+Of course the remains of these fabrics are extremely scarce; and, in
+fact, only two are at present known to me besides the Kertch specimen.
+The first is given in Semper's "Der Stil," and is evidently classical
+Greek or Roman; but the silk material might have been effilèd from an
+Oriental stuff (pl. 34, No. 1). The second must have been originally a
+Roman pattern, modified by the Persian loom in which it was woven.
+This may have been a Roman triumphal robe of the date of Julius Cæsar
+(pl. 34, No. 2).
+
+It is clear that Chinese silken stuffs were not generally known in
+Southern Europe till the time of Julius Cæsar, who displayed a
+profusion of silks in some of his splendid theatrical representations.
+
+How silk first arrived from the East is disputed; some say it came by
+the Red Sea, and other authorities believe it was brought from China,
+_viâ_ Persia, by land.
+
+But it is not necessary that it should have entered our civilization
+by only one gate. The Periplus Maris Erythræi makes frequent mention
+of the trade in silks, through India, by the Indus to the coasts of
+the Erythrean Sea. They were also brought through Bactria to Barygaza,
+near Surat, from a city called Thina (China?). The author of the
+Periplus, of course, refers to some place in the country vaguely
+called Serica.[229]
+
+That the trade which brought it into Europe was difficult and
+limited, is proved by the fact that silk continued, even as late as
+the third century of our era, to be an article of luxury, of which the
+manufacture and use continued to be the subject of legal enactments
+and restrictions, for 600 years after Pamphile's first essay in
+silk-weaving in Cos.
+
+"The Seres" was the name given by the ancients to the nation which
+produced silk; and it was undoubtedly that accepted for the distant
+region now called China, including Corea, and later, the kingdom of
+Khotan. The first mention of these people as a distinct nation is by
+Mela (iii. 7), who speaks of them as an "honest people, who bring what
+they have to sell, and return for their payments."[230]
+
+The prevailing idea amongst the Greeks was that silk was combed from
+the trees. Seneca says:--
+
+    "Nor with Mæonian needle mark the web,
+    Gathered by Eastern Seres from the trees."
+
+              Seneca the Tragedian, "Herc. Ætæus," 644.[231]
+
+This was, till lately, believed to be only a fiction, intended to hide
+the truth and enhance the value of the new Coan material. But it is
+now ascertained that some of the wild silk in China is carried by the
+silkworm round the trees, wrapping them up, as it were, in large,
+untidy cocoons; so that, as usual, tradition had truth for its
+foundation.
+
+There was always much mysterious report about the new material.
+Dionysius Periegetes tells of a barbarous people called the Seres,
+who "renounce the care of sheep and oxen, but who comb the coloured
+flowers of the desert, and with them produce woven precious stuffs, of
+which they make figured garments, resembling the flowers of the field
+in beauty, and in texture the web of the spider."[232]
+
+There is no doubt that as Egypt was the first to weave linen, and
+India to produce cotton textiles, so in China originated the material
+of silk and its manufacture.
+
+M. Terrien de la Couperie, who has deciphered the Archaic books of the
+Chinese Records, sees there excellent linguistic proofs that the
+Chinese nation was originally a fragment of the first Babylonian
+civilization. He there finds that when these Accadians arrived on the
+furthest eastern coast of Asia, they met with and enslaved an
+aboriginal race, who already cultivated the silkworm, and wove and
+worked its produce, and were called by them "the Embroiderers."[233]
+
+This is supposed to have been an historical event contemporary with
+the life of Abraham, and, therefore, 5000 years old.
+
+The Chinese say that Tekin or Sin, the son of Japhet, instructed his
+children in painting, sculpture, and embroidery, and in the art of
+preparing _silk_ for different woven fabrics.[234]
+
+Whether we are justified or not in believing in so very early a date,
+at any rate we must remember that it is now ascertained that silk was
+used in China 2600 years before our era.
+
+Auberville says there is a legend that the Empress Si-ling-chi[235]
+(2600 B.C.) had the happy inspiration to invent the unwinding of the
+cocoon before the insect cut the threads; and for this discovery she
+was placed among the divinities.
+
+Before her time, they had certainly for more than 300 years used the
+precious material in its mutilated condition.[236]
+
+Some centuries later the Emperor Chan received tribute in linens and
+silken stuffs. Tissues of many colours were painted or richly
+embroidered.[237]
+
+In the second century A.D., a prince of Khotan,[238] Kiu-sa-tan-na,
+was desirous of obtaining from China the eggs of the silkworm, but his
+request was refused; and it was prohibited that either eggs of the
+silkworm or seed of mulberry-trees should cross the border.
+
+Then the King of Khotan asked for a Chinese princess in marriage, and
+this favour being granted, he found means to inform the lady privately
+that in her future kingdom she would find no silk to weave or work.
+The dread of such an aimless life roused all her womanly instincts.
+Defiance of the law, love of smuggling, and the wish to please her
+husband and benefit her future people, gave her courage to conceal the
+eggs and seeds in the folds of her dress and the meshes of her
+beautiful hair, and so she carried a most precious dower into her
+adopted country.[239] Thus was broken the spell which for more than
+3000 years had confined the secret of China within the fence of its
+wonderful wall; and later on, A.D. 530, the eggs were brought to
+Byzantium.[240]
+
+From China, therefore, comes our silk.[241] We may say it is traced to
+the beginning; but how far back had the archæologist to grope before
+he could find it!
+
+I transcribe a few more quotations from Yates' translations and
+authorities.[242]
+
+In the Hippolytus of Euripides, 383, Phædra _loquitur_:--
+
+    "Remove, ye maids, the vests whose tissue glares
+    With purple and with gold; far be the red
+    Of Syrian murex; this the shining thread
+    Which furthest Seres gathers from the boughs."
+
+Lucan describes the transparent material which veiled Cleopatra's
+form:--
+
+    "Her snowy breast shines through Sidonian threads,
+    First by the comb of distant Seres struck;
+    Divided then by Egypt's skilful hand,
+    And with embroidery transparent made."
+
+Pliny's account of silk and its manufacture is mostly fanciful, though
+founded on half-known facts.
+
+The Latin poets of the Augustan age speak of silk attire with other
+luxurious customs from the East.[243] The Roman senate, in the reign
+of Tiberius, decreed that only women should wear silk, on account of
+its effeminacy.
+
+Silk was accumulated for the wardrobes of the empresses till A.D.
+176, when Marcus Aurelius, "the Philosopher," sold all the imperial
+ornaments and the silken robes of his empress by auction in the Forum
+of Trajan.[244]
+
+We learn that silk was precious and fabulously esteemed to the end of
+the second century A.D.; but it is seldom mentioned in the third
+century.
+
+Ælius Lampridius speaks of a silken cord with which to hang himself,
+as an imperial extravagance on the part of Heliogabalus (and of this
+only one strand was silk); and he mentions that Alexander Severus
+rarely allowed himself a dress of silk (holosericum), and only gave
+away robes of partly silken substance.
+
+Flavius Vopiscus says that Aurelian had no dress wholly of silk
+(holosericum).[245] His wife begged him to allow her a shawl of purple
+silk, and he replied, "Far be it from me to permit thread to be
+reckoned worth its weight in gold!"--for a pound of gold was then
+worth a pound of silk.
+
+Flavius Vopiscus further states that the Emperor Carinus, however,
+gave away silken garments, as well as dresses of gold and silver, to
+Greek artificers, players, wrestlers, and musicians.[246]
+
+Yates gives us a translation of an edict of Diocletian, giving a
+maximum of prices for articles in common use in the Roman empire. It
+reads like a tailor's or a dress-maker's bill of to-day:--
+
+                                                             DENARII.
+  To the tailor, for lining a fine vest                         6
+  To the same, for an opening of an edging of silk             50
+  To the same, for an opening and an edging of a mixed
+    tissue of silk and flax                                    30
+  For an edging of a coarser vest                               4[247]
+
+A monument at Tivoli is erected to the memory of his estimable wife,
+Valeria Chrysis, by "M. N. Poculus, silk manufacturer." This was
+probably an imperial office in the fourth century.[248]
+
+From the first to the sixth centuries, poets and historians
+continually speak of silk,[249] praising its beauty or blaming it as
+extravagance or luxury; but according to Yates, all the information we
+collect from these sources requires to be tested as to accuracy, and
+is often erroneous.
+
+I have spoken of the first silk-weaving in Cos, 300 B.C. The first
+arrival of the silkworm in Europe was in the sixth century, 900 years
+later. Cosmas Indicopleustes and another monk brought eggs from China
+in the hollow staves they carried in their hands. This was a great
+event in European commerce. The eggs were solemnly presented to the
+Emperor Justinian, and the monopoly of their cultivation is to be
+found in his law-ordaining codex.[250]
+
+The monopoly of the silk manufactures was confined to the area of the
+imperial palace of Constantinople, but the cultivation of the worm
+gradually spread over Greece, Asia Minor, and India.
+
+The first allusion to the use of silk in the Christian Church is by
+Gregory Nazianzen (A.D. 370), "Ad Hellenium pro Monarchis Carmen:"
+"Silver and gold some bring to God, or the fine thread by Seres
+spun."[251] Basil illustrates the idea of the resurrection by the
+birth of the butterfly from the cocoon.[252]
+
+Paul the Silentiary (A.D. 562) alludes to the frequent use of silk in
+the priests' vestments at the Church of St. Sophia at Constantinople.
+
+Bede relates that the first Abbot of Wearmouth went to Rome for the
+fifth time in A.D. 685, and brought back with him two scarves or palls
+of incomparable workmanship, and entirely of silk, with which he
+purchased land of three families at the mouth of the Wear. Bede's own
+remains were wrapped in silk.
+
+Auberville gives us, in his "Tissus," specimens of Roman silks between
+the first and seventh centuries, but he cannot fix their exact
+date.[253]
+
+The finest webs of Holosericum from the imperial looms were generally
+bestowed upon the Church, and thus consecrated, the earliest
+ascertained specimens that have survived have been preserved; and of
+these, most have been found in the tombs of saints, bishops, and kings
+who were buried in priestly as well as in royal garments.[254]
+
+Among the silk and satin fabrics, the tissue called "Imperial" is
+mentioned by several early English authors. Roger de Wendover and
+Matthew Paris describe the apparition of King John as clad in "royal
+robes of Imperial."[255] William de Magna Villa brought from Greece,
+in 1170, a stuff called Imperial, "marbled" or variegated, and covered
+with lions woven in gold.
+
+In the Eastern Empire, this industry after a time fell into the hands
+of the Jews; and in 1161, Benjamin of Tudela says the city of Thebes
+contained about 2000 Jewish silk-weavers.
+
+The breeding of the worm in Europe seems to have been confined to
+Greece from the time of Justinian to the twelfth century; but in 1148,
+Roger, King of Sicily, brought as prisoners of war, from Corinth,
+Thebes, and Athens, many silk-weavers, and settled them at Palermo.
+"Then might be seen Corinthians and Thebans of both sexes, employed in
+weaving velvet stoles interwoven with gold, and serving like the
+Eretrians of old among the Persians."[256]
+
+Hugh Falcandus[257] has left a description of the Royal manufactory at
+Palermo, and the Hotel de Tiraz which absorbed all the smaller
+Saracenic factories already started. The Hotel de Tiraz had four
+great workshops, in which were separately carried on the weaving of
+plain tissues, velvets, examits and satins, and flowered stuffs
+(damasks), and lastly, gold brocades and embroideries. It was from the
+last that proceeded the real works of art, and the embroideries with
+pearls and precious stones.[258] The highest efforts of the loom were
+apparently finished with the needle,[259] as in the figured textiles
+of Egypt.
+
+The continuity of Sicilian textile designs from the sixth to the
+sixteenth centuries (a thousand years) is very remarkable. Owing to
+its originally strongly stamped Oriental character, great knowledge of
+the arts of weaving, spinning, and dyeing silk is required to enable
+any one to assign an exact date to materials which only remodelled
+their style three times.
+
+Dr. Rock's rules for deciphering these three dates may, however, be
+easily learned, as they are broad and simple. In his comprehensive
+"Introduction to the Textiles in the Kensington Museum" (p. lxvii) he
+says that the three defined periods of silk-weaving in Sicily are:
+First, from the time of Justinian to the Hohenstaufen (from the sixth
+to the twelfth century); secondly, from the accession of Frederick I.
+(Barbarossa), 1152, to Charles IV., 1347 (twelfth to fourteenth
+centuries); the third period is of one century only, from 1347 to
+1456.
+
+The first period especially shows African animals, such as the giraffe
+and the different kinds of antelopes, mixed with Arabian mottoes; and
+the patterns are generally woven with gold. This is merely gilt
+parchment, the silk being mingled with cotton.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 35.
+    Peacock Pattern. Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.]
+
+The second period, beginning in the twelfth century, shows the arrival
+of Count Roger's Persian and Greek workmen, captives from Thebes,
+Corinth, and Athens. The fresh designs show fragments of Greek taste,
+such as masks and foliage, and give one a slight foretaste of the
+Renaissance.[260]
+
+These semi-classical echoes are contemporary in the Sicilian looms
+with such Norman motives as a crowned sovereign riding with a hawk
+upon his wrist.
+
+This description singularly applies to the relics removed from the
+tomb of St. Cuthbert, at Durham, in 1827; among which are fragments of
+three wrappings, or garments of silk, so suggestive of the artistic
+traditions of many nationalities, and the long descent of patterns,
+recognizable after the lapse of centuries, that a description of them,
+accompanied by illustrations, can hardly fail to be interesting. They
+are all now reduced by time to a rich golden brown, though there are
+indications that blue, green, and red have been woven into their
+fabric, and there are also on one of them traces of gilding. The first
+(plate 35) shows Oriental conventional peacocks, double-headed and
+collared, framed within circles which slightly intersect each other,
+thus giving the opportunity for varying the original motive by
+breaking up the rolling arabesqued pattern, and uniting the stems and
+flowers contained in the border. The spaces between the circles are
+filled in with gryphons in pairs, of the Babylonian stamp, thick
+limbed with strongly-marked muscles. There is a border or guimp,
+Persian in character, in which are small crosses surmounting
+repetitions of the crenelated pattern found in Assyrian ornament.
+
+The second piece of silk contains a large rosace. Scattered about it
+are repetitions of the Persian leaf or tree of life, and the border
+consists of kneeling hares or fawns between a Persian arabesque and a
+corded line. The mixture of Egyptian and Assyrian styles is remarkable
+throughout, till we come to the centre of the rosace, where we find a
+most incongruous man in armour on horseback with a hawk on his wrist,
+giving the Norman stamp of the reigning house and influence in Sicily.
+The central subject is exactly repeated on an embroidered twelfth
+century chasuble in the treasury of the Cathedral of Bamberg, only
+that a royal crown and robes are worn by the horseman (pl. 36).[261]
+
+The third specimen is the most noteworthy (plate 37). There is nothing
+of Assyrian here, but it reminds one of Egyptian and Greek art, and at
+once suggests Count Roger's Greek slaves at the Sicilian looms, but
+the design is probably of a much earlier date, and the subject is
+puzzling. A piece of drapery resembling an Egyptian sail with its
+fringes[262] (pl. 38) is looped up on each side to the head of a
+thyrsus, and above it hangs a large cluster of fruits. The lower part
+of the drapery rests upon water, and is somewhat like a boat, with
+ducks swimming towards it, and fish disporting themselves in the
+rippling waves. Between the circles the ducks are repeated, facing a
+shield enriched with rows of the crenelated pattern surmounted by a
+vine.
+
+These fragments have belonged each to a very large and freely woven
+silk shawl or mantle. The circles are about two feet across. There is
+a different arrangement of the threads in each web, giving different
+fine diapers, and the last described has a raised pattern which might
+have been intended to represent water.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 36.
+    NORMAN AND PERSIAN TYPE.
+    A Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 37.
+    GRÆCO-EGYPTIAN STYLE.
+    A Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 38.
+    Boat with coloured sail, from the tomb of Rameses III. at Thebes.
+        (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," iii. p. 211.) Explanatory of
+        the design on St. Cuthbert's silk shroud, pl. 37.]
+
+It is most likely that in the twelfth century, or even a little
+later, the body of St. Cuthbert was wrapped in these shawls, and so
+left when at the Reformation, his shrine was destroyed, and the coffer
+containing his remains buried in the same place, and piously concealed
+till our own day. I shall describe the beautiful embroideries in which
+the body had been clothed in the tenth century when I come to the
+subject of English work.
+
+The third period of silk-weaving art is unmistakably Sicilian. At the
+end of the thirteenth century and beginning of the fourteenth, Palermo
+struck out her own line. The Greek cross appears in various forms. The
+designs are of a wonderful richness and capricious ingenuity. They
+show alike Asiatic, African, and European animals, and every kind of
+mythological creature--griffins, dragons, dogs, and harts, with large
+wings; swans, pheasants, and eagles, single or double-headed, often
+pecking at the sun's rays; beautifully drawn foliage and flowers, and
+heraldic emblems and coats-of-arms. One peculiarity of the third
+period is the frequent use of green patterns on "murrey"-coloured
+grounds.
+
+All this splendour of design was commonly lavished on poor material.
+The silks continued to be mixed with cotton, and the gold, or rather
+the gilding, was so base that it has almost always become black on the
+foundation strips of parchment or paper.[263]
+
+The heraldic silks are mostly of the time of the Crusades, when the
+distinguished pilgrims and warriors, especially the English, made
+Sicily their half-way house to the Holy Land, and brought from thence
+fabrics woven to suit their tastes. In Auberville's book we find,
+under the dates of many centuries, the most remarkable fragments now
+known. On portrait-tombs and in some very ancient pictures are figured
+beautiful silks woven in gold, which are recognizable at once by their
+Arab-Sicilian style. Of this type, the remarkable fragment of the
+dress of Richard II., in the Kensington Museum, dates itself, by
+carrying the cognizances of his grandfather and his mother, and the
+portrait of his dog Math.[264]
+
+The last period of the Sicilian silks is especially marked by the
+inscriptions being mostly nonsense, and only woven in as ornament,
+with the forms of Arab lettering.[265]
+
+Sir G. Birdwood says that whether the Saracens found the manufacture
+of silk already established in India or not, they certainly influenced
+the decorative designs. He adds that kincobs are now woven at
+Ahmedabad and Benares, identical in design with the old Sicilian
+brocades; while the Saracenic Sicilian silks abound in patterns which
+prove their origin in Assyrian, Sassanian, or Indian art.
+
+We know that the Saracens introduced colonies of Persian, and probably
+Indian workmen into Spain, after the beginning of the ninth century,
+to assist them in their architecture and textile manufactures, and in
+return the Mogul emperors of Delhi invited many Italian and French
+designers into India.
+
+The Taj and other buildings in Rajpootana are decorated with exquisite
+mosaics coeval with those of Austin of Bordeaux. Their styles of art
+in textiles, and in other materials, have acted and reacted upon each
+other; and nothing throws more light on the affinities and the
+development of the modern decorative arts of Europe than the history
+of the introduction, under Justinian, of the silk manufactures from
+the East into the West.[266]
+
+From Palermo, all the stages of the manufacture of silk spread
+themselves over Italy and into Spain. According to Nicolo Tegrini, the
+flourishing silk-weavers of Lucca having been ejected from the city in
+the early part of the fourteenth century, carried their art elsewhere,
+and even to Germany, France, and Britain.[267]
+
+Italian weavers went to Lyons in 1450, and so started the silk
+industry that it has steadily increased till now. It gives employment
+to about 31,000 looms and 240,000 workpeople of both sexes.
+
+The Moors, when they overflowed into Iberia, carried with them all
+their Orientalisms, traditions, manufactures, and designs; thus
+disobeying their prophet, who forbade the use of silk except to women.
+
+Senhor F. de Riano tells us that from the ninth to the eleventh
+centuries, Spain was producing fine silk tissues. The Moorish
+Cordovese writer, Ash-Shakandi, who lived in the beginning of the
+thirteenth century, says, "Malaga is famous for its manufactures of
+silks of all colours and patterns, some of which are so rich that a
+suit made of them will cost many thousands. Such are the brocades with
+beautiful designs and the names of the Caliphs, Ameers, and other
+wealthy people woven into them."[268]
+
+The same author, speaking of the manufactures of silk at Almeria, says
+that thence came the brightest colours; and Al-Makhari adds a list of
+precious silk tissues, naming the "Tiraz," the "Iscalaton," and the
+robes called each by its own special name.[269] Ash-Shakandi also
+mentions the looms of Murcia, and its carpets.[270]
+
+When the Moors were driven from Spain, the silk works of Malaga and
+Almeria were ruined. But those of Valencia became famous, and flourish
+to this day. Talavera della Reina also produces fine ecclesiastical
+fabrics, and at Toledo the ancient traditions are preserved, and they
+still weave sixteenth-century designs.
+
+In Italy, Genoa, Florence, and Milan followed the Sicilian silk
+manufactures, and each has left specimens of the craft, of which Rock
+has pointed out the marked individualities.
+
+The rich stuffs with inscriptions inwoven in gold, in the Middle Ages,
+were called "literatis."
+
+The designs of Lucca at first imitated the Moorish Sicilian type; and
+introduced as their speciality, white figures, such as angels in white
+garments, and exchanged the Oriental intricate patterns for a bolder
+and simpler style.
+
+Venice, of course, also showed at first the Oriental impress; but she
+soon struck out a line of her own; and her especial invention was
+shown in weaving, from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries,
+square pieces of silken tissue, representing sacred subjects.
+
+Florentine tissues, especially their velvet and gold brocades, were
+particularly splendid, and can be recognized by the loops of gold
+thread drawn to the surface and left there. Of these early Florentine
+gold brocades we have still beautiful examples in the palls of our
+City companies and in ancient ecclesiastical vestments. The loops of
+gold have been the custom since the thirteenth century, and still
+prevail in certain traditional fabrics, for instance, in the banners
+woven annually for the prizes at the horse races in Florence. The
+Corsini family, who have for many generations and for hundreds of
+years competed in these races, had, in their princely palace at Rome,
+a room entirely hung with the silk of these gorgeous banners.
+
+In Hungary, Queen Gisela, in the eleventh century, established looms
+for weaving silk; and many convents throughout Europe and in England
+wove silken tissues for the service of the Church, till the great
+manufactures absorbed these partially private enterprises.[271]
+
+Individual exertion produced copies, or motives that are taken from
+Eastern, Southern, or Northern inspirations; but it is only in large
+national schools of arts or crafts that an absolutely recognizable
+style becomes apparent. For example, the early French silks from
+monastic establishments are not remarkable for either style or texture
+till the sixteenth century, when they came to the front as a national
+manufacture, and have held the highest place in silk-weaving ever
+since.
+
+The Flemish towns of Ypres, Ghent, and Mechlin were known for their
+silken webs in the thirteenth century, and at that time innumerable
+small schools of the craft seem to have covered Europe. They are
+constantly named in the lists of fine furnishings in Germany. In
+England, France, and Germany, as well as in the Low Countries, each
+convent had, besides its silk-weaving looms, its workshops for
+embroideries on silk, woollens, and linens, borrowing from the
+Byzantine Empire, Sicily, and Spain, their designs and patterns.
+
+About this time (the thirteenth century), Marco Polo resided and
+travelled in Asia. He visited the principal cities of Syria, Persia,
+Khotan, and Cathay, and from him we have information of the different
+Asiatic textiles, generally bearing the name of the city where they
+were woven. He names, for instance, the mediæval "baudas" and
+"baudakin" (with endless modifications in the spelling), from Baghdad.
+This afterwards gave the word baldachino to the awning or canopy over
+the altar, which it retained even when textiles had given place to
+marbles and mosaics.[272]
+
+Satin is only found named in catalogues about the fourteenth century.
+But the dalmatic of Charlemagne, at Rome, is embroidered on a stout
+blue satin, and has never been transferred; and at Constantinople,
+Baldwin II., at his coronation in 1204, was shod and clothed in
+vermilion satin embroidered with jewels; while all the Venetian and
+French barons present were clad in satin.[273] Semper and Bock believe
+that it had been a Chinese material long before it reached Europe.
+
+Satin was often called "blattin," in connection with the colour of the
+cochineal insect (blatta), whose dye was invariably used for satin. We
+cannot tell, however, which was certainly named from the other.[274]
+
+In the poem of "The Lady of the Fountain," translated by Lady
+Charlotte Guest from the Welsh ballads of the thirteenth century, silk
+and satin are often named. At the opening of the poem, King Arthur is
+described seated on a throne of rushes, covered with a flame-coloured
+satin cloth, and with a red satin cushion under his elbow.
+
+Fiery red was the orthodox colour for satin. In old German poems we
+find it described as "pfellat," always as being fiery. One kind of
+pfellat was called salamander.[275] Bruges satins were the most
+esteemed in the Middle Ages. Chaucer speaks of "satin riche and
+newe."[276]
+
+Satin and velvet are the contrasting silken materials. In satin the
+threads are laid along so that the shining surface ripples with every
+ray of sunshine, and the shadows are melted into half-lights by the
+reflections from every fold. It makes a dazzling garment, splendid in
+its radiant sheen; whereas in velvet, where each thread is placed
+upright and shorn smoothly, all light is absorbed and there are no
+reflections, and the whole effects are solemn, rich, and deep.[277]
+Some of the oldest velvets resemble plush in the length of their pile,
+and have not the dignity of velvet.
+
+Semper, from the different derivations that have been suggested,
+selects the connection of the word "velvet" (German, _Felbert_) with
+"welf," the skin or fur of an animal.[278]
+
+Among the gifts to Charlemagne (ninth century) from Haroun el Raschid
+were velvets; and the earliest existing specimen we know of is named
+by Bock as being in the Pergament Codex at Le Puy, in Vendôme, where,
+amongst other curious interleaved specimens of weaving, is a fine
+piece of shorn silk velvet.[279]
+
+Marco Polo, in the thirteenth century, frequently speaks of velvet as
+an Asiatic fabric. It is first known as a European textile in Lucca,
+about 1295, and we may therefore say that it was imported from the
+East.[280]
+
+In the next chapter on colour I have noticed the curious fact that the
+word purple was sometimes used to mean colour, and sometimes to
+express the texture of velvet, thus confounding the two; but I have
+also pointed out that it had other meanings, and had become a very
+comprehensive word for everything that expressed richness and warmth.
+
+While examining and judging embroideries, we must be careful not to
+be deceived by the different dates often occurring in the grounding
+and the applied materials. Much embroidery was worked on fabrics that
+were already old and even worn out; and others have been transferred
+centuries ago, and perhaps more than once, to fresh grounds.[281]
+
+This sometimes causes a good deal of difficulty in dating specimens.
+One should begin by ascertaining whether the needlework was originally
+intended to be cut out (_opus consutum_), and so laid on a ground of
+another material, and worked down and finished there.
+
+Of course it is always evident and easily ascertained, whether the
+work has been transferred at all. If so--and from each succeeding
+transference--small fragments may be found showing on the cut edges.
+You will often see remains of two or more of these layers, reminding
+you of the three Trojan cities dug up at different depths under each
+other at Hissarlik.
+
+In judging each specimen the acumen of the expert is needed to obtain
+a correct opinion, and he should not only be an archæologist, but a
+botanist and a herald besides;[282] and, in fact, no kind of knowledge
+is useless in deciphering the secrets of human art. But even when so
+armed, he is often checked and puzzled by some accidental caprice of
+design or mode of weaving, and after wasting trouble and time, has to
+cast it aside as defying classification.
+
+It is, however, as well to note these exceptions, as, when compared,
+they sometimes explain each other.
+
+What I have said regards, of course, the historical and archæological
+side of the study of textiles, and I have treated of them as being
+either the origin or the imitations of different styles of embroidery,
+and so inseparably connected with the art which is the subject and
+motive of this book; and not only in this does the connection between
+them exist, but in the fact that as embroideries always need a ground,
+silken and other textiles are an absolute necessity to their
+existence.
+
+For these reasons alone I have given this chapter on materials, short
+and imperfect, but suggesting further research into the writings of
+the authors I have quoted, and, I hope, exciting the interest of the
+reader.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [130] Periplus of the Erythrean Sea.
+
+    [131] It is described by Yates as having the appearance
+    of a flat ribbon, with the edges thickened like a hem.
+
+    [132] This rough bark is probably the reason that it
+    absorbs colour into its substance (perhaps under the
+    scales); and it may also account for its being capable
+    of felting.
+
+    [133] It may be laid down as a fundamental rule in
+    technical style, that the product shall preserve the
+    peculiar characteristics of the raw material.
+    Unfortunately, the artist is often ignorant of the
+    qualities of the fabric for which he is designing, and
+    the workman who has to carry it out is a mechanic, in
+    these days, instead of a craftsman.
+
+    [134] Molochinus, or malva silvestris (wild hemp),
+    Yates, pp. 292-317, is sometimes spoken of as a mallow,
+    sometimes as a nettle. In the Vocabulary of Papias (A.D.
+    1050) it is said that the cloth called molocina is made
+    from thread of mallow, and used for dress in Egypt.
+    Garments of molochinus were brought from India,
+    according to the Periplus (see Pliny, 146, 166, 170,
+    171). It was seldom used by the ancients, but both
+    Greeks and Romans made it serve for mats and ropes. The
+    Thracians wove of it garments and sheets. It is not
+    named in the Scriptures.
+
+    [135] See Gibbs' "British Honduras."
+
+    [136] Spartum was a rush. Pliny says it was used for the
+    rigging of ships.
+
+    [137] The bark of trees such as the Hybiscus Tiliaceus,
+    and that of the Birch (see Yates, p. 305-6). Birch bark
+    was embroidered, till latterly, by the Indian women in
+    North America with porcupines' quills. Pigafetta says
+    (writing in the sixteenth century) that in the kingdom
+    of Congo many different kinds of stuff were manufactured
+    from the palm-tree fibre. He instances cloths on which
+    patterns were wrought, and likewise a material
+    resembling "velvet on both sides."
+
+    [138] "Camoca" or caman in the Middle Ages is supposed
+    to have been of camels' hair, mixed with silk. Edward
+    the Black Prince left to his confessor his bed of red
+    caman, with his arms embroidered on each corner. Rock
+    (p. xliv) gives us information about the tents and
+    garments of camels' hair found throughout the East,
+    wherever the camel flourishes and has a fine hairy
+    winter coat, which it sheds in the heat. The coarser
+    parts are used for common purposes, and the finest serve
+    for beautiful fabrics, especially shawls. Marco Polo
+    tells of beautiful camelots manufactured from the hair
+    of camels; and of the Egyptian coarse and very fine
+    fabrics woven of the same materials.
+
+    [139] "Le Chevalier à Deux Epées" (quoted by Dr. Rock),
+    and Lady Wilton, "Art of Needlework," p. 128.
+
+    [140] See p. 359, _post_, for Boadicea's dress.
+
+    [141] See Mr. Villiers Stuart's "Funeral Tent of an
+    Egyptian Queen."
+
+    [142] The Moors in Spain excelled in leather-work and
+    embroidery upon it; and Marco Polo describes the
+    beautiful productions of the province of Guzerat, of
+    leather inlaid and embroidered with gold and silver
+    wire. Yule's "Marco Polo," p. 383.
+
+    [143] See chapter on Stitches.
+
+    [144] See Chardin, vol. i. p. 31.
+
+    [145] Tin, called "laton," was used to debase the metal
+    threads in the Middle Ages. It is also named as a
+    legitimate material for metal embroideries.
+
+    [146] For all information about asbestos, see Yates, pp.
+    356, 565.
+
+    [147] There is one at the Barberini Palace at Rome. A
+    sheet, woven of asbestos, found in a tomb outside the
+    Porta Maggiore, is described by Sir J. E. Smith in his
+    "Tour on the Continent" (vol. ii. p. 201) as being
+    coarsely spun, but as soft and pliant as silk. "We set
+    fire to it, and the same part being repeatedly burnt,
+    was not at all injured."
+
+    [148] See Yule's "Marco Polo," vol. i. pp. 215, 218, and
+    Yates, p. 361.
+
+    [149] There are specimens of bead-work pictures at St.
+    Stephen's at Coire, in the Marien-Kirche at Dantzic, and
+    elsewhere. See Rock, p. cv. This is, in fact, mosaic in
+    textiles, without cement.
+
+    [150] Witness the stone whorls for the spindles in our
+    prehistoric barrows, and the "heaps" of the lake cities.
+
+    [151] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 129.
+
+    [152] An Egyptian Dynasty called themselves the Shepherd
+    Kings.
+
+    [153] Yates gives endless quotations to show how ancient
+    and how honourable an occupation was that of tending
+    sheep.
+
+    [154] Semper, i. p. 139. The cover of the bed on which
+    was laid the golden coffin in the tomb of Cyrus was of
+    Babylonian tapestry of wool; the carpet beneath it was
+    woven of the finest wrought purple. Plautus mentions
+    Babylonian hangings and embroidered tapestries. See
+    Birdwood's "Indian Arts," i. p. 286.
+
+    [155] Joshua vii.
+
+    [156] Ezekiel xxvii. 22.
+
+    [157] Semper, "Der Stil," i. p. 138.
+
+    [158] Yates, pp. 79, 91, 93, 99, 102, 445. Lanæ Albæ.
+
+        "The first, Apulia's; next is Parma's boast;
+        And the third fleece Altinum has engrossed."
+
+                                      Martial, xiv. Ep. 155.
+
+    Martial also speaks of the matchless Tarentine togæ, a
+    present from Parthenius:--
+
+        "With thee the lily and the privet pale
+        Compared, and Tibur's whitest ivory fail;
+        The Spartan swan, the Paphian doves deplore
+        Their hue, and pearls on the Erythrean shore."
+
+                                      Martial, viii. Ep. 28.
+
+    [159] The sheep of Tarentum, from the days of the Greek
+    colonists, were famed, as they are still, for the warm
+    brown tints on their black wool. Pliny says that this is
+    caused by the weed _fumio_, on which they browsed.
+    Swinburne says, in his "Travels in the Two Sicilies,"
+    that there the wool is so tinged by the plant now called
+    _fumolo_, which grows on the coast.
+
+    [160] See Blümner's "Technologie," p. 92; also "Comptes
+    Rendus de la Commission Impériale Archéologique" of St.
+    Petersburg, 1881; also the Catalogue Raisonnée of Herr
+    Graf'schen's Egyptian Collection of Textiles at Vienna.
+
+    [161] See Pliny's "Natural History," viii. 74, § 191.
+    Tanaquil is credited with the first invention of the
+    seamless coat or cassock.
+
+    [162] The Gauls in Britain wove plaids or tartans. See
+    Rock, p. xii; Blümner, pp. 152-54; Birdwood, p. 286.
+
+    [163] Pliny, "Natural History," book viii., 73, 74.
+
+    [164] "Georgics," iv. 334; Yates, p. 35.
+
+    [165] "Comptes Rendus de la Commission Impériale
+    Archéologique," St. Petersburg, 1881. Much of this
+    Gobelin weaving has lately been found in Egypt. See
+    "Katalog der Teodor Graf'schen Fünde in Ægypten," von
+    Dr. J. Karabacek.
+
+    [166] Semper considers that the famous Babylonian and
+    Phrygian stuffs were all woollen, and that gold was
+    woven or embroidered on them. See "Der Stil," i. p. 138.
+
+    [167] Worcester cloth was forbidden to the Benedictines
+    by a Chapter of that Order at Westminster Abbey in 1422,
+    as being fine enough for soldiers, and therefore too
+    good for monks. See Rock's Introduction, p. lxxviii.
+
+    [168] Both these fabrics are represented in Egyptian and
+    Greek fragments, and are equally well preserved.
+
+    [169] Boyd Dawkins, "Early Man in Britain," pp. 268,
+    275.
+
+    [170] See Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," vol. iii. p.
+    116; Yates, p. 23.
+
+    [171] It appears that the art of printing textiles was
+    known in Egypt in the time of Pliny. See Yates, p. 272,
+    quoting Apuleius, Met. l. xi.; also see Wilkinson,
+    "Ancient Egyptians," vol. ii. p. 196, pl. xii.
+
+    [172] See Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 268, 335;
+    Herodotus, ii. 86. Herodotus and Strabo speak of
+    Babylonian linen, cited by Yates, p. 281.
+
+    [173] "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 267-80. A peculiarity
+    of Egyptian linen is that it was often woven with more
+    threads in the warp than in the woof. A specimen in the
+    Indian Museum, South Kensington, shows in its delicate
+    texture 140 threads in the inch to the warp, and 64 to
+    the woof. Another piece of fine linen has 270 to the
+    warp, and 110 to the woof. Generally there are twice or
+    three times as many threads, but sometimes even four
+    times the number. Wilkinson gives a probable reason for
+    this peculiarity. See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians,"
+    vol. i. chap. ix. pp. 121-226. See Rock's Introduction,
+    p. xiv.
+
+    [174] De Somniis, vol. i. p. 653. Yates, p. 271.
+
+    [175] Philo, cited by Yates, p. 271.
+
+    [176] Paulinus ad Cytherium, cited by Yates, p. 273.
+
+    [177] Herodotus, l. ii. c. 182, l. iii. c. 47.
+    Rawlinson's Trans.
+
+    [178] Proverbs vii. 16.
+
+    [179] Yates, p. 291. Denon describes a tunic found in a
+    sarcophagus, which he examined, and says: "The weaving
+    was extremely loose, of thread as fine as a hair, of two
+    strands of twisted flax fibre."--Auberville's "Ornement
+    des Tissus," p. 4. Some marvellously fine specimens of
+    such cambric may be seen at the South Kensington Museum
+    and the British Museum.
+
+    [180] Not that we have any remains of flax linen from
+    their tombs.
+
+    [181] It was carried thence, at a prehistoric date, to
+    Assyria and Egypt.
+
+    [182] There is no proof that it was grown in Egypt till
+    the fourteenth century A.D., when it is mentioned for
+    the first time in a MS. of that date of the "Codex
+    Antwerpianus." See Yates, Appendix E, p. 470.
+
+    [183] Birdwood, p. 241.
+
+    [184] Puggaree. Yates says that cotton has always been
+    supposed to be the best preserver against sunstroke, p.
+    341.
+
+    [185] _Carpas_, the proper Oriental name for cotton, is
+    found in the same sense in the Sanskrit, Arabic, and
+    Persian languages. Yates, p. 341.
+
+    [186] In the Æneid, the garment of Chloreus the Phrygian
+    is thus described:--
+
+        "His saffron chlamys, and each rustling fold
+        Of muslin (_carpas_), was confined with glittering gold."
+
+                                             Æneid, xi. 775.
+
+    [187] Dakka muslins are the most esteemed. Their poetic
+    names, "running water," "woven air," "evening dew," are
+    more descriptive than pages of prose. See Birdwood, ii.
+    p. 259.
+
+    [188] Chintzes, calicoes, fine cloths, and strong
+    tent-cloths, cotton carpets, &c., &c. Forbes Watson
+    classifies the calicoes as being white, bleached and
+    unbleached, striped, &c., printed chintzes, or
+    pintadoes. See Birdwood, p. 260.
+
+    [189] For Buckram and Fustian, see Rock, pp. lxxxv,
+    lxxxvi. In Lady Burgeweny's (Abergavenny) will, 1434,
+    she leaves as part of the furnishings of her bed "of
+    gold of swan," two pairs of sheets of Raine (Rennes),
+    and a pair of fustian. Anne Boleyn's list of clothes
+    contains "Bokerams, for lining and taynting," gowns,
+    sleeves, cloaks, and beds. Rock, lxxxvi. Renouard, in
+    his "Romaunce Dictionary," quotes the following: "Vestæ
+    de Polpia e de Bisso qui est bacaram." For the antiquity
+    of this fabric, see Herr Graf'schen's Catalogue of
+    Textiles from the Fayoum.
+
+    [190] See Yates, p. 300, citing "Herod's silver
+    apparel."
+
+    [191] "Indian Arts," ii. p. 237.
+
+    [192] Rock, p. xxv. Yates (p. 3) says they cut their
+    gold for wearing apparel into thin plates, and did not
+    draw it into wire, as it is translated in the Vulgate
+    (Exodus xxxix.). The ephod made by Bezaleel was of fine
+    linen, gold, violet, purple, and scarlet, twice dyed,
+    with embroidered work. This tradition must have guided
+    the artist who designed the ephod in the National Museum
+    at Munich, in the seventeenth century, for a prince
+    boy-bishop.
+
+    [193] Quintus Curtius says that many thousands, clothed
+    in these costly materials, crowded out of Damascus to
+    meet Alexander.
+
+    [194] There is a very ancient local tradition at ShÅ­sh,
+    that A.D. 640, in the reign of the Kaliph Omar, the body
+    of the prophet Daniel was found, wrapped in cloth of
+    gold, in a stone coffin; and, by order of the victorious
+    general, it was placed in one of glass, and moored to
+    the bridge which spanned the branch of the Euphrates
+    flowing between the two halves of the city, so that the
+    waters flowed over it. See "Chaldea and Susiana," by
+    Loftus, and Sir G. W. Gore Ouseley's translation of a
+    Persian version of "The Book of  Victories." Alexander is
+    said to have been buried in a glass coffin. (See
+    Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," ii. p. 102, note †.)
+
+    [195] Yates, pp. 367-70; Rock, p. xxvi.
+
+    [196] "Aura intexere eadem Asiâ invenit Attalus Rex unde
+    nomen Attalicis."--Pliny, viii. c. 48, and Yates, p.
+    371. The reign of Attalus II. was B.C. 159-188.
+
+    [197] "And they did beat the gold into plates, and cut
+    it into wires, and work it into the blue, and the
+    purple, and the fine linen."--Exod. xxxix.
+
+    [198] See Yates, p. 371; and Bock, xxxiii.
+
+    [199] Pliny, xxxiii. In the Museum at Leyden there is a
+    shred of gold cloth found in a tomb at Tarquinia, in
+    Etruria. This is a compactly woven covering over bright
+    yellow silk.
+
+    [200] Gold wire is still worked through leather at
+    Guzerat. See Birdwood, p. 284, Ed. 1880. Marco Polo
+    mentions this embroidery 600 years ago. Bk. iii. chap.
+    xxvi. (Yule). The hunting cuirass of Assurbanipal (pl.
+    1) appears to be so worked, and of such materials. Also
+    see Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," vol. iii. p. 130.
+    This gold for weaving was beaten into shape with
+    hammers.
+
+    [201] Pope Eutichinus, in the third century, buried many
+    martyrs in golden robes.
+
+    [202] "Liber Pontificalis," t. ii. p. 332.
+
+    [203] See Rock, pp. xxvii, xxxv; and Parker's "Use of
+    the Levitical Colours," p. 49.
+
+    [204] See Yates, p. 376.
+
+    [205] Rock, p. xxxv. The toga picta, or trabea, part of
+    the official dress of her sons.
+
+    [206] Hoveden's "Annal." p. 481, Ed. Savile; Rock, p.
+    xxx.
+
+    [207] See "Archæologia," 1880, pp. 317, 322; also Pl.
+    74, No. 20 (_post_).
+
+    [208] Bock, "L. Gewänder," taf. ix. vol. i.
+
+    [209] Rock, p. xxxvii.
+
+    [210] Ciclatoun, according to Rock, p. xxxix, is a
+    common Persian name for such tissues in the East. This,
+    in common with nasick, nak, and many other beautiful
+    tissues, was wrought in gold with figures of birds and
+    beasts.--Yule's "Marco Polo," ed. 1875, i. p. 65.
+
+    Dr. Rock quotes the old ballad,--
+
+        "In a robe right royall bowne,
+        Of a red ciclatoune,
+          Be her fader's syde;
+        A coronall on her hede sett,
+        Her clothes with byrdes of gold were bette
+          All about for pryde."
+
+    [211] In St. Paul's in London there was formerly an
+    amice adorned with the figures of two bishops and a
+    king, hammered out of silver, and gilt. Dugdale, ed.
+    1818, p. 318. See also Rock, pp. xxix-xxxii.
+
+    [212] Museum at Berne.
+
+    [213] A piece of Venetian work to be seen at the South
+    Kensington Museum is an altar frontal, worked in coral,
+    gold beads, seed pearls, and spangles. All jewellers'
+    work, including enamel, was much admired and introduced
+    into their embroideries. (See Rock's Introduction to
+    Catalogue of the Kensington Museum, pp. civ-cviii, ed.
+    1870.)
+
+    [214] On this gorgeous piece of Italian art there are
+    added a number of buttons (for we can give them no other
+    name), with crosses and hearts under crystal, which seem
+    to have belonged to another period and workmanship, or
+    else are to be attributed to a superstitious feeling on
+    the part of the maker, who placed these Christian signs,
+    perhaps, surreptitiously, and for the good of his own
+    soul.
+
+    [215] The Museum of National Art at Munich has a fine
+    collection of gold and silver, spangled, and black bead
+    head-dresses, now mostly antiquated, though in peasant
+    dress it yet survives.
+
+    [216] It is embroidered in gold, with red silk and gems;
+    and I have elsewhere said that it probably issued from
+    the Hotel de Tiraz at Messina.
+
+    [217] Terry, in his "Voyage to the East Indies," speaks
+    of the rich carpets (p. 128): "The ground of some of
+    these is silver or gold, about which such arabesques in
+    flowers and figures as I have before named are most
+    excellently disposed."
+
+    [218] These of late years have been the most gorgeous
+    objects at exhibitions of old needlework, and the
+    ambition and despair of collectors.
+
+    [219] Gold thread was also made of gilt paper, equally
+    by the Moors and the Japanese.
+
+    [220] In Aikin's "Life of James I.," p. 205, we have a
+    curious account of the monopoly of gold thread, that had
+    been granted, with others, to George Villiers, Duke of
+    Buckingham. The thread was so scandalously debased with
+    copper as to corrode the hands of the artificers, and
+    even the flesh of those who wore it. This adulterated
+    article they sold at an exorbitant price, and if they
+    detected any one making a cheaper or better article,
+    they were empowered to fine or imprison them, while a
+    clause in their patent protected themselves. The
+    manufacturers of this base metal thread were two
+    Frenchmen, Mompesson and Michel, and Edward Villiers,
+    the Marquis' brother, was one of the firm. Doubtless
+    they drove for a time a roaring trade, as gold
+    embroideries were then universally worn, both by men and
+    women; but the House of Commons interfered, and the
+    monopoly was abolished.
+
+    [221] Mitre of white satin, with two figure subjects in
+    flat gold--the martyrdom of St. Stephen, and that of St.
+    Thomas of Canterbury.
+
+    [222] The School of Gold Embroidery at Munich produces
+    work of a richness and precision which has, perhaps,
+    never been excelled. The raised parts of the design are
+    first cast in soft hollow "carton," and the gold is
+    worked on it and into the recesses with the help of a
+    fine stiletto, which pioneers the needle for each
+    stitch. This is embroidery "on the stamp," but without
+    padding.
+
+    [223] Bock, "L. Gewänder," vol. i. p. 48. Prizes are
+    offered at Lyons for the best mode of manufacturing gold
+    and silver thread that will not tarnish.
+
+    [224] Yates says, pp. 160-162: "Whether silk was
+    mentioned in the Old Testament cannot, perhaps, be
+    determined. After fully considering the subject,
+    Braunius decides against silk being known to the Hebrews
+    in ancient times ('De Vestitu Heb. Sacerdotum,' i. c.
+    viii.)." The contrary opinion is founded on the passage,
+    "I clothed thee with broidered work, and shod thee with
+    badger-skins. I girded thee about with fine linen, and
+    covered thee with silk" (_meshi_).--Ezekiel xvi. But the
+    translation is disputed.
+
+    [225] "Code of Manu," xi. 168; xii. 64. Yates,
+    "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 204.
+
+    [226] Auberville, "Ornement des Tissus," p. ii.
+
+    [227] Yates (pp. 173, 174) believes that "Cos" should
+    always be read for Cios, about which there seems to be
+    some confusion. Chios has also been substituted for the
+    name of "Cos," the island.
+
+    There is no doubt that the Roman ladies obtained their
+    most splendid garments from Cos--perhaps of wool as well
+    as of silk.
+
+    [228] Birdwood, "Textile Arts of India," ii. p. 269.
+
+    [229] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 204.
+
+    [230] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," note (*), p. 184.
+    Aristotle (fourth century B.C.), however, had already
+    given evidence respecting the use of silk, which was
+    adopted and repeated by Pliny, Clemens Alexandrinus, and
+    Basil. Aristotle tells the story of Pamphile. One
+    thousand years later Procopius (sixth century A.D.) says
+    the raw material was then brought from the East, and
+    woven in the Phœnician cities of Tyre and Berytus.
+    See Yates, pp. 163, 164.
+
+    [231] Ibid., note (*), p. 184.
+
+    [232] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 181.
+
+    [233] I have mentioned this already, to prove the
+    antiquity of the art of embroidery. Here I repeat it in
+    reference to the first mention of silk. (See p. 38
+    _ante_.)
+
+    [234] "Bibliothèque Orientale de M. Herbelot," ed. 1778,
+    vol. iii. p. 19.
+
+    [235] Auberville, p. 2; Yates (pp. 172, 173) calls her
+    Si-ling, wife of Hoang-ti, and quotes the "Resumé des
+    Principaux Tractes Chinois," traduits par Stanislas
+    Julien, 1837, pp. 67, 68.
+
+    [236] Auberville, "Histoire des Tissus," pp. 2-4; "Du
+    Halde," vol. ii. pp. 355, 356 (8vo edition, London,
+    1736).
+
+    [237] Related by Klaproth, the Russian Orientalist.
+
+    [238] Yates, p. 238. "History of Khotan," translated by
+    M. Abel Rémusat, pp. 55, 56.
+
+    [239] Khotan or Little Bucharia would, in common
+    parlance, be included in Serica; and therefore silk
+    exported thence to Europe would have been perfectly
+    described as coming from the Seres. Yates, p. 231, 232.
+
+    [240] Yates, p. 231.
+
+    [241] While in Europe the arts of daily use and
+    decoration were struggling for life after many
+    interruptions and revolutions, the civilization of
+    Japan, which is nearly contemporary with Christianity,
+    spent itself in perfecting to the most exquisite finish
+    the arts which had been imported from China and Corea.
+    Japan also inherited the power and the tradition of
+    concealment, and so Europe remained unconscious, until
+    the last century, of the miraculous arts which a
+    semi-barbarous people were cultivating--_not_ for
+    commercial purposes. Auberville, "Tissus," pp. 2-4.
+
+    [242] Yates, pp. 175-184.
+
+    [243] Yates, p. 176. The silken flags attached to the
+    gilt standards of the Parthians inflamed the cupidity of
+    the army of Crassus. The conflict between them took
+    place 54 B.C. About thirty years after this date, Roman
+    luxury had reached its zenith--
+
+        "The insatiate Roman spreads his conquering arm
+        O'er land and sea, where'er heaven's light extends."
+
+                               "Petronius Arbiter," c. cxix.
+
+    After these words he says that among the richest
+    productions of distant climes, the Seres sent their "new
+    fleeces."
+
+    [244] Yates, p. 183.
+
+    [245] "Holosericum," whole silk; "subsericum," partly
+    cotton, hemp, or flax. The longitudinal threads or warp,
+    cotton; the cross threads, silk. Rock, "Textile
+    Fabrics," p. xxxvii (ed. 1870).
+
+    [246] Yates, p. 195.
+
+    [247] Yates, p. 198. For the value of the denarius, see
+    Waddington, "Edit. de Diocletien," p. 3.
+
+    [248] Gruter, tom. iii. p. 645; Yates, p. 205.
+
+    [249] Yates, p. 246. The words "silk" and "satin" are
+    spoken of by Yates as having two derivations--the one
+    imported to us through Greece and Italy, the other from
+    Eastern Asia, through Slavonia, by the north of Europe.
+
+    [250] Yates, p. 231; who remarks, p. 203, that the laws
+    of Justinian are not directed against the use of silk as
+    a luxury, but rather as appropriating it as an imperial
+    monopoly and source of revenue.
+
+    [251] Tom. ii. p. 106 (ed. 1630). See Yates, p. 213.
+
+    [252] Yates, p. 214.
+
+    [253] Auberville, Plate 4. Amongst these are what he
+    calls "Consular silks." These are, or may be, included
+    in the palmated class, as they are evidently woven for
+    triumphal occasions. One of the most remarkable has
+    every mark of Oriental design. It represents a picture
+    in a circle, repeated over and over again, of a warrior
+    in his quadriga. Black or coloured slaves drive the
+    horses, either running beside them or standing upon
+    them; and other slaves carry beasts on their shoulders,
+    and are stooping to give them drink at a trough. The
+    space between the circles is filled in with the tree of
+    life, growing out of its two horns. The colours are
+    purple and gold. He places this between the first and
+    seventh centuries (see pl. 34).
+
+    [254] There are, however, a few that have not had the
+    security of the tomb, and yet have survived, such as the
+    chasuble and maniple at Bayeux, of the seventh century,
+    and Charlemagne's dalmatic.
+
+    [255] Roger de Wendover, "Chronica," t. iv. p. 127, ed.
+    Coxe. Quoted by Rock from Ralph, Dean of St. Paul's. See
+    Rock, Introduction, p. lv.
+
+    [256] Roger de Wendover, "Chronica," t. iv., ed. Coxe;
+    also Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 243, 244.
+
+    [257] In the twelfth century. Semper, i. p. 38.
+
+    [258] See illustration from the portrait of Sultan
+    Mahomet II., by Gentil Bellini. _Ante_, p. 146, Plate
+    33.
+
+    [259] See Semper, p. 157.
+
+    [260] The Sicilian type of design in silk-weaving was
+    carried into Germany about the end of the second period.
+    We are informed by Auberville that there existed at that
+    time a manufacture of ecclesiastical stuffs at Leipzig,
+    from which he gives us fine examples.
+
+    [261] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," vol. ii. Taf.
+    xxxiii. The pattern is twelfth century "metal work,"
+    embroidered in gold.
+
+    [262] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," iii., pl.
+    xvi.; v., pl. xxxiv. In general, a scarf floats from the
+    prow or from the oars.
+
+    [263] The Crusaders carried away splendid booty from the
+    towns they took and ransacked. As it was the great
+    gathering-place of all Eastern and Western nations,
+    Jerusalem was a mart for rich merchandise from Persia,
+    Arabia, Syria, and Phœnicia, till the times of the
+    Latin kings. Antioch, as well as Jerusalem, yielded the
+    richest plunder. Matthew Paris (a contemporary
+    historian), speaking of what was taken at Antioch, 1098,
+    says, "At the division of costly vessels, crosses,
+    weavings, and silken stuffs, every beggar in the
+    crusading army was enriched." Alexandria, as early as
+    the middle of the sixth century, A.D., had been the
+    depôt for the silken stuffs of Libya and Morocco. Here
+    is a wide area opened to us for suggestions as to the
+    origin and traditions of patterns in silk textile art.
+    See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," vol. i. pp. 29, 30.
+
+    [264] Rock, Introduction, p. ccxlviii, and p. 268, No.
+    8710.
+
+    [265] The weaving of inscriptions in textiles is not a
+    Saracenic invention. Pliny says it was a custom among
+    the Parthians. See Rock's "Textile Fabrics," p. lxi.
+
+    "In allusion to lettered garments, Ausonius thus
+    celebrates Sabina, of whom we otherwise know nothing:--
+
+        "'They who both webs and verses weave,
+        The first to thee, oh chaste Minerva, leave;
+          The latter to the Muses they devote.
+        To me, Sabina, it appears a sin
+        To separate two things so near akin;
+          So I have writ these verses on my coat.'"
+
+    See Lady Wilton on "Needlework," p. 53.
+
+    [266] Birdwood, "Indian Arts," p. 274.
+
+    [267] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 244; Tegrini,
+    "Vita Castruccii," in Muratore, "Ital. Script.," t. xi.
+    p. 1320.
+
+    [268] Riano, "Cat. of Loan Exhibition of Spanish Art in
+    South Kensington Museum," 1882, p. 46.
+
+    [269] In Hoveden's account of the fleet of Richard I.
+    coasting the shores of Spain, he speaks of the delicate
+    and valuable textures of the silks of Almeria. Rog.
+    Hoveden, Ann., ed. Savile, p. 382. Rock, p. xx.
+
+    [270] Bock, pp. 39, 40, quotes from Anastasius and the
+    Abbot of Fontenelle, proving that silken rugs were
+    manufactured in Spain by the Moors.
+
+    [271] Auberville, "Histoire des Tissus," p. 14.
+
+    [272] Yule's "Marco Polo," p. 224. "Baudakin" from
+    Baghdad, "damask" from Damascus. "Baudakin" was woven
+    with beasts, birds, and flowers in gold.
+
+    [273] "Récit de Robert Clari." He was one of the
+    companions of Ville d'Hardouin, and a witness to the
+    coronation of Baldwin II. See Auberville's "Histoire des
+    Tissus," p. 21.
+
+    [274] Satin is called by Marco Polo "zettani," and he
+    says it came from Syria. The French called it "zatony;"
+    the Spaniards named it "aceytuni," which is probably
+    derived from "zaituniah," the product of Zaiton. Yates
+    (p. 246) gives the derivations of the words satin and
+    silk; the one imported to us through Greece and Italy,
+    the other from Eastern Asia, through Slavonia and
+    Northern Europe.
+
+    [275] Ibid. In the Wigalois, a story is told of a cavern
+    in Asia full of everlasting flames, where costly fellat
+    was made by the Salamanders, which was fireproof and
+    indestructible.
+
+    [276] "Man of Lawe's Tale: Canterbury Pilgrims."
+
+    [277] "Ohitos terciopelos" (three-piled-velvet eyes) is
+    a pretty Spanish phrase, describing the soft, dark,
+    shadowy eyes of the Spanish girls.
+
+    [278] The Italian word _velluto_ means "shaggy."
+
+    [279] Bock, i. pp. 99-101.
+
+    [280] Buckram was sometimes a silken plush, but
+    generally was woven with cotton. This was also Asiatic,
+    and named by travellers of the twelfth and thirteenth
+    centuries. I have already mentioned it as a textile in
+    the chapter on cotton. When woven of silk it belongs to
+    the class of velvets.
+
+    [281] Elsewhere I have spoken of the embroideries of the
+    early Christian times found in the Fayoum, in Egypt.
+    These afford notable examples of the ancient method in
+    putting in patches on a worn or frayed garment. They
+    invariably embroidered them, and so added a grace to the
+    old and honoured vestment, and justified the classical
+    appellation, "Healer of clothes" for a darner. The
+    comparatively modern additions of the restorer, are in
+    ancient as in later specimens, often a puzzle to the
+    archæologist.
+
+    [282] The specimens in the South Kensington Museum,
+    where Dr. Rock gives their approximate dates, are most
+    useful to the student of this subject.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+COLOUR.
+
+    "My soul, what gracious glorious powers
+    To hue and radiance God has given!"
+
+                                  Cautley, "Emblems," p. 21.
+
+
+It is my intention to confine myself to the discussion of colour, in
+as far as it belongs to the dyes of textiles and the materials for
+embroidery. I will adhere as closely as I can to this part of what is
+a great and most interesting subject--one which the science of to-day
+has opened out, and by the test of experiment, cleared of erroneous
+theories; revealing to us all its beauty and fitness for the use and
+delight of man.
+
+As through all ages the eye has been gradually educated to appreciate
+_harmony_ in colour, so _dissonance_--that is, what errs against
+harmony--hurts us, without apparently a sufficient reason; and we have
+to seek the causes of our sensations in the scientific works and
+lectures of Professor Tyndall and others.
+
+There is no doubt that the appreciation of colour has belonged in
+different degrees to the eye of every animal, but especially to that
+of man, ever since light first painted the flowers of the field. The
+eye is created to see colour, as well as form. But we know that men,
+being accustomed to acquiesce in the powers with which they find
+themselves gifted by nature, enjoy and use them, long before they
+begin to study, classify, and name them.
+
+When we recollect that the circulation of the blood was not known
+within the last three hundred years, and that Albert Dürer painted
+the skeleton Death on the bridge of Lucerne, with one bone in the
+upper and one in the lower arm, we shall be surprised to find that the
+ancients had named the colours they saw, with some degree of
+descriptive and scientific precision. The word "purple," for instance,
+covered a multitude of tints, which had not as yet been
+differentiated, either in common parlance or in poetry,[283] though as
+articles of commerce the purple tints had been early distinguished.
+
+What names have we now, in this present advanced day, for defining
+tastes or smells? We say that something smells like a violet, or a
+rose, or a sea breeze, or a frosted cabbage. We say a smell is nice or
+nasty, that a taste is delicious or nauseous; but beyond calling it
+sweet or sour, we have no descriptive words for either smells or
+tastes, whereas the nations who traded in the materials for dyes
+exchanged their nomenclatures, which we can recognize from the
+descriptive remarks of different authors.
+
+Colour, as an art, was born in those lands which cluster round the
+eastern shores of the Mediterranean--the northern coasts of Syria and
+Arabia, and the isles of Greece. All art grew in that area, and all
+its adjuncts and materials there came to perfection, though often
+imported from more southern and eastern sources.[284]
+
+E. Curtius says that the science of colour came into Europe with the
+Phœnicians and accompanied the worship of Astarte. This, of course,
+applies to artistic textiles, as the Greeks had already acquired the
+art of dyeing for plain weaving. Numa, in his regulations for
+necessary weaving, refers also to colour. The Italians therefore
+must at that time have made some advance in the art, especially the
+Etruscans.[285]
+
+The infinity of variation in colour is difficult to imagine. The
+chemists of the Gobelins have fixed and catalogued 4480 tones.
+Besides, we must not forget that it is now all but ascertained that
+the same colour is probably appreciated differently by nearly every
+eye.[286]
+
+How the eye accepts colours and conveys them to the mind is still a
+question in dispute, though the theories of Tyndall, Helmholz, Hering,
+Charpentier, and others, aided by experiments, are drawing ascertained
+facts into a circle, which will ere long be complete, and the
+mysteries of colour may be ascertained.
+
+Probably the effects of colour on educated minds are as various as the
+tints and shades of tones of the many substances which receive
+them,--reflected from all surrounding objects, blazing in light, or
+softened by shadow,--fresh and glowing, or permanently faded--shining
+with modern varnish, or sobered by the dust of ages.
+
+It is the art of the colourist, whether he paints pictures, or dyes
+textiles, or embroiders them, to reduce the tints of the prism to an
+endurable and delightful lowness of tone, while preserving as far as
+possible all their light and purity.
+
+Prismatic colours are so radiantly glorious, that when we see the
+rainbow in the sky it is each time a joyful surprise. The most stolid
+natures are moved by it; we have even seen our dog staring at it.
+
+When, in experiments on light, the shafts of colour are thrown on the
+wall, they are greeted with shouts of admiration; but these glories
+are veiled to us by the fact that the eye cannot dissect the prismatic
+ray without the assistance of the instrument that has revealed it.
+This is a merciful arrangement; for we are not fitted to live in a
+prismatic display, any more than in a continuity of lightning flashes.
+We should go mad or blind if exposed to either.
+
+Science has shown us the perfect beauty of colour without form, the
+soothing pleasures of its harmonies, and the delightful surprises of
+its contrasts. From the glimpses we have of its nature and laws, we
+may hope for fresh inspiration for the art of the colourist.
+
+Though it is true that each eye, even when educated, retains its own
+special appreciation of the colours that gratify its seeing nerve, yet
+there are certain standards which give almost universal pleasure.[287]
+
+The blind and the colour-blind must remain exceptions for all time;
+and there are many gradations in colour-blindness, till we come to the
+normal class of seeing eyes; and passing them by, reach to those few
+men, gifted beyond all others with that fund of sensitive eye-nerve
+and mental power, which enables them to create new thoughts in
+colour.[288] Titian and his school arose from the inherited science
+and tradition, and carefully prepared pigments of his immediate
+predecessors, acting on an exceptional eye and mind, imbued with the
+splendours of the early mornings and the sunsets in the glowing
+atmosphere of Venice.
+
+Colour has long been supposed to convey certain impressions to the
+mind. The absence of all colour, which we call "black," symbolizes in
+dress, grief, pride, or dignity; according as it drapes the mourner,
+the Spanish grandee, or the priest.[289] Yellow being the colour of
+the sun and of corn and gold, represents riches, generosity, and
+light. Red stands between the dark and the lively colours, and
+represents warmth and animation, dignity, splendour, life, love, and
+joy.
+
+The expression of blue is that of purity. It recalls the distant sky,
+the calm ocean, and has an immortal and celestial character. It
+ascends to the highest and descends to the lowest tones of
+_chiaro-oscuro_. Nothing so nearly approaches pure white as the palest
+blue; nothing is so nearly black as the darkest.
+
+Green has been assigned by nature the place of the universal
+background. It is the complementary colour of red, softening and
+assimilating it by reflected shadows, and setting off the glory of
+every flower and fruit. The expression of green is gaiety and modesty,
+light and tenderness, shadow and repose, to both the eye and the
+mind.[290]
+
+It must be allowed that it is by the earliest associations of the
+individual, or by those derived from the family, the tribe or the
+nation, that colours are connected with such attributes welded by art
+and time into traditional meanings, which they absolutely
+possess,[291] and from which fashion cannot disconnect them; such,
+for instance, is the royalty of purple.
+
+The word purple is so indiscriminately used as a poetic epithet,
+rather than as a distinctive appellation, that much confusion has been
+caused by it. Historically, among the Persians, Greeks, and Romans it
+appears to have been simply the royal colour, varying from the purest
+blue, through every shade of violet, down to the deepest crimson.
+Sometimes, poetically, "purple" seems to have described only a
+surface. The breezy or stormy sea was purple; the sky was purple; the
+hyacinthine locks of Narcissus, the rosy lips of Venus were purple. As
+a textile, velvet was purple, even when it was white.[292]
+
+The epithets "purple" and "wine-coloured" are often bestowed on the
+Mediterranean Sea, and are justified by its occasional hue:--
+
+    "As from the clouds, deep-bosom'd, swell'd with showers,
+    A sudden storm the purple ocean sweeps,
+    Drives the wild waves, and tosses all the deeps."
+
+                       Pope's Homer, "Iliad," b. xi. v. 383.
+
+Professor Tyndall suggests that the soft green of the sea, shadowed by
+clouds, assumes a subjective purple hue. Homer must have observed this
+before he became blind.
+
+Pliny gives us much information about this colour; he enumerates the
+different sea-shores and coasts, Egyptian, Asiatic, and European,
+whence came the shell-fish (the murex and pelagia) that produced the
+so-called Tyrian purple dyes.[293]
+
+He says that Romulus wore the purple, and that the dyed garments, all
+purple, were sacred to the gods in those days. After saying that it
+was still a colour of distinction, he continues: "Let us be prepared
+to excuse the frantic passion for purple, though we are impelled to
+inquire why such a high value is placed on the produce of this fish,
+seeing that in the dye the smell of it is offensive, and the colour,
+of a greenish hue, resembles the sea when tempestuous." He describes
+purples[294] as being differently coloured according as to whether
+these "conchylia" inhabited the sea mud, the reefs, or the pebbly
+shores, the last being the most valuable.[295] This purple, said to
+have been imported from the coasts of Tyre, was till lately sold in
+Rome for its weight in gold; it gave the burning rosy red dye of the
+Cardinal's robes, and was called "Porpora encarnadina," purple
+incarnadine. It is full of light and freshness, and never fades; in
+fact, it has all the qualities ascribed to it by Pliny. It intensifies
+in the light.[296]
+
+After purple, scarlet was the colour most esteemed by the ancients.
+The Israelites must have carried with them the dyes which coloured the
+hangings, woven or embroidered, belonging to the sanctuary in the
+wilderness, of which the outer covering of rams' skins was dyed
+scarlet, and was probably of the nature of red morocco.[297]
+
+There was the mineral dye, (cinnabar or red sulphate of mercury), and
+the insect dye; the first was probably used in mural painting. It is
+translated in our Bible as vermilion, in the account given by Jeremiah
+of a "house, ceiled with cedar, and painted with vermilion."[298] Also
+Ezekiel gives us another instance of house-painting in vermilion.[299]
+Homer, who as a rule does not describe colouring, says the Greek ships
+were painted red.
+
+It is probable that cinnabar was tempered, by admixture of white or
+other colours, for the monochrome painting of the Egyptians and
+Greeks. It was called by the Greeks miltos, by the Romans minium.
+
+The dye of the red portions of the funeral tent of Queen Isi-em-Kheb,
+Shishak's mother-in-law, is found by analysis to be composed of
+hematite (peroxyde of iron) tempered with lime. This is a beautiful
+pink red.[300]
+
+The mineral red now called vermilion must have borrowed its name from
+the insect dye which the Greeks and Romans called "kermes." In the
+Middle Ages the dye from the kermes was still called "vermiculata," of
+which the word vermilion is a literal translation.
+
+We should be fortunate if we could find how the Greeks and Romans
+prepared the cinnabar for mural painting, of which we find remnants in
+ruins and tombs--a lovely and pure red, with a tender bloom on it like
+a fragment of the rainbow, and not the slightest shade of yellow.
+
+One of the most beautiful specimens of this scarlet that I am
+acquainted with, is a small drinking-cup (a "rhyton") at the British
+Museum, in the form of a sphinx, with a white face, gilded hair, and a
+little cap of pure cinnabar, which is so soft in tone that it suggests
+the texture of scarlet velvet.
+
+Cochineal, which was first brought from America in the sixteenth
+century, has now replaced almost every other scarlet dye for textiles.
+
+Crimson is once mentioned in Chronicles as karmel,[301] which may mean
+the dye of the kermes insect;[302] and from this the word crimson is
+legitimately derived. Whether the scarlet coupled with it is a
+vegetable, mineral, or insect colour, we have no means of
+ascertaining. "Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white
+as snow; though they be red as crimson, they shall be as wool."[303]
+
+From what Pliny says, it appears that some green dyes were produced
+from a green clay; others from metals. Copper furnished the most
+beautiful shades.
+
+Blue has always been extracted from indigo. Pliny tells us that the
+Phœnicians brought it from Barbarike, in the Indies, to Egypt; and
+he quotes the "Periplus" on this subject. He gives an amusing report
+that indigo is a froth collected round the stems of certain reeds; but
+he was aware of its characteristic property, that of emitting a
+beautiful purple vapour when submitted to great heat; and he says it
+smells like the sea. The Egyptians likewise extracted blues from
+copper.
+
+Yellow was anciently, in Egypt, sometimes a vegetable and sometimes a
+mineral dye. Browns and blacks were prepared from several substances,
+especially pine wood and the contents of tombs burned into a kind of
+charcoal.
+
+We find that lime, chalk, white lead, and other mineral substances
+were employed by the ancients for the different approaches to dazzling
+whiteness. That of the lily, the emblem of purity, can only be
+emulated in textile or pictorial art by opaque substances reduced as
+much as possible by bleaching to the last expression of the colour of
+the raw material. Nothing that is transparent can be really white, as
+colours are seen through it, as well as the reflected lights on the
+two surfaces.
+
+In painting, we can produce the effect of whiteness in different ways,
+leading by the gradation of tender colours and shadows up to a high
+light. But in textile art, which is essentially flat, it is necessary
+to pursue a different method, and that of isolation is the most simple
+and effective, and was well understood in Egypt, Greece, and India.
+The white pattern, or flower, is surrounded with a fine dark line
+(black is the best), which effectually separates it from all the
+surrounding colours, and gives it the effect of light, even when the
+whiteness retains enough of the natural colour of the raw material to
+tone it down very perceptibly. The eye accepts it as white, and
+ignores the tint that pervades it, and is hardly to be expelled from
+silk or wool. Linen and cotton are the whitest of materials, after
+passing through the hands of the chemist or the bleacher.
+
+It is amusing to observe that Pliny regarded colours, whether
+vegetable or mineral, rather as useful for the pharmacopeia of his
+day, than as dyes or artistic pigments. He speaks contemptuously of
+the art of his time, and yet he gives some curious hints that are well
+worth collecting for experiment. His fragmentary information, though
+often inaccurate, is most valuable to those who are seeking once more
+to find lasting colours, and despair of discovering mordants that will
+fix the aniline tints. From him we learn more of the Egyptian
+colouring materials than of any others, as he named their sources,
+European, Asiatic, or African; and there is no doubt of the perfection
+of their mural pigments and textile dyes, which have remained
+unimpaired to the present time.
+
+Renouf says that "painting, as it is now understood, was totally
+unknown to the Egyptians; but they understood harmony of colour,[304]
+and formulated in it certain principles for decorative uses. They made
+the primary colours predominate over the secondary by quantity and
+position. They introduced fillets of white or yellow in their
+embroideries, as well as in their paintings, between reds and greens,
+to isolate them; and they balanced masses of yellow with a due
+proportion of black." They never blended their colours, and had no
+sense of the harmony of prismatic gradations, or the melting of one
+tint into another; each was worked up to a hard and fast edge line. If
+in one part of a building, one set of colours predominated, they
+placed a greater proportion of other colours elsewhere, within the
+range of sight, so as to readjust the balance. Those they employed
+were mostly earthy mineral colours (used alike for frescoes and for
+painting cotton cloths, though vegetable dyes were needed for woollens
+and linens). These were: for _white_, pure chalk; for _black_,
+bone-black mixed with gum; for _yellow_, yellow ochre; for _green_, a
+mixture of yellow ochre and powdered blue glass; for _blue_, this same
+blue glass mixed with white chalk; for _red_, an earthy pigment
+containing iron and aluminium.[305] They understood the chemistry of
+bleaching, and the use of mordants in dyeing.[306]
+
+The statistical records of China of the time of Hias (2205 B.C.),
+according to Semper, mention colours as being of five tints, and all
+the produce of the Chinese Empire.[307]
+
+In the unchanging art of India, the ancient colours are used now.
+Therefore, when we give the following list, we must suppose that it
+embraces all that have been known from the beginning.
+
+Indian dyes are mostly vegetable. For _yellow_, akalbir, the root of
+the Datiscus Canabinus; also yellow is dyed with asbarg, the flower of
+the Cabul larkspur (_Delphinium sp._).
+
+_Orange._ Soneri dyed with narsingar, the honey-scented flower of
+nyclanthes (_Arbor Tristis_).
+
+_Scarlet_ is first dyed with cochineal (formerly with kermes), which
+gives a crimson colour; next with narsingar, which turns it vermilion.
+
+_Purple_ is dyed first with cochineal (formerly kermes), afterwards
+with indigo.
+
+_Lilac._ Ditto, only paler.
+
+_Blue._ All shades of indigo.
+
+_Green._ With indigo first, and next the various yellow dyes.
+
+_Brown._ Sandal-wood, called "sandali;" almond colour (Badami).
+
+_Grey._ Sulphate of iron and gold.
+
+_Black._ Deepest shade of indigo.[308]
+
+Speaking of Indian coloured textiles, Sir G. Birdwood says: "All
+violent contrasts are avoided. The richest colours are used, but are
+so arranged as to produce the effect of a neutral bloom, which tones
+down every detail almost to the softness and transparency of the
+atmosphere." He says that in their apparel both the colouring and the
+ornaments are adapted to the effect which the fabrics will produce
+when worn and in motion. "It is only through generations of patient
+practice that men attain to the mystery of such subtleties."
+
+An outline, in black or some dark colour that harmonizes with the
+ground, or else worked in gold, is common in Indian work, not only for
+the purpose of isolating the colours of the design, but also to give a
+uniform tone to the whole surface of the texture. Their traditional
+arrangements of tints were thoroughly satisfying to the eye. But
+degenerated by European commerce, the artistic sense of beauty itself
+is disappearing throughout our Indian Empire.
+
+Persian carpets (the fine old ones of the fourteenth to the
+seventeenth centuries) give us lessons in the art of isolating
+colours. In these, a flower will lie upon a surface which contains two
+or more other tints, and as the design passes over them, the outline
+colour is changed, so as to isolate the flower equally on the
+different grounds. This is done with such art that the eye ignores the
+transition till it is called to remark it. For instance, as a white,
+or no-coloured pattern, wanders over a green and red ground, the
+outline changes suddenly from green to red, and again to green as it
+leaves the opposite colour on the ground pattern.
+
+Mr. Floyer speaks of the brilliancy and lasting qualities of the dyes
+which the Persians, by slow and tedious processes, extract from
+plants; from the "runaschk" (madder), a fine red; from the "zarili"
+(the golden), which is a yellow flower from Khorasan, and also from
+the leaves of the vine, a bright yellow.[309] They import indigo from
+Shastra (or from India), by the Khurum river. He says these dyes are
+perfectly fast, leaving no trace on a wetted rubber, whereas the
+European dyes they sometimes use come off freely.
+
+Pliny says the Gauls had invented dyes counterfeiting the purple of
+Tyre; also scarlet, violet, and green, all of these were dipped in the
+juices of herbs.[310]
+
+Vitruvius says the Romans extracted dyes from flowers and fruits, but
+he neither specifies nor describes them.
+
+The ancient Highland tartans were dyed with bark of alder for black,
+bark of willow for flesh colour. A lichen growing on stones supplied
+their violets and crimson.[311] The lichen on the birch-tree gives a
+good brown; heather gives red, purple, and green.[312]
+
+Thus we see that pure colours for dyeing textiles have been extracted
+from vegetable substances--herbs, wood, seeds, flowers and fruits,
+mosses and sea-weeds;[313] mineral substances--earths, sands, ores,
+metals, rusts, and stones; animal substances--both of land, water, and
+air; beasts, fishes, shells, birds, and insects.
+
+It is evident, from the derivation of the word, that there were
+chromatic scales in colour before the phrase was ever applied to
+music.
+
+The Greeks and Romans are supposed to have understood chromatic scales
+of tints--animal, vegetable, and mineral--and except with the
+intention of producing startling effects, they did not mix them. They
+felt that each was harmonious as a whole, and, unlike the Egyptians,
+they studied harmony. They arranged their scales according to the
+materials from which they were extracted, and kept those from
+different chemical sources apart, as being discordant.[314] One scale
+was that of the iodine colours, of and from the sea. Marine products
+are mostly iridescent. To comprehend this, think of the harmonious
+interchange of delicate tints, called by the ancients "purple," on a
+string of pearls. Shells and shell-fish, sea-weeds and fish, furnished
+these dyes. They were called "conchiliata."
+
+The chemistry of the arts of bleaching was not unknown to the
+ancients; but they reserved and regulated it for certain purposes,
+preferring to retain at least a part of the original colouring, as
+shades of grounding which served, as a surface glaze does in painting,
+to connect and harmonize the superinduced tints.
+
+Experiments with the object of reviving this mode of producing
+harmonious combinations, have been made lately at the Wilton Carpet
+Works, by dyeing shades of colour on unbleached goat's and camel's
+hair, and sheep's wool; and the tones produced are beautifully soft
+and rich.
+
+M. Edouard Charton ascribes the great change in the modern scales of
+colours to the discovery by the French, in the Gobelins, of a pure
+scarlet dye, the use of which made it necessary to raise the tone of
+all other colours. He says that scarlet was formerly represented by
+the dye called kermes, which indeed was not scarlet, but altered from
+crimson to something approaching it by the addition of narsingar, of
+which the bright yellow gave the scarlet effect.
+
+M. Chevreul, director of the dyeing department of the Gobelins, has
+succeeded in composing the chromatic prism, to which I have already
+alluded, containing 4420 different tones. We may take it for granted,
+that from these may be selected any possible scale of tints required
+for decorative work. This vast area for choice of our material will
+impose on the artist of the future fresh responsibilities.
+
+In the typical Oriental colouring, the whole arrangement was
+traditional, and it was irreligious to depart from what had been fixed
+by statute many centuries before, and only perfected by the experience
+of many generations of men; and this veneration for traditional custom
+has hitherto been prevalent in European art to a certain point. But
+the old conservative perfection of unadulterated colour has already
+been done away with. The freedom of experimental art is chartered, and
+mercantile interests now, as ever, govern the supply of materials.
+
+Our normal bad taste and carelessness has been cast back on the lands
+which were the cradle of art, and we receive, to our surprise, gaudy,
+vulgar, and discordant combinations from the East, whence we drew our
+first inspirations. For the future we shall have to study ancient
+specimens, and correct our errors by the help of their teaching to the
+eye and mind.
+
+Gas colours are at present our worst snares. They are in general very
+beautiful; but they are so evanescent, and fade into such unexpected
+and contradictory tones, that we cannot reckon upon them. When
+embroidering with the coloured materials of the day, we are in
+constant dread of what disastrous effect may be produced by the first
+shaft of sunshine that may fall from our moderately illuminated sky,
+through the uncurtained window.
+
+The trade in colours can hardly be an honest one, till the means of
+fixing each tint permanently is ascertained.[315] At any rate,
+something should be done towards grouping them, with respect to their
+enduring qualities, so that when they fade, if fade they must, they
+may do so harmoniously, and in sympathy with each other; and while
+they are in their first glow they should be selected, as much as
+possible, from what Pliny calls natural colours,[316] which recall the
+exquisite effects of nature, searched out and displayed by every sunny
+gleam, reflected on each other in lovely tones, and subdued and veiled
+by passing shadows. It is said that Mr. Wardle, of Leek, is now
+seeking for dyes of pure unadulterated colours, and mordants to fix
+them. He deserves all success.
+
+The reason I have entered, in even so cursory a manner, into the
+history of colours is my desire to point out the great value placed,
+long ago, on the careful preparation of those used in ancient textile
+art; and to show how our forefathers sought them out in many lands
+and waters; how they noted their varieties; how they classed and
+prized them for their endurance as well as for their pristine beauty;
+how they paid their weight in gold or silver for certain culminating
+tints; and how they, therefore, produced works which became matters of
+history and landmarks in civilization.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [283] "Seeing, they saw not, neither did they
+    understand."
+
+    [284] See Pliny's "Natural History," which gives much
+    information on the subject.
+
+    [285] E. Curtius, "Greek History;" Engl. Trans., i. p.
+    438; Blümner's "Technologie," p. 216.
+
+    [286] Charpentier "differentiates in every normal eye a
+    sensibility for light, a sensibility for colour, and a
+    sensibility for form (a visual sensibility)."--See
+    "Modern Theories of Colour," _The Lancet_, August 19th,
+    1882, p. 276. We can perceive, by studying works of art,
+    how variously these gifts are distributed, or, at any
+    rate, how differently they are received and acted upon
+    by individual minds.
+
+    [287] The effect of colour on the brain is a subject
+    only just now beginning to attract attention.
+    Experiments on the insane have been made in Italy,
+    especially, I believe, at Venice; and it is said to be
+    ascertained that red and green are irritants, whereas
+    windows glazed with blue glass alternating with white
+    have sensibly calmed the nerves of the patients.
+
+    [288] Let us compare the beautiful creations of the
+    Venetian school with the demoralizing brightness of
+    aniline colours, or the opaque, earthy tints which some
+    call beautiful, mistaking their dulness for softness and
+    sobriety of colouring. But they, too, have their uses.
+
+    [289] Black and red are, in ecclesiastical work, the
+    emblems of mourning.
+
+    [290] The Bardic rules in early Britain enjoined three
+    simple colours: sky blue, the emblem of peace, for the
+    bard and poet; green, for the master of natural history
+    and woodcraft; spotless white (the symbol of holiness),
+    for the priest and Druid.
+
+    [291] The blind man said that red was like the sound of
+    a trumpet, which shows what a soul-stirring colour it
+    was in his mind's eye.
+
+    [292] "Purpura" is supposed to mean crimson velvet. It
+    came, like "cramoisi," to be a name for a tissue. Fr.
+    Michell quotes velvet of Vermeil-cramoisi, "violet and
+    blue cramoisi, and pourpre of divers colours," but he
+    says he never met with "pourpre blanche." Yule, ed.
+    1875, i. p. 67. Plano Carpini (p. 755) says the
+    courtiers of Karakorum were clad in "white purpura;" and
+    that on the first day of the great festival in honour of
+    the inauguration of Kuyuk Khan, all the Mogul nobles
+    were clad in pourpre blanche, the second day in ruby
+    purple, and the third in blue purple: on the fourth day
+    they appeared in Baudichin (cloth of gold). (Yule,
+    "Marco Polo," vol. i. p. 376.) White purple is also
+    named in the inventories of Sta. Maria Maggiore at Rome,
+    and those of Notre Dame in Paris. "Histoire du Tissu
+    Ancien, à l'Exposition de l'Union Générale des Arts
+    Décoratifs."
+
+    [293] François Le Normant, in his "Grande Grèce," tells
+    of the dye of the purple of Tarentum from the murex,
+    found in the Mare Piccolo. He says that Tarentine
+    muslins, woven from the filaments of the pinna dipped in
+    the dye of the murex, rivalled those of Cos. Le Normant
+    laments the total neglect of the murex in these days
+    (could its trade be revived?) Plutarch says that
+    Alexander the Great, having made himself master of Susa
+    (Shushan), found, amongst other riches of marvellous
+    value, "purple of Hermione" worth forty thousand talents
+    (Quintus Curtius says fifty thousand), which, though it
+    had been stored 190 years, retained all its freshness
+    and beauty. See Plutarch's "Lives," edited by J. and W.
+    Langhorne, vol. ii. p. 739; Blümner, i. p. 224-240. The
+    reason assigned for their dye being so perfect was that
+    the Susanians knew how to comb the wool to be dipped,
+    and prepare it with honey. According to Aristotle the
+    dress of Alcisthenes, the Sybarite, was dyed with this
+    purple from Shushan (Ciampini, Vet. Mon.).
+
+    [294] Semper gives us an account of iodine colours.
+    Some, he says, were extracted from sea-weeds, green and
+    yellow; the purples, when finest, from the shell-fish.
+    The Phœnician coasts gave the best purples; those of
+    the Atlantic the best blacks and browns. And thus he
+    completes the scale of iodine colours. See Semper, "Der
+    Stil," i. p. 206.
+
+    [295] Heaps of the shells of this "murex trunculus" have
+    been found at Pompeii, near the dyers' works. Hardouin
+    says that in his time they were found at Otranto, and
+    similar remains have been noticed at Sidon. Sir James
+    Lacaita informs me that the living shells are still
+    found along the shores of the Adriatic, as well as on
+    the wash near Argos. No doubt the Phœnicians traded
+    first in the produce of the Sidonian and Tyrian coasts,
+    though they afterwards went farther afield in collecting
+    their dyes. Auberville says that the purple of the
+    Romans was a deep violet (double dyed, purpuræ dibaphæ),
+    and that this colour was Asiatic. The Phœnicians
+    traded in it, and sold it for its weight in silver.
+    Instead of fading in the sunshine, its colour
+    intensified. The enduring nature of this colour is
+    proved by the purple fragments from a Greek tomb in the
+    Crimea of about 300 B.C., described in chapter on
+    stitches, p. 217. See "Histoire du Tissu Ancien, à
+    l'Exposition de l'Union Générale des Arts Décoratifs."
+
+    [296] Though really red of the purest colour, it
+    doubtless received its name of Tyrian purple as being
+    one of the materials of the amethystine double dye. The
+    web or fleece was first dipped in the dye of Purpura,
+    and then in that of the Buccinum, or they reversed the
+    process to give a different tint. This is Pliny's
+    account of the process of dyeing, which is very simple,
+    and gives no details. Semper says that the ancients
+    called black and white the two extremes of purple--white
+    the thinnest, and black the thickest or most solid layer
+    of colour. Both were thus considered as colour. (Semper,
+    i. pp. 205-7.) As long as there is light, black always
+    appears to be either blue, or brown, or green, till with
+    darkness all colour disappears.
+
+    [297] Exod. xxv. Semper (i. p. 103) suggests that these
+    rams' skins were dyed with the periploca secamone--a
+    plant still used for this purpose in Egypt.
+
+    [298] Jeremiah xxii. 14.
+
+    [299] Ezekiel xxiii. 14: "The images of the Chaldeans."
+    "The men portrayed in vermilion on the wall."
+
+    [300] Villiers Stuart, "Funeral Tent of an Egyptian
+    Queen." See Appendix.
+
+    [301] 2 Chron. ii. 7.
+
+    [302] The Arabs received the kermis from Armenia, and
+    the name was originally "Quer-més," "oak-apple." Sardis
+    was famed for its kermes dye. See Birdwood, "Indian
+    Arts," p. 238, ed. 1880, and Yule's "Marco Polo," i. p.
+    67.
+
+    [303] Isa. ii. 18.
+
+    [304] Renouf's Hibbert Lectures, p. 67-69. It may be
+    called balance, rather than harmony.
+
+    [305] Wilkinson, "Manners of the Ancient Egyptians,"
+    vol. iii. pp. 301-3.
+
+    [306] Blümner, p. 220. See Pliny, "Natural History,"
+    xxxv. 42.
+
+    [307] Semper, i. p. 248.
+
+    [308] See Birdwood's "Indian Arts," p. 272. In the Code
+    of Manu, black garments are sacred to the Indian Saturn,
+    yellow to Venus, and red to Mars. See Birdwood, p. 235.
+
+    [309] See Floyer's "Unexplored Baluchistan," pp. 278,
+    373, 406. The Persians produce their deep yellow from
+    the skin of the pomegranate, by boiling it in alum.
+    Major Murdoch Smith describes the Persian processes for
+    dyeing patterns red and black in textiles. The Italian
+    women dye their own dresses in the pomegranate yellow;
+    also in turmeric yellow, and other vegetable dyes.
+
+    [310] Pliny, "Natural History," xxii. 3. Unfortunately,
+    Pliny seldom condescends to give us the recipes for
+    dyeing processes.
+
+    [311] Logan's "Scottish Garb."
+
+    [312] See Elton's "Origins of English History."
+
+    [313] The Cretan tincture was extracted from a plant
+    which Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny respectively
+    name. The last calls it the _Phycos thalassion_. This
+    was not a sea-weed, but a lichen--probably the same from
+    which the orchid purple of modern art is prepared. See
+    Birdwood, "Indian Arts," i. p. 238.
+
+    [314] The same scale of colour varies as much on the
+    different textiles employed, as it does from the colours
+    extracted from other chemicals. Silk, wool, cotton,
+    flax, give very different results. The colouring matter
+    may be identical, yet you cannot place them side by side
+    without being aware that they may be repellant, instead
+    of harmonious in tone. The scale is sometimes removed to
+    another pitch, and they will no more harmonize than
+    instruments that have not been attuned to the same
+    diapason. See Redgrave's Report on Textile Fabrics.
+
+    [315] With the changes in colouring materials has arisen
+    the necessity for discovering new mordants. The gas
+    colour of madder is exactly the same chemically as that
+    extracted from the vegetable, but the old mordant does
+    not fix it, and it changes very soon to a dull
+    blackish-purple hue.
+
+    [316] Pliny, "Natural History," ix. 12. The most
+    unnatural, and the most disagreeable dyes, are the
+    magentas. Sir G. Birdwood tells us that the Maharajah of
+    Cashmere has adopted a most efficient plan for the
+    suppression of magenta dyes within his dominions--first,
+    a duty of 45 per cent. on entering the country, and at a
+    certain distance within the frontier, they are
+    confiscated and destroyed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+
+_Part 1._
+
+STITCHES.
+
+Stitches in needlework correspond to the touches of the pencil or
+brush in drawing or painting, or to the strokes of the chisel in
+sculpture. The needle is the one implement of the craft by which
+endless forms of surface-work are executed. With a thread through its
+one eye, it blindly follows each effort of its pointed foot, urged by
+the intelligent or mechanical hand grouping the stitches, which, being
+long or short, single or mixed, slanting, upright, or crossed, are
+selected as the best fitted for the design and purpose in hand. The
+word "stitches" does not, however, in this chapter represent merely
+the plural of one particular process of needle insertion, but the
+produce and effect of each different kind of stitch by grouping and
+repetition, according to its most ancient nomenclature. That which is
+astonishing is the endless variety of surface, of design, of hints and
+suggestions, of startling effects, and of lovely combinations,
+resulting from the direction of the needle and manipulation of the
+materials, and differing from each other according to the power or the
+caprice of the worker. But the machine is always the same--the
+threaded needle strikes the same interval, forming the "stitch."
+
+This venerable implement, _the needle_, has, through the ages, varied
+but little in form. The attenuated body, the sharp foot, the rounded
+head, and the eye to hold the thread, are the same in principle,
+whether it is found in the cave-man's grave, formed of a fish's bone
+or shaped from that of a larger animal; hammered of the finest bronze,
+as from Egypt, or of gold, like those found in Scandinavia. A bronze
+needle was lately discovered in the tomb of a woman of the Vikings in
+Scotland, and its value is shown by its being placed in a silver case.
+Steel needles were first made in England in 1545, by a native of
+India. His successor, Christopher Greening, established a workshop in
+1560 at Long Crendon, in Bucks, which existed there as a needle
+factory till quite lately. The rustic poetic drama, entitled "Gammer
+Gurton's Needle," performed at Ch. Coll., Cambridge, in 1566, was a
+regular comedy, of which a lost needle was the hero. In those days the
+village needle was evidently still a rare and precious possession.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 20.
+    1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Bronze needles from Egyptian tombs now in British
+        Museum. 6. Cave-man's needle from the Pinhole, Churchfield,
+        Ereswell Crag. 7. Bone needle from La Madeleine, Dordogne.]
+
+The art of embroidery consists of a design, which includes the
+pattern, and the handicraft or stitches--the "motive" and the
+"needlework."
+
+In painting, as in sculpture, the first idea, as well as the last
+touch, must come from the same head and hand. But in needlework it is
+not so. The pattern is the result of tradition. It is almost always
+simply a variation of old forms, altered and renewed by surrounding
+circumstances and sudden or gradual periods of change.
+
+However much the design may alter, rising often to the highest point
+of decorative art, and as often falling back to the lowest and most
+meaningless repetitions and imitations, the _stitches_ themselves vary
+but little. The same are to be found in Egyptian and Greek specimens,
+and the classical names are those used by mediæval writers, and have
+come down to us, "floating like bubbles on the waves of time."
+
+Sir George Birdwood[317] thinks that every kind of stitch is found in
+traditional Indian work. I confess that I have not been able hitherto
+to trace any of the "mosaic" stitches to India, nor do we ever see
+them in Chinese or Japanese embroidery, which shows every other
+variety. They are, however, occasionally found in Egyptian work.
+
+The following is a list of stitches, under the nomenclature of
+classical, Roman and mediæval authors:--
+
+    Opus Phrygionium or Phrygium.     Passing or metal thread work.
+    Opus Pulvinarium.                 Shrine or cushion work.
+    Opus Plumarium.                   Plumage or feather work.
+    Opus Consutum.                    Cut work.
+    Opus Araneum or Filatorium.       Net or lace work.
+    Opus Pectineum.                   Tapestry or combed work.
+
+Here are two English lists of stitches; their quaintness must be my
+excuse for copying them. The first is from Taylor, the water-poet's
+"Praise of the Needle" (sixteenth century):--
+
+    "Tent work, raised work, laid work, prest work,
+    Net work, most curious pearl or rare Italian cut work,
+    Fine fern stitch, finny stitch, new stitch, and chain stitch,
+    Brave bred stitch, fisher stitch, Irish stitch, and queen's stitch,
+    The Spanish stitch, rosemary stitch, and maw stitch,
+    The smarting whip stitch, back stitch, and the cross stitch.--
+    All these are good, and these we must allow,
+    And these are everywhere in practice now."
+
+The second list is from Rees' "Cyclopædia" (Stitches), 1819:--
+
+    "Spanish stitch,
+    Tent stitch on the finger,
+    Tent stitch in the tent or frame,
+    Irish stitch,
+    Fore stitch,
+    Gold stitch,
+    Twist stitch,
+    Fern stitch,
+    Broad stitch,
+    Rosemary stitch,
+    Chip stitch,
+    Raised work,
+    Geneva work,
+    Cut work,
+    Laid work,
+    Back stitch,
+    Queen's stitch,
+    Satin stitch,
+    Finny stitch,
+    Chain stitch,
+    Fisher's stitch,
+    Bow stitch,
+    Cross stitch,
+    Needlework purl,
+    Virgin's device,
+    Open cut work,
+    Stitch work,
+    Through stitch,
+    Rock work,
+    Net work, and
+    Lent work.
+
+    "All which are swete manners of work wroughte by the
+    needle with silke of all natures, purls, wyres, and weft
+    or foreign bread ('braid'), etc., etc."
+
+
+_Part 2._
+
+PLAIN WORK AND WHITE WORK.
+
+We are told that the primal man and woman sewed in Paradise.
+
+To "sew," in contradistinction to the word to "embroider," is derived
+from the Sanskrit _su_, _suchi_, and thence imported into Latin,
+_suo_.[318] To prove how highly esteemed needlework was among the
+Romans, I may mention that the equivalent of the phrase "to hit the
+right nail on the head" was _rem acu tangere_, "to touch the question
+with the point of the needle."
+
+"Plain work" is that which is necessary. As soon as textiles are
+needed for covering and clothing, the means are invented for drawing
+the cut edges together, and for preventing the fraying where the
+material is lacerated by the shaping process. Hence the "seam," the
+"hem," and all the forms of stitches that bind and plait. These
+necessary stitches constitute plain needlework, and are closely
+followed by decorative stitches, which in gradation cover the space
+between plain needlework and embroidery.
+
+Semper has given us his archæological theories for the origin of
+needlework and its stitches.
+
+These are his arguments, if not always his words. He says: "The seam
+is one of the first human successful efforts to conquer
+difficulties."[319]
+
+A string, a ribbon, a band, may serve to keep together several loose
+things; but by means of the seam, small things actually become large
+ones. For example: a full-grown man can, by its help, cover himself
+with a garment made of the skins of many small animals. When Eve sewed
+fig-leaves together, she made of these small pieces a garment of
+patchwork.
+
+Acting on the principle of making a virtue of necessity, accepting and
+adorning the severe facts of life, seams came to be an important
+vehicle of ornament. The Gauls and Britons embroidered the seams of
+their fur garments. "We may judge of the antiquity of the seam by its
+universal and mythological meaning. The seam, the tie, the knot, the
+plait, and the mesh are the earliest symbols of fate uniting
+events."[320]
+
+We find but little mention of plain work in mediæval writings. When
+linen was worked for some honourable purpose, such as a gift to a
+friend or a royal personage, it was generally embroidered or stitched
+in some fancy fashion. Queen Elizabeth presented Edward VI., on his
+second birthday, with a smock made by herself. Fine linen was about
+this time constantly edged with bone laces.
+
+Mrs. Floyer has written so well, and given us so much practical
+information on plain needlework, that I feel it unnecessary to enter
+at any length into the principles of plain sewing, as my theme is
+needlework as decorative art.
+
+Mrs. Floyer has, as it were, unpicked and unravelled every stitch in
+plain work, till she has discovered and laid bare its intention, its
+construction, and effect. She, has also given us rules made clear to
+the dullest understanding, instructing us how to teach the young and
+ignorant. She shows us the quickest and most perfect way of working
+different materials for different purposes, and tells us how to select
+them. I will, therefore, refer my readers to her most useful and
+instructive books,[321] and pass on at once from the craft of plain
+needlework, to stitches as the art of embroidery.
+
+The link between plain and decorative work deserves attention. This
+link is "white embroidery." I imagine it was not a very ancient form
+of the art, and was practised first in mediæval days; when we begin to
+have constant notices of it. The first white laces appear to have
+followed close upon the first white embroideries.
+
+There is a tomb of the fourteenth century in the Church of the Ara
+CÅ“li at Rome, where the effigy of a knight lies on his bed, draped
+with a sheet and a coverlet, both embroidered. These are evidently of
+linen worked in white.[322] I give a drawing of them in illustration
+(pl. 39).
+
+From that date we find continually mention of such work by nuns and
+ladies.[323] In England it was especially called "nuns' work" (plate
+42). There is a great survival of this stitchery in Italy amongst the
+peasantry. They have always adorned their smocks and aprons, and their
+linen head-coverings, and the borders of sheets for great occasions,
+with patterns in "flat stitches," "cut stitches," and "drawn work."
+The Greek peasants do the same. In Germany will be found much curious
+white embroidery, of designs which show their antiquity; and from
+Spain we get "Spanish work" in black, on white linen, which is nearly
+allied to the stitches of white work.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 39.
+    Embroidery imitated in marble on the tomb of a knight, in the Church
+        of the Ara CÅ“li, Rome.]
+
+Lord Arundel of Wardour possesses a linen cover for a tabernacle (or
+else it is a processional cloak) which is of the purest
+Hispano-Moorish design, and unrivalled in beauty. It is
+embroidered in Spanish stitches in white thread, on the finest linen,
+and is intersected with fine lace insertion (pl. 40). It is said to
+have been found in the time of Elizabeth with some other articles in a
+dry well; among them a little satin shoe, of which the shape proves
+its date to be of the end of Henry VIII.'s reign. Russian embroidery,
+consisting of geometrical patterns in red, blue, and black thread, is
+of this class.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 40.
+    Processional Cloak, time of Henry VIII., belonging to Lord Arundel
+        of Wardour.]
+
+In England alone, the peasantry do no white work for home use, and we
+must suppose it has never been a domestic occupation. Indeed, the love
+of the needle is by no means an English national tendency, in the
+lower classes. Nothing but the plainest work is taught in our schools.
+Anything approaching to decorative art, with us, has been the
+accomplishment of educated women, and not the employment of leisure
+moments in the houses of the poor.
+
+Semper, in "Der Stil,"[324] gives rules for white embroidery, and the
+reasons from which he deduces them are good. He says, that allowing it
+as a maxim that each textile has its own uses and its own beauties, we
+should place nothing on linen which would militate against its
+inherent qualities and merits; and that, as the great beauty of flax
+is its smoothness and purity, all projections and roughnesses should
+be avoided which would catch dust or throw a shadow. Carrying out this
+idea, it would appear that satin, and not lace stitches are therefore,
+the most suitable for this kind of decoration. The accepted rule for
+selecting the stitch for each piece of work is this: on stout grounds
+the thread should be round and rich, whereas delicate materials carry
+best the most refined and shining thread work; and in embroidering the
+smooth surface of linen fabrics, the flattest stitches are the most
+appropriate.
+
+
+_Part 3._
+
+OPUS PHRYGIUM (_or gold work_).
+
+Gold embroideries were by the Romans attributed to the Phrygians. All
+gold work was vaguely supposed to be theirs, as all other embroidery
+was included in the craft of the Plumarii in Rome.
+
+It has been disputed whether needlework in gold preceded the weaving
+of flat gold or thread into stuffs, or whether it was an
+after-thought, and an enrichment of such textiles. I imagine that the
+embroidery was the first, and that the after-thought was the art of
+weaving gold. Babylonian embroideries appear to be of gold wire, as we
+see them in the Ninevite marbles.
+
+An instance of the way golden embroideries were displayed among the
+Greeks is that of the Athenian peplos, which, as I have already said
+(p. 32), was worked by embroideresses under the superintendence of two
+Arrhephoræ of noble birth. It was either scarlet or saffron colour,
+and blazed with golden representations of the battles of the giants,
+or local myths and events in the history of Athens.[325]
+
+The art of the Phrygians, who gave their name in Rome to all golden
+thread-work, has come down to us through the classic "auriphrygium"
+and the "orphreys" of the Middle Ages. Semper thinks that the flat
+gold embroidery was the first invented.[326]
+
+The Phrygians had attained to the utmost perfection in tissue ornament
+when the Romans conquered them, and finding their art congenial to the
+growing luxury of Rome, they imported and domesticated it; both the
+people and their work retaining their national designation. Pliny,
+ignorant of the claims of the Chinese, gave to the Phrygians the
+credit of being the inventors of all embroidery.[327] The garments
+they thus decorated were called "phrygionæ," and the work itself "opus
+Phrygium." The term "auriphrygium," at first given to work in gold
+only, was in time applied to all embroidery that admitted gold into
+its composition; and hence the English mediæval term, "orphreys."
+
+All the gold stitches now called "passing" came from Phrygia; Semper
+attributes all the "mosaic stitches" to the Phrygians, calling them
+"opus Phrygionium."[328] Gold stitches are splendidly exemplified in
+the embroidered mantle of St. Stephen, of the ninth century. The only
+somewhat earlier piece of mediæval gold embroidery with which I am
+acquainted is the dalmatic of Charlemagne in the Vatican, richly
+embroidered in fine gold thread; and the mantle of the Emperor Henry
+II. in the Museum at Munich, worked by his Empress Kunigunda, who
+appears to have been somewhat parsimonious in her use of the precious
+material.
+
+Almost all ecclesiastical and royal ancient embroideries were
+illuminated with golden grounds--golden outlines or golden flat
+embroideries. Later still, raised gold thread work has imitated gilt
+carvings or goldsmiths' jewellery; and we feel that it was at once
+removed from its place as embroidery, and became an elaborate
+imitation of what should belong to another craft.[329] Such
+deviations from the proper office and motive of needlework are so
+dangerously near to bad style and bad taste, that they always and
+inevitably have fallen into disrepute.
+
+
+_Part 4._
+
+OPUS PULVINARIUM (_or cushion work_).
+
+This "opus pulvinarium" is not only to be found in Oriental work, but
+it has also survived in a very few fragments from Egypt.[330] One of
+these, in the British Museum, is worked on canvas, in wool and flax;
+another in a white shining thread, resembling asbestos, on linen or
+fine canvas. They are regular "canvas" or "cross" stitches, and
+therefore, under mediæval nomenclature, would be classed as "opus
+pulvinarium." This name must include all stitches in gold, silk, and
+wool, whether Phrygian, Egyptian, or Babylonian in their origin,
+excepting the flat and lace stitches (plate 41).
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 41.
+    MOSAIC STITCHES.
+    1. Italian Pattern, sixteenth century. From Frida Lipperheide's
+        Musterbuch. 2. Scandinavian. Bock, i. taf. xi. 3. Egyptian.
+        From Auberville's "Tissus," p. 1.]
+
+Semper's term, "mosaic" stitches, is a good one, as it covers all that
+are relegated into patterns in small square spaces, counted by the
+threads of the textile on which they are laid.[331] He believes that
+the mosaic patterns and cross stitches in needlework preceded the
+tesselated pavements, and formed their first motive, though the stitch
+now refers itself back to the mosaic, at least in name.
+
+It is remarkable that in Chaldea and Assyria there still exist some
+ruined walls, which are adorned with pilasters, panels, and other
+architectural forms, covered with some sort of encaustic, imitating
+textile patterns.[332] The effect is produced by means of a kind of
+mosaic work of small nails or wedges of baked clay, with china or
+glazed coloured heads. These are inlaid into the unbaked clay or
+earth, of which the walls are constructed, and while binding it
+together, give the effect of the surface being hung with a material
+which has a pattern worked all over in cross stitch.
+
+The Chinese, the Chaldeans, and the Assyrians long continued to show
+in their buildings the tradition of this style of decoration. In Egypt
+there has been found some unfinished mural painting where the plaster
+has been previously prepared by dividing it into small rectangular
+spaces, apparently on the principle of the canvas ground for cross
+stitches.
+
+The name "mosaic" stitch does not interfere with, or militate against
+the classical appellation of _opus pulvinarium_, which means "shrine
+work" or "cushion stitches." These appear to have been from the first
+considered as the best suited for adorning cushions, chairs,
+footstools, and the beds on which men reclined at their feasts, as
+they are firmly-set stitches which will stand friction.
+
+Most of the work now done in Syria, Turkey, Greece, and the
+Principalities, shows different forms of the mosaic stitches; so also
+does the national Russian work, which is Byzantine. All these designs
+are conventional and mostly geometrical.
+
+This work, in the East, is generally the same on both sides. We may
+infer that the spoil anticipated by Sisera's mother, "the garments
+embroidered on both sides, fit for the necks of those who divide the
+spoil," was of this kind.
+
+Thus we see that the "opus pulvinarium" has a very respectable
+ancestry; and though it had somewhat degenerated in the early part of
+our century, and had languished and almost died out under the name of
+Berlin wool work, yet it has done good service through the days of
+mediæval art down to the present time, both in England and throughout
+Europe (pl. 42); and it will probably revive and continue to be
+generally used.
+
+Though the least available for historical or pictorial work, and not
+by any means the best for flower-pieces (as the squareness of the
+stitches refuses to lend itself to flowing lines or gradations of
+colour, unless the stitches are extremely fine, and the work, in
+consequence, very laborious), yet it finds its especial fitness in all
+geometrical designs. It is also particularly well suited to heraldic
+subjects.
+
+A remarkable example of the use of cross stitches exists in the
+borders of the Syon cope, in which the coats-of-arms are so executed.
+This is of the thirteenth century; and besides these cushion stitches,
+it exhibits all those which are grouped in the style called opus
+Anglicum or Anglicanum.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 42.
+    Italian "Nun's Work," from a pyx cloth, sixteenth century.]
+
+Many charming designs for this kind of stitch may be found in the old
+German pattern-books of the Renaissance (Spitzen Musterbücher), and
+also in those Venetian "Corone di Vertuose Donne" lately reprinted by
+the Venetian publisher Organia. These are worthy of a place in every
+library of art.
+
+It would seem best to place the chain stitch named "tambour" in this
+class, as it naturally assimilates with the plaited and cross
+stitches. It is so called from the drum-shaped frame of the last
+century in which it was usually worked.
+
+
+_Part 5._
+
+OPUS PLUMARIUM (_or plumage work_).
+
+The "Opus Plumarium" is one of the most ancient groups, and includes
+all flat stitches, of which the distinguishing mark is, that they
+_pass_ each other, overlap, and blend together. "Stem," "twist,"
+"Japanese stitch," and "long and short" or "embroidery stitch," belong
+to this class, to which I propose to restore its original title of
+plumage work.
+
+The origin of the name is much disputed, but it is supposed to have
+pointed to a decoration of plumage work, and we find that feathers
+have been an element in artistic design from the earliest times. There
+were patterns in Egyptian painting which certainly had feathers for
+their motive (fig. 21, p. 208).
+
+Semper, finding that birds'-skins were a recognized article for trade
+in China, 2205 B.C.,[333] believes that they were used as onlaid
+application for architectural decoration; and this is possible, for we
+still obtain from thence specimens of work in different materials
+partly onlaid in whole feathers, whereas sometimes the longer threads
+of the feathers are woven by the needle into the ground web. In Her
+Majesty's collection there are some specimens from Burmah--creatures
+resembling sphinxes or deformed cherubim, executed in feathers,
+applied on silk and outlined in gold. We have likewise from Burmah, in
+the Indian Museum, two peacocks[334] similarly worked; the legs and
+beaks are solidly raised in gold thread; and the outlines also are
+raised in gold, giving the appearance of enamelling. The _cloisonné_
+effect of brilliant colours, contrasted and enhanced by the separation
+of the gold outlines, can be seen to perfection in specimens of the
+beautiful Pekin jewellers' work, where the feathers are inlaid in gold
+ornaments for the head and in the handles of fans. Nothing but gems
+can be more resplendent.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 21.
+    Feather patterns, Egyptian.]
+
+These survivals help us to understand the casual mention we find in
+classical authors, of the works of the Plumarii, which appellation was
+given at last to all embroiderers who were not Phrygians.[335]
+
+We have other glimpses of Oriental feather-work in different parts of
+India.[336]
+
+The use of feathers is common in the islands of the Pacific. It is
+native to the Sandwich islanders; and M. Jules Remy describes the
+Hawaiian royal mantle, which was being constructed of yellow birds'
+feathers through seven consecutive reigns, and was valued in Hawaii at
+5,000,000 francs. A mantle of this description is the property of Lady
+Brassey.
+
+In Africa, ancient Egyptian art furnishes us with traditional feather
+patterns and head-dresses; and Pigafetta tells us of costumes of
+birds' skins, worn in the kingdom of Congo in the sixteenth century
+for their warmth; sea-birds' feathers being highly esteemed.[337]
+
+In America, where birds are most splendid, the art of the feather
+worker was carried to the greatest perfection. It was found there by
+the Spaniards, and recorded in all their writings for its beauty of
+design and execution, and for its great value, equal to that of gold
+and precious stones.
+
+Though now looked down upon, as being a semi-barbarous style of
+decoration, because it exists no longer except in semi-barbarous
+countries, we must consider feather work as a relic of a past higher
+civilization which has died out, rather than simply as the effort of
+the savage to deck himself in the brightest colours attainable.
+
+Feather-work is a lost art, but the name of "opus plumarium" remains,
+and proves that it was still recognized as such in the days of Roman
+luxury. The name survived when the practice was all but forgotten in
+Europe,[338] and the art itself disused, probably, because the birds
+of our continent rarely have any lovely plumage to tempt the eye.
+
+But the glory of feather-work was found again in Mexico and Peru, and
+the surrounding nations, in the sixteenth century--praised, exalted,
+demoralized, and crushed out by the cruelties of conquest. The
+Spaniards at first brought home beautiful garments and hangings,
+representing gods and heroes, all worked in feathers.[339] Under their
+rule the natives produced pictures agreeable to the taste of their
+masters. Pope Sixtus V. accepted a head of St. Francis, which had been
+executed by one of the ablest of the "amantecas" (the name for an
+artist in feathers). Sixtus was struck with surprise and admiration at
+the beauty and artistic cleverness of the work, and, until he had
+touched and examined it closely, would not believe that plumage was
+the only material used.
+
+There are beautiful hangings and bed furniture at Moritzburg, near
+Dresden, said to have belonged to Montezuma. They were given to
+Augustus the Strong, King of Poland, by a king of Spain.
+
+In the seventeenth century, and later, feather work was still an art
+in Mexico, the convents continuing to preserve its traditions.
+Bustamente says that this industry was still in operation in the
+beginning of our century. The Mexican Museum preserves specimens of
+the last three hundred years, from the time of the conquest of Mexico.
+
+There is in the Cluny Museum, in Paris, a beautiful triptych,
+evidently of the sixteenth century. It is worked in feathers, with
+delicate outlines in fine gold thread. Nothing can exceed the
+tenderness and harmony of the colouring in shades of blue, and warm
+and cool brown tints. This is probably a survival of that lost art of
+Mexico which was carried on in their convents, and may have been a
+copy of a treasured relic of European art.
+
+Among the few noteworthy specimens that have survived, is the mitre of
+St. Carlo Borromeo at Milan, described by M. F. Denis as being both
+artistic and beautiful. He tells us in his Appendix that even now, a
+tissue of feathers is woven in France, as soft and flexible as a silk
+damask; and rivalling the Mexican scarlet feather fabric, which the
+Spaniards admired so greatly. He also speaks of the inlaid feather
+work, invented by M. Le Normant of Rouen, in the last century, and
+afterwards continued in Paris by his English pupil, Mr. Levet, who
+sold two of his works to the then Duke of Leeds, in 1735. The first is
+a vase of flowers, the second a peacock, designed by M. Oudry (peintre
+du Roi). Both of these, framed as screens, are now at Hornby Castle.
+
+Unfortunately feathers are, by their nature, most attractive to that
+greatest destroyer, next to Attila--the moth. Ghirlandajo called
+mosaic in marble and glass, "painting for eternity;" we may call
+feather work, "painting for a day."
+
+From the essays of M. Ferdinand Denis,[340] much may be learned of the
+_arte plumaria_ of the Mexicans and their neighbours of Brazil,
+Guatemala, Peru, and Yucatan, and the land of the Zapotecas, &c.,
+where it was also cultivated. He says that their civilization is so
+mysterious that we have as yet no means of judging whence came their
+art.
+
+Fergusson suggests the similarity between Central Asian and Central
+American art, both in architectural forms and plastic and sculptured
+remains. He thinks that its tradition was transmitted from Asia to
+America in the third and fourth centuries of our era. If so, it was an
+unlucky moment for the recipients, as the art of Asia, as well as that
+of Europe, was then at its lowest and most debased phase; perhaps,
+however, the more fit for the fertilization of that of a perfectly
+barbarous people. There is something fascinating in the suggestions on
+this subject in Mr. Donelly's "Atlantis;" but when conjecture is only
+founded on tradition, and without proof, we must not take it into
+serious consideration.
+
+Having proved the universal use of feathers, it is not difficult to
+appreciate the causes which suggested everywhere the transfer of this
+decorative art to another craft, employing less perishable materials.
+Embroidery probably followed it closely and absorbed it throughout
+Asia and in Egypt; and the survivals now are only an accidental
+specimen, a tradition, and a name.[341]
+
+The name "Plumarii," for the embroideries, is thus fully accounted
+for, and we need seek no further elucidation. It was commonly used in
+classical Roman times. "Opus plumarium" seems to have become the
+legitimate term for all needlework. The Plumarii were the
+embroiderers, whether their work was in wool, or thread, or in silk
+(at a later period),[342] with or without admixture of gold or silver
+(as the Argentarii were the jewellers).
+
+The article on the word "plumarius" in Hoffman's Lexicon,[343] after
+describing two kinds of Plumarii, Phrygians and Babylonians, proceeds
+to say, "These latter, who wove garments and hangings of various
+colours, were called 'Plumarii;' but though this name was at first
+confined to craftsmen who wove patterns in the shape of feathers, in
+course of time the name was extended to those artists who, with the
+needle or by painting, embellished robes."[344]
+
+The "opus plumarium" included, as I before said, all flat stitches;
+and I repeat that "feather application" was certainly its first
+motive; and next came the stitches that conveyed the same desired
+effect, though a new material was employed, fitted for the needle,
+which, having served its apprenticeship in "plain work," now came to
+the front as a decorative agent.
+
+Painting with the needle began with an attempt to model with it; the
+lay of stitches being so arranged as to give the whole effect of
+light and shadow, so as to delineate the forms without changing the
+shades of the material used. I give on the opposite page some Japanese
+birds, which will explain what I mean. The stitches are so
+intelligently placed as absolutely to give the forms of the birds
+imitated. They represent plumage, and a more artistic representation
+cannot be imagined. (Pl. 43.)
+
+The same stitch which we find prevailing in China and Japan as plumage
+work, is employed in embroidering flowers. Here satin, stem, and
+plumage stitches are blended together, and excellent decorative
+effects are produced; but the texture of flowers is not to be
+imitated, as is that of the plumage of birds. "Satin" stitch is a more
+restricted form of plumage stitch; and "stem" is another variety of
+these flat stitches, very useful in its place. I therefore have
+assigned the name of "plumage stitch" to that hitherto called
+"embroidery" or "long and short" stitches; and I give the term
+"plumage work" to include all the "flat" stitches.
+
+Practically, it is allowed that these flat stitches, especially the
+plumage stitch, give most scope for freedom in needlework, as they are
+laid on at once, and according to the inspiration of the worker, and
+may cover the outline and efface it. The stitches are not counted, and
+have more of the nature of touch than any others, as their length,
+thickness, and closeness may be varied at will. The artist's design
+thus admits of interpretation according to the taste and feeling of
+the needlewoman.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 43.
+    Japanese Opus Plumarium.]
+
+
+_Part 6._
+
+OPUS CONSUTUM (_or cut work_).
+
+This is "Patchwork," or "Appliqué" ("inlaid" and "onlaid"). Vasari
+calls it "Di commesso," and says that Botticelli invented it for the
+use of Church banners, as being much more effective than any other
+style of work, or even than painting, as the outlines remained firm
+(non si stinguano), and were not affected by the weather (as in
+painted cloths) and were visible on both sides of the banner.
+Botticelli drew with his own hand the baldachino of Or San Michele,
+and the embroideries on a frieze carried in procession by the monks of
+Santa Maria Novella; he died 1515. Perhaps he may have revived the art
+of application in his own day.
+
+There are, however, much earlier examples of patchwork, of which the
+first and most remarkable is the Egyptian funeral tent of Queen
+Isi-em-Kheb, mother-in-law of Shishak, who besieged and took Jerusalem
+three or four years after the death of Solomon, B.C. 980. It may be
+described as a mosaic, or patchwork of prodigious size, made of
+thousands of pieces of gazelles' skins, dyed, and neatly sewn together
+with threads of colour to match, resembling the stitching of a glove,
+the outer edges bound with a cord of twisted pink leather, sewn on
+with stout pink thread (pl. 44). The colours are described as being
+wonderfully preserved, when it is remembered that they are nearly as
+old as the Trojan War; though perhaps their preservation is less
+surprising than that the flowers wreathed about several royal mummies
+of the same period should have shown their colours and forms when the
+cases were first opened, so as to be recognized as blue larkspur,
+yellow mimosa, and a red Abyssinian flower, massed closely together on
+the foundation of a strong leaf cut in zigzags. Among the flowers lay
+a dead wasp, whose worthless little form and identity were as
+perfectly preserved as those of the mighty monarch on whose bosom it
+had completed its short existence. The tent itself consists of a
+centre or flat top, divided down the middle, and covered over one
+half with pink and yellow rosettes on a blue ground; on the other half
+are six large vultures, each surrounded with a hieroglyphic text which
+is really an epitaph. The side flaps are adorned first with some
+narrow bands of colour; then with a fringe pattern; then with a row of
+broad panels, red, green, and yellow, with a device or picture and
+inscription in the two other colours; on this border there are
+kneeling gazelles, each with a pink Abyssinian lotus blossom hanging
+to its collar. The rest of the side flaps and the whole of the front
+and back flaps are composed of large squares, alternately pink and
+green. This, for its antiquity, its style, its stitchery, materials,
+and colours, is a most interesting work of early art, and an example
+of the perfection to which it had attained. It is remarkable how much
+variety of effect has been produced with only four colours, by the
+artistic manner of placing and contrasting them. To our more advanced
+taste, however, the whole effect of the contrasting colours is
+inharmonious and gaudy, though certainly striking and typical.[345]
+
+Another piece of Egyptian application, from the Museum at Turin, is a
+pretty leaf pattern cut out in red stuff, laid on a white ground, and
+worked down with a darker outline of the same colour.[346]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 22.
+    Piece of appliqué in red stuff and red outlines from Egypt.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 44.
+    Funeral Tent of Isi-em-Kheb. From Villiers Stuart's "Funeral Tent
+        of an Egyptian Queen."]
+
+We have an instance of ancient "application" of about 600 years
+later, Greek in its beauty of design and execution. Alas! we can only
+ascertain, from tattered fragments taken out of a tomb in the Crimea,
+that it was parsemé with figures on horseback or in chariots. The
+border is very beautiful. Compare the fragments of which we have
+obtained a copy with the mantle of Demeter, from a Greek vase, and you
+will perceive how the styles correspond (Pl. 16, Fig. 23). The ground
+material is of the finest woven wool, of a deep violet or purple
+colour, enriched with application of another fine woollen fabric of a
+most brilliant green, worked down, outlined and embroidered in white,
+black, and gold-coloured wool, apparently in stem stitches.[347] The
+accompanying illustration gives the effect and general design of the
+outer border only, in which the applied leaf is worked down in red,
+gold, and white.
+
+It is much to be regretted that the centre of the mantle is so
+tattered and discoloured that it is impossible to do more than
+ascertain that the design that is embroidered on it consists of
+figures on horseback or in chariots, in spirited attitudes. The second
+and broader border is to be found (pl. 17).
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 23.
+    Narrow border of a Greek mantle.]
+
+"Opus consutum" cannot in any sense perhaps be the name of a stitch or
+stitches. But it applies to a peculiar style of embroidery employing
+certain stitches. It is the term given to all work cut out of plain or
+embroidered materials, and applied by "working down" to another
+material as grounding. It includes all raised and stuffed application
+in silk, woollen, and metal thread work. It has been given to all work
+in which the scissors are active agents, whether in cutting out the
+outlines or in incising the pattern, as in much of the linen and
+muslin embroideries of our day, now called "Madeira work," of which a
+great deal was made in the first part of the century by English ladies
+who designed and collected patterns from each other, and gave the
+produce of their industry as gifts to their friends for collars,
+cuffs, and trimmings.[348]
+
+"Cut work" is named by Chaucer, and is constantly to be found in
+inventories from his time to the beginning of the last century. At
+Coire, in the Grisons, is a very beautiful chasuble, of which the
+orphrey is of the school of the elder Holbein or Lucas Cranach,
+applied and raised so as to form a high relief. The figures are
+covered with satin and embroidered. The chasuble itself is of fine
+Saracenic silk, woven with golden inscriptions in broad stripes. The
+colours are brown, crimson, and gold.
+
+  [Illustration: Wall Pilasters
+    Appliqué Cut work, Italian XVI. Cent^ry
+    Property of Countess Somers]
+
+In the later Middle Ages, a good deal of this work was executed in
+Germany for wall hangings; figures were cut out in different
+materials, and embroidered down and finished by putting in the details
+in various stitches. As art they are generally a failure, being more
+gaudy than beautiful. This, however, is not necessarily the case, for
+there is at the Hotel Cluny a complete suite of hangings of the time
+of Francis the First, partly applied and partly embroidered, which
+are beautiful in design and colouring, especially the fruit and
+trophies in the borders.
+
+In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries cut work was much employed
+in Italy for large flowered arabesque designs, commonly in velvet or
+silk, making columnar wall hangings, which are often very effective;
+giving the rooms an architectural decoration, without interfering with
+the arrangement of works of art, pictures, statues and cabinets,
+placed in front of them. Besides, it was supposed that the utmost
+effect of richness was thus accomplished with the least labour, and
+very large spaces and very high walls covered, without losing anything
+of beauty by distance, as must be the case when the work's highest
+merit is in the delicacy of the stitches and the details of form. (Pl.
+45.)
+
+The Earl of Beauchamp has inherited a most beautiful suite of hangings
+of "appliqué work;" silks of many kinds are laid on a white brocade
+ground with every possible variety of stitch, forming richly and
+gracefully designed patterns; and showing to what cut work can aspire.
+
+A great deal of "opus consutum" has been done in the School of Art
+Needlework, in the way of restoration of old embroideries. Here may be
+seen copies of different models of many periods; amongst other British
+specimens, part of a bed at Drumlanrig, in which James I. slept. In
+this work the application is cut out, raised and stuffed, and
+"couched" with cords, and the whole thing is as stiff, strong,
+conventional, and enduring as if it were a piece of upholstery that
+was carpentered yesterday, instead of being needlework of at least 250
+years ago.
+
+One of the most remarkable large works of this style that exists was
+shown in 1881, at the South Kensington Museum, during the Spanish
+Exhibition.[349] It was of the kind called "on the stamp." This was a
+landscape seen between columns wreathed with flowers and creepers. In
+the foreground couched a stag, the size of life--a wonderful
+reproduction of the hide of the creature in stitches. The relief is so
+high that the columns appear to be circular by the shadows they throw;
+and the stag is stuffed so as to be raised about six inches. The work
+is superb, and causes pleasure as well as wonder; and yet, in spite of
+the beauty of the design, and the richness of the materials--gold,
+silver, silk, and wool profusely used--it is a divergence from the
+legitimate art of embroidery, and is simply the attempt of the
+needlewoman to combine again the arts of sculpture and painting with
+the help of so inadequate an implement as the needle. Therefore,
+except as being a marvellous and beautiful curiosity, it is a failure;
+it is not art.[350]
+
+Practically, cut work is the best mode of arriving at splendid effects
+by uniting rich and varied tissues.[351] The Italian curiosity vendors
+know this well, and often cut up the remnants and rags of rich stuffs,
+old faded silks, and scraps of gold and silver tissues, and with them
+copy fine old designs, and sell them as authentic specimens of such
+and such a date.
+
+I was once requested to give an opinion as to the date of a curtain
+border bought in Italy, and on consideration I gave the following
+verdict: "The design is of the sixteenth century; the applied velvet
+and gold cord, of the seventeenth century; the brocaded silk ground,
+eighteenth century; the thread with which the whole was
+worked--machine-made silk thread (English)--middle of nineteenth
+century." The whole effect was excellent, and very antique.
+
+This art of "application" is the distinctive part of the "opus
+consutum," and it is the best and most economical method for
+restoration of old embroideries, of which the grounding material is
+generally worn out long before the stitches laid upon it. Much
+beautiful work has thus been rescued from annihilation, and restored
+to use from its long imprisonment in the boxes and drawers of the
+garret and store-room. But it is cruel to transfer historical or
+typical works, and so puzzle the artist and the historian.
+
+It is so troublesome to embroider on velvet or plush, or gold tissues,
+that application is the easiest and most effective mode of dealing
+with these fabrics.[352] The outlines laid down in cord have the best
+effect, while binding the edges and securing them from fraying, and it
+is almost certain that the eye receives most pleasure, in flat art,
+from a defined outline, which satisfies it; where there are no cast
+shadows, it lifts the work from the background, and separating the
+colours, it enhances their beauty. It would appear, however, as a
+rule, that either black or gold metal should invariably be employed,
+because they do not interfere with any colour they approach. White is
+distracting and aggressive. The Greeks sometimes used gold colour
+instead of gold, as we see in the mantle from the Crimea already
+referred to; but this is not nearly so agreeable to the eye as pure
+gold.
+
+A great deal of modern "opus consutum," or application cut work, has
+been done in Constantinople of late years. The designs in general, are
+not artistic; nor are the colouring and materials very commendable.
+The onlaid material is, in general, sewn down with chain stitches, and
+cut out afterwards.
+
+
+_Part 7._
+
+LACE.--OPUS FILATORIUM OR ARANEUM.
+
+Mrs. Palliser says that from the earliest times the art of lace-making
+has been so mixed up with that of needlework, that it is impossible to
+enter upon the one without naming the other. This is, in fact, what
+she has done, showing the intimate connection between the two in her
+charming work on lace, where much information about embroideries in
+general, may be found in the introduction.[353]
+
+M. Blanc also considers that there is but a slight transition between
+embroidery and guipure, which he says was the first lace.[354] As all
+the earliest specimens and designs for guipure were Venetian, the art
+was, therefore, probably an Italian invention, though an Oriental
+origin has sometimes been attributed to it. The objection to this last
+theory is that we find no ancient specimens, and no modern
+continuation of such work in the East.
+
+The word "guipure" is a stumbling-block. It has been applied to many
+forms in the varying art of lace-making; which same variableness has
+caused its nomenclature to assume the terms belonging to other textile
+arts where they approach or touch each other, (as in netting, fringes,
+or embroideries). The nearest approach to laces before the thirteenth
+century was more in the nature of what we now call guimp.[355]
+
+Embroidery differs from lace, in that it is worked on already woven
+tissues; whereas lace is manufactured at once, both ground and
+design.[356] But the link between the two is not missing.
+
+In the twelfth century they worked "opus filatorium," which consisted
+of embroidery with the needle on linen, of which half the threads had
+been drawn out, and the remainder were worked into a net by knotting
+them into groups, then dividing, and knotting them again.[357] There
+is a piece of work described in an old catalogue quoted by Rock. "St.
+Paul's, London, had a cushion covered with knotted thread: Pulvinar
+copertum de albo filo nodato." Here lace and embroidery touch each
+other.[358] Sir Gardiner Wilkinson notices some early Egyptian work in
+the Louvre as "a piece of white network pattern, each mesh containing
+an irregular cubic figure." This sounds much like lace-work.
+
+It may be fairly asserted that the term "embroidery" embraces the
+craft of lace-making, as almost all ancient and much modern lace is
+simple embroidery, and formed entirely by the needle.
+
+Some kinds of lace, however, are made by plaiting and twisting the
+threads attached to bobbins round pins which are previously arranged
+in the holes of a pattern, pricked on parchment or glazed paper.[359]
+The original motive and idea of lace is a net. The patterns called by
+the ancients "de fundata," are netted designs meshed. You will see
+them constantly in Egyptian and Greek art, both in wall painting and
+textile decoration. Homer speaks of golden cauls, and so does
+Isaiah,[360] as adorning women's heads. They also mention nets of
+flax.
+
+The capitals of the brazen columns adorned with "nets of chequer work"
+in Solomon's Temple are very curious.[361] And the author of "Letters
+from Italy, 1776," tells of the garment of a statue at Portici, edged
+with a border resembling fine netting. Egyptian robes of state appear
+to have been sometimes trimmed with an edging of a texture between
+lace and fringe.[362]
+
+Lace has been made of many materials in many ways. We may instance
+"passementerie," made with bobbins (bone lace), with or without pins,
+or with the needle only, by hand. The materials have been gold,
+silver, silk, thread (these two last white or coloured), the fibres of
+plants, and human hair.[363] A lace called "yak" is made of wool or
+hair.
+
+Bone laces in gold and silver, or the two mixed and interchanged, are
+continually mentioned in the inventories of the fifteenth, sixteenth,
+and seventeenth centuries. Bed hangings, chair and cushion covers, and
+table cloths were constantly trimmed with gold and silver bone lace,
+and fringes of the same.[364] Laces in coloured silks were made in
+Spain and the Balearic Isles late in the last century.[365]
+
+In 1542, a sumptuary law was passed in Venice, forbidding the metal
+laces embroidered in silk to be wider than "due dita," i.e. about two
+inches. This paternal interference in the details of life is truly
+Venetian. It was intended to "protect the nobles and citizens from
+injuring themselves and setting a bad example."
+
+Perhaps this strict rule was relaxed in favour of crowned heads and
+royal personages; for there is at Ashridge, among the relics of Queen
+Elizabeth's enforced visit, a toilet-cover of red and gold striped
+silk, with a trimming of lace, four inches broad, of Venice gold and
+silver lace embroidered in coloured silk. Specimens of these laces are
+rare, owing to the intrinsic value of the metal. We must suppose the
+origin of these golden trimmings to belong to a very early period. A
+piece of gold wire lace guimp was lately found in a tomb near Wareham,
+and is supposed, with reason, to be Scandinavian.[366]
+
+M. Blanc describes lace as a "treillage" or network, and says it is
+made in three ways. You may complete the ground first, and then work
+the pattern with the needle. This he calls lace "pure et simple;" and
+he considers that it differs from guipure in that the latter consists
+of flowers and arabesques worked separately, and then connected with
+bars, lines, or meshes. This guipure is the second mode of
+lace-making.[367] The third is by machinery; but this has the inherent
+defect of all machine-made fabrics, to a practised eye; i.e. a certain
+rigidity and coldness in the exactly repeated forms, in which the
+human touch is wanting. It is curious how in art, even a "pentimento"
+is valuable, recalling the hand that erred as well as created; the
+attention that strayed, or reconsidered the design.[368]
+
+M. Blanc, speaking of the beauty of point d'Alençon, praises it
+especially as being entirely needlework. He names the different modes
+of lace-making, and judges their merits. Of needle-made lace he says:
+"And the value of this lace not only arises from its representing a
+considerable amount of labour, but also because nothing can replace in
+human estimation the fabrics produced by a man's, and still less by a
+woman's handicraft. However the hand may have been restrained by the
+necessity of faithfully following, on green parchment, the designs
+imagined and traced by another person, there is always, even in
+copying an outline, an individuality, an imperceptible deviation to
+the right or to the left, above or below the tracing, which impresses
+on the design the accent of strength or weakness, of indecision or
+determination."[369] I would add, of intelligence or stupidity; of
+knowledge or ignorance.
+
+This is not the first time, and will certainly not be the last, that I
+shall have sought to impress on the needlewoman the fact that her
+individuality cannot fail to be strongly marked in her work; and I
+would urge her to carry out the suggestions that her experience and
+her taste afford her, while seeking to render faithfully the original
+motive of the designer. In lace-making, as in all art, the interest
+and the life, as it were, is imparted to each specimen by the
+attention and thought bestowed upon it.
+
+Mrs. Palliser shows us, by her beautiful illustrations, how much
+variety may be given to designs for lace-making, which have changed
+with each period of contemporary art, and are markedly distinctive of
+their nationalities.
+
+Mr. A. Cole's lectures on lace, his volume of photographs, and M.
+Seguin's valuable work, are full of information.
+
+M. Urbani de Gheltof's "Technical History of Venetian Laces,"
+translated into English by Lady Layard, is a beautiful little book and
+a worthy imitation of the ancient lace-books of the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries.[370]
+
+The subject has been so thoroughly discussed by adepts in connection
+with its revival as a local industry in its original cradle, that I
+will confine myself to a few observations on its history and its place
+in decorative art.
+
+Fringes, Knotting, Netting, Knitting, Crochet, Tatting, and
+Lace-making, are all parts of the same branch of ornamental
+needlework. They are all "trimmings," in the sense of being decorative
+edges to more solid materials. They are not available as coverings for
+warmth or decency; but they serve to give the grace of mystery to the
+object they drape or veil. They soften the outlines and the colours
+beneath them, while they permit them to peep through their meshes.
+They are hardly to be included in what is called high art, having more
+affinity with grace, refinement and coquetry, than with æsthetic
+culture or noble thought.
+
+This tendency in lace work may be the reason that the masculine mind
+does not, in general, appreciate these lovely textures, but rather
+despises them (even when the designs are beautiful and ingenious), as
+being flimsy and deficient in honest intention; whereas women have
+always greatly prized them for their delicacy and refinement, and
+their great value, on account of the time, trouble, and eyesight
+expended upon them. Their knowledge of stitches also enables them to
+appreciate their variety, and the taste shown in their selection and
+arrangement for carrying out each design.
+
+Lace stitches are almost innumerable.[371] Upwards of a hundred are
+named, and their variations are endless. But a volume would not
+suffice us for entering into the details of the craft; many of its
+stitches have been imported into embroideries in gold, silk, and
+crewels; and such adaptations are always allowable, provided the
+effect is good.
+
+We have every reason to believe that the claims of Venice as the first
+and original school of lace-making have been satisfactorily
+proved.[372] Genoa, Florence, Milan, especially the last,[373]
+followed suit. Germany, France,[374] and Spain soon started their
+schools; but Lady Layard believes that Spain received all her
+inspiration and the greater part of her laces from Venice, which
+likewise sent teachers to France and to Brussels--or rather, we may
+say, had many first-class workwomen decoyed from her manufactories to
+assist in starting rival industries in other countries.[375]
+
+The first pattern-books were printed in Venice in the sixteenth
+century; and these "Corone di belle e virtuose donne," as they are
+sometimes entitled,[376] were imitated in France and Germany.
+
+Venice was proud of her industry, and of the noble ladies who fostered
+it. It is recorded in the "Virtù in Giocco of Giovanna Palazzi" that
+Giovanna Dandolo, or "la Dandola," (wife of the Doge Malapiero,) was
+the first patroness of Venice laces. She also fostered the art of
+printing in Venice, and is spoken of as a "principessa di gran'
+spirito, ne di private fortune," and her memory is cherished in
+connection with these proofs of her patriotism. We hear also that
+Morosin or Marosin, wife of the Doge Marin Grimani, patronized
+Venetian lace-making. Her forewoman, or _maestra_, was a certain
+Cattina Gardin, and through her the art was settled at Burano, where
+it has been so lately revived.
+
+At the Cathedral of Burano, is kept in the sacristy, perhaps the
+finest existing piece of artistic lace of the sixteenth century. It
+contains many groups of figures from the history of our Lord,
+beautiful both in design and execution, worked in "Punti Fogliami,"
+and filled in with exquisite tracery. This was the border of an
+antipendium.
+
+Mrs. Palliser laments the extinction of the art in Venice, and says
+that but one woman of the old craft had survived; but her elegy was
+premature, as that old woman, by name Cencia Scarpariola, has lived to
+see hundreds of girls at Burano reviving all the old traditions,
+having learnt from her the secrets of the "mestiere," or "mystery."
+Under the patronage of the Princess Margherita, now Queen of Italy,
+and with the active help and superintendence of Countess Adriana
+Marcello and Princess Giovanelli, most beautiful laces are now made in
+every old point, French and Flemish, as well as Venetian. Pezzi,
+merli, and merletti are executed in the different styles which include
+all lace-making, and of which we here give a list from M. de Gheltof's
+book:--
+
+    Net lace.
+    Cut lace.
+    Open lace.
+    Flowered lace.
+    Knotted lace.
+    Darning or square netting.
+    Venice point.
+    Burano point.
+    Drawn lace.[377]
+    Embroidered linen.[378]
+
+The price of these laces is very high, but not beyond their value when
+we consider the vast amount of skilled labour bestowed on them. We are
+often told that old lace is cheaper than new, as an absurd fact,
+because the antiquity of lace is supposed to add to its value. Yes,
+but principally as an object of archæological interest; whereas that
+which is being made now is supporting by its daily wage the
+needlewoman and her family, and perhaps providing for her old age;
+and as the strain on the eye is very heavy, many lace-workers early in
+life lose their sight, at least for all the purposes of their
+craft.[379] For these reasons we cannot say that the prices required
+for such luxurious trimmings are unreasonable. Zanon da Udine gives us
+an idea of how costly they were in old times. He says that Giuseppe
+Berardi, a lace merchant in Venice, made a profit of 75,000 francs on
+a commission for a set of lace bed-hangings for the wedding of Joseph
+II., Emperor of Germany, which proves the high prices paid for the new
+laces of their day.
+
+Blond laces, which take their turn occasionally as fashionable
+trimmings, veils, and Spanish mantillas, are so called from their
+original Venetian name, "merletti biondi," pale laces. De Gheltof
+derives this appellation from the celebrated collar of Louis Quatorze,
+and fancies it was made of the fair hair of the workers; but this is
+only vague conjecture. The term was applied in the seventeenth century
+to laces in silk, gold, and silver--never to thread laces. I confess I
+do not find the reason for the name, but accept De Gheltof's
+information that it was given by the authority of the magistrates of
+Mercanzia in 1759.
+
+This is but a very slight sketch of the history of lace. Venice being
+its birthplace, and likewise the busy scene of its rehabilitation, I
+have lingered over its school, and left but little space for the
+discussion of those of Spain, Flanders, Belgium, and France. But these
+have been thoroughly investigated, and their individual merits are
+well appreciated, both as antique and modern dress decoration.
+
+I have already said that the lace schools in France were instituted by
+Colbert, who placed one at Auxerre, under the especial care of his
+brother, the bishop of that city. Louis Quatorze made it one of his
+splendid caprices, and not only set the example, but forced the
+fashion into this luxurious and extravagant channel.
+
+In Spain, lace was made to look its best by being worn stretched over
+the great hoops of the "Guard-Infante;" and the fashion spread all
+over Europe. The white laces, resembling carved ivory or those in gold
+and silver, which remind one of solid jewellers' work, when spread
+over the surface of these fortified outworks, guarding from all
+approach the persons of the Infantas of Spain, assume in the portraits
+by Velasquez, a dignity which is in keeping with their value. The
+splendid designs show brilliantly on a background of scarlet, rose
+colour, or black silk; and that which, hanging loosely, looks only
+tawdry and ragged, had a magnificent effect when thus displayed.
+
+For ecclesiastical purposes, these grand solid laces seem most
+appropriate, being effective in large spaces, and easily seen at a
+distance, hanging over the edge of the altar, as a border to the linen
+cloths, or finishing the white alb of the officiating priest.
+
+One cannot but agree with M. Blanc, who points out that each piece of
+lace had its intention, and that a fashionable ball-dress trimmed with
+the edging of an antique altar-cloth in loops, is in false taste, to
+say no worse of the misappropriation.
+
+Though we have had no schools of lace in England (unless we can call
+our imitative industries schools), we have samplers of the time of
+Queen Elizabeth, and down to the middle of the last century, showing
+that drawn lace and cut lace were regularly taught, probably as an
+accomplishment, by Italians. The laces of Devonshire and the Isle of
+Wight (called Honiton) form a group totally distinct from those of
+Northamptonshire, Bedfordshire, and Oxfordshire, which last are very
+simple cushion bobbin-laces.
+
+From the sixteenth century English ladies have, for their amusement,
+made cut laces. Still, we must confess we have no national style of
+lace, and the only enduring ones have been those of France and
+Belgium, which have always kept the lead since their establishment,
+though fluctuating in design with the varying fashions of each epoch.
+Perhaps the reason of their longevity is that they have followed
+always the taste of their day. That of our time being decidedly
+archæological, ancient patterns are now the most successful.
+
+There is a kind of embroidery darned-work, called "Limerick lace,"
+which is said to be only made in Ireland, and being partly
+machine-made, is not pure lace, and therefore little esteemed. Very
+fine thread laces have been produced at Irish work schools; but no
+commercial result has followed. Clever imitations of Venice point have
+come from Ireland lately, called "raised crochet." This is a novelty,
+and it is extremely fine and beautiful work.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 46.
+    Egyptian "Gobelins," Woven and Embroidered.]
+
+The Exhibition of Irish Lace in London (June, 1883), shows how
+widespread have been the efforts of Irish ladies to employ the
+peculiar genius of the sister island for delicate work with the
+needle, which has always been shown in their beautiful embroideries on
+muslin and cambric. It appears that every kind of lace, except,
+perhaps, Brussels point, has been made in Ireland within the last 180
+years; but as in each case the effort was always that of one
+individual woman, the school fell away when she died.
+
+The names of these ladies are now worthily recorded in the official
+catalogue of the exhibition, with photographs of the specimens
+produced under their superintendence and care. Perhaps a permanent
+industry may crown, however late, their exertions to help the women of
+Ireland.
+
+
+_Part 8._
+
+TAPESTRY--OPUS PECTINEUM.
+
+It is necessary to define precisely what is meant by the word
+"tapestry."[380] The term has been applied to all hangings, and so
+caused confusion between those that are embroidered with a design, on
+a plain or brocaded woven material, and those which are inwoven with
+the design from the first.[381] This latter was called in classical
+language, "opus pectineum," because it was woven with the help of a
+comb (the "slay"),[382] to push the threads tight between each row of
+stitches; and the individual stitches were put in with a sort of a
+needle, or by the fingers only, and laid on the warp. It was thus
+practised by the Egyptians, by the Persians, Indians, and Peruvians;
+and in Egypt was often finished by embroidery. (Pl. 46.) In Egyptian
+tombs we have evidence of their tapestry, from the mural paintings
+representing men and women weaving pictures in upright looms. The
+comb which served to push the threads together after the stitches were
+laid in is sometimes found in the weaver's tomb.
+
+We have, in the British Museum, pieces of "opus pectineum" from
+Saccarah, in Egypt; and also fragments from a Peruvian tomb, of
+barbarous design, but the weaving is equal to the Egyptian; and both
+resemble the Gobelins weaving of to-day. Whence came the craft of the
+Peruvians?
+
+Tapestry is woven in two ways, by a high or by a low-warp loom
+(_haute-lisse_ or _basse-lisse_), vertical or horizontal. The "slay"
+is the implement which is peculiar to the craft. I shall not enter
+into any description of the mode of working the looms, as this has
+been thoroughly well done by masters of the art.[383] But I would call
+attention to the Frontispiece, copied from a Greek vase, where
+Penelope is portrayed sitting by her _haute-lisse_ frame. I also refer
+the reader to the illustration from the Rheims tapestries, in which a
+mediæval artist shows the Blessed Virgin weaving at one that is
+horizontal or "basse-lisse." (Pl. 47.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 47.
+    Portion of a Tapestry Hanging. Cathedral. Rheims. The Virgin weaves
+        and embroiders at a _basse-lisse_ frame.]
+
+For the best information I have been able to obtain regarding tapestry
+weaving, I must acknowledge my indebtedness to M. Albert Castel's
+"Bibliothèque des Merveilles."[384] He has given great care to the
+consideration of this subject, and has collected good evidences to
+prove his conclusions, which I willingly accept _en bloc_. Of course
+he has chiefly dealt with the French branch of the art, and with the
+Flemish, from which it immediately descends. He begins, however, by
+quoting Pliny, to prove the antiquity of weaving, and gives a verse of
+Martial's to this effect: "Thou owest this work to the land of
+Memphis, where the slay of the Nile has vanquished the needle of
+Babylon."[385]
+
+Homer makes Helen weave the story of the siege of Troy; this may have
+been partly embroidered; and there are some pieces of woven tapestry
+introduced most ingeniously into the web of a linen shirt or garment,
+of which the sleeve is in the Egyptian department of the British
+Museum, proving that figures were pictured by weaving quite as early
+as the date of Troy, and unmistakably finished with the needle (Plate
+18); at any rate, as early as the days of Homer. Arachne's web was
+interwoven with figures. She and Minerva rivalled each other in
+ingenious design and perfect execution. The description of the
+beautiful hangings they wove, the glorious colours with their
+tenderly graduated tints, and the graceful borders, appear to be
+almost prophetic of the highest efforts of the looms of the
+Gobelins.[386][387] Arachne's name is derived from the Hebrew word
+for weaving, "Arag."
+
+It appears that the town now called Arras, but anciently Nomenticum,
+was always a centre of the trade of the weavers;[388] for Flavius
+Vopiscus, writing in A.D. 282, says that thence came the Byrri--woven
+cloaks with hoods, which were much in vogue amongst all classes in the
+later Roman Empire. The craft of weaving, which flourished in the
+Flemish and other adjacent countries, seems to have become native to
+that soil, and to have clung to it, surviving many historical
+cataclysms.[389]
+
+Though in the fifth century the inhabitants of that country were
+transported wholesale to Germany by the Vandals, and among them those
+of the town of Arras, yet, thanks to the monasteries, there was a
+survival and a revival; the craftsmen grouping themselves round the
+religious houses. Specimens as models were brought from the East.
+Aster, Bishop of Amasis (a town in Asiatic Turkey), describes these
+Oriental hangings in one of his homilies. He says that animals and
+scenes from the Bible were woven on white grounds.[390]
+
+Sidonius Apollinaris, Bishop of Clermont Ferrand,[391] says that some
+foreign tapestries are "pictured" with the summits of Ctesiphon and
+Nephates, "wild beasts running rapidly across void canvas, and also by
+a miracle of art, the Parthian of wild aspect with his head turned
+backwards." This might be a description of a Chinese composition, and
+probably it is so.[392]
+
+Woven tapestry is also called "Arras,"[393] because that town in the
+Netherlands was the home and school of the art of picture weaving in
+the Middle Ages. It has been hitherto excluded from the domain of
+needlework, because of the different use of the needle employed in
+it. It has always been woven on a loom, and is, in fact, embroidery
+combined with the weaving; for the shuttle, or slay, or comb completes
+each row of stitches. It belongs as much to our art as does tambour
+work, which is done with a hook instead of a needle. Tapestry weaving
+is the intelligent craft of a practised hand guided by artistic skill.
+The forms of the painted design must be copied by a person who can
+draw; and the colours require as much care in selection, as in
+painting with oils or water-colours. Such a thing as a purely
+mechanical exact copy is impossible in any art; and the difficulties
+are increased a hundredfold when it is a translation into another
+material, and another form of art. Besides, in this case, the copies
+are worked from the back, and the picture is reversed. The question is
+this: Can it be claimed as belonging to the same craft as embroidery?
+I answer in the affirmative, and I claim it.
+
+"When the Saracens began to weave tapestry we cannot tell; but the
+workers in woven pictures were called Sarassins, and their craft, the
+'opus Saracenicum.'"[394] The French and Flemish artisans who
+continued to weave in the old upright frames (_haute-lisse_) were,
+whether Christians or not, called "Sarassins." Probably they came
+through Spain, possibly from Sicily to Flanders and to France, or else
+from Byzantium. Viollet-le-Duc says that the "Saracinois" was a term
+applied to the makers of velvety carpets (_tapis veloutés_).[395] This
+is possible.[396] Woven carpets of Oriental type were spreading
+themselves as articles of luxury through Europe early in the Middle
+Ages; and the Persian style of design was much the same then, when the
+first models were brought to Spain, and thence to Arras, as it is now
+in the carpets we buy just woven in Persia.[397] The oldest specimens
+known here have been exhibited in the Indian Museum, and may be of the
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The perishable nature of the
+material makes us dependent on the sculptured records of all artistic
+design for our knowledge of carpets and hangings of more than a
+thousand years ago; and we must confess that we find nothing really
+resembling a Persian pattern in any classical tomb or sculpture of the
+Dark Ages.[398]
+
+I have allowed myself to touch upon carpet weaving, as it is germane
+to tapestry; though it is a branch that soon loses itself and leaves
+artistic work in the distance. Except the first design, it has become
+purely mechanical.
+
+After what has been quoted from Ovid's "Metamorphoses," and bearing in
+mind the pictured webs described by Homer, and likewise the evidence
+of the frescoes in Egypt, and the woman weaving on the Greek fictile
+vase found at Chiusi, we may be justified in concluding that, like all
+other arts, that of tapestry existed in very early days, died out, and
+had to begin afresh, and gradually return to life, during the Middle
+Ages.
+
+Bishop Gaudry, about 925, possessing a piece of tapestry with an
+inscription in Greek letters surrounded by lions "parsemé," was much
+put about till he obtained something to match it, to hang on the
+opposite side of his choir at Auxerre.[399] And it is known that the
+monks of St. Florent, at Saumur, wove tapestries about 985, and
+continued to do so for two centuries. St. Angelme of Norway,[400]
+Bishop of Auxerre, who died in 840, caused many tapestries to be
+executed for his church. At Poitiers this manufactory was so famous in
+the eleventh century, that foreign kings, princes, and prelates sought
+to obtain them, "even for Italy." The rules of their order of the
+monks of the Abbey of Cluny, dated 1009, were followed by those of St.
+Wast and of the Abbey of Fleury, and others in France, who all wove
+wool and silk for tapestries. Le Père Labbé, from whom much of this
+information is drawn and acknowledged by M. Charton (my authority),
+says that in 876, at Ponthièvre, in presence of the Emperor Charles
+the Bold, the hall of the council-chamber was hung with pictured
+tapestries, and the seats were covered with them.[401]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 48.
+    Order of the Golden Fleece. Tapestry at Berne, taken from Charles
+        the Bold at the Battle of Grandson, 1476.]
+
+Sufficient has been said to show that during the dark ages hangings
+were woven in France, Germany, and Belgium,[402] and that England was
+not behind the rest of the civilized world in this craft. I think,
+also, that we have indicated its Oriental origin.[403]
+
+Arras continued to lead as the great tapestry factory till the end of
+the fifteenth century, when the commercial failure of the city began,
+at the death of Charles le Téméraire, Duke of Burgundy.[404] Plate 48
+shows a portion of his tent hangings woven with the order of the
+golden fleece taken at the battle of Grandson--now in the museum at
+Berne. Till then Arras had supplied most of the splendid decorations of
+which we find such marvellous lists. Every possible subject--religious,
+romantic, historical, and allegorical--was pressed into the service,
+and pictured hangings were supposed to instruct, amuse, and edify the
+beholders. The dark ages were illuminated, and their barbarity
+softened, by these constant appeals to men's highest instincts, and to
+the memories of their noblest antecedents and aspirations, which
+clothed their walls, and so became a part of their daily lives. The
+great Flemish and French workshops became the illustrators of the
+history of the world, as it was then read or being enacted. It is a
+record of faiths, religious and political; and of national and family
+lives and their changes. The Exhibition at Brussels in 1880 showed, by
+its "Catalogue Raisonné," how much could be extracted from its storied
+tapestries of both archæological and artistic information.[405]
+
+Though the art continued to be the servant of refined luxury in the
+fifteenth century, Arras itself had done its work,[406] and was
+superseded as the greatest weaver of artistic tapestry by a neighbour
+and rival. Brussels, which had been gradually asserting itself as a
+weaving community, from that date absorbed most of the trade of Arras,
+and thence forwards, till Henri IV. established the works of the
+Savonnerie, Brussels led European taste, and employed the best
+artists. Brussels employed Leonardo da Vinci and Mantegna, Giovanni da
+Udine, Raphael, and later, Rubens and the great Dutch painters, to
+design cartoons for tapestry works. Raphael's pupil, Michael Coxsius,
+of Mechlin, superintended the copying of his master's cartoons.
+Shortly afterwards, Antwerp, Oudenarde, Lille, Tournai, Valenciennes,
+Beauvais, Aubusson, and Bruges all had their schools;[407] and the
+adept can trace their differences and peculiarities, and name their
+birthplace, without referring to their trade-mark, or to that of the
+manufacturer, which is usually to be found in the outer border.
+Poitiers, Troyes, Beauvais, Rheims, and St. Quentin likewise had their
+schools, and became famous.
+
+Want of space prevents my entering more fully into this subject of the
+northern tapestries, and I must refer my readers to the authorities I
+have quoted from so largely.
+
+
+ITALIAN TAPESTRY.
+
+The word Arrazzi shows us whence the Italians drew their art.
+Doubtless there were looms in the Italian cities, and especially under
+ecclesiastical patronage, through the dark ages. Rome was in
+communication with the Atrebates in the third century, by whom she was
+supplied with the Byrri, or hooded cloaks then worn; and as it had
+been a centre for weaving commerce, it is probable that Rome received
+from Arras the craftsmen as well as the produce of their looms. At the
+Renaissance we find factories for pictured webs in Florence, Rome,
+Milan, Mantua, and elsewhere. The best artists of the Italian
+schools--Mantegna, Leonardo, Raphael and his scholars, &c., &c.--gave
+their finest designs to be executed in Italy, before they were sold to
+Arras, Brussels, France, or England, and they are accumulated in the
+treasure-room of every palace in Italy. But the finest collections are
+those of the Vatican, and of the Pitti in Florence. A splendid volume
+might be edited of these grand artistic works; such a record would be
+invaluable. Vasari[408] and Passevant give us occasional glimpses of
+local factories for tapestry, but, as we have before said, this
+subject has still to be investigated.
+
+
+FRENCH TAPESTRY.
+
+In France, as elsewhere, tapestry was probably woven in private looms
+and in the religious houses from early days. M. Jubinal believes that
+it was made at Poitiers, Troyes, Beauvais, Rheims, and St. Quentin as
+early as 1025.[409] Froissart describes the entry of Isabel of
+Bavaria as a bride into Paris, when the houses were covered with
+hangings and tapestries representing historical scenes.[410] The Cluny
+Museum possesses a most curious mediæval suite of hangings from the
+Chateau de Boussac, of the early part of the fifteenth century. They
+tell the story of the "Dame au Lion," and are brilliantly coloured and
+charmingly quaint and gay in design. Hangings designed by Primaticcio
+were woven at Fontainebleau, where Francis I. started the manufacture
+in 1539. However, the first national school of tapestry weaving was
+that at Chaillot, under the experienced teaching of workmen from
+Arras; afterwards transferred to the town of Gobelins, 1603, by Henri
+Quatre.[411] Louis Quatorze and his minister Colbert splendidly
+protected this manufacture by law, privilege, and employment; so did
+Louis Quinze. Before the Revolution, other considerable tapestry works
+were flourishing at Aubusson in Auvergne, at Felletin in the upper
+Marches, and at Beauvais. These two last were especially famed for
+velvety tapestries (_veloutés_).
+
+As usual, the French have surpassed all other nations in this textile
+art. The pictorial tapestries of the Gobelins have carried the beauty
+of wall hangings to the utmost perfection. Nothing can be more festive
+than a brilliantly lighted hall, glowing with these woven pictures or
+arabesques, framed in gilded carvings or stuccoes. Still we must
+acknowledge that, in choice of worthy subjects, the Flemish ideal,
+which had been left far behind, was the highest. The weavers of the
+time of Louis Quatorze aspired only to teach the glories of France,
+not the moralities of society and civilization, in their historical
+compositions, which were then superseded by classical mythology, or
+else by scenes from rustic life, of the Watteau School. La Fontaine's
+fables gave some of the prettiest and gayest designs, and were
+generally the centres of splendid arabesques. The drawing and
+execution were perfect.
+
+It is to be feared that in the future, great works of textile
+decoration will be few and far between. It is only when the State, or
+the monarch that represents the dignity of the State, protects and
+fosters these artistic factories, that they can continue to thrive.
+Without such powerful encouragement, fashion, commercial depression,
+or a war will stop for a time the orders without which funds fail,
+discouragement sets in, and ruin quickly follows; and the best workman
+when unemployed, or forced for some years to wield the sword, loses
+his practised skill never to be restored. In France, whatever has been
+the form of government, the old traditions of protection for the
+Gobelins have been acted up to and maintained. The consequence is that
+science and art still contribute their efforts in the machinery, the
+colouring, and the designing of hangings of which the materials[412]
+and the execution are unrivalled. Probably there will never again be a
+Tuileries or a Versailles to adorn, but an Hôtel de Ville, especially
+if it is occasionally destroyed, may give from time to time
+opportunity for such decorations.
+
+
+ENGLISH TAPESTRY.
+
+When we consider the antiquity and the excellence of the art of
+tapestry on the Continent, we cannot pretend that there can be the
+same general interest in that of our English looms. But to ourselves
+it naturally assumes the greatest importance; and I have tried to
+trace the efforts of our ancestors in this direction, by noting every
+certain sign of English production, in what must have been an
+imitation of Flemish or Oriental weaving. The few facts here collected
+may be of service to the future writer of the history of English
+tapestries.
+
+Comnenus, Prince of Arras, fled before the Romans from Nomenticum to
+England; and he and his Atrebates settled themselves between
+Silchester and Sarum, and the Belgæ and Parisi did the same. The
+Romans found them here when they invaded England. Wherever the Belgic
+tribes spread themselves, the art of weaving was established. Comnenus
+probably brought over, and left to his descendants, the inheritance of
+this craft.
+
+Dr. Rock thinks that pictured tapestry was woven at an early period in
+the Middle Ages by the monks in England. The earliest proof of this
+that we possess, is the notice by Matthew Paris (thirteenth century)
+describing the three reredos for St. Alban's Abbey; the first, a large
+one, depicting the finding of the body of the Protomartyr; the others,
+"The Prodigal Son" and "The Man who fell among Thieves." All these
+were executed by the orders of Abbot Geoffrey.[413]
+
+While in London in 1316, Simon, Abbot of Ramsay, bought for the use of
+his monks, looms, shuttles, and a slay. "Pro weblomes emptes xx^d. Et
+pro staves ad eadem vj^d. Item pro iiij Shittles, pro eadem opere
+vj^d. Item j sloy pro textoribus viii^d."[414]
+
+In Edward II.'s time there were hangings woven in England which appear
+to have been absolutely tapestries. They were much valued abroad, and
+were called "Salles d'Angleterre." Charles V. of France (1364)
+possessed among his articles of costly furniture, "Une salle
+d'Angleterre vermeille brodée d'azur, et est la bordure a vignettes,
+et le dedans de Lyons, d'Aigles, et de Lyopars."[415]
+
+Our trade with Arras must have improved our tapestries. We are told of
+Edward III. selling his wools to that town, and being therefore called
+by Philip de Valois, his "Marchant de Laine." Horace Walpole refers to
+an act, "De Mysterâ Tapiciarorum," of the time of Edward III., 1327,
+"regarding certain malpractices of the craft," which proves its
+existence in England at that period.[416]
+
+Mr. French, in his catalogue of the Exhibition in London, 1851, quotes
+the tapestries of St. Mary's Hall at Coventry, to prove that there was
+a manufactory in England, _temp._ Henry VI. There were certainly
+individual looms, though we doubt whether it had yet become a national
+industry, as we have so few specimens remaining. The St. Mary's
+tapestries contain portraits of Henry VI., Cardinal Beaufort, &c., and
+are probably contemporary works. The subject is the marriage of Henry
+VI.
+
+There is also a piece of tapestry at Bude, in Cornwall, the property
+of Mr. Maskell, which came from a royal sale. Here the marriage of
+Henry VII. is depicted, and the style resembles that of the Coventry
+hangings. The costumes are certainly English, and the original
+pictures must have been English, though they might have been wrought
+at Arras, reminding one of the groups of figures and the dresses on
+the Dunstable Pall (see Plate 78).
+
+Dr. Rock also quotes the reredos belonging to the Vintners' Company,
+representing St. Martin sharing his cloak with a beggar. He thinks
+this is executed by the monks of St. Alban's, and attributes to those
+of Canterbury the fine tapestries of the legends of the Virgin at Aix,
+in Provence, of which we have the history. They were originally given
+to Canterbury Cathedral by Prior Godstone, and were called Arras work.
+There is no doubt that there were looms and artists in the convents
+and monasteries before there was any recognized school of such work in
+England. Probably till the Reformation such hangings were being woven
+all over Europe, and only then ceased in Germany and England. One
+cannot but regret that the weight of the evil which preponderated over
+the good in the Houses of the Church, should have caused so much that
+was beautiful in art to be crushed by their ruin.
+
+Chaucer speaks of "tapestry of verd."[417] This green tapestry seems
+to have been intended to give a bowery effect to the room it hung; and
+one can imagine that it pleased the taste of the poet of the "Flower
+and the Leaf." It seems to have been much the fashion in England and
+elsewhere about that period, and generally represented landscapes and
+woody foregrounds only; but sometimes figures and animals were
+portrayed, and always in the same tints of bluish-green.
+
+Dr. Rock gives us an extract from the wardrobe accounts of Edward II.,
+containing the following items: "To a mercer of London for a green
+hanging of wool, woven with figures of kings and earls upon it; for
+the king's service upon solemn feast days in London;" therefore the
+"tapestry of verd" was not a novelty even in the time of Chaucer.[418]
+
+Oudenarde was famous for these "hallings" or "salles." All the
+specimens mentioned in the catalogue of tapestries exhibited at
+Brussels in 1880, are said to be from thence. But we see no reason why
+it should not have been an English style of weaving also. The first
+establishment of a permanent manufactory in England, did not, however,
+take place until the latter end of the reign of Henry VIII., when
+Robert Sheldon "allowed" his manor-house at Barcheston, in
+Warwickshire, to "one Hicks," whom he signalizes in his will as "the
+author and beginner of all tapestry of Arras in England." This will is
+dated 1576.[419]
+
+  [Illustration: SUMMER
+    English Tapestry, Temp. Henry VIII. at Hatfield]
+
+There are four pieces of tapestry representing the Seasons, removed
+from an old family house and placed by Lord Salisbury at Hatfield
+House, where they hang in the great corridor. These were probably
+woven in Barcheston. (Plate 49.) The style is English Renaissance, and
+the design full of intention; in fact, they have the seal of the time
+of Henry VIII. Only one characteristic reminds one of Flemish art,
+and that is the mode of drawing the plants and flowers, which might
+have been taken out of an old German herbal. The landscapes and
+peasantry are unmistakably English. The pictures are worked with
+strong black outlines which emphasize every detail and give the effect
+of a highly coloured outlined engraving; reminding one of the
+children's books by Marcus Ward or by Walter Crane.[420]
+
+The tapestries called the "Spanish Armada hangings" were probably
+woven here late in Elizabeth's reign. In her time we find in
+catalogues of household goods, descriptions of splendid hangings,
+furnishings of palaces and private houses. The MS. inventory of the
+Earl of Leicester's belongings, in the library at Longleat, astonishes
+us with the abundance of suites of hangings of tapestry that it
+enumerates, as well as those embroidered by hand, and others of
+stamped and painted leather.
+
+It was in the reign of James I. that the manufacture was set up at
+Mortlake, in Surrey. Aubrey, in his "History of Surrey, i. p. 82,"
+however, dates the institution in the subsequent reign; but Lloyd[421]
+is not only positive for the former date, but affirms it was "of the
+motion of King James himself," who gave £2000 towards the undertaking;
+and we have further proofs extant that he spent largely, and
+encouraged it in every way. He gave to Sir Francis Crane, who erected
+the house at Mortlake, "the making of three Baronets" towards his
+project for manufacture of tapestry.[422]
+
+Another curious item which we quote, shows that the funds for the
+enterprise were not easily forthcoming. It is a warrant "to Sir
+Francis Crane: £2000 to be employed in buying £1000 per ann. of
+pensions or other gifts made of the king, and not yet payable, for
+ease of His Majesty's charge of £1000 a year towards the maintenance
+of Sir Francis Crane's tapestry manufacture."[423]
+
+Apparently this little arrangement did not succeed, for there is an
+acknowledgment by Charles I., in the first year of his reign,[424]
+that he is in debt to Sir F. Crane: "For three suits of gold tapestry
+we stand indebted to Sir Francis Crane £6000. Also Sir F. Crane is
+allowed £1000 annually for the better maintenance of said works for
+ten years to come." The king also granted the estate of Stoke Bruere,
+near Stamford, in Northamptonshire, as part payment of £16,400 due to
+him on the tapestry works at Mortlake.[425] The great value of these
+tapestries is shown by the prices named in the Domestic Papers of the
+State Paper Office, and in private inventories; they were woven in
+silk, wool, and gold, which last item accounts both for their price
+and for their disappearance.
+
+William, Archbishop of York and Lord Keeper, gave £2500 for four
+pieces of Arras representing the four Seasons.[426] Their value,
+however, fell during the civil wars, for the tapestries of the five
+Senses from the Palace of Oatlands, which were from the Mortlake
+looms, were sold in 1649 for £270. The beautiful tapestries at
+Houghton were woven at Mortlake: these are all silk, and contain whole
+length portraits of James I. and Charles I., and their Queens, with
+heads of the royal children in the borders. A similar hanging is at
+Knowle, wrought in silk, containing portraits of Vandyke and Sir
+Francis Crane.[427]
+
+Francis Cleyne was a decorator and painter employed in the works at
+Mortlake by Charles I., who, while he was still Prince of Wales,
+brought him over to England from Rostock, in Mecklenburg (his native
+place), while the Prince was in Spain wooing the Infanta. Cleyne was
+great in grotesques, and also undertook in historical designs.[428]
+
+Three of the Raphael cartoons were sent to be copied at Mortlake.[429]
+The purchase of these cartoons by the king, showed how high was the
+standard to which he tried to raise the art in England. The "Triumph
+of Cæsar," by Mantegna, was obtained for the same purpose in 1653; and
+certain Dutch prisoners were forwarded to the manufactory to be
+employed on the work.[430] It was entrusted to the care of Sir Gilbert
+Pickering, who was either an artist or the superintendent of the
+works.
+
+After the death of Sir Francis, his brother, Sir Richard Crane, sold
+the premises to Charles I. During the civil wars, the property was
+seized upon and confiscated as having belonged to the Crown. It
+occupied the site of what is now Queen's Head Court. The old house
+opposite was built by the king for the residence of Cleyne the artist.
+Gibson, the dwarf, and portrait painter, who had been page to a lady
+at Mortlake, was one of his pupils.[431]
+
+The value of the king's collection of tapestries was well understood
+during the Protectorate. The tapestry house remained in the occupation
+of John Holliburie, the "master-workman." After the Restoration,
+Charles II. appointed Verrio as designer, intending to revive the
+manufactory. This was not, however, carried out; but the work still
+lingered on, and must have been in some repute, for Evelyn names some
+of these hangings as a fit present among those offered by a gallant to
+his mistress.[432]
+
+Arras is said to have been woven at Stamford, but we have no data of
+its establishment or its suppression. Burleigh House contains much of
+it; and there is a suite of hangings at Belton House, near Grantham,
+of which there are duplicates at Wroxton House, in Oxfordshire, all
+having the same traditional origin at Stamford. Possibly Sir Francis
+and Sir Richard Crane may have received orders at their house at
+Stoke Bruere, which lay near enough to Stamford to account for the
+magnates of the town and neighbourhood obtaining furnishings of their
+tapestries, and, perhaps, vying with each other in decorating their
+apartments with them.[433]
+
+In Northumberland House there was a fine suite of tapestry, woven in
+Lambeth, 1758.[434] This is the only sample of that loom of which we
+ever find any mention. There were also works at Fulham, where
+furniture tapestry in the style of Beauvais was made. This manufactory
+was closed in 1755.[435] It may be hoped that the revival of tapestry
+weaving at Windsor in our own day may be a success, but without the
+royal and noble encouragement it receives, it would probably very soon
+fall into disuse.
+
+Unless it is supported by the State, such an exceptionally expensive
+machinery cannot possibly be kept at work. It requires the
+superintendence of the best artists, and the weavers themselves must
+needs have the highest technical education to enable them to copy
+really fine designs. These artistic requirements, besides the extreme
+tediousness of the work, make it the most expensive of all luxurious
+decorations--even more costly than embroideries by the hand, covering
+the same spaces. However, the two styles of hangings never can enter
+into competition, except in a financial point of view. Tapestries are
+the best fitted for wall coverings, and embroideries for curtains of
+all kinds--for beds, for windows, and for portières.
+
+The old hangings are now again having their day, and we are striving
+to save and restore all that remain to us. We must continue to guard
+these treasures from the moths, their worst enemies; and science
+should be invoked to assist us in the preservation of these precious
+works of art, of which the value is now again understood and
+appreciated, and which increases with every decade that is added to
+their antiquity.
+
+Tapestry, as art, has its own peculiar beauties, and one of them is
+the softening, yet brilliant effect of the alternate lights and
+shadows of the ridge-like surface; the separation of each stitch and
+thread also casting minute shadows in the opposite direction, and
+giving an iridescent effect. It is a mistake to struggle against this
+inherent quality, instead of seeking to utilize it. The coarser and
+simpler tapestries of our ancestors are really more beautiful and
+effective in large spaces--flat in the arrangement of colours, and
+sharply outlined--than the imitations of paintings of the last two
+centuries, in which every detail of form and colour is sought to be
+expressed.[436]
+
+M. Blanc says that tapestries were intended to cover the bare walls,
+but not to make us forget their existence. The wall being intended for
+comfort and defence, the mind is solaced with the idea it conveys. It
+is a mistake, therefore, to substitute a surface picture, so real that
+it at once does away with this impression of security, while a
+certain conventional art should amuse the mind with shadowy
+representations and suggestions.
+
+It is, perhaps, fortunate that the possibilities of tapestry weaving
+are restricted, and thus its very imperfections become the sources of
+its best qualities as decoration and comfort. One element of textile
+weaving, the use of gold, both in the backgrounds and in the
+draperies, takes it at once out of the region of naturalism, while
+giving it light and splendour.
+
+The designer for tapestry need not be a great genius. Harmony, repose,
+grace, and tender colouring are the qualities most valuable to such an
+artist. Battle-pieces, and other exciting and awful subjects, are only
+bearable in apartments that are used for state occasions, or for
+hanging corridors and anterooms. They are painful to live with.
+
+All tapestries are liable to suffer by the double nature of their
+materials--their woollen surface and linen threads which are affected
+by both damp and heat crinkling the forms and puckering the faces, and
+bringing out unexpected expressions and deformities. For this reason
+the design should be as flat and as simple in its outline and shading
+as is consistent with beauty.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [317] Birdwood, "Indian Arts," p. 283.
+
+    [318] "The word in Sanskrit for a needle is _suchi_,
+    from _such_, to sew or pierce. This is the same word as
+    the Latin _suo_, to sew; so probably the common word
+    used by the Aryans in their primeval habitations was
+    _su_, and they clearly knew how to sew at that remote
+    period. Eve sewed fig-leaves together. Adam sewed also.
+    The Hebrew word is _tafar_, and clearly meant _sewing_,
+    not _pinning_ together with thorns. Sewing is the first
+    recorded art of our forefathers."--Letter from Mr.
+    Robert Cust.
+
+    [319] Semper, "Der Stil," Textile Kunst, i. pp. 77-90.
+
+    [320] Semper, Textile Kunst, "Der Stil," i. p. 77. The
+    German word "naht," here literally translated, would be,
+    uniting, weaving, bringing together.
+
+    [321] "Handbook of Plain Needlework," by Mrs. Floyer.
+    See also her "Plain Hints for Examiners," &c.
+
+    [322] Dr. Rock, "Introduction," pp. cix, cx, calls it
+    "thread embroidery," and names some specimens in the
+    South Kensington Museum. He says it was sometimes done
+    in darning stitches for ecclesiastical purposes, for
+    instance, for coverings for the pyx. It is mentioned in
+    the Exeter inventory of the fourteenth century. There is
+    notice of white knotted thread-work belonging to St.
+    Paul's, London, in 1295, by Dugdale (p. 316).
+
+    [323] St. Catherine of Sienna's winding-sheet is
+    described as being cut work (punto tagliato) on linen.
+    This sounds like embroidery of the type now sold as
+    "Madeira work," the pattern being cut out and the edges
+    overcast.
+
+    [324] Semper, "Der Stil," i. pp. 132, 203.
+
+    [325] See Semper, "Der Stil," i. p. 289.
+
+    [326] Ibid. He cites Athenæus, iv. 64.
+
+    [327] Phrygia in general, and especially Babylon, were
+    famed for their embroideries. "Colores diversos picturæ
+    intexere Babylon maxime celebravit et nomen
+    imposuit."--Pliny, lib. viii. 74. See D'Auberville,
+    "Ornement des Tissus," p. 7.
+
+    [328] "Der Stil," i. p. 196. "Opus Phrygium," in the
+    Middle Ages, included all gold work in flat stitches.
+    The cloak worked by Queen Gisela in the ninth century,
+    for her husband, St. Stephen, King of Hungary, the
+    imperial mantle at Bamberg, of the date of 1024, and the
+    robes of Bishop William de Blois (thirteenth century),
+    in the library at Worcester Cathedral, are all "opus
+    Phrygium," and resemble each other in style.
+
+    [329] In the Museum at Munich are two remarkable
+    examples of these imitations. There is an embroidered
+    badge of the Order of the Dragon, worked in gold and
+    woven over with coloured silks, so as to present the
+    appearance of enamel (sixteenth century). The second is
+    a dress for a herald of the Order of St. Hubertus, which
+    is richly embroidered in gold and silver, and the badge
+    and collar are imitated in the most extraordinary
+    manner, and laid on entirely in gold needlework. This is
+    of the seventeenth century.
+
+    [330] In Salt's collection from Saccarah (British
+    Museum); also at Turin, in the Egyptian Museum; and in
+    the collections in the Louvre, figured by Auberville in
+    the "Ornamentation des Tissus."
+
+    [331] Hence the French name, _pointes comptées_.
+
+    [332] See Semper, ii. p. 213, for wood-work at
+    Panticapæum, Kertch, in the Crimea, which evidently has
+    descended in style from panelled needlework hangings.
+    Chaldean wall decoration at Khorsabad and Warka, near
+    Nimroud, recalls the effect of "opus pulvinarium"
+    according to Loftus. See Semper, i. p. 327.
+
+    [333] "Der Stil," i. pp. 196, 248. This is known from
+    the archaic books of imperial commerce.
+
+    [334] Peacocks' feathers, either woven or onlaid, are
+    those most commonly used in China and Japan. "Ka Moolelo
+    Hawaii," by M. Jules Remy, Paris, 1861. See Ferdinand
+    Denis, "Arte Plumaria," p. 66.
+
+    [335] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 373, translates
+    from Publius Syrus the word _plumata_, "feathered." The
+    word "embroidered" would have here improved the sense,
+    even though it is a peacock that is described.
+
+        "Thy food the peacock, which displays his spotted train,
+        As shines a Babylonian shawl with feather'd gold."
+
+    He also quotes Lucan, who is praising the furnishings of
+    Cleopatra's palace: "Part shines with feathered gold;
+    part sheds a blaze of scarlet."--Yates, p. 373.
+
+    [336] Sir G. Birdwood, with all his enthusiasm for
+    Indian art and its forms, yet cannot resist a touch of
+    humour when he describes a state umbrella, of which the
+    handle and ribs are pure gold, tipped with rubies and
+    diamonds, the silken covering bordered with thirty-two
+    fringed loops of pearls, and "also appropriately
+    decorated with the feathers of the peacock, heron,
+    parrot, and goose."--Birdwood, "Indian Arts," ii. p.
+    182.
+
+    [337] "History of the Kingdom of Congo," c. viii. p. 55,
+    by Filippo Pigafetta (translated by Mrs. M. Hutchinson).
+
+    [338] In the Tyrol certain embroideries are called
+    "Federstickerei."
+
+    [339] For the feather hangings at Moritzburg, see
+    Appendix 2.
+
+    [340] "Arte Plumaria," by M. Ferdinand Denis. Paris,
+    1875.
+
+    [341] The Plumarii mentioned by Pliny were craftsmen in
+    the art of _acu pingere_, or painting with the needle.
+    Though Seneca speaks of the "opus plumarium" as if it
+    were absolutely feather-work, yet it may have been at
+    that time undergoing its transition into embroidery,
+    suggested by feathers, and imitating them in gold,
+    silver, wool, or thread. When Lucan describes the
+    extraordinary change introduced into Roman habits and
+    luxury by Cleopatra's splendours, his use of the words,
+    "pars auro plumata nitet," probably means their
+    imitation or mixture with gold embroidery, and would,
+    therefore, come under the head of "opus Phrygium."
+
+    [342] It is said that the work, named "Plumarium," was
+    made by the needle; and the Greeks, from the variety of
+    the threads, called it "Polymitum." "Plumarium dicitur
+    opus acu factum quod Græci a licionum varietate
+    multiplici polymitarium appellant."--Robert Stephan.
+    "Thesaurus Linguæ Latinæ," s.v. Plumarius.
+
+    [343] Blümner, i. p. 209. "The Plumarii were a class of
+    persons mentioned by Vitruvius, and found likewise in
+    inscriptions. It cannot be decided with certainty what
+    was their occupation; their name would lead us to
+    suppose that it has something to do with
+    feathers."--Becker's "Gallus," ii. p. 288. But see
+    Marquardt, "Handbuch d. Röm. Altert." vii. pt. 2, p.
+    523.
+
+    [344] "Plumarium qui acu aliquod depingit super
+    culcitris plumeis."--R. Steph., "Thesaur. Lat."
+
+    [345] See "The Funeral Tent of an Egyptian Queen," by
+    Villiers Stuart.
+
+    [346] See Auberville's "Tissus," Plate i.
+
+    [347] "Compte Rendu de la Commission Archéologique, St.
+    Petersburg, 1881." Pl. iii. pp. 112,119.
+
+    [348] In the British Museum is the lining of a shield
+    which shows the arms of Redvers, third Earl of Albemarle
+    (who died 1260), applied in different coloured silks.
+
+    [349] Lent by the Archæological Museum at Madrid.
+
+    [350] Rees' Cyclopædia speaks of embroideries "on the
+    stamp or stump," as being so named "when the figures are
+    high and prominent, supported by cotton, wool, or hair;"
+    also in "low and plain embroideries, without enrichment
+    between." He speaks of work "cut and laid on the cloth,
+    laid down with gold, enriched with tinsel and spangles."
+    Rees' Cyclopædia, "Embroidery," 1819.
+
+    [351] "Opus consutum." The way in which this applied
+    work is used in India, for the special adornment of
+    horse-cloths, saddles, and girths, is very interesting.
+
+    [352] The chapter on "application," in the Handbook of
+    Embroidery of the Royal School of Art Needlework, will
+    be useful to those who need instruction in the most
+    practical, and therefore the quickest way of doing cut
+    work.
+
+    [353] Mrs. Palliser's "History of Lace." The origin of
+    needle-made lace-work is attributed by M. de Gheltof to
+    the necessity for disposing of the frayed edges of
+    worn-out garments. This I think somewhat fanciful.
+    _Fringes_ may have been so suggested.
+
+    [354] See M. Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress" (p.
+    200).
+
+    [355] Mrs. Bayman (late Superintendent in the School of
+    Art Needlework) writes thus: "I see no reason to doubt
+    that the word guipure is derived from 'guipa' or
+    'guiper,' a ribbon-weaver's term for spinning one thread
+    round another; and that guipure was originally more like
+    what we now call 'guimp,' or like 'point de Raguse,'
+    first being made of thread, of more or less thickness
+    and commoner material, wound round with a finer flax,
+    silk, or metal; then they cut shapes, bold scrolls, and
+    leaves out of cartisane, vellum, or parchment, winding
+    and covering them over with the more precious thread.
+    These figures were then connected by brides, only as
+    close as was required to hold them together, and leaving
+    large open spaces, thus forming the large scroll
+    patterns seen in so many old pictures." No doubt the
+    heavy "Fogliami" and "Rose point" laces developed
+    themselves from these still older kinds of point. As the
+    cord and card lace disappeared, the name slid on to all
+    laces with large, bold patterns and open brides, though
+    the special method which first created it had been
+    effaced. Latterly, embroidered netting or laces have
+    been called "guipure d'art." Littré gives the derivation
+    of the word; he says it is from the Gothic _Vaipa_, or
+    German _Weban_ or _Weben_ (_g_ and _p_ replacing the _w_
+    and _b_).
+
+    [356] The word lace came from France, where it was
+    called _lacis_ or _lassis_, derived from the Latin
+    _laqueus_ (a noose). These words originally applied to
+    narrow ribbons--their use being to lace or tie.
+
+    [357] The Venetians early made much lace for furniture
+    or ecclesiastical linen adornment, of what they called
+    "maglia quadrata," which was usually squared netting,
+    afterwards filled in with patterns in darned needlework.
+    This somewhat primitive style of lace trimming was
+    popular on account of its simplicity, and descended to
+    the peasantry for their domestic decorations in Spain,
+    Germany, France, and Italy. There are specimens of this
+    work believed to be of the thirteenth century. At the
+    time of the Renaissance the simple geometrical designs
+    developed into animals, fruits, flowers, and human
+    figures.
+
+    [358] See Rock, p. cix, cx. He says that a sort of
+    embroidery was called network, and certain drawn work he
+    calls "opus filatorium." See Catalogue of Textiles in
+    the South Kensington Museum, by D. Rock, p. cxxvii.
+
+    [359] Reminding us of the description of a net--"holes
+    tied together by a string." As a contrast in descriptive
+    style, we would quote Dr. Johnson on network: "Anything
+    reticulated or decussated at equal distances, with
+    interstices between the intersections."--Johnson's
+    Dictionary.
+
+    [360] Isaiah iii. 18, xix. 9.
+
+    [361] The nets of chequer work which hung round the
+    capitals, with the wreaths of chain work, were designed
+    by Hiram of Tyre, at Solomon's desire (1 Kings vii. 17).
+
+    [362] A fringe lace is made on the Riviera, of the
+    fibres of the aloe, and is called "macramè," which is an
+    Arabic word. Mrs. Palliser's "History of Lace," p. 64.
+
+    [363] A collar of fine white human hair was made in
+    point lace stitches at Venice, and worn at his
+    coronation by Louis Quatorze. It cost 250 pieces of
+    gold. "Scritti di V. Zanon da Udine" (1829). Cited by
+    Urbani de Gheltof, "Merletti di Venezia," pp. 22, 23.
+
+    [364] See, for example, the inventory of the household
+    goods of the great Earl of Leicester at Longleat; also
+    the lists of the possessions of Ippolito and Angela
+    Sforza (sixteenth century).
+
+    [365] Coloured thread and silk laces are still made in
+    Venice.
+
+    [366] In the British Museum.
+
+    [367] M. Blanc's use of the word "guipure" is different
+    from that found in the notices of the art by other
+    authorities.
+
+    [368] The first lace-making machine was contemporary, or
+    nearly so, with the stocking-making frame. About the
+    year 1768 it was altered, and adapted for making
+    open-work patterns. In 1808, the Heathcot machine was
+    started for bobbin net. In 1813, John Leaver improved on
+    this idea, with machine-woven patterns. The Jacquard
+    apparatus achieved the flat patterns, and the new
+    "Dentellière" has perfected the art. Lace-making by
+    machinery employed by the latest official returns in
+    1871, 29,370 women in England, and 24,000 in France. See
+    Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th edition, p. 183-5.
+
+    [369] M. Charles Blanc, "Art in Ornament and Dress," p.
+    211.
+
+    [370] The information contained in these volumes is most
+    valuable, for the lace-worker as well as the collector.
+
+    [371] Lady Layard suggests that the cut lace work, which
+    was the earliest made in Venice ("punto tagliato,"
+    "point coupé"), simply consists of button-hole stitch
+    with purl ornaments. These are varied with geometrical
+    stitches and needle-weaving in those solid laces called
+    "punti tagliati Fogliami," and "Rose point de Venise,"
+    of the finest kinds.
+
+    [372] Urbani de Gheltof, in his book, "Merletti di
+    Venezia," p. 9, says that Venetian laces and fringes
+    were furnished thence for the coronation of Richard III.
+    (1483). I fancy that gold guimps or braid, rather than
+    netted laces, must be here intended, as we have no other
+    notice of lace so early. See _Ibid._ pp. 10-20.
+
+    [373] Henry VIII. had a pair of hose of purple silk,
+    edged and trimmed with a lace of purple silk and gold,
+    of Milanese manufacture. Harl. MSS., 1519.
+
+    [374] The manufacture of point d'Alençon was created
+    under the special orders of Louis Quatorze, by Colbert,
+    in 1673. Now more than 200,000 women, besides the
+    machinists, are employed in lace-making in France.
+    Colbert imported the teachers from Venice.
+
+    [375] Yriarte says that Alençon, Argenton, Sedan,
+    Mercourt, Honiton, Bedford, Buckinghamshire,
+    Oxfordshire, Mechlin, Bruges, Brussels, all followed in
+    imitation of Venice. Yriarte's "Venise," p. 250.
+
+    [376] Titian drew the designs for one of these books for
+    "punti tagliati." The laces made in the Greek islands
+    probably owe their origin to Venice, showing the same
+    "punti in aria."
+
+    [377] I have already spoken of "lacis" as either darned
+    netting or drawn work. Of this there is an English
+    specimen at Prague, said by tradition to be the gift of
+    Queen Anne of Bohemia, wife of Richard II. It originally
+    trimmed or bordered an ecclesiastical garment.
+
+    [378] For further information, we refer the reader to M.
+    Urbani de Gheltof's book on Venice laces already cited
+    (Organia, Venice, 1876), and Lady Layard's translation
+    (1882).
+
+    [379] I am assured on the best authority that this is
+    unknown as yet at Burano; but the workers, as well as
+    the revived industry, are very young. The modern school
+    of Burano has only been established eleven years. It is
+    certainly delightful to see the 320 happy faces,
+    singing, chattering, and smiling over their graceful
+    occupation; and the beauty of the Buranese women, which
+    is celebrated, has not suffered from their occupation.
+    There is a charming little article of the _Revista di
+    Torino_, 1883, which describes the improvement in the
+    social condition of Burano, morally and physically, and
+    the way it is recognized by the inhabitants. Instead of
+    signs of miserable poverty, the promoters of the lace
+    school are greeted by the women leaning from the windows
+    with, "Siestu benedetta!" ("Be thou blessed!").
+
+    [380] The word "tapestry" comes from the Greek _tapes_,
+    which is used equally for hangings or carpets. The
+    Italians call carpets "tapeti" to this day. It is
+    believed to have been originally an Egyptian word for
+    such fabrics.
+
+    [381] For instance, the embroidered hangings of the
+    eighth century at Gerona, in Spain, have been more than
+    once quoted as proofs of tapestries having been
+    manufactured there at that period.
+
+    [382] The "slay" means the "strike." The word had the
+    same meaning originally: to slay a man was to strike
+    him.
+
+    [383] See De Champeaux, South Kensington Museum Art
+    Handbook, 1878.
+
+    [384] "Bibliothèque des Merveilles" (sur les
+    Tapisseries), publié sous la direction de M. Edouard
+    Charton, à Paris, 1876.
+
+    [385] Martial, xiv. 150.
+
+    [386] Minerva accepts the challenge of the Mæonian
+    Arachne, who will not yield to her in the praises of
+    being first in weaving wool. The girls desert the
+    vineyards round the little town of Hypæpa, to look at
+    her admirable workmanship. She boasts that hers is finer
+    than that of Pallas, and, desiring a vain victory,
+    rushes upon her own destruction. "... They stretch out
+    two webs on the loom, with a fine warp. The web is tied
+    to the beam; the slay separates the warp; the woof is
+    inserted in the middle with sharp shuttles, while the
+    fingers hurry along, and being drawn with the warp, the
+    teeth (notched in the moving slay) strike it. Both
+    hasten on their labour, and girding up their garments to
+    their bosoms, they move their skilful arms, their
+    eagerness beguiling their fatigue. There are being woven
+    both the purples, which are subjected to the Tyrian
+    brazen (dyeing) vessel with fine shades of minute
+    difference; as in the rainbow with its mighty rays
+    reflected by the shower, where, though a thousand
+    colours are shining, yet the very transition eludes the
+    eyes that look upon it; to such a degree is that which
+    is adjacent the same, and yet the extremes are
+    different. The pliant gold is mingled with the threads,
+    and ancient subjects are represented on the webs." Then
+    follows the list of the subjects. The web of Pallas had
+    a large central design, and a smaller one on each
+    corner, surrounded with a border of olive leaves.
+    Arachne's contained nineteen pictures, of two or more
+    figures each, and was surrounded by a border of flowers,
+    interwoven with the twining ivy. Ovid's "Metamorphoses,"
+    book vi.
+
+    Through the kindness of my friend, Lord Houghton, I am
+    enabled to give the sequel of the story--Arachne's
+    transformation into the Spider, as--
+            A PARAPHRASE AND A PARABLE.
+
+        Lo! how Minerva, recklessly defied,
+        Struck down the maiden of artistic pride,
+        Who, all distraught with terror and despair,
+        Suspended her lithe body in mid-air;
+        Deeming, if thus she innocently died,
+        The sacred vengeance would be pacified.
+        Not so: implacable the goddess cried--
+        "Live on! hang on! and from this hour begin
+        Out of thy loathsome self new threads to spin;
+        No splendid tapestries for royal rooms,
+        But sordid webs to clothe the caves and tombs.
+        Nor blame the Poet's Metamorphoses:
+        Man's Life has Transformations hard as these;
+        Thou shall become, as Ages hand thee down,
+        The drear day-worker of the crowded town,
+        Who, envying the rough tiller of the soil,
+        Plies her monotonous unhealthy toil,
+        Passing through joyless day to sleepless night
+        With mind enfeebled and decaying sight,
+        Till some good genius,[437] kindred though apart,
+        Resolves to raise thee from the vulgar mart,
+        And once more links thee to the World of Art."
+
+    [387] Appendix 3.
+
+    [388] Guicciardini ascribes the invention of woven
+    tapestry to Arras, giving no dates; so we do not know
+    whether he attributes it to the Belgic Atrebates or to
+    their successors, the Franks. In either case the craft
+    was probably imported from the East.
+
+    [389] The Atrebates were the inhabitants of that Belgic
+    region till the fifth century; now it is the province of
+    Artois, probably a corruption of the name "Atrebates."
+    Taylor, "Words and Places" (1865), pp. 229-385.
+
+    [390] Castel, "Des Tapisseries," p. 30.
+
+    [391] Sidonius Apollinaris, Epist. ix., 13. Cited in
+    Yule's "Marco Polo," p. 68.
+
+    [392] Castel, "Des Tapisseries," p. 31.
+
+    [393] The commentators of Vasari, MM. Lechanché and
+    Jenron, believe that this art was coeval in the Low
+    Countries with Roman civilization and Christianity; but
+    it would appear that the weavers had fled to Britain to
+    escape from the Romans. Ibid. p. 52. Traces of the name
+    Arras have been found by Bochart and Frahn in Ar-ras,
+    the Arabian name for the river Araxes and the people who
+    inhabit its shores; but this may be accidental, and is
+    at best an uncertain derivation.
+
+    [394] Rock, Introduction, p. cxii. This "Saracenic work"
+    is really so like what is called by the Germans
+    "Gobelins" when found in Egyptian tombs that one can
+    hardly doubt whence the Moors brought their art. There
+    are several Egyptian specimens in the British Museum.
+    See also the catalogue of Herr Graf'schen's collection
+    of Egyptian textiles, from the first to the eighth
+    century. "Katalog der Teodor Graf'schen Fünde in
+    Ægypten, von Dr. Karabacek. Wien, 1883."
+
+    [395] Viollet-le-Duc, "Dictionnaire du Mobilier
+    Français, Tapis," p. cxii; also M. Jubinal, "Tapisserie
+    Historique." It is difficult absolutely to assign to any
+    known specimens a date anterior to the fifteenth
+    century; although M. de Champeaux thinks that the
+    "Sarazinois" were mostly or entirely carpet-weavers
+    about the eleventh century. He says there is documentary
+    authority to prove that these were woven with flowers
+    and animals. There is a very deep-piled velvety carpet
+    at Gorhambury (the Earl of Verulam's place). Here Queen
+    Elizabeth's arms and cypher appear on a Persian or
+    Moresque ground pattern surrounded with a wreath of oak
+    leaves. It may have been a gift from Spain,--left after
+    one of her visits to her Chancellor.
+
+    [396] "Tapisseries des Gobelins," A. L. Lacordaire, p.
+    10 (1853). He considers that the Sarazinois were
+    embroiderers as well as weavers--and this theory is
+    supported by extracts from an inventory of Charles VI.'s
+    hangings of 1421.
+
+    Every detail of the art and its materials was carefully
+    regulated by the French statutes of 1625-27, containing
+    many laws for the perfecting of the manufacture of new
+    as well as the restoration of old tapestries--and fines
+    were imposed for not using materials as nearly as
+    possible matching the original ones; and likewise for
+    any other dereliction from the rules of the craft. Ibid.
+    pp. 9, 10, 14.
+
+    [397] At the Poldi Bezzoli Museum in Milan there are
+    some very fine carpets; one especially, a Persian, is
+    supposed to be of the fifteenth century. This is very
+    finely woven of pure, tender colours, and the whole
+    composition, flowers and animals (most beautifully drawn
+    lions, &c.), is delicately outlined in black on a white
+    ground. The colouring is rich and harmonious, and has
+    the iridescent effect of mother of pearl.
+
+    [398] In the San Clemente frescoes at Rome there are
+    hangings which show a semi-Asiatic style.
+
+    [399] "Mémoires Historiques et Ecclesiastiques
+    d'Auxerre," par M. l'Abbé Lebœuf, i. pp. 178, 231.
+
+    [400] There are very interesting Norwegian tapestries of
+    the sixteenth century, which show distinctly an Eastern
+    origin.
+
+    [401] Jubinal, "Tapisseries," pp. 25, 26;
+    Viollet-le-Duc, "Dic. de Mobilier Français," p. 269.
+
+    [402] There is much splendid tapestry--German, and
+    especially Bavarian,--to be seen at Munich; and, indeed,
+    the more one seeks, the more one finds that private
+    looms were constantly at work in the Middle Ages for
+    votive offerings. There is a tapestry altar-piece at
+    Coire, in the Grisons, of the Crucifixion, which is
+    evidently of the fourteenth century. The colours are
+    still brilliant, and the whole background is beautifully
+    composed of growing flowers. No sky is seen. There is at
+    Munich an altar frontal of tapestry, Gothic of the
+    fifteenth century, exquisitely beautiful. The weaver has
+    introduced a little portrait of herself at her loom,
+    under the folds of the virgin's cloak at her feet.
+
+    [403] M. Albert Castel ("Tapisserie," p. 53) believes
+    that the taking of Constantinople, when Earl Baldwin was
+    elected to the throne of Byzantium, had a great effect
+    on Flemish art, which then received a strong impulse
+    from Oriental designs and traditions. See M. Jubinal's
+    very interesting account of the tapisserie de Nancy
+    which lined the tents of Charles the Bold at the siege
+    of Nancy (p. 439). These tapestries are an allegory
+    against gluttony. "Tapisseries Hist.," pp. 1-5.
+
+    [404] Charles the Bold has left us records of his taste
+    in tent hangings of Arras at Berne, as well as at Nancy.
+    These are the plunder from his camp equipage after the
+    battle of Grandson. The whole suite, of many pieces,
+    represents battles and sieges, and sacred subjects also,
+    such as the adoration of the Magi. They are finely drawn
+    and splendidly executed with gold lights, and are of the
+    most perfect style of the fifteenth century. The
+    National Museum at Munich contains most valuable
+    specimens of very early and very fine tapestries;
+    amongst others, a Virgin, which was certainly designed
+    in the school of Dürer, and is of the greatest
+    perfection of its art, both as to colour and drawing and
+    the general effect, which has a soft, dreamy beauty,
+    only to be seen in fine woollen tapestries, and
+    differing from pictorial design and intention.
+
+    [405] See Rock, cxii: Among the remarkable suites of
+    tapestry of which we find historical mention are the
+    following: In 1334, John de Croisette, a "Tapissier
+    Sarazinois, demeurant à Arras vendit au Duc de Touraine
+    un tapis Sarazinois à or: de l'histoire de Charlemagne"
+    (Voisin, p. 6). Of the many recorded as belonging to
+    Philip, Duke of Burgundy and Brabant, one piece, "Haulte
+    lice sanz or: de l'histoire du Duc de Normandie, comment
+    il conquit Engleterre."--"Les Ducs de Bourgogne," par le
+    Comte de Laborde, ii. p. 270, No. 4277.
+
+    [406] M. de Champeaux, the author of the "Handbook of
+    Art Tapestry" belonging to the series of the Kensington
+    Museum, 1878, says that the history of Arras has yet to
+    be written. He, however, gives a great deal of
+    interesting information, especially about the French
+    tapestries, on which subject we fancy there is little
+    more to tell. Their art does not come from such a
+    distant time as that of the Belgian manufactures. After
+    Louis IX. had decimated the inhabitants, and dispersed
+    the remainder, Arras yet made a gallant struggle to
+    revive her industry and compete with the rising
+    prosperity of Brussels; but France had decreed against
+    her.
+
+    [407] "Encyclopædia Britannica" ("Art Tapestry"), pp.
+    17, 97.
+
+    [408] Vasari vividly describes the design for a tapestry
+    for the King of Portugal--the history of Adam--on which
+    Leonardo da Vinci, then aged twenty, was engaged. He
+    lingers tenderly over the picture of the flowery field
+    and the careful study of the bay-trees. Vasari, tom.
+    vii. p. 15; ed. Firenze, 1851.
+
+    [409] See M. Jubinal's "Tapisseries Historiées," p. 26;
+    Viollet-le-Duc, "Mobilier Français," i. p. 269.
+
+    [410] Froissart's "Chronicles," iv., chap. 23; Johnes
+    ed. 1815.
+
+    [411] M. de Champeaux, "Handbook of Art Tapestry," p.
+    24; also Rock, "Textiles," p. 122. M. Lacordaire,
+    "Tapisserie des Gobelins," p. 15, tells us that under
+    Louis XIII. the statutes of 1625-27 contain many
+    regulations for the perfection of the materials employed
+    in weaving new as well as in restoring old tapestries.
+    Fines were imposed for not matching the colours
+    carefully.
+
+    [412] English wool is still used for the finest
+    tapestries at the Gobelins. The wool from Kent is
+    considered the best.
+
+    [413] "Vitæ St. Alban. Abbatum," p. 40; Rock, p. cxi.
+    That the walls were covered with tapestry in the
+    thirteenth century is supposed to be proved by the
+    description of Hrothgar's house in the Romance of
+    Beowulf. We are told that the hangings were rich with
+    gold, and a wondrous sight to behold. "History of
+    Domestic Manners, &c., in England during the Middle
+    Ages," by Thomas Wright, p. 2.
+
+    [414] Matthew Paris, in Dugdale Monast., ed. 1819, ii.
+    p. 185.
+
+    [415] Quoted by Michel from MSS. in the Imperial
+    Library, Paris.
+
+    [416] This was a writ to the Aldermen and Sheriffs of
+    the City of London, principally levelled against the
+    dealings of "certain Frenchmen which were against the
+    well-being of the trade of the Tapissiarii ... by
+    petition of Parliament at Westminster." Calend. Rot.
+    Pat. Edward III., p. 148, "De Mysterâ Tapiciarorum,"
+    Lond. M. 41.
+
+    [417] Called "verdures" in French inventories.
+
+    [418] Rock's Introduction, p. lxxix.
+
+    [419] "The art of weaving tapestry was brought to
+    England by William Sheldon, Esq., about the end of the
+    reign of Henry VIII."--See Dugdale's "Warwickshire"
+    ("Stemmata:" Sheldon), 2nd edition, folio, vol. i. p.
+    584; also Lloyd's "State Worthies," p. 953, quoted by
+    Manning and Bray, "Hist. of Surrey," vol. iii. p. 82.
+    But we have an earlier notice of a spirited attempt to
+    make fine tapestries at Kilkenny. Piers, Earl of
+    Ormonde, married the daughter of Fitzgerald, Earl of
+    Kildare, "a person of great wisdom and courage." They
+    brought from Flanders and the neighbouring provinces
+    artificers and manufacturers, whom they employed at
+    Kilkenny in working tapestries, diaper, Turkey carpets,
+    cushions, &c. Piers died 1539. Carte's Introduction to
+    the "Life of James, Duke of Ormonde," vol. i. p. 93
+    (Oxford, 1851).
+
+    [420] William Sheldon at his own expense brought workmen
+    from Flanders, and employed them in weaving maps of the
+    different counties of England. Of these, three large
+    maps, the earliest specimens, were purchased by the Earl
+    of Orford (Horace Walpole), by whom they were given to
+    Earl Harcourt. He had them repaired and cleaned, and
+    made as fresh as when out of the loom, and eventually
+    gave them to Gough, the antiquary, who bequeathed them
+    to the University of Oxford. The Armada tapestry, which
+    is stated to have been designed by Henry Cornelius
+    Vroom, the Dutch marine painter, and woven by Francis
+    Spiering, appears to have been, in 1602, in the
+    possession of Lord Howard, Lord High Admiral and the
+    hero of the Armada. Fuller particulars are given in
+    Walpole's "Anecdotes," i. p. 246, under the name of
+    Vroom, Sandart being the principal authority. Part of
+    them were in the House of Lords till 1834, when they
+    perished in the fire. These had been engraved in 1739 by
+    John Pine, but it appears that at that time there were
+    in the royal wardrobe other pieces, now lost.
+
+    [421] Lloyd's "Worthies."
+
+    [422] Calendar of State Papers, cx. No. 26, James I.,
+    1619-23.
+
+    [423] Calendar of State Papers, vol. clxxxi. No. 48.
+
+    [424] Rymer, "FÅ“dera," vol. viii. p. 66, ed. 1743.
+
+    [425] Brydges, "Northamptonshire," i. p. 323, under the
+    head of "Stoke Bruere," pt. 1, p. 48.
+
+    [426] Manning and Bray's "History of Surrey," vol. iii.
+    p. 302.
+
+    [427] Horace Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting in
+    England," vol. ii. p. 22.
+
+    [428] Macpherson, "Annals of Commerce."
+
+    [429] There is in Brydges' "Northamptonshire," under the
+    head of "Stoke Bruere" (the estate which King James gave
+    to Sir F. Crane as part payment of the deficit of
+    £16,400 in his tapestry business), mention of the
+    cartoons of "Raphael of Urbin, ... had from Genoa," and
+    their cost, £300, besides the transport. M. Blanc says,
+    with great justness, that Raphael, when he prepared
+    these cartoons for tapestry, made designs for weaving,
+    and _did not paint pictures_. If they had been intended
+    for oil pictures, they would have been very differently
+    treated.
+
+    [430] Calendar State Papers, Domestic, Sept. 28th, 1653.
+
+    [431] Horace Walpole's "Anecdotes of Painting," vol.
+    iii. p. 64.
+
+    [432] See Evelyn's very scarce tract, entitled "Mundus
+    Muliebris," printed 1690, p. 8.
+
+    [433] Lord Tyrconnell, Lord Exeter, and Lord Guildford
+    had married three of the Brownlow heiresses of Belton,
+    who had a winter residence at Stamford.
+
+    [434] Designed by Francesco Zuccharelli. Rock,
+    Introduction, p. cxiv.
+
+    [435] It has been at different periods the crowning
+    glory of the craft of the weaver to place different
+    patterns or pictures on the two sides of the web. This
+    would almost appear to be impossible, but that it has
+    been done in late years, according to Rock, who tells us
+    that he saw a banner so woven, with the Austrian eagle
+    on one side and the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception
+    on the other. He says that the same manufacturer was
+    then being employed in producing ecclesiastical garments
+    with the colours and patterns so varied.
+
+    [436] In old tapestries three tints only were employed
+    for the complexions of men, women, and children--the
+    man's reddish, the woman's yellow, and the child's
+    whiter than either. It is an agreeable economy of
+    colours, simple and effective, and avoids the pictorial
+    imitation that one deprecates. See M. Charles Blanc's
+    "Grammaire des Arts Décoratifs: Tapisserie," p. 112.
+
+    [437] The poet here refers to H.R.H. the Princess
+    Christian.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+HANGINGS.
+
+    "... Her bedchamber was hang'd
+    With tapestry of silk and silver...."
+
+                             "Cymbeline," Act II., Scene IV.
+
+
+The most important works that have been executed in embroidery, have
+been hangings or carpets. We may look upon these as belonging to the
+history of the past. Never again will such works be undertaken. Their
+_raison d'être_, as well as the means for their production, have
+ceased to exist. We have very ancient historical evidence of the use
+of hangings (or tapestries), either as curtains to exclude prying
+eyes, or as coverings to what was sacred or else unseemly, or as
+ornamental backgrounds in public and private buildings.
+
+There is no doubt that in pillared spaces the enclosures and
+subdivisions were completed by hangings from pillar to pillar, from
+the earliest times of Asiatic civilization. In Assyria, and afterwards
+in Greece and Rome, the open courts and rooms were shaded from the sun
+and rain by umbrella-like erections with hangings stretched over them.
+From the Coliseum's vast area to that of the smallest atrium in the
+Pompeian house, the covering principle was the same.
+
+Palace-halls and temples alike were furnished in this way, and the
+cold splendour of the polished marbles was enhanced by contrast with
+the shadowing folds of soft textures richly embroidered in bright
+colours and gold. The statues, the gold and silver vessels, the
+shrines heaped with votive offerings, were all brought into higher
+relief and effect by the screens, the curtains, and the veils which
+classical perfect taste would plan so as to carry out the decorator's
+intention. Babylonians, Persians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks, and
+Jews, each adorned their sacred places in similar fashions.[438]
+Clemens Alexandrinus says that behind the hangings of the Egyptian
+temples were hidden their "foolish images."[439]
+
+The word "hangings" was applied to all large curtains and tapestries,
+tent coverings, screens dividing empty spaces, or pendant between
+pillars; also sails,[440] banners, and decorations for processional
+purposes covering walls or hanging from windows; all these have been
+embroidered or woven with pictures and patterns. Carpets, from having
+originally the same name, "tapete," are to be added to this list, and,
+in fact, their uses are often interchanged. Kosroes' famous hangings
+were used as a carpet, and Persian and Babylonian carpets have been
+hung on the walls. A Babylonian hanging must have resembled, in its
+style (of which we have descriptions), the Persian carpet of to-day.
+
+Semper gives excellent reasons for his theory that, next to dress,
+hangings (the clothing of architecture) were the earliest phase of
+art.[441] He looks upon the most ancient paintings on architecture as
+absolutely representing textile coverings. Some of the earliest
+Babylonian decorations show men supporting draperies, which he
+believes to be the tradition of the time when the tallest slaves held
+up the hangings to their own height; and above them, in tiers, were
+men, dwarfs, and even children fastened on brackets, carrying the
+hangings up to the roofs. This was an Assyrian custom, and was adopted
+by the Romans as a mode of disposing of their prisoners of war.
+Woltmann and Woermann appear to lean to the suggestion that permanent
+imitations of hangings were carried out in painted or encaustic tiles
+covering the masonry of Chaldean buildings at Nimroud and Khorsabad.
+The pale ones associated with low reliefs, and really resembling them,
+as they were partly raised, and the reliefs in alabaster and stone,
+which were partly coloured, were in harmony, and yet in contrast, with
+the brilliant tiles of Babylon.[442]
+
+We know exactly what were the purple, scarlet, and white hangings of
+the Sanctuary in the wilderness, designed by Bezaleel, and that the
+veil of the Temple was blue, purple, crimson or scarlet, and white,
+i.e. worked on white linen; and we know from Josephus, that "the veil
+of the Temple, which was rent in twain" sixteen centuries later, was
+that dedicated by Herod, and was Babylonian work, representing heaven
+and earth[443] (see p. 23 _ante_). Its colouring was scarlet, white,
+and blue. Scarlet and white hangings seem indeed to have been an
+Oriental fashion; and fashion then was not ephemeral, but lasted
+hundreds of years. The embroidered curtains of the Tabernacle are
+repeated in the hangings of Alexander's wedding tent, after 1500
+years; and a thousand years later still they reappear in the seventh
+century, when Pope Sergius gave curtains to the high altar
+(baldachino) in the basilica of St. Peter's at Rome of this same
+scarlet and white embroidery.
+
+In early Oriental art, the enormous expenditure of work is appalling
+to think of. Abulfeda describes the palace of the Caliph Moctader, on
+the banks of the Tigris, as being adorned with 38,000 pieces of
+tapestry, and of these 12,000 were of silk worked in gold. What a
+wealth of women had to be wasted in creating such a wealth of
+embroideries![444]
+
+There is a Bedouin romance which describes the tent of Antar, and
+shows the taste for large works. Five thousand horsemen could skirmish
+under its embroidered shade; and Akbar's largest tent held 10,000
+persons.
+
+Nadir Shah's gorgeous tent, which was of the end of the seventeenth
+and the beginning of the eighteenth century, was of scarlet cloth on
+the outside, lined with violet satin embroidered with gold and
+precious stones. The peacock throne was placed within it, and was kept
+there during the remainder of Nadir Shah's reign.
+
+Sir John Chardin says that "The Khan of Persia caused a tent to be
+made which cost two millions: they called it the house of gold;" and
+it was resplendent with embroideries.[445] These are comparatively
+modern works, and sound commonplace and vulgar compared to those of
+Greece and Egypt.
+
+The Greeks imitated the tents and temporary buildings of the Eastern
+monarchs. This phase of Oriental luxury was imported by Alexander the
+Great, and we have the description of two of his gorgeous creations at
+Alexandria, where he outrivalled the ancient traditional glories of
+Assyria and Persia. His own tent was supported by fifty golden
+pillars, carrying a roof of woven gold, embroidered in shimmering
+colours, and divided from the surrounding court, filled with guards
+and retainers, by scarlet and white curtains of splendid material and
+design.
+
+But more gorgeous is the account of the tent in which he entertained
+ninety-one of his companions-in-arms on the occasion of his marriage.
+This tent was supported by columns twenty cubits high, plated with
+silver and gold, and inlaid with precious stones. The walls of the
+court were formed by curtains adorned with figures worked in gold, and
+were hung from beams plated with the precious metals, to match the
+columns. The outer court was half a mile in circumference.[446]
+
+Yet Alexander's wedding-tent was exceeded in splendour by that erected
+by Ptolemy Philadelphus for his great pomp at Alexandria, described by
+Kallixenos, as cited by Athenæus.[447] This tent, crowned with golden
+eagles, was supported by pillars fifty cubits high. They upheld an
+architrave with cross-beams covered with linen, on which were painted
+coffers, to imitate the structure of a solid roof. From the centre was
+suspended a veil of scarlet bordered with white. The pillars in the
+four angles represented palm-trees of gold, and the intermediate
+columns were fashioned as thursi, and were probably wreathed with
+golden vines and bunches of grapes made of amethysts, as we know of a
+Persian tent so adorned, and the whole idea of the erection was
+evidently fresh from the East.[448] A frieze eight cubits high was
+composed of niches containing groups of tragic, comic, and Satyric
+figures "in their natural garb;" and nymphs and golden tripods from
+Delphi. The tent was separated from the outer peristyle by scarlet
+hangings, covered with choice skins of wild beasts. Upon these were
+hung the celebrated Sikyonian pictures, the heritage of the Ptolemaic
+dynasty, alternating with portraits and rich hangings, on which were
+embroidered the likenesses of kings, and likewise mythological
+subjects. Between these and the frieze hung gold and silver shields.
+Opposite the entrance, vessels of the most costly materials and
+workmanship, valued at 10,000 talents of silver, were ranged, so as to
+strike the eye of all who entered there. Golden couches supported by
+Sphinxes were placed along the sides of the tent, furnished with soft
+purple woollen mattresses, and coverings gaily and exquisitely
+embroidered. The floor was strewn with fresh blossoms, except where a
+most costly Persian carpet covered the centre. In the doorways and
+against the pillars stood a hundred precious statues by the greatest
+artists.
+
+This description dazzles the imagination! To be an upholsterer (a
+vestiarius) in those days was to be an engineer, architect, and
+artist! Semper, from whose translation we are quoting, remarks that
+the luxurious "motive" of such an erection naturally arose from the
+desire to make use of the mass of artistic materials acquired by
+conquest, and the effort to reduce them to certain architectural
+principles already accepted.[449]
+
+That Alexander did not purposely destroy the Persian embroideries is
+evident from the fact that Lucullus speaks of them 200 years later.
+
+Rome accepted and adopted all the Oriental uses of hangings, in the
+Temple and the house for temporary festive occasions.
+
+By both Greeks and Romans hangings were used in triumphal processions,
+covering immense moving cars or draping the temporary buildings which
+lined the avenues of their progress. Also the funeral pyres which
+Greece and Rome copied from Assyria were hung with splendid materials
+and embroideries. Without describing one of these awful erections, it
+is impossible to give any idea of how much artistic treasure was
+thrown into the flames which consumed the remains of a great man. The
+funeral pyre dedicated by Alexander to his friend Hephæstion recalls
+that erected by Sardanapalus in one of the courts of his own palace,
+on which he perished, surrounded by his wives and his treasures.
+Hephæstion's catafalque was built of inflammable materials, 250 feet
+high, raised in many stories, and hung with pictorial tapestries,
+painted and embroidered. Each story was adorned with images of ivory
+and gold. In the upper story were enormous hollow figures of Sirens,
+filled with singers, who chanted the funeral odes.[450] It is to be
+hoped that they were released before the conflagration.
+
+The records of such extravagant funeral ceremonies teach us how much
+of human thought, how much of art and beauty which had helped to
+civilize the world, were torn from the places they were intelligently
+designed to decorate, heaped up by the conquerors, and as ruthlessly
+spent and destroyed for the boast of a day.[451]
+
+Christian Rome adopted the traditions of Pagan decoration, and
+introduced them in her worship, processions, and shows. A great
+religious procession like that of the "Corpus Domini" in our own
+times, has reminded us of a Roman triumph. The baldachini and the
+banners; the torches; the streets, festooned with draperies; even the
+Pagan emblems, which have been converted into Christian symbolism--all
+these were the echoes of classical days; but they are fast
+disappearing. Two thousand years will have worn out and effaced these
+customs, and our children will not see them.
+
+I have not space to linger over the many descriptions of Oriental,
+Grecian, and Roman work to be gathered from classical authors, but
+from them this lesson is to be learned that the first principle which
+guided those great decorators was the individuality and
+appropriateness of each design to the purpose for which it was
+intended and the place it was to fill. But even their peculiar
+excellences did not save them from the universal law of destruction.
+When the hangings were worn, or became for any reason distasteful,
+they were replaced by others, often by gifts or spoils from friendly
+allies or conquered kings. The quantity of gold laid upon these great
+religious or national works was the cause of their destruction as soon
+as they were withdrawn and superseded by something of a newer fashion.
+The intrinsic value in precious metals of such works is proved by
+Pliny's statement that Nero gave four millions of sesterces for covers
+of couches in a banqueting-hall.[452] The hangings or carpets taken by
+the Caliph Omar from Kosroes' white palace (A.D. 651) must have been
+some of the finest and most valuable embroideries ever known. They
+formed a tapestry carpet or hanging, representing all the flowers of
+spring, worked in coloured silks, gold, and precious stones. Kosroes
+entreated Omar to keep it intact for himself, but he was so virtuous
+that he cut it up into little bits and divided it amongst his
+generals. Gibbon describes this wonderful piece of work.[453] We have
+heard much of a marvellous carpet, given lately by the Guicowar of
+Baroda to the tomb of Mahomet at Medina, which, from its description,
+recalls the style of Kosroes' hangings; and their history gives us a
+notable instance of how works of art in the time of war and conquest
+come to be considered only for the value of their materials. War, the
+enemy of culture, all but effaces whole phases of art when a country
+is overrun and plundered. But there is almost always a residuum, which
+has influence whenever there is a revival, beginning with the smaller
+arts of luxury in more peaceful and prosperous days.[454]
+
+To return to the classical veils and hangings. You may see them on
+Babylonian bas-reliefs, on Greek fictile vases, or painted in frescoes
+on the walls of Egyptian tombs and temples; in the houses in Pompeii
+and Herculaneum, and in the remains of Roman villas and tombs
+everywhere. From all of these we may learn something.
+
+The obvious intention of hangings in household decoration is to cover
+bare walls, so as to adorn at once that which was rough or common,
+without delay or trouble. They were also used as curtains to shut out
+the cold or the heat, and to give privacy to rooms without doors or
+windows. Hangings on bare walls have always been meant to hang
+straight down, undisturbed by folds, whereas curtains and portières
+would probably have to be looped up or continually drawn aside. The
+designs to be worked upon them should necessarily be regulated by
+their shape and use.
+
+Semper considers that a square is an expressionless form, and that it
+should be avoided.[455] If you wish to give dignity to a room, its
+hanging decorations should be divided into panels of greater height
+than breadth, so as to elevate the spaces they cover. Horizontal
+stripes bring down the ceiling, and even in furniture, look ill except
+as borders. Nothing can be more ugly or inartistic than the curtains
+one finds in old illuminations, covered with bands of the same pattern
+throughout the surface, but even this is less unpleasant on the walls
+than lines crossing each other at right angles. The Romans looked on
+chequers as barbarous national characteristics, and left them to the
+Gauls and Britons. Chequers should be avoided unless they express a
+meaning, as in Scotch tartans. Semper observes that the striped
+stuffs, especially those of Oriental fabrics, were never intended to
+be spread out flat, but to be draped in folds and loops, and the lines
+only seen broken up. He continues:--"One rule, which cannot be
+neglected with impunity, is this: that whether the hanging or screen
+is supposed to stand or to hang, there must be an above and a below to
+every pattern, and it must, moreover, be upright." All foliage
+designs, and those containing animals, must start from below, and grow
+upwards. Another of his laws is that the heaviest colours should be
+placed below, and the palest and brightest above. This may be
+disputed. It must be first determined where contrast is needed. If
+the darkest part of the pattern is below, it may be necessary to give
+it the lightest background, on the principle of balancing quantities
+in colour. The dado, or lowest border, will often give the necessary
+weight to the design. Semper goes on to say, "A surface may be made to
+appear to stand, or to hang down, according to its decoration. For
+instance, a triangle will hang or stand, according as its apex points
+downwards or upwards. But in draped curtains all symmetry of design is
+lost, and the rich forms and fulness of folds rather tend to destroy
+the effect of elaborate patterns, and to take their place."
+
+Another important difference between standing and hanging tapestries
+is their finish or edge, the upper one being an upright continuous
+border, and the lower one a fringe. In both cases it is a continuation
+of the main threads of the material, and these belong exclusively to
+the hanging tapestries and curtains. The fringe is so essential a part
+of hanging decoration, that we must pause and give it our best
+consideration. In Babylonian art it is most important. The extreme
+solidity of the knotted fringes in their dress and hangings show
+either the thickness of the woven substance, or that the fringes were
+made by enriching the warp and adding to it. They are almost always,
+on the Assyrian sculptures, simply knotted fringes; but the little
+portable Chaldean temple on the bronze gates from Balawat (near
+Nimroud), in the British Museum, shows fringes of bells or fruit like
+those of the Jewish tabernacle in the wilderness (fig. 2). On Egyptian
+linen we sometimes see, woven or worked, a reticulated pattern which
+imitates a fringe.
+
+The carpets of the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Persians were evidently
+used sometimes as hangings, though many of their designs would not
+have served both purposes equally well. That the Babylonian weavers,
+however, understood that a carpet lying on the ground should be
+covered with an even pattern, and be finished with a border all round,
+is evident from the exquisitely chiselled designs, imitating carpets,
+on two portions of pavements in the British Museum (pl. 27); and we
+may compare these with the different treatment of designs for the
+veils of the temples, both in Babylon and Egypt, on which were
+represented the signs of the zodiac and all the heavenly bodies, and
+other symbolical and unconventional forms. The Atrium of the Greek and
+Pompeian houses, which was modelled on the same idea, was separated
+from the Court by curtains, hung on rods or nails. On festive
+occasions these may have been garlanded with natural flowers. If so,
+we may be sure that the little wreaths worked on them, as we learn
+from frescoes, would combine with the gala day's decorations, and
+would be designed with that view. The Greek artist would never have
+approved of natural flowers or trees, embroidered as if growing out of
+a dado, simulating a garden worked in wool. This would have been
+considered a bad attempt at pictorial art.
+
+M. Louis de Ronchaud, in his "Tapisseries des Anciens," speaks of the
+hangings which he supposes to have decked the recess that contained
+the chryselephantine statue of Athenè Parthenos in her temple at
+Athens. He says these votive hangings dressed the pillars that
+surrounded the Hecatompedon, and formed a tent over the head of the
+goddess. M. de Ronchaud believes that among the subjects of the
+Delphic embroideries, described by Euripides in the tragedy of Ion,
+may be recognized some derived from the designs on saffron-coloured
+hangings, spoken of by the poet as "the wings of the peplos."[456]
+
+The downfall of decorative art, domestic as well as national, kept
+pace with the downfall of the Roman Empire. During the Dark Ages, of
+such art there seems to have been very little; and of that the best
+was Celtic or Anglo-Saxon. But the darkness shrouds from our view the
+artistic life of the world, and the dawn was very long in breaking. We
+must therefore return to the subject of hangings, after a gap of
+nearly a thousand years, when the first stirrings of the European
+revival came, in the twelfth century.[457] Symonds says: "The arts and
+the inventions, the knowledge and the books, which suddenly became
+vital at the time of the Renaissance, had long lain neglected on the
+shores of that Dead Sea which we call 'The Middle Ages.'"[458]
+
+There can be no doubt that, during the Dark Ages, hangings woven and
+embroidered continued to be the custom throughout Europe. Our own
+Anglo-Saxon records prove that such furnishings were employed to
+mitigate the cold bareness of our northern homes from the earliest
+times. Sir G. Dasent informs me that in Icelandic Sagas, as early as
+the eleventh century, there are frequent notices of hangings both in
+churches and in the halls of houses; such, for instance, as the Saga
+of Charlemagne, i.e. scenes out of Charlemagne's life, worked on
+hangings 20 ells long. In Scaldic poetry, a periphrasis for a "lady"
+is "the ground of hangings," or "the bridge of hangings," all pointing
+to embroidery.
+
+From illuminated MSS. engraved in Strutt's "Antiquities of the
+English," and contemporary European work of the tenth to the
+thirteenth centuries, we find that the favourite style of embroidery,
+when not representing historical or sacred subjects, was a _parsemé_
+pattern. Armorial bearings were generally reserved for cushions,
+chair-backs, and the baldachinos of altars, beds, and thrones.[459]
+Richer and more flowing designs were later introduced.
+
+In the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, splendid
+tapestries of Arras, and hangings even of cloth of gold, were common
+as palatial decorations. Sometimes we have a glimpse of less ambitious
+hangings; for instance, in the London house of Sir Andrew Larkynge,
+Knight, in the fifteenth century, the hall was hung with sage-green
+panels, bordered with gold "darned work," and the "parler" with
+sage-green, bordered with crimson.
+
+French embroidered hangings were very fine in the sixteenth century.
+Jeanne d'Albret, the mother of Henri IV., was a great patroness of
+such works. Miss Freer tells us that--
+
+"When Jeanne and Antoine took possession of the Castle of Pau, they
+found their new abode rich in works of art and splendid decorations.
+The refined taste of Marguerite d'Angoulême was visible everywhere.
+Jeanne's presence-chamber was adorned with hangings of crimson satin,
+embroidered by the hand of Marguerite herself. The embroidery
+represented a passage from the history of the Queen's own life."
+
+"During the hours which the Queen allowed herself for relaxation, she
+worked tapestry, and discoursed with some one of the learned men whom
+she protected."
+
+"The Queen daily attended the afternoon sermon, preached by her
+chaplains in rotation. Often, however, weary with the excess of her
+mental labours, and lulled by the drowsy intonation of some of these
+ministers, the Queen slept during part of the discourse. Jeanne always
+felt severe reproach of conscience when she had thus involuntarily
+yielded to fatigue; and finding the inclination grow upon her, she
+demanded permission from the Synod to work tapestry during the sermon.
+This request was granted; and from thenceforth, Queen Jeanne, bending
+decorously over her tapestry-frame, and busy with her needle, gave due
+attention to the rambling addresses of her preachers."
+
+"Comme elle (Jeanne d'Albret) estoit grandement adonnée aux devises,
+elle fit de sa main de belles et grandes tapisseries, entre lesquelles
+il y a une tente de douze ou quinze pièces excellente qui s'appelle
+_les Prisons brisées_, par lesquelles elle donnoit à connôistre
+qu'elle avoit brisé les liens et secoué le joug de la captivité du
+Pape. Au milieu de chaque pièce, il y a une histoire du Vieu Testament
+qui resent la liberté, comme la délivrance de Suzanne, la sortie du
+peuple de la captivité d'Egypte, l'élargissement de Joseph. Et à tous
+les coins il y a des chaisnes rompues, des menottes brisées, des
+strapades et des gibbets en pièces, et par-dessus en grosses lettres
+ce sont ces paroles de la deuxième aux Corinthiens, ch. iii.: _Ubi
+spiritus, ibi libertas._"[460]
+
+Cluny boasts a most curious suite of hangings from the Chateau de
+Boussac, of the early part of the fifteenth century, which are
+charming, quaint, and gay, and historically and archæologically
+interesting. They tell the story of the "Dame au Lion."
+
+Modern French tapestries, from the manufactories of the Savonnerie,
+the Gobelins, and elsewhere, are decorative to the highest degree.
+Nothing can be more festive than these works of the time of Louis
+XIII., XIV., and XV., framed in white and gold, carved wood, or
+stucco, reflected in mirrors, and lighted by crystal or glass
+chandeliers and girandoles. Such hangings have nothing in common with
+those of early times; they are not temporary coverings of bare spaces,
+but panels in decorated walls, where they form an integral part of the
+architectural composition and design. They do not merely serve to give
+warmth, comfort, and colour to desolate halls, as did those ancient
+tapestries belonging to the furniture of the great man who sent them
+on before him from palace to palace, carrying them away with his
+baggage lest some one else should do so in his absence. These were
+probably merely attached by loops and nails, as one sees in country
+villas or castles in Italy to this day.
+
+We find that the Italians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
+often hung their walls with upright strips of work, in the guise of
+pilasters. The walls were thus divided into panelled spaces, which
+separated pictures, statues, and cabinets, of which the style did not
+agree in juxtaposition. These pilasters were generally of "opus
+consutum," or "appliqué" in its different forms. Above, next to the
+cornice, and below, next to the dado, or even touching the floor, they
+were connected by borders of similar work. The spaces between were
+mostly filled in with rich brocades or velvets of one colour, so as to
+make the best backgrounds for the artistic treasures grouped against
+them. Sometimes fine tapestries filled the intervening spaces, and
+sometimes splendid embroideries. There is a beautiful example of this
+sort of decoration at Holland House, where the dining-room is adorned
+with pilasters worked on velvet in gold and coloured silks, with
+tapestries between them. This is Florentine work, of the sixteenth or
+beginning of the seventeenth century.
+
+Hangings entirely in needlework, to cover large spaces, are rare, but
+a few are to be found all over Europe in museums, palaces, and private
+houses, which are interesting as objects of art. The genealogical tree
+of the Counts of Kyburg, designed in the sixteenth century, and
+carried to France as plunder, and now restored to its home near
+Zurich, is a remarkable instance of a piece of needlework that
+deserved the value placed on it. Many splendid pieces of embroidered
+tapestries are at the Cluny Museum. The beatitudes of St. Catherine,
+from the castle at Tarrascon, and the hangings worked in appliqué and
+flat stitches with portraits of Henri IV., Jeanne d'Albret, &c., are
+monuments of industry, and design; and are very beautiful.
+
+There, is a large room at Castle Ashby hung with tapestry in cross
+stitches, worked by the ladies of the family, and finished 150 years
+ago. The industry shown here is indubitable, but the designs are
+barbarously bad and funny. In the Palazzo Giustini at Florence there
+is a suite of hangings worked also in cross stitches of the same
+period, of which the design is very clever and graceful, and the
+effect beautiful and artistic. An irregular bank of brown earth is
+crowded with grasses and small flowers about a foot above the dado,
+and from this grow rose-bushes, covered with blossoms of different
+shades, held back to a treillage of delicate "cane colours." The
+leafage is brown, against a sky that is not blue, but which rather
+reminds one of blue than of grey. It is conventionally treated, and
+the effect is singularly rich and harmonious. Had it been a little
+more naturalistic, it would have looked too much like a painted
+picture; but as it is, the decoration is charming, and so universally
+admired that we cannot but wonder it has never been imitated. In the
+Borghese Palace at Rome there is a ball-room hung with white satin
+embroidered with wreaths of flowers, and a similar one in the Caetani
+Palace, on crimson satin. These are about 150 years old, and are so
+far above being mere objects of fashion, that they must be placed by
+their beauty of design and execution amongst objects of art, and so
+will probably survive more centuries of change, holding their own, and
+increasing in value and esteem.
+
+For hangings in church decoration, the reader is referred to the
+chapters on ecclesiastical art and on tapestry.
+
+Having discussed the origin and reason for hangings, and having tried
+to draw from what has been accepted as beautiful and perfect in taste,
+some guidance in hanging our modern rooms, supposing always that the
+spaces are fitted for really fine decorations, I yet would add a few
+more words on this subject. There are in general some previous
+conditions which will help us to choose the style and design of such
+furnishings. In the first place, we should study what is appropriate
+to the persons who will first inhabit the rooms. The bride's apartment
+may be white and gold, garlanded with roses, and gay with groups of
+Cupids; but such prettinesses would not be suitable to the home of a
+mourning Queen. Tender or subdued colouring equally sets off groups of
+young and lovely faces, and the bent form robed in black. Embroideries
+are always agreeable on such backgrounds, and it is as a vehicle for
+needlework that I now allude to the design of the artist in hangings.
+We are somewhat restricted, or we ought to be, when there are
+treasures of art already in the house, by the desire to exhibit them
+to the best advantage. The hangings should be of a colour which suits
+all pictures, and if the walls are either embroidered or tapestried
+with woven designs, they should be very much subdued, both in form and
+colour, so as not to prevent the eye from perceiving at once the
+precious objects hung against them. A fine brocade or velvet of one
+colour suits pictures best; but if our object is to show off our
+cabinets, which are generally black, and our statues, which are mostly
+white, then richly embroidered backgrounds in brilliant colours are
+the best, compensating the eye in variety and splendour.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [438] The "women who wove the hangings for the grove"
+    were probably priestesses of the worship of Astarte
+    (2 Kings xxiii. 7).
+
+    [439] He says that within the sacred shrine was revealed
+    their god--a beast rolling on a purple couch--veiled
+    with gold embroidered hangings; and he describes the
+    magnificent temples, gleaming with gold, silver, and
+    electrum. Quoted from Clemens Alexandrinus, in Renouf's
+    "Hibbert Lectures," p. 2.
+
+    [440] "Fine linen with broidered work from Egypt was
+    that which thou spreadest forth to be thy
+    sail."--Ezekiel xxvii. 7. Egyptian sails were woven and
+    painted; sometimes they were blazoned with embroidered
+    patterns. The Phœnix was set there to indicate the
+    traveller's return. See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians,"
+    vol. iii., ed. 1837, p. 211.
+
+    [441] See Semper, "Der Stil," vol. i. p. 273.
+
+    [442] The figure-painting of the nations we have spoken
+    of, successful so far as it concerns its special purpose
+    of exhibiting a clear and comprehensive chronicle of
+    events, is at the same time no more, so far as it
+    concerns its artistic effect, than a piece of tapestry
+    or embroidery done into stone, and can only be estimated
+    ... as a piece of coloured wall decoration. Woltmann and
+    Woermann, "History of Painting," Eng. Trans., pp. 23-30.
+    See also Perrot and Chipiez, "Histoire de l'Art dans
+    l'Antiquité," for tile decorations at Nimroud; vol. ii.
+    p. 704.
+
+    [443] Compare this record with Solomon's veil for the
+    Temple, of blue, and purple, and crimson, and fine linen
+    (2 Chron. iii. 14), and the hangings designed by
+    Bezaleel, of scarlet, blue, purple, and embroidered with
+    gold (Exod. xxxix. 2, 3, 5; see also Josephus, "Wars of
+    the Jews," Whiston's trans., p. 895).
+
+    [444] As cited from Abulfeda by Gibbon, chap. lii. ix.
+    p. 37, ed. 1797. When one is moved to pity, thinking of
+    the enforced labour of thousands of captive women,
+    fallen, perhaps, from high estate, and only valued for
+    the toil of their hands, it comforts one to believe that
+    they would hardly have produced beautiful works without
+    enjoying some happiness in the creation of that beauty.
+
+    [445] Yule's "Marco Polo," vol. i. p. 394, note 7.
+
+    [446] See Semper, "Der Stil," i. pp. 310, 311; Chares,
+    ap. Athen. xii. 54, p. 538.
+
+    [447] Semper's "Der Stil," i. p. 311; Athen. v. 25, p.
+    196.
+
+    [448] Phylarchus, ap. Athen. xii. 55, describes a
+    Persian tent in which were golden palm-trees, and vines
+    fruited with precious stones, under which the Persian
+    kings held their state. On an Assyrian sculpture at the
+    British Museum is seen Assurbanipal on a couch, the
+    queen opposite to him, under an arbour of jewelled
+    vines; unless it represents a rural entertainment, which
+    is unlikely.
+
+    [449] The art of the "tapezziere," "tapissier,"
+    "tapestry-hanger," is not a recognized one with us,
+    though it is in Italy and France, where the hangings for
+    special occasions in churches and houses are stored
+    away, treasured for hundreds of years, cleaned and
+    mended, and hung and placed to the best advantage by men
+    educated for the purpose. In poor churches which possess
+    no fine materials for decoration, one has often wondered
+    at and admired the picturesque effects extracted from
+    yards of muslin, gold tinsel, and box wreaths,
+    artistically combined. Our house carpenter is the only
+    representative we have of the vestiarius, and he is but
+    a feeble descendant from the ancestors of his craft, who
+    were expected to study and evolve the adornments of the
+    building for its completion, the materials of decoration
+    for special occasions, and lastly, the mechanical means
+    for hanging and stretching the draperies. These were
+    sometimes movable frames or posts--"scabella" (whence
+    "escabeau," échafaudage, scaffolding).
+
+    [450] Semper, "Der Stil," i. pp. 314, 315.
+
+    [451] Never again will such great works be executed with
+    the needle. In civilized countries, sovereign splendours
+    are at a discount. The East occasionally produces
+    something fine, because there they still have harems and
+    slaves; but even these ancient institutions are losing
+    their stability and in the interest of humanity, if not
+    in that of needlework, we may soon hope there will be
+    neither the one nor the other. We must allow, however,
+    that the purple and gold embroideries now being executed
+    for the King of Bavaria in his school at Munich are
+    royally splendid, and, by their execution, worthy of
+    past days.
+
+    [452] Pliny, viii. 44, 196.
+
+    [453] Gibbon's "Roman History," ix. c. 51, p. 370, ed.
+    1797; also see Crichton's "History of Arabia," i. p.
+    383.
+
+    [454] The utter dispersal of accumulated family and
+    household treasures has had a sad illustration in the
+    loads of Turkish and Slav embroideries which have
+    flooded the markets of Europe since the Russo-Turkish
+    war. Work, treasured for generations, sold for a piece
+    of bread, robbed from the deserted home or the bazaar,
+    stolen from the dying or the dead. These are so
+    suggestive of the horrors of war, and touch us so nearly
+    in connection with the rights and wrongs of the Eastern
+    question, that they cause us more pain than pleasure
+    when we study these beautiful specimens of well-blended
+    colours and designs, that show their Aryan (Persian or
+    Indian) origin. Lady Layard's residence in
+    Constantinople was, perhaps, the "happy accident" which
+    will have preserved the secrets and practice of this
+    work for future generations, by her active and generous
+    institution of a working organization for the poor
+    exiled and starving women, and for the sale of their
+    work in England.
+
+    [455] Semper, "Der Stil," i. p. 30, § 10.
+
+    [456] This subject has been ably treated in the
+    Introduction to "La Tapisserie," by Eug. Müntz; Paris,
+    1885.
+
+    [457] I refer to the chapter on "English Embroideries"
+    for the _parsemé_ patterns of our mediæval hangings, and
+    to the section on tapestry in the chapter on "Stitches."
+
+    [458] "Renaissance in Italy," J. A. Symonds, p. 4.
+
+    [459] But to this rule there are notable exceptions, of
+    which Charles the Bold's hangings for his tent (now at
+    Berne) furnish a brilliant example. Here the Order of
+    the Golden Fleece is repeated on a field of flowers,
+    exquisitely designed.
+
+    [460] "Life of Jeanne d'Albret," by Miss Freer, pp. 68,
+    123, 330.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FURNITURE.
+
+    "Jane, I hate æsthetic carpets;
+    High-art curtains make me swear.
+    Pray cease hunting for the latest
+                      Queen Anne chair.
+    I care nothing for improvements,
+    On the simple style of Snell,
+    Which will suit both you and me ex-
+                      tremely well."
+
+                 ROBERT CUST, "Parody of the Last Ode of the
+                           First Book of Horace."
+
+    "First, as you know, my house within the city
+    Is richly furnish'd with plate and gold;
+    Basons and ewers, to lave her dainty hands;
+    My hangings all of Tyrian tapestry;
+    In ivory coffers I have stuff'd my crowns;
+    In cyprus chests my arras, counterpoints,
+    Fine linen, Turkey cushions boss'd with pearl,
+    Costly apparel, tents and canopies,
+    Valance of Venice gold, in needlework;
+    Pewter and brass, and all things that belong
+    To house, or housekeeping."
+
+       SHAKESPEARE, "Taming of the Shrew," Act II., Scene I.
+
+
+The last chapter on hangings, their history and uses, and the
+preceding account of tapestries, naturally lead to the consideration
+of the furniture which may accompany them.
+
+Homer's description of Penelope's bridal couch is very curious. The
+central idea is the bedpost, fashioned out of the stem of an
+olive-tree growing in the court, and inlaid by Ulysses himself with
+gold, silver, and ivory, and bands of dyed purple ox-hide. The stone
+walls and roof were built over to cover it in, as it stood yet rooted
+in the ground.[461]
+
+The illustration is a very quaint delineation of a Chaldean
+four-roomed house, where the rooted tree with its stem and branches is
+suggestive of the state of the domestic art of the architect and the
+upholsterer in those Archaic days.[462]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 24.
+    Assyrian delineation of Chaldean House.]
+
+Furniture has been the excuse and the vehicle for embroideries, from
+the footstool and the cushion to the window curtain and the
+bed-hangings.[463]
+
+Such curtains are the most permanently important features in the
+economy, or rather the luxury of the house. Let us begin with the
+decorations of the state bedroom.
+
+Now the shape of the bed must regulate the design. If there is only a
+canopy--like that over a throne--one may have fine work for the head
+of the bed inside the canopy, and a rich border round its valance;
+this should contrast with the walls; and the curtains should marry the
+two together, by the embroidered borders belonging to the fashion of
+the bed, and accompanying the window curtains; while the plain surface
+should match with the wall hangings. Another method is to have the bed
+and curtains hung with plain materials, to contrast with embroidered
+or tapestried hangings on the walls.
+
+This style of bed canopy absolutely belongs to the decoration of the
+wall to which it is attached. But when we have to deal with a large
+four-post bed--"a room within a room," as poor Prince Lee Boo
+said--the bed may, in its own decoration, be totally independent of
+the wall hangings; and care must be taken that we do not injure the
+effect of both by too much contrast or too much similarity. Every room
+has its own individuality, and the first beginning of its decoration
+must be the key-note to guide the rest of the furnishing and
+adornment. I am anxious to point out that the bed and its belongings
+are a most important element in the beauty and dignity of style of the
+room and the house that contains it. It is a splendid opportunity for
+displaying the embroideries of the women of the family, and for
+exercising their taste. "The chamber of Dais," as it was called in old
+times, was always carefully adorned for the welcome of the honoured
+guest. The bed-hangings, and even the linen, were embroidered,[464]
+and the greatest care and the most artistic work were lavished on the
+coverlet in firm stitches and twisted threads, while on the curtains
+the frailest materials and most delicate stitches were freely
+bestowed, as they were safe from friction. We may employ floss-silk
+and satin-stitch for such works with safety.
+
+As a rule we should avoid too great a variety of design in the
+decoration of a bedroom, and at the same time beware of its becoming
+monotonous.
+
+I should say that a change in the design, though not in the style, of
+the different parts of the bed is admissible, and gives opportunities
+for rich and graceful work. For instance, a parsemé pattern may be
+varied judiciously on the curtains, the valance, and the heading;
+provided there is a connecting link (say a cypher) found throughout.
+If the back of the Baldachino is embroidered, it admits of totally
+different treatment, and the valance must include a border according
+to its outline.
+
+The ingenuity and magnificence of the Elizabethan bedroom furnishings
+are proved by the inventories to be found in old houses. Those
+describing the property of the Earl of Leicester, in the Library at
+Longleat, are so characteristic of a time when each room contained
+artistic furniture, that I cannot help making here some extracts, and
+pointing out that embroidery was usually employed to individualize
+each decoration.
+
+"At Killingworth (Kenilworth) Lord Leicester's Bedsteads." "A fayre,
+rich, standing Square Bedstead of carved walnut-tree wood: painted
+with silver hearts, ragged staves and roses. The furniture and teste
+crimson velvet embroidered with silver roses, and lined throughout
+with Buckram." There was apparently a second set of curtains inside
+of striped white satin, trimmed and fringed with silver, and the
+velvet curtains were also fringed with silver with long "buttons and
+loops."
+
+Another bedstead is described, with the pillars painted red, and
+varnished. The teste and curtains of red silk edged with gold and
+silver bone lace, and embroidered "in a border of hops, roses, and
+pomegranates."
+
+Another "Bedstead painted red and gold, and varnished; with crimson
+velvet, gold and silver in breadths, embroidered over with red, gold,
+and silver,--lined with Milion (Milan) fustian," &c., &c. The
+catalogue of the tapestries and embroidered hangings include fifteen
+suites at Kenilworth only; and three other houses are equally well
+provided. The ground of one of these suites of five pieces of
+embroidery, of animals and flowers, is described as being "Stannel
+cloth lined with cannevois" (canvas). Each room has chairs, cushions,
+carpets (which appear to have covered the floor and the tables), and
+"Cabinutts" (cabinets) covered with embroideries.
+
+In a Florentine Palace (the Alessandri), there is a state
+apartment,[465] where the bed, the walls, the curtains, and the
+furniture are entirely decorated with the same splendid materials,
+i.e. gold brocaded with crimson velvet. The eye longs for some repose
+amidst the gorgeous reiterated forms and colours. If the bed and
+curtains had been either plain crimson velvet or embroidery, it would
+have been much more beautiful. This sort of example is a lesson and a
+warning, which is valuable even under less splendid conditions.
+
+Amongst our fine Indian embroideries, those of Lucknow, Gulbargah,
+Aurungabad, and Hyderabad are well fitted for beds and furniture.
+These we can study in the Indian Museum, and it seems a pity not to
+profit by, and encourage the resources of our own Empire.
+
+Carpets and rugs were sometimes embroidered as well as woven in
+patterns. They were anciently spread on thrones, couches and sofas, at
+entertainments;[466] and used for covering the catafalques at funeral
+ceremonies, or for laying over tombs, as is still the custom in the
+East. We who restrict their use to domestic purposes, are beginning to
+understand that these decorations look best when the patterns are
+geometrical, and that natural objects, such as rabbits and roses, even
+when conventionalized, are unpleasant to tread upon.
+
+The sofa and chairs are so often the vehicles for embroidery that we
+must give them a separate share of our attention. The square shapes of
+the chair-backs repeated several times give us an opportunity for
+balancing colours and introducing forms of decoration which may be
+made to contrast with everything else in the room, and so enhance the
+general effect. Say that the carpet is red, and the furniture and
+hangings are of tender broken tints, it will be a pleasure to the eye
+if the cushions on the sofa and the chairs and seats are panelled with
+a deeper or lighter colour than the carpet, but always reposing the
+eye by contrasting plain surfaces with richness of design. Then the
+footstool or cushion should break away entirely from the carpet on
+which it lies, that the poor thing may be spared the kick it
+invariably receives, when the master of the house has tripped over its
+invisible presence.
+
+For furniture, the cushion stitches, i.e. canvas and cross stitches,
+are certainly the best. They are the most enduring, as they bear
+friction without fraying; and are therefore, in this case, preferable
+to satin stitches, which are liable to be spoilt by contact, and give
+the lady of the house, who is probably the artist, a pang each time an
+honoured guest occupies the comfortable chair embroidered in floss
+silk, unaware that it is an æsthetic investment, and that a percentage
+of its beauty is disappearing every time it is brought into collision
+with broadcloth.[467] This brings us to the subject of the covers
+called "housses" by French upholsterers, and which may come under the
+head of small decorations, or rather, of petty disfigurements. The
+things which went by the horrid name of "antimacassars" have, however,
+given way to "chair-backs," and crochet has been displaced by linen
+veils worked in crewels. This is a step in the right direction. No
+well-regulated eye could do otherwise than suffer from the glaring
+white patterns of crochet-work, mounted aggressively on the back of
+every chair in the room, as a buffer between it and the human head and
+shoulders. The suggestion was disagreeable, and the present chair-back
+still recalls it. To reconcile us to its use, it must be sparingly
+used, and artistically disposed. The "antimacassar" is a remaining
+sign of the overlap of dress and manners. Our great-grandmothers
+embroidered the chairs, and valued them exceedingly, and never would
+have contemplated that they should be soiled by a male or female head
+lying back upon them. True, they wore powder and pomatum then--but
+they never leant back; such a solace, and solecism in manners, was
+reserved for the privacy of the bedroom and the arm-chair covered with
+cotton piqué or washing chintz. Under the new manners, and since the
+introduction of the graceful lounge, the antimacassar doubtless has
+saved many ancestral works, but nowadays we wear neither powder nor
+pomatum. On the contrary, we dye, dry, and frizzle our hair till it
+might serve as a brush to remove any dust it encountered, and it
+spoils nothing.
+
+The table-cover is a source of endless variety;[468] on the whole I
+should recommend here plain surfaces and deep borders. The articles
+thrown on the table are best set off by plain grounds. The colour of
+the table-cover may be a test of artistic taste, and may make or mar
+the whole effect of the furnishings of the room, especially if it is
+newly acquired, in order to enliven the fading glories of ancestral
+taste.
+
+The Screen.--This evidently began its existence as a curtain hung on a
+movable frame for the purpose of dividing large chambers for separate
+uses.[469] The Chinese seem to have been the first to stretch the
+curtain tight over the frame, making it a fixture, and often an actual
+partition, painted with pictures by brush or needle.
+
+To our modern home, the screen in a large room, gives a sense of
+snugness, and is an actual necessity for keeping off the draughts
+drifting in through ill-fitting window-frames and doors; and at the
+same time serving æsthetically as a background to high chairs and
+tables heaped with objects of art, and tall vases of flowers. The
+high screen groups and unites the pictures of active and still life
+around it; and meanwhile the little fire-screens are performing the
+merciful service of saving the complexions of our daughters from being
+sacrificed to Moloch in front of our scorching coal fires. I need not
+recommend these as fit surfaces for embroidery--they offer themselves
+to it; and the School of Art Needlework is a living witness to how
+much they are appreciated and how largely employed. On the screen,
+decorative ambition is permitted to rise to pictorial art. Nothing in
+furniture is prettier than the screen covered with refined needle
+painting, either arabesqued or naturalistic. You may vary the designs
+to any extent, either as large pictures covering many folds, or in
+small pictures repeated or varied on each. Here design to
+individualize the living-room comes into play, and is most conspicuous
+for good or for evil effect.
+
+Amongst the occasional furnishings of the home, we would instance
+embroidered curtains to veil pictures, which are perhaps too sacred to
+expose to the general eye. We know how often in churches and
+sacristies on the Continent, one, or even two veils have to be
+withdrawn before the holy and precious picture is displayed. We have
+seen these little curtains beautifully worked so as to form by their
+design a picture in the space they cover. Crimson silk is perhaps
+worked in gold and colours for a gilt frame, and white and silver
+within ebony or walnut settings. I would recommend this style of work
+to the consideration of our decorators. It is interesting to find in
+an old catalogue at Hampton Court, how pictures of sacred subjects
+were thus decently veiled, in the profaner moments of court
+gaieties.[470]
+
+Embroidered book coverings were often very beautiful, either as
+simply clothing the boards, or when finished with metal-work corners,
+backs, and clasps.
+
+I quote the following lines, said to have been written by Tasso on a
+case for a book, embroidered for him by Leonora d'Este:--
+
+    "Questo prezioso dono,
+    Ch' ornar coll' ago ad Eleanora piacque,
+    Lo vidde Aracne, e tacque.
+    Or se la mano, che la piaga fè al core,
+    Si bello fè d' amore il dolce laberinto,
+    Come uscirne potro, se non estinto?"
+
+In the catalogue of Charles V.'s library, the materials used for
+bindings are thus named: Soie veluyau, satin damas, taffetas, camelot,
+cendal, and drap d'or; and many were embroidered.
+
+Tact, discretion, and knowledge are required when we undertake to
+adorn the home to be lived in; and while employing the art of
+embroidery to embellish it, we must never forget that harmony, and the
+absence of anything startling, tends to the grandiose as well as the
+comfortable. Bright bits of colouring should be reserved for pictorial
+art, or for small objects, such as cushions and stools. If for the
+general tint blue be chosen, let it be either pure pale colour, like
+the æther, or a soft one, pale or dark, such as indigo; but the
+startling aniline blues should be avoided as being offensive to the
+nerves of the eye. If red be the foundation colour, let it be Venetian
+red, part scarlet, part crimson; or pure crimson (Tyrian purple), or
+pure scarlet (cochineal). Never employ scarlet with a yellow tinge; it
+may not affect yourself, but it is blinding to many eyes. Avoid
+brickdust, which is simply a dirty mixture of earthy colours. Of green
+there are few shades that are not beautiful, soothing, and more or
+less fitted for a background to needlework. Olive-green, sea-green,
+pea-green, emerald-green, and sage-green,--Nature teaches us how
+these harmonize together and with all other colours. Only arsenical
+green is impracticable and repulsive. Yellow, pale as a primrose,
+glowing as gold, or tender as butter, is always beautiful; but one
+tint we would exclude from our list, called "buff," which never can
+assimilate with any other colour, and is often the refuge of the
+weak-minded man that cannot face the responsibility of choosing an
+atmosphere in which he will have to spend many hours of his existence,
+when the walls, the ceiling, and the hangings will inevitably obtain a
+subtle, but real influence on his nerves; which, in the case of buff,
+will be that of a yellow fog, while pale primrose will have the effect
+of early sunrise, and pure gold that of sunset.
+
+A rule to be respected is that decoration should be reposing instead
+of exciting. The unexpected, which is an element in the enjoyment of
+what is new, should be such as to become the more agreeable the longer
+we are accustomed to it. Mr. Morris's golden rule is this: "Have
+nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful or believe to
+be beautiful."[471] In decorative art, and therefore in embroidery,
+the first object to consider is beauty--beauty in conception,
+proportion, drawing, and colour. I would not have it thought that I am
+placing our secondary art too high, and giving it too much importance,
+when I apply to it the first essential rules of art; but one of these
+furnishes my excuse. It is that "the simplest and smallest creation
+should be as faultless as the greatest and grandest." Now beauty
+cannot be obtained, even in little works, without proportion in size,
+harmony and balance in colour, and correctness in form, and these
+require the careful study of first principles.
+
+Proportion in size is most important, both as regards ourselves and
+our surroundings--objectively and subjectively. When our masters, the
+Greeks, wished to express force and majesty, they sculptured their
+gods of unearthly size, larger than their heroes, who yet exceeded in
+stature their human models. The statue of the god placed in the temple
+was the largest object seen, and the delicacy and refinement of the
+details in dress, throne, and base only enhanced the effect of
+majestic proportion.
+
+In the temple men were to be reminded of their own nothingness. In the
+gymnasium, and on the racecourse, and at the public games, the
+surrounding pictures and statues were all intended to excite ambition
+by showing men the heroic size to be attained by the awards of fame.
+But at home, in the house, man is already supreme, and needs no
+incentive to assert himself, and no tall standard by which he may be
+measured. The Lares and Penates themselves were very small objects to
+look at, whatever may have been the thoughts they suggested. Nothing
+is so alarming or unpleasant as gigantic figures worked in tapestry or
+embroidery.
+
+And if even the guardian gods of the house were kept in due subjection
+as to size, why not all decorations, and especially those representing
+the flowers of the field? Certainly in worked decorations flowers
+should be no larger than in nature--perhaps on the whole they are best
+rather smaller. Botanical monstrosities on the wall dwarf the flowers
+in a bow-pot near them, and nature has her own lovely proportions,
+which should be studied and respected. These remarks, of course, apply
+exclusively to domestic decoration, which is the special object of our
+art, and for the guidance of which the suggestions contained in this
+chapter are intended.
+
+I would strongly advocate the return to the old system for the
+production of large embroideries. If ladies would design, or have
+designed for them, curtains or tapestries, and let the work-frame be
+the permanent occupier of the morning sitting-room, they might at
+least commence works that members of the family or friends might
+continue and complete at their leisure; and should they at any time
+hang fire, a needlewoman or clever professional worker might be called
+in to help to finish it. Thus ladies might assist the art of
+needlework by their own original ideas, and give individual beauty to
+their homes, and an impetus to the occupation which helps to support
+so many of our struggling sisters. The frame or métier is always a
+pretty object in the drawing-room or boudoir. The French understand
+this well; and make it one of their most useful "properties" in their
+scenic representations of refined home life.
+
+I will conclude this chapter with two quotations. The first is part of
+Sir Digby Wyatt's advice in a Cambridge Lecture. "You can never hope
+(he says) to have the means of supplying yourself with what is
+beautiful unless you take pains to add to the production of that
+beauty. The colour which the decorative painter" (and the embroiderer
+also) "may cast around you is neither more nor less than an atmosphere
+in which your eye will be either strengthened or debilitated. If you
+accustom your eye only or mainly to contemplate what is satisfactory
+in colour and form to the highest tastes, it will gradually become
+allured to such delicacy of organization as to reject unintentionally
+all that is repugnant to perfect taste."
+
+Mr. Morris, in a lecture to the "Birmingham Society of Arts and School
+of Design," says of ugly furnishings: "Herein the rich people have
+defrauded themselves as well as the poor. You will see a refined and
+highly educated man nowadays, who has been to Italy and Egypt and
+where not, who can talk learnedly enough (and fantastically enough
+sometimes) about art and literature of past days, sitting down without
+signs of discomfort in a house that, with all its surroundings, is
+just brutally vulgar and hideous. All his education has done for him
+no more than that."
+
+"You cannot civilize man unless you give him a share in art." But the
+man must be civilized by education to accept that share of art that
+his life offers to him. It must be admitted that though a man may be
+educated enough to enable him to theorize, he may yet be too poor to
+furnish with taste. If he is able to act up to his theories, and to
+surround himself with what is refined, and fail to do so, and is
+contented not to stir in this matter, he is not truly educated.
+
+"Now that which breeds art is art. Any piece of work that is well done
+is so much help to the cause." "The cause is the Democracy of Art, the
+ennobling of daily and common work."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [461] Odyssey, xxiii., l. 190.
+
+    [462] Layard's "Monuments," 1st series, pl. 77; see
+    "Histoire de l'Art," ii., Perrot and Chipiez.
+
+    [463] A bed may be absolutely without any hangings or
+    tester, and yet carry embroidery, as in the curious
+    funeral couch of a sepulchral monument in painted
+    terra-cotta in the Campana Museum of the Louvre. Here
+    the mattress is worked to resemble ticking, striped, and
+    the cushions have embroidered ends; and are made in the
+    form of bolsters. There is a similar sepulchral monument
+    in the British Museum. Both of them were found at
+    Cervetri, and are quaint examples of early Etruscan art.
+    See Dennis' "Etruria," 2nd ed., p. 227.
+
+    [464] The thread embroideries in counted stitches were
+    worked in an endless variety of beautiful designs, of
+    which the collection in Franz and Frida Lipperheide's
+    "Musterbücher für Weibliche Handarbeit" is most
+    interesting and exhaustive; including Italian and German
+    "Lienenstickerei," Berlin, 1883.
+
+    [465] Of the seventeenth century.
+
+    [466] The carpets used by the Romans were called
+    Triclinaria Babylonica, for the use of the triclinium,
+    and Polymata cubicularia, for the cubiculum. These were
+    dyed crimson, scarlet, and purple. See Horace's Satires,
+    ii. 6; also Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman
+    Antiquities," s.v. Tapes., p. 102-106, Triclinium.
+
+    [467] "Marco Polo," p. 92, ed. Yule, speaking of the
+    ladies of Caramania in the thirteenth century, says they
+    produced exquisite needlework on silk stuffs of divers
+    colours, with figures of birds, beasts, trees, and
+    flowers. They worked hangings for the noblemen's use, as
+    well as cushions, pillows, quilts, and all sorts of
+    things.
+
+    [468] Lampridius ("Antonin. Heliogab." cap. xxvi. see
+    Bock, p. 129) says, in the life of Heliogabalus, that
+    table-covers were embroidered for the emperor,
+    representing the dishes which were to be placed upon
+    them at the festal table of this epicure.
+
+    [469] See the screen on the Assyrian bas-relief in the
+    British Museum, placed round the back of the throne on
+    which the king is seated. This is apparently a frame on
+    which hangings are fixed.
+
+    [470] See inventory Of Henry VIII.'s goods, &c., I. Ed.
+    VI. (Bib.) Harl. 1419, quoted by Felix Summerley in his
+    "Handbook of Hampton Court."
+
+    [471] I would add, "except that which is consecrated by
+    time or sentiment."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+DRESS.
+
+    "Whatever clothing she displays,
+    From Tyre or Cos, that clothing praise;
+    If gold show forth the artist's skill,
+    Call her than gold more precious still;
+    Or if she choose a coarse attire,
+    E'en coarseness, worn by her, admire."
+
+             OVID, "Ars Amat." ii. 297, 300 (Yates, p. 180).
+
+
+Having glanced at the decoration of the house, I must now proceed to
+say a few words on Dress. Semper, Labarte, and Sir Digby Wyatt all
+take it for granted that the Art of Dress preceded all other arts.
+
+Every ancient record shows how early decoration of dress by needlework
+began, and how far it had gone; and when we read of festal
+hospitalities and marriage gifts, embroidered garments are invariably
+named. Solomon in all his glory, though he praised the lily, yet shone
+in splendid apparel. The Greeks refined the gold, and painted the
+lily.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 50.
+    Italian Knight dressed for conquest, by Gentile da Fabriano.
+        Academia at Florence.]
+
+As soon as dress became an art, and not merely an acknowledged
+necessity for warmth and decency, I see no reason to deny that the
+same decorative genius that embroidered the garment might at the same
+time have imagined the carving of the chair and the inlaying of the
+sword and bow; but as regards the precedence of the arts, we can only
+guess at what is probable. Beauty in dress is certainly a universal
+instinctive passion. Perhaps the birds (which Mr. Darwin and others
+credit with preening their plumage, conscious that their spots are
+the brightest, and their feathers the glossiest, and that they are
+therefore adored by the hens, and the envy of the shabbier cocks)
+suggested to men the same method for securing the preference of the
+other sex, who in return willingly helped to adorn the idols of their
+hearts and homes. (Plate 50.) This natural state of things still
+prevails in Central Africa, where Schweinfürth describes a king
+dancing before his 100 wives costumed in the tails of lions and
+peacocks, and crowned with the proboscis of an elephant. It appears,
+however, that, unlike Cleopatra, "custom had staled his infinite
+variety," and the 100 ladies looked on the splendid display with blank
+indifference.
+
+This is only a barbarous illustration of the fact that in the earliest
+civilizations magnificent garments were worn by men to dazzle and awe
+the beholders by the splendour which represented wealth and conquest.
+How glorious a man could appear apparelled to represent majesty and
+dominion, may be learned by studying Canon Rock's book on the
+coronation dresses of the Emperors of Germany--a book great in every
+sense of the word. The portrait of Charles V. robed and crowned is a
+dazzling example of the arts of dress, embroidery, and jeweller's
+work. These garments have for ages been treasured at Vienna,
+Aix-la-Chapelle, and in the Vatican at Rome.
+
+The coronation garments of the Emperors of Russia are said to be
+gorgeously beautiful.
+
+It seems hardly necessary to assert that embroidery has always been
+especially applicable to dress. Each garment, being individualized by
+the design depicted on it, was fitted for individual uses and
+occasions. The conqueror's palmated mantle, the coronation robe, the
+bridal garment, the costume of the peasant for festival days, and the
+officiating vestments of the priests for special services of prayer
+and praise--these were loyally or piously worked; they descended from
+generation to generation as family treasures or as historical
+memorials, and sometimes as holy relics,[472] till they and the call
+for them, were swept away at once by social changes; yet some still
+remain and hold their place. Priestly garments, together with Church
+decorations, never laid aside in the Roman and Greek Churches, are
+being partially revived in our own; and for secular adornment the
+embroiderer is often called upon to work a garland, to enwreathe the
+form of a pretty woman, to lie on her shoulders and encircle her
+waist.
+
+The greatest loss to the art is that men as a rule have ceased to
+individualize themselves, or their position or office by dress,[473]
+and have left entirely to the women the pleasure and duty of making
+themselves as lovely and conspicuous as their circumstances will
+permit. The same linen and broadcloth are cut in the same shapes, of
+which the only merit is that they are said to be comfortable, and
+whose highest aim is to be spotless and unwrinkled; these show the
+altered conditions of the highly civilized man, and woman too, for he
+has long left behind him the idea of dazzling the female eye or heart
+by the attraction of colour. This applies only to European costume at
+home or in the colonies. The East still retains its pleasure in
+gorgeous combinations, in which man enfolds his person, and shows how
+beautiful he can make himself when thus clothed, in accordance with
+the classical axioms, as to how much of the human form should be
+revealed, and how much concealed.
+
+The principle on which the ancients embroidered their garments was
+like that of the Indians, the large surfaces plain, or covered with
+quiet diapers or spots, the rich ornaments being reserved for the
+borders, the girdles and the scarves. Their garments hung loose from
+the shoulders or girdle; whether long or short they clung to the
+figure or fluttered in the wind. The long flowing robes to the feet
+veiled the form completely, and were only thrown off for the battle or
+the chase, or in the struggles for victory in the races and games.
+Dress, in the supreme reign of beauty, was intended to flow around, or
+to conceal, but never to _disguise_, the human frame it enclosed.
+
+Homer thus describes Juno's toilet before calling on Jupiter:--
+
+    "Around her next a heavenly mantle flow'd,
+    That rich with Pallas' labour'd colours glow'd;
+    Large clasps of gold the foldings gather'd round;
+    A golden zone her swelling bosom bound."
+
+                                         Iliad, xiv. v. 207.
+
+The Greeks certainly wore delicate and tasteful embroidery on their
+garments, frequently finished with splendid borders, while the large
+space between was dotted with stars or some simple pattern. We learn
+this from the paintings on Greek fictile vases. In the British Museum
+there is a little bronze statuette of Minerva (with twinkling diamond
+eyes). She has a broad band of embroidered silver foliage from her
+throat to her feet.
+
+As the beauty of Greek forms acted and reacted on the beauty of their
+"Art of Dress," so we may be certain that all deformity of dress has
+been produced by deformity of race in mind or body, and that climate
+is an important factor in both. The cold of the farthest north has
+produced people short, fat, and hairy; which natural gifts have been
+supplemented by their warm clothes or coverings, in the same way that
+a "cosy" covers a teapot. Flowing garments there would be utterly out
+of place, petticoats are unknown, and the Lapp hangs out nothing that
+can be the vehicle for carrying an icicle. Their dresses, or cases,
+are planned to keep out the cold, and to place another atmosphere
+between the heart of the breathing mass, and the cruel, cutting, outer
+wind. Hence, the materials used are not only woven hair, but the furry
+skins themselves. In the south, under the sunshine, dress is for the
+greater part of the year only needed for decency and beauty. The
+flowing and delicate cottons and silks and fine woollens, are shaped
+to cover and adorn the beautiful forms, which for entire isolation
+take refuge in the never-failing mantle. The mantle was the great
+opportunity for the embroiderer's craft. Alkisthenes, the Sybarite,
+had a garment of such magnificence that when it was exhibited in the
+Temple of Juno at Lacinium, where all Italy was congregated, it
+attracted such universal admiration that it was sold to the
+Carthaginians by Dionysius the Elder for 120 talents. The ground was
+purple, wrought all over with animals, except the centre, where were
+seen Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Minerva, Venus, and Themis. On one border
+was the figure of Alkisthenes himself, on the other was depicted the
+emblematic figure of his native city, Sybaris. The size of the
+garment was Homeric--it was fifteen cubits, or twenty-two feet in
+breadth.[474]
+
+That the ladies of Greece in the fourth century carried down the
+historical and Homeric traditions of the embroidery frame, and made it
+part of their daily lives, while the Persian women of rank left such
+work to their slaves, is evident from the pretty legend told of
+Alexander the Great, who desiring to beguile the weariness of his
+prisoners, the wife and family of Darius, sent them some of his
+garments to embroider. When it was reported to him that these
+princesses were much mortified, believing it was a suggestion of their
+fallen fortunes, Alexander hastened to reassure them--saying that his
+own mother and sisters occupied themselves in embroidering dresses.
+
+The Persians and Babylonians seem to have preferred subjects for their
+embroidered dresses somewhat in the style of the mantle of
+Alkisthenes, which was probably Oriental, and suggests the Babylonian
+mantle in Jericho, "which tempted Achan to sin." The Egyptian frescoes
+on the other hand, sometimes give us women and goddesses dressed in
+small flowery patterns that remind one of Indian chintzes. These were
+probably woven, painted, and embroidered, and filled in with threads
+of gold. The Romans varied their fashions, but they preferred for a
+time striped borders on their garments,[475] and called them
+"molores," "dilores," "trilores," up to seven. The Greeks but seldom
+departed from the rule of plain or quietly patterned surfaces with
+rich borders in their delineations of dress, though there are examples
+of large designs covering the whole garment.
+
+The embroidered dresses of early Christian times are to be judged of
+by mosaics and frescoes--mostly Italian. Those of the dark ages were
+till lately only names and guesses. But a hiatus in our knowledge has
+been filled up lately by the store of entombed textiles discovered in
+the Fayoum in Egypt, and now at Vienna, in Herr Graf'schen's
+Collection. Here we have a variety of shapes, designs, and stitches,
+and every kind of subject, sacred and profane, Christian and Pagan,
+and the missing links between Indian and Byzantine fabrics are
+revealed. They cover nearly 400 years, from the third to the seventh
+century, and many of them may be looked upon as apart from any
+ecclesiastical or even Christian suggestions. I have spoken of them in
+the chapter on Woollen Materials.[476]
+
+After the seventh century, we again come into the dawning light of
+history--and find here and there an illustrative fragment, nearly
+always ecclesiastical, taken from the graves of priests and monarchs.
+Charlemagne's mantle and robe embroidered with elephants and with
+bees, preserved at Aix-la-Chapelle--his dalmatic in the Vatican--the
+Durham embroideries, are rare and precious examples of that early
+period.
+
+Semper describes the difference between "the covering" and the
+"binding." This seems to be little considered in modern costume, but
+it is so essential that I would impress it on my readers. He says that
+"the covering seeks to isolate, to enclose, to shelter, to spread
+around, over a certain space, and is a collective unit," whereas
+binding implies ligature, and represents a "united plurality,"--for
+example, a bundle of sticks, the _fasces_ of the lictors, &c. "Binding
+is linear, in dress it is either horizontal or spiral." What can the
+united plurality be that justifies the binding often bestowed on the
+figure in fashionable costumes? more fitted for binding together the
+bones of the dead, than for permitting the agility of the muscles of
+the living. Semper continues,--"Anything that goes against this
+important axiom is wrong."[477]
+
+I think we must all agree that the objects of dress are decency,
+isolation, warmth, grace, and beauty. As long as fashion takes the
+place of taste, and extravagant _chic_ supersedes grace and beauty, we
+must not hope that fine designs to individualize dress will be called
+for. The French machine-made embroideries are so beautiful, and
+comparatively cheap, that we cannot compete with them. The best
+artists design them, and the only fault to be found is this, that as
+they are made by thousands of yards, and can only be varied by
+interchange of colours, they become common the day they are produced.
+It has been said that "fashion is made for a class, but taste for
+mankind."[478] Fashion is the enemy of taste, though she makes use of
+her services. The gown, of which the fashion is in every sense
+imported from France, will probably never again be the vehicle for
+home embroideries. But there are other articles of personal adornment
+which will always be available for the fancies of decorative
+taste--the fan, the purse or satchel, the apron, the fichu, the point
+of the shoe, and the muff--all these are objects on which thought and
+ingenuity may well be expended, and which will remain as records of
+personal feeling when the workers and givers of such graceful
+mementoes are far away. Carriage-rugs and foot-muffs, and embroidered
+letter-cases, and book-covers, must be placed somewhere between
+furniture and personal ornament. In all these the "_imprévu_," or
+"unexpected," is what is valuable, including all that is original and
+quaint.
+
+Embroidery will, however, probably continue occasionally to be
+employed in the adornment of dress--and will leave of each phase and
+period of art some fine examples on which the archæologist of the
+future may pause and reason.
+
+There are in most old houses some specimens of old secular work--few
+earlier than the date of Henry VIII. Gothic dress is very rare, except
+the ecclesiastical. But from the fifteenth century till now, there
+remains enough to exercise our curiosity, our artistic tastes, and our
+power of selection and comparison; and hints for beauty and grace may
+often be found and adapted to the style of our own day.
+
+Planché's "Dictionary of Dress," and Ferrario's "Costumi antichi e
+moderni di tutti i Popoli," are great works on dress and costume, and
+both are splendidly illustrated and worthy of study.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [472] Elsewhere I have spoken of dress being continually
+    offered to the images of the pagan gods in the temples.
+    Herodotus (ii. p. 159) tells us that Pharaoh Necho
+    offered to the Apollo of Branchidæ the dress he happened
+    to have worn at both his great successes (the victory of
+    Magdalus and the taking of Cadytis). In the procession
+    of Ptolemy Philadelphus the colossal statue of Bacchus
+    and his nurse Nysa were draped, the former in a shawl,
+    the latter in a tunic variegated with gold. See Yates,
+    "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 369. Old clothes were sent as
+    votive offerings to temples, and inscriptions recording
+    lists of such decorations are still extant. See Appendix
+    1. The Greeks honoured the menders and darners, and
+    called them "healers of clothes." Blümner, p. 202.
+
+    [473] Men in former days preferred to show by their
+    dress their station and the company they belonged to.
+    Guilds had their ceremonial dresses, and their
+    "liveries," and their cognizances, and considered it an
+    honour to wear them. See Rock, "Church of our Fathers,"
+    ii. p. 115.
+
+    [474] Aristotle, De Mirab. Auscult., xcvi.
+
+    [475] Asterius, Bishop of Amasis, in the fourth century,
+    describes both hangings and dress embroidered with
+    lions, panthers, huntsmen, woods, and rocks; while the
+    Church adopted pictorial representations of Christian
+    subjects. Sidonius alludes to furniture of like
+    character. See Yule, "Marco Polo," p. 68.
+
+    [476] "Katalog der Theodor Graf'schen Fünde in Ægypten,"
+    von Dr. J. Karabacek, Wien, 1883.
+
+    [477] Semper, "Der Stil," p. 28.
+
+    [478] Unfortunately this axiom may be reversed. Taste
+    only belongs to a small class, and mankind follows it,
+    whether good or bad, if it only be the fashion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERY.
+
+    "And now as I turn these volumes over,
+    And see what lies between cover and cover,
+    What treasures of art these pages hold,
+    All ablaze with crimson and gold....
+    Yes, I might almost say to the Lord,
+    Here is a copy of Thy Word
+    Written out with much toil and pain;
+    Take it, O Lord, and let it be
+    As something I have done for Thee!
+    How sweet the air is! how fair the scene!
+    I wish I had as lovely a green
+    To paint my landscapes and my leaves!
+    How the swallows twitter under the eaves!
+    There, now, there is one in her nest;
+    I can just catch a glimpse of her head and breast,
+    And will sketch her thus, in her quiet nook,
+    For the margin of my Gospel-book."
+
+                       LONGFELLOW, "The Golden Legend" ("The
+                               Scriptorium"), p. 176.
+
+    "Upon Thy right hand did stand the queen in a vesture of
+    gold, wrought about with divers colours.... The king's
+    daughter is all glorious within: her clothing is of
+    wrought gold. She shall be brought unto the king in
+    raiment of needlework."--Psalm xlv. 10, 14, 15.
+
+
+If the Bride is the type of the Church, how truly has she been, for
+eighteen centuries, throughout Christendom, adorned with gold, and
+arrayed in raiment of needlework.
+
+By ecclesiastical embroideries, we mean, of course, Christian work for
+Christian churches. The first pictured decorations of our era, in
+early frescoes, mosaics, and illuminated MSS., and the first specimens
+that have come down to us of needlework and textiles, testify by their
+_naïveté_ to their date.[479]
+
+The prosperity of the Church's hierarchy was founded on the ruins of
+the Empire, over which Attila had boasted that where his horse trod no
+grass grew; and truly the cultivated art of those splendid days had
+lapsed at once to a poverty of design and barrenness of ideas which
+would soon have dwindled into mere primitive forms, had not a fresh
+Oriental impulse arrived from Syria, Egypt, and Byzantium,--and then
+the arts were born anew.[480] The continuity was broken; yet, being
+devoted to the service of the Church, the new arts were by it moulded
+and fostered. Little lamps twinkled here and there in monastic houses.
+Hangings for the churches, coverings for the altars, robes for the
+priests, occupied the artist and the embroiderer.
+
+The forms, the colours, the uses, were adapting themselves to become
+the symbols of orthodoxies and heresies, and thus became a part of the
+history of the Church. The links are many between them and the history
+of the State; and here ecclesiastical embroideries come in as
+landmarks.
+
+Royal and princely garments, which had served for state occasions,
+were constantly dedicated as votive offerings, and converted into
+vestments for the officiating priest, and so were recorded and
+preserved.[481]
+
+Royal and noble ladies employed their leisure hours in work for the
+adornment of the Minster or the home church or chapel. Gifts of the
+best were exchanged between convents, or forwarded to the holy father
+at Rome, and were often enriched with jewels. The images of the Virgin
+and saints received from wealthy penitents many costly garments,[482]
+besides money and lands.
+
+This dedicatory needlework has preserved to us the records of
+classical, Byzantine, and Arab-Gothic design, which otherwise must
+have been lost.
+
+The Church records and illuminated MSS. give us most trustworthy
+information of the way in which the altars, the priests, and even the
+kings were arrayed; and the catalogues of royal wardrobes are also
+very instructive, as we find how often princely gauds became, as gifts
+to the Church, commemorative of historical events, such as a victory
+or an accession, a marriage or a coronation.
+
+Woltmann and Woermann say that the efforts of the Christians in the
+time of Constantine tended to delay the extinction of classical design
+in Rome. Of the fourth century they give as examples the mosaics of
+"S^ta. Pudenziana," where we can still find antique beauty of
+design. We may also mention the church of "St. Agnese fuori le mura,"
+which once contained the sarcophagi of Constantine and his mother
+Helena, and of which the decorations in the ceilings are entirely
+classical, though the motives had been transferred to Christian
+symbolism.[483]
+
+The total disappearance of Greek art did not occur till the eighth
+century, when the new blood infused from foreign sources began to
+assert itself.[484]
+
+Rome had succeeded to Greece as being the centre of Christian art,
+which assumed the phase commonly called the Romanesque. This was a
+conglomerate of Oriental, Byzantine, and Græco-Roman, varied in
+different countries. Then there were the Scandinavian, and Runic, and
+Celtic styles drifting from the North; the Lombardic, of Central
+Italy; the Ostro-Gothic, of Ravenna; the Byzantine, of Venice, all
+acting and reacting upon each other.
+
+All these rough and inchoate attempts at the beautiful, prepared the
+world for the acceptance of the Arabic influence, which is said to
+have been imported at the end of the eleventh century by the
+Crusaders, to whose pious enterprise some attribute the whole of the
+splendid Gothic art of the three succeeding centuries. But the marking
+characteristic of the Arabic arch is wanting; the ogee shape is seldom
+to be found in Christian architecture;[485] and the pointed arch so
+naturally results from the intersection of the round arches, that we
+cannot but look upon these causes as co-incident.
+
+I have elsewhere remarked how often in art different causes co-operate
+to form a style. The father and mother are of different nationalities,
+and the result shows the characteristics of its double parentage. The
+learned antiquaries, who draw their arguments mainly from the form of
+the arch, must settle whence and how Gothic art in stone came into
+Europe. It was doubtless the effect or result of more than one cause.
+
+But in as far as it influenced textile art, we have come to the period
+when it must be studied in Sicily, the half-way house and
+resting-place of the Crusaders on their highroad to the Holy Land.
+
+Sicily, which had succeeded to Constantinople as being the great
+manufacturing mart during the Middle Ages, was, in the hands of the
+Moors, the origin and source of all European Gothic textile art. Yet
+even at Palermo and Messina they were controlled by the traditions of
+the schools of Greece, ancient and modern, and by Babylonian, Indian,
+and African forms and symbolisms.
+
+Byzantium furnished many of their designs, which were sometimes of
+very remote date, though pressed into the service of the new style and
+the Church.
+
+These and all the streams of ecclesiastical decoration throughout
+Europe flowed towards Rome, and were re-issued with the fiat and seal
+of the Central Church, which also afterwards presided over the art of
+the Renaissance.[486]
+
+By studying what remains to us of fragments and records we know all
+the materials which clothed the primitive and mediæval Church, and we
+find that there was but little originality in textile decoration or in
+the forms of dress, which either resembled those of the priests in the
+Jewish synagogue or those of the heathen temples; and were adapted
+from traditional patterns.
+
+The constant repetition of the cross and the signs of the Passion,
+with the emblems of saints and martyrs, were interwoven with the
+ancient classical forms, mixed up with the old symbolisms partially
+altered to suit their new service of Christian art. Of course such
+changes were inevitable, while the old motives were being translated
+to the new uses.
+
+The corselet of Amasis (the Egyptian corselet, p. 20, _ante_) closely
+resembles the Jewish ephod, which probably was borrowed from
+Egypt.[487]
+
+In Rock's "Church of Our Fathers," vol. i. p. 409, we find mention of
+the consular trabea, profusely worked in gold, as being the origin of
+the cope.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 51.
+    St. Mark. Anglo-Saxon Book of the Four Gospels in the Cathedral
+        Library at York.]
+
+It has been suggested and disputed that the stole was an adaptation of
+the latus clavus; indeed, if we compare the examples given by
+Bock[488] we can hardly doubt that the consular trabea and the latus
+clavus either served as the models for the Christian Bishop's dress,
+or were derived from the same traditional sources. Such is the
+intimate chain of design from century to century, from age to age;
+from Egypt to the Holy Land, and thence to Rome.
+
+Bock gives his authorities for saying that the clavus was sometimes an
+applied border, sometimes a loose stripe hanging down in front, as may
+be seen in two consular diptychs given in plate 70. Much has been
+written on this latus clavus, its origin and meaning, and I shall
+return to it in reference to the chrysoclavus pattern, p. 337, _post_,
+and I refer the reader, who may wish to enter more fully into the
+questions raised by conflicting opinions regarding the clavus, to
+Marquardt's "Handbuch Röm. Alterthümer," vii. p. 2, pp. 528-533, where
+great learning and ingenuity have been expended, without arriving at
+any satisfactory conclusions.[489]
+
+This keeping to the old lines and outward appearance as much as
+possible was mainly due to a regard for safety during the
+persecutions, and also to the Christian spirit of adoption and
+conversion, rather than that of antagonism, which influenced all their
+early manifestations.
+
+This unchanging character of art was also partly owing to the absolute
+sterility of the ashes of Roman Imperialism.
+
+It is true that through the Dark Ages individual genius occasionally
+flashed and left a mark here and there; but such phenomena are so
+rare, that when they occur we hesitate before we assign them to that
+age.
+
+The Anglo-Saxon art of illumination shows these inspired moments; I
+would point to their drawings in the books in the Bodleian at Oxford,
+and the "Book of the Four Gospels" (of the tenth century) in the
+Minster Library at York, which are original and graceful, and have a
+reflection from the classical traditions. To an artistic eye they are
+beautiful. (Plate 51.)
+
+The conscientious colouring of the Anglo-Saxon MSS. is liturgical. Mr.
+Clapton Rolfe[490] says that the Levitical traditions in the earlier
+system of decoration in the Christian Church had a far stronger hold
+on the popular mind than we are willing now to admit; and that the
+five Levitical colours, gold, blue, purple, red, and white, were
+retained in the Christian ritual. Whenever we come across figures of
+Anglo-Saxon bishops, the liturgical vesture entirely agrees with the
+Biblical description.
+
+Embroideries before the twelfth century generally preserve a
+semi-Roman, semi-Oriental character, which is nearly related to the
+art which is called Lombardic. This differs from what we know of
+Scandinavian and Celtic design through illuminated books,[491] carving
+on stone crosses throughout the north of Europe, Great Britain, and
+Ireland, and the remains we possess of their metal work. I am not
+aware of any ecclesiastical embroideries which show a Celtic
+origin,[492] unless the intertwined patterns on Italian dresses in
+paintings of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries may be supposed
+to be derived from that source. (See p. 91, _ante_.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+In accounting for the instances of evident Oriental influence on
+Christian art, which came through Byzantium, we must not restrict
+ourselves to searching out the Arabian traditions, but we must
+remember also how much Babylon and Persia, as well as India, had given
+to the Empire of the East, and these influences were in full force at
+the time that Christian art was being organized.
+
+We know, for example, that the great veil of the temple at Jerusalem,
+given by Herod, was Babylonian.
+
+The materials--linen, silk, and woollen--on which ecclesiastical
+embroideries were worked at Rome and Constantinople were accepted all
+over the Christian world. The fabrics were plain, striped, and
+figured; and came from Persia and India, Greece, Alexandria, and
+Egypt. Even Chinese and Thibetian stuffs are often named. Cloths of
+gold and silver also came from the East, as in the days of Attalus.
+All these furnished the grounds on which needlework was lavishly
+spent.
+
+The great veils which divided the pagan and Jewish temples were at
+first adopted in the Christian churches, but they gradually
+disappeared from common use, in spite of occasional survivals and
+revivals during the Dark Ages.
+
+Records exist of the hangings of the ancient basilica of St. Peter at
+Rome, spread between the pillars supporting the baldachino over the
+high altar and those of the choir; and at the Ostro-Gothic imperial
+court of Ravenna, in the fifth century, Maximianus ordered a set of
+similar splendid curtains (tetravela) to be worked for the altar.
+Anastasius Bibliothecarius (ninth century), in his biographies of the
+popes, mentions curtains and embroidered altar-pieces worked in the
+sixth and seventh centuries.[493]
+
+Sergius (A.D. 687) ordered four white and four scarlet curtains, and
+Pope John (701) hung white ones between the pillars on either side of
+the altar at St. Paul's. St. Zacharias[494] gave similar hangings to
+the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul. Stephen IV. placed immense
+silver curtains at the entrance of the basilica of St. Peter's, and in
+768 gave to it sixty-five curtains of figured Syrian stuffs.[495] The
+same hangings prevailed at intervals in England, France, and Germany,
+till the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when the new Gothic style
+of high, pointed arches altered the decorative customs.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 52.
+    Fragments of Silk to be seen at Coire in Switzerland, also in the
+        South Kensington Museum.]
+
+From Anastasius's mode of speaking of ecclesiastical garments, it
+appears that they were named in the treasury catalogues after the
+animals represented on them--"the peacock garment," "the elephant
+casula," "the lion cope." Evidently these were Oriental gold brocades,
+Indian or Persian, or else reproductions of their designs, and from
+Auberville's and Bock's books of engravings we can judge how they
+repeated and varied their motives. One woven subject, which evidently
+started its textile career as one of the labours of Hercules, was
+gradually transferred to Samson, or to Daniel in the lions' den.
+(Plate 4, Auberville's "L'Ornement des Tissus.") (Plate 52.)[496]
+
+However, in Russia and throughout the Greek Church the ancient
+Byzantine use of hangings still remains in force.
+
+The art of embroidery has always given its best efforts to these
+church draperies.
+
+Rome was so laden with splendid embroideries by her eastern conquests,
+that probably the Christian decorators would have availed themselves
+of some of the accumulated stores; but we have no record of such
+adaptations, unless the splendid curtains and the silver hangings of
+Pope Stephen IV. were taken out of some imperial treasure-house.
+
+The contrast between early ecclesiastical art and that which
+immediately preceded it in the palaces of the Cæsars (at Rome, Tivoli,
+and wherever we find their ruined glories) is most remarkable.
+
+The lovely and the lively had been suddenly abandoned for the heavy
+earnest solemnity and inartistic drawing of the frescoes of the
+underground church of St. Clemente in Rome, and that of the early
+Christian mosaics.
+
+It is as if the arts which had lent, nay, given themselves to the
+glorification of idols, had suddenly died out, leaving behind them
+neither an artist, nor a skilled artisan, scarcely a tradition.
+
+The new Christian ideas had to be painfully recorded on sacred
+buildings and their furnishings for more than a thousand years; with
+all the patient acquiescence of untaught ignorance, and the struggling
+uncertainty of genius pursuing a distant glimmering light, apparently
+unconscious of all that had preceded it in Egyptian and classic art.
+The great political and religious revolutions in Europe had crushed
+and buried the arts under the ruins of the Empire over which Time
+himself seemed to have broken his hour-glass, so little was there to
+show any memory of their past, or hope for their future. The alternate
+progress and destruction of the arts in European civilization strike
+the student, in vivid contrast with the immutability of those of the
+East, especially in India and China, where the old forms were still
+being maintained by the swaddling bands of codified custom[497] that
+had restricted their development, but prolonged their existence, and
+so they had survived, while Greece conquered and robbed the East and
+Egypt, and Rome crushed Greece and was in her turn despoiled by the
+Goths and Huns.[498]
+
+Christian art had to begin at the very beginning, and collect its own
+traditions, and organize its own forms. These gradually accumulated,
+availing themselves of accepted symbols, and adding to them hidden
+meanings. The Reformation checked this development in the north of
+Europe, but after 300 years we are now witnessing its revival, which
+is not merely owing to a religious impulse, but also to the
+archæological tendency of our day and to the historical interest we
+attach to the ceremonials of the East.
+
+As the Reformation in Germany was less sweeping and iconoclastic than
+our own, we find there many more remains of ecclesiastical art
+collected in the churches to which they have always belonged, or in
+museums into which they have drifted;[499] and the Germans have thus
+been enabled to do more than even the French, in training the
+different schools of work throughout the Continent.
+
+They have proved the Oriental character of the fabrics employed
+through the Dark and Middle Ages, i.e. for about 1400 years, whether
+they were Syrian, Indo-Chinese, Indian, Alexandrian, Greek, Sicilian,
+or Spanish, or whether they had come from Asia by the north or the
+south of Europe. The same traditional forms governed them all. But an
+adept is able generally to class and name each specimen by the
+texture of the webs, by the way gold or gilt thread is inwoven in
+them, whether the metal is pure or alloyed, round or flat; also by the
+mode of twisting and dyeing the wool, flax, or silk, and its quality
+and colouring matter.
+
+Among the earliest historical church embroiderers the foremost figure
+is that of the Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, claimed in
+Wales and in the Welsh ballad of "The Dream of Maxen Wledig" as being
+a Welsh princess married to the Emperor Constans. She is said to have
+embroidered an image of the Virgin, which Muratori speaks of as
+existing in the Church of Vercelli in the seventeenth century. Bock
+says it is still there, and he quotes an ancient inventory of the
+treasures of Phillip the Good, of Burgundy, which names a "Riche et
+ancienne table d'autel de brodeure que on dit que la première
+Emperriez Christienne Fist."[500] The Empress Helena died in the
+fourth century.[501]
+
+Then after a long interval comes "Berthe aux grands pieds" the mother
+of Charlemagne, who in the eighth century was famed for her
+needlework, which is celebrated in a poem by Adhelm in the eighth
+century, quoted by Mrs. Palliser,[502] "a ouvrir si com je vous dirai
+n'avoit meillior ouvriere de Tours jusqu'a Cambrai," and her
+grand-daughter Gisela followed in her footsteps. Nearly contemporary,
+is Aelfled's Durham embroidery,[503] described in the chapter on
+English work.
+
+Christian art before the twelfth century is very often rich, usually
+picturesque, from its fulness of intention; sometimes beautiful, when
+it recalls some echo from the East, or some tradition of Greek
+art;[504] but the embroideries of those centuries are almost always
+quaint; this is invariably the archaic phase of all early art. Born in
+the catacombs of Rome--roused by impulses from the north, by education
+in the south, and everywhere encouraged by the fostering hand of the
+Church, and the patronage of papal and of royal and imperial
+houses,--it evolved its forms, and emancipated itself at last from its
+poor and sordid condition; and the Gothic phase of each nation
+attained to its own peculiar growth and characteristics; and among
+them the foremost in the world's estimation was the English school of
+embroidery, to which the next chapter is devoted.
+
+There has been much controversy as to the date of the dalmatic of
+Charlemagne in the Vatican treasury. Like every good early piece of
+Gothic work in Italy, it is allotted to the days of Pope Boniface
+VIII. (thirteenth century). But when we examine this splendid relic we
+cannot doubt that it is of a much earlier time, as there is nothing
+Gothic to be found in it. It is full of the lingering traces of Greek
+art (not Byzantine). It reminds us most of the mosaics of Santa
+Pudenziana, which are always quoted to prove that Greek art still
+survived in Rome in the eighth century.[505] The dalmatic has been
+much restored, but, I believe, most carefully kept to the old lines.
+It is worked on a thick, dark-blue, or purple, satiny silk, which had
+entirely fallen into little stripes, but has been skilfully mended,
+and the embroidery has never been transferred. On the front is our
+Lord in glory, saints below, and angels above, with a border of
+children playing, which is truly Greek. The motive of this is the "Ibi
+et Ubi." On the back is the Transfiguration, and on the humerals are
+the sacraments of bread and wine. The whole, as art, is beautiful; and
+it is historically most interesting. Lord Lindsay tells us that in the
+dalmatic of Charlemagne, (called that of Leo III.) Cola di Rienzi
+robed himself over his armour, and ascended to the Palace of the Popes
+after the manner of the Cæsars, with sounding trumpets before him, and
+followed by his horsemen--his crown on his head and his truncheon in
+his hand--"Terribile e fantastico."[506]
+
+This dalmatic must be ranked first and highest among ecclesiastical
+embroideries. (Plates 53, 54, 55.)
+
+Some of the details are curious. The whole of the blue satin ground is
+worked with crosses "parsemé." Parts of the design are so adorned with
+larger and smaller Greek crosses--and others with the starry cross. On
+the shoulder is once embroidered the mystic swastika.[507]
+
+  [Illustration: Charlemagne's Dalmatic
+    The Vatican, Rome]
+
+  [Illustration: Charlemagne's Dalmatic
+    The Vatican, Rome]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 55.
+    Details of Charlemagne's Dalmatic. Vatican Treasury.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 56.
+    Cope called "of St. Silvester." Treasury of St. John Lateran, Rome.
+        English Embroidery, thirteenth century.]
+
+Rock says, "Those who have seen, in the sacristy of St. Peter's at
+Rome, that beautiful light-blue dalmatic said to have been worn by
+Charlemagne when he sang the gospel at High Mass, at the altar vested
+as a deacon, the day he was crowned Emperor in that church by Pope
+Leo III., will remember how plentifully it is sprinkled with crosses
+between its exquisite embroideries, so as to make the vestment a real
+'stauracin.'"[508]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 57.
+    Portion of the Cope at St. John Lateran, showing its condition.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pluvial, English, XIII. Century
+    Museum at Bologna]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 59.
+    The Daroca Cope. Museum at Madrid. Opus Anglicanum, fourteenth
+        century.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 60.
+    Portion of the Cope of Boniface VIII., twelfth century. From
+        Anagni. Now in the Vatican Collection.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 61.
+    Altar Frontal from Anagni, Italy.]
+
+Signor Galletti, Professor of Embroidery to the Pope, says it is
+undoubtedly of the eighth century. It has been suggested that the
+design is of the date of the Exarchate. It is, however, something of
+infinitely finer style; it is noble, simple Greek.
+
+Charlemagne's dalmatic is embroidered mostly in gold--the draperies in
+basket-work and laid stitches; the faces in white silk split-stitch,
+flat, with finely-drawn outlines in black silk. The hair, the shadowy
+part of the draperies, and the clouds are worked in fine gold and
+silver thread with dark outlines. The hands, feet, and draperies have
+a fine bas-relief effect. (Plate 53, 54, 55).
+
+The "pluvial of St. Silvester," in the church of St. John Lateran at
+Rome, is probably, from its Gothic style, of the time of Boniface
+VIII. (thirteenth century).[509] It never served St. Silvester, except
+as being perhaps dedicated to him. On seeing it, one is convinced that
+it is English. It has one peculiarity of English Gothic design in the
+canopies being supported by twisted pillars of vine-stems, in this
+case intersected by green shoots, and carrying leaves. The angels, the
+two cherubim clothed in peacocks' feathers, the fine split-stitch, the
+gold grounding, and the drawing are also distinctly English.
+
+I give an outline of the pluvial from photographs,[510] and a finished
+woodcut of the centre to show the style and condition of the work. The
+design is most beautiful, and we can only regret the loss of the
+border, which has been entirely cut off. This shows how elaborate is
+the design, yet how artistically arranged as a whole composition.
+(Plate 56, 57.)
+
+It is difficult to settle the precedence between this splendid piece
+of church decoration and the rival pluvial of Bologna in the Museo
+Civico, said to have come from the church of San Giacomo. It resembles
+in style and execution that of St. Silvester, but its architectural
+arrangement contains six circles of subjects, worked like the other in
+silk and gold, with gold groundings; and both are embroidered on
+linen. On careful examination of this splendid work of art, I have
+come to the conclusion that it is English. (Plate 58.)
+
+The Daroca cope (lately belonging to the Archæological Museum at
+Madrid) is undoubtedly English. We can claim it by its peculiar
+shrine-work, and the twined columns on the orphreys; by the cherubim,
+by the peacock-feathered angels, and by the form of the panels
+enclosing the different subjects, from the "Life of Our Lord." (Plate
+59.)
+
+The cope of Boniface VIII. in the Vatican came from the church of his
+native place, Anagni (plate 60), where are still very curious old
+embroideries (see Hon. and Rev. I. Clifford's list of embroideries in
+Appendix 5). Some appear extremely ancient, but there is no sign by
+which they may be dated. Some are probably of the thirteenth century,
+and are very coarse Italian work, though finely designed (plate 61).
+There are doubtless many interesting specimens still to be found in
+the sacristies of Italian churches. But they have generally been
+transferred to museums.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 62.
+    1. From Tomb in Worcester Cathedral, of Bishop Walter de Cantilupe,
+        consecrated 1236.
+    2. Embroidered Cope at Aix in Switzerland.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 63.
+    Mitre of Thomas à Becket at Sens, showing the Scandinavian Fylfot
+        Cross (thirteenth century).
+    Jewelled Cross on Rose-coloured Cope at Rheims (twelfth century).]
+
+In the tomb of Walter de Cantilupe (eighteenth century) at Worcester,
+were found the remains of a dress which is decidedly of an earlier
+date--evidently of Oriental material, but Anglo-Saxon work--so exactly
+resembling in style that at Aix given by Bock,[511] that we
+can hardly doubt that they proceeded from the same workshop, or at
+least are of coeval design. Both are worked with a dark red outline on
+a red silk ground. The faces and hands are in white silk--all the rest
+between the outlines is gold thread, flat stitch. Bock places its date
+as antecedent to the tenth century, and indeed there is no reason to
+doubt that this is correct, though the Worcester fragment was taken
+out of a tomb of two centuries later. As these garments were stored in
+the church treasuries; and as antiquity (without an historical
+interest) was then of no value, these old clothes, holy by their use
+and office, yet by their shabbiness unfit for public show, may have
+been reverently disposed of in clothing the bodies of departed
+priests, who probably had worn those very vestments, when officiating
+at the altar near which they were laid to rest. When the date of the
+wearer of the garment is ascertained, the dress cannot be of a later
+period, but it may have belonged to a much earlier one. The
+architectural part of these two embroideries, i.e. the canopy work,
+resembles that of the Bayeux tapestry. Both appear to be English.
+(Plate 62.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 64.
+    From Tomb of Bishop William of Blois, died 1236. Worcester
+        Cathedral Library.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 65.
+    A portion of the Mantle embroidered by Gisela for her husband, St.
+        Stephen of Hungary. From Bock's "Kleinodien."]
+
+In the eleventh century, and for some part of the twelfth, needlework
+design in England, France, and Germany first assumed a phase, which
+may be called the metal-work style. It is to be found on the robes and
+mitres of St. Thomas of Canterbury (Thomas à Becket) at Sens[512]--on
+the famous rose-red cope of satin embroidered with gold and pearls at
+Rheims (which we should incline to believe is English)[513] (plate
+63). The fragment of the cope of William of Blois, found in his tomb,
+is in this style. (He died in 1236.) The fragments of this curious
+garment, worked in gold on a purple silk material, evidently Oriental,
+are also preserved under glass in the Cathedral Library at Worcester
+(plate 64).
+
+Amongst the finest instances of ecclesiastical needlework, and,
+indeed, we may say, of ecclesiastical art of the twelfth century, is
+the coronation robe of St. Stephen of Hungary, decorated by his queen,
+Gisela,[514] which is preserved in the Imperial Treasury at Ofen
+(plate 65).
+
+Of this authentic historical work we have the whole story. The
+original design,[515] drawn on linen, carefully coloured, is to be
+seen at the Benedictine convent abbey of Martinsburg, near Raab in
+Hungary. The care with which the work was carried out shows the value
+then placed on such undertakings considered as art, and it has been
+justified by its survival of 800 years; time having spared it owing to
+its perfect materials and manipulation, till it received cruel
+injuries by being carried off and thrown into the bog of Orsava during
+the revolution under Kossuth. It was, however, recovered and restored,
+and was worn by the present emperor at the splendid and picturesque
+ceremonial of his coronation at Pesth. The design reminds us of the
+mosaics in the apse of Santa Maria Maggiore and other churches at
+Rome, and it is extremely beautiful. It consists of an arrangement of
+medallions and inscriptions, with "metal-work" ornaments in bands
+alternated with smaller medallions. Yet the figures are not so finely
+drawn as those of the Durham relics of the beginning of the tenth
+century. The drawing of the figures of the Gisela mantle resembles
+those on the garments of Walter de Cantilupe (plate 62), which, from
+their design and stitches, seem to be of this period. The
+architectural parts are very like in design to those of the Bayeux
+tapestry, though they are infinitely better, and they have Lombardic
+characteristics.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 66.
+    Portion of the Coronation Mantle of Henry II. of Germany,
+        embroidered by the Empress Kunigunda. From Bock's
+        "Kleinodien."]
+
+It appears that Queen Gisela had personally embroidered this
+many-figured, richly-embroidered representation of the "Ibi et
+Ubi"--The Saviour in His glory as Victor over death and hell, seated
+on the bow of heaven, surrounded by choirs of angels and saints, and
+prophets of the Old Testament; below on thrones, are the twelve
+Apostles. The figures are worked in Oriental gold thread on Byzantine
+crimson silk.
+
+In contrast to the Ubi, the heavenly hereafter, the queen, in the
+lowest broad hem (border) has represented the Present, the then "Ibi,"
+by the leaders of the Hungarian magnates and the half-figures of the
+royal givers in large gold-embroidered medallions.
+
+The next finest specimen of eleventh century needlework was the gift
+of Henry II., Emperor of Germany, and his wife Kunigunda, to the
+cathedral of Bamberg, where it still exists[516] (plate 66).
+
+This, again, consists of medallions great and small, of which the
+borders, gracefully intertwined, form a large composition[517]
+covering the whole surface of the imperial pallium it once adorned.
+But in the fifteenth century it was transferred from its original
+purple silk ground to one of dark-blue damask, and altered to the form
+of a chasuble, as we see it now. The general design resembles that of
+the mantle of Gisela.
+
+Bock calls the style of these works Romanesque; and he thinks that
+they show a Saracenic influence. They appear, however, as I said
+before, to be rather Lombardic than anything else. The reader is
+referred to Dr. Bock's preface for further lists of Continental works
+and workers.
+
+Abbé Martin considers that in the thirteenth century the opening out
+of Gothic art was extended to the laity, and was really the sign of a
+great social revolution. Gothic art had till then only served the
+Church, and had been by circumstances closed to the people, who were
+yet unfitted, by their want of education, for artistic life.[518]
+
+Art was till then almost exclusively produced by the monastic orders,
+into which all talent had drifted. But about this time it fell into
+the hands of architects and other originators of design, who presently
+banded themselves together into brotherhoods and guilds.[519]
+
+Embroidery till the thirteenth century had been entirely in the hands
+of cloistered women, and the ladies who practised it learned their
+craft with the rest of their education in convents, and their work was
+simply ecclesiastical and dedicatory. At that period social burgher
+life in the towns had first begun to develope its love of luxury,[520]
+and to follow the fashions of other countries, and the changes of
+forms in dress and furnishing which came from foreign parts, though
+frequently checked by sumptuary laws. This social movement preceded
+everywhere political and religious revolutions. Embroidery then became
+customary in lay dress, and lost its religious character, or rather
+its religious monopoly.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 67.
+    The Syon Cope, South Kensington Museum (thirteenth century).]
+
+We find that about this time throughout the Church the forms of
+ecclesiastical garments were considerably modified, and made more
+comfortable for the officiating priest; and the old traditional trabea
+was cut down to the mediæval chasuble.
+
+English needlework of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries had its own
+peculiar style of metal-work pattern, resembling the hinges and
+spreading central ornament branching across the wood-work on our
+church doors.[521]
+
+When we meet with this kind of design on foreign church vestments, we
+feel inclined always to claim the merit of them for the English
+school. The foreign metal-work patterns are much lighter and more
+geometrical, and have not the firmness and at the same time the fancy
+that we find in our own of the twelfth century; and they remind us
+rather of the goldsmiths' than of the blacksmiths' craft. The English
+embroidery of this style has the character of "appliqué," i.e. one
+material laid upon another and fastened down.
+
+There are differences of opinion as to the accepted characteristics of
+the "opus Anglicanum," which in the twelfth century began to be
+celebrated.[522] Some say that it was principally remarkable for its
+admixture of jewellers' work in the borders, or the imitation of it in
+gold thread. Some give the attempt to reproduce the effect of
+bas-reliefs in the embroidered groups of figures; others, again, point
+out the peculiarities of the "laid stitches" in gold, which so
+permeated the linen grounding, as to give the look of a material woven
+with gold thread. We may fairly say that _all_ these, which were then
+ingenious novelties, combined to give this opus Anglicanum its value,
+as well for its beauty as for its ingenuity.[523]
+
+The Syon cope, (now one of the treasures of art in the Kensington
+Museum), is a perfect example of this work; and is also, according to
+Bock, "one of the most beautiful among the liturgical vestments of the
+olden period anywhere to be found in Christendom." Dr. Rock's study of
+this piece of thirteenth century work in his "Catalogue of the
+Embroideries in the South Kensington Museum" is most interesting, as
+exemplifying all the characteristics of the Gothic art of the period,
+in its historical, æsthetic, heraldic, liturgical, emblematical, and
+textile aspects. I have ventured to transcribe the whole of this
+notice in the Appendix.[524] I will only add here that the one error
+into which I think he has fallen, is in naming the stitches. The
+"diapers" are not opus plumarium, but opus pulvinarium, of the class
+of "laid stitches." This was ascertained by examining the back of the
+material under the ancient lining by a most competent judge[525] in my
+presence, and so a long-disputed point is set at rest (plate 67).
+
+Ciampini says that in the twelfth century, the arts went hand in hand,
+each lending something to the design of the others. This, however,
+has always been the case.[526] (Whether they greatly profited by such
+exchanges is another question.) I cannot but agree with Semper's
+often-reiterated theory, that textile art was a leading influence and
+constant suggestion to _all_ art from the beginning. And the way that
+ecclesiastical decoration was so led in the twelfth century is very
+apparent. In the new art of stained mosaic glass in church windows we
+see the reflex of the flat illuminations and embroideries of that
+period; and while these were being influenced by metal-work, painting
+was being transferred again to textile art, pictures being woven as
+well as embroidered,[527] while textiles were seeking to emulate
+reliefs in a forced and unnatural manner, more ingenious than
+artistic.
+
+While England in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was exciting the
+admiration of all European artists by the imitation of bas-reliefs in
+needlework, by the arrangement of the light and shadows in the "lay"
+of the stitches, and by a little help from the pressure of hot irons,
+to accentuate its apparent indentations, a similar inroad into the
+sister art of sculpture, or, perhaps, we should say a similar
+adaptation from the sister art, was going on in Switzerland and
+Germany, especially in Bavaria.
+
+There was a clever and artistic mode of stuffing and raising of the
+important parts of the embroidered design, such as the figures, the
+coats-of-arms, or the emblems of the Passion, &c., in sacred subjects
+in imitation of high-relief. There are some beautiful specimens that
+have been evidently designed in the School of Cranach. I will only
+mention the orphrey, of which the subject is the "Tree of Jesse,"
+exhibited at Zurich, 1883, the chasuble at Coire in the Grisons, and
+the little triptych in the museum of the Wasser-Kirche in Zurich. This
+last is exquisitely pretty. The finest, however, is the altar-piece
+belonging to Prince Borghese at Rome, which is certainly German in its
+design.[528]
+
+Beautiful as these few examples are, they yet show the mistake of
+mixing different forms of art. The designs are reduced to a compromise
+between painting, sculpture, and needlework, which excites interest
+and perhaps amusement rather than admiration.
+
+Glass painting, of which we have no notice till the tenth century,
+shares many of the rules which hitherto had applied only to
+embroideries. It was intended to give colour and interest to those
+parts of a building which otherwise were cold and lifeless. _Flatness_
+in the composition, and the avoidance of pictorial effects (especially
+any perspectives) show that it was intended for conventional
+decoration, rather than as a rival to mural painting. There is no
+doubt that it generally superseded textile hangings, because it
+supplied the want of colour for the large traceried windows just
+coming into architectural design, toning down the crudeness of the
+masses of light, and tinting the walls and pavements on which it was
+cast.
+
+When coloured glass came into general use, embroidered hangings mostly
+disappeared. Whatever may have been the cause, there is no doubt of
+the coincidence.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 68.
+    An embroidered Panel, designed by Pollaiolo, and worked by Paulo
+        da Verona. In the Church of St. Giovanni at Florence (fifteenth
+        century).]
+
+The applied embroideries of the north of Germany were evidently
+inspired by the newly-discovered art of glass-painting, and
+resemble its designs, both in the compositions of figures and heraldic
+subjects. Of this we may remember examples in the Scandinavian
+Exhibition at South Kensington in 1881.[529]
+
+All the most beautiful and picturesque needlework that we possess of
+the true ecclesiastical Gothic type, and which belongs to the perfect
+flowering of the art, is of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
+just before the spirit of the Renaissance crept northward over Europe,
+preceding the Reformation and its iconoclastic effacements. This
+remark especially applies to England.[530] The art of representing
+Scriptural subjects in flat stitches, as medallions accompanied by
+beautiful foliage, and heraldic designs, is illustrated to us by the
+palls belonging to several London companies--and by those belonging to
+churches, especially that of the church at Dunstable, in which court
+ladies, knights, and saints form a most artistic border--the costumes
+being of the date of Henry VII. (see p. 378, _post_).
+
+The perfection of the embroideries of Flanders of that period has
+never been exceeded, and it continues still to produce the most
+splendidly executed compositions in gold and silken needlework, of
+every variety of stitches. The Flemish work and its peculiar mode of
+laying golden grounds with flat-laid thread stitched down in patterns
+was carried into Italy, where great artists did not disdain to design
+for textiles. I give, as an instance, Vasari's account of the
+embroidered set of vestments designed by Antonio Pollaiolo for the
+church of San Giovanni at Florence. These were carried out by Paolo da
+Verona, and took twenty-six years for their completion; and they were
+only one set of vestments, "embroidered by the most subtle master of
+the art, Paolo da Verona, a man most eminent in his calling, and of
+incomparable ingenuity (_ingenio_). The figures are no less admirably
+executed with the needle than drawn by Pollaiolo with the pencil,--and
+thus we are largely indebted to one master for his design, and to the
+other for his patience" (plate 68).
+
+Towards the end of the fifteenth century the Gothic styles were
+replaced by the Renaissance, but the technical part of the art of
+embroidery for the churches lost none of its value. All the talent of
+the artist and the ingenuity of the craft continued to be lavished on
+altar decoration and priestly garments, in Flanders, Spain, France,
+and Italy. But the solemnity of these works was certainly impaired by
+their being emancipated from the traditional ecclesiastical forms and
+their accompanying symbolism, to which the old designers had so
+faithfully adhered. Ecclesiastical decorative art became, so to speak,
+unorthodox.
+
+As a proof of this secular, I might almost say irreverent spirit, I
+quote Bock's accusation against Queen Mary of Hungary, who in her
+embroideries, preserved at Aix-la-Chapelle, is said to have
+represented herself as the Queen of Heaven, surrounded by her adorers
+on their knees.
+
+There is no doubt, however, that needlework aspired in the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries to the highest place in art, and was
+enthusiastically cultivated by women of rank and position, of artistic
+taste, who still gave themselves to the productions of beautiful
+decorations, though they no longer confined themselves to
+ecclesiastical motives.
+
+  [Illustration: Spanish Altar Frontal, Gold Embroidery
+    XVII. Cen^y]
+
+Gabrielle of Bourbon and Isabella, sister of Louis XI., spent their
+lives in preparing and overlooking fine works in their own apartments,
+and assembled around them noble damsels for this purpose. Anne of
+Brittany, who lived in an artistic atmosphere, had her own workshop of
+embroidery. Pictorial design now asserted its dominion over
+needlework, which accepted it, just as it had been influenced in the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries by metal-work motives, and, before
+then, by the art of mosaic.
+
+In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the Spanish plâteresque
+embroideries (adopted and modified in Flanders and in France),
+consisting of heavy gold and silver arabesques of mutilated vegetable
+forms, superseded the graceful Renaissance of the classical
+taste.[531] These Spanish embroideries forced their way by their
+gorgeousness, in spite of their want of real beauty. They varied their
+effects with pearls, corals, and precious stones[532] (plate 69).
+
+Spain, though she was much despoiled during the Peninsular War by her
+French invaders, yet still possesses some of the finest ecclesiastical
+work in the sacristies of Seville, Granada, Burgos, Toledo, Segovia,
+and Barcelona. Don Juan F. Riano[533] says that Toledo is a perfect
+museum of the work of the sixteenth century.
+
+Sicilian and Neapolitan ecclesiastical needlework showed the Spanish
+taste of their masters, but not its perfection. The use of pearls,
+coral, and beads[534] prevailed, and we may in general affix its date
+and its origin to each specimen by the silver largely used in the two
+kingdoms of Sicily and rarely elsewhere; also by the extreme
+brilliancy or rather the gaudiness of its colouring.
+
+English ecclesiastical work came suddenly to an end at the
+Reformation. What was not destroyed is to be found in the possession
+of the old Roman Catholic families who have religiously collected the
+residue, preserved by concealment or by being overlooked; and in the
+wardrobes of Continental sacristies.[535]
+
+But the church decorations of France, Germany, Flanders, Spain, and
+Italy have meantime, for the last 300 years, gone through all the
+variations of lay styles, emanating from anything but ecclesiastical
+motives. First, the Renaissance's semi-pagan (so-called) arabesques;
+then the Spanish plâteresque, which was a revolt against their own
+bastard Moorish-Gothic; next, the "Louis Quatorze," followed by the
+"Louis Quinze" and the "Louis Seize," light, frivolous, and elegant,
+essentially social, and not serious.[536] Then a return to the
+classical of the Empire; and finally, since the beginning of this
+century, to a conglomerate, lawless imitation of forms and styles,
+utterly meaningless and uninteresting, as well as wanting in
+ecclesiastical dignity and decorum. We are glad to believe that we are
+ourselves striving to reconstruct some sort of style that shall be
+able to express poetical and religious ideas, especially in our church
+decorations. At any rate, it must be of some use to understand the
+hidden springs which once raised ecclesiastical embroideries, and
+especially those of England, so high as objects of beauty, worthy to
+adorn the house of God, and to be for centuries valued as monuments of
+pious industry and thoughtful art.
+
+One of these hidden springs and ancient underlying motives was the
+symbolism which gave a religious intention to the smallest design for
+the humblest use, provided that its purpose was the service of the
+Church.
+
+Sacred symbolism is a subject to which I have alluded more than once;
+and it has played such an important part in the construction and
+growth of ecclesiastical art, that I cannot but give a short notice to
+the subject under this aspect.
+
+Symbolism in art is what metaphor is in speech. It is the
+representation to the eye of an object which suggests something else
+besides itself.
+
+Dr. Rock tells us that the symbolism of Scripture texts was given to
+the world in a book by St. Melito, Bishop of Sardis, A.D. 170. Its
+title is "The Key."[537] In the fourth century were produced two great
+works on Scriptural symbols, that of St. Basil in his homilies on the
+six days of the creation, and that by St. Ambrose; both entitled
+Hexameron.
+
+We meet this subject at every turn in the succeeding centuries,
+till in the twelfth we find it formulated and divided into
+branches--Bestiaria, Volucraria, and Lapidaria--and each type had
+frequently more than one meaning. Thus a lion represented power,
+sovereignty, dominion; also the "House of Judah;" a hare the emblem
+of man's soul; a peacock that of wisdom (many-eyed). The ruby
+represents love. The pearl, innocence. The twelve stones in a
+breastplate, the twelve tribes of Israel.[538] Trees and flowers had
+also their symbolical meanings, though we are not aware of their
+being recorded in any mediæval book. We know that the vine is the
+tree of life; the stem of Jesse, the sacramental emblem; that the
+lily stands for purity, the woodbine for chastity, and the rose for
+religious ecstasy. The crowned lily was always the special emblem of
+the Virgin.
+
+These symbols had many of them a distant source, and had been, as I
+have already indicated, emblematic of other inner meanings in the
+expression of pagan faiths. The tree of life was Babylonian; the horn,
+Persian; the fire-sticks of the prehistoric cross, Egyptian or Indian;
+and the composite animals representing many qualities, Ninevite
+(probably Accadian).[539]
+
+All these were utilized, so that their already accepted uses should be
+helps and adjuncts, instead of impediments to the appreciation of
+divine truths; in the same way that "all that was lovely and of good
+repute" in the belief and morals of the ancient peoples, reasserted
+and purified, was claimed by the new teachers as types and antitypes.
+The symbolism of colours has been always considered very important in
+liturgical decoration,[540] and their meanings are discussed in the
+chapter on colour.
+
+The mystical colours, as has been already stated, are five--red, blue,
+purple, white, and gold. These the Christian Church inherited from the
+Levitical law, and continued faithful to them till the modern Roman
+use introduced green and black. The Church of England before the
+Reformation never allowed any but the original five mystic colours.
+
+The symbolism of ecclesiastical embroideries, as well as that of all
+Christian art, being intended to illustrate the truths of Christianity
+by the teaching of the eye, the great symbol of our faith, the
+_Cross_, naturally drew to itself all its prehistoric forms as being
+the prophetic types of the "true cross."
+
+The earliest form of the prehistoric cross, [Illustration], is supposed
+to refer to the worship of the sun, and is said to be formed of two
+fire-sticks (for producing fire by friction) laid across each other.
+This is almost universal in prehistoric, archaic, classical, and
+Christian art to the thirteenth century. The next most ancient form is
+a broken cross, thus, [Illustration], said to be the double of the Tau,
+or Egyptian sign of life, and claimed by the Rabbins as having been the
+sign in blood, which stopped the hand of the angel of death, over the
+doors of the Israelites at the first Passover. This afterwards was
+called the "Gammadion," from its likeness to a doubled Greek gamma,
+and it was also said to symbolize the "corner-stone."[541] The third
+commonest form, apparently a modification of that of the fire-sticks,
+[Illustration], is to be found throughout Celtic and Scandinavian art,
+and was called in England "the fylfote" (from its likeness to the arms
+of the Isle of Man), and likewise "the Gammadion," though it shows
+another source than the Greek letter.
+
+From these three forms already in use, added to that of the
+Crucifixion, endless varieties were composed to suit the
+ecclesiastical taste and requirements of different national styles of
+symbolical decoration. I refer my readers to plate 26 in the chapter
+on patterns for a few of these from different sources. They are
+extremely suggestive. I have there entered more fully into the
+subject, regarding it as a fertile pattern motive in textile art.[542]
+
+The cross "bearing twelve fruits for the saving of the nations"[543]
+is so like some of the representations of the Persian or Indian Tree
+of Life, that the transmission and adoption of the symbolic form is
+evident. The cross (plate 63) is a good mediæval example, and is taken
+from the celebrated rose-coloured cope at Rheims, embroidered with
+gold and pearls on a rose-coloured satin ground.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 70.
+    IVORY CONSULAR DIPTYCH.
+    1. In the Wasser-Kirche Museum, Zurich. Sixth century. 2. Of an
+        earlier period, and finer workmanship, at Halberstadt. No
+        date given.]
+
+The Roës is an ecclesiastical pattern of wide use and of very long
+descent, often named in ancient Church inventories. It is sometimes
+called the "Wheel and Plate." Its origin is probably Oriental, but it
+certainly was adopted by the Romans as the motive of their triumphal
+garments, the _togæ pictæ_, worn in the processional return of a
+conqueror, whether he were a general or a sovereign. The first motive
+was a surface covered with circles, closely touching each other, and
+containing figures which had a reference to their purpose. In
+Christian times the heads of saints were sometimes inserted,
+especially in that form of the Roës called the chrysoclavus, from the
+intersticial ornament between the circles.
+
+I have written (p. 308-9) about the Trabea, which on the Roman
+consular ivory diptychs of several centuries is so invariably
+embroidered with this same clavus pattern (plate 70) that we must
+conclude that it had a meaning and a tradition.
+
+The very ancient superstition that driving in a nail is a fortunate
+rite, may have been connected with the pattern called the clavus; and
+the chrysoclavus, from being merely a nail pattern, became consecrated
+in Christian art as representing the heads of the nails of the
+Crucifixion, and hence its early Christian name.[544] It was
+originally filled in with a radiated ornament like the sun; (probably
+the first motive of this pattern, which seems to be the same as the
+Egyptian sun-cross,) and its peculiar decoration remained in
+possession of the descriptive name "palmated," though it is difficult
+to discover in it any likeness to the palm branch or tree, unless it
+is supposed to resemble it as seen from above.
+
+The toga triumphalis was also called the toga picta, because its
+precious purple fabric was covered with gorgeous embroideries. After
+it had been worn at the triumph or festival, by the victorious
+general, the distinguished noble, or the Emperor, it was laid by and
+dedicated in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Thus these palmated
+triumphal patterns, and their traditional decorations, having by their
+dedication to the gods assumed a religious character, were woven for
+Christian ecclesiastical use during the dark ages, and were repeated
+in Sicily and Spain down to the beginning of the fifteenth
+century.[545]
+
+I have elsewhere spoken of the "cloud pattern," which is very ancient,
+Chinese, Indian, and mediæval. Its use has always been for celestial
+subjects in embroidery, either isolating or supporting spiritual
+figures. This was appropriated by ecclesiastical art, and we find it
+nowhere else in Europe.
+
+This sketch of the history of ecclesiastical needlework, (necessarily
+incomplete from want of space), is founded on the works of Semper,
+Bock, Rock, and the comparison of many specimens in collections and
+exhibitions in London and elsewhere. Auberville absolutely places
+before us the materials as well as the patterns of the weaving of the
+Christian era, as well as fragments of Egyptian textiles, in his
+beautiful book on Tissues.
+
+For forms and patterns we cannot do better than study Bock's
+liturgical chapters and their illustrations, as well as Dr. Rock's
+"Church of our Fathers."
+
+The stitchery of Christian art has been discussed in the chapter on
+stitches, and I repeat that there is nothing new in the treatment of
+solid embroideries, (lace stitches having been the only innovation of
+the last 400 years), though many of the ancient stitches have lost
+their distinctiveness, and fallen into a pitiful style by gradual
+descent which reached its lowest point in the early part of this
+century, as is shown by the robes embroidered for the coronation of
+Charles X. in the museum of the Louvre.
+
+In the commencement of this our nineteenth century, there was a total
+cessation of embroidery, which had, for nearly 2000 years held its own
+as an art, apart from all others; perhaps a secondary one--yet mixed
+up with every refinement and luxury of civilization.
+
+Its revival in England, especially, is owing to many causes. As
+ecclesiastical decoration I have already attributed it to the
+archæological tendencies of our day, as well as to the æsthetic
+sentiment which protests, after so long a period of abstention,
+against the puritanical bareness and coldness of our national forms of
+worship. The obliteration of embroidery from the list of the arts was
+more complete in England than elsewhere; as the church of Rome still
+continued to be adorned with beautiful work on altar-cloths and
+frontals, and priest's dresses, which, though too much regulated in
+design by the lay tastes and fashions of the time, have combined to
+keep up a traditional school of needlework throughout the Continent.
+
+Exhibitions abroad and at home have shown us what a latent power in
+art embroidery still preserves, and architects have employed the
+women's needles to give colour and beauty to the decaying churches,
+which have been restored to their original architectural effects by
+careful copies of what remained in wood, stone, and glass.
+
+The number of new churches has also given rise to the production, in
+more than one semi-conventual establishment, of beautiful and
+effective works, such as the altar-cloth at Durham, and those at
+Canterbury and Worcester. Such works have revived the impulse of
+artistic and ecclesiastical taste, and in many small churches we have
+seen beautifully embroidered altar decorations.[546]
+
+There are, however, many amateurs who are perhaps mistresses of the
+craft of needlework, and who are yet not educated sufficiently to
+design a really thoughtful and beautiful work of art, and to these a
+few remarks may be addressed, which may help the struggling aspirants,
+and show them how they fail, and where to seek for assistance.
+
+I shall begin by pleading for more careful design, and less parsimony
+in expenditure upon the usual church adornments. It is once more a
+received dogma in ecclesiastical art, one in which all religious
+opinions agree, that the building in the parish which is set apart for
+the first public duty, that of worship, should show as much beauty as
+the means and taste of the community can command.
+
+Perhaps the little church has just been restored, or completely
+rebuilt from the foundations; the consecration is imminent. The white
+stone, carved or plain, shines fresh and cold, and the whole space
+looks poor and bare.
+
+The rich woman of the neighbourhood sees and feels that colour is
+wanting (for the windows must wait till their use as pious memorials
+fills them with glowing tints). The central point of the whole
+edifice, the altar, calls for the first key-note in colour to be
+struck, and a splendid altar-cloth is the fitting instrument.
+
+She consults the architect, who probably is also an artist, and the
+design is agreed upon, and hurriedly drawn and carried out; for there
+is not a moment to lose if it is to be ready for the opening day. It
+may be beautiful, and it sometimes is so, but the mere want of time
+for due consideration often results in the commonplace ornamentation,
+which neither satisfies the eye nor the mind. It is often only a mere
+bit of colour and a mediæval pattern, and has no apparent motive or
+meaning to give it value.
+
+One sometimes finds that a conventional form has been selected, of
+which the emblematic intention it originally expressed has been
+forgotten or overlooked. Therefore, while to the unlearned it conveys
+no meaning, it is read as absolute nonsense by the ecclesiastical
+archæologist, simply because it is worked in a language of
+undeciphered hieroglyphics--unknown to the worker--meaningless,
+reminding us of the Græco-Egyptian inscriptions, of which the pictured
+words seem to have been copied at random for their prettiness, or the
+Arabian lettering on some of the ancient Sicilian textiles, which is
+nonsense. The sense and the emblematic meaning are forgotten, and the
+conventional form--an empty shell--is alone retained, conveying no
+idea, and reduced to the low purpose of being a pretty pattern, vague
+and unintelligent.
+
+I have so often said that a pattern always originally possessed, and
+should always retain a meaning, that I fear to become tiresome; but I
+repeat it here, as in ecclesiastical design it is more important than
+elsewhere; the meanings are deeper, and convey more essentially solemn
+traditions and allusions. If the motive of the designer is evident,
+and is conscientiously worked out, its value receives an enduring
+quality, and its present interest is enhanced.
+
+Embroidery is not less eloquent than her sister-arts in the teaching
+of divine lessons, and appealing through the beauty of form and
+colour to the poetical instincts of the congregation, of which the
+least educated members almost unconsciously feel the influence; and
+besides, the people are always alive to the charms of symbolism, when
+it is placed within their reach. As a proof of this, among our own
+peasantry and mechanics, I would point to their universal enjoyment of
+the "Pilgrim's Progress."
+
+In the symbolism of art, the thoughts which are individual to the
+artist can only be expressed by known forms and colours, even as the
+poet must employ the words and the metres already accepted by the
+literature of his language.
+
+Hurry is fatal to art. But another and very serious cause of its
+deterioration is its costliness.
+
+In the dark and mediæval ages, time was of no account. Skilled labour,
+such as was needed for carving, illuminations, and embroideries, was
+freely given as the duty of a life, for one particular object, the
+good of a man's soul. The cloistered men and women worked for no
+wages; neither to benefit themselves nor their descendants; hardly for
+fame,--that was given to the convent which had the credit of
+patronizing and producing art,[547] while the very name of the artist
+was forgotten.
+
+It was from pure love of the art as a craft, and the belief that it
+was a good work in which they were engaged, and from their abundant
+leisure, that they were enabled to evolve the lovely creations which
+delight and astonish us when shown in the sacristies and treasuries of
+foreign religious houses and churches, where they have been cherished
+for centuries. Like the silkworm they spent themselves; and by their
+industrious lives were surrounded in their living graves by the
+elaborated essence of their own natures, a joy and consolation to
+themselves, and a legacy to all time. To them, also, art appeared as
+the consoler.
+
+But to return to the grievances of to-day--cheapness and hurry,
+economy of pence and hours--these often are the bane of the work which
+we give to the Church, sometimes as a memorial, sometimes as a
+thank-offering. The colours are bad, because cheap dyes fade, and none
+others can be had without much trouble, and we have only time to
+select among those that are for sale. The work is poor because it must
+be done quickly, and we cannot afford to delay and pay for the extra
+hours necessary to make the stitches worthy and capable of lasting.
+Possibly we cannot give the time ourselves, nor can find any one
+effectually to organize and overlook the work.
+
+Though the design, the motive, the colours and materials, as well as
+the stitches, need to be each carefully studied, yet we perhaps accept
+an ancient drawing intended for a different place and use; and thus we
+fail to produce any effect, with uncongenial surroundings. Sometimes
+we feel obliged to take the design forced upon us by a shopwoman as
+ignorant as ourselves, with the submissive hope "that it will do."
+
+Now to a truly artistic mind it would appear that each little church,
+however simple and devoid of ornament, requires its own special
+colours and design, besides the individual motive of the giver; and
+people forget that the whole effect in any such compositions must be
+comprehensive, and that one careless mistake spoils all.
+
+The High Church, in its love of ritualistic vestments, has sometimes
+been prejudicial to the general adoption of properly studied altar
+decorations; as there is a common suspicion that a clergyman's
+personal wish for ornament, akin to a woman's addiction to fine
+clothes, governs all his attempts to adorn the altar; whereas there
+should be, and there often is, a real artistic feeling for the fitness
+of things, in the furnishings of the most beautiful building set aside
+by the community for the glory of God. But it is not necessary for
+beautiful effects that there should be any coloured vestments. When
+the clergy are duly robed in the orthodox surplice and scarves, there
+is, perhaps, something funereal in the white linens and black Geneva
+silk, but yet the traditional white and black have their own value
+against a background of altar-cloth and reredos splendidly coloured.
+
+Now that, in spite of prejudice, church decoration is so much the
+custom of our day, it is worth our while to consider seriously how
+best to carry it out, and search into the principles which may apply
+to all ecclesiastical embroideries, whether they are to be dedicated
+in the Minster, the village Church, or the home Chapel.
+
+We must begin by remembering that in these days, if we cannot do the
+work ourselves, it must be highly paid for. The skilled artisan who is
+no artist, receives enough to feed his family, according to the higher
+wages of the time. The woman's slow stitchery has to support probably
+as many claims, and yet it is always grudged as being too costly. The
+sculptor or the painter who succeeds in obtaining employment, is
+highly paid, but the designer for metal-work or embroideries occupies
+an unrecognized place in art, and barely earns enough to live by. The
+illuminator has ceased to exist; he would starve--probably has been
+starved out long ago.
+
+The decorative designer, having, therefore, no status, has no
+education; and it is almost impossible to find in England an artist to
+accept orders for thoughtful ecclesiastical designs. Hundreds of boys
+and girls are taught "freehand drawing," and having copied some casts
+and lithographs and drawn some flower-pieces, without any particular
+aim, find a precarious living by designing frightful wall-papers for
+the million. These poor creatures, from whose lives all ambition and
+originality have been effaced, are our decorative artists.
+
+Still a beautiful original design can sometimes be obtained, and if
+that is beyond our reach, we may courageously copy from ancient
+models, selecting judiciously what is most suitable for our purpose.
+
+The ecclesiastical artist should be well informed in the modes of
+working a design. The stitch if selected without experience may mar
+the effect of the whole composition, as some stitches of themselves
+convey the meaning of shadow, and others that of light.
+
+In ecclesiastical work which is intended to be effective in the
+distance, as well as perfect in detail, it is worth while to weigh the
+claims of the architectural low-relief motive, i.e. a flat raised
+surface, with an edge sufficiently accentuated to catch a light on one
+side, and cast a sharp shadow on the other. All flat _raised_ stitches
+conduce also to this effect, especially if edged with a cord, and it
+is much more striking than in stuffed work (on the stamp), which has
+not the incisive effect that is given by the tool to the sharp edge of
+stone or wood carvings.
+
+If we can afford to give to our church without stint, let us seek for
+the most beautiful textiles, such as are again woven in imitation of
+the old fabrics; gratefully acknowledging all that Pugin, Ruskin, and
+the foreign manufacturers, especially those at Lyons, have done in the
+revival of woven designs. Let us avoid those materials which are
+easily spoiled by sunshine, dust, and smoke, and all those that fray
+easily. Woollens are not long lived. Crewels, beautiful as they are,
+are not salient in their effect. Silks, satins and velvet, and gold
+brocades,[548] or groundings worked in with gold thread, are the only
+materials worthy of bearing fine embroidery, fit to receive them, and
+capable of keeping them for centuries. Plushes and worsted velvets are
+unworthy, indeed they are worthless.
+
+The gold we employ must be either pure "passing," or else the Chinese
+or Japanese gold threads which differ in colour, but have each their
+own value, and never tarnish, even in the coal smoke of London. Pure
+silver, too, is beautiful, and if it is really pure, can be kept
+bright with bread crumbs.
+
+In composing the altar decoration for the cathedral or the village
+church, we ought to take into consideration what is suitable for the
+surrounding architecture. In great spaces, the majestic altar-cloth or
+frontal, shining with gold and silver, and glowing with silken
+embroideries, recalls the splendid altar "palli" encrusted with gems
+in St. Mark's, St. Peter's, and other ancient churches; and is in
+perfect keeping with the high and gorgeous reredos, the rich screen,
+the fretted roof and clustered ornaments of a great cathedral choir.
+Such glories are unattainable in the modest village church.
+
+But though we may subdue the brilliancy of our decoration, we should
+try to make it yet a work of art. The design may have as much
+intention, the work be as refined and individual, and the gold as
+pure, as in larger works. The precious metals may be confined to small
+spaces in the parts we desire to accentuate, such as the cross in the
+centre, or the edges of the orphreys, or they may be entirely replaced
+with fine silk work.
+
+The altar-cloth we desire to present, may be simply a gift, so that we
+may choose any design that will agree with the date of the building.
+We may prefer any subsequent style, but not one anterior to that of
+the architecture. It would be a mistake to imitate Anglo-Saxon
+ornaments in a church of the flamboyant style.
+
+Perhaps the altar-cloth we are discussing may be intended as a sort of
+votive offering, a memorial of a baptism, a wedding, or a funeral.
+
+For the first, white silk worked in gold and silver, or gold-coloured
+silk, or parsemé with conventional spring flowers would be
+appropriate. For a marriage, crimson, rose-colour, blue and gold, or a
+mixture of all these, to produce a festive and gorgeous effect. For a
+funeral, purple or violet silk or velvet, with palms and the crown of
+thorns in gold or silver.[549] These would serve at the festivals of
+the Church: the purple for Good Friday,[550] the crimson for Saints'
+days, the white for Christmas and Easter Sunday.
+
+The reredos, or the screen curtain behind the altar, should be made
+available for enhancing its effect, as well as for enlarging the area
+of textile coloured decoration.
+
+As this is intended for a background, it should be either subdued or
+else contrasting, in juxtaposition with that which it is intended to
+supplement. Woollen embroideries or tapestries are the most usually
+selected for this purpose. The softness of fine crewels is well shown
+near the more glowing tints of silk, velvet, and gold of the altar
+frontal. If this is white, or light coloured, the reredos hanging
+should be of dark or richly worked material; if the frontal is dark,
+the contrast should be preserved by hangings of tender shades.
+
+The pulpit and reading-desk, with their small cushions and veils, and
+beautiful worked covers for the books, give opportunities for
+repetition of colour which is often required for picturesque effect.
+
+I should recommend the young ecclesiastical designer to study the
+principles which guided the authors of some of the fine Gothic
+examples remaining to us, such as the great Stoneyhurst cope, and the
+palls of the different London companies, as well as the very few fine
+altar-cloths still existing. All these have their brilliant and
+effective treatment; they are intended to be glorious, and either
+represent massive jewellers' work or tissues of wrought gold.
+
+Anciently, the ornaments for the different church services, which we
+timidly reduce to floral decorations (often, however, very beautifully
+planned and executed), gave the opportunity for displaying costly
+embroidered hangings.
+
+The paschal of the choir of Durham, for example, was a marvellous
+construction of wood and gilding, metal-work, and (probably) hangings.
+It was as wide as the "lateral" of the choir, and as high as the
+building, so that the central and seventh candlestick (that from which
+the new fire for the year was kindled) was so near the roof that there
+was a "fine convenience through the said roof of the church for the
+help of lighting it." I quote from a rare book printed by G. S. Ross
+for Mrs. Waghorn, 1733.
+
+This little book is full of interesting matter regarding Durham
+Cathedral, though the author is most concerned in relating the
+vandalisms committed by the dean's wife, Mrs. Whittinghame, who
+evidently had "no culture," and a strong turn for appropriating odds
+and ends, such as tombstones, embroidered silk, and other curiosities
+which she deemed valueless except for her own purposes,--such a woman
+is a real archæological misfortune!
+
+The corporax used in celebrating the mass by St. Cuthbert in the
+seventh century (he died and was buried at Holy Isle in 657) was
+supposed to be endowed with miraculous powers and was carried into
+battle on many occasions as a banner.
+
+This banner was of crimson velvet on both sides, wrought with flowers
+in green silk and gold, and fringed with red silk and gold. The
+corporax cloth was inserted in the centre, and covered with a square
+of white velvet, having on it a cross of red velvet, "most
+artificially worked and fringed, with little silver bells in the
+fringe." This was carried into battle, till Dame Whittinghame "did
+most injuriously destroy the same in her fire."
+
+One feels as if this woman were spiteful, as well as stupid. But for
+her punishment, her memory is kept quite the contrary to green by Mrs.
+Waghorn's careful record of her iniquities; which has at the same time
+fortunately preserved to us the description of the banner of St.
+Cuthbert, and gives also an idea of "the good and sumptuous furniture
+of changeable suits," and of "the divers vestments wrought and set
+round about with pearls, both stoles and flannels, &c."
+
+Looking at it from a distance, it appears that the "fair white linen"
+for the communion service always requires the softening of the edges
+by fringes, by cut work embroidery, or by thick lace edgings. If a
+white ground for embroidery is required, nothing is more beautiful
+than linen, especially if it is not over-bleached. White, in art,
+should be represented by the nearest approach to no colour; but it is
+more agreeable to the eye by its being tempered with a suggestion of
+the natural tint, of which all textile substances possess something
+(excepting cotton) before they have passed through the hands of the
+fuller or the chemist.
+
+Corporals and veils for the pyx used to be of white linen, embroidered
+with white silk or linen thread; the silk gives a beautiful, varied,
+shining brightness.
+
+I think a few words should be said about the fringe.[551] Its motive
+and _raison d'être_ is the disposal of the threads of the warp when it
+is cut out of the frame; these being tied and knotted symmetrically,
+become an artistic decoration instead of an untidy tangle of threads
+and thrums. Edging the material and finishing it with its own loose
+ends is a very ancient custom; and we can see from the sculptures of
+Nineveh that they were great in that city in the art of fringe-making,
+and the Israelites, when they made their hangings for the sanctuary,
+trimmed them with fringes. It stands to reason that an added fringe
+should be arranged with reference to the origin of the decoration, and
+the moment we think of it, the eye is annoyed by seeing a deep fringe
+of one or two colours traversing the whole widths of the frontal and
+super-frontal, quite irrelevantly, and without any reference to the
+masses of colours, woven or embroidered, above them; and the
+consequence of this carelessness is, that it makes it look as if this
+part of the decoration, came from another source, independent of the
+composition which it ought to supplement. The fringe should belong to
+the whole design, and be carefully fitted to the spaces occupied by
+the colours above it, each of its compartments or divisions being
+filled in with those tints which are most conspicuous in the general
+design and would show effectively in the warp. It is not necessary to
+account for all the colours, as the threads employed to form the woof
+would naturally disappear at the sides of the web. The sections of the
+fringe should be skilfully arranged so as to reappear at equal
+distances, or at least they should be so balanced as to produce that
+effect. If this is impossible, the fringe should be all of one shade,
+matching exactly the ground of the textile. It may be relieved by
+clustered knobs, or hanging beads or cups of different colours and
+gold. The celebrated pluvial at Aix-la-Chapelle has a fringe of gold
+bells hanging to a gold cord, which amalgamates with the pattern.[552]
+The veils of the Sanctuary in the wilderness were fringed with
+attached ornaments, bells, blossoms, knops, flowers, and fruit, which
+sounds extremely pretty.
+
+To resume, let me once more urge that in church work neither time nor
+trouble be spared; nor yet money grudged, if possible. The design
+should be full of intention, the stitching perfect, and the materials
+most carefully chosen for tints, for endurance and smoothness.
+Remember that no inferior substitute will serve to give present
+effect, nor will it last into the future.
+
+Design, as I have elsewhere said, is all the better for being to a
+certain degree circumscribed, relegated, and regulated by the laws of
+traditional usage, as well as those of good taste, and this applies
+especially to ecclesiastical design.
+
+These laws serve as the frame which encloses the motive thought, and
+makes it a complete whole, that can admit of no amplifications.
+
+New symbols should not be adopted except for the expression of new
+facts or altered circumstances, and these can but seldom enter into
+liturgical art.
+
+There is so much already formulated and admitted, and the area in
+which we may gather our materials is so large, that we need not seek
+for more than we find under our hand, ready for use.
+
+Besides the symbolism of dogma, we have all the heraldry of the
+Saints; and can repeat and vary the emblems of those to whom the
+church we are working for is dedicated. The keys of St. Peter, the
+sword of St. Paul, the lilies of the Virgin, the cross of St. Andrew,
+the eagle of St. John,--I need hardly enumerate all these legitimate
+sources of decoration. Then there is the lay heraldry which belongs to
+the history of each church, and which memorializes the reign of the
+monarch when it was begun, finished, or restored, and the pious work
+and care of the founder and benefactor, the architect, and sometimes
+that of the sculptor.
+
+Now as our forefathers accepted all this material for ecclesiastical
+design, remodelling it to their own uses in different centuries, so we
+cannot ourselves do better than imitate them, and profit by their
+experience; never missing an opportunity of studying ancient
+embroideries; and while we admire in them all that is admirable, and
+appreciate their historical and archæological value, we may yet
+extract greater benefit for ourselves, by criticizing what is
+imperfect, as well as what is possibly a descent and failure from a
+higher type.
+
+We must make a judicious selection of what to imitate and what to
+avoid.
+
+As a general rule, I should warn the young artist against the
+imitation of "naïveté" and so-called "quaintness;" especially in our
+designs for Church embroidery as it is hardly a noble quality in art,
+though we look on it with a tender pity, half-way between admiration
+and contempt, when we find it inevitably in mediæval work; struggling
+to overcome the expression of something difficult, and expressing a
+difficulty only partly overcome. We find ourselves putting our minds
+into the attitude of the artist who conceived those figures with arms
+conventionally growing out of the encasing garment; conventionally
+holding a book, and giving a blessing with a conventional twist, not
+entirely ungraceful, nor devoid of a certain dignity, rather felt than
+perceived. Yet we contemplate them with a smile of conscious
+superiority, appreciating our own refined sense of their merits and
+infantine progress towards something good, that time--a long
+time--would, and did evolve. But those efforts at last culminated in a
+Christian art, such as is seen in the splendid forms and adornments in
+stone, gold, silver, glass, and embroideries of the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries. Such splendours as the windows of Bourges, the
+Sainte-Chapelle at Paris, or those of the Cathedral of Toledo, or
+King's College Chapel at Cambridge. Such sculptures and traceries as
+those of the Puits de Moise at Dijon, and the Chapter House at
+Southwell in Nottinghamshire. Such embroideries as the Syon cope, and
+the Borghese triptych. These are types worthy of all praise, and they
+are full of instruction to the student of ecclesiastical art.
+
+The Kensington Museum offers us endless help and suggestions in its
+very interesting collection of liturgical vestments of every date and
+school; and its textiles, illustrated by the inventory of their
+learned collector, Dr. Rock, are most instructive.[553]
+
+In the library of that museum are to be found many of the learned
+works on these subjects by French and German _savants_. The
+exhibitions in the English counties are never without a case or a room
+full of embroideries, collected from the treasure-chests of the
+neighbouring churches and country houses, and especially from those of
+the ancient Roman Catholic families. The colleges of Oscott and
+Stoneyhurst have collected, by purchase or by gift, many fine relics
+of the craft, which are most liberally granted for exhibition.
+
+For those who can go further afield there is instruction in almost
+every Continental town. Rome, Florence, Milan, Toledo, Sens, Rheims,
+Aix-la-Chapelle, Berne, Vienna, Halberstadt, Berlin, and Munich--each
+and all have stores of beautiful liturgical objects carefully
+preserved; of many dates, and many styles, and showing endless
+varieties of design, which can be employed on new works by careful
+selection and adaptation. Most of these belong to the eleventh and
+succeeding centuries; any earlier examples are fragmentary, and have
+generally been taken from the tombs of kings and bishops.
+
+It seems to savour of desecration, this opening of shrines and
+disturbing the ashes of the illustrious dead, if only for the
+satisfaction of archæological curiosity. But except where it has
+hitherto been protected by the sanctity of the tomb, there is so
+little that remains to us,--so few textiles have survived the friction
+of use, or even that of the air, through as many as a thousand years
+or more, that we may plead the hunger for truth, and the eager desire
+for proofs of identity and verification of historical legends, which
+are to be extracted from the shape of a garment, from the pattern on
+the border, or the lettering on the web of which it is composed;
+whence we reverently cut a fragment, and preserve it under glass.
+
+    "If studious, copie fair what time hath blurr'd,
+    Redeem truth from his jawes."[554]
+
+Before closing this chapter, I would wish to observe that I have
+entered into the subject of church decoration in no ritualistic
+spirit; I do not treat it theologically, but as art; and if these
+decorations are to be carried out at all, I feel that I am rendering a
+service to those whose duty or pleasure it is to provide them, by
+pointing out where they may find the principles which have been the
+spring and life of mediæval art, and the survivals which are now the
+best exponents of those principles to guide us in the works of our
+day.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [479] Figure-drawing in early Christian art was for
+    nearly a thousand years primitively barbarous, with
+    occasional exceptions. The rapid decline in Europe,
+    through the art of the Catacombs and St. Clemente at
+    Rome, and the frescoes and mosaics of Ravenna, down to
+    the Bayeux tapestries, is very remarkable. In those
+    inartistic compositions during the early Middle Ages,
+    the figures were drawn facing the spectator, the head
+    and feet in profile, differing in nothing from the
+    Egyptian and Assyrian modes of representation. We can
+    hardly account for this return to childish ways, from
+    which Greece and Rome had so long been emancipated,
+    except by supposing that they came from the imitations
+    of Oriental textiles, which still retained very ancient
+    forms; for instance, the motive of the sculptured lions
+    over the gate of Mycenæ. We cannot say that Greek art in
+    Rome was quite extinct till the eighth century. About
+    that time there was a remarkable revival in England.
+
+    [480] Till very lately we have been entirely dependent
+    on the frescoes in the Catacombs and in the underground
+    Church of St. Clemente at Rome, and on monumental art
+    and illuminations, for our knowledge of the textiles of
+    the earliest days of Christianity. But Herr Graf'schen's
+    discoveries in Egypt will, when published, add greatly
+    to our information on this subject.
+
+    [481] The book by Parker on the "Liturgical Use" says
+    that only the five liturgical colours were permitted in
+    the use of the Church of England. Before the Reformation
+    the Norman and English liturgical colours were
+    different. (Rock, "Church of our Fathers," ii. p. 268.)
+    Perhaps nothing was originally worked departing from
+    this rule, but votive offerings are inventoried as being
+    of all colours, having been accepted and used as
+    decoration and for vestments.
+
+    [482] I have already spoken of the custom of clothing
+    the images of the gods as a classical tradition. The
+    Greeks draped their statues in precious garments, often
+    the spoils of subjugated nations, offerings from the
+    conquerors, or obsequious tribute from the conquered.
+    Newton (Appendix 1) tells us of inscriptions containing
+    inventories of old clothes offered in the Greek Temples.
+    Ezekiel (xvi.) speaks of silk and linen embroideries
+    given for covering the idols. The images of the saints
+    in Roman Catholic churches are, we know, constantly
+    draped in splendid embroideries, and hung with jewels.
+
+    [483] There is here an overlap of several centuries.
+
+    [484] Charlemagne's dalmatic, described hereafter, of
+    which the pedigree is well ascertained, justifies
+    Woltmann and Woermann's theory; as this eighth-century
+    embroidery shows, by its design, that Greek art was
+    still a living power.
+
+    [485] Of which we have yet examples on the Continent,
+    here and there; for instance, in the Cathedral at Coire
+    in the Grisons, and in the Romanesque church at Clermont
+    in Auvergne (not the cathedral). I do not include in
+    this statement of the rare occurrence of the ogee, the
+    European countries which were subject to Moorish rule,
+    i.e. Spain and Portugal.
+
+    [486] This, slightly modified, continued to prevail till
+    the time of Louis XIV., when France took the lead, and
+    gave a style to the world which entirely broke away from
+    all mediæval tradition.
+
+    [487] Rock's "Church of our Fathers," i. p. 409. Compare
+    Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," i. p. 332 (see fig. 1);
+    and Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," taf. i., i. p. 130,
+    fig. 6. Bock does not give his authority for the pattern
+    on the ephod.
+
+    [488] Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. i., iii.,
+    vi.
+
+    [489] Yates' "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 203, 376, §
+    103. He quotes from Claudian the description of a
+    trabea, said to have been woven by the goddess Roma
+    herself, for the consul Stilicho. I give this as showing
+    how forms and patterns become sacred by their being
+    attributed to the inspiration of the gods. The name of
+    Stilicho marks his tomb in Sant' Ambrogio's Church at
+    Milan, on which is a curious moulding, carved with
+    alternate roses and mystic crosses.
+
+    [490] Clapton Rolfe, "Ancient Use of Liturgical
+    Colours."
+
+    [491] See the Book of Kells, Library, Dublin; also St.
+    Cuthbert's Durham Book, British Museum, and the Celtic
+    MSS. in the Lambeth Palace Library.
+
+    [492] Celtic and Scandinavian designs are characterized
+    by meandering, interlaced, and knotted lines, which are
+    described and discussed in the chapter on patterns. The
+    forms of the Celtic stone crosses are very beautiful.
+    See "L'Atlas de l'Archéologie du Nord, par la Société
+    Royale des Antiquaires du Nord" (Copenhagen, 1857),
+    where the metal remains are shown by careful engravings;
+    also George Stephen's "Old Northern Runic Monuments."
+
+    [493] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. p. 126,
+    quoting Anastasius Bibliothecarius, pp. 153, 156, 189.
+
+    [494] Ibid. p. 189.
+
+    [495] The information here collected proves that these
+    sovereign gifts to the great basilicas were by no means
+    of costly materials, especially as compared with the
+    preceding splendours of Rome, or the still more
+    astounding luxury of Alexandria through the Greek
+    conquests of the Eastern nations. To these rules of
+    economical decoration, however, we find occasionally
+    exceptions. We gather also from later lists that the
+    embroideries of the Papal See were culled, in the
+    thirteenth century, from France, Spain, Germany, and
+    England.
+
+    [496] See also Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," vol. i.
+    pp. 9, 18, 56, 86, plate 2. At a later period the lion
+    motive is supposed to have represented a Christian in
+    the arena, and it certainly in time was symbolical of
+    man struggling with the dominion of sin. However, Bock
+    considers the design to have been originally classical
+    Greek, and it survived to the seventh and eighth
+    centuries, and was reproduced as late as the sixteenth.
+
+    [497] The Code of Manu in India, which 2500 years ago
+    regulated all the crafts and ruled their decorations, is
+    still in full force, and Chinese art was crystallized in
+    the reigns of the first emperors of the Hia dynasty,
+    2197 B.C.
+
+    [498] We cannot but respect the memory of Attila, who
+    checked the spoliation of Rome by his troops.
+
+    [499] The collections of needlework in Germany are very
+    rich. The treasury of the cathedral at Halberstadt, the
+    Markt-Kirche of Brunswick, the sacristy of the
+    Marien-Kirche of Dantzic, and that of the Kaland
+    Brethren at Strahlsund are especially quoted by Bock. At
+    Quedlinburg are the tapestries of its famous abbess; at
+    the Pilgrim Church of Marie at Zell are fine remains of
+    stuffs and embroideries by the ladies of the imperial
+    house of Hapsburg, of the thirteenth century; at the
+    Abbey of Göss (near Lieben, Steiermark) is to be seen
+    the remarkable needlework of the Abbess Kunigunda, and
+    in the cathedral treasury of Heidelberg the antipendium
+    of the fourteenth century, made for the church at Tirna.
+    The museums of Berlin, Munich, and Vienna are very rich
+    in textiles.
+
+    [500] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," p. 133.
+
+    [501] Helen Lwyddawc. See "Mabinogion," by Lady C.
+    Guest, pp. 279-284. This beautiful story is told in the
+    language of the romance period, and yet has a certain
+    Celtic colouring in it, which shows its origin. The
+    ballad opens with a description of Helen watching a game
+    of chess, clothed in white and gold, seated on a chair
+    of gold, when Maxentius finds her in her father's
+    palace.
+
+    [502] See Mrs. Palliser's "Lace," p. 4.
+
+    [503] See chapter on English embroidery, _post_.
+
+    [504] Early decorations of ecclesiastical dress are so
+    thoroughly illustrated by the ancient frescoes and
+    mosaics in Italy, that we can form an idea of the
+    embroidered vestments of each period by studying them,
+    and the early illuminated books that are scattered over
+    Europe. Dr. Bock gives authentic illustrations as well
+    as information about the finest Continental specimens.
+
+    [505] For the mosaics of Santa Pudenziana, see Woltmann
+    and Woermann, i. p. 167, "History of Painting."
+    Translated by Sidney Colvin.
+
+    [506] Appendix 4. Lord Lindsay's "History of
+    Ecclesiastical Art," i. p. 136. These gorgeous vestments
+    are engraved by Sulpiz Boisserée in his "Kaiser
+    Dalmatika in der St. Peterskirche," and far better by
+    Dr. Rock, in his splendid work on the "Coronation Robes
+    of the German Emperors."
+
+    [507] It is singular that we find the starry cross and
+    the swastika filling alternate square spaces on the
+    mantle of Achilles--playing at dice with Ajax--on a
+    celebrated Greek vase in the Etruscan Museum at the
+    Vatican. I have referred to this design elsewhere.
+    (Plate 26.)
+
+    [508] Rock's "Introduction," p. liii.
+
+    [509] This date is assigned to it by Monsignor Clifford.
+
+    [510] Kindly supplied to me by the Father Superior of
+    San Clemente in Rome.
+
+    [511] In the cathedral of Aix, Switzerland. Bock's
+    "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. ii.
+
+    [512] One of these mitres has, it is said, been brought
+    to England.
+
+    [513] Bock, "Liturgische Gewänder," ii. taf. xii. This
+    is dyed in Tyrian purple (rosy red), and is simply the
+    cross, representing the tree with twelve leaves, "for
+    the healing of the nations."
+
+    [514] Bock, "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. iii. pp.
+    157-160.
+
+    [515] Bock, _ibid._, p. 158, quotes the Jesuit Erasmus
+    Fröhlich, (1754).
+
+    [516] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. iv. pp.
+    165, 166. "One of three costly garments."
+
+    [517] Modifications of the "wheel pattern" ("wheel and
+    plate"). Of these works of the tenth and eleventh
+    centuries the fine Roman lettering in the borders is a
+    marking characteristic.
+
+    [518] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. p. 214.
+
+    [519] There was no guild of embroiderers in England that
+    we know of till that incorporated in the reign of
+    Elizabeth. See chapter on English embroidery.
+
+    [520] Bock, i. 214, says that the splendid stuffs and
+    embroideries were entirely consecrated to the use of the
+    Church, till the luxurious arts invaded European
+    domestic life from the seventh to the twelfth century.
+
+    [521] See the cross on the Rheims cope (plate 63).
+
+    [522] There is no doubt it was only used for church
+    work.
+
+    [523] At Aachen, in Switzerland, there is a very
+    remarkable pluvial of one kind of opus Anglicanum, which
+    has been already alluded to. The border, of splendid
+    gold embroidery, has the pattern completed in fine
+    flowers of jewellers' work. (See Bock, "Liturgische
+    Gewänder," ii. p. 297, taf. xli.-xliv.) Rock, "Textile
+    Fabrics," Introduction, p. xxxi, cites from Mon. Angl.
+    (ii. 222), the vestments given to St. Alban's Abbey by
+    Margaret, Duchess of Clarence, A.D. 1429, as being
+    remarkable for pure gold in its texture and the
+    splendour of the jewels and precious stones set into it,
+    as well as for the exquisite beauty of its embroideries.
+    These are some of the characteristics of the opus
+    Anglicanum.
+
+    [524] Appendix 6.
+
+    [525] Mrs. Bayman, of the Royal School of Art
+    Needlework.
+
+    [526] If it is true that in the days of the Greeks and
+    Romans the art of acupictura or needle-painting copied
+    pictorial art, so likewise in the Egyptian early times,
+    painted linens imitated embroideries. This we learn by
+    specimens from the tombs. Painted hangings and
+    embroideries appear to have been equally used for
+    processional decorations. In the Middle Ages painted
+    hangings imitated embroideries and woven hangings, and
+    were considered as legitimate art.
+
+    [527] See Bock, vol. i. p. 10.
+
+    [528] Exhibited in the "Esposizione Romana" in 1869, in
+    the cloisters of Santa Maria degli Angeli.
+
+    [529] See Woltmann and Woermann, who quote evidence as
+    to works in painted glass as early as the ninth and
+    tenth centuries in France and Germany ("History of
+    Painting," vol. i. pp. 316-339). They remark that the
+    character of painted glass is nearly akin to textile
+    decoration, that it is essentially flat and unpictorial.
+    And doubtless there is an analogy between the two, but
+    rather suggesting patchwork or cut work than legitimate
+    embroidery.
+
+    [530] "Vasari," ed. Monce, taf. v. p. 101.
+
+    [531] See plate 69, which is a fine altar-frontal of the
+    plâteresque Spanish.
+
+    [532] The dress of the "Virgin del Sagrario" at Toledo,
+    embroidered with pearls, and the chasuble of Valencia,
+    worked with corals, show how profusely these costly
+    materials were employed.
+
+    [533] See "The Industrial Arts of Spain," pp. 250-264,
+    by Don Juan F. Riano, and catalogues of Loan Exhibition
+    by him for the South Kensington Museum series, 1881. The
+    works of Spanish Queens and Infantas are to be seen at
+    the Atocha, the church of the Virgin del Pilar at
+    Madrid.
+
+    [534] There are most interesting examples of Scriptural
+    subjects in Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. x.
+    pp. 207, 208; taf. xi. pp. 239-278. These are of the
+    thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; and we have some
+    good fifteenth century bead-work in the South Kensington
+    Museum.
+
+    [535] The splendid embroideries from Westminster Abbey,
+    sold to Spanish merchants at the Reformation, now at
+    Valencia, and the cope in the Museum at Madrid, are
+    instances of these exportations. The Syon cope also was
+    returned to England, after its long wanderings, about
+    sixty years ago. I give its history by Dr. Rock in the
+    Appendix 6.
+
+    [536] For examples of this ornate and graceful, but
+    frivolous style, we may remember the mosaic altar
+    frontals throughout the basilica of St. Peter's at Rome.
+
+    [537] See Dr. Rock's "Catalogue of Textile Fabrics,"
+    South Kensington Museum, Introduction, p. cxxxvi.
+
+    [538] Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. vi., vii.,
+    pp. 385-392. The emblematic meanings of stones is
+    constantly alluded to in the Old Testament. Their
+    symbolism has, therefore, a high authority and most
+    ancient descent. In the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford is an
+    illuminated copy of Philip de Than's Bestiarium,
+    composed for Adelais, second wife of Henry I.
+
+    [539] "Cyclopædia of Bible Literature," vol. vii. p.
+    477.
+
+    [540] See Clapton Rolfe, "The Ancient Use of Liturgical
+    Colours." (Parker, 1879.)
+
+    [541] See "Indian Arts," by Sir G. Birdwood, i. p. 97.
+    He says this [Illustration] form is the sign of the
+    Buddhist or Jainis, and that the [Illustration]
+    fire-stick form was that of the Sakti race in India.
+
+    [542] See chapter on patterns, p. 103-4, _ante_.
+
+    [543] Revelations chap. xxii. v. 2.
+
+    [544] In mediæval times the cross in a circle was
+    sometimes called the "clavus" [Illustration]. It was
+    the same as an Egyptian sign, meaning "land" (plate 25).
+    Donelly fancifully claims the sign as being that of the
+    garden of Eden, and of the four rivers flowing from it
+    (see "Atlantis").
+
+    [545] See plate 70, No. 1. In the upper part of the
+    Halberstadt diptych, No. 1, the "gens togata" are
+    sitting on Olympus, clothed in such purple garments
+    embroidered with the chrysoclavus.
+
+    [546] I would instance the little church of St. Mary,
+    built and adorned by the late W. E. Street, at Feldy, in
+    Surrey.
+
+    [547] The art of illumination had in general kept a
+    little in front of that of the painter, and illumination
+    and embroidery went hand in hand.
+
+    [548] The fine brocades of velvet and gold, of which we
+    find examples in the centres of palls, and a notable one
+    in the celebrated Stoneyhurst cope, are still reproduced
+    to order at Lyons, Genoa, Florence, and in Spain. The
+    Florentine is distinguished by the little loops of gold
+    thread which pervade it.
+
+    [549] In the English ritual gold was permitted wherever
+    white was enjoined. This shows a true appreciation of
+    the effect of the metal, separating and isolating all
+    colours, and being of none.
+
+    [550] The purple is not one of the five mystic colours
+    named; it is included in blue, and therefore the most
+    ritualistic critic need not object to it.
+
+    [551] Under the Carlovingians, priestly garments were
+    often enriched with splendid fringes, trimmed with
+    bells. A Bishop of Elne, who died in 915, left to his
+    church a stole embroidered with gold and garnished with
+    bells. So rich were the fringes at that epoch, that King
+    Robert, praying one day in the church, became aware that
+    while he was lost in meditation a thief had ripped off
+    part of the fringes of his mantle. He interrupted his
+    proceedings by saying, "My friend, suppose you content
+    yourself with what you have taken, and leave the rest
+    for some other member of your guild." See "Histoire du
+    Tissu Ancien," Union Central des Arts Décoratifs. For a
+    fringe with bells, see the beautiful example in Bock's
+    "Liturgische Gewänder" (plates xli. xlii. xliii. vol.
+    ii. p. 297), already quoted.
+
+    [552] Resembling the fringe of St. Cuthbert's corporax,
+    with its silver bells.
+
+    [553] This valuable collection of textiles is so ancient
+    and therefore so frail, that it seems a pity to send
+    portions of it continually travelling about the country
+    for loan exhibitions. Change of climate--cold, heat, and
+    damp--carelessness in packing and unpacking--above all,
+    the reckless exposure to floods of sunshine even when
+    they are protected from dust by glass,--all these
+    endanger the preservation of what can never be replaced,
+    and has only survived till now because of the quiet and
+    darkness in which it has lain for centuries.
+
+    [554] George Herbert, "The Churchyard Porch," v. 15.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+ENGLISH EMBROIDERY.
+
+
+Through the preceding chapters I have tried to moderate my predominant
+interest in our national school of needlework, seeking to place it in
+its just position alongside of the coeval Continental schools.
+However, the more I have seen of specimens at home and abroad, the
+more I have become convinced of the great superiority of our
+needlework in the Middle Ages. As information about our own art must
+be valuable to us, I give a short account of English embroidery.
+
+In England our art, like our language, is mixed. Our early history is
+one of repeated conquest, and we can only observe where style has
+flowed in from outside, or has formed itself by grafting upon the stem
+full of vitality already planted and growing. It is interesting to
+seek its root.
+
+There is every reason to believe, from the evidence of the animal
+remains of the Neolithic Age (including those of sheep), that they
+came with their masters from the central plateau of Asia.
+
+The overlap of the Asiatic civilizations over the barbarism of
+Northern Europe shows that Assyria[555] as well as Egypt was a highly
+organized empire, and the Mediterranean peoples far advanced in the
+arts of life, while the Neolithic man survived and lingered in
+Britain, France, and Scandinavia. Yet, even at that early period, the
+craft of spinning and the use of the needle were practised by the
+women of Britain.[556]
+
+Our first glimpses of art may have come to us by Phœnician traders,
+touching at the Scilly Islands and thence sailing to the coasts of
+Cornwall and Ireland. From Ireland we have curious relics as witnesses
+of their presence--amongst others, jewellery connected by, or pendant
+from, "Trichinopoly" chains, similar to those dug out of Etruscan
+tombs, and which were probably imported into Ireland as early as the
+sixth century B.C.[557]
+
+In the Bronze Age the chiefs and the rich men wore linen or woollen
+homespun. Fragments of these have been found in the Scale House barrow
+at Rylston, in Yorkshire. Dr. Rock says that an ancient Celtic barrow
+was opened not long ago in Yorkshire, in which the body was wrapped in
+plaited (not woven) woollen material.[558] Before this time the Cymri
+in Britain probably wore plaited grass garments; they also sewed
+together the skins of animals with bone needles.
+
+Dyeing and weaving were well understood in Britain before the advent
+of the Romans. Hemp and flax, however, though native to the soil, were
+not employed by the early Britons. Linen perhaps came to us first
+through the Phœnicians, and afterwards through the Celts, and was
+naturalized here by the Romans.
+
+Anderson ("Scotland in Early Christian Times") gives a high place to
+the forms of pagan art which prevailed in the British Isles, before
+the Roman civilization; and differing from and influencing that which
+came from Scandinavia. We must certainly allow that it was art, and
+that it contained no Greek or other classical element. His
+illustrations explain and give great weight to his theories.
+
+Cæsar invaded England forty-five years B.C.[559] The Romans gave us
+Christianity and the rudiments of civilization, but their attempts to
+Romanize us met with little success. Probably they imported their
+luxuries, and removed all they valued at the time of their exodus.
+From them we know what they found and what they left in Britain.
+Boadicea, Queen of the Iceni, the day of her defeat wore a tartan
+dress (polymita) and an "embroidered" or "fur" mantle; probably the
+fur was inside, and the skins embroidered outside. Dion Cassius,[560]
+who describes Boadicea's motley tunic, says that the bulk of the
+people wore what was apparently a chequered tartan. Semper says that
+the early tribes of Northern Europe, like the North American Indians
+of the present time, embroidered their fur wraps. The Emperor
+Honorius, in the fourth century, made it illegal for Roman nobles to
+wear extravagantly-worked fur robes; perhaps the report of Boadicea's
+dress had set the fashion in Rome.
+
+During the first four centuries of our era, all art in Britain must
+have come from our Roman masters; and owing to their neglect of the
+people they conquered, we benefited little by their civilization.
+
+All that we know of their decorative art in Britain, is that it was,
+with few exceptions, chiefly of small bronze statues, somewhat crude
+and colonial, as appears from the remains of their architecture,
+sculpture, mosaics, and tombs.[561] Of their textiles we have no
+relics, and hardly know of any recorded, if we except the works of the
+Empress Helena. See p. 316, _ante_. We must remember that, as she was
+a British princess, it is likely that she had learnt her art at home,
+and therefore that the women of England were already embroiderers as
+early as the beginning of the fourth century.[562]
+
+On the departure of the Romans, chaos ensued, till the Britons, who
+had called in the Saxons to help them, were by them driven into Wales,
+Brittany, and Ireland, which last they Christianized; and mingled the
+art of the Germans and Celts with that of the Danes and Norsemen[563];
+all which may be traced in the Irish remains to be seen in the
+College Museum at Dublin and elsewhere. From the time that England
+became Anglo-Saxon, literature, law, and art began to crystallize; and
+when, under Egbert, one kingdom was formed out of the heptarchy, order
+and a sense of beauty were in the course of development. Then came the
+invasion of the Danes (ninth century), who robbed, destroyed, and
+arrested all artistic improvement, till Alfred got rid of them for a
+time. Early in the seventh century the women of England had attained
+great perfection in needlework. This appears from a passage in a poem
+by Adhelme, Bishop of Sherborne. He speaks of their shuttles, "filled
+not with purple only, but with various colours, moved here and there
+among the thick spreading threads."[564] He had himself a robe "of a
+most delicate thread of purple, adorned with black circles and
+peacocks." This may or may not have been woven in England, but at that
+time weaving, as well as needlework, was the delight and occupation of
+the ladies of the court and of the cloistered nuns.[565] The thralls
+(slaves or serfs) were employed in weaving in the houses of the
+nobles, probably they embroidered also.
+
+Mrs. Lawrence sees reason to believe that in the seventh century, silk
+and fine linen were the materials for altar decorations, vestments,
+and dress; whereas the hangings of the house were of coarse canvas
+adorned with embroidery in thick worsted.[566] She says the term
+"broiderie" was reserved for the delicate works on fine grounds, in
+silk and gold and silver thread, and enrichments in metal work.
+Precious stones and pearls had already been introduced into the
+Byzantine and Romanesque designs imported from Greece and Rome.
+
+The English Dominican Friar, Th. Stubbs, writing in the thirteenth
+century, describes in his notice of St. Oswald a chasuble of
+Anglo-Saxon work, which exactly resembles that of Aix.[567] This is
+splendidly engraved in Von Bock's "Kleinodien" amongst the coronation
+robes of the Emperors of Germany, and is adorned with the richest
+golden orphreys, imitating jewellers' work, enriched with pearls and
+silver bells.
+
+There is an Icelandic Saga of the thirteenth century which relates the
+history of Thorgunna, a woman from the Hebrides, who was taken to
+Iceland on the first settlement of the country by Norway, A.D. 1000.
+She employed witchery in her needlework, and her embroidered hangings
+were coveted by, and proved fatal to, many persons after her death,
+till one of her inheritors burned them.[568]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 71.
+    One of the ends of the Stole of St. Cuthbert at Durham, which
+        together bear the inscription, "Aelfled fieri precepit pio
+        Episcopo Fridestano."]
+
+English ecclesiastical art did not necessarily keep to Christian
+subjects; for it is recorded that King Wiglaf, of Mercia, gave to
+Croyland Abbey his splendid coronation mantle and "velum;" and that
+the latter was embroidered with scenes from the siege of Troy.[569]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 72.
+    St. John.
+    St. Roger.
+    Durham Embroideries, tenth century.]
+
+It was probably on account of such derelictions from orthodox subjects
+of design that in the eighth century the Council of Cloveshoe
+admonished the convents for their frivolous embroideries.[570]
+
+In the eighth century our English work in illuminations and
+embroideries was finer than that of any Continental school; and
+therefore, in view of the great advance of these secondary arts, we
+may claim that we were then no longer outer barbarians, though our
+only acknowledged superiority over Continental artists was in the
+workrooms of our women and the cells of our religious houses.
+
+During the terrible incursions of the Danes, and the many troubles
+that accrued from these barbarous and idolatrous invaders, the
+convents and monasteries, especially those of the order of St.
+Benedict, kept the sacred flame of art burning.[571] Both monks and
+nuns wrote, illuminated, painted, and embroidered. They evidently
+continued their relations with foreign art, for it is difficult to say
+at what period the Norman style began to be introduced into England.
+It was the outcome of the Romanesque, and of this, different phases
+must have come to us through the Danes and the Saxons.
+
+I cannot but dwell on the early life and springtide of our Anglican
+Christian art, which in many points preceded and surpassed that of
+other northern nations, as we arose from that period commonly called
+the Dark Ages. Ours was a gradual development, adding to itself from
+outer sources new strength and grace. The better perfection of details
+and patterns was succeeded by Anglo-Saxon ingenuity and refinement in
+drawing the human figure. The art, which was native to England, may be
+judged by the rare examples that we possess, and of which we may well
+be proud; though we must remember with shame how much was destroyed at
+the Reformation. Enough however, remains to prove that our English art
+of illumination of the ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries was very
+beautiful, and we are not surprised therefore to find in the
+embroideries of that period grace and artistic feeling.
+
+The stole and maniple of the Durham cathedral library, which bear the
+inscription "Aelfled fieri precepit pio Episcopo Fridestano," are of
+the most perfect style of Anglo-Saxon design; and the stitching of the
+silk embroidery and of the gold grounding are of the utmost perfection
+of needlework art (plates 71, 72).
+
+The history of this embroidery is carefully elucidated by Dr. Raine in
+his "Saint Cuthbert." He says that Frithestan was consecrated bishop
+in 905, by command of Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the Great.
+Aelfled was Edward the Second's queen. She ordered and gave an
+embroidered stole and maniple to Frithestan. After her death, and that
+of Edward, and of the Bishop of Winchester, Athelstan, then king, made
+a progress to the north, and visiting the shrine of St. Cuthbert, at
+Chester-le-Street, he bestowed on it many rich gifts, which are
+solemnly enumerated in the MSS. Cott. Brit. Mus. Claud. D. iv. fol.
+21-6. Among these are "one stole, with a maniple; one girdle, and two
+bracelets of gold." That the stole and maniple are those worked for
+Frithestan by the command of his mother-in-law, Aelfled, may fairly be
+said to be proved. These embroideries, worked with her name and the
+record of her act, were taken from the body of St. Cuthbert in
+1827.[572]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 73.
+    St. Dunstan's Portrait of himself in adoration. From his Missal in
+        the Bodleian Library, Oxford.]
+
+Another and earlier Aelfled was the widow of Brithnod, a famous
+Northumbrian chieftain. She gave to the cathedral of Ely, where his
+headless body lay buried, a large cloth, or hanging, on which she had
+embroidered the heroic deeds of her husband. She was the ancestress of
+a race of embroiderers, and their pedigree will be found in the
+Appendix.[573] At this time a lady of the Queen of Scotland was famed
+for her perfect skill in needlework, and the four daughters of Edward
+the Elder were likewise celebrated embroiderers.
+
+St. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, is said to have designed
+needlework for a noble and pious lady, Aedelwyrme, to execute in gold
+thread, A.D. 924.[574] He prepared and painted a drawing, and directed
+her work.[575] I here give the portrait of our celebrated early
+designer from the MS. in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, said to be
+by his own hand, and which represents him kneeling at the feet of the
+Saviour (plate 73).
+
+Shortly before the Norman conquest, in the beginning of the eleventh
+century, we have notices of sundry other very remarkable pieces of
+work.
+
+The Danish Queen Emma, daughter of Richard, Duke of Normandy, when she
+was wife to Ethelred the Unready, and again during her second marriage
+to Canute, gave the finest embroideries to various abbeys and
+monasteries. Canute, being then a Christian, joined her in these
+splendid votive offerings. To Romsey and Croyland they gave
+altar-cloths which had been embroidered by his first queen,
+Aelgitha,[576] and vestments covered with golden eagles. She worked
+one altar-cloth on shot blood-red and green silk,[577] with golden
+orphreys at the side and across the top. When one considers what the
+life of poor Queen Emma was, one hopes that "Art the Consoler" came to
+her in the form of her favourite craft, and that she did find
+consolation in it.
+
+Croyland Abbey seems to have been most splendidly endowed by the
+Anglo-Saxon monarchs. There is continual mention in the records of
+those times of offerings of embroideries and other Church apparels.
+Queen Editha, the wife of the Confessor, dispensed beautiful works
+from her own workrooms, and herself embroidered King Edward's
+coronation mantle.
+
+When in the eleventh century the Normans became our masters, they
+found cathedrals, churches, and palaces which almost vied with their
+own; likewise sculptures, illuminated books, embroidered hangings,
+and vestments of surpassing beauty.
+
+William of Poitou, Chaplain to William the Conqueror,[578] relates
+that the Normans were as much struck on the Conqueror's return into
+Normandy with the splendid embroidered garments of the Saxon nobles,
+as with the beauty of the Saxon youth. Queen Matilda, who evidently
+appreciated Anglo-Saxon work, left in her will, to the Abbey of the
+Holy Trinity, "My tunic worked by Alderet's wife, and the mantle which
+is in my chamber, to make a cope. Of my two golden girdles, I give the
+one which is adorned with emblems to suspend the lamp before the great
+altar."
+
+I come now to the earliest large work remaining to us of the
+period--the Bayeux tapestry. We must claim it as English, both on
+account of the reputed worker, and the history it commemorates, though
+the childish style of which it is a type is indeed inferior in every
+way to the beautiful specimens which have been rescued from tombs in
+Durham, Worcester, and elsewhere. They seem hardly to belong to the
+same period, so weak are the designs and the composition of the
+groups. Though Mr. Rede Fowke gives the Abbé de la Rue's doubts as to
+the accepted period of the Bayeux tapestry, which he assigns to the
+Empress Matilda, he yet leans to other equally good authorities who
+consider the work as being coeval with the events it records.[579]
+
+Mr. Collingwood Bruce is of the same opinion, and for this
+reason--the furniture, buildings, &c., are all of the eleventh
+century, and our ancestors were no archæologists, and always drew what
+they saw around them. Mr. Bruce fancies the design to be Italian,
+"because of the energetic action of the figures;" this seems hardly
+justified when we look at the simple poverty of the style. Miss A.
+Strickland suggests that the artist was perhaps Turold the Dwarf, who
+has cunningly introduced his effigy and name. That the tapestry is not
+found in any catalogue before 1369, is only a piece of presumptive
+evidence against the earlier date, and cannot compete with the
+internal evidence in its favour. On 227 feet of canvas-linen, twenty
+inches wide, are delineated the events of English history from the
+time of Edward the Confessor to the landing of the Conqueror at
+Hastings. The Bayeux tapestry is worked in worsted on linen; the
+design is perfectly flat and shadowless. The outlines are firmly drawn
+with cords on thickly set stem-stitches. The surfaces are laid in flat
+stitch. Though coarsely worked, there is a certain "maestria" in the
+execution.
+
+The word "orphrey" (English for auriphrigium or Phrygian gold
+embroidery) is first found in Domesday Book, where "Alvide the maiden"
+receives from Godric the Sheriff, for her life, half a hide of land,
+"If she might teach his daughters to make orphreys."[580]
+
+In the end of the eleventh century, Christina, Abbess of Markgate,
+worked a pair of sandals and three mitres of surpassing beauty, sent
+through the Abbot of St. Alban's to Pope Adrian IV., who doubtless
+valued them the more because they came from his native England.[581]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 74.
+    English Patterns, chiefly from Strutt's "Royal and Ecclesiastical
+        Antiquities of England."
+    1. 1066. 2. 1092. 3. 1100. 4. 1171. 5. 1171. 6. 1189. 7. 1189. 8.
+        1361. 9, 10. 1377. 11. 1399. 12. 1422. 13. 1426. 14. 1440. 15.
+        1445. 16. 1416. 17. 1445. 18. 1477. 19. 1530. 20. 1272.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 75.
+    1. Panel of a Screen in Hornby Church. Painted fifteenth century.
+    2. Dress pattern from painted glass. St. Michael's Church, York.
+        Fourteenth century.
+    3. A portion of the material of the Towneley Copes. Fifteenth
+        century.]
+
+Of the twelfth century (1170) we have the robes and mitres of Thomas
+à Becket at Sens; and another mitre of the period, white and gold, is
+in the museum at Munich, with his martyrdom embroidered on one side,
+and that of St. Stephen on the other. The gold needlework is so
+perfect that it resembles weaving. It is recorded that a splendid
+dress was embroidered in London for Elinor of Aquitaine, which cost
+£80, equal to £1400 of the value of to-day.[582]
+
+Rock ("Church of our Fathers," t. ii. p. 279) truly says that it is
+shown by plentiful records and written documents, from the days of St.
+Osmond to the time of Henry VIII., that the materials employed in
+English ecclesiastical embroideries were the best that could be found
+in our own country or in far-off lands, and the art bestowed on them
+was the best we could learn and give. Various fabrics came from
+Byzantine or Saracenic looms, which are described as damasked, rayed,
+marbled, &c. The few surviving specimens fully justify the admiration
+bestowed on them throughout Christendom.
+
+Matthew Paris, in the reign of Henry III., says that Innocent III.
+(1246), seeing certain copes and infulæ with desirable orphreys, was
+informed they were English work. He exclaimed, "Surely England is a
+garden of delight! In sooth this is a well inexhaustible! And where
+there is so much abundance, from thence much may be extracted!"[583]
+
+From the Conquest to the Reformation the catalogues of Church
+vestments which are to be found in the libraries of York, Lincoln, and
+Peterborough, show the luxury of ecclesiastical decoration. In Lincoln
+alone there were upwards of 600 vestments wrought with divers kinds of
+needlework, jewellery, and gold, upon "Indian baudichyn," samite,
+tartarin, velvet, and silk. Even in reading the dry descriptions of a
+common inventory, we are amazed by the lists of "orphreys of goodly
+needlework," copes embroidered with armorial bearings, and knights
+jousting, lions fighting, and amices "barred with amethysts and
+pearls, &c. &c." The few I have named will give an idea of the
+accumulation of riches in the churches, and the gorgeousness of
+English embroideries.[584]
+
+I have collected from Strutt's "Illustrations"[585] and other sources
+a number of patterns for domestic hangings, copied from MSS. of
+contemporary dates, covering about 400 years, from the time of Harold
+to Edward IV. The hangings may have been more effective than appears
+at first sight, if the materials were rich and enlivened with gold. I
+give two textile designs which in their style are peculiarly English
+(plates 74, 75).
+
+Now we enter on the age of romance and chivalry, when all domestic
+decorations began to assume greater refinement. Carpets from the East
+covered the rushes strewn on the floors, and splendid tents were
+brought home by crusading knights; and the decorative arts of northern
+Europe were once more permeated with Oriental taste and design.
+
+We know that in the so-called "days of chivalry," i.e. from the
+Conquest till the beginning of Henry VIII.'s reign, needlework was the
+occupation of the women left in their castles, while the men were away
+fighting for the cross, for the king, for their liberties, or for
+booty.
+
+This period included the Crusades, the Wars of the Roses, wars with
+France, and rebellions at home; and yet there was a taste for art,
+luxury, and show spreading everywhere.[586]
+
+The women were expected to provide, with their looms and their
+needles, the heraldic surcoats, the scarves and banners, and the
+mantles for state occasions.[587] They also worked the hangings for
+the hall and chapel, and adorned the altars and the priests'
+vestments. Alas! time, taste, and the moth have shared in the
+destruction of these gauds. The taste for the "baroc" is a new
+acquisition; no one cared for what was old, merely because it was old.
+The rich replaced their hangings and their clothes when they became
+shabby; the poor let them go to pieces, and probably burned the old
+stuff and the embroideries for the sake of the gold thread, which was
+of intrinsic value. But both in prose and poetry we read descriptions
+of beautiful works in the loom, or on the frame, executed by fair
+ladies for the gallant knights whose lives and prowess these poems
+have preserved to us. I will give one quotation from that of Emare,
+in Ritson's collection: "Her mantle was wroughte by a faire Paynim,
+the Amarayle's daughter." This occupied her seven long years. In each
+corner is depicted a pair of lovers, "Sir Tristram and Iseult--Sir
+Amadis and Ydoine, &c., &c. These pictures were adorned with precious
+stones." The figures were portrayed--
+
+    "With stonès bright and pure,
+    With carbuncle and sapphire,
+    Kalsèdonys and onyx clere,
+    Sette in golde newe;
+    Diamondes and rubies,
+    And other stones of mychel pryse."
+
+The lady who owns this mantle is herself great in "workes of
+broderie."
+
+From the Conquest to the Wars of the Roses, England may claim to have
+gradually acquired a higher place in art. Our architecture, sculpture,
+manuscripts, and paintings were not surpassed on the Continent:
+witness Queen Eleanor's crosses, and her tomb in Westminster Abbey;
+and the portrait of Richard II., surrounded by saints and angels, at
+Wilton House,[588] a picture which, preceding Fra Beato Angelico's
+works by at least a quarter of a century, yet suggests his style,
+refined drawing, and tender colouring. All who saw the frescoes found
+in the Chapel at Eton College when it was restored, will remember
+their extreme beauty, and regret that they were effaced, instead of
+being preserved and restored. They were a lesson in what English art
+was in the end of the thirteenth, during the fourteenth, and into the
+beginning of the fifteenth centuries.
+
+During the Wars of the Roses, when a duke of the blood-royal is said
+to have begged his bread in the streets of the rich Flemish towns,
+ladies of rank, more fortunate, were able to earn theirs by the work
+of their needle.[589]
+
+The monuments of the eleventh and twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries, are our best authorities for the embroideries then worn.
+The surcoat of the Black Prince in Canterbury Cathedral is a
+noteworthy example. The sculptured effigy on the tomb over which it is
+suspended is absolutely clothed in the same surcoat, with the same
+accidents of embroidery, as if it had been modelled from it.
+
+In Worcester, when the archæologists opened King John's tomb in 1797,
+they found him in the same dress and attitude as that portrayed on the
+recumbent statue.[590] Dress was then extravagantly expensive, and
+embroidered dresses were worn with borders richly set with precious
+stones and pearls.
+
+The Librate Roll of Henry III. gives us a list of embroiderers' names:
+Alain de Basinge, Adam de Bakeryne, John de Colonia, &c.; and in the
+wardrobe accompts of Richard II., William Sanstoune and Robert de
+Ashmede are called the "Broudatores Domini Regis." These may have
+been the artists to whom the orders were delivered, for in the Librate
+Roll of Henry III. we find Adam de Baskeryne receiving 6_s._ 8_d._ for
+a "cloth of silk, and fringe, purchased by our commands to embroider a
+certain chasuble which Mabilia of St. Edmunds made for us." There were
+certainly then purveyors and masters of the craft. Stephen Vigner, in
+the fourteenth century, is so warmly commended by the Duke of Berri
+and Auvergne to Edward III., that Richard II. appointed him his chief
+embroiderer, and Henry IV. pensioned him for his skilful services.
+
+John Garland, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, is a good
+authority for the use by our women of small hand-looms. In these they
+wove, in flax or silk (often mixed with gold), the "cingulæ" or
+"blode-bendes" so often mentioned, supposed to be gifts between
+friends for binding the arm, when blood-letting was so much in fashion
+that the operation was allowed to assume a certain air of coquetry.
+But the idea suggests itself that this was oftener the gift of the
+fair weaver to her favoured lover, to fold round his arm as a scarf in
+battle or tourney, to be ready in case it was needed for binding up a
+wound, and had possibly served as a snood to bind her own fair hair.
+There is an account of a specimen of this kind of weaving by M.
+Léopold Delisle.[591] He describes the attachment of a seal to a grant
+from Richard CÅ“ur de Lion to Richard Hommet and Gille his wife,
+preserved in the archives of the Abbey of Aunai, in the department of
+Calvados. He considers it to be either French or English, and says it
+was a "lac d'amour," or "tie of love," cut up to serve its present
+purpose. It is woven with an inscription in white on a ground of
+green, backed with pale blue, and the material is silk. The woven
+legend is thus translated from the old French--"Let him perish who
+would part us."
+
+  [Illustration: Opus Anglicanum, XIII. Century
+    British Museum]
+
+The term "opus Anglicanum" is first recorded in the thirteenth
+century, and is supposed simply to mean "English work." But there is
+also good authority for its having been applied, on the Continent
+especially, to a particular style of stitchery, of which the Syon cope
+in the Kensington Museum is the best preserved great example known.
+Its peculiarity consists in its fine split-stitch being moulded so as
+to give the effect of a bas-relief; and this appears to have been
+generally reserved for the medallions representing sacred subjects,
+and especially employed in modelling the faces and the nude parts of
+the figures delineated. The effect of this work has often been
+destroyed, as time has frayed and discoloured the parts that are
+raised, exhibiting the canvas ground, reversing the high lights, and
+causing dark spots in their stead. This reversal of the intended
+effect is an additional practical argument for the flatness of
+embroidery.[592]
+
+From the Librate Roll of Henry III. one can form an estimate of the
+value of the "opus Anglicanum" in its day.[593] In 1241 the king gave
+Peter de Agua Blanca a mitre so worked, costing £82. This would be,
+according to the present value, £230.
+
+The finest specimens of this English work are to be found on the
+Continent, or have been returned from it.[594] They had either been
+gifts to popes or bishops before the Reformation, or they had been
+sold at that time of general persecution and pillage. Among the most
+remarkable are the pluvial (called) of St. Silvester at Rome, the
+Daroca pluvial at Madrid, the great pluvial at Bologna, and the Syon
+cope, of which I have already spoken. The general idea and prevailing
+design of these three great works are so singular, and yet so alike,
+that they must have issued from the same workshop, and that was
+certainly English.
+
+In the Daroca cope the cherubim, with their feet on wheels, which are
+peculiar to English design, and the angels (in the vacant spaces
+between the framed subjects from the life of our Lord) have their
+wings carefully done in chain split-stitch representing peacocks'
+feathers, of which the silken eyes are stitched in circles, and then
+raised with an iron by pressure, so as to catch a light and throw a
+shadow. The ground is entirely English gold-laid work. This cope, so
+markedly national in design and stitches, probably drifted to the
+Continent at the time of the Reformation.[595]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 77.
+    Characteristic English Parsemé Patterns for Ecclesiastical
+        Embroideries.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 78.
+    Dunstable Pall. Property of the Vicar of Dunstable _ex officio_.]
+
+A wonderfully preserved specimen of the "opus Anglicanum," of which a
+photogravure is here given, was lately presented by Mr. Franks to the
+Mediæval Department of the British Museum (plate 76). In this may be
+seen most of the characteristics of this work in the thirteenth
+century; such as the angels with peacock feather wings, moulded by hot
+irons; the features of all the figures similarly manipulated; the
+beautiful gold groundwork, which in this instance is covered with
+double-headed eagles; and lastly, the fashion of the beard on the face
+of our Lord and of all the men delineated--the upper lip and round the
+mouth being invariably shaven; whereas, in Continental work, the
+beard is allowed to grow into the moustache, closely surrounding the
+mouth. There are other peculiarities belonging to English design--such
+as the angels rising between the shrine-work on the pillars out of a
+flame or cloud pattern, and the pillars very often formed of twined
+stems bearing vine-leaves or else oak-leaves and acorns. The
+compartments which frame the groups, when they are not placed in
+niches, are usually variations of the intersected circle and square.
+Plate 77 shows the cherubim which from the thirteenth to the sixteenth
+centuries are found on English ecclesiastical embroideries--also the
+vase of lilies (emblematic of the Virgin), and the Gothic flowers
+which are so commonly _parsemé_ over our mediæval altar frontals and
+vestments.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+It appears that in the reign of Edward III. the people ingeniously
+evaded the penalties against the excess of luxury in dress, by wearing
+something that looked as gay, but was less expensive than the
+forbidden materials; and which did not come under the letter of the
+law. They invented a spurious kind of embroidery which was, perhaps,
+partly painted (such examples are recorded). In the 2nd Henry VI.
+(1422) it was enacted that all such work should be forfeited to the
+king. The accusation was that "divers persons belonging to the craft
+of Brouderie make divers works of Brouderie of insufficient stuffe and
+unduly wroughte with gold and silver of Cyprus, and gold of Lucca, and
+Spanish laton (or tin); and that they sell these at the fairs of
+Stereberg, Oxford, and Salisbury, to the great deceit of our Sovereign
+Lord and all his people." In those days any dishonest work or material
+was illegal and punishable.[596]
+
+This was, in fact, a protectionist measure in favour of the chartered
+embroiderers, and gave them a slight taste of the advantages of
+protection. For a time it was doubtless useful in keeping up the
+standard of national work. Then followed further measures for the
+benefit of the established monopolies. First, a statute in 1453 (Henry
+VI.), forbidding the importation of foreign embroideries for five
+years. This is re-enacted under Edward IV., Richard III., and Henry
+VII.; and was partially repealed in the 3rd and 5th George III. While
+we are on this subject, we may remark that in 1707, the importation of
+embroidery was forbidden to the East India Company, and we closed our
+ports to all manufactured Indian goods. The only artistic trade _now_
+protected is that of the silversmith; no plate from foreign workshops
+being permitted to enter England--not even do we allow Indian plate to
+come in, except under certain conditions. This may be the reason that
+our own plate is so very bad in design and execution, for want of
+competition and example.
+
+Protection is always more or less fatal to art. The Wars of the Roses
+had injured our own best schools, and we needed refined imported ideas
+to raise our standard once again. Perhaps, since embroidery had become
+a regular industry, our markets were overstocked by home productions
+which were outrivalled by the works from the Continent, and it was
+distress that caused the plea for protection.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 79.
+    Pall of the Vintners' Company (sixteenth century).]
+
+It is fair to say that some of the English works of that time, of
+which we have specimens, are as good as possible. In the Dunstable
+pall, for instance, the figures of which are perfectly drawn and
+beautifully executed, the style is excellent and pure English (plate
+78). The pall itself is of Florentine crimson velvet and gold brocade,
+with the little loops of gold drawn through the velvet, showing the
+loom from whence it came. The white satin border carries the
+embroidery. It is a more perfect specimen of the later fourteenth
+century work than the famous pall of the Fishmongers' Company, which
+shows the impress of the Flemish taste, which was at its perfection in
+the fifteenth. The style reminds us of that of the fine tapestries
+from the St. Mary's Hall, Coventry, of which the subject is King Henry
+VI. and Cardinal Beaufort praying. The Vintners' Company's pall is
+also very fine (plate 79).
+
+  [Illustration: Henry VII.'s Cope from Stoneyhurst]
+
+Of the time of Henry VII. we have the celebrated cope of Stoneyhurst,
+woven in Florence, of a gold tissue, the design raised in crimson
+velvet. It is without seam, and the composition which covers the whole
+surface is the crown of England lying on the portcullis; and the Tudor
+rose fills up the space with a magnificent scroll. The design is
+evidently English, as well as the embroidery, which is, however, much
+restored[597] (plate 80).
+
+This is one of the "whole suite of vestments and copes of cloth of
+gold tissue wrought with our badges of red roses and portcullises, the
+which we of late caused to be made at Florence in Italy ... which our
+king, Henry VII., in his will bequeathed to God and St. Peter, and to
+the Abbot and Prior of our Monastery at Westminster,"[598] which were
+designed for him by Torrigiano.
+
+From the portraits of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries we can
+judge of the prevailing taste in dress embroideries of that period,
+which consisted mostly of delicate patterns of gold or silver on the
+borders of dresses, and the linen collars and sleeves. Of this style I
+give a small sampler, from Lord Middleton's collection. We have a good
+many specimens of the work of these centuries, both ecclesiastical and
+secular. They had still a Gothic stamp, which totally disappeared in
+the beginning of the sixteenth century in the new style of the
+Renaissance.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 27.
+    Sampler, from Lord Middleton's collection.
+    Time, Henry VIII.]
+
+The next great change throughout northern Europe affecting all the
+conditions of life, most especially in England, was caused by the
+Reformation, which swept away both the art and the artist of the
+Gothic era. The monasteries which had fostered painting, illumination,
+and embroidery, and the arts which had been so passionately devoted to
+the Church, were doomed. George Gifford, writing to Cromwell of the
+suppression of a religious house at Woolstrope, in Lincolnshire, after
+praising that establishment says, "There is not one religious person
+there, but what _can_ and _doth_ use either embrotheryng, wryting
+bookes with a fayre hand, making garments, karvynge, &c."[599]
+
+In the general clearance the churches and shrines were swept, though
+never again garnished, and the survivals have to be painfully sought
+for, and are so few that a short catalogue will tell them all.
+
+The greater part of the fine embroideries which escaped the
+"iconoclastic rage" of the Reformation, and the final sweep of the
+Puritans, are to be seen now in the houses and chapels of the old
+Roman Catholic families, who have either preserved or collected them;
+also in the museums of our cathedrals, and spread about the Continent.
+For instance, at Sens are the vestments of Thomas à Becket, and at
+Valencia, in Spain, there are yet in the chapter-house a chasuble and
+two dalmatics, brought from London by two merchants of Valencia, whose
+names are preserved--Andrew and Pedro de Medina. They purchased them
+at the sale of the Roman Catholic ornaments of Westminster Abbey in
+the time of Henry VIII. They are embroidered in gold, and represent
+scenes from the life of our Lord. The background of one is a
+representation of the Tower of London.
+
+In 1520 was held the famous tournament of the Field of the Cloth of
+Gold.[600] Here came all England's chivalry surrounding their splendid
+young king; followed by squires and men-at-arms, and carrying with
+them tents, banners, and hangings covered with devices and mottoes.
+Their own dresses, of rich materials and adorned with embroidery (as
+well as the housings of their horses), vied in ingenuity and splendour
+with those of the still more luxurious court and following of Francis
+I., the French king. The tradesmen and workmen and workwomen in
+England were driven crazy in their efforts to carry out the ideas and
+commands of their employers. It is recorded that several committed
+suicide in their despair. It was worse than the miseries caused by a
+Court Drawing-Room now. Ingenuity in devices was the order of the day.
+Francis and his "Partners of Challenge" illustrated one sentimental
+motto throughout the three days' tourney. The first day they were
+apparelled in purple satin, "broched" with gold, and covered with
+black-ravens' feathers, buckled into a circle. The first syllable of
+"corbyn" (a raven) is _cor_, a "hart" (heart). A feather in French is
+_pennac_. "And so it stode." The feather in a circle was endless, and
+"betokened sothe fastnesse." Then was the device "Hart fastened in
+pain endlesse."
+
+The next day the "Hardy Kings" met armed at all points. The French
+king and his followers were arrayed in purple satin, broched with gold
+and purple velvet, embroidered with little rolls of white satin, on
+which was written "Quando;" all the rest was powdered with the letter
+L--"Quando Elle" (when she). The third day the motto was laboriously
+brought to a conclusion. Francis appeared dressed in purple velvet
+embroidered with little white open books; "Liber" being a book, the
+motto on it was, "A me." These books were connected with worked blue
+chains; thus we have the whole motto: "Hart, fastened in pain
+endlesse, when she delivereth me not of bondes." Could painful
+ingenuity go further? On the English side we have similar devices.
+Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, the bridegroom of the Dowager Queen of
+France, Henry's sister, was clothed on one side in cloth of frise
+(grey woollen), on which appeared embroidered in gold the motto,--
+
+    "Cloth of frise, be not too bold
+    That thou be match'd with cloth of gold."
+
+This parti-coloured garment was on the other side of gold, with the
+motto,--
+
+    "Cloth of gold, do not despise
+    That thou be match'd with cloth of frise."
+
+Besides mottoes, cyphers and monograms were the fashion, embroidered
+with heraldic devices. These particulars we find in Hall's account of
+the tournament, with a detailed description of the golden tent in
+which the monarchs met, and which gave its name ever after to the
+plain near Guisnes, where the jousts were held. What we read of its
+construction recalls the Alexandrian erections, of which I have spoken
+already, as well as their hangings and embroideries.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 81.
+    English Specimens of Spanish Work. Time of Henry VIII. Lord
+        Middleton's Collection.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 82.
+    English Specimen. Spanish Work. Henry VIII. Louisa, Lady Waterford's
+        Collection.]
+
+Incrustations of pearls and precious stones gave a dazzling brilliancy
+to the tent, divided into many rooms, and adapted to the climate of
+the north. It covered a space of 328 feet. Hall describes the tent,
+the jousts, and the splendid apparel belonging to this last chapter of
+the magnificence of chivalry. Brewer remarks that magnificence was, in
+those days, often supposed to be synonymous with magnanimity (at any
+rate, it was erected into a royal virtue). "The Mediæval Age," he
+says, "had gathered up its departing energies for this last display of
+its favourite pastime, henceforth to be consigned without regret to
+the mouldering lodges of the past."[601]
+
+We cannot say how much of French taste was imported from this meeting
+of French and English luxury. The spirit of the Renaissance, fresh
+from Italy, was reigning in France, but we had also in Italy our own
+emissaries. John of Padua was probably only one of many Englishmen who
+travelled to learn and improve themselves in their special crafts.
+
+Catherine of Aragon introduced the Spanish taste in embroidery, which
+was then white or black silk and gold "lace stitches" on fine linen
+(plate 81). This went by the name of "Spanish work," and continued to
+be the fashion down to and through the reign of Mary Tudor, who
+remained faithful to the traditions of her mother's and her
+grandmother's work[602] (plate 82). Catherine of Aragon had learned
+her craft from her mother, Queen Isabella, who always made her
+husband's shirts. To make and adorn a shirt was then an artistic feat,
+not unworthy of a queen. Isabella instituted trials of needlework
+amongst her ladies. In the days of her disgrace and solitude,
+Catherine turned to her embroidery for solace and occupation. She came
+forth to meet the Cardinals Wolsey and Campeggio with a skein of red
+silk round her neck.[603] Taylor, the water poet, says,--
+
+                    "Virtuously,
+    Although a queen, her days did pass
+    In working with her needle curiously."
+
+At Silbergh Castle, in Westmoreland, was a counterpane and toilet
+embroidered by Queen Catherine.
+
+Anne of Cleves brought with her the taste for Flemish and German
+Renaissance designs; and all the cushion stitches were in vogue. The
+Renaissance borders for dress were mostly worked in gold on coloured
+silk on the linen collars and cuffs. Holbein's and other contemporary
+portraits illustrate this peculiarity of the costumes of the time. The
+women's head-dresses also carried much fine, beautifully designed, and
+delicate work.
+
+In the reign of Henry VIII. fine hangings were worked and woven in
+England; the royal inventories give us an idea to what extent.
+Cardinal Wolsey's walls were covered with splendid embroideries,
+besides the suites of tapestries still adorning the hall at Hampton
+Court. One room was hung with embroidered cloth of gold.
+
+Mary Tudor, as I have said, was Spanish in all her tastes, and we
+have lists of her "smocks" all worked in Spanish stitches, black and
+gold, or black silk only.[604] This taste, following the political
+tendencies of the time, entirely disappeared under Elizabeth. It
+survives, however, in peasant dress in the Low Countries.
+
+Queen Elizabeth spent much of her time in needlework. She herself had
+received the education of a man, as well as her cousin, Lady Jane
+Grey; and doubtless many women were taught at that time Greek and
+Latin, and to study philosophy, mathematics, and the science of music,
+as a training for serious life. Elizabeth studied and embroidered too;
+at any rate, she stood godmother to many pieces of embroidery, which
+are to be seen still in the houses she visited or occupied.
+
+While at Ashridge, and afterwards as a prisoner at Hatfield, she so
+employed herself; and among the specimens of work of the sixteenth
+century exhibited at South Kensington in 1873, were her shoes and cap,
+worked in purl, a semainière in the same stitch, also cushion-covers
+in divers cushion stitches, and a portmonnaie in exquisitely fine
+satin-stitch; all of which articles, and many more, were left by her
+at Ashridge when she was hurried away in the dead of night to
+Hatfield.[605]
+
+The character of the Renaissance of the sixteenth century, just
+released from the trammels of Gothic traditions, was somewhat lawless
+in England, being unchastened by the classical element which entirely
+controlled the movement in Italy.
+
+The queen's dress soon departed from the severe simplicity which she
+at first affected, and every part of her costume was covered with
+flowers, fruit, and symbolical designs; while serpents, crowns,
+chains, roses, eyes and ears crowded the surfaces of the fine
+materials of her dresses. These symbolical designs were rich without
+grace, and ingenious rather than artistic, although their workmanship
+was perfect. In Louisa, Lady Waterford's collection we find a jacket
+for a slight girl's figure, of white linen, covered with flowers,
+fruit, and berries, all carried out in satin and lace stitches. There
+are butterflies with their wings disengaged from the ground; pods
+bursting open and showing the round seeds or peas; caterpillars
+stuffed and raised; all these astonish us by their quaint perfection,
+and shock us by their naturalistic crudeness of design, and the utter
+want of beauty or taste in the whole effect. The impression left on
+the mind is, how dear it must have cost the pocket of the purchaser
+and the eyes of the workers. There are, however, exceptions to these
+defective poor designs; and in the same collection is a cushion-cover
+worked in gold and silver plate, purl and silk, on a red satin ground,
+which is as good as possible in every respect, and is purely English
+in style. The stitches and materials are most refined and varied.
+Purl, which was a newly made material imported from Italy and Germany,
+was then in much vogue, and we have seen a few fine specimens of it,
+that have been imitated from the Italian cinque-cento raised and
+stuffed needlework, which are very curious and almost very
+beautiful,--only one feels that the same effect could have been
+produced by simpler means. This work is characteristic of the reigns
+of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and James I. We have needlework of another
+most unhappy queen of this date. Poor Mary, Queen of Scots, tried to
+soften Elizabeth's heart towards her prisoner by little gifts of her
+own embroideries.[606]
+
+We have no account of the cause of the incorporation of the
+Embroiderers' Company by Queen Elizabeth,[607] in the third year of
+her reign, Oct. 25th, 1561, confirmed by James II., April 12th, 1686,
+which is still a London guild. It received the lions of England as a
+special favour. The arms are thus blazoned: "Palée of six argent and
+azure on a fess gules, between three lions of England pass. gardant
+or. Three broches in saltire between as many trundles (i.e. quills of
+gold thread), or. Crest: on a wreath a heart; the holy dove displayed
+argent, radiated or. Supporters: two lions or (guttée de sang). Motto:
+'Omnia Desuper.' Hall, 20, Gutter Lane." There were branches,
+incorporated and bearing the arms, at Bristol and Chester, in 1780.
+(See Appendix.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 28.
+    Arms of Embroiderers' Guild.]
+
+In the reign of James I. it was the fashion to do portraits in
+needlework, stitched flat or raised. Some are artistic in design and
+execution, but they are mostly ridiculously bad.
+
+The East India Company was founded in 1560, under Elizabeth, and
+obtained the monopoly of the Anglo-Indian trade, under Cromwell, in
+1634. This would have been the moment for encouraging a fresh
+importation of Oriental taste into our degenerate art. Cromwell's own
+service of plate was scratched over ("graffito") with a childish and
+weak semi-Indian, semi-Chinese design; and we must accept this as
+typical of the artistic Oriental knowledge of that day. Grafted on the
+style of James I., it shows, however, that Indian ideas were creeping
+in and sought for, if not understood in high places, under the
+auspices of the East India Company. Needlework alone was excluded from
+all benefit. From that date, for 150 years, Indian manufactures
+were imported, _with the exception of embroidery_, which was
+contraband by the ancient statutes. This accounts for our faint and
+ignorant imitations of Indian work, and the extreme rarity of the true
+specimens to be met with in England, unless of a later period.
+
+  [Illustration: Cushion cover Temp. Queen Elizabeth
+    XVI. Century]
+
+But our Aryan instincts have always led our English tastes towards
+conventional naturalism. Although we have lost the rules and
+traditions which converted natural objects into patterns, we are
+continually, in our style, leaning and groping in their direction, and
+twining flowers, those of the field by preference, into
+semi-conventional garlands and posies.
+
+In the seventeenth century, when James I. was king, protection had
+done its worst. The style of work called "embroidery on the stamp" was
+then the fashion. This sort of work in Italy continued to be artistic,
+but the English specimens that have survived from this reign are
+mostly very ugly. Continental art had ceased to influence us, and bad
+taste reigned supreme, except in our architecture, which had
+crystallized into a picturesque style of our own called "James I.,"
+and was the outcome of the last Gothic of Henry VIII. and the Italian
+style of Edward VI. and Elizabeth. But the carvings of that phase of
+architecture were semi-barbarous. Nothing could have been poorer than
+their composition, or coarser than their execution, and the needlework
+of the day followed suit. Infinite trouble and ingenuity were wasted
+on looking-glass frames, picture frames, and caskets worked in purl,
+gold, and silver. The subjects were ambitious Solomon and the Queen of
+Sheba, and James and Anne of Denmark,[608] and other historical
+figures were stuffed with cotton or wool, and raised into high
+relief; and then dressed and "garnished" with pearls; the faces either
+in painted satin or fine satin stitch; the hair and wigs in purl or
+complicated knotting. Windsor Castle as a background for King James
+and King Solomon alike, pointed the clumsy allegory, and the lion of
+England gambolling in the foreground, amid flowers and coats-of-arms,
+filled up the composition.
+
+The drawing and design were childish, and show us how high art can in
+a century or less slip back into no art at all. Any one comparing the
+Dunstable or the Fishmongers' pall with one of the best caskets of
+this period would say that the latter should have preceded the former
+by centuries. In James I.'s time, ignorance of all rules of
+composition was added to the absence of any sort of style.[609] I give
+the illustrations of the time of James I. Plate 83 is a cushion from
+Hatfield House, rich and rather foolish, with tiny men filling in the
+corners left vacant by large flowers, caterpillars, &c.
+
+Charles I. gave a raised embroidered cope to the Chapter of Durham, of
+this description of work.[610]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 84.
+    English embroidered curtain (James I.), at Cockayne Hatley, Beds.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 85.
+    Embroidered Hangings. Crewels on Linen. Hardwicke Hall.]
+
+The other fashionable work of that day had its merits. It was the
+custom to embroider hangings or linen in crewels. Considering how
+often in this book and my preceding lectures I have said that this
+style of work was common (even in the early days of Egypt and
+Assyria), it may well be said, when was it _not_ the fashion? and I
+must answer, "only since the days of Queen Anne." It seems as if
+before that time our designs for work were partially influenced by the
+fine Indian specimens which had surreptitiously crept into England.
+Some of these are very cleverly executed. Huge conventional trees grow
+from a green strip of earth carrying every variety of leaf and flower
+done in many stitches. The individual leaf or flower is often very
+beautiful. On the bank below, small deer and lions disport themselves,
+and birds twice their size perch on the branches (plate 84).[611] But
+even where the work is finest, the incongruities are too annoying. The
+modern excuse for it, "that it is quaint," does not reconcile us to
+its extravagant effect. To be quaint in art is, as I have said before,
+to be funny without intending it; and these curtains are funny by
+their absence of all intention or perspective, and when hung they
+make everything in the room look disproportionate to the unnatural
+size of the foliage. (Plate 85.) Specimens of this work are to be
+found in most English country houses. It has lasted till now, partly
+because the crewels first manufactured in the sixteenth century were
+of an excellent quality, and secondly, because there was no gold to
+make it worth any one's while to destroy them; so the old hangings
+went up into the attics in all the disgrace of shabbiness, and have
+come down again as family relics. Even the moths have been deprived of
+their prey, by these curtains having served for the beds of the
+household, so that they have been kept for their nearly 300 years of
+existence, aired and dusted. Much of this work has been recovered from
+farmhouses and cottages in tolerable preservation. In many cases the
+flowers have survived the stout linen grounds on which they were
+worked. The Royal School of Needlework has often been commissioned to
+restore and transfer the crewel trees on to a new backing. The
+hangings and the curtains I have described, prevailed from the end of
+Elizabeth's reign to that of Queen Anne, and gradually deteriorated.
+The stitches, of which the variety at first was infinite, had given
+place to a coarse uniform stem stitch--"gobble stitch." The materials
+also were of inferior quality, and less durable, so that the latest
+specimens are in general in the worst condition.
+
+It is remarkable how little the beautiful Continental work influenced
+our English school. We were enjoying perfect protection, and were
+clumsily taking advantage of our security from all competition. In the
+Italian palaces this was the moment of the finest secular embroideries
+in satin stitches, gold and silver, and "inlaid" and "onlaid"
+appliqués. Likewise in Spain and Portugal the Oriental work,
+especially that executed at Goa, filled the palaces and the convents
+with gorgeous hangings, carpets, table-covers, and bed furniture. We
+feel it painful to contrast with these our own shortcomings in art,
+and our faded glories.
+
+The fact is, that, owing to our art-killing protectionist laws,
+embroidery had the misfortune to be treated at that time as textile
+manufacture, and not as art at all.
+
+In the reign of William and Mary, Dutch taste had naturally been
+brought to the front.[612] This included Japanese art, or imitations
+of it, and also had something of late Spanish. The Georges brought
+into England, and naturalized a rather heavy work, in gold and
+silver--the design being decidedly a German "Louis Quatorze"--richly
+stitched and heavily fringed, and much employed on court dresses and
+on state furniture. We have seen royal beds and court suits which show
+very little difference in style. It does not appear that this was
+worked by ladies. It has, somehow, a professional look.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 29.
+    Part of James II.'s Coronation Dress.
+    From an old Print.]
+
+Occasionally, however, we meet with pieces of exceptionally beautiful
+work of the end of the seventeenth and early part of the eighteenth
+centuries. The style is the most refined Louis Quatorze, but the work
+is actually English. The white satin coverlets belonging to the
+Marquis of Bath and the Duke of Leeds are not to be exceeded in
+delicacy and splendour. The embroidered dresses of the Duke and
+Duchess of Buckingham, in Westminster Abbey (early eighteenth
+century) are of this description.
+
+From Queen Anne to George III., a great deal of furniture was covered
+with the different cushion stitches, either in geometrical or
+kaleidoscope patterns, or else displaying groups of flowers or
+figures, quaint and sometimes pretty. These designs are generally,
+however, wanting in grace, and their German feeling shows them to be
+the precursors of the Berlin wool patterns.
+
+When the crewel-work hangings ceased to be the fashion, home work took
+another direction. All the ladies imitated Indian dimity patterns, on
+muslin, in coloured silks or thread, with the tambour-frame and
+needle;[613] but in 1707 the "Broiderers' Company," we presume, found
+that the Indian manufactures were engrossing the market, and a fresh
+statute was obtained, forbidding the importation from India of any
+wrought material. This cruel prohibition carried its own punishment.
+The Indian trade was ours, and we might have adapted and assimilated
+the Indian taste for design. We might have brought over men and women
+great in their most ancient craft, and so produced the most splendid
+Indo-English School. The Portuguese at least sent out their own silks
+and satins to be worked at Goa; _we_ threw away our chance, and signed
+the death-warrant of our art.
+
+About the middle of the last century, several ladies, notably Miss
+Linwood, Miss Moritt, of Rokeby, and Mrs. Delany, copied pictures in
+worsteds. Some of these are wonderfully clever and even very pretty,
+but they are rather a painful effort of pictorial art under
+difficulties, than legitimate embroideries. These pictures would have
+served the purpose of decoration better as medallions in the centres
+of arabesque panels, than framed and glazed in imitation of oil
+paintings. Some of the followers of this school produced works that
+are shocking to all artistic sense, especially as seen now, when the
+moths have spoiled them. They can only be classed with such abortive
+attempts at decoration as glass cases filled with decayed stuffed
+birds, and vases of faded and broken wax flowers.
+
+I may record with praise the efforts of Mrs. Pawsey,[614] a lady who
+started a school of needlework at Aylesbury. She was patronized by
+Queen Charlotte; and for her she worked the beautiful bed at Hampton
+Court, of purple satin, with wreaths of flowers in crewels touched up
+with silk, which look as if they might have been copied from the
+flower-pieces of a Dutch master. The execution is very fine, and
+reminds one of the best French work of the same period. Mrs. Pawsey
+taught and helped ladies to embroider in silk and chenille, as well as
+crewels, and in many country houses we can recognize specimens of her
+style; usually on screens worked in silk and chenille, with bunches of
+flowers in vases or baskets, artistically designed.
+
+This was our last attempt at excellence, immediately followed by the
+total collapse of our decorative needlework, and the advent of the
+Berlin wool patterns.
+
+
+POSTSCRIPT.
+
+A postscript to this chapter will perhaps be acceptable to those who
+have taken an interest in the "History of English Embroidery," and who
+will therefore care to know about the revival which has filled so many
+workshops with what is now called "Art Needlework."
+
+There was a public demand for something better than the worsted
+patterns in the trade, and the Royal School of Art Needlework rose and
+tried to respond to that call by stimulating original ideas and
+designs, and imitating old ones in conformity with modern
+requirements. The difficulties to be overcome were at first very
+great. The old stitches had all to be learned and then taught, and the
+best methods to be selected; the proper materials had to be studied
+and obtained--sometimes they had to be manufactured. Lastly, beautiful
+tints had to be dyed; avoiding, as much as possible, the gaudy and the
+evanescent.
+
+The project of such a school was first conceived in the autumn of
+1872.
+
+Lady Welby, herself an accomplished embroideress, had the courage to
+face all the difficulties of such an undertaking. A small apartment
+was hired in Sloane Street, and Mrs. Dolby, who was already an
+authority on ecclesiastical work, gave her help. Twenty young ladies
+were selected, and several friends joined heartily in fostering the
+movement.
+
+H.R.H. the Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein gave her name as
+President, and her active co-operation.[615]
+
+The school grew so fast, that for want of space for the work-frames,
+it had to remove into a larger house, No. 31, Sloane Street, and
+finally in the year 1875 it found its present home in Exhibition Road,
+when the Queen became its Patron. In 1878 the Association was
+incorporated under the Board of Trade, with a Managing and a Finance
+Committee, and a salaried manager to overlook the whole concern.
+
+From 100 to 150 ladies at a time have there received employment. Their
+claims were poverty, gentle birth, and sufficient capacity to enable
+them to support themselves and be educated to teach others.
+
+Branch schools have been started throughout the United Kingdom and in
+America.[616]
+
+The education of the school has been much assisted by the easy access
+to the fine collections of ancient embroideries in the Kensington
+Museum, and by the loan exhibition of old artistic work, which was
+there organized in 1875, at the suggestion of H.R.H. the President;
+and since then there have been three very interesting loan exhibitions
+in the rooms of the Royal School.
+
+It was, indeed, necessary that the acting members should avail
+themselves of every means of instruction, in order to fit themselves
+for the task they had undertaken. They were expected at once to be
+competent to judge all old work, to name its style and date, and even
+sometimes its market value. They were to be able to repair and add to
+all old work; to know and teach every stitch, ancient and modern; and
+produce designs for any period, Gothic, Renaissance, Elizabethan,
+James I., or Queen Anne; besides contemporary European work,--all
+different, and each requiring separate study.
+
+Some important works have been produced which will illustrate what has
+been said:--
+
+    1. A suite of window curtains for her Majesty, at
+    Windsor (style, nineteenth century; sunflowers).
+
+    2. Curtains for a drawing-room for the Duchess of
+    Buccleuch: crimson velvet and gold appliqué (Louis
+    Quatorze).
+
+    3. Curtain for Louisa, Lady Ashburton: coloured silk
+    embroidery on white satin (Venetian, sixteenth century).
+
+    4. Curtain, also for Louisa, Lady Ashburton: brown
+    velvet and gold appliqué (_Italian_).
+
+    5. Dado for the Hon. Mrs. Percy Wyndham: linen and
+    crewels. Peacocks and vines (_Mediæval_).
+
+    6. Furnishings and hangings for state bedroom for
+    Countess Cowper, Panshanger: crimson satin, embroidered
+    and coloured silks (_Chinese_).
+
+    7. Curtains for music gallery for Mr. Arthur Balfour:
+    blue silk, appliqué, velvet, and gold (_Italian_).
+
+The earnest attempt to produce an artistic school of embroidery met
+with recognition and help from the highest authorities. Sir F.
+Leighton granted permission for appeals to his judgment. Mr. Burne
+Jones, Mr. Morris, Mr. Walter Crane, and Mr. Wade gave original
+designs.
+
+We cannot guess whether the taste which has sprung up again so
+suddenly will last. Perhaps its catholicity may prolong its
+popularity, and something absolutely new in style may be evolved,
+which shall revive the credit of the "opus Anglicanum." Of one thing
+we may be sure--that it is inherent in the nature of Englishwomen to
+employ their fingers. And the busy as well as the ignorant need a
+guide to the principles of design, as well as the technical details of
+the art of embroidery. This should be supplied by the Royal School of
+Art Needlework, which by inculcating careful drawing, by reviving old
+traditions and criticizing fresh ideas, becomes a guarantee for the
+improvement of domestic decorative design.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [555] "The people of Babylon, the Accadians, had a
+    written literature and a civilization superior to that
+    of the conquering Assyrians, who borrowed their art of
+    writing, and probably their culture, which may have been
+    the centre and starting-point of the western
+    civilization of Asia, and therefore the origin of our
+    own. Accadian civilization was anterior to that of the
+    Phœnicians and the Greeks, and is now received in
+    these later years as the original form, and become again
+    the heritage of mankind. It has been said that Assyrian
+    art was destitute of originality, and to that of the
+    Accadians, which they adopted, we ourselves owe our
+    first customs and ideas. Four thousand years ago these
+    people possessed a culture which in many of its details
+    resembles that of our country and time."--"Assyrian Life
+    and History," p. 66, by M. Harkness and Stuart Poole.
+
+    [556] "The arts of spinning and the manufacture of linen
+    were introduced into Europe and drifted into Britain in
+    the Neolithic Age. They have been preserved with but
+    little variation from that period down to the present
+    day in certain remote parts of Europe, and have only
+    been superseded in modern times by the complicated
+    machinery so familiar to us.... The spindle and distaff
+    are proved by the perforated spindle-whorls, made of
+    stone, pottery, or bone, commonly met with in Neolithic
+    habitations or tombs. The thread is proved, by
+    discoveries in the Swiss lakes, to have been made of
+    flax; and the combs that have been found for pushing the
+    threads of the warp on the weft show that it was woven
+    into linen on some sort of loom."--Boyd Dawkins' "Early
+    Man in Britain," p. 275.
+
+    [557] I am aware that the presence of the Phœnicians
+    (or Carthaginians) on our coasts has been disputed; but
+    I think that the evidence of the Etruscan ornaments I
+    have mentioned gives more than probability to the truth
+    of Pliny's account of the expedition of Himilco from
+    Gades, 500 B.C. By some he is supposed to have been a
+    contemporary of Hanno, and of the third century B.C.
+    There is some confusion in the imperfect record of the
+    voyage; but it is difficult to interpret it otherwise
+    than that he touched at several points north of Gaul.
+    (See Boyd Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain," pp. 457-461;
+    see also Perrot and Chipiez, "L'Histoire de l'Art dans
+    l'Antiquité," t. iii.; "Phénicie et Cypre," p. 48.) For
+    a contrary opinion, see Elton's "Origins of English
+    History." Elton ascribes the first knowledge of the
+    British islands to the voyage of Pytheas in the fourth
+    century B.C.; he acknowledges that the geography of
+    Britain was well known to the Greeks in the time of
+    Alexander the Great. We owe to Pliny and Strabo the few
+    fragments from Pytheas that have been rescued from
+    oblivion, and to Pliny the notices of Himilco. (See
+    Bouillet's "Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Géographie.")
+
+    [558] See Rock's Introduction to "Textile Fabrics," p.
+    xii.
+
+    [559] I give the following amusing tradition, which was
+    probably founded on the celebrity of the English pearl
+    embroidery of the Anglo-Saxon times, of which much went
+    to Rome:--
+
+    "Then Cæsar, like a conqueror, with a great number of
+    prisoners sailed into France, and so to Rome, where
+    after his return out of Brytaine, hee consecrated to
+    Venus a surcote of Brytaine pearles, the desire whereof
+    partly moved him to invade this country."--(Stow's
+    "Annales," p. 14, ed. 1634.) Tacitus, in the Agricola
+    12, says that British pearls are grey and livid.
+
+    [560] See Rock's Introduction to "Textile Fabrics," p.
+    xii.
+
+    [561] These are the poor results of the Roman invasion
+    and neglect of Britain during their occupation. The
+    second invasion of Britain by the Romans, under
+    Claudius, was caused by the squabbles between the chiefs
+    of the different tribes. Comnenus, the prince of the
+    Atrebates, was at war with the sons of Cunobelinus
+    (Cymbeline). He took his grievances to Rome, and the
+    Roman legions were despatched to settle the matter, and
+    to dazzle the world by the echoes rather than the facts
+    of the triumphant victories in the land of the "wintry
+    pole." Claudius marched with elephants clad in mail, and
+    bearing turrets filled with slingers and bowmen,
+    accompanied by Belgic pikemen and Batavians from the
+    islands in the Rhine, A.D. 44. The dress of Claudius on
+    his return from Britain was purple, with an ivory
+    sceptre and crown of gold oak leaves. One officer alone
+    was entitled to wear a tunic embroidered with golden
+    palms, in token of a former victory. The Celts, the
+    Gauls, the Gaels, the Picts, the Scots, and the
+    Saxons,--all crowded and settled in Britain when the
+    Romans left it in 410, after nearly four hundred years
+    of misgovernment. (See Elton's "Origins of English
+    History," pp. 306-308.)
+
+    [562] Semper, "Der Stil," pp. 133, 134. See Louis
+    Viardot, "Des Origines Traditionnelles de la Peinture en
+    Italie" (Paris, 1840), p. 53, note. Also see "Les Ducs
+    de Bourgogne," part ii. vol. ii. p. 243, No. 4092.
+    Muratori was born in 1672; and he says the Empress
+    Helena's work was in existence in the beginning of the
+    eighteenth century. (See p. 316, _ante_.)
+
+    [563] When St. Augustine (546) came to preach to the
+    Anglo-Saxons, he had a banner, fastened to a cross,
+    carried before him, on which was embroidered the image
+    of our Lord. (See Mrs. Lawrence's "Woman in England,"
+    pp. 296, 297.) Probably this was Roman work.
+
+    [564] Quoted by Mrs. Lawrence, "Woman in England," p.
+    49, from one of Adhelme's Latin poems. Adhelme, Bishop
+    of Sherborne, died in 709, having been thirty years a
+    bishop. He wrote Latin poems, of which the most
+    important, in praise of virginity, is in the Lambeth
+    Library, No. 200. The MS. contains his portrait. See
+    Strutt's "English Dresses," ed. Planché.
+
+    [565] An Anglo-Saxon lady named Aedelswitha, living near
+    Whitby, in the sixth century, collected a number of
+    girls and taught them to produce admirable embroideries
+    for the benefit of the monastery. (See Rock's "Church of
+    our Fathers," p. 273; also his Introduction to
+    "Textiles," p. xxvii.) Bock speaks of Hrothgar's
+    tapestries, embroidered with gold, of the thirteenth
+    century. See Appendix 8. But the earliest English
+    tapestry I have seen is that in York Minster, in which
+    are inwoven the arms of Scrope, 1390. Wright says of the
+    Anglo-Saxon women, "In their chamber, besides spinning
+    and weaving, the ladies were employed in needlework and
+    embroidery, and the Saxon ladies were so skilful in this
+    art, that their works were celebrated on the
+    Continent."--"History of Manners in England during the
+    Middle Ages," by Thomas Wright, p. 52.
+
+    [566] See Mrs. Lawrence's "Woman in England," i. p.
+    296-7.
+
+    [567] See Rock's "Church of our Fathers," ii. p. 272,
+    quoting Th. Stubbs. "Acta Pontif. Th. ed. Twysden," 1.
+    ii. p. 1699; also Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. p.
+    212, and p. 325 _ante_.
+
+    [568] Appendix 9.
+
+    [569] This could hardly have been intended originally
+    for an ecclesiastical purpose. It sounds as if it were a
+    stray fragment from Græco-Roman art, rather than a
+    survival of the classical legend employed as a pretty
+    motive for decoration. Wiglaf's veil is named by
+    Ingulphus. See Strutt's "English Dresses," pp. 3, 7. See
+    also "Historia Eliensis," l. 2, ed. Stewart, p. 183.
+
+    [570] See Rock's "Textile Fabrics," p. xxi.; also for
+    Council of Cloveshoe, see his "Church of Our Fathers,"
+    p. 14.
+
+    [571] The Benedictines drained the marshes of
+    Lincolnshire and Somersetshire to employ the poor in the
+    eighth century. St. Bennet travelled to France and
+    Italy, and brought back from his seven journeys cunning
+    artificers in _glass_ and stone, besides costly books
+    and copies of the Scriptures, in order (as is expressly
+    said by Bede) that the ignorant might learn from them,
+    as others learned from books. See Mrs. Jameson's
+    "Legends of the Monastic Orders," pp. 56, 57.
+
+    [572] See Raine's "St. Cuthbert," pp. 50-209. Mr. Raine
+    describes it as being "of woven gold, with spaces left
+    vacant for needlework embroidery." Beautifully drawn
+    majestic figures stand in niches on rainbow-coloured
+    clouds, and the effect is that of an illumination of the
+    ninth century. The style is rather Greek or Byzantine
+    than Anglo-Saxon. For further notices of St. Cuthbert's
+    relics, see chapter on Materials, _ante_; also see
+    Rock's "Introduction," p. cxvii.
+
+    [573] Appendix 10.
+
+    [574] See "Calendar of the Anglican Church," by J. H.
+    Parker (1851): "St. Dunstan was not only a patron of the
+    useful and fine arts, but also a great proficient in
+    them himself; and his almost contemporary biographers
+    speak of him as a poet, painter, and musician, and so
+    skilled a worker in metals that he made many of the
+    church vessels in use at Glastonbury."
+
+    [575] See Rock's "Church of our Fathers," p. 270.
+
+    [576] Strutt's "English Dresses," p. 70, quoted from
+    Ingulphus' "History of Croyland Abbey."
+
+    [577] Shot, or iridescent materials, were then and had
+    been some time manufactured at Tinnis in Egypt, a city
+    now effaced. It was called "bouqualemoun," and employed
+    for dresses and hangings for the Khalifs. See Schefer's
+    "Relations du Voyage de Nassiri Khosrau," p. cxi. The
+    original was written in the middle of the eleventh
+    century.
+
+    [578] See Duchêsne's "Historiæ Normanorum." Fol. Paris,
+    1519.
+
+    [579] Queen Matilda was not the originator of the idea
+    that a hero's deeds might be recorded by his wife's
+    needle. Penelope wove the deeds of Ulysses on her loom,
+    and it is suggested by Aristarchus that her peplos
+    served as an historical document for Homer's "Iliad."
+    See Rossignol's "Les Artistes Homériques," pp. 72, 73,
+    cited by Louis de Ronchaud in his "La Tapisserie," p.
+    32. Gudrun, like the Homeric woman, embroidered the
+    history of Siegfried and his ancestors, and Aelfled that
+    of the achievements of her husband, Duke Brithnod. The
+    Saga of Charlemagne is said to have been embroidered on
+    twenty-six ells of linen, and hung in a church in
+    Iceland.
+
+    [580] Domesday ed. Record Commission, under head of
+    Roberte de Oilgi, in co. Buckingham. See also another
+    entry under Wilts, where "Leivede" is spoken of as
+    working auriphrigium for King Edward and his Queen.
+
+    [581] Canon Jackson, writing of embroidery, says: "That
+    this was cared for in the great monasteries at this
+    early date appears from a MS. register of Glastonbury
+    Abbey in the possession of the Marquis of Bath. It is
+    called the Liber Henrici de Soliaco, and gives an
+    account of the affairs of that abbey in A.D. 1189
+    (Richard I.)." There was a special official whose
+    business it was to provide the monastery with church
+    ornaments generally, and specially with "aurifrigium,"
+    or gold embroidery, on vestments. For this a house and
+    land, with an annual allowance of food, was set apart.
+    Another tenant also held some land, to which was
+    attached the obligation to find a "worker in
+    gold."--Letter from Canon Jackson to the Author.
+
+    [582] See Mrs. Lawrence's "Woman in England," vol. i. p.
+    360. She quotes an entry from Madox, a sum of £80 (equal
+    to £1400 of to-day) for an embroidered robe for the
+    Queen, paid by the Sheriffs of London.
+
+    [583] Matthew Paris, "Vit. Abb. St. Albani." p. 46;
+    Rock, "Church of our Fathers," vol ii. p. 278.
+
+    [584] See Mrs. Dolby's Introduction to "Church
+    Vestments."
+
+    [585] Strutt's "Royal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of
+    England," ed. mdcclxxiii.
+
+    [586] Though the work was domestic, the materials came
+    from the East and the South; and while the woven gold of
+    Sicily and Spain was merely base metal on gilded
+    parchment, our laws were directed to the preservation of
+    pure metals for textile purposes.
+
+    [587] Matthew Paris, "Hist. Angl.," p. 473, ed. Paris,
+    1644. See Hartshorne's "Mediæval Embroideries," pp. 23,
+    24.
+
+    [588] The reproduction by the Arundel Society of this
+    picture will familiarize those who care for English art
+    with what is, perhaps, its finest example, next to the
+    crosses of Queen Eleanor. It has been erroneously
+    attributed to Van Eyk, but it is undoubtedly English.
+    That its art is contemporary with the time of Richard
+    II., is shown by the design and motives of the woven
+    materials and embroidery in which the king and his
+    attendant saints are clothed. They remind us of the
+    piece of silk in the Kensington Museum, into which are
+    woven (probably in Sicilian looms) the cognizance of the
+    King's grandfather, the sun with rays; that of his
+    mother Joan, the white hart; and his own, his dog Math.
+    This is a good example of the value of an individual
+    pattern. It helps us to affix dates to other specimens
+    of similar style.
+
+    [589] See Miss Strickland's mention of the Countess of
+    Oxford in her "Life of Queen Elizabeth of York," p. 46.
+
+    [590] From the fragments found, it appeared that King
+    John's mantle was of a strong red silk. Till lately,
+    when it was effaced by being completely gilt, the mantle
+    on the recumbent effigy was of a bright red, bordered
+    with gold and gems. See Greene's "Worcester," p. 3,
+    quoted in the "Report of the Archæological Association
+    of Worcester," p. 53.
+
+    [591] "Notice sur les Attaches d'un Sceau," par M.
+    Léopold Delisle (Paris, 1854); and also Rock's
+    Introduction to "Textile Fabrics," p. xxii.
+
+    [592] The opus Anglicanum often included borders and
+    orphreys set with jewellers' work (or its imitation,
+    worked in gold thread), gems, and pearls.
+
+    [593] Edward III. had from William de Courtenay an
+    embroidered garment, "inwrought with pelicans, images,
+    and tabernacles of gold. The tabernacles were like
+    niches, with pinnacles and roofs."
+
+    [594] Bock, "Liturgische Gewänder," i. p. 211, says
+    there is a piece of opus Anglicanum in the treasury of
+    Aix-la-Chapelle, called the Cope of Leo III.
+
+    [595] For further notice of the "opus Anglicanum," see
+    chapter (_ante_) on ecclesiastical embroideries.
+
+    [596] Appendix 11.
+
+    [597] The orphreys are probably not the original work.
+
+    [598] "Testamenta Vetusta," ed. Nicholas, t. i. p. 33.
+
+    [599] Woolstrope, Lincolnshire. Collier's
+    "Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain," v. p. 3 (ed.
+    Lothbury). This proves that the monks sometimes plied
+    the needle.
+
+    [600] See Hall's "Union of the Houses of York and
+    Lancaster," pp. lxxv-lxxxiii.
+
+    [601] See Brewer's "Reign of Henry VIII.," vol. i. pp.
+    347-376.
+
+    [602] In the Public Record Office is an inventory of
+    Lord Monteagle's property, 1523 A.D.; amongst other
+    things, is named a piece of Spanish work, "eight
+    partletts garnished with gold and black silk work." This
+    Spanish work is rare, but the description reminds us of
+    a specimen belonging to Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford
+    (Plate 82)--a square of linen, worked with ostriches,
+    turkeys, and eagles in gold and black silk stitches. See
+    Mrs. Palliser's "History of Lace," pp. 6, 12.
+
+    [603] Quoted from Cavendish by Miss Strickland, "Queens
+    of England," iv. p. 132.
+
+    [604] "The invalid queen, in her moments of
+    convalescence, soothed her cares and miseries at the
+    embroidery frame. Many specimens of her needlework were
+    extant in the reign of James I., and are thus celebrated
+    by Taylor, the poet of the needle:--
+
+        "'Mary here the sceptre sway'd;
+          And though she were no queen of mighty power,
+        Her memory will never be decay'd,
+          Nor yet her works forgotten. In the Tower,
+        In Windsor Castle, and in Hampton Court,--
+          In that most pompous room called Paradise,--
+        Whoever pleases thither to resort,
+          May see some works of hers of wondrous price.
+        Her greatness held it no disreputation
+          To hold the needle in her royal hand,
+        Which was a good example to our nation
+          To banish idleness throughout the land.
+        And thus this queen in wisdom thought it fit;
+          The needle's work pleased her, and she graced it.'
+
+    "According to Taylor, Mary finished the splendid and
+    elaborate tapestry begun by her mother."--Miss
+    Strickland's "Life of Mary Tudor," v. p. 417.
+
+    [605] "After the action at D'Arbre de Guise, Elizabeth
+    (of England) sent to Henri IV. a scarf embroidered by
+    her own hand. 'Monsieur mon bon frère,' wrote the queen,
+    'its value is naught in comparison to the dignity of the
+    personage for whom it is destined; but I supplicate you
+    to hide its defects under the wings of your good
+    charity, and to accept my little present in remembrance
+    of me.'"--"Henri IV.," by Miss Freer, p. 311.
+
+    [606] In the year 1683 the Marchese Luca Casimiero degl'
+    Albizzi visited England, and his travels were recorded
+    in manuscript by Dr. A. Forzoni. At Windsor he observed
+    over a chimney-piece a finely wrought piece of
+    embroidery--"un educazione di fanciulli"--by the hands
+    of Mary Queen of Scots.--Loftie's "History of Old
+    London;" also article on "Royal Picture Galleries," by
+    George Scharf, p. 361 (1867).
+
+    [607] "The Company of the Embroiderers can make appear
+    by their worthy and famous pieces of art that they have
+    been of ancient use and eminence, as is to be seen in
+    divers places at this day; but in the matter of their
+    incorporation, it hath relation to the fourth year of
+    Queen Elizabeth."--Stow's "Survey of London and
+    Westminster," part ii. p. 216; also see Edmonson's
+    "Heraldry," vol. i. (1780). "The Keepers, Wardens, and
+    Company of the Broiderie of London.... 2 keepers and 40
+    assistants, and the livery consists of 115 members. They
+    have a small but convenient hall in Gutter
+    Lane."--Maitland's "History of London," book iii. p.
+    602.
+
+    [608] The fashion of this work began much earlier, for
+    we find in the inventory of "St. James's House, nigh
+    Westminster," 1549: "42 Item. A table wherein is a man
+    holding a sword in his one hand and a sceptre in his
+    other hand of needlework, partly garnished with seed
+    pearl" (p. 307).
+
+    [609] The merit or blame of this rounded padded work (a
+    caricature of the raised embroidery of the opus
+    Anglicanum) is often erroneously awarded to the "nuns of
+    Little Gidding." The earliest specimens we know of this
+    "embroidery on the stamp" are German. At Coire in the
+    Grisons, at Zurich (see chapter on ecclesiastical art),
+    and in the National Museum at Munich are some very
+    beautiful examples. The Italians also executed elaborate
+    little pictures in this manner; but I cannot praise it
+    however refined in execution or beautiful the design. I
+    have seen no English specimens that are not beneath
+    criticism; they are only funny.
+
+    [610] In the Calendar of the State Papers Office
+    (Domestic, Charles I., vol. clxix. p. 12), Mrs. H.
+    Senior sues the Earl of Thomond for £200 per annum, her
+    pay for teaching his daughter needlework. Mrs.
+    Hutchinson, in her Memoir, says she had eight tutors
+    when she was seven years old, and one of them taught her
+    needlework. This shows how highly this accomplishment
+    was still considered in the days of Charles I. and the
+    Commonwealth. Later, Evelyn speaks of the "new bed of
+    Charles II.'s queen, the embroidery of which cost £3000"
+    (Evelyn's Memoirs, January 24, 1687). Evelyn says of his
+    own daughter Susanna, who married William Draper: "She
+    had a peculiar talent in designe, as painting in oil and
+    miniature, and an extraordinary genius for whatever
+    hands can do with a needle." See Evelyn's "Memoirs,"
+    April 27, 1693; also see Mrs. Palliser's "History of
+    Lace," pp. 7, 8.
+
+    [611] The tree-pattern, already common in the latter
+    days of Elizabeth, reappeared on a dress worn by the
+    Duchess of Queensberry, and described by Mrs. Delany;
+    she says, "A white satin embroidered at the bottom with
+    brown hills, covered with all sorts of weeds, and with a
+    brown stump, broken and worked in chenille, and
+    garlanded nasturtiums, honeysuckles, periwinkles,
+    convolvuluses, and weeds, many of the leaves finished
+    with gold." Mrs. Delany does not appreciate this ancient
+    pattern.
+
+    [612] Queen Mary only knotted fringes. Bishop Burnett
+    says: "It was strange to see a queen work so many hours
+    a day." Sir E. Sedley, in his epigram on the "Royal
+    Knotter," says,--
+
+        "Who, when she rides in coach abroad,
+        Is always knotting threads."
+
+    Probably it was the fashion, as Madame de Maintenon
+    always worked during her drives with the king, which
+    doubtless prevented her dying of _ennui_!
+
+    [613] I quote from the _Spectator_, No. 606: "Let no
+    virgin receive her lover, except in a suit of her own
+    embroidery."
+
+    [614] Her style was really legitimate to the art. It was
+    flower-painting with the needle. Miss Moritt copied both
+    figures and landscapes, with wonderful taste and
+    knowledge of drawing. Miss Linwood's and Mrs. Delany's
+    productions are justly celebrated as _tours de force_,
+    but they caused the downfall of the art by leading it on
+    the wrong track.
+
+    [615] Lord Houghton alludes to H.R.H.'s patronage of the
+    revival of embroidery in his paraphrase of the "Story of
+    Arachne," p. 238, _ante_.
+
+    [616] "Opposed to the 'utility stitches' are the art
+    needlework schools that have branched out in many
+    directions from New York.... The impulse that led to
+    their formation was derived from South Kensington
+    (England), and affords a striking instance of the
+    ramifications of an organization."--_Atlantic Monthly_
+    ("Women in Organization"), Sept., 1880.
+
+
+FINIS.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES.
+
+
+APPENDIX I., TO PAGE 105.
+
+_By Ch. T. Newton._
+
+Though the embroidered and richly decorated textile fabrics of the
+ancients have perished, all but a few scraps, we may form some idea of
+the richness and variety of Greek female attire from the evidence of
+the inventories of dedicated articles of dress which have been
+preserved for us in Greek inscriptions.
+
+In the Acropolis at Athens have been found a number of fragments of
+marble on which are inscribed lists of various female garments
+dedicated, for the most part, in the Temple of Artemis Brauronia, in
+the Archonship of Lykurgos, B.C. 338-35. These articles were thus
+carefully registered because they formed part of the treasures
+dedicated to the gods of the Acropolis, which it was the duty of the
+state to guard, and to commit to the custody of officers specially
+selected for that duty. One of these fragments is in the Elgin
+Collection at the British Museum, and has been published by Mr. Hicks
+in the "Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British
+Museum," Part 1, No 34; and the entire series has since been given to
+the world in the "Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum" of the Academy of
+Berlin, ii., Part 2., Nos. 751-65.
+
+The material of these garments seems to have been either linen or fine
+woollen; the colours white, purple, or some shade of red, mostly used
+as a border or in stripes; or a shade of green, the tint of which is
+described as "frog colour," saffron, or sea-green.
+
+The borders and patterns noted remind us of those represented on the
+garments of figures in vase pictures, such as the embattled border,
+the wave pattern, and certain patterns in rectangular compartments. A
+group of Dionysos pouring out a libation while a female serves him
+with wine, and a row of animals, are also noted among the ornaments.
+
+The inscription, "Sacred to Artemis," woven into the fabric of the
+garment, occurs twice. Gold, as an ornament fixed on the dress, is
+mentioned in these entries. It is noted that some of these dresses
+served to deck the statue of the goddess herself. Most of the garments
+are the _chiton_ or tunic, flowing to the feet; the _chitoniskos_, a
+shorter and more ornamental garment worn over it; and the mantle,
+_himation_. Pieces of cloth or rags are also mentioned among the
+entries; these were probably the remnants of cast-off garments
+dedicated by their wearers. Some of the dresses are described as
+embroidered with the needle.
+
+In the worship of the Artemis Brauronia, certain Athenian girls
+between the ages of five and ten were solemnly dedicated to the
+goddess every five years. In publishing the inventory in the British
+Museum already referred to, Mr. Hicks remarks, "It may have been the
+custom sometimes to dedicate to the goddess the garments worn by
+children at their presentation, just as we know that the garments in
+which persons had been initiated at the Greater Eleusinia were worn by
+them until threadbare, and then dedicated to some god. If so, the
+number of children's clothes mentioned in our inventory is easily
+explained. Or were these the clothes of children cut off by Artemis in
+infancy, such as bereaved mothers nowadays often treasure for years,
+having no temple wherein to dedicate them?" Mr. Hicks further remarks
+that it was usual for the bride before marriage to dedicate her girdle
+to Artemis; and at Athens the garments of women who died in childbirth
+were likewise in like manner so dedicated. It is probably on account
+of such dedications that Artemis was styled Chitonè--the goddess of
+the _chiton_.
+
+Another list of vestments is preserved in an inscription found at
+Samos, and published by Carl Curtius in his "Inschriften u. Studien
+zur Geschichte von Samos," pp. 17-21. The garments in this list were
+dedicated to the goddess Herè (Juno) in her celebrated temple at
+Samos. The entries relate chiefly to articles of female attire, but
+some few are dedicated to the god Hermes. Some of these articles were
+doubtless worn by the deities themselves on festive occasions, when
+their statues were decked out. The toilet, _kosmos_, of goddesses was
+superintended by a priestess specially chosen for that purpose. She
+was called _kosmeteira_, or "Mistress of the Robes."
+
+In the Samian list of garments, those which are embroidered or
+ornamented with gold are specially noted. Some of the tunics are
+described as Lydian. Curtains or hangings are also mentioned in this
+list. These must have been used to ornament the interior of the
+temple, or to screen off the statue of the goddess on the days when
+she was withdrawn from the gaze of the profane. Such hangings were,
+probably, a main cause of the conflagrations by which Greek temples
+were from time to time destroyed in spite of the solidity of their
+walls.
+
+
+APPENDIX II., TO PAGE 210.
+
+In the Castle of Moritzburg, built by Augustus the Strong, Elector of
+Saxony and King of Poland, is a quaint apartment, on the walls of
+which are hung rugs of feather-work, of which the borders are adorned
+with set patterns of fruit and flowers, and the colouring is as soft
+as a Gobelins tapestry. The feathers are woven tightly into the warp,
+in the same manner as the tufts are set in a velvety carpet; forming a
+surface as delicate as silk to the touch. There are four high-backed
+chairs covered with the same work in smaller patterns. But what is
+especially remarkable is an immense canopy, like that of a state bed,
+with urn-shaped ornaments of stiff feathers at the corners; and a
+pretty bell-shaped fringe of scarlet feathers. The same ornament edged
+a large rug like those on the wall, thrown over what at first appeared
+to be a bed; but on examination it was found to be a rough wooden
+platform, said to be the throne of Montezuma. The story is that
+Augustus the Strong went to Spain incognito at the age of eighteen, in
+search of adventures, and distinguished himself at a bull-fight. When
+the king (Charles II.) heard the name of the young hero, he gave him a
+hospitable reception, and afterwards sent these Mexican treasures to
+him as a token of friendship.
+
+
+APPENDIX III., TO PAGE 237.
+
+_Story of Arachne, abridged by Earl Cowper from Ovid's Metamorphoses._
+
+    Arachne's tale of grief is full:
+      Her father was of low degree;
+    No thought beyond his crimson'd wool,
+      His daughter and his wife had he.
+
+    The wife had fill'd an early tomb,
+      The daughter lived--and all the land
+    Of Lydia boasted of her loom,
+      Her needle, and her dexterous hand.
+
+    To watch her task the nymphs repair
+      From fair Timolus' vine-clad hill;
+    They deem the work divinely fair,
+      The maid when working fairer still.
+
+    The softness of the fleecy ball,
+      By skilful fingers taught to flow
+    In lengthening lines--they watch'd it all--
+      And round and round the spindle go.
+
+    Wondering, they view the rich design:
+      Ah, luckless gift! ah, foolish pride!
+    'Twas Pallas taught the art divine,
+      But this the haughty maid denied.
+
+    "Me taught," she cried, "by Pallas! Me
+      By Pallas! Let the goddess first
+    Accept my challenge. Then, should she
+      Surpass me, let her do her worst."
+
+    Vain, impious words! The goddess came
+      In likeness of an ancient crone,
+    With grizzled locks and tottering frame,
+      And spoke with warning in her tone.
+
+    "Though matchless in thine art," she cried,
+      "Though first of mortals, tempt not fate.
+    Age makes me wise. Thou hast defied
+      A goddess. It is not too late."
+
+    The unhappy maid, with madness blind,
+      Replied, and scarce restrain'd the blow.
+    "'Tis plain, old woman, that your mind
+      Is drivelling to address me so.
+
+    "Some daughter or some slave may want
+      Your counsel. Let her but appear,
+    This mighty Pallas whom you vaunt!"
+      The goddess answer'd, "She is here."
+
+    She spoke, and lo! that ancient crone
+      Was young and fair, and tall and proud:
+    --The nymphs fell prostrate. She alone--
+      Arachne--neither shrank nor bow'd.
+
+    One blush quick came and pass'd away,
+      Hovering as clouds, when night is done,
+    Grow rosy at the dawn of day,
+      Then whiten with the rising sun.
+
+    She did not shrink--she did not pause--
+      But headlong to destruction ran;
+    And thus the strife ordain'd to cause
+      Such dark calamity began.
+
+    Each for the contest takes her stand--
+      The goddess here, the mortal there--
+    And each proceeds with skilful hand
+      The means of victory to prepare.
+
+    The beam each loom supports full well,
+      And to the loom the warp is tied;
+    Nor will I now forget to tell
+      The reed that doth the warp divide.
+
+    The woof the shuttle in doth bring,
+      The nimble fingers guide its way;
+    And still from either work-frame ring
+      The blows inflicted by the slay.
+
+    Each to her bosom binds her vest:
+      The arms of each, quick moving, feel
+    No sense of toil, no need of rest,
+      For weariness is quench'd by zeal.
+
+    And all the gorgeous tints of Tyre
+      In varying shades are mingled there;
+    And every hue the sun's bright fire
+      Can kindle in the showery air,--
+
+    When the wide rainbow spans the sky;
+      The bow whose colours, in the end
+    So different, yet so like when nigh,
+      In harmony's own concord blend,--
+
+    And precious threads of glittering gold
+      Enrich the growing web. But say!
+    What ancient tale by each was told?
+      What legend of an earlier day?
+
+    Pallas her well-known triumph drew;
+      The gods assembled in their force,
+    And Neptune with his trident, too,
+      Exulting in the fiery horse,--
+
+    Which from the rock he made to bound:
+      But she herself, more deeply wise,
+    A greater blessing from the ground
+      The olive brought, and gain'd the prize.
+
+    The border of this main design
+      With Rhodope's sad tale was set;
+    And all who dared the gods divine
+      To rival--and the fate they met.
+
+    Meanwhile Arachne wove the wool:
+      The web with many a picture shone.
+    She drew Europa with her bull,
+      And Leda with her snow-white swan.
+
+    Deois with her snake display'd,
+      And Danäe with her shower of gold;
+    And many a tale besides the maid,
+      Had fate permitted, would have told.
+
+    But the dread goddess now no more
+      To check her rising envy strove;
+    The half-completed task she tore,
+      And all the pictured crimes of Jove.
+
+    The shuttle thrice the air did rend,
+      Thrice did the heaven-directed blow
+    Full on Arachne's head descend,
+      And made her purple blood to flow.
+
+    Arachne's soul was proud and high:
+      She drew a cruel cord around
+    Her tender neck--and, driven to die,
+      Was from a beam suspended found.
+
+    Her death the unpitying goddess stay'd;
+      "Henceforth, vain fool! for such a crime
+    For ever shall thou hang," she said;
+      "A warning to the end of time."
+
+    In scorn she spoke, and over all
+      Her rival's face and form she smear'd
+    A deadly drug. The head grew small,
+      And each fair feature disappear'd.
+
+    And off the beauteous tresses fell;
+      The tender waist that was so slim,
+    In loathly sort was seen to swell,
+      Shrivell'd and shrank each comely limb.
+
+    The spider's fingers still remain
+      To spin for ever.--We may vie
+    With fellow mortals, but 'tis vain
+      To struggle with the gods on high.
+
+    _January, 1885._             COWPER.
+
+
+APPENDIX IV., TO PAGE 318.
+
+_Extract from "History of Christian Art." By Lord Lindsay. Vol. i. pp.
+136-139._
+
+"But perhaps the noblest testimony to the revival under the Comneni is
+afforded by the designs on the Dalmatic or sacerdotal robe, commonly
+styled 'Di Papa San Leone,' preserved in the sacristy of St.
+Peter's--said to have been embroidered at Constantinople for the
+coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor of the West, but fixed by German
+criticism as a production of the twelfth, or the early part of the
+thirteenth century. The Emperors wore it ever after, when serving as
+deacons at the Pope's altar during their coronation-mass. You will
+think little of it at first sight, and lay it aside as a piece of
+darned and faded tapestry, yet I would stake on it, alone, the
+reputation of Byzantine art. And you must recollect, too, that
+embroidery is but a poor substitute for the informing hand and the
+lightning stroke of genius.
+
+It is a large robe of stiff brocade, falling in broad and unbroken
+folds in front and behind,--broad and deep enough for the Goliath-like
+stature and the Herculean chest of Charlemagne himself. On the breast,
+the Saviour is represented in glory, on the back the Transfiguration,
+and on the two shoulders Christ administering the Eucharist to the
+Apostles.
+
+The composition on the breast is an amplification of No. V. (as above
+enumerated) of the Personal traditional compositions.--In the centre
+of a golden circle of glory, 'Jesus Christ, the Resurrection and the
+Life,' robed in white, with the youthful and beardless face, his eyes
+directly looking into yours, sits upon the rainbow, his feet resting
+on the winged wheels[617] of Ezekiel, his left hand holding an open
+book, inscribed with the invitation, 'Come, ye blessed of My
+Father,'--his right raised in benediction. At the four corners of the
+circular glory, resting on them, half within it, half without, float
+the emblems of the four Evangelists; the Virgin and the Baptist stand
+to the right and left of our Saviour, the Baptist without, the Virgin
+entirely within the glory, the only figure that is so placed; she is
+sweet in feature and graceful in attitude, in her long white robe.
+
+Above Our Saviour's head, and from the top of the golden circle, rises
+the Cross, with the crown of thorns suspended upon it, the spear
+resting on one side, the reed with the sponge on the other, and the
+sun and moon looking down upon it from the sky.
+
+The heavenly host and the company of the blessed form a circle of
+adoration around this central glory; angels occupying the upper part,
+emperors, patriarchs, monks and nuns the lower; at the extremity, on
+the left side, appears Mary Magdalen, in her penitence--a thin
+emaciated figure, imperfectly clothed, and with dishevelled hair.
+
+In the corners, below this grand composition, appear, to the right,
+St. John the Baptist, holding the cross, and pointing upwards to Our
+Saviour; to the left, Abraham seated, a child on his lap, and resting
+his hand on another by his side.
+
+The background and scene of the whole composition is of blue, to
+represent heaven,--studded with stars, shaped like the Greek cross.
+
+The Transfiguration, which corresponds to this subject on the back of
+the robe, is the traditional composition, only varied by the unusual
+shape of the vesica piscis which encloses Our Saviour. The two
+compositions representing the Institution of the Eucharist, on the
+shoulders, are better executed and more original. In each of them, Our
+Saviour, a stiff but majestic figure, stands behind the altar, on
+which are deposited a chalice and a paten or basket containing crossed
+wafers. He gives, in the one case, the cup to St. Paul, in the other
+the bread to St. Peter,--they do not kneel, but bend reverently to
+receive it; five other disciples await their turn in each
+instance,--all are standing.
+
+I do not apprehend your being disappointed with the 'Dalmatica di San
+Leone,' or your dissenting from my conclusion, that a master, a
+Michael Angelo I might almost say, then flourished at Byzantium.
+
+It was in this Dalmatic--then _semée_ all over with pearls and
+glittering in freshness--that Cola di Rienzi robed himself over his
+armour in the sacristy of St. Peter's, and thence ascended to the
+Palace of the Popes, after the manner of the Cæsars, with sounding
+trumpets and his horsemen following him--his truncheon in his hand and
+his crown on his head--'terribile e fantastico,' as his biographer
+describes him--to wait upon the legate.[618]"
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [617] In the 'Manual of Dionysius,' recently published
+    by M. Didron (p. 71, &c.), these winged wheels are
+    interpreted as signifying the order of angels commonly
+    distinguished as Thrones. Their interpretation as the
+    Covenants of the Law and Gospel, sanctioned by St.
+    Gregory the Great in his Homilies, is certainly more
+    sublime and instructive.
+
+    [618] Cited from the original life, printed in
+    Muratori's 'Antiquit. Ital. Medii Ævi,' tom. viii., by
+    M. Sulpice Boisserée, in his essay, 'Ueber die
+    Kaiser-Dalmatica,' &c.
+
+
+APPENDIX V., TO PAGE 320.
+
+The Hon. and Rev. Ignatius Clifford has permitted me to make extracts
+from his "Memoranda of some remarkable Specimens of Ancient Church
+Embroidery." First on his list is the Cope now in the possession of
+Colonel Butler Bowden, of Pleasington, near Blackburn, Lancashire. I
+give his account of the mutilated condition, from which he has made
+his beautifully drawn restoration. "Formerly," he says, "portions of
+this cope, some made up into chasuble, stole, maniple, and some scraps
+detached, were at Mount St. Mary's College, Spink Hill, near
+Chesterfield, Derbyshire."
+
+The well-known architect, the late Augustus Welby Pugin, having seen
+them (or at least the chasuble), wrote on the 20th April, 1849, to the
+Rector of the College, "I found it to be of English work of the time
+of Edward I., and have no hesitation in pronouncing it to be the most
+interesting and beautiful specimen of church embroidery I have ever
+seen."
+
+Other portions of the cope had been made up into an altar-frontal, and
+were in the possession of Henry Bowden, Esq., of Southgate House,
+Derbyshire, some four or five miles from the college.
+
+The ground is crimson velvet. The designs are wrought in gold, silver,
+silk, and seed pearls. The silks are worked in chain, or rather in
+split stitch. It contains between seventy and eighty figures.
+
+Only two small fragments remain of the quasi-hood.
+
+In the orphrey are kings, queens, archbishops, and bishops. In the
+body of the cope are the Annunciation--Adoration of the Magi--Our Lady
+enthroned at the right of her Divine Son. _Lowest row_ of single
+figures--St. Simon, St. Jude, St. James, St. Thomas, St. Andrew, St.
+Peter, St. Paul, St. Barnabas, St. Matthew, St. Philip, St. James, St.
+Bartholomew. _Middle row_--St. Edward the Confessor--a Bishop--St.
+Margaret, St. John the Evangelist, St. John the Baptist, St.
+Catherine, an Archbishop, St. Edmund king and martyr. _Top row_--St.
+Lawrence, St. Mary Magdalene, St. Martha (or St. Helen?), St. Stephen.
+In the intervals, angels seated on faldstool thrones, and bearing
+stars; also two popinjays.
+
+Mr. Clifford describes the Steeple Aston Cope. The ground is of a
+richly ribbed faded silk. The design worked in gold and silks is
+enclosed in quatrefoils of oak and ivy. The Syon Cope he refers to
+Rock's "Textile Fabrics." See Appendix.
+
+The Dalmatic from Anagni, exhibited at Rome in 1870, he thinks is
+probably English.
+
+The Pluvial in the Basilica of St. John Lateran at Rome, he speaks of
+as "having much the appearance of the celebrated Opus Anglicanum."
+
+He describes the subjects embroidered on it thus: "No border round the
+curved edge. The orphrey is divided into tabernacles containing an
+archbishop, two bishops, and three kings and queens. Between the
+tabernacles are four angels, each accompanied by one of the
+evangelistic symbols. The body of the cope is cut into a most
+elaborate system of tabernacles, with a centre compartment of a
+different form for the group of the Crucifixion. The subjects are
+chiefly from the life of our Lord and the Blessed Virgin. The small
+quasi-hood is embroidered with two wyverns or griffin-like creatures.
+The pelican and the phœnix are introduced over the top central
+group of the enthronement of our Lady."
+
+Mr. Clifford gives the history of the Cope of Pius II. (Bartolomeo
+Piccolomini, "Æneas Silvius") fifteenth century. It is a masterpiece
+of Italian embroidery of the early Renaissance. The material was gold
+brocade, covered with wonderful designs carried out in needlework,
+representing saints and angels, trees and birds, and arabesques. The
+whole was adorned with pearls and precious stones valued at £80,000.
+At his death the pope bequeathed this vestment to the cathedral of his
+native town. The cope was stolen in March, 1884, from the treasury at
+Pienza; and shortly afterwards discovered in the shop of a dealer in
+antiquities at Florence, but completely stripped of its precious
+stones and of some of its more valuable embroidery. After magisterial
+investigation, the cope was restored to Pienza.
+
+The cope at Bologna is thus described: "Subjects from the New
+Testament contained in two rows of tabernacle compartments, twelve in
+lower, seven in upper row. Spandrils occupied by angels playing on
+various musical instruments. After each row, a border containing
+medallions with heads (of angels, prophets, &c.), twenty-three in
+lower, nine in upper row. No orphrey; no border or outside curve;
+quasi-hood very small."
+
+
+APPENDIX VI., TO PAGE 326.
+
+_From Rock's "Textiles," p. 275._
+
+"The Syon Monastery Cope; ground green, with crimson interlacing
+barbed quatrefoils, enclosing figure of our Lord, the Blessed Virgin
+Mary, the Apostles, with winged cherubim standing on wheels in the
+intervening spaces, and the orphreys, morse, and hem wrought with
+armorial bearings; the whole done in gold, silver, and various
+coloured silks. English needlework, thirteenth century; 9 feet 7
+inches by 4 feet 8 inches.
+
+"This handsome cope, so very remarkable on account of its
+comparatively perfect preservation, is one of the most beautiful among
+the several liturgical vestments of the olden period anywhere to be
+now found in Christendom. If by all lovers of mediæval antiquity it
+will be looked upon as so valuable a specimen of art of its kind and
+time, for every Englishman it ought to have a double interest,
+showing, as it does, such a splendid and instructive example of the
+opus 'Anglicum,' or English work, which won itself so wide a fame, and
+was so eagerly sought after throughout the whole of Europe during the
+Middle Ages."
+
+Dr. Rock gives a list of the subjects. St. Michael overcoming Satan
+(from Rev. xii. 7, 9). The next quatrefoil above this is filled with
+the Crucifixion. Here the Blessed Virgin is arrayed in a green tunic,
+and a golden mantle lined with vair; her head is kerchiefed, and her
+uplifted hands sorrowfully clasped. St. John--whose dress is all of
+gold--is on the left, at the foot of the cross, upon which the
+Saviour, wrought all in silver--a most unusual thing--with a cloth of
+gold wrapped about His loins, is fastened by three (not four)
+nails.... In the highest quatrefoil is figured the Redeemer in glory,
+crowned as a king, and seated on a cushioned throne. Resting upon His
+knee and steadied by His hand is the Mund, or ball representing the
+earth.... This is divided into three parts, of which the largest, an
+upper horizontal hemicycle, is coloured crimson (now faded to a
+brownish tint), but the lower hemicycle is divided vertically in two,
+of which one portion is coloured green, and the other white or
+silvered....
+
+The next two subjects to be described are--one on the right hand, the
+death of the Blessed Virgin Mary; the other, on the left, her
+burial....
+
+Below the burial we have our Lord in the garden, signified by two
+trees; still wearing the crown of thorns; our Lord in His left hand
+holds the banner of the Resurrection, and with His right bestows His
+benediction on the kneeling Magdalene, who is wimpled, and wears a
+mantle of green, shot yellow, over a light purple tunic.
+
+Below, but outside the quatrefoil, is a layman clad in gold, upon his
+knees, and holding a long, narrow scroll bearing words which cannot
+now be satisfactorily read.
+
+Lowermost of all we see the Apostle St. Philip, with a book in one
+hand, in the other the flaying knife.
+
+A little above him St. Peter, with his two keys, one gold, the other
+silver; and somewhat under him is St. Andrew with his cross. On the
+other side of St. Michael and the Dragon is St. James the
+Greater--sometimes called of Compostella, because he lies buried in
+that Spanish city--with a book in one hand and in the other a staff,
+and slung from his wrist a wallet, both emblems of pilgrimage to his
+shrine in Galicia.... In the next quatrefoil above is St. Paul with
+his sword, and over to the right St. Thomas; still further to the
+right St. James the Less. Just above is our Saviour, clad in a golden
+tunic, and carrying a staff, overcoming the unbelief of St. Thomas.
+Upon his knees that Apostle feels, with his right hand held by the
+Redeemer, the spear wound in His side.
+
+As at the left side, so here, quite outside the sacred history on the
+cope, we have the figure of an individual probably living at the time
+the vestment was wrought. The dress of the other shows him to be a
+layman; by the shaven crown of his head, this person must have been a
+cleric of some sort; but we cannot tell ... for the canvas is worn
+quite bare, so that we see nothing now but the lines drawn in black to
+guide the embroiderer.... This Churchman holds up another scroll
+bearing words which can no longer be read.
+
+"When this cope was new, it showed, written in tall gold letters more
+than an inch high, an inscription now cut up and lost ... the word
+_ne_, and a V on some of the shreds are all that remains of it.
+
+"In its original state it could give us the whole of the twelve
+Apostles. Portions can still be seen.... The lower part of the
+vestment has been sadly cut away, and reshaped with the fragments;
+perhaps at that time were added the present heraldic orphrey, morse,
+and border, probably fifty years later than the other portions of this
+matchless specimen of the far-famed 'Opus Anglicum.'" "Of angels,"
+the "nine choirs," and the three great hierarchies, Cherubim,
+Seraphim, and Thrones, are figured here. Led a good way by Ezekiel,
+but not following that prophet step by step, our mediæval draughtsmen
+found out for themselves a certain angel form. To this they gave a
+human shape, that of a comely youth; clothing him with six wings, with
+human feet; instead of the body being full of eyes, the wings are
+often composed of the bright-eyed feathers of the peacock. On this
+cope the eight angels standing upon wheels are so placed that they are
+everywhere nearest to those quatrefoils wherein our Lord's Person
+comes, and may therefore be taken as representing the upper hierarchy
+of the angelic host. The other angels, not upon wheels, no doubt
+belong to the second hierarchy; while those that have but one pair of
+wings (not three) represent the lowest hierarchy. "All, like our Lord,
+are barefoot. All of them have their hands lifted in prayer.... For
+every lover of English heraldry this cope, so plentifully blazoned
+with armorial bearings, will have a special value, equal to that
+belonging to many an ancient roll of arms." The orphrey, morse and hem
+contain the arms of Warwick, Castile and Leon, Ferrars, Geneville
+Everard, the badge of the Knights Templars, Clifford, Spencer, Lemisi
+or Lindsey, Le Botiler, Sheldon, Monteney of Essex, Champernoun,
+England, Tyddeswall, Grandeson, FitzAlan, Hampden, Percy, Chambowe,
+Ribbesford, Bygod, Roger de Mortimer, Golbare or Grove, De
+Bassingburn, with many others not recognized, and frequent
+repetitions.... "Besides their heraldry, squares at each corner are
+wrought with swans and peacocks of curious interest for every lover of
+mediæval symbolism...." These coats of arms, being mostly blazoned on
+lozenge-shaped shields, suggest that possibly they record those of the
+noble ladies who worked the border; while those on circles may be the
+arms of religious houses or donors.
+
+"A word or two upon the needlework; how it was done; and the now
+unused mechanical appliance to it after it was wrought, so observable
+on this vestment, lending its figures more effect."
+
+"We find that for the human face, all over this cope, the first
+stitches were begun in the centre of the cheek, and worked in circular
+lines, into which, after the first start, they fell, and were so
+carried on through the rest of the flesh tints.
+
+"Then with a little iron rod, ending in a small bulb slightly heated,
+were pressed down those parts of the faces worked in circles, as well
+as the wide dimple in the throat. By the hollows thus sunk a play of
+light and shadow is brought out that lends to the parts so treated a
+look of being done in low relief. Upon the lightly clothed figure of
+our Lord the same process is followed, and shows a noteworthy example
+of the mediæval knowledge of external anatomy.
+
+"We must not, however, hide from ourselves that the unequal surfaces,
+given by such a use of the hot iron to parts of the work, expose it to
+the danger of being worn by friction more than other parts, and soon
+betray the damage by their threadbare, dingy look, as is the case in
+the example just cited. The method for grounding the quatrefoils is
+remarkable for being done in a long zigzag diaper pattern (laid
+stitch)....
+
+"The stitching on the armorial bearings is the same as that now
+followed in many trifling things worked in wool (cross stitch).
+
+"The canvas (or linen) for every part of this cope is of the finest
+sort, but its crimson canvas lining is thick and coarse....
+
+"A word or two about the history of this fine cope...."
+
+Dr. Rock now enters into the history of the guilds, which included
+noble laymen and women, and members of the clergy; and tells us that
+the rolls of these associations sometimes grew to be exceedingly
+wealthy. He says that each of these guilds had usually in its parish
+church a chapel or altar of its own, splendidly provided for, to which
+offerings were spontaneously given by individuals, or by members
+clubbing together that their joint gift might be the more worthy.
+
+Perhaps the cleric and the layman worked on the cope may have been the
+donors. Dr. Rock suggests that possibly Coventry may have been the
+place of its origin, "where the famous Corpus Christi plays" (which
+this cope so well illustrates) "drew crowds every year to see them, as
+is testified by the Paston letters. Taking this old city as a centre,
+with a radius of no great length, we may draw a circle on the map
+enclosing Tamworth, tower and town, Chartley castle, Warwick,
+Charlcote, and Althorp. The lords of these broad lands would, in
+accordance with the religious feelings of those times, become brothers
+of the famous Guild of Coventry, and on account of their high rank
+find their arms embroidered on the vestments belonging to their
+fraternity. That such a pious queen as the gentle Eleanor, wife of
+Edward the First, who died 1290, should have in her lifetime become a
+sister is very likely, so that we may easily account for the
+shield--Castile and Leon."
+
+The other noble shields may possibly record munificent benefactions.
+"The whole must have taken very long in the working, and the
+probability is that it was embroidered by the nuns of some convent
+which stood in or near Coventry....
+
+"Upon the banks of the Thames at Isleworth, near London, Henry V.
+built and munificently endowed a monastery, to be called 'Syon,' for
+the nuns of St. Bridget's order. Among the earliest friends of this
+new house was a Master Thomas Graunt, an official in one of the
+Ecclesiastical Courts of the kingdom. In the Syon Nun's
+Martyrologium--a valuable MS. lately bought by the British
+Museum--this Churchman is gratefully recorded as the giver to their
+convent of several precious ornaments, of which this very cope
+seemingly is one. It was the custom for a guild or religious body to
+bestow some rich church vestment upon an ecclesiastical advocate who
+had befriended it by his pleadings before the tribunal, and thus to
+convey their thanks to him with his fee. After such a fashion this
+cope might easily have found its way, through Dr. Graunt, from
+Warwickshire to Middlesex.
+
+"At the beginning of Elizabeth's reign it went with the nuns, as they
+wandered in an unbroken body through Flanders, France, and Portugal,
+where they halted. About sixty years ago it came back again from
+Lisbon to England, and has found a home in the South Kensington
+Museum."
+
+For want of space I have been obliged to omit a great deal of Dr.
+Rock's interesting account of the Syon Cope. The reader is referred
+for further details, especially regarding the heraldry and the
+subjects in the quatrefoils, to Rock's "Textile Fabrics," pp. 275-291,
+in the South Kensington Museum (No. 9182).
+
+
+APPENDIX VII., TO PAGE 350.
+
+The Assyrians were great in fringes. Of this we can judge from their
+sculptures, in which the rich deep and broad fringe forms the ornament
+and accentuates the shaping of the garments of kings and priests and
+nobles. Loftus, in his "Babylon and Susiana," tells of the only
+actually existing remnant of their textile art of which I can find any
+record. Some terra-cotta coffins were opened at Warka (the ancient
+Erech), and in one of them was a cushion, on which the head, gone to
+dust, had reposed. It was covered with linen--fringed. Nothing else
+had survived the ages except a huge wig of false hair. Such
+fragmentary echoes from a life, a civilization, and an art dead for
+thousands of years, are curiously pathetic, and touch and startle the
+thinking mind.
+
+
+APPENDIX VIII., TO PAGE 369.
+
+The following poem from the Anglo-Saxon poem of Beowulf shows that the
+hospitable hall of the Saxon earl was hung with tapestry embroidered
+with gold.
+
+                Fœla pœra was
+                Much people were
+    Wera and Wifa pe pat win rued
+    Men and women who that wine house
+    Gest sele gyredon gold fag scinon
+    That guest-hall garnished. Cloths embroidered with gold
+    Web-after wagum. Wundersiòna feld
+    Those along the walls many wonderful sights
+    Sioga gustryleum para pe on swyle stara ♀
+    To every person of those that gaze on such.
+
+                               Translation by Thomas Arnold.
+
+The poem of Beowulf is supposed to have been written in the early part
+of the twelfth century.
+
+The lines which follow are from a poem, recomposed from earlier sagas,
+in the beginning of the twelfth century. It serves to show that arras
+was used in bedrooms thus early in Germany.
+
+From the "Niebelungen Lied," übersetzt von Karl Simrock, p. 294.
+
+    Manche schmucke Decke von Arras da lag
+    Aus lichthellem Zeuge und manches Ueberdach
+    Aus arabischer Seides so gut sie mochte sein,
+    Darüber lagen leisten du gaben herrlicher Schein.
+
+I owe these notices to the kindness of the Rev. A. O. Winnington
+Ingram.
+
+
+APPENDIX IX., TO PAGE 362.
+
+_Abridged from Trans. by Sir G. Dasent._
+
+(_From the Ezrbyggja Saga._)
+
+In that summer in which Christianity was established by law in Iceland
+(A.D. 1000), there came a ship from off the sea out to Snowfellsness,
+in Iceland. It was a Dublin ship, and on board it were Irishmen and
+men from Sodor and the Hebrides, but few Norsemen.... On board the
+ship was a woman from the Hebrides, whose name was Thorgunna. Her
+shipmates said that they were sure she had such treasures with her as
+would be hard to get in Iceland.
+
+Thurida, the housewife at Frida, was envious and covetous of these
+precious goods, and received Thorgunna into her home in hopes, by some
+means, to possess herself of them, especially the embroidered hangings
+of a bed; but Thorgunna refused to part with them. "I will not lie in
+the straw for thee, though thou art a fine lady, and thinkest great
+things of thyself." Thorgunna made her own terms with Thurida and
+Master Harold, and set up her bed at the inner end of their hall. Her
+richly worked bed-clothes, her English sheets and silken quilt, and
+her bed-hangings and canopy were such "that men thought nothing at all
+like them had ever been seen." An air of truth is given to the whole
+story by the details. Thorgunna is described as "tall and strong and
+very stout. She was swarthy brown, with eyes set close together; her
+hair was brown and very thick. She was well-behaved in daily life, and
+went to church every morning before she went to her work." Then comes
+an account of a storm, and a rain of blood; and how Thorgunna sickened
+and died, and at her own desire was carried to be buried to Skilholt,
+which she prophesied would one day be considered holy, and that
+priests might there sing dirges over her.
+
+There is a curious and picturesque account of the two days' journey to
+Skilholt, and the adventures that befell the funeral cortége;
+including the incident of the corpse cooking the supper of the convoy
+at an inhospitable farmhouse where they had sought refuge and received
+no entertainment.
+
+On Harold's return home after the funeral, he proceeded to carry out
+the wishes of Thorgunna, who had warned him that the ownership of her
+embroidered hangings would cause trouble, and therefore she had
+desired they should be burned. Thurida, however, could not bear to
+lose them, and persuaded Harold to spare them. "After this followed
+many signs and portents, and deaths of men and women, and apparitions
+of ghosts, until Kjartan (Thurida's son) brought out all Thorgunna's
+bed-hangings and furniture, and burned them in the fire."
+
+
+APPENDIX X., TO PAGE 365.
+
+Aelfled or Athelfleda was the founder of a race of embroiderers. Their
+pedigree is as follows:--
+
+       BRITHNOD,     ===          ATHELFLEDA.
+   a Northumberland   |       She embroidered the
+  Chief or Alderman.  |  daring deeds of her husband.
+                      |
+                  LEOFLEDA. === KING OSWIC.
+                             |     Oswic's sister Aedelfleda was
+                             |  adopted by Hilda, Abbess of Whitby.
+                             |   She succeeded Hilda, and died 713.
+                             |      She was a great embroiderer.
+                  ___________|___________
+                  |          |          |
+               AELFWIN.   AELSWITH.   LEOFWED.
+                                        |
+                                      AELSWITH.
+
+Leofwed made her will in the time of King Cnut; dividing her revenue
+between her daughter Aelswith and the Abbey of Ely. Aelswith accepted
+the residence of Coveney, a small property belonging to the convent,
+and there she embroidered with her maidens. See Liber Eliensis, ed. D.
+J. Stewart, "Anglia Christiana," vol. i., 1848.
+
+
+APPENDIX XI., TO PAGE 377.
+
+In the Statutes at Large there is the following in vol. i. p. 526 (in
+old French):--
+
+2 Henry VI.
+
+A penalty on deceitful workers of gold and silver embroidery.
+
+Item. pur ceo que diverses defautes sont trovez en loveraigne de
+diverses persons occupiantz le mestier de brouderie. Ordonnez est &
+assentiez, que tout loveraigne & stuff de brouderie d'or ou d'argent
+de Cipre ou d'or de Luke melle avec laton de Spayne & mys a vent en
+deceit des lieges du Roi sont forfait au Roi ou as Seigneurs et autres
+accenz franchises d'autielx forfaitures ein quy franchise autiel
+overaigne soit trouvée et durera c'est ordinance longue parlement
+prochainement avenir.
+
+33 Henry VI.
+
+That if any Lombard or any other person, Stranger or Denizen, bring or
+cause to be brought by way of merchandize any wrought silk thrown,
+Ribbands, Laces, Corses of Silk, or any other thing wrought, touching
+or concerning the mystery of Silk women, the corses which come from
+Genoa only excepted, into any part or place of the Realm from beyond
+the Sea, that the same ... be forfeit.
+
+3 Edward IV.
+
+Whereby the importation of any wrought silk thrown, Ribbands, Laces,
+Corses of Silk, or other things wrought, concerning the craft of Silk
+women is prohibited or restrained.
+
+22 Edward IV.
+
+That no Marchant, Stranger, nor other person shall bring into the
+Realm to be sold, any Corses, Girdles, Ribbands, Laces, Coll. Silk or
+Colein Silk, thrown or wrought, upon pain of forfeiture of the same.
+
+Also Richard III. "An Act touching the bringing in of Silk Laces,
+Ribbands, &c."
+
+Also 19 Henry VII. "An Act for Silk Women."
+
+These acts appear to have been partially repealed, 3 and 5 George III.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Achilles, shield of, 33, 103.
+
+  Aelgitha, wife of Canute, embroideries by, 366.
+
+  Æsthetic, 17, 90, 339.
+
+  Agrippina, golden garment of, 143.
+
+  Alessandri Palace, Florence, 284.
+
+  Alexander the Great, 142, 299;
+    wedding tent of, 263-4;
+    pall of, 142.
+
+  Alkisthenes, mantle of, 298.
+
+  Altar, 42, 346;
+    altar-piece, 328;
+    altar-cloths, 340, 346;
+    by Queen Emma, 366.
+
+  Amasis, corselet of, 20, 308;
+    Bishop of, 299.
+
+  Anne of Brittany, 331.
+
+  Apollo of Branchidæ, 296.
+
+  Arabesque, 43, 80.
+
+  Arachne, 237.
+
+  Aragon, Catherine of, embroideries by, 383.
+
+  Aristophanes, 98.
+
+  Arras, 238, 243, 255-6, 274.
+
+  Arrazzi, 245;
+    Prince of, 249;
+    trade with, 250, 252.
+
+  Art of dress, 298;
+    of needlework, 396.
+
+  Art, Greek, 18, 35, 59, 306;
+    Egyptian, 20, 25, 34, 56-7;
+    Scandinavian, 29, 40;
+    Roman, 37, 60, 310;
+    Romanesque, 36, 323;
+    Christian, 37, 39, 300, 306, 311, 315, 317;
+    Chinese, 38, 73, 153, 155;
+    Japanese, 38, 64, 65, 393;
+    Gothic, 42, 52, 68, 307, 324;
+    Italian, 43, 311;
+    French, 46;
+    Ecclesiastical, 41, 78, 303, 305;
+    Aryan, 69, 70;
+    Celtic, 96, 273;
+    decorative, 289;
+    Lombardic, 310;
+    Pagan, 338.
+
+  Asbestos linen, 123.
+
+  Atrebates, 136, 246.
+
+  Attalus II., 142.
+
+  Auxerre, Bishop of, 242.
+
+
+  Balawat, bronze gates from, 271.
+
+  Baldachino, 170, 268, 283, 312.
+
+  Banner, 215;
+    of St. Cuthbert, 349.
+
+  Bas-relief, Assyrian, 287.
+
+  Bayeux tapestries, 367.
+
+  Beads, 332.
+
+  Bede, mention of worked palls by, 160.
+
+  Bedsteads, 282;
+    at Kenilworth, 283-4;
+    at Hampton Court, 395.
+
+  Bellini, portrait of Mahomet II., 147.
+
+  Black, 187.
+
+  Blode-bendes, or silk arm-bindings, 374.
+
+  Blue, 184, 187.
+
+  Boadicea, dress of, 87, 359.
+
+  Bombacinum or cotton, 138.
+
+  Book-coverings in library of Charles V., 289.
+
+  Borghese Palace, Rome, 277.
+
+  British Museum, sculptures in, 22;
+    vases, 31, 114;
+    frieze of Parthenon, 31;
+    mantle of Demeter, 93;
+    Egyptian dress, 93;
+    glass bowls, 101;
+    carpets from Nineveh, 105;
+    Egyptian woollen embroidery, 130;
+    fine linen printed, 134;
+    garment with gold ornaments, 144;
+    "opus pectineum" from Egypt, 236;
+    pavements, 272;
+    bronze statuette of Minerva, 297;
+    specimen of "opus Anglicanum," 376.
+
+  Brocade, 141.
+
+  Bronze age, 358;
+    statues, 359.
+
+  Brown, 187.
+
+  Buckram, 139.
+
+  Burleigh House arras, 256.
+
+  Byrri, 238.
+
+  Byssus, 134-5.
+
+  Byzantium, 306, 314.
+
+
+  Carpets, 261, 285;
+    Persian, 23, 73, 132, 188, 241, 271, 371.
+
+  Cashmere, 133.
+
+  Castle Ashby, tapestries at, 277.
+
+  Catacombs, 304.
+
+  Chair, 285;
+    chair-backs, 286.
+
+  Chaldean house, 281.
+
+  Charles I., 255, 390.
+
+  Charles V., library of, 289, 295.
+
+  Chasuble, 164;
+    by Isabella of Spain, 147;
+    at Coire, 328;
+    of St. Oswald, 362;
+    at Valencia, 381;
+    for Henry III., 374.
+
+  Chaucer, 251.
+
+  Chemmis, city of Pan, woollen trade in, 127.
+
+  Chenille, 395.
+
+  Church historical embroideries, 316.
+
+  Ciclatoun, 145.
+
+  Cinnabar, 183.
+
+  Clavus latus, 309, 337.
+
+  Cleves, Anne of, 384.
+
+  Cochineal, 184.
+
+  Code of Manu, 89.
+
+  Colour, 175-193;
+    prismatic, 177;
+    purple, 180;
+    crimson, 184;
+    copper, 184;
+    yellow, 185;
+    pure, 189, 192;
+    iodine, 190;
+    chromatic, 190;
+    Oriental, 191;
+    gas, 191;
+    foundation, 289;
+    green, 289;
+    liturgical, 305;
+    mystical, 335.
+
+  Complication, 67.
+
+  Confusion, 65.
+
+  Constantine, 306, 316.
+
+  Consutum, 214.
+
+  Contrast, 66.
+
+  Conventional, 71, 97.
+
+  Cope of St. Andrew, 144;
+    Syon, 206, 326;
+    of Boniface VIII., 320;
+    at Rheims, 321-2;
+    Daroca, 320, 376;
+    at Stoneyhurst, 348, 379;
+    of Innocent III., 369;
+    at Durham, 390.
+
+  Copper, 184.
+
+  Coral, 88, 124, 332.
+
+  Coronation robes, 295, 318, 362;
+    of St. Stephen of Hungary, 322;
+    of Charles X., 339;
+    of Edward the Confessor, 366;
+    of James II., 393.
+
+  Corselet of Amasis in temple at Lindos, in Rhodes, 20, 308.
+
+  Cotton, 137;
+    cotton trees, 138;
+    woven, 139;
+    cotton plush, 139.
+
+  Counterpane worked by Queen Catherine, 384.
+
+  Coverlets, 393.
+
+  Crewels, 133, 229, 345, 398;
+    work in, 390, 392.
+
+  Crimson, 184.
+
+  Cross, 103;
+    of St. Andrew, 144;
+    Greek, 165;
+    emblem of, 308;
+    prehistoric, 335-6.
+
+  Croyland Abbey embroideries, 366.
+
+  Crusaders, 307, 371.
+
+  Curtains, 261, 270, 272, 281, 288;
+    ordered by Sergius, 312;
+    by Pope John, 312;
+    by Stephen IV., 312.
+
+  Cushion at Hatfield, of James I.'s reign, 390.
+
+  Cuthbert, St., 144;
+    silk garments in tomb of, 163, 165, 364-5.
+
+  Cyprus bowls, 109.
+
+
+  Dado, 271.
+
+  Dais, the chamber of, 282.
+
+  Dalmatic of Charlemagne, 53, 317-18;
+    at Valencia, 381.
+
+  Damascus, 127.
+
+  Decoration, 5, 50, 70, 290, 355;
+    art of, 273.
+
+  Decorative, 81, 273.
+
+  Design, 54-81;
+    floral, 71, 345, 348;
+    English, 377;
+    by St. Dunstan, 365.
+
+  Detail, 71.
+
+  Dress, 70, 294, 301, 373;
+    Greek, 297-8;
+    Roman, 299;
+    early Christian, 300;
+    of Claudius, 360;
+    of Duke and Duchess of Buckingham, 393.
+
+  Durham Cathedral, 348.
+
+  Dyes, 183, 185, 358;
+    Indian, 187.
+
+
+  East India Company, monopoly of trade by, 388.
+
+  Ecclesiastical embroidery, 303, 327, 330, 353;
+    for images, 305;
+    priests' robes, 306;
+    materials used in, 311;
+    names of garments in, 313, 316;
+    at Durham, 316;
+    English, 332.
+
+  Edward II., 250.
+
+  Edward III., 377.
+
+  Eighteenth century decorations, 112;
+    embroidery, 393, 395.
+
+  Eleanor, Queen, crosses of, 372.
+
+  Emare, mantle of, 372.
+
+  Embroiderers' Guild, 388;
+    list of names, 373;
+    Company in Elizabeth's reign, 387, 394.
+
+  Embroideries, Babylonian and Ninevite, 22, 44, 105, 127, 132, 271,
+      299, 311, 350;
+    Greek, 31-2, 93, 103, 142;
+    German, 43, 149;
+    Italian, 43, 116, 147;
+    Spanish, 45, 150, 331, 383;
+    Portuguese, 45;
+    Scandinavian and Celtic, 68, 91, 104, 116, 131, 136, 306;
+    Egyptian, 93, 114, 130, 134, 209, 236, 271;
+    Assyrian, 93, 127, 262, 357;
+    Roman, 129, 143, 153, 313;
+    Chinese, 97, 113, 127, 151, 208;
+    Persian, 99, 266, 299;
+    Japanese, 109, 214;
+    Russian, 201, 206, 313;
+    Delphic, 272;
+    English, 319, 321, 325, 356-396;
+    spurious, in Henry VI.'s reign, 377.
+
+  Embroidery, art of, 16, 136, 173, 195, 289, 378;
+    white, 200;
+    in churches, 313, 341.
+
+  Emma, Queen, embroideries by, 366.
+
+  Enamel, 146.
+
+  Etruscan borders, 47;
+    tombs, 357.
+
+
+  Fashion, 301.
+
+  Fayoum, 39;
+    ancient Egyptian textile fabrics from, 139, 300.
+
+  Fictile vases, 31, 32, 93, 103.
+
+  Field of Cloth of Gold, 381-2.
+
+  Filatorium, 222.
+
+  Fitness, 81.
+
+  Flat, drawing on, 69-70;
+    stitches, 345.
+
+  Flavius Vopiscus, 158.
+
+  Flax, 133, 135.
+
+  Flemish work, 329.
+
+  Floral patterns, 71.
+
+  Floss silk, 374.
+
+  Flowers, 291.
+
+  Footstools, 285.
+
+  Frames, 292, 299, 371, 389.
+
+  Frescoes, 373.
+
+  Fringes, 271, 351.
+
+  Fulham, tapestry works at, 257.
+
+  Furniture, 280-293.
+
+
+  Gammadion, 104.
+
+  Gaudry, Bishop, tapestry of, 242.
+
+  Geoffrey, Abbot, 249.
+
+  Gisela, Queen, 323.
+
+  Giustini Palace, Florence, 277.
+
+  Gobelins, 131, 237, 247-8, 275, 277.
+
+  Gold, 140, 143;
+    threads, 346;
+    Gothic design in, 75, 377;
+    embroideries, 202;
+    needlework for Elinor of Aquitaine, 369;
+    Spanish lace, 381;
+    caskets, 389.
+
+  Gradation, 67.
+
+  Green, 187.
+
+  Gregory Nazianzen, 160.
+
+  Grey, 187.
+
+  Grotesque, 43.
+
+  Guimp, 163, 223.
+
+
+  Hair, 133.
+
+  Hampton Court, 288, 384;
+    bed at, worked by Mrs. Pawsey, 395.
+
+  Hand-looms, 374.
+
+  Hangings, 243, 260-274;
+    of the Hebrew Sanctuary, 262;
+    of Alexander's tent, 263;
+    portraits on, 265;
+    in Kosroes' "white palace," 268;
+    on Greek vases, 269;
+    in Pompeii, 269;
+    saffron, mentioned by Euripides, 272;
+    French, sixteenth century, 274;
+    modern French, 275;
+    in Holland House, 276;
+    in Florence, 277;
+    in Rome, 277;
+    English, from time of Harold to Edward IV., and others, 370, 384,
+        392-3.
+
+  Harmonies, 66.
+
+  Hawaiian royal mantle, 209.
+
+  Helen, 33.
+
+  Helena, Empress, 316, 360.
+
+  Hemp, 121.
+
+  Henry II., mantle of, 203, 323.
+
+  Henry VIII., manufacture of tapestry in reign of, 252;
+    embroidery, 302, 369, 384-5.
+
+  Hephæstion, catafalque of, 267.
+
+  Hexameron work of St. Ambrose and St. Basil, 333.
+
+  Holland House, 276.
+
+  Homer, 11, 19, 33, 130.
+
+  Hom, the sacred, 99, 334.
+
+
+  Icelandic Sagas, 273, 362.
+
+  Illumination, 273, 305, 310, 363.
+
+  Imperial, a silk tissue, 161.
+
+  India, arts of, 7, 27, 75, 83, 311;
+    Museum, 89, 285.
+
+  Indian carving, 75;
+    shawls, 133;
+    cotton fabrics, 138;
+    dyes, 187;
+    embroideries, 284, 299;
+    manufactures, 389, 391, 394.
+
+  Inscriptions, 105, 146, 341;
+    woven in, 168;
+    in tapestry, 242, 375.
+
+  Isabella of France, 331;
+    of Spain, 384.
+
+
+  Jacket in Lady Waterford's collection, 386.
+
+  James I., manufacture of tapestry in reign of, 254;
+    portrait of, 255;
+    work in reign of, 387, 388.
+
+  Josephus, 9.
+
+  Juno, toilet of, 297.
+
+  Jute, 121.
+
+
+  Kells, Book of, 30.
+
+  Khotan, Prince of, 156.
+
+  Kosroes' hangings, 261, 268.
+
+  Kunigunda, Empress, 203, 323.
+
+
+  Lace, 222-235;
+    bone, 225;
+    yak, 225;
+    needle-made, 227;
+    ancient lace-books, 228;
+    stitches, 229;
+    Venetian, 229;
+    Burano, 230;
+    list of, 231;
+    blond, 232;
+    schools in France, 233;
+    for ecclesiastical purposes, 233;
+    bobbin, 234;
+    Limerick, 234;
+    Irish, 234;
+    Honiton, 234;
+    Spanish, 383.
+
+  Lambeth tapestry works, 257;
+    missal at, 30.
+
+  Lares, 291.
+
+  Leather, 123.
+
+  Lilac, 187.
+
+  Linen, 357-8.
+
+  Lombardic, 310, 323.
+
+  Lotus, 89, 102, 105.
+
+  Louis XIV., 46, 247, 276, 332, 393.
+
+  Louis XV., 47, 110, 247, 276, 332.
+
+  Louis XVI., 332.
+
+  Lyons, 151, 167, 345.
+
+
+  Maniple of St. Cuthbert, 144;
+    in Durham library, 364.
+
+  Mantle of Demeter, 93;
+    of Ajax, 103;
+    of Servius Tullius, 129;
+    of Alkisthenes, 299;
+    of Gisela, 323;
+    of King Wiglaf, 363-4.
+
+  Manu, Code of, 314.
+
+  Manufactures of Nineveh and Babylon, 127;
+    at Lyons, 151;
+    of silk, 160;
+    at Palermo, 161.
+
+  Marcus Aurelius, 158.
+
+  Mark's, St., Venice, 346.
+
+  Mary, Queen of Scots, 387.
+
+  Mary's, St., Hall, Coventry, 250, 379.
+
+  Melito, Bishop of Sardis, book on Symbolism by, 333.
+
+  Middle Ages, 12, 23, 42, 73, 125, 137, 145, 168, 183, 202, 239, 242,
+      249, 273, 307, 315.
+
+  Mitre at Milan, 211;
+    of St. Thomas à Becket, 321, 369.
+
+  Monks of St. Florent, Saumur, 242;
+    of Cluny, 242;
+    of Fleury, 242;
+    in England, 249;
+    of St. Alban's, 251.
+
+  Monuments, 373.
+
+  Morris, William, 290.
+
+  Mosaics, 40, 300, 314;
+    Empress Theodora's dress figured in, 41, 93;
+    of Sta. Pudenziana, 306, 317;
+    early Christian, 314;
+    in Sta. Maria Maggiore, 117, 322.
+
+  Mummy-wrappings, 21.
+
+  Museum, Cluny, 247, 275, 277;
+    at Boulac, 56.
+
+  Muslin, 139.
+
+  Mycenæ, tomb of Agamemnon at, 19;
+    lion's gate of, 304.
+
+
+  Needle, the first, 14, 357;
+    bronze, steel, 195, 213;
+    bone, 358.
+
+  Nimroud, 24.
+
+  Nineteenth century, style of, 49, 339.
+
+  Normans, 366.
+
+  Northumberland House, tapestries at, 257.
+
+  Nunneries, 10.
+
+
+  Opus Alexandrinum, 117.
+
+  Opus Anglicanum, 325, 376.
+
+  Orange, 187.
+
+  Order, 59.
+
+  Oriental work, 392.
+
+  Orphrey, 368-9.
+
+  Oudenarde "hallings" or "salles," 252.
+
+
+  Painting, 4.
+
+  Palermo, silk-weaving at, 165, 307.
+
+  Pall of Alexander, 142;
+    at Dunstable, 251, 378;
+    of London Companies, 329, 379.
+
+  Pamphile silk-weaver, 152.
+
+  Panels, 69, 79.
+
+  Patchwork, 117;
+    appliqué, 214, 325, 392.
+
+  Patterns, 82-117;
+    wave, 62, 114;
+    key, 63, 97;
+    Oriental, 84, 99;
+    lotus, 89, 102;
+    animal, 93;
+    lily, 95;
+    rose, 95;
+    palm leaf on shawl, 96;
+    sacred hom, 99;
+    pine-apple, 100;
+    honeysuckle, 101;
+    egg and tongue, 102;
+    cross, 103;
+    crenelated, 104;
+    Renaissance, 108;
+    cloud, 109, 338;
+    fundata or netted, 109;
+    wheel, 110;
+    Moorish, 110;
+    Sicilian, 111;
+    shell, 112;
+    Indian balcony, 112;
+    chrysoclavus or palmated, 113;
+    wicker and lattice-work, 113;
+    bead, 114;
+    daisy, 114;
+    geometrical, 115;
+    German and Venetian books of, 206;
+    feather, 208;
+    Persian, 241;
+    check, 270;
+    metal-work, 325;
+    Roës, or wheel and plate, 336-7;
+    Indian dimity, 394.
+
+  Peacocks, 163, 211;
+    feathers, 376.
+
+  Pearls, 332, 362, 383, 389.
+
+  Pectineum, 235.
+
+  Penates, 291.
+
+  Penelope, bridal couch of, 281.
+
+  Peplos of Athene, 32.
+
+  Père Labbé, 242.
+
+  Persian carpets, 23, 73, 98, 132, 241, 266, 271;
+    rugs, 94;
+    silks, 153.
+
+  Perspective, 70.
+
+  Peter's, St., Rome, 346.
+
+  Pheidias, 59.
+
+  Phœnicians, 7, 21, 125, 176, 357;
+    bowls from Cyprus, 109.
+
+  Phrygium, 202.
+
+  Pictorial art, 79, 331.
+
+  Plâteresque, 45.
+
+  Plumarii, 207, 212.
+
+  Plush, 221.
+
+  Pluvial of St. Silvester, 319;
+    at Bologna, 320;
+    at Aix, 351;
+    Daroca, 376.
+
+  Polymita, 87.
+
+  Pompeii, 269.
+
+  Portraits of Charles V., 295;
+    of Richard II. at Wilton House, 372;
+    of fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 379;
+    in needlework in reign of James I., 388.
+
+  Portuguese silks, 394.
+
+  Progression, 64.
+
+  Proportion, 64, 291.
+
+  Pulvinarium, 204.
+
+  Purl, 387.
+
+  Purple, 187.
+
+
+  Queen Anne, style in reign of, 46, 49, 88, 391, 394.
+
+  Queen Elizabeth, embroidery of, 385-6;
+    style in reign of, 389.
+
+  Queen Mary of Hungary, 330.
+
+  Queen Matilda, 367.
+
+
+  Radiation, 67.
+
+  Raphael, 44, 245;
+    cartoons of, 255.
+
+  Renaissance, 26, 43, 45, 75, 108, 308, 329, 380, 383.
+
+  Repetition, 62.
+
+  Reredos at St. Alban's, 249, 347;
+    of Vintners' Company, 251.
+
+  Richard CÅ“ur de Lion, 374.
+
+  Robes of Julius Cæsar, 153;
+    of Childeric, 144;
+    of Bishop Adhelme, 361;
+    of St. Thomas à Becket, 369.
+
+  Roger, King of Sicily, transports silk-weavers from Greece, 161.
+
+  Roman silks, 160;
+    fashions, 299.
+
+  Romanesque, 36, 306, 323, 362, 364.
+
+  Roses, Wars of, 371, 372-3, 378.
+
+  Rugs, 285.
+
+  Runic art, 29, 306.
+
+
+  Samit, 145.
+
+  Sampler of Henry VII.'s reign, 379-80.
+
+  Saracenicum, 240.
+
+  Satin, 161, 170;
+    of Bruges, 171.
+
+  Scarlet, 182, 187, 189.
+
+  School of Art Needlework, South Kensington, 219, 288, 392;
+    rise of, 396-7;
+    list of work executed at, 398;
+    designs for, 398.
+
+  Schools, branch of Art Needlework, 397.
+
+  Screens, 261, 287.
+
+  Sculptures, 4, 353.
+
+  Seam, 198.
+
+  Seres, 154, 160.
+
+  Seventh century work, 361-2.
+
+  Sewing, plain, 197.
+
+  Shells, 88, 124, 190.
+
+  Sicilian patterns, 111;
+    embroideries, 124;
+    textile designs, 162, 341;
+    silk manufactures, 168;
+    fabrics, 315;
+    ecclesiastical designs, 331.
+
+  Sicily, textile art in, 41, 307.
+
+  Si-ling-chi, Empress, inventor of unwinding the cocoon, 156.
+
+  Silk, origin of, 151;
+    first woven by Pamphile at Cos, 300 B.C., 152;
+    Roman and Chinese, 153, 160;
+    trade in, 153;
+    in cocoon, 153, 156;
+    wild silk in China, 154-5;
+    attire mentioned in Latin poets, 157;
+    silken robes sold by Marcus Aurelius, 158;
+    garments given by Emperor Carinus, 158;
+    edict of Diocletian, with prices of articles, 159;
+    silk mentioned by poets and historians from first to sixth century,
+        159;
+    silkworm, 159;
+    monopoly of silk manufactures in Constantinople, 159;
+    first allusion to use of silk in Christian Church, 160;
+    palls of silk brought from Rome, A.D. 685, 160;
+    Bede's remains wrapped in silk, 160;
+    specimens of silk in Auberville's "Tissus," silk tissues called
+        "Imperial," 161.
+
+  Silk-weavers, Jewish, at Thebes in 1161, 161;
+    transported by Roger, King of Sicily, from Greece to Palermo, 161,
+        165;
+    description of Royal manufactory at Palermo, by Hugh Falcandus,
+        twelfth century, 161;
+    three periods in Sicily, 162-3;
+    Saracenic, in India, 166-7;
+    Italian, in Lyons, 1450, 167, 169;
+    Spanish at Malaga and Almeria, 168;
+    in Hungary under Queen Gisela, 169;
+    in the Flemish towns, 170;
+    Asiatic, 170.
+
+  Smock of Mary Tudor, 385.
+
+  Society of Arts, Birmingham, 292.
+
+  Sofas, 285.
+
+  Spangles, 146.
+
+  Spanish Armada, hangings, 253.
+
+  Sphinx, 265.
+
+  Spinning, 357.
+
+  Stamford, Arras woven at, 256, 257.
+
+  Stitches, 194-259;
+    lists of, 196;
+    gold, 203;
+    mosaic, 204;
+    cushion, 204;
+    plumage, 207;
+    satin, 214;
+    sampler, 234;
+    ecclesiastical, 345;
+    stem, 214.
+
+  Stole, 308;
+    at Durham, 364;
+    of Aelfled, Queen of Edward II., 364.
+
+  Style, 14-53.
+
+  Sun-cross, Egyptian, 337.
+
+  Sunflower, 91;
+    radiated pattern of, 111.
+
+  Surcoat of Black Prince, 373.
+
+  Swastika, 103.
+
+  Symbolism, 59, 95, 98, 307, 333, 334-5, 352.
+
+  Symmetry, 63-4.
+
+
+  Table covers, 287.
+
+  Tanaquil, robes worked by, 129.
+
+  Tapestry, 235-259;
+    in British Museum, 236;
+    woven, 237;
+    of Charles, Duke of Burgundy, 243;
+    Gobelins, 237;
+    Arras, 238;
+    Saracenic, 240;
+    at Brussels, 245;
+    French, 245;
+    Italian, 245;
+    English, 248, 277;
+    revival of, at Windsor, 257;
+    in Cluny Museum, 277.
+
+  Taste, 52;
+    Oriental, 388.
+
+  Tau, 335.
+
+  Tent, funeral, of an Egyptian queen, 25, 215;
+    of Antar, 263;
+    of Nadir Shah, 263;
+    of Alexander, 264;
+    of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 264-5;
+    Persian, 265.
+
+  Textile art, 45, 59, 74, 77, 93, 104, 107, 174, 176, 187, 205, 307, 310.
+
+  Thebes, silk-weavers of, 161.
+
+  "Tissus" of Auberville, 160.
+
+  Titian, 178.
+
+  Toga, 338.
+
+  Tomb of Agamemnon, 19;
+    of Rameses, 20;
+    of warrior at Kuban, 129;
+    in Crimea, 130, 217;
+    Anglo-Saxon, 144;
+    of St. Cuthbert at Durham, 163.
+
+  Trabea, 309, 337.
+
+  Tree of Life, 336.
+
+  Triptych in Cluny Museum, 211;
+    at Zurich, 328.
+
+  Tyrian purple, 180, 289.
+
+
+  Ulysses, 281.
+
+
+  Vatican, Etruscan gold ornament, 21, 295, 300.
+
+  Veil of Temple, 22;
+    classical, 261, 265, 311, 312;
+    for pyx, 350;
+    of Hebrew sanctuary, 311, 351.
+
+  Velvet, 76, 345, 347;
+    stoles, 161, 172, 221;
+    pall, 378.
+
+  Venetian red, 289;
+    style, 306.
+
+  Vestments, 313, 326;
+    Italian, 329;
+    Spanish, 331;
+    modern, 343;
+    set presented to Romsey and Croyland by Canute, 366, 370;
+    set bequeathed to Westminster Abbey by Henry VII., 379.
+
+
+  Watteau, school of, 248.
+
+  Welby, Lady, founder of School of Art Needlework, South Kensington, 396.
+
+  Wiglaf, King, 362.
+
+  William and Mary, 393.
+
+  Wilton carpet works, 190.
+
+  Windsor, 257, 398.
+
+  Wool, 125, 127, 130;
+    Berlin, 395.
+
+  Worcester, dress in tomb of Walter de Cantilupe, 320;
+    cope of William of Blois, 322;
+    tomb of King John, 373.
+
+  Workhouse sheeting, 140.
+
+  Wroxton House, Arras at, 256.
+
+
+  York, Archbishop of, Arras with design of the Four Seasons, 255.
+
+
+  Zoroaster, 101.
+
+
+
+
+ERRATA.
+
+
+  Page xv, line 27, _for_ Albert Castet _read_ Albert Castel.
+    "  10,   "  24, _read_ as that of an important factor.
+    "  17,   "  22, _for_ slow _read_ swift.
+    "  26,   "  16, _for_ art _read_ artistic.
+    "  42,   "  16, _for_ are _read_ were.
+    "  56,   "   5, _read_ advance of them, in the earliest.
+    "  66,   "  21, _for_ we _read_ I.
+    "  75,   "  20, _for_ These _read_ Those.
+    " 101,   "  18, _for_ from Cervetri, in Southern Italy, _read_ from
+                      a tomb at Chiusi, in Etruria.
+    " 156,   "   8, _for_ Chin _read_ Chan.
+    " 195,   "  20, _for_ 6, 7. Bone needles from Neolithic cave-man's
+                      grave, _read_ 6. Cave-man's needle from the
+                      Pinhole, Churchfield, Ereswell Crag. 7. Bone
+                      needle from La Madeleine, Dordogne.
+    " 198,   "   5, footnote, _for_ act _read_ art.
+    " 208,   "   3, footnote, _for_ "Arte Plumarii" _read_ "Arte
+                      Plumaria."
+    " 237,   "   8, _for_ which prove _read_ proving.
+    " 239,   "  17, _delete_ " _after_ of art."
+    "  "     "  18, _insert_ " _after_ backwards.
+    " 242,   "   9, _for_ in the Crimea _read_ at Chiusi.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Page 202--the marker for footnote 2 was missing in the original. The
+transcriber has estimated where it should have been, based on the text
+and reference material therein.
+
+Page 303 includes an excerpt from Psalm 45, with quoted verse numbers
+of 10, 14 and 15. These should be verses 9, 13 and 14.
+
+Archaic spelling is preserved as printed. Variable spelling,
+hyphenation and use of accents has been made consistent where there
+was a clear prevalence of one form over the other, or with reference
+to reliable sources; otherwise, these are preserved as printed.
+Typographic errors, e.g. omitted, superfluous or transposed letters,
+and punctuation errors have been repaired. Other amendments are as
+follows:
+
+    Plate 71--precipit amended to precepit and omitted word
+    'pio' added--"... Aelfled fieri precepit pio Episcopo
+    Fridestano."
+
+    Page xx--3 amended to 9--"From Layard's "Monuments,"
+    Series i. pl. 9."
+
+    Page xxi--Edward amended to Richard--"6. Badge of
+    Richard II."
+
+    Page xxii--John amended to Mark--"ST. MARK. Anglo-Saxon
+    Book of the Gospels."
+
+    Page 115--5. removed from beginning of section title,
+    for consistency with others in that chapter, "GEOMETRICAL."
+
+    Page 197--Encyclopedia amended to Cyclopædia--"The
+    second list is from Rees' "Cyclopædia" (Stitches), 1819
+    ..."
+
+    Page 311--des Antiquités amended to Royale des
+    Antiquaires--""... par la Société Royale des Antiquaires
+    du Nord" ..."
+
+    Page 316--Lwewelig amended to Wledig--"... and in the
+    Welsh ballad of "The Dream of Maxen Wledig" ..."
+
+    Page 316, footnote 502--Pallison's amended to
+    Palliser's--"See Mrs. Palliser's "Lace," p. 4."
+
+    Page 320--T. amended to I.--"... (see Hon. and Rev. I.
+    Clifford's list of embroideries in Appendix 5)."
+
+    Page 331--Riario amended to Riano--"Don Juan F. Riano[533]
+    says that Toledo is a perfect museum ..."
+
+    Page 331, footnote 533--Riario amended to Riano--"See "The
+    Industrial Arts of Spain," pp. 250-264, by Don Juan F.
+    Riano, ..."
+
+    Page 417--350 amended to 348--"Design, ... floral, 71, 345,
+    348; ..."
+
+    Page 417--210 amended to 109--"Embroideries, ... Egyptian,
+    93, 114, 130, 134, 209, 236, 271; ..."
+
+    Page 419--47 amended to 46 and 308 amended to 276--"Louis
+    XIV., 46, 247, 276, 332, 393."
+
+    Page 419--167 amended to 93--"Mosaics, ... Empress Theodora's
+    dress figured in, 41, 93; ..."
+
+    Page 419--306 amended to 117--"Mosaics, ... in Sta. Maria
+    Maggiore, 117, 322."
+
+    Page 420--index entries for 'Pall' and 'Pamphile,' which
+    originally followed the entry for 'Pattern,' have been moved
+    to their correct places.
+
+    Page 421--399 amended to 345--"Stitches, ... ecclesiastical,
+    345; ..."
+
+There are a number of discrepancies between the information in the
+list of illustrations (LOI) and the information on the plates
+themselves. Some of these are simple omission, others involve
+conflicting information. The transcriber has resolved and repaired
+some of these differences with reference to alternative sources. In
+general, it seems that the information on the plate is correct. Those
+that could not be resolved are as follows:
+
+    Pl. 5--LOI has "Journal Asiatique,
+    Syro-Egyptien-Phœnicien." Plate has "Journal
+    Asiatique, Coupe de Palestrina."
+
+    Pl. 9--LOI has "sixteenth century." Plate has
+    "seventeenth century."
+
+    Pl. 10--LOI has "5, 6, 7. Egyptian smooth and rippling
+    wave pattern." Plate has "5, 6, 7. Egyptian Smooth and
+    Rippling Water Patterns."
+
+    Pl. 10--LOI has "10, 11, 14. Babylonian and Chaldean."
+    Plate has "10, 11, 14. Assyrian."
+
+    Pl. 11--LOI omits Assyrian references.
+
+    Pl. 12--LOI has "2, 3. Egyptian. 4, 5. Greek." Plate has
+    "2, 3. Indian Lotus Patterns. 4, 5. Egyptian Lotus
+    Patterns."
+
+    Pl. 15--LOI has "Book of Kells." Plate has "Lindisfarne
+    Gospels."
+
+    Pl. 20--LOI has "1, 2, 3. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian Silk. 5.
+    Mediæval." Plate has "1, 2, 3, 5. Assyrian. 4.
+    Sicilian Silk."
+
+    Pl. 28--LOI has "1. Dress patterns from old MS. 2, 3.
+    Old English tiles." Plate has "1, 2. Gothic tiles. 3.
+    Gothic Border of a Dress. 4. Gothic Vine."
+
+    Pl. 31--LOI omits mention of a third Egyptian fundata
+    pattern.
+
+    Pl. 32--LOI references "Bock's Lit. Gew. ii. p. 246."
+    Plate references "Vol i. taf. xi."
+
+    Pl. 35--LOI omits mention of a peacock pattern. Plate
+    omits mention of Persian type.
+
+    Pl. 41--The source of the examples are either omitted or
+    different on the LOI to those given on the plate.
+
+    Pl. 68--LOI has "sixteenth century." Plate has
+    "fifteenth century."
+
+    Pl. 70--LOI has "A.D. 434." Plate has "sixth century."
+
+    Pl. 72--LOI "ST. GREGORY AND ST. JOHN (PROPHET)." Plate
+    has "St. John" and "St. Roger."
+
+    Pl. 74--LOI gives different title for Strutt's book to
+    that given on the plate. From research, it seems that
+    the short title is actually "The Regal and
+    Ecclesiastical Antiqities of England."
+
+    Pl. 76--LOI has "twelfth century." Plate has "XIII.
+    century."
+
+Illustrations have been moved where necessary so that they are not in
+the middle of a paragraph. Some of the plates do not have numbers on
+the plate themselves.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Needlework As Art, by Marian Alford
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEEDLEWORK AS ART ***
+
+***** This file should be named 30472-0.txt or 30472-0.zip *****
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diff --git a/old/30472-0.zip b/old/30472-0.zip
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Needlework As Art, by Marian Alford
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Needlework As Art
+
+Author: Marian Alford
+
+Release Date: November 14, 2009 [EBook #30472]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEEDLEWORK AS ART ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller, jenniemuse, Sam W. and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Dagger symbols are shown as a + sign. A female/Venus symbol occurs
+once (+ sign with a circle on top), and is noted as such. A carat
+(^) is used to indicate superscripted characters. The word Shush
+has a breve (u-shaped symbol) above the letter u. A circumflex has
+been used in this version of this e-text instead--Shûsh.
+
+The original text contained an errata list. The corrections have been
+made to this text, and the list moved to the end of the book for
+reference purposes only.
+
+Other notes may be found at the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+                NEEDLEWORK AS ART
+
+                       BY
+
+                 LADY M. ALFORD
+
+
+                 [Illustration]
+
+
+                     London:
+  SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, AND RIVINGTON,
+       CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.
+                      1886.
+
+            [_All rights reserved._]
+
+
+
+
+                  LONDON:
+  PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,
+              ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: TELEMACHUS    PENELOPE]
+
+
+
+
+DEDICATED BY PERMISSION
+
+TO
+
+THE QUEEN.
+
+
+
+
+TO
+
+THE QUEEN.
+
+
+_Your Majesty's most gracious acceptance of the Dedication of my book
+on "Needlework as Art" casts a light upon the subject that shows its
+worthiness, and my inability to do it justice. Still, I hope I may
+fill a gap in the artistic literature of our day, and I venture to lay
+my work at your Majesty's feet with loyal devotion._
+
+                                           MARIAN M. ALFORD.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In the Preface to the "Handbook of Art Needlework," which I edited for
+the Royal School at South Kensington in 1880, I undertook to write a
+second part, to be devoted to design, colour, and the common-sense
+modes of treating decorative art, as applied especially to embroidered
+hangings, furniture, dress, and the smaller objects of luxury.
+
+Circumstances have, since then, obliged me to reconsider this
+intention; and I have found it more practicable to cast the
+information which I have collected from Eastern and Western sources
+into the form of a separate work, which in no way supersedes or
+interferes with the technical instruction supposed to be conveyed in a
+handbook. I have found so much amusement in learning for myself the
+history of the art of embroidery, and in tracing the beginnings and
+the interchanges of national schools, that I cannot but hope that I
+may excite a similar interest in some of my readers, and so induce
+those who are capable, to help and lift it to a higher place than it
+has been allowed in these latter days to occupy. If I have given too
+important a position to the art of needlework, I would observe that
+while I have been writing, decorative embroidery has come to the
+front, and is at this moment one of the hobbies of the day; and I
+would point out that it contains in itself all the necessary elements
+of art; it may exercise the imagination and the fancy; it needs
+education in form, colour, and composition, as well as the craft of a
+practised hand, to express its language and perfect its beauty.
+
+I confess that when I undertook this task, I did not anticipate the
+time I have had to spend in collecting and epitomizing the many
+notices to be found in German, French, and English authors, on what
+has been considered among us, at least in this century, as merely a
+secondary art, and therefore, as such, of little importance. Cursory
+notices of needlework are scattered through almost every book on art;
+and under the head of textiles it is usual to find embroidery
+acknowledged as being worthy of notice, though not to be named in
+company with sculpture, architecture, or painting, however beautifully
+or thoughtfully its works may be carried out. I have tried to show
+that it deserves higher estimation.
+
+My first intention was simply to consider STYLE, good or bad, as it
+influences our embroidery of to-day, and to find some rules by which
+to guide that of the future in its next phase. But when we search into
+the fluctuations of style, and their causes, we find they have an
+historical succession, and that we must begin at the beginning and
+trace them through the life of mankind.
+
+This led me to attempt a sketch of consecutive styles, their overlap
+and variations.
+
+I then found that DESIGN, PATTERNS, STITCHES, MATERIALS, each require
+a separate study.
+
+COLOUR, as applied to dyes, claims to be regarded as differing from
+pigments on the painter's palette.
+
+HANGINGS, DRESS, and ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERIES each require
+different rules, and the study of the best examples of past centuries.
+Finally, it seems natural to dwell on our own proficiency in
+decorative work. ENGLISH EMBROIDERY has always excelled; and, as we
+have again returned to this occupation, it is worth while to recollect
+what we have done of old.
+
+In writing chapters on these subjects, I have found it most convenient
+to separate the historical and æsthetic questions from the technical
+rules, and the instruction which naturally belongs to a handbook, of
+which the purpose should be to teach the easiest and most orthodox
+manner of executing the simplest, and elaborating the finest works.
+Such questions ought not to be overlaid with archæological inquiries,
+or with the information which only profits the designer; though of
+course it is best that the knowledge of design should be part of the
+education of the craft.
+
+Perhaps I may be found to have written a book too shallow for the
+learned, too deep for the frivolous, too technical for the general
+public, and too diffuse for the specialist of the craft.[1]
+
+I must deprecate these criticisms by saying that I have written it for
+the benefit of those who know nothing of the art, and are too much
+engaged to seek information here and there; who yet, being women, have
+to select and to execute ornamental needlework; or, being artists, are
+vexed at the incongruities and want of intention in the decorations in
+daily domestic use; I have also sought to help the designer, that he
+or she may know something of the history of patterns and stitches.
+
+If my readers should be aware of repetitions, they must forgive them;
+remembering that the same idea has to be looked at sometimes from a
+different point of view, according to the use to which it is to be
+fitted. The same material may be employed for wall-hangings and dress,
+and then the principles which have been formulated have to be varied.
+I do not shrink from repetitions if they make my meaning clear,
+remembering the Duke of Wellington's direction to his private
+secretary, "Never mind repetitions; and _dot_ your i's."
+
+Portions of these chapters have been already published in No. 49 of
+the _Nineteenth Century_,[2] in 1881; and more was delivered in three
+unpublished lectures the same year.
+
+I have acknowledged and noted on each page my authorities for the
+facts I have quoted. The illustrations that are not original, have
+been copied from other works by permission of authors and publishers.
+To all of these I wish to express my obligations and thanks,
+especially to Mr. Villiers Stuart, Dr. Anderson, Sir G. Birdwood, and
+Sir H. Layard, for their courtesy in allowing me the use of their
+plates. To my old and valued friend, Mr. Newton, I wish to express my
+gratitude for his unstinted gifts of time and trouble, bestowed in
+criticizing and correcting my book, encouraging me to give it to the
+public, and making it more worthy of publication.
+
+I have largely quoted Charles Blanc ("Ornament in Dress," English
+translation), Von Bock ("Liturgische Gewänder"), Dr. Rock ("The Church
+of our Fathers" and "Introduction to Textiles"), Semper ("Der Stil"),
+Yates ("Textrinum Antiquorum"), and Yule ("Marco Polo"), besides many
+others. But these authorities often differ, and, after weighing their
+arguments, I have ventured to select for my use the facts and
+theories which accord with my own views. Facts are often so
+interdependent and closely linked, that it requires great care to
+distinguish where they have been shaped or coloured (however
+unintentionally) to fit each other or the writer's preconceived ideas.
+Certain it is that facts are but useless heaps till the thread of a
+theory is found on which to hang them. This process, like that of
+stringing pearls, has to be often repeated, till each occupies its
+right place. Only those who have adopted and cherished a theory can
+appreciate the pain of cutting the thread, to displace what appeared
+to be a pearl, but which, from its false position as to date or place,
+or its doubtful origin, has proved only an empty manufactured glass
+bead of error.
+
+This has happened to me more than once; and since I read my lectures I
+have had to change my opinions in several instances. If, therefore,
+any of my readers should observe such changes, I hope they will give
+me credit for trying to convey _now_ what appears to me on each
+subject a correct impression.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [1] Besides the art, I have sought to give something of
+    the archæology of needlework. Now the qualifications for
+    being a teacher on such subjects are rarely to be met
+    with, all combined. Mr. Newton, in his "Essays on Art
+    and Archæology," p. 37, says that "the archæologist
+    should combine with the æsthetic culture of the artist,
+    and the trained judgment of the historian and the
+    philologist, that critical acumen, required for
+    classification and interpretation; nor should that
+    habitual suspicion which must ever attend the scrutiny
+    and precede the warranty of evidence, give too sceptical
+    a bias to his mind." Such authorities have been
+    interrogated on each part of my subject.
+
+    [2] Quoted by permission of the Editor.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+  INTRODUCTION.                                                      1
+
+  CHAPTER I.--STYLE.
+
+  Definition of style--Development of style--Primitive--
+  Archaic--Egyptian--Babylonian--Phoenician influences
+  on early Greek style--Decoration of hangings of the
+  Tabernacle in the wilderness--Aryan ideas--The Code of
+  Manu--Indian art--Celtic style--Greek art in dress and
+  embroideries--Homer's descriptions of embroideries--Pallas
+  Athene--Shield of Achilles--Roman art--Byzantine art--Art
+  of Central Asia--Its arrival in Europe--Art of China,
+  Japan, and Java--Christian art--Scandinavian art--The Dark
+  Ages--Sicilian textile art--Renaissance--Arabesque--
+  Grotesque--Spanish Plâteresque--Style of Queen Anne and the
+  Chippendales--Louis XV. style--Classical revival--Young
+  England's style--Nineteenth century style                         14
+
+  CHAPTER II.--DESIGN.
+
+  Artist and artisan--Prehistoric design--Naturalistic
+  design--Egyptian immutability--Slow evolution of
+  design--Greek perfection--Necessity of following rules--M.
+  Blanc's laws of ornamentation--Laws of composition--
+  Repetition--Alternation--Symmetry--Progression--Confusion--
+  Designs for hangings and dress materials--Floral design--Design
+  for carpets--The conventional--First principles                   54
+
+  CHAPTER III.--PATTERNS.
+
+  Ancestry of patterns--Classification--Their historical
+  value--Primitive patterns--The wave--Tartan--Prehistoric
+  African patterns--The naturalistic--Flowers--Shells--Indian
+  forms of naturalistic patterns--Egyptian--The lotus--
+  Sunflower--Celtic Zoomorphic patterns--The human figure on
+  Greek textiles--Animal forms in Oriental patterns--Symbolical
+  and conventional patterns--The wave patterns--The palm leaf--
+  The cone--Gothic--Arab--Moresque--The Sacred Hom--Egg and
+  tongue--The cross--Swastika--Fylfote--Gammadion--The
+  crenelated pattern--The Ninevite daisy--Emblematic
+  patterns--Bestiaria--Volucraria--Lapidaria--Byzantine
+  patterns--Gothic--Renaissance--The cloud pattern--The
+  fundata--Italian--French patterns--Radiated patterns--The
+  shell--Patterns by repetition--Balcony pattern--Chinese
+  wicker-work--Survival of a pattern--Opus
+  Alexandrinum--Quilting patterns                                   82
+
+  CHAPTER IV.--MATERIALS.
+
+  Raw materials--Revelations of the microscope--Hemp--Jute--
+  Honduras grass--Spartum--Pinna silk--Hair--Leather--
+  Feathers--Asbestos--Coral--Pearls--Beads--Wool--Classical
+  notices of wool--Careful improvement of wool by the
+  ancients--Tanaquil--Homeric woollen carpets--Crimson
+  textile fragments--Scandinavian woollen garments--Qualities
+  of wool--English wool--Goats' hair--Flax--Lake cities--
+  Byssus--Fine linen of Egypt--The Atrebates--Embroidery on
+  linen--Cotton--Indian origin--Carbasa--Buckram--Cotton
+  fabrics--Gold--Silver--Gold brocades--Jewish--Indian--
+  Chinese--Dress of Darius--Attalus--Attalic textiles--
+  Agrippina's golden garments--St. Cecilia's mantle--Roman
+  tombs--Gold wire--Anglo-Saxon tomb--Childeric's tomb--Proba's
+  gold thread--Golden wrappings from tombs of Henry I. and Henry
+  III.--Gold embroideries and jewellers' work of Middle
+  Ages--Spangles--Enamels--Purl--Modern schools of gold
+  embroidery--Silk--Pamphile of Cos--Early specimens of silk
+  stuffs--Chinese silks--The Seres--Mela--Seneca--M. Terrien
+  de la Couperie--Empress Si-ling-chi--Princess of
+  Khotan--Euripides--Lucan--Pliny--Silk in Rome--Ælius
+  Lampridius--Flavius Vopiscus--Tailor's bill--Justinian's
+  codex--Imperial monopoly--Paul the Silentiary--Bede--King
+  John's apparition--Greek and Sicilian manufactories of
+  silk--Distinctive marks of different periods--Lyons--Spain--
+  Italy--Flemish towns--Marco Polo--Satin--Welsh poem, "Lady of
+  the Fountain"--Chaucer--Velvet--Transference of work to new
+  materials                                                        118
+
+  CHAPTER V.--COLOUR.
+
+  Harmony and dissonance--Names of tints--Authorities for
+  theories--Art of colouring--Expression of colouring--
+  Purple--Red--Crimson--Blue--Yellow--Pliny--Renouf--Chinese
+  colours--Indian dyes--Persian colours--Dyes of the
+  Gauls--Romans--Scotch--Scales of colour--MM. Charton and
+  Chevreul on tones of colour--Gas colours                         175
+
+  CHAPTER VI.--STITCHES.
+
+  Stitches--Part I.: The needle--Gammer Gurton's needle--Art
+  of needlework--Lists of stitches--Part II.: Plain work--
+  The seam--Mrs. Floyer--White embroidery--Nuns' work--
+  Greek--German--Spanish--Italian white work--Semper's
+  rules for white work--Part III.: Opus Phrygium--Gold
+  embroideries--Part IV.: Opus pulvinarium--Cushion stitches--
+  Mosaic stitches--Traditional decorations from Chaldea and
+  Assyria--German and Italian pattern-books--Part V.: Opus
+  plumarium--The Plumarii--Feather-work of India--Islands of
+  the Pacific--African work--Mexican and Peruvian--Cluny
+  triptych--Mitre of St. Charles Borromeo--Essay by
+  Denis--Chinese and Japanese feather-stitches--Part VI.:
+  Opus consutum or cut work--Patchwork--Egyptian and Greek
+  examples--Irish cut work--Chaucer--Francis I.'s hangings
+  at Cluny--Lord Beauchamp's curtains--Spanish examples--
+  Remarks--Art of application--Part VII.: Lace--Opus
+  filatorium--Mrs. Palliser--M. Blanc--Guipure--Sir Gardiner
+  Wilkinson--Netted lace--Homer--Solomon's Temple--Bobbin
+  laces--Yak--Coloured laces--Venetian sumptuary laws--Golden
+  laces--Point d'Alençon--Mr. A. Cole's lectures--M. Urbani
+  de Gheltof on Venice laces--Lace stitches--Revival of lace
+  school at Burano--English laces--Part VIII.: Tapestry--Opus
+  pectineum--Modes of weaving tapestry--Its great antiquity--
+  Egyptian looms--Albert Castel on tapestries--Homeric
+  picture-weaving--Arachne--A paraphrase by Lord Houghton--
+  Nomenticum--Sidonius Apollinaris--Saracenic weaving--Arras--
+  Brussels--Italian tapestries from Florence, Milan, and
+  Mantua--French tapestries--Cluny Museum collection--Gobelins--
+  Beauvais--English tapestry--Comnenus--Matthew Paris--Early
+  trade with Arras--Coventry tapestries--Chaucer--Tapestry
+  "of verd"--Hatfield tapestries--Armada tapestries--Sir F.
+  Crane--Mortlake manufactory--Francis Cleyne--Raphael
+  cartoons--Percy tapestry from Lambeth                            194
+
+  CHAPTER VII.--HANGINGS.
+
+  Classical hangings--Babylonian and Persian--Semper's
+  theory--Sanctuary in the wilderness--St. Peter's at
+  Rome--Abulfeda--Akbar's tent--Nadir Shah's tent--Tent
+  of Khan of Persia--Tents of Alexander the Great at
+  Alexandria--Roman hangings--Funeral pyres--Kosroes'
+  tent--Semper's rules for hanging decorations--Ancient
+  carpets--English and French hangings--Rules for designs
+  of hangings                                                      260
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.--FURNITURE.
+
+  Penelope's couch--Chaldean furnished house--The bed--Earl
+  of Leicester's inventories--State apartment of Alessandri
+  Palace--Indian embroideries for furniture--The sofa and
+  chair--The footstool--Furniture stitches--The table
+  cover--The screen--Book covers--Morris on furniture              280
+
+  CHAPTER IX.--DRESS.
+
+  Art of dress--Ancient splendour--Persian, Greek, and
+  Roman--Indian--Homeric--Early Christian--Charlemagne's
+  mantle and robe--Objects of dress--Embroidered garments          294
+
+  CHAPTER X.--ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERY.
+
+  Christian art--Dark ages--Greek and Roman ecclesiastical
+  dress--Northern influence--Continuity of ecclesiastical
+  art--Authorities--Anglo-Saxon orthodox colours--Veils of
+  the Temple--Hangings in Pagan temples and Christian
+  churches--Russian use of veils--Art in the early Church--
+  Rare examples--Destruction by the iconoclasts--Early
+  embroiderers--Empress Helena--Bertha, mother of
+  Charlemagne--His dalmatic--Pluvial of St. Silvester--Pluvial
+  of museum at Bologna--Daroca cope--Cope of Boniface VIII.--
+  Style of the twelfth century--Mantle of St. Stephen of
+  Hungary--Kunigunda's work for Henry II.--The Romanesque--
+  Movement perfecting Gothic art, thirteenth century--Opus
+  Anglicanum--Syon cope--Embroidery on the stamp--Pictures in
+  flat stitches--Flemish work--Renaissance--Work of some royal
+  ladies--French--Spanish--Sicilian and Neapolitan--German
+  work--Sacred symbolism--Melito's "The Key"--Mystical
+  colours--Prehistoric cross--Many forms of the cross--The
+  roës--The chrysoclavus--Modern decoration--Principles and
+  motives for church embroideries--The altar-cloth--The
+  reredos--The pulpit and reading-desk--The ancient
+  Paschal--The banner of St. Cuthbert--The fringe--Lay
+  heraldry of the Church--South Kensington Museum                  303
+
+  CHAPTER XI.--ENGLISH EMBROIDERY.
+
+  First glimpse of art in England--Dyeing and weaving in
+  Britain in early times--Cæsar's invasion--Roman
+  civilization--Anglo-Saxon times and art--Adhelme's
+  poem--Icelandic Sagas--Saga or story of Thorgunna--English
+  work in the eighth century--The Benedictines--Durham
+  embroideries--Aelfled--St. Dunstan--Queen Emma's
+  work--William of Poitou--The Bayeux tapestry--Abbess of
+  Markgate--Gifts to Pope Adrian IV.--Robes of Thomas à
+  Becket at Sens--Innocent III.--English pre-eminence in
+  needlework from the Conquest to the Reformation--John
+  Garland on hand-looms--Blode-bendes and lacs d'amour--Opus
+  Anglicanum--English peculiarities in ecclesiastical
+  design--Penalties against luxury in dress--Protection the
+  bane of art--Dunstable pall--Stoneyhurst cope--Destruction
+  of fine works at the Reformation--Much on the Continent,
+  much collected in our old Catholic houses--Field of the
+  Cloth of Gold--Mary Tudor's Spanish stitches--Queen
+  Elizabeth's embroideries--Institution of Embroiderers'
+  Company--East India Company--Oriental taste discouraged on
+  Protectionist grounds--Decay of the art in England--Style
+  of James I.--Dutch style--Cushion stitches--Miss Linwood--
+  Miss Moritt--Mrs. Delany--Mrs. Pawsey--Postscript--Revival
+  of the art of needlework--"Royal School of Art Needlework"       356
+
+
+  APPENDIX
+
+     I. Charles T. Newton on Votive Dresses                        400
+
+    II. The Moritzburg Feather Hangings                            401
+
+   III. The Story of Arachne, translated by Earl Cowper            402
+
+    IV. Charlemagne's Dalmatic, by Lord Lindsay                    405
+
+     V. Notices of various Mediæval Embroideries by the Hon.
+          and Rev. W. Ignatius Clifford                            407
+
+    VI. Syon Cope, Rock's Introduction, "Textile Fabrics"          408
+
+   VII. Assyrian Fringes                                           412
+
+  VIII. Hrothgar's House Furniture: Poem of Beowulf                412
+
+    IX. Thorgunna, by Sir G. Dasent                                413
+
+     X. Pedigree of Aelswith                                       414
+
+    XI. Statutes at Large                                          414
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+CUTS.
+
+  Fig.|Page.|
+  ----+-----+
+   1  |  20 | Egyptian corselet. Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," p.
+      |     |   332.
+   2  |  25 | Tabernacle of Balawat. Temp. Shalmaneser. British
+      |     |   Museum.
+   3  |  30 | Zoomorphic Celtic pattern.
+   4  |  32 | Pallas Athene attired in the sacred peplos. Panathenaic
+      |     |   vase, British Museum.
+   5  |  62 | Wave pattern.
+   6  |  63 | Key pattern.
+   7  |  63 | Metopes and triglyphs.
+   8  |  73 | Persian carpet. Egyptian symbolic patterns.
+   9  |  91 | Gothic sunflower. R. S. A. N.
+  10  |  98 | Wave.
+  11  | 104 | Egyptian ally and enemy. Temp. Rameses II. Wilkinson's
+      |     |   "Ancient Egyptians," iii. p. 364.
+  12  | 105 | Assyrian crenelated pattern.
+  13  | 107 | Gothic type of trees, Bayeux tapestry.
+  14  | 111 | Radiated pattern.
+  15  | 111 | Radiated sunflower.
+  16  | 112 | Shell pattern.
+  17  | 112 | Balcony pattern.
+  18  | 115 | Varied adjustments of square and circle.
+  19  | 146 | Spangles.
+  20  | 195 | Needles.
+  21  | 208 | Feather patterns. Egyptian.
+  22  | 216 | Application. Egyptian. Auberville's "Tissus."
+  23  | 217 | Embroidered border on mantle. Crimea. "Compte Rendu."
+  24  | 281 | Babylonian or Chaldean house and furniture.
+  25  | 311 | Italian fifteenth-century pattern. Celtic type.
+  26  | 377 | Barbed quatrefoil.
+  27  | 380 | Holbein pattern. Sampler.
+  28  | 388 | Arms of Embroiderers' Guild; given by Queen Elizabeth.
+  29  | 393 | Portion of James II.'s coronation dress; from an old
+      |     |   print.
+
+
+PLATES.
+
+  Plate|Page.| Ref.|
+  -----+-----+-----|
+       |     |     | TITLE-PAGE. Penelope at her loom, reproached by her
+       |     |     |   son Telemachus. From vase found at Chiusi, in
+       |     |     |   Etruria. "Monum. d. Inst. Arch. Rom." ix. Pl. 42.
+     1 |  22 |  93 | ASSURBANIPAL (Sardanapalus). Sculptures from Nineveh.
+       |     |     |   British Museum.
+     2 |  22 |  93 | Portion of royal Babylonian mantle. From Layard's
+       |     |     |   "Monuments," Series i. pl. 9.
+     3 |  29 |     | ST. JOHN. From King Alfred's Celtic Book of the
+       |     |     |   Gospels. Lambeth Palace Library.
+     4 |  30 |     | A PAGE of the Book of St. Cuthbert, or Book of
+       |     |     |   Lindisfarne.
+     5 |  33 |     | SILVER BOWL from Palestrina. From Clermont Ganneau's
+       |     |     |   "Journal Asiatique, Syro-Egyptien-Phoenicien."
+     6 |  40 |  93 | EMPRESS THEODORA. Ravenna Mosaic.
+     7 |  42 |     | ITALIAN EMBROIDERY, fifteenth century. South
+       |     |     |   Kensington Museum.
+     8 |  43 |     | ITALIAN and SPANISH orphrey, sixteenth century.
+     9 |  45 |     | PLÂTERESQUE DESIGN. Spanish coverlet, green velvet
+       |     |     |   and gold, sixteenth century. Goa work.
+    10 |  87 |     | WAVE PATTERN. 1, 4, 9, 12, 13. Greek wave pattern.
+       |     |     |   2. Key or Mæander Greek wave. 3. Greek broken wave.
+       |     |     |   5, 6, 7. Egyptian smooth and rippling wave pattern.
+       |     |     |   8. Mediæval wave. 10, 11, 14. Babylonian and
+       |     |     |   Chaldean. 15. Persian or Greek, from glass bowl,
+       |     |     |   British Museum. 16. English wave (or cloud). Durham
+       |     |     |   embroideries, tenth century.
+    11 |  88 |     | SIMPLE PATTERNS. 1. Persian. 2. Lotus border,
+       |     |     |   Egyptian.
+    12 |  90 |     | LOTUS BORDERS. 1. Indian. 2, 3. Egyptian. 4, 5, Greek.
+       |     |     |   6. Indian.
+    13 |  95 | 102 | INDIAN LOTUS. 1. With Assyrian daisy. 2. Lotus. 3. The
+       |     |     |   egg and tongue, or Vitruvian scroll from Vignola.
+       |     |     |   "Regole di Ordine di Architettura."
+    14 |  91 |     | SUNFLOWER PATTERN. R. S. A. N. Nineteenth century.
+    15 |  92 |     | PORTION OF A PAGE of the Book of Kells. Dublin
+       |     |     |   University Library.
+    16 |  93 | 114 | DEMETER. Greek fictile vase. British Museum.
+    17 |  93 | 217 | 1. GREEK EMBROIDERY, 300 B.C. From tomb of the Seven
+       |     |     |   Brothers, Crimea.
+       |     |     | 2. EGYPTIAN painted or embroidered linen. The cone,
+       |     |     |   bead, daisy, wave. Lotus-under-water patterns are
+       |     |     |   represented on this fragment.
+    18 |  93 |     | EGYPTIAN Tapestry weaving finished with the needle.
+       |     |     |   British Museum.
+    19 |  97 | 114 | EGYPTIAN key patterns. Wilkinson's "Ancient
+       |     |     |   Egyptians," p. 125.
+    20 |  99 | 101 | TREES OF LIFE. 1, 2, 3. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian silk.
+       |     |     |   5. Mediæval. Birdwood's "Indian Arts."
+    21 | 101 |     | TREES OF LIFE. 1. Sculpture over gate of Mycenæ.
+       |     |     |   2. Sicilian silks; Persian type.
+    22 | 101 |     | LOTUS MERGED INTO TREE OF LIFE. 1. Split Chinese
+       |     |     |   Lotus. 2. Split Persian Lotus, from a frieze by
+       |     |     |   Benozzo Gozzoli. Ricardi Palace, Florence. 3. Petal
+       |     |     |   of flower. Greek glass bowl from tomb in Southern
+       |     |     |   Italy.
+    23 | 101 |     | TREES OF LIFE. Sicilian silks. Auberville. 1, 2, 3,
+       |     |     |   4, 5, 10. Persian type. 6, 7, 8, 9, 11. Indian type.
+    24 | 101 |     | TREE OF LIFE transformed into vine. Modern pattern of
+       |     |     |   work from the Principalities.
+    25 | 103 |     | TYPICAL CROSSES. 1. Swastika fire-stick cross. 2.
+       |     |     |   From Greek vase, British Museum, 765 B.C. 3.
+       |     |     |   Sectarial mark of Sakti race. India. 4. Sectarial
+       |     |     |   mark of Buddhists and Jainis. 5. On early Rhodian
+       |     |     |   pottery. 6. Egyptian prehistoric cross. 7. Tau
+       |     |     |   cross. 8. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite.
+       |     |     |   9. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite. 10. Clavus,
+       |     |     |   "nail" or "button," or sun-cross. 11, 12, 13.
+       |     |     |   Scandinavian sun and moon crosses. 14, 15, 16.
+       |     |     |   Celtic. 17. Chrysoclavus. 18, 19. Stauracin
+       |     |     |   patterns. 20. Norwegian. 21. Runic. 22. Cross in
+       |     |     |   Temple of the Sun, Palenque. 23. Scotch Celtic
+       |     |     |   cross. 24. Cross at Iona. 25, 26. Runic and
+       |     |     |   Scandinavian crosses. 27. Cross diapered on
+       |     |     |   Charlemagne's dalmatic. 28. From mantle of Henry
+       |     |     |   II., Emperor of Germany.
+    26 | 103 |     | PREHISTORIC CROSSES. 1. Greek. Pallas, with plaited
+       |     |     |   tunic worked with Swastika. 2. Greek. Ajax playing
+       |     |     |   at dice with Achilles. Cloak embroidered with
+       |     |     |   Swastika and other prehistoric patterns. Fictile
+       |     |     |   vase, Vatican Museum.
+    27 | 105 |     | ASSYRIAN CARPET carved in stone, British Museum.
+    28 | 107 |     | GOTHIC. 1. Dress patterns from old MS. 2, 3. Old
+       |     |     |   English tiles.
+    29 | 109 |     | CLOUD PATTERNS. 1, 2, 3, 7. Japanese. 5, 8, 9.
+       |     |     |   Mediæval. 4. Chinese. 6. Badge of Richard II.
+    30 | 109 |     | INDO-CHINESE COVERLET. Hatfield. Supposed to have
+       |     |     |   belonged to Oliver Cromwell.
+    31 | 109 |     | FUNDATA PATTERNS. 1. On Phoenician silver bowl.
+       |     |     |   ("L'Imagerie Phénicienne.") 2, 3. From tomb at
+       |     |     |   Essiout, Egypt. Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians,"
+       |     |     |   ii. p. 125. 1600 B.C.
+    32 | 124 |     | PART OF BORDER of silk, gold, and pearls. Worked by
+       |     |     |   Blanche, wife of Charles IV. of Bohemia. Bock's
+       |     |     |   "Lit. Gew." ii. p. 246.
+    33 | 147 |     | EMBROIDERED WINDOW HANGING from portrait of Mahomet
+       |     |     |   II., by Gentil Bellini; belonging to Sir Henry
+       |     |     |   Layard.
+    34 | 153 | 110 | CLASSICAL SILKS. 1. Greek. 2. Roman.
+    35 | 163 |     | DURHAM RELICS. Persian type of silk weaving.
+    36 | 164 |     | DURHAM RELICS. Norman and Persian types mixed.
+    37 | 164 |     | DURHAM RELICS. Græco-Egyptian type.
+    38 | 164 |     | EGYPTIAN BOAT with embroidered and fringed sails,
+       |     |     |   and floating scarves. Wilkinson's "Ancient
+       |     |     |   Egyptians," iii. p. 211.
+    39 | 200 |     | WHITE EMBROIDERY from sculptured tomb of a knight,
+       |     |     |   fifteenth century. Ara Coeli, Rome.
+    40 | 201 |     | PROCESSIONAL CLOAK, Spanish work, temp. Henry VIII.,
+       |     |     |   belonging to Lord Arundel of Wardour.
+    41 | 204 |     | OPUS PULVINARIUM. Counted stitches. 1. Italian. 2.
+       |     |     |   Scandinavian. 3. Ancient Egyptian. Turin Museum.
+    42 | 206 |     | ITALIAN MOSAIC STITCH work, sixteenth century.
+       |     |     |   Alford House.
+    43 | 214 |     | JAPANESE OPUS PLUMARIUM. White silk.
+    44 | 216 |  25 | OPUS CONSUTUM. Funeral tent of an Egyptian queen.
+    45 | 219 | 123 | OPUS CONSUTUM. "Inlaid" and "onlaid." Italian,
+       |     |     |   seventeenth century.
+    46 | 235 |     | EGYPTIAN GOBELINS finished with the needle.
+    47 | 236 |     | RHEIMS CATHEDRAL TAPESTRY. The Virgin weaving and
+       |     |     |   embroidering on frame a "basse-lisse."
+    48 | 243 |     | TENT OF CHARLES THE BOLD, taken at Grandson, now in
+       |     |     |   museum at Berne. The badge is that of the Golden
+       |     |     |   Fleece.
+    49 | 252 |     | ENGLISH TAPESTRY belonging to Lord Salisbury, at
+       |     |     |   Hatfield House, temp. Henry VIII.
+    50 | 294 |     | ITALIAN KNIGHT of fifteenth century armed for
+       |     |     |   conquest. Gentile da Fabriano. Academia, Florence.
+    51 | 309 |     | ST. MARK. Anglo-Saxon Book of the Gospels. York
+       |     |     |   Minster Library.
+    52 | 312 |     | CLASSICAL PATTERN adapted into Christian art.
+    53 | 318 |     | CHARLEMAGNE'S DALMATIC. Vatican Treasury.
+    54 | 318 |     | CHARLEMAGNE'S DALMATIC. Vatican Treasury.
+    55 | 318 |     | PORTION OF CHARLEMAGNE'S DALMATIC. Half-size.
+    56 | 319 |     | ST. SILVESTER'S PLUVIAL. Treasury of St. John
+       |     |     |   Lateran, Rome. Opus Anglicanum, thirteenth
+       |     |     |   century.
+    57 | 319 |     | PORTION OF ST. SILVESTER'S PLUVIAL, showing its
+       |     |     |   condition.
+    58 | 319 |     | BOLOGNA COPE. Museo del Municipio. Opus Anglicanum.
+    59 | 319 |     | DAROCA COPE. Archæological Museum at Madrid. Opus
+       |     |     |   Anglicanum.
+    60 | 319 |     | BONIFACE VIII.'S COPE from Anagni, his native place;
+       |     |     |   now in Vatican Treasury; twelfth century.
+    61 | 319 |     | ALTAR FRONTAL at Anagni, Italy. Italian work,
+       |     |     |   fourteenth century.
+    62 | 320 |     | WORCESTER RELICS of the tenth century. 1. From tomb
+       |     |     |   of Walter de Cantilupe. 2. From Aix, in Switzerland.
+       |     |     |   Same type.
+    63 | 320 |     | 1. MITRE OF THOMAS À BECKET. 2. The cross with twelve
+       |     |     |   leaves, "for the healing of the nations." Coronation
+       |     |     |   vestments at Rheims.
+    64 | 321 |     | ANGLO-SAXON WORK, purple and gold, from tomb of
+       |     |     |   William de Blois, Worcester. He died Bishop in 1236.
+    65 | 321 |     | A PORTION OF ST. STEPHEN OF HUNGARY'S MANTLE, worked
+       |     |     |   by his Queen Gisela. From Bock's "Kleinodien."
+    66 | 322 |     | PORTION OF MANTLE OF HENRY II., worked by his Empress
+       |     |     |   Kunigunda. From Bock's "Kleinodien."
+    67 | 325 |     | THE SYON COPE. South Kensington Museum.
+    68 | 329 |     | ITALIAN EMBROIDERIES designed by Pollaiolo; worked by
+       |     |     |   Paolo da Verona. Sixteenth century.
+    69 | 330 |     | SPANISH ALTAR FRONTAL. THE ARMS OF CASTILE embroidered
+       |     |     |   in gold with pearls. Ashridge. Plâteresque style,
+       |     |     |   seventeenth century.
+    70 | 337 | 113 | CONSULAR IVORIES. Two diptychs. 1. Zurich,
+       |     |     |   Wasser-Kirche. Inscribed to Consul Areobindus,
+       |     |     |   A.D. 434. 2. At Halberstadt. No date. From Bock's
+       |     |     |   "Lit. Gew."
+    71 | 363 |     | AELFLED'S ORPHREY, signed by her. Durham Cathedral
+       |     |     |   Library.
+    72 | 363 |     | ST. GREGORY AND ST. JOHN (PROPHET), from Aelfled's
+       |     |     |   orphrey. Durham. English work, tenth century.
+    73 | 365 |     | ST. DUNSTAN in adoration, drawn by himself. Bodleian
+       |     |     |   Library, Oxford. Tenth century.
+    74 | 369 |     | SMALL PARSEMÉ PATTERNS from Strutt's "Royal and
+       |     |     |   Ecclesiastical Antiquities of the English from
+       |     |     |   1100 to 1530."
+    75 | 369 |     | ENGLISH PATTERNS of embroidery. 1. Panel of a screen
+       |     |     |   in Hornby Church, Yorkshire. 2. Dress on a painted
+       |     |     |   window in St. Michael's Church, York. 3. Woven
+       |     |     |   material of the Towneley Copes.
+    76 | 375 |     | OPUS ANGLICANUM, twelfth century. British Museum.
+    77 | 376 |     | TYPICAL ENGLISH ORNAMENTS for ecclesiastical
+       |     |     |   embroideries, twelfth century.
+    78 | 377 |     | DUNSTABLE PALL. Temp. Henry VII.
+    79 | 378 |     | VINTNERS' COMPANY PALL. Henry VII.
+    80 | 378 |     | HENRY VII.'S COPE, from Stoneyhurst; designed by
+       |     |     |   Torrigiano, the sculptor of his tomb.
+    81 | 382 |     | SPANISH WORK. Temp. Henry VIII.
+    82 | 383 |     | ENGLISH "SPANISH WORK." Temp. Henry VIII.
+    83 | 389 |     | CUSHION COVER, Hatfield House. Temp. Elizabeth.
+    84 | 390 |     | ORIENTAL "TREE AND BEAST" PATTERN. Cockayne-Hatley.
+       |     |     |   Temp. James I.
+    85 | 391 |     | ENGLISH CREWEL WORK. Indian design. Temp. James I.
+
+
+
+
+NEEDLEWORK AS ART.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The book of the Science of Art has yet to be written. Art has been
+called the Flower of Life, and also the Consoler;--adorning the
+existence of the strong and bright,--sheltering and comforting the sad
+and solitary ones of the earth. But, rather, it resembles a
+wide-spreading tree, covered with varied blossoms--bearing many
+fruits.
+
+To point out the history and the possibilities in the future of each
+branch that shades, refreshes, and gives wholesome fruit to the world,
+would be a task worthy of a master-hand and a pen of gold. But less
+ambitious labourers in the field of investigation which is only as yet
+partly cultivated, may each assist, by carefully collecting a little
+heap of ascertained facts; and it is, indeed, the duty of each as he
+passes to add his pebble to the slowly accumulating cairn of recorded
+human knowledge.
+
+Some one has said, "Build your house of little bricks of facts, and
+you will soon find it inhabited by a body of truth; and that truth
+will ally itself with other houses of facts, and in time a
+well-ordered, cosmical city will arise."
+
+My pebble is not yet polished. It is neither a diamond nor a ruby, but
+I think there are a few streaks of golden light in it, which I may
+venture to add to the daily accumulating treasure in the house of
+human artistic knowledge.
+
+My object in writing this volume is to fill up an empty space in the
+English library of art.
+
+The great exponents of poetic thought--verse, sculpture, painting, and
+architecture--have long since been well interpreted and appreciated.
+Men and women have written much and well on these large subjects, and
+we may hope for more ere long. The secondary or smaller arts have been
+hitherto neglected by us,--either treated merely as crafts, to which
+artistic education may give help, or as the natural or inferior
+outcome of the primal arts, having no claim to the possession of
+special laws and history. And yet, when Moses wrote and Homer sang,
+needlework was no new thing. It was already consecrated by legendary
+and traditionary custom to the highest uses. The gods themselves were
+honoured by its service, and it preceded written history in recording
+heroic deeds and national triumphs.
+
+It may be said that ivory carving is sculpture, and illuminated
+manuscripts and coloured glass windows are painting. But for metal
+work, whether in iron or gold, a place must be kept apart; and the
+same privileges are due to embroidery and to metallurgy. All arts must
+of necessity have their own laws and rules, which ensure their beauty
+of execution and their special forms of design; these two last, from
+the nature of their materials, and the modes of working them, must be
+studied independently of any connection with painting, architecture,
+or sculpture.
+
+Yet, if the unity of nature is an accepted fact,[3] then the
+acceptance of the unity of art must follow. Art must be considered as
+the selection of natural phenomena by individual minds capable of
+assimilating and reproducing them in certain forms and with certain
+materials adapted to the national taste, needs, and power of
+appreciation. If man cannot originate materials, he can invent
+combinations;--and this is Art.
+
+If proportion, colour, and sound alike depend on certain mathematical
+measurements, and on rhythmical vibrations, there must be a real and
+tangible relation between these elements, though applied to obtain
+different results. In music, as in all art, harmony is, or ought to
+be, a first consideration. We have seen by experiment how a note of
+our scale can by touch form geometrical figures with sand on a sheet
+of glass,--here form obeys the force of harmony. But what is harmony?
+
+By analogy we may argue from the art of music. We who believe that we
+have acquired the knowledge of music as a science, beyond all
+preceding knowledge of the subject, have in Europe been able to enjoy
+only our own musical scales; whereas throughout the East, those
+accepted by the human ear are very various, and appear to depart from
+what to our senses is harmony. Those Oriental musics have either been
+adapted to the Oriental ear, or the ear has been adapted to appreciate
+the forms and laws of harmony with which it came in contact.
+
+The same questions occur to us while examining into the different
+forms of decorative art; and we are constantly reminded that the laws
+which should govern them, are perhaps, infinitely larger and wider
+than we with our limited human capacities and experience, have
+hitherto been able to appreciate.
+
+"Ars longa--vita brevis" has been so often said, that from a proverb
+it has become a truism; but it must continue to be the refrain of
+those who write upon art. The subject is so long, and its
+ramifications are so intricate, that it is difficult to include them
+all under one category.
+
+My furthest aim here is to trace back the art of needlework to its
+beginning, without turning my eyes to the right or the left, though I
+cannot help feeling myself drawn aside almost irresistibly by casual
+glimpses of architecture, sculpture, and painting, which here and
+there touch very nearly the history of needlework.
+
+Except where they visibly influence each other, I avoid dealing with
+the greater arts, leaving them to the study of the learned in each
+special branch.
+
+All art, however, throws reflected lights, and gleaning in the track
+of those authors who have preceded us, we often pick up valuable hints
+which we accept, and make use of them gladly.
+
+Some writers have thought it incumbent on them to give a local
+habitation and an abiding place to needlework, and they have regarded
+it as a branch of painting. But I cannot endorse this classification.
+According to Semper, indeed, it is the mother-art of sculpture and
+painting, instead of being the offspring of either or both, as others
+have maintained.[4] They have, indeed, such distinct functions that
+each may justly boast its own original sources. Painting is the art of
+colour; sculpture is that of form; embroidery is the art of clothing
+forms. They are all so ancient, that in seeking to ascertain their
+beginnings and dates. It is difficult to fix the precedence of one
+over another. We may compare, distinguish, and yet again change our
+opinions as fresh facts come under our observation.
+
+The art of needlework reached its climax long ago, and is now very
+old. History and faded rags are the only witnesses to its fabulous
+glories, in Classical, Oriental, and early Mediæval days. It would
+appear that nothing new remains to be invented. Copies of past styles,
+and selections from the scraps we retain and value as models, are all
+that we can boast of now.
+
+Dr. Rock truly says that few persons of the present day have the
+faintest idea of the labour, the money, the time, often bestowed of
+old upon embroideries which had been designed as well as wrought by
+the hands of men and women, each in their own craft the best and
+ablest of their day.
+
+Time is too short, our life too densely crowded, to allow leisure for
+the extravagance of what is, after all, only a luxury of art--no
+longer a civilizer, as of old, but just an efflorescence of our
+culture.
+
+Embroidery is now essentially "decoration," and nothing more. It is
+intended to appeal to the sense of beauty of the eye, rather than to
+the imagination. The designer for needlework should be an artist, but
+he need not be a poet. You may omit this art altogether, and you need
+be none the less sumptuously clothed and lodged. Yet it is worthy of
+careful study as historical evidence, and that in the present and
+future, as in the past, it may be an _art_, and not merely a _craft_.
+
+For the great web of history is composed of many threads of divers
+colours, and the warp and the woof are often exchanged, yet so
+connected and knotted together that the continuity is never broken. On
+this web, Time has drawn the picture of the past--sometimes faintly,
+sometimes with indelible tints and pronounced forms. By poetry; by
+architecture and its decorations; by dress, which represents and
+distinguishes nationalities; by customs, such as the different forms
+of burial; or even by such details as painting the eyes; also by the
+tradition and outcome of the laws of the tribes that flowed
+consecutively over Europe from the East; by the institutions which
+remained immutably fixed on their native soil, such as those of the
+Code of Manu, and those of Babylon, inscribed on bricks or clay; or by
+the words, their form and lettering, in which these are handed down to
+us;--out of all these the history of man is being reconstructed.
+
+How valuable is every witness to the ancient records, which were
+fading into myths in the memories of men. How joyfully is each little
+fact hailed as a landmark, in the general fog of doubt!
+
+Now embroidery may boast that it is a source of landmarks for all
+time.
+
+Without presuming to fix a date for its first beginning, that which I
+wish to impress on the mind of the reader is the long continuity of
+the art of needlework.
+
+The sense of antiquity induces reverence, and I claim for the needle
+an older and more illustrious age than can be accorded to the brush.
+While the great pendulum of Time has swung art in sculpture, painting,
+and architecture, from its cradle as in Mycenæ, to its throne in
+Athens in the days of Pericles, and then back again to the basest
+poverty of decaying Rome--needle work, continually refreshed from
+Eastern inspiration, never has fallen so low, though it had never
+aspired as high as its greater sister arts.
+
+The stuffs and fabrics of various materials of the Egyptians, Chinese,
+Assyrians, and Chaldeans are named in the earliest records of the
+human race. How much these decorations depended on weaving, and how
+much on embroidery with the needle, may in each case be disputed. The
+products of the Babylonian looms are alluded to in the Book of Joshua.
+Their beauty tempted Achan to rescue them when Jericho fell;[5] and
+Ezekiel speaks of the embroideries of Canneh, Haran, and Eden, as well
+as of their cloths of purple and blue, and their chests of garments of
+divers colours[6].
+
+All these fabrics are named as merchandise, and were carried to the
+sea-coast, and thence over the ancient world, by the Phoenicians,
+the great shipowners and dealers of the East.
+
+Indian needlework and design is 4000 years old; and the long
+perspective of Egyptian art, while leading us still further back into
+unlimited periods, shows it changing so slowly, that we feel as if it
+had been all but stationary from the beginning.
+
+The Chinese claim 5000 years as the life of their history; but if, as
+is now suggested, their civilization is Accadian or Proto-Babylonian,
+their wonderful artistic and scientific knowledge may have been
+fragments of the great dispersal, secreted and preserved behind the
+wonderful wall[7] of stone, silence, and law, where it has lain
+fossilized ever since. One cannot but wonder at the perfection of the
+textile manufactures of the Chinese, their marvellous embroideries,
+and the peculiar modes of construction and design throughout their
+arts, which have shown but few moments of change in growth--scarcely a
+sign of evolution. And we may fairly surmise that this Accadian
+culture (if such it be) is reflected from antediluvian tradition.
+
+The archæology of Oriental art is most interesting. We contemplate
+with awe the vast splendours of the consecutive civilizations of the
+East; the ancient richness and fertility of the whole of the Asiatic
+continent; the genius for empire and for commerce; the creative power
+which seemed to pour itself forth, unchecked by wars and conquests;
+the great dynasties which rose and fell, leaving behind them gigantic
+works, and the records of fabulous luxury in the empires of China,
+Assyria, India, and Persia, of which the remains have been of late
+years excavated, deciphered, and confronted with the historical texts
+which we have inherited, and had only partly believed. And studying
+these new aspects of history, we are saddened, thinking that the
+sunrise comes to us from shining over desert sands or the mounds of
+empty cities, where the lion and the jackal "reassert their primeval
+possession," or where the European and the Tartar, from the West and
+from the East, dispute their rights to suzerainty. We are dazzled and
+confused when we look back to those great days when the over-peopled
+kingdoms sent forth whole tribes, eastward to the confines of Asia,
+southward over India, and westward over Europe; and we bow reverently
+before the mighty Power that led the Jews, by a promise and a hope,
+across the seething nationalities, through the long passage of time
+from Abraham to Solomon; and which is again giving into the hands of
+those Oriental-looking men, so much power in shaping the destiny of
+mankind through their great riches.
+
+Moses commanded the Hebrew people to lend and never to borrow. They
+have obeyed his precept, except in art; to that they have lent or
+given nothing. There is no national Jewish art. For music only do they
+show artistic genius, and that is European and not Oriental. As
+illustrating their lack of intuitive decorative art, one need only
+refer to the architecture of the first, second, and third Temple
+buildings, which apparently reflected Babylonian and Semitic
+influences on an early Chaldean type. The embroideries mentioned by
+different writers, from Moses to Josephus, appear to have had always a
+Babylonian, or later a Persian inspiration.
+
+This absence of artistic genius is very remarkable in a people that
+had its origin in the Eastern centre from whence all art has radiated.
+
+The reason that so little survives of ancient embroidery is evident.
+Woollen stuffs and threads decay quickly--the moth and rust do corrupt
+them--and the very few ancient bits that remain, have been preserved
+by the embalming process, which has kept the contents of tombs from
+becoming dust.
+
+As to more modern embroideries, we ought to be thankful that the art
+has had its fashions; otherwise, the world would be overwhelmed with
+shabby rags. Human nature has a tendency to dislike the
+"old-fashioned"--i.e. the fashion of the last generation. That which
+our mothers worked or wore, is an object for affectionate sentiment,
+and the best specimens alone are preserved. That which belonged to our
+grandfathers and grandmothers has receded into the rococo; and a few
+more generations take us back to the antique, of which so little
+survives, from wear and tear, carelessness and theft, that we put away
+and preserve it as being curious and precious. We may hope that the
+general law of the survival of the fittest has guarded what is most
+remarkable.
+
+Certain works have been consecrated by the hands that executed them,
+or by that of the donor, or by the purpose for which they were
+bestowed, and are mostly preserved in churches or national museums. Of
+these there are vestments and altar decorations worked by royal and
+noble ladies; and coronation garments given by Queens and Empresses,
+such as Queen Gisela's and the Empress Kunigunda's at Prague and
+Bamberg, and Charlemagne's dalmatic at the Vatican, described in the
+chapter on ecclesiastical embroideries. Sculptured effigies help us as
+to embroidered patterns; for our forefathers often actually copied in
+bronze or stone the patterns of the garments in which the body was
+buried, or at any rate, those the man had worn in his life. Of these,
+King John's monument at Worcester, and the surcoat of the Black Prince
+at Canterbury, are remarkable examples.[8]
+
+The succeeding chapters will contain sketches of the history of the
+different stitches, and of the best examples of stitch and style
+remaining to us; and I shall try to extract from both the best
+suggestions for guidance in design and handicraft.
+
+Embroidery from its nature is essentially the woman's art.[9] It needs
+a sedentary life, industry and patience. It does not require a room to
+itself, and the worker may leave it at any moment between two stitches
+when called to other duties. Nunneries produced the finest work of the
+dark and middle ages; and their teaching inaugurated the workrooms in
+the palaces and castles, where young girls, whether royal, noble, or
+gentle, were trained in embroidery as an accomplishment and a
+household duty.
+
+The history of domestic embroidery ought to be looked upon as that of
+an important factor in the humanizing effect of æsthetic culture.
+
+The woman of the house has always been strong to fulfil her part in
+this civilizing influence with the implement which custom has awarded
+to her. Every man in the ancient East began his life under the tent or
+in the palace adorned by the hands of his mother and her maidens, and
+his home was made beautiful by his wife and his sisters and their
+slaves. There, as in mediæval homes, lessons of morality and religion,
+and the love and fame of noble deeds, were taught by the painting of
+the needle to the minds of the young men, who would have scorned more
+direct teaching; and the children felt the influence, as the women
+wove what the bards sang.
+
+Alas! we have but few specimens of embroideries of which we know the
+history, earlier than the tenth and eleventh centuries.[10] Yet from
+the days of the books of the Old Testament and the song of the siege
+of Troy, down to the present time, the woman of the house has adorned
+not only herself and her dear lord, but she has hung the walls, the
+seats, the bed, and the tables with her beautiful creations.
+
+Homer's women were all artists with the needle. Venus seeking Helen,--
+
+    "Like fair Laodice in form and face,
+    The loveliest nymph of Priam's royal race,
+    Here in the palace at her loom she found:
+    The golden web her own sad story crown'd.
+    The Trojan wars she weaved (herself the prize),
+    And the dire triumph of her fatal eyes."[11]
+
+This must have been intended for hangings.
+
+Hecuba's wardrobe is thus described:--
+
+    "The Phrygian queen to her rich wardrobe went,
+    Where treasured odours breathed a costly scent;
+    There lay the vestures of no vulgar art,
+    Sidonian maids embroider'd every part.
+    Here, as the queen revolved with careful eyes
+    The various textures and the various dyes
+    She chose a web that shone superior far,
+    And glow'd refulgent as the morning star."[12]
+
+The women of the Middle Ages were great at the loom and frame. From
+the Kleine Heldenbuch of the thirteenth century, Rock quotes these
+lines:--
+
+    "Who taught me to embroider in a frame with silk,
+    And to sketch and design the wild and tame
+    Beasts of the forest and field?
+    Also to picture on plain surfaces;
+    Round about to place golden borders--
+    narrow and a broad one--
+    With stags and hinds, lifelike."
+
+Gudrun, like the women of Homer, embroidered history--that of the
+ancestors of Siegfried.
+
+But in the Middle Ages the embroiderers were ambitious artists. The
+deeds of Roland and the siege of Troy, all romantic and classical
+lore, provided subjects for the needle.
+
+Shakespeare gives a pretty picture of the graceful weaver and
+embroiderer:--
+
+    * * * "Would ever with Marina be:--
+    Be't when she weaves the sleided silk,
+    With fingers long, small, white as milk;
+    Or when she would with sharp neeld wound
+    The cambric, which she makes more sound
+    By hurting it....
+    Deep clerks she dumbs; and with her neeld composes
+    Nature's own shape, of bud, bird, branch, or berry,
+    That even her art sisters the natural roses."[13]
+
+Before closing this Introduction, I will take the opportunity to
+protest against the abuse of the phrase "High Art." It is generally
+appropriated by that which is the lowest and most feeble.
+
+An old design for a chair or table, by no means remarkable originally,
+but cheaply copied, and covered with a quaint and dismal cretonne or
+poorly worked pattern, of which the design is neither new nor
+artistic, is introduced by the upholsterer as belonging to "High Art
+furniture." The epithet has succeeded to what was once "fashionable"
+and "elegant." To get rid of carpets, and put down rugs, to hang up
+rows of plates instead of family portraits--this also is "high art."
+Likewise gowns lumped upon the shoulders, with all the folds drawn
+across, instead of hanging draperies. The term is never used when we
+speak of the great arts--painting, sculpture, and architecture. It is,
+in fact, only the slang of the cabinet-maker, the upholsterer, and
+milliner.
+
+All true Art is very high indeed and apparent; and needs not to be
+introduced with a puff. It sits enthroned between Poetry and History.
+Even those who are ignorant of its laws feel its influence, and the
+soothing grace which it sheds, falling like the rain, equally upon the
+just and the unjust. Man's nature always responds to the truly high
+and beautiful; only the most degraded are deprived of this source of
+happiness. And there are but few women, till debased by cruelty,
+misery, or drink, that do not try in some humble way (but especially
+with their needle) to adorn their own persons, their children, and
+their homes; and if their art is not high, it yet has the power to
+elevate them.[14] While the most ambitious women try a higher flight,
+into the regions of poetry, literature, painting, and even sculpture
+(why has no woman ever been an architect?), millions have enjoyed the
+art of the needle for thousands of years, and it will continue to be a
+solace and a delight as long as the world lasts, for, like all art, it
+gives the ever new joy of creation.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [3] See Duke of Argyll's "Unity of Nature."
+
+    [4] Walls, pillars, and roofs were certainly hung with
+    textile ornament before they were carved or painted.
+    This is Semper's theory, and though Woltmann and
+    Woermann ("History of Painting," Eng. Trans., Sidney
+    Colvin, p. 38) hardly accept this view, they do not
+    gainsay it. The women who wove hangings for the grove,
+    or more literally, "coverings for the houses" of the
+    grove, were probably the priestesses of Astarte, and
+    wove and worked the hangings of various colours. 2 Kings
+    xxii.; Ezek. xvi. 16-18.
+
+    "It is probable that the earliest kind of pictures were
+    either woven or embroidered upon figured stuffs of
+    various colours; and that in these decorations the
+    Greeks in the first instance imitated the Semitic races,
+    who had practised them from time immemorial." See
+    Woltmann and Woermann's "History of Painting" (Eng.
+    Trans.), p. 38.
+
+    [5] Joshua vii.
+
+    [6] Ezek. xxvii. 23.
+
+    [7] The wall of China, which, both figuratively and
+    literally, enclosed its civilization, and fenced off
+    that of the outer world, for thousands of years.
+
+    [8] When the tomb of King John was opened, the body was
+    found wrapped in the same dress as that sculptured on
+    his effigy. The surcoat of the Black Prince, of
+    embroidered velvet, still hangs above his monument, on
+    which it is exactly reproduced.
+
+    [9] Yet men, too, have wielded the embroidering needle.
+
+    [10] These remnants are not, like the straws in amber,
+    only precious because they are curious; they are most
+    suggestive as works of art.
+
+    [11] Pope's Homer, Iliad, book iii.
+
+    [12] Ibid. book vi.
+
+    [13] Shakespeare, "Pericles, Prince of Tyre," act iv.
+    20; v. 5.
+
+    [14] Surely it is a humanizing and Christian principle
+    which in Italy permits artistic work to be done in the
+    prisons where criminals are confined for life. Sisters
+    of Mercy teach lace-making to the wretched women who,
+    having committed great crimes, may never be seen again.
+    The produce of the work helps to pay the expense of the
+    prison, and at the same time a very small percentage is
+    given to the prisoners to send to their friends, or to
+    spend on little comforts, thus encouraging the poor
+    human creatures to exercise their best powers. We
+    believe this is sometimes allowed also in England and
+    France.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+STYLE.
+
+
+In venturing to approach so great a subject as the history of style, I
+would beg my readers to believe how well I am aware that on each point
+much more has been already carefully treated by previous writers, than
+will fall within the limits of a chapter that is intended only to
+throw light on textile art, and especially on embroidery.
+
+I suppose it is the same in all subjects of human speculation which
+are worthy of serious study; and therefore I ought not to have been
+surprised to find how much has already been written on needlework and
+embroidery, and how unconsciously I, at least, have passed by and
+ignored these notices, till it struck me that I ought to know
+something of the history and principles of the art which with others,
+I was striving to revive and improve.
+
+Then new and old facts crowded round me, and became significant and
+interesting. I longed to know something of the first worker and the
+first needle; and behold the needle has been found!--among the débris
+of the life of the Neolithic cave-man, made of bone and very neatly
+fashioned.
+
+Alas! the workwoman and her work are gone to dust; but _there_ is the
+needle!--proof positive that the craft existed before the last glacial
+period in Britain.[15] How long ago this was, we may conjecture, but
+can never finally ascertain. Then I find embroidery named by the
+earliest historians, by every poet of antiquity, and by the first
+travellers in the East; and it has been the subject of laws and
+enactments from the date of the Code of Manu in India, to the present
+century. One becomes eager to systematize all this information, and to
+share with the workers and thinkers of the craft, the pleasure found
+in its study.
+
+Perhaps what is here collected may appear somewhat bald and
+disjointed; but antiquity, both human and historical, is apt to be
+bald; and its dislocation and disjointed condition are owing to the
+frequent cataclysms, physical, political, and social, which needlework
+has survived, bringing down to us the same stitches which served the
+same purposes for decoration under the Code of Manu, and adorned the
+Sanctuary in the wilderness; and those stitches probably were not new
+then.
+
+I propose to give a slight sketch of the origin of the styles[16] that
+have followed each other, noting the national influences that have
+displaced or altered them, and the overlap of style caused by outside
+events.
+
+First, I would define what "STYLE" means.
+
+Style is the mark impressed on art by a national period, short or
+long. It fades, it wanes, and then some historical element enters on
+the scene, which carries with it new materials, needs, and tastes
+(either imported or springing up under the new conditions). The style
+of the day in art and literature alters so perceptibly, that all who
+have had any artistic training are at once aware of the difference.
+
+Of late years, the science of history has been greatly assisted by the
+science of language. When the mute language of art shall have been
+patiently deciphered, the historian will be furnished with new powers
+in his researches after truth.
+
+The first "ineffaceable" is a _word_; the second a _pattern_. This is
+proved by the history of needlework.
+
+As the world grows old, its youth becomes more interesting. Alas! the
+childhood of mankind is so distant, and it was so long before it
+learned its letters, that but few facts have come down to us, on which
+we may firmly build our theories; yet we must acknowledge the great
+stride that has been made in the last few years, in the scientific
+mode of extracting history from the ruins and tombs, and even the
+dust-heaps, of the past. Whole epochs, which fifty years ago were as
+blank as the then maps of Central Africa, are being now gradually
+covered with landmarks.
+
+Layard, Rawlinson, C. T. Newton, Botta, Rassam, Schliemann, Birch, G.
+Smith, and a crowd of archæologists, and even unscientific explorers,
+are collecting the materials from which the history of mankind is
+being reconstructed.
+
+From them I have sought information about the art of embroidery, and I
+find that Semper gives it a high pre-eminence as to its antiquity,
+making it the foundation and starting-point of all art. He clothes not
+only man, but architecture, with the products of the loom and the
+needle; and derives from them in succession, painting, bas-relief, and
+sculpture.[17]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Style has to be considered in two different aspects, from two
+different standpoints. First, historically and archæologically,
+distinguishing and dating the forms which follow upon each other; and
+tracing them back in the order of their natural sequence; so as to
+guide us to the root, nay, to the seed[18] of each and all art.
+
+The subsidiary art of embroidery, in its highest form the handmaid of
+architecture, is full of suggestion, and may assist us greatly in the
+search which culminates in the text of "In the beginning."
+
+The other point of view from which style should be considered is the
+æsthetic. This enables us to criticize the works of different periods;
+extracting, as far as we may, rules for the beautiful and the
+commendable, and seeking to find the "why?" also observing the
+operation of the law by which decay follows too soon after the best
+and highest efforts of genius, thought, and invention in art.
+
+My present object is the history of consecutive styles, in so far as
+they concern needlework.
+
+Alas! nothing endures. This law is acknowledged by Goethe, when he
+makes Jove answer Venus, who bewailed that all that is beautiful must
+die,--that he had only bestowed beauty on the evanescent.
+
+It seems as if the moment the best is attained, men, ceasing to
+struggle for the better, fall back at once hopelessly and become mere
+imitators. They no longer follow a type, but copy a model, and then
+copy the copy. Imitation is a precipice, a swift descent through
+poverty of thought into the chaos of mannerism, in the place of style.
+
+The imitative tendency, as existing in all human minds, cannot be
+ignored or despised. In individuals it accompanies enthusiasm for the
+beautiful, and the graceful charm of sympathy. It maintains continuity
+between specimen and specimen, between artist and artist, between
+century and century; and it is this which enables an adept to say with
+certainty of consecutive styles, "This is Spanish work of the
+sixteenth century; that is Flemish or German work of the seventeenth
+century."
+
+The theory of development and of the survival of the fittest has been
+worked so hard, that it sometimes breaks down under the task imposed
+upon it. It would need to include Death in its procedure. In our
+creed, Death, means the moment of entrance into a higher existence;
+but in art it means extinction, leaving behind neither a history nor
+an artisan--only, perhaps, an infinitely small tradition, like the
+grain of corn preserved in the wrappings of a mummy, from which at
+first accident, and then care and culture, may evoke a future life.
+
+The various ways in which art has appeared at the beginning cannot
+here be discussed; nor how the Chinese and Hindu may have leapt into a
+perfection which has stood still for thousands of years, protected
+alike from expansion as from destruction, by the swaddling bands of
+codified custom; while Greek art rose like the sun, shone over the
+civilized world, and set--never again to see another epoch of glory.
+These subjects must be left for the study of the anthropological
+philosopher, who is working for the assistance and guidance of the
+future historian of art.
+
+Style in needlework has passed through many phases since the
+aboriginal, prehistoric woman, with the bone needle, drew together the
+edges of the skins of the animals she had prepared for food.
+
+For absolute necessity, in forming the garments and covering the tent,
+needlework need go no further than the seam. This, however, in the
+woven or plaited material, must fray where it is shaped, and become
+fringed at the edges. Every long seam is a suggestion, and every
+shaped edge a snare.
+
+The fringe lends itself to the tassel, and the shaped seam suggests a
+pattern; up-stitches are needed for binding the web, and before she is
+aware of it, the worker finds herself adorning, _embroidering_; and
+the craft enters the outskirts of the region of art.
+
+The humble early efforts at decoration, called by the French
+"primitif," are the first we know and class, and are found in all
+savage attempts at ornament. This style consists mainly of straight
+lines, zigzags, wavy lines, dots, and little discs.[19]
+
+Gold discs of many sizes, and worked with a variety of patterns, are
+found equally in the tomb of the warrior at Mycenæ, and in Ashantee,
+accompanied in both cases with gold masks covering the faces of the
+dead. The discs or buttons remind us of those found in Etruscan tombs,
+though the execution of these last is more advanced. They appear to be
+the origin of the "clavus" or nail-headed pattern woven into silks in
+the Palace of the Cæsars. The last recorded survival of this pattern
+is in woven materials for ecclesiastical purposes in the Middle Ages.
+
+Of very early needlework we only find here and there a fragment,
+illustrated occasionally by passing allusions in poetry and history.
+
+The ornamental art of Hissarlik[20] is so primitive that we cannot
+feel that it has any resemblance to that described as Trojan by Homer,
+who probably adorned his song with the art he had known elsewhere.[21]
+
+We know not what the actual heroes of the Iliad and Odyssey wore; but
+we do know that what Homer describes, he must have seen. Was Homer,
+therefore, the contemporary of the siege of Troy?--or does he not
+rather speak of the customs and costumes of his own time, and apply
+them to the traditions of the heroic ages of Greece? Whatever be the
+date of Homer himself, we can, with the help of contemporary
+survivals, reconstruct the house and the hall, and even furnish them,
+and clothe the women and the princes, the beggars and the herdsmen.
+
+From the remains of Egyptian, Babylonian, and Assyrian art we can
+perceive their differences and their affinities. It is from textile
+fragments, found mostly in tombs, that we obtain dates, and can
+suggest them for other specimens.
+
+The funeral tent of Shishak's mother-in-law, at Boulac, is most
+valuable as showing what was the textile art of that early period.[22]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 1.
+    Egyptian corselet. (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians.")]
+
+The corselet which, according to Herodotus, was given by Amasis, King
+of Egypt, to the Temple of Minerva at Lindos, in Rhodes, was possibly
+worked in this style; for Babylonian embroidery was greatly prized in
+Egypt, and imitated.
+
+The second corselet given by Amasis to the Lacædemonians was worked in
+gold and colours, with animals and other decorations. This was of the
+seventh century B.C.[23]
+
+Amongst the arms painted on the wall of the tomb of Rameses, at Thebes
+(in Egypt), is a corselet, apparently of rich stuff,[24] embroidered
+with lions and other devices. (Fig. 1.)
+
+The Phoenicians imbibed and reproduced the styles they met with in
+their voyages. The bowls found in Cyprus described and engraved in the
+September number of the "Magazine of Art" (1883), are most interesting
+illustrations of the meeting of two national styles, the Assyrian and
+the Egyptian.[25]
+
+Homer's "Shield of Achilles"[26] must, in general design, have
+resembled these bowls (see Pl. 5). They also recall the description by
+Josephus of the Temple veils at Jerusalem, which were Babylonian.[27]
+
+Phoenicia, which was the carrier of all art, dropped specimens here
+and there, for many hundred years, along the borders of the
+Mediterranean and the coasts of Spain. We fancy we can trace her
+ocean-path by the western shores of Africa, and even to America;
+otherwise, how could it happen that a mummy-wrapping in Peru should so
+nearly resemble some of those wrappings found at Saccarah,[28] in
+Egypt, woven in precisely the same tapestry fashion?
+
+Among the puzzling phenomena due probably to Phoenician commerce, is
+the complete suite of the sacerdotal ornaments of a High Priest, found
+in his tomb,[29] now in the Vatican Museum. This reminds us of other
+specimens of archaic art from distant sources, that our attention is
+forcibly arrested, and we wonder whence they came, and whether they
+were collected from alien civilizations by the Phoenicians before
+they dispersed them.[30]
+
+Certain Egyptian sculptures of deformed and repulsive
+divinities--idols of the baser sort--are most interesting and puzzling
+by their affinity in style to the Indo-Dravidian and the art of
+Mexico, while they are entirely unlike that of Egypt. If Atlantis and
+its arts never existed, it may be suggested that it was the eastern
+coast of America that was spoken of under that name by the Egyptian
+priest with whom Herodotus conversed.
+
+The Babylonian and Ninevite embroideries, carefully executed on their
+bas-reliefs, have a masculine look, which suggests the design of an
+artist and the work of slaves. There is no following out of graceful
+fancies; one set of selected forms (each probably with a symbolical
+intention) following another. The effect, as seen on the sculptures in
+the British Museum, is royally gorgeous; and one feels that creatures
+inferior to monarchs or satraps could never have aspired to such
+splendours. Probably the embroidery on their corselets was executed in
+gold wire, treated as thread, and taken through the material; and the
+same system was carried out in adorning the trappings of the horses
+and the chariots. The solid masses of embroidery may have been
+afterwards subjected to the action of the hammer, which would account
+for their appearing like jeweller's work in the bas-reliefs (Pl. 1 and
+2).
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 1.
+    Assurbanipal fighting lions.
+    British Museum.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 2.
+    Portion of a Babylonian Royal Mantle. Layard's "Monuments," series
+        i., pl. 9.]
+
+The style of the Babylonian embroideries appears to have been
+naturalistic though conventionalized. We may judge of their styles for
+different purposes by the reliefs in the British Museum. From their
+veils and curtains at a later date, when they had crossed their
+art with that of India, we may imagine the mystical design of the
+Temple curtain as described by Josephus; in fact, as much as possible
+embracing all things on the earth and above it, excepting the images
+of the heavenly bodies.[31]
+
+Small carpets from Persia of the Middle Ages, as well as those woven
+and embroidered even to the present day, are echoes of the ancient
+Babylonian style, and most interesting as historical records of the
+traditions of human taste. Our artistic interests are stirred when we
+read in Ezekiel lists of the fabrics and materials of which Tyre had
+become the central depôt, and we enjoy tracing them to the various
+looms, named in verse and history, where they were adorned with
+embroidery, and then either became articles of commerce, or were
+stored away to be kept religiously as heirlooms, or presented as gifts
+to the temples or to honoured guests.
+
+Mr. G. Smith, after saying that the Babylonian is without doubt the
+oldest of civilizations, continues thus:--"To us the history of
+Babylonia has an interest beyond that of Egypt, on account of its more
+intimate connection with our own civilization.[32] Babylon was the
+centre from which it spread into Assyria, thence to Asia Minor and
+Phoenicia, then to Greece and Rome, and so to all Europe. The Jews
+brought the traditions of the creation and of early religion from Ur
+of the Chaldees,[33] and thus preserved they became the heritage of
+all mankind; while the science and civilization of that wonderful
+people (the Babylonians) became the basis of modern research and
+advancement."[34]
+
+The hangings of the Tabernacle are so carefully described in the book
+of Exodus, that we can see in fancy the linen curtains, blue or white,
+embroidered in scarlet, purple, blue, and gold; the cherubim in the
+woven material; the fringes enriched with flowers, buds, fruit, and
+golden bells: and we can appreciate how little of Egyptian art and
+style the children of Israel brought back from their long captivity,
+and how soon they reverted to their ancient Chaldean proclivities,
+after returning to their wandering life of the tent.
+
+On the bronze gates from the mound of Balawat, near Nimroud, set up by
+Shalmaneser to celebrate his conquest of Tyre and Sidon,[35] we find a
+portable tabernacle, evidently meant to accompany the army on a march.
+It is not much larger than a four-post bed, with transverse poles for
+drawing the curtains, all fringed with bells and fruit. This is an
+illustration of the motive for the Tabernacle of the forty years'
+wandering in the desert. (Fig. 2.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2.
+    Tabernacle on gates of Balawat, time of Shalmaneser II. (British
+        Museum).]
+
+Egyptian textile art is, perhaps, that of which we have the most early
+specimens. These are to be seen at Boulac, at Vienna, Turin, and the
+British Museum.[36] The Hieroglyphic, the Archaic, and the
+Græco-Egyptian are all unmistakably the consecutive outcome of the
+national original style, which had totally disappeared in the
+beginning of our era. Few of the embroideries are more than two
+thousand five hundred years old. But the great piece of patchwork in
+leather, "the funeral tent of an Egyptian queen," as it covered the
+remains of a contemporary of Solomon,[37] absolutely exhibits the
+proficiency of the designer and the needlework of the eleventh century
+B.C. (Pl. 44.)
+
+The connection between Indian and Egyptian early art appears to have
+existed only in their use of the lotus as an emblem and a constant
+decoration; but their manner of employing it was characteristically
+different. (Pl. 12 and 13.)
+
+The Phoenicians carried with them the seeds of the Egyptian style
+over the ancient world; but these seeds only took root and flourished
+on the soil of Greece. The imitations of Egyptian style reappeared in
+Rome, and again in France "under the two Empires." In both cases they
+were only imitations, and neither had any permanent influence on the
+art of their day.
+
+I shall have to allude very often to our Eastern sources of artistic
+culture.
+
+Our own Aryan ancestors were so impregnated with beautiful ideas, that
+we must believe that we inherit from them all our graceful
+appreciation of naturalistic ornament. But even Aryan art met with
+reverses on its Eastern soil, from which it constantly rose again and
+renewed itself.
+
+The Mongols crushed for a time the element of beauty in India. They
+introduced a barbarous and hideous style which has its only
+counterpart in that of Central America. It was the produce of a
+religion, superstitious, cruel, and devilish.
+
+The Aryan art of India, which was elegant and spiritual, was revived
+by the kindred influence of Persia, and by the Renaissance in Europe.
+Italian and other artists were employed in India, and "the spirit of
+aerial grace, and the delicate sense of beauty in natural forms,
+blossomed afresh and flourished for 300 years. Birds, flowers, fruit,
+butterflies, became once more the legitimate ornament of every
+material."[38]
+
+I continue to quote from Sir G. Birdwood's "Arts of India." "The Code
+of Manu, from 900 to 300 B.C., has secured to the village system of
+India a permanent class of hereditary artistic workmen and artisans,
+who have through these 2500 years, at least, been trained to the same
+manipulations, and who therefore translate any foreign work which is
+placed before them to copy, into something characteristically
+Indian."[39] Indian art has borrowed freely from all sources without
+losing its own individuality. It has been said, "There is nothing
+newer in it than of the sixteenth century; and even then nothing was
+original, especially in the minor arts." But this is owing to the
+Hindu being equally endowed with assimilative and receptive
+capacity,[40] so that in the hands of the Indian craftsman everything
+assumes the distinctive expression of ancient Indian art.
+
+In India everything is hand-wrought; but as the spirit of its
+decorative art "is that of a crystallized tradition, its type has
+remained almost unaltered since the Aryan genius culminated in the
+Ramâyana and Mahabhârata--and yet each artisan in India is a true
+artist."[41] In art, unfortunately, "the letter killeth;" and true
+artists as they are, the ancient traditions bind and cramp them,
+while the ancient materials, the dyes, and the absolute command of
+time are failing: so that the beauty of Indian embroideries and other
+decorations is gradually reducing itself to mannerism, which is more
+dangerous to art than even had been the vicissitudes of war; for when
+peaceful days returned, and the waves of conquest had subsided, the
+ancient arts were found again deeply embedded in the traditions of the
+people. They gradually returned to their old ways, which are so
+indelible in the Hindu mind, that they will perhaps survive even the
+fashions of to-day.[42]
+
+From Yates' account it would appear that Europe had been fertilized
+with taste in art and manufactures from the East by three different
+routes.
+
+The Egyptian civilization, with all its Eastern antecedents and
+traditions, came to us by the Mediterranean and the Adriatic; the
+Phoenicians being the merchants who brought it through those
+channels. The Etruscans, who were the pedlars of Europe, travelled
+north, conveying golden ornaments and coral, and bringing back jet and
+amber. Their commercial track is to be traced by the contents of tombs
+on their path.[43]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 3.
+    St. John. From King Alfred's Celtic Book of the Gospels. Lambeth
+        Palace Library.]
+
+Secondly, there was also a Slavonian route from Eastern Asia, which
+conveyed Oriental art to the north of Europe. Celtic art, which
+certainly has something of the Indo-Chinese style, came to us probably
+by this route. Another branch of the Celtic family was settled on the
+north-eastern shores of the Adriatic. Celtic ideas and forms in art
+probably crossed Europe from this point,[44] and came to us meeting a
+cognate influence,[45] arriving from the north.[46] (Pl. 3.)
+
+Thirdly, Oriental taste and textiles came from the Byzantine Empire in
+the early days of Christianity, spreading to Sicily, Italy, Spain, and
+finally to France, Germany, and Britain.
+
+Runic art, whether Scandinavian or our own purer Celtic, is so
+remarkable for its independence of all other European national and
+traditional design, that I cannot omit a brief notice of it, though we
+have no ascertained relics of any of its embroideries.[47] It appears
+to have received, in addition to its own universal stamp--evidently
+derived from one original source--certain influences impressed on it
+like a seal by each country through which it flowed.[48] Wherever the
+Runes are carved in stone, or worked on bronze, gold, silver, ivory,
+or wood, or painted in their splendid illuminations (pl. 4), the
+involved serpent, which was the sign of their faith, appears,
+sometimes covered with Runic inscriptions; and this inscribed serpent,
+later, is twined round or heaped at the foot of the peculiar
+Scandinavian-shaped cross, the type of conversion. The serpent was
+sometimes altered into the partial semblance of a four-footed animal,
+the body and tail being lengthened and twined, and sometimes split, to
+give a new turn to the pattern. (Fig. 3.) All these zoomorphic
+patterns, as well as the human figures seen in the Book of Kells, the
+missal at Lambeth, and the Lindisfarne Book (which is, however, more
+English in its style), are yet of an Indo-Chinese type; the
+wicker-work motives often replacing the involved serpent design.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.
+    Celtic Zoomorphic pattern.]
+
+The Paganism of our own Celtic art, when it appears, is an
+interpolation between our first and second Christian conversions, and
+was brought to us in the incursions of the Vikings over Scotland and
+into England.
+
+  [Illustration: Page from the Lindisfarne MSS. British Museum]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 5.
+    Silver bowl from Palestrina. Ganneau. "Journal Asiatique, Coupe de
+        Palestrina." 1880.]
+
+Our knowledge of their advanced and most singular art comes out
+of their tombs, in which the warrior was laid with all his arms and
+his horse and his precious possessions, splendidly clothed according
+to his degree--in the belief that he would need them again in a future
+world.
+
+This northern tradition was so long-lived, that Frederick Casimir, a
+knight of the Teutonic Order, was buried with his sword and his horse
+at Treves, in 1781.[49]
+
+Greek embroideries we can perfectly appreciate, by studying Hope's
+"Costumes of the Ancients," and the works of Millingen and others;
+also the fictile vases in the British Museum and elsewhere. On these
+are depicted the Hellenic gods, the wars, and the home life of the
+Greeks. The worked or woven patterns on their draperies are infinitely
+varied, and range over many centuries of design, and they are almost
+always beautiful. It is melancholy to have to confess that in this, as
+in all their art, the Greek taste is inimitable; yet we may profit by
+the lessons it teaches us. These are: variety without redundancy;
+grace without affectation; simplicity without poverty; the
+appropriate, the harmonious, and the serene, rather than that which is
+astonishing, painful, or awe-inspiring. These principles were carried
+into the smallest arts, and we can trace them in the shaping of a cup
+or the decoration of a mantle, as in the frieze of the Parthenon.
+
+Homer makes constant mention of the women's work. Penelope's web is
+oftenest quoted. This was a shroud for her Father-in-law. Ulysses
+brought home a large collection of fine embroidered garments,
+contributed by his fair hostesses during his travels.
+
+Pallas Athene patronized the craft of the embroiderers; and the sacred
+peplos which robed her statue, and was renewed every year, was
+embroidered by noble maidens, under the superintendence of a
+priestess of her temple. It represented the battles of the gods and
+the giants (fig. 4), till the portraits of living men were profanely
+introduced into the design. The new peplos was carried to the temple,
+floating like a flag, in procession through the city.
+
+The goddess to whom the Greeks gave the protection of this art was
+wise as well as accomplished, and knew that it was good for women
+reverently to approach art by painting with their needles. She always
+was seen in embroidered garments, and worked as well as wove them
+herself. She appeared to Ulysses in the steading of Eumoeus, the
+swineherd, as a "woman tall and fair, and skilful in splendid
+handiwork."[50]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 4.
+    Pallas Athene attired in the sacred peplos.
+    (Panathenaic Vase, British Museum.)]
+
+Homer never tires of praising the women's work, and the chests of
+splendid garments laid up in the treasure-houses.[51] Helen gave of
+her work to Telemachus: "Helen, the fair lady, stood by the coffer
+wherein were her robes of curious needlework which she herself had
+wrought. Then Helen, the fair lady, lifted it out, the widest and most
+beautifully embroidered of all--and it shone like a star; and this she
+sent as a gift to his future wife."[52]
+
+Semper's theory is, that the one chief import of Oriental style being
+embroideries, therefore the hangings and dresses arriving from Asia
+gave the poetic Greek the motives for his art, his civilization, his
+legends, and his gods.[53] This may or may not be; there is no doubt
+that they influenced them.[54]
+
+Böttiger accordingly believes that Homer's descriptions of beautiful
+dress and furnishings are derived from, or at least influenced by,
+what he had learnt of the Babylonian and Chaldean embroideries. This
+is very probable, and would account for his poetical design on the
+shield of Achilles, in which his own inspiration dictated the
+possibilities of the then practised arts of Asia, of which the fame
+and occasional glimpses were already drifting westward. (Plate 5.)
+
+The description of the shield of Achilles is as follows: Hephaistos,
+"the lame god," "threw bronze that weareth not, into the fire; and
+tin, and precious gold and silver." "He fashioned the shield great and
+strong, with five folds (or circles) in the shield itself." "Then
+wrought he the earth and the sea, and the unwearying sun, and the moon
+waxing to its full, and the signs, every one wherewith the heavens are
+crowned." "Also he fashioned therein two cities of mortal men; and
+here were marriage feasts, and brides led home by the blaze of
+torches--young men whirling in the dance, and the women standing each
+at her door marvelling." Then a street fight, and the elders sitting
+in judgment. The other city was being besieged; and there is a
+wonderful description of the battle fought on the river banks, and
+"Strife, Tumult, and Death" personified, and mingling in the fight.
+Then he set in the shield the labours of the husbandman. This is so
+exquisitely beautiful that with difficulty I refrain from quoting it
+all. "He wrought thereon a herd of kine with upright horns, and the
+kine were fashioned of gold and tin," "and herdsmen of gold were
+following after them." "Also did the glorious lame god devise a
+dancing-place like unto that which once, in wide Knosos, Daidalos
+wrought for Ariadne of the lovely tresses. There were youths dancing
+and maidens of costly wooing, their hands upon their waists." "And now
+would they run round with deft feet exceedingly lightly"--"and now
+would they run in lines to meet each other." "And a great company
+stood round the lovely dance in joy; and among them a divine minstrel
+was making music on his lyre; and through the midst of them, as he
+began his strain, two tumblers whirled. Also he set therein the great
+might of the River of Ocean, around the utmost rim of the
+cunningly-fashioned shield."[55]
+
+There is, indeed, every proof that Greek art was the joint product of
+the Egyptian and Assyrian civilizations. Their amalgamation gave birth
+to the archaic style, struggling to express the strength and the
+beauty of man--half heroic, half divine. Gradually, all the
+surrounding decorations of life assumed as a governing principle and
+motive, the worth of noble beauty.
+
+The Greeks were the first artists. They broke away from the ancient
+trammels of customary forms, and replaced law with liberty of thought,
+and tradition with poetry.
+
+They destroyed no old ideas, but they selected, appropriated, and
+evoked beauty from every source. From the great days of Athens we may
+date the moment when materials became entirely subservient to art, and
+the minds of individual men were stamped on their works and dated
+them. Phases indeed followed each other, showing the links of
+tradition which still bound men's minds together to a certain extent,
+and formed the general style of the day. Yet there was in art from
+that time--life, sometimes death,--but then a resurrection.
+
+It appears from classical writers that about 300 B.C. Greek art had
+thrown itself into many new forms. Painting, for example, had tried
+all themes excepting landscapes. We are told that within the space of
+150 years the art had passed through every technical stage; from the
+tinted profile system of Polygnotus to the proper pictorial system of
+natural scenes, composed with natural backgrounds; and Peiraiïkos is
+named as an artist of genre--a painter of barbers and cobblers,
+booths, asses, eatables, and such-like realistic subjects.[56]
+
+I suppose there is no doubt that all the Romans knew or felt of art
+was borrowed directly or indirectly from Greece,[57] first through
+Phoenician and perhaps Etruscan sources, and finally by conquest.
+Everything we have of their art shows their imitation of Grecian
+models. Their embroideries would certainly have shown the same
+impress.
+
+Greece--herself crushed and demoralized--even as late as the Eastern
+Empire gave to Rome the fashion of the Byzantine taste, which she at
+once adopted, and it was called the Romanesque. This style, which was
+partly Arab, still prevails in Eastern Europe, having clung to the
+Greek Church. In her best days, Roman poetry, architecture, and
+decorative arts were Greek of Greece, imitating its highest types, but
+never creating.
+
+It is surely allowable to quote here one of Virgil's Homeric echoes,
+which touches upon our especial subject,--
+
+    "Mournful at heart at that supreme farewell,
+    Andromache brings robes of border'd gold;
+    A Phrygian cloak, too, for Ascanius.
+    And yielding not the palm in courtesy,
+    Loads him with woven treasures, and thus speaks:
+    'Take these gifts, too, to serve as monuments
+    Of my hand-labour, boy; so may they bear
+    Their witness to Andromache's long love,
+    The wife of Hector:--take them, these last gifts
+    Thy kindred can bestow; in this sad world
+    Sole image left of my Astyanax!'"[58]
+
+It is sad to mark how not only the refinements of taste, but even the
+guiding principles of art, were gradually lost in the humiliation of a
+conquered people, the dulness and discouragement which followed on the
+expatriation or destruction of their accumulated treasures, and the
+deterioration of the Greek artist and artisan, carried prisoners to
+Rome, and settled there because it was the seat of luxury and empire.
+As the captive Jews hung their harps on the willow-trees by the waters
+of Babylon, and refused to sing, so Greek genius succumbed, weighed
+down by Roman chains. It sickened and died in exile.
+
+Late Roman art reminds us of the art of Etruria in its archaic days,
+except that the freshness and promise are wanting, and that the one
+was in its first, the other its second childhood.
+
+Before entering on the subject of Christian art, I must again refer,
+however briefly, to the Eastern origin of all art. It is evident that
+this had always flowed in streams of many types from that high
+watershed of Central Asia, where our human race is said to have been
+created, and whence all wisdom and knowledge have emanated. In the
+image of the Creator, man issued from thence, endowed with the gift of
+the creative power. Wave after wave of fresh and apparently differing
+nationalities followed each other; partially submerging those that had
+gone before, and spreading till it had reached the furthest shores of
+the Northern seas and the Atlantic, and encircled the Mediterranean.
+They all followed the same course from east to west. The Greek
+civilization was indeed so dazzling and strong, that it lighted the
+world all around; and India, Persia, and Assyria felt its influence
+reflected back on its old Asian cradle.
+
+But from the same high watershed[59] flowed other tribal types towards
+China, Java, and Japan, that had no affinity with any western
+civilization; and while the Assyrian, Persian, Indian, and Mongolian
+styles mixed and overlapped so near their sources, that it is
+sometimes hardly possible to reason out and classify their
+resemblances and their differences, the tribes flowing Eastward turned
+aside and went their own way, and have remained till now perfectly
+distinct.[60]
+
+In spite of their matchless dexterity in the manipulation of their
+materials, the infinite variety of their stitches, and exquisite
+finish in execution, carrying out to the utmost point the intended
+effect, yet Chinese and Japanese textile art differs in its inner
+principles from all our accepted canons of taste; so that their want
+of harmony, and sometimes their absurdity, is a puzzle of which we
+cannot find the key. This I have already alluded to (p. 3).
+
+I purposely avoid the questions suggested by Chinese art. The immense
+antiquity it claims cannot be allowed without hesitation. M. Terrien
+de la Couperie, however, believes that he has found the actual point
+of departure of Chinese civilization, and he considers it to be an
+early offshoot from Babylon.[61] He supports his theory on linguistic
+grounds, and we must anxiously wait to see if it is corroborated by
+further researches into the earliest records of the archaic Chinese
+literature. But immobility in art is a Chinese characteristic, and no
+national cataclysms seem to have disturbed it. The oldest specimens
+known are very like the most modern. Yet an adept, learned in Chinese
+art, can detect the signs which mark its different epochs.
+
+In this they differ from the Japanese, who, added to their inherited
+exquisite appreciation of natural beauty, have a power of assimilation
+that might lead in time to their possessing a school of art which,
+being really original, might become the style of the future. The
+civilization of Japan is not older than the fifth century A.D., and
+was probably then imported from Corea. Some of the earliest specimens
+we know of their art are embroidered religious pictures by the son of
+a Mikado Sholokutaiski, who was in the seventh century the great
+apostle of Buddhism in Japan; and the next earliest works are by the
+first nun, Honi, in the eighth century. We have European work as old,
+and it is most interesting to compare the differences of their styles
+and stitches.
+
+We must now return to the beginning of our era, when we find Greek
+taste, such as it was, still influencing and colouring art in Italy,
+and throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa, wherever Roman colonies were
+founded, till the eighth century. It died hard; but by that time the
+barbarians had poured from the east and north in successive waves, and
+conquered and suppressed the classical civilization.
+
+Nothing is so puzzling in textile art as the mixture of styles during
+the first 1000 years A.D. The Græco-Roman, the Byzantine, and the
+Egyptian, crossed by the Arabian, Persian, and Indian styles, were
+reproduced in the Sicilian looms. Certain stock patterns, such as the
+reclining hares or fawns, as we find them on the Shishak pall, or that
+of the Tree of Life, approached by worshipping men or animals,
+originating in Assyrian art, are employed as borders, and fill up
+vacant spaces. The information collected from the tombs in the Crimea
+immediately preceding our era, is supplemented by the variety in style
+and materials from the Fayoum, now placed by Herr Graf'schen in the
+Museum at Vienna.
+
+Christian art, which began in Byzantium, gradually grew, and formed
+itself into the Gothic,[62] which in time overcame the general chaos
+of style.
+
+Eastern art continued to flow westward, modifying and suggesting.
+When the Phoenicians and Carthaginians had laid down their ancient
+commercial sceptre, it was taken up by the Greeks, and later by the
+Venetians and Genoese, always trading with Asiatic goods. Then the
+arts of the Scandinavians[63] and of the Celts (who were the weavers),
+though barbaric, still retained and spread certain Oriental
+traditions. Luxury was born in Babylon, and Persia became its nurse,
+whence all its glories and refinements spread over the world. But if
+luxury was Babylonian, art was Greek. Alas! the love of luxury
+survived in Rome the taste for art.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 6.
+    The Empress Theodora. Mosaic at Ravenna. Church of San. Vitale.]
+
+At Ravenna we learn much of the early Christian period from the
+mosaics in the churches. The Empress Theodora and her ladies appear to
+be clothed in Indian shawl stuffs. (Plate 6.) These, of course, had
+drifted into Rome, as they had long done into the Greek islands, by
+the Red Sea or by land through Tyre. Ezekiel (590 B.C.) mentions the
+Indian trade through Aden. Theodora's dress has a deep border of gold,
+embroidered with classical warriors pursuing each other with
+swords.[64] Works enriched with precious stones and pearls now appear
+for the first time in European art, and testify to its Oriental
+impress.
+
+The Byzantine Christian style was essentially the art of mosaic. Its
+patterns for architecture or dress, easily square themselves into
+little compartments, suggesting the stitches of "counted" embroideries
+("opus pulvinarium").
+
+In the beginning of the fourth century, when Greek influence was still
+languishing, we may date the commencement of ecclesiastical art. It
+was a new birth, and had to struggle through an infancy of nearly 800
+years, ignoring, or unconscious of all rules of drawing, colouring,
+and design. Outlines filled in with flat surfaces of colours
+represented again the art of painting, which had returned to archaic
+types, and in no way differed from the essential properties of the art
+of "acu pingere" or needlework, which was in the same phase--being,
+fortunately for it, that to which it was best suited.
+
+Therefore fine works of art were then executed by the needle, of which
+a very few survive, either in description or copied into more lasting
+materials; and showing that, with the minor arts of mosaic and
+illumination, it was in a state of higher perfection than the greater
+arts, which till the twelfth century were all but in abeyance.
+
+In discussing textile art, I am obliged to pass over a part of the
+dark ages, and to approach the period when it must be studied chiefly
+in Sicily, which became the half-way house on the high road to the
+East, and later the resting-place of the Crusaders to and from the
+Holy Land.
+
+Sicily, which had succeeded to Constantinople as being the great
+manufacturing mart during the Middle Ages, was in the hands of the
+Moors, the origin and source of all European Gothic textile art. Yet
+even at Palermo and Messina this art was long controlled by the
+traditions of Greece, ancient and modern, while fertilized by Persian
+and Indian forms and traditional symbolisms.
+
+The next European phase was the Gothic.[65] This was Arab and Moresque
+steeped in northern ideas; and finding its congenial soil, it grew
+into the most splendid, thoughtful, and finished style, far
+transcending anything that it had borrowed from eastern or southern
+sources.
+
+All its traditions were carried out in the smaller decorative
+arts--mosaics, ivories, and metal works; and, last and not least,
+beautiful embroideries, to adorn the altars and the dresses of
+monarchs and nobles. (Plate 7.)
+
+When taste was imperfect or declined, then the decorations were all
+rude, and the embroideries shared in the general rudeness or poverty;
+but as these crafts rose again, adding to themselves grace and beauty
+by study and experience, then needlework in England, Germany, France,
+Italy, and Spain grew and flourished.[66]
+
+  [Illustration: Italian embroidery XV. Century
+    Kensington Museum]
+
+  [Illustration: Italian orphreys XVI. Century
+    South Kensington Museum]
+
+  [Illustration: Orphreys French and Spanish
+    XVI. Century]
+
+Then came the Reformation, which, in Germany and England especially,
+gave a blow to the arts which had reserved their best efforts for the
+Church; and the change of style effected by the Renaissance was not
+suited to the solemnity of ecclesiastical decoration.
+
+The styles of the fifteenth and sixteenth century embroideries are
+better adapted for secular purposes; though their extreme beauty as
+architectural ornament in Italy, reconciles one to their want of
+religious character, on the principle that it was allowable to
+dedicate to the Church all that in its day was brightest and best.
+(Plate 8.)
+
+We possess much domestic embroidery of the Renaissance which is
+exceedingly beautiful--Italian, Spanish, and German. English
+needlework had lost its prestige from the time of the Reformation.[67]
+
+The best efforts of the German schools of embroidery preceded the
+Reformation, while those of Belgium never lost their excellence,[68]
+and still hold their high position among the workers of golden
+orphreys. In Italy they always retained much of the classical element.
+Probably the ancient frescoes which served as models were originally
+painted by Greek artists and their Roman imitators. This style
+flourished for a hundred years. The French adopted and modified it.
+
+The decorative style of that period is sometimes called the Arabesque,
+and sometimes the Grotesque. The fashion was really copied from the
+excavated palaces and tombs of the best Roman era. Raphael admired,
+and caused his pupils to imitate and copy them; and they influenced
+all decorative art for a considerable period. As long as beautiful
+forms of flowers, fruit, birds, and animals were adhered to, the
+Arabesque was a charming decoration, gay and brilliant; but when the
+beautiful was set aside, and the ugly ideas were reproduced, the style
+became the Grotesque, which word only means the grotto, cave, or tomb
+style, and is as undescriptive to us as the word Arabesque, which has
+nothing to do with the Arabs or their arts.
+
+It would appear that if the beautiful only is permissible in
+decorative art, and that if without beauty there is no reason that it
+should exist at all, then the Grotesque should not be allowed, except
+as a scherzo of the pencil; to be relegated, like all other
+caricatures, to the portfolio.
+
+A grotesque is something startling, laughable, perhaps ridiculous. A
+woman with the head of a goose and a flowery tail may be a symbolical,
+but it never can be an agreeable object. When the idea conveyed is a
+great one, then it is excusable. The Ninevite bull, with a human head
+and five legs, is a grotesque, but it is also a symbol of majesty and
+might. A Satyr is a grotesque, but he has been so long recorded and
+accepted that he has ceased to surprise us; and the Greeks spent so
+much genius in making him a graceful creature, that he has become
+picturesque, if not beautiful.
+
+Arabesques and Grotesques have now so long prevailed in decoration,
+that we have ceased to criticize them on principle, and accept them
+gratefully, in proportion to the gay fancy and reticent genius of the
+designer. Most Arabesques are, in fact, only graceful nonsense.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 9.
+    Spanish Coverlet, from Goa. Velvet and gold, Plâteresque style,
+        seventeenth century.]
+
+Vitruvius (writing first century B.C.) says, that "in his time, on the
+covering of the walls were painted rather monstrosities than images
+of known things. Thus, instead of columns you will see reeds with
+crisp foliage, and candlesticks supporting temples; and on the top of
+these there are rods and twisted ornaments, and in the volutes
+senseless little figures sitting there; likewise flowers with figures
+growing out of their calyxes. Here a human head, there an
+animal's."[69] Evidently Vitruvius did not approve of grotesques, and
+his contemporary criticism is most valuable and amusing.
+
+In the Louis Quatorze period, a species of vegetable grotesque was the
+fashion, from which we suffer even now, and it deserves censure.
+Leaves and flowers of different plants were made to grow from the same
+stem, as only artificial flowers could do. The Greeks introduced into
+their decorations sprays and wreaths of bay, olive, oak, ivy, and
+vine, with their fruits; which are exquisitely composed and carefully
+studied from nature. It is true that they sometimes invented flowers
+of different shapes, following each other on the same stem, and
+untrammelled by any natural laws. These classical freaks of fancy are
+so graceful that their want of truth does not shock us, but they are
+more safely copied than imitated.
+
+The Renaissance was particularly marked in Spain and Portugal by the
+embroideries which the latter drew from their Indian possessions in
+Goa, whilst we in England were sedulously thrusting from our shores
+any beautiful Indian textiles that we imagined could injure our own
+home manufactures. It was, consequently, the worst phase of needlework
+with us, while Spanish and Portuguese embroideries of the sixteenth
+and seventeenth centuries are especially fine, their designs being
+European, and their needlework Oriental. Their Renaissance, which went
+by the name of the Plâteresque, is a style apart. (Pl. 9.) The reason
+of its name is that it seems to have been originally intended for, and
+is best suited to, the shapes and decorations of gold and silver
+plate. It is extremely rich and ornate; not so appropriate to
+architecture as to the smaller arts, and wanting, perhaps, the
+simplicity which gives dignity. The style called Louis Quatorze
+following on the Renaissance in Germany, England, Spain, Italy, and
+France, assumed in each of these countries distinguishing
+characteristics, into which we have not time to enter now. In this
+style France took the lead and appropriated it, and rightly named it
+after the magnificent monarch who fostered it. This was a splendid
+era; and its furniture and wall decorations, dress, plate, and books
+shine in all the fertile richness and grace of French artistic
+ingenuity.[70] The new style asserted itself everywhere, and
+remodelled every art; but the long reign of Louis Quatorze gave the
+fashion time to wane and change. Under Louis XV. the defects increased
+and the beauties diminished. The fine heavy borders were broken up
+into fragmentary forms; all flow and strength were eliminated; and
+what remained of the Louis Quatorze style became, under its next
+phase, only remarkable for the sparkling prettiness which is inherent
+in all French art.
+
+In Italy this very ornate style was distinguished as the
+"Sette-cento," and was a chastened imitation or appropriation of the
+Spanish Plâteresque and the French Louis Quatorze. In Germany it was a
+decided heavy copy of both, of which there are splendid examples in
+the adornment of the German palaces, royal and episcopal. In England
+the Continental taste was faintly reflected during the reign of Queen
+Anne and the first Georges; but except in the characteristic
+upholstery of the Chippendales, and one or two palaces, such as
+Blenheim and Castle Howard, we did not produce much that was original
+in the style of that day.
+
+Under Louis XV., Boucher and Watteau, in France, produced designs that
+were well suited to tapestries and embroideries. All the heathen gods,
+with Cupids, garlands, floating ribbons, crowns, and cyphers were
+everywhere carved, gilded, and worked. It was the visible tide of the
+frivolity in which poor Marie Antoinette was drowned; though before
+the Revolution she had somewhat simplified the forms of decoration,
+and straight lines instead of curves, and delicacy rather than
+splendour, had superseded, at least at court, the extravagant richness
+of palatial furniture.
+
+This was followed by the Revolution; and then came the attempt at
+classical severity (so contrary to the French nature) which the
+Republic affected.[71] Dress was adorned with embroidered spots and
+Etruscan borders, and the ladies wore diadems, and tried to be as like
+as possible to the Greek women painted in fictile art. Napoleon
+attempted a dress which was supposed to be Roman at his coronation.
+Trophies were woven and embroidered, and the "honeysuckle," "key," and
+"egg and anchor" patterns were everywhere. With the fall of the Empire
+the classical taste collapsed, and the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman
+furniture were handed over to hotels and lodging-houses. In most of
+the palaces on the Continent an apartment is still to be seen,
+furnished in this style. It was the necessary tribute of flattery to
+the great conqueror, who in that character inhabited so many of them
+for a short time. But there was no sign of the style being taken up
+enthusiastically anywhere out of France.
+
+After the fall of the Empire, all pretence of style was in abeyance,
+and it was then gradually replaced by a general craving for the
+"antique," the "rococo," and finally the "baroc," as the outcome of
+that part of a gentleman's education called the "grand tour." Every
+one bought up old furniture; Italy and Spain were ransacked; and
+foreign works of all ages were added to the hereditary house
+furnishings. Every wealthy home became a museum. Now the numerous
+exhibitions of the last few years, bringing together the works of all
+Europe and other continents, have enabled us to continue to collect
+and compare and furnish, without any reference to a particular style.
+
+Meantime "Young England" had become æsthetic. Bohemianism was the
+fashion, and the studio had to be furnished as a picturesque
+lounge:--ragged tapestries for backgrounds; antique chairs and bits of
+colour as cushions and draperies; shiny earthenware pots to hold a
+flower and to catch a high light. All these bridged the space between
+the new æstheticism and the old family museums; and from their
+combination arose the style called by courtesy the "Queen Anne"--a
+style which can be brought within the reach of the most moderate
+fortunes. In humble mansions you will be aware of the grouping of the
+old pieces of furniture, culminating perhaps in "my grandmother's
+cabinet," and her portrait by Hogarth; or "my great-grandfather's
+sword and pistols, which he carried at Culloden;" and his father's
+clock, a relic perhaps of the Scotch Dutch.
+
+The English style of to-day is really a conglomerate of the preceding
+two hundred years, and it is formed from the débris of our family
+life. It belongs mostly to the period of the pigtail; but it
+stretches back, and includes all that followed the Protectorate, and
+is therefore coeval with the wig. The name of "Queen Anne" would
+really do as well as any other, only that the style of her reign,
+which was heavy Louis Quatorze, is looked upon with suspicion, and
+never admitted for imitation. The "Nineteenth Century" would be a
+better name, for it has formed itself only within the last thirty
+years, in the very heart of the century, and is, in fact, a fortunate
+result of preceding conditions. It owes its existence, as I have said,
+partly to the archæological tendencies of the day.
+
+The maimed tables and chairs, which had painfully ascended from saloon
+to bedroom, nursery, and attic, till they reposed in the garret (the
+Bedlam of crazy furniture), now have descended in all the prestige of
+antiquarian and family interest. Their history is recorded; the old
+embroideries are restored, named, and honoured. What is not beautiful,
+is credited with being "quaint"--the "quaint" is more easily imitated
+than the beautiful; and we have elected this for the characteristic of
+our new decorations. To be quaint, is really to be funny without
+intending it, and its claim to prettiness is its _naïveté_, which is
+sometimes touching as well as amusing: this was the special
+characteristic of the revival in the Middle Ages. To imitate
+quaintness must be a mistake in art; as in life it is absurd to
+imitate innocence.
+
+The nineteenth century "Queen Anne" has its merits.[72] It combines
+simplicity, roominess and comfort, colour, light and shade. Soft
+colouring to harmonize the new furniture with the tender tints of the
+faded quaintnesses just restored to society; care in grouping even the
+commonest objects, so as to give pleasure to the eye; a revived taste
+for embroidered instead of woven materials, giving scope to the
+talents of the women of the house;--all these are so much gained in
+every-day domestic decoration. The poorest and most trivial
+arrangements are striving to attain to a something artistic and
+agreeable. This is still confined to the educated classes; but as good
+and bad alike have to begin on the surface, and gradually filter
+through to the dregs of society, we may hope that the women who wore
+the last chignon and the last crinoline may yet solace their sordid
+lives in flowing or tight woollen garments, adorned with their own
+needlework; and that the dark-stained floor of the cottage or humble
+lodging will set off the shining brass kettle, and the flower in a
+brown or blue pot, consciously selected with a view to the
+picturesque, and enjoyed accordingly.
+
+From what we know, it would seem that a vital change in a national
+style is never produced by the inspiration of one individual genius or
+great original inventor. It invariably evolves itself slowly, by the
+patient, persistent efforts of generations, polishing and touching up
+the same motive, and at last reaching human perfection.
+
+The annihilation of a style is oftenest caused by war passing over the
+land, or revolution breaking up the fountains of social life, and
+swamping the art and the artist.
+
+But another cause of such an extinction--perhaps the saddest--is that
+having reached perfection as far as it may, it deteriorates, sickens,
+corrupts, and finally is thrown aside--superseded, hidden, and
+overlapped by a newer fashion; and the worst and latest effort
+discredits in the eyes of men, the splendid successes that preceded
+its fall. Though the next succeeding phase may be less worthy to live
+than the last, yet, carrying with it the freshness of a new spring, it
+is acceptable for the time being.
+
+The moral I should draw from this is, that you cannot force style; you
+may prune, direct, and polish it, but you must accept that of your
+day, and only in accordance with that taste can your work be useful.
+Not accepting it idly or wearily, but cheerfully, on principle,
+seeking to raise it; refusing by word or deed to truckle to the false,
+the base, or the lawless in your art, or to act against the
+acknowledged canons of good taste. Not for a moment should ambition be
+checked, but it should always be accompanied by the grace of modesty.
+
+To the young decorator or artist who feels the glow of original design
+prompting him to reject old lines, and follow his own new and perhaps
+crude ideas, a few words of warning, and encouragement also, may be of
+use.
+
+In art, as in poetry, we may recognize the Psalmist's experience: "My
+heart burned within me, and at the last I spake with my tongue."
+
+In small as in great things, crude ideas should not be brought to the
+front. No one should give his thoughts to the world till his heart has
+_burned_ within him, and he has been _forced_ to express himself.
+
+Another wise saying, "Read yourself full, and then write yourself
+empty," also applies to art. Knowledge must first be accumulated
+before you can originate.
+
+Wait till your experience and your thoughts insist on expression;
+then subject the expressed idea to cultivated criticism, and profit by
+the opinion you would respect if another's work, and not your own,
+were under discussion.
+
+It is true that taste is surprisingly various. Some will dislike your
+design, because its style is a reflection of the Gothic; another may
+be objected to as being frivolously Oriental-looking and brilliant,
+whereas the critic likes only the sober and the dull. Few are
+sufficiently educated to appreciate style: and we cannot rule our own
+by anybody's opinion; but we can generalize and find something that
+shall be agreeable to all--something approaching to a golden mean. The
+artist for decoration should be sensitively alive to any suggestion
+from the style of that which he is to adorn, remembering the
+antecedent motives of its form, its history, and its date. He should
+try to make his new work harmonize with the old; but of one thing he
+may be certain--unless he absolutely copies an old design, his own
+will carry the visible and unmistakable stamp of his day.
+
+Even while suggesting copies this difficulty arises--how can a perfect
+facsimile be obtained? No reproduction is ever really exact, unless
+cast off by the hundred, stamped or printed by a machine.
+
+It has been said that the translator of a poem adds to, or takes from
+the original, that which he has or has not of the same poetical power;
+and in art the copy requires the same qualities to guide the hand that
+transmits the original motive to another material. An artist usually
+carries out his own ideas from the first sketch blocked out on the
+canvas, or scribbled on the bit of waste paper, to the last finishing
+touch. It is, as far as it can be in human art, the visible transcript
+of his own thought. In needlework this can hardly ever be. The
+designer, whether he be St. Dunstan, Pollaiolo, Torrigiano, or Walter
+Crane, only executes a drawing which leaves his hands for good, and is
+translated into embroidery by the patient needlewoman who simply fills
+in an outline, ignorant of art, unappreciative of its subtleties, and
+incapable of giving life and expression, even when she is aware that
+they are indicated in the original design. This is almost always the
+case; but there are exceptions. Charlemagne's dalmatic, for instance,
+shows signs of having been either the work of the artist himself, or
+else carried out under his immediate supervision.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [15] Boyd Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain," p. 285. See
+    also chapter on stitches (_post_), p. 195.
+
+    [16] Some of these styles survive; some are still
+    perceptible as traditions or echoes; some have totally
+    disappeared in our modern art, such as the Primitive or
+    the Egyptian.
+
+    [17] See Semper, "Der Stil."
+
+    [18] The history of Gaul begins in the 7th, and that of
+    Britain in the 1st century B.C., while the civilization
+    of Egypt dates back to more than 4000 B.C.; therefore
+    the historical overlap is very great. It is probable
+    that a large portion of Europe was in its neolithic age,
+    while the scribes were composing their records of war
+    and commerce in the great cities on the Nile, and that
+    the neolithic civilization lingered in remote regions
+    while the voice of Pericles was heard in Athens, and the
+    name of Hannibal was a terror in Italy.--See Boyd
+    Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain," p. 481.
+
+    [19] See chapter on patterns.
+
+    [20] In the Troad.
+
+    [21] Some of the Egyptian arts we know are pre-Homeric
+    (if Homer really sang 800 B.C.), and Asiatic art was
+    then in its highest development.
+
+    [22] See chapter on stitches, cut work (_post_). This
+    funeral tent is a monumental work, inasmuch as the
+    inscription inwrought on it gives us the name and title
+    of her in whose honour it was made, and whose remains it
+    covered. See Villiers Stewart's "Funeral Tent of an
+    Egyptian Queen."
+
+    [23] Herodotus, book ii. c. 182; book iii. c. 47
+    (Rawlinson's Trans.). See Rock's Introduction, p. xiv.
+
+    [24] Homer mentions "Sidonian stuffs and Phoenician
+    skill" (Iliad, v. 170); also "Sidonian Embroidery."
+    Ibid. vi. 287-295.
+
+    [25] The Assyrian designs are such as are now still
+    worked at Benares, and being full of animals, they are
+    called Shikurgah, or "happy hunting-grounds." See Sir G.
+    Birdwood's "Industrial Arts of India," p. 236. See also
+    Plate 4.
+
+    [26] See Perrot and Chipiez (pp. 737-757); also Clermont
+    Ganneau's Histoire de l'Art, "L'Imagerie Phénicienne,"
+    Plate 1, pt. 1. Coupe de Palestrina. He says that
+    certain scenes from the "Shield of Achilles" are
+    literally to be found on Phoenician vases that have
+    come down to us--vases of which Homer himself must have
+    seen some of analogous design.
+
+    [27] Homer speaks of Sidonian embroideries, "Iliad,"
+    vi., 287-295.
+
+    [28] See Egyptian fragments in the British Museum, and
+    the specimens of Peruvian textiles; and Reiss and
+    Stübel's "Necropolis of Ancon in Peru."
+
+    [29] At Cervetri, Dennis' "Etruria," ed. 1878, i. p.
+    268.
+
+    [30] The restless activity of the Phoenicians has
+    often helped to confuse our æsthetic knowledge, and has
+    caused the waste of much speculation in ascertaining how
+    certain objects of luxury, belonging to distant
+    civilizations, can possibly have arrived at the places
+    where we find them.
+
+    [31] "The Beautiful Gate of the Temple was covered all
+    over with gold. It had also golden vines above it, from
+    which hung clusters of grapes as tall as a man's
+    height.... It had golden doors of 55 cubits altitude,
+    and 16 in breadth: but before these doors there was a
+    veil of equal largeness with the doors. It was a
+    Babylonian curtain of blue, fine linen, and scarlet and
+    purple; of an admixture that was truly wonderful. Nor
+    was the mixture without its mystical interpretation; but
+    was a kind of image of the universe. For by the scarlet
+    was to be enigmatically signified fire; by the fine
+    flax, the earth; by the blue, the air, and by the
+    purple, the sea;--two of them having their colours for
+    the foundation of this resemblance; but the fine flax
+    and the purple have their own origin for this
+    foundation, the earth producing the one, and the sea the
+    other. This curtain had also embroidered upon it all
+    that was mystical in the heavens excepting the twelve
+    signs of the zodiac, representing living creatures."
+    Josephus (Trans. by Whiston), p. 895.
+
+    [32] See also M. E. Harkness and Stuart Poole, "Assyrian
+    Life and History," p. 66.
+
+    [33] The visions of Ezekiel and St. John remind us of
+    the composite figures and animals in Ninevite
+    sculptures, and the prophetic poetry helps us to
+    interpret their symbolism.
+
+    [34] G. Smith's "Ancient History of the Monuments,"
+    Babylonia, p. 33. Edited by Sayce.
+
+    [35] In the British Museum. See "Bronze Ornaments of
+    Palace Gates, Balawat," pl. E 5.
+
+    [36] See Auberville's "Ornement des Tissus," pl. 1.
+
+    [37] The Egyptian queen in question was mother-in-law to
+    Shishak, whose daughter married Solomon. After his
+    son-in-law's death, Shishak plundered the "King's
+    House," and carried to Egypt the golden shields or
+    panels (1 Kings xiv. 26). The golden vessels went to
+    Babylon later, and the golden candlesticks to Rome.
+
+    [38] Sir G. Birdwood repeatedly points out that the
+    Vedic was the art that worshipped and served nature. The
+    Puranic is the ideal and distorted. The Moguls, about
+    700 B.C., introduced their ugly Dravidian art. Through
+    the Sassanian art of Persia, that of India was
+    influenced. Possibly the very forms which in India are
+    copied from Assyrian temples and palaces, may have
+    travelled first to Assyria upon Indian stuffs and
+    jewellery (Sir G. Birdwood's "Industrial Arts of India,"
+    i. p. 236).
+
+    [39] Ibid., p. 130 (ed. 1884).
+
+    [40] Nearchus (Strabo, XV. i. 67) says that the people
+    of India had such a genius for imitation that they
+    counterfeited sponges, which they saw used by the
+    Macedonians, and produced perfect imitations of the real
+    object. See Sir G. Birdwood's "Industrial Arts of
+    India," ii. p. 133 (ed. 1884).
+
+    [41] Ibid., ii. p. 131 (ed. 1884).
+
+    [42] See Sir G. Birdwood, p. 129 (ed. 1884). If
+    Fergusson is right in suggesting that the art of Central
+    America was planted there in the third or fourth century
+    of our era, it would, perhaps, appear to have taken
+    refuge in America when it was driven out of India by the
+    Sassanians, and was really Dravidian. He gives to the
+    Turanian races all the mound buildings, as well as the
+    fylfot or mystic cross, and he looks in Central India
+    for the discovery of some remains that will give us the
+    secret of the origin of the Indo-Aryan style. He thinks
+    the Archaic Dravidian is allied with the Chinese. See
+    Fergusson's "Architecture."
+
+    [43] Etruscan and Indian golden ornaments, including the
+    "Bolla" and the "Trichinopoly" chains and coral, are to
+    be found throughout Scandinavia and in Ireland. See
+    "Atlas de l'Archéologie du Nord," par la Société Royale
+    des Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1857.
+
+    [44] Arrian tells us of the Celts, "a people near the
+    Great Ionian Bay," who sent an embassy to Alexander
+    before the battle of the Granicus--"a people strong and
+    of a haughty spirit." Alexander asked them if they
+    feared anything. They answered that they feared the "sky
+    might fall upon their heads." He dismissed them,
+    observing that the Celts were an arrogant nation
+    (Arrian, i. 4, 10).
+
+    [45] According to Yates, the merchandise of Eastern Asia
+    passed through Slavonia to the north of Europe in the
+    Middle Ages, without the intervention of Greece or
+    Italy. This may account for certain terms of
+    nomenclature which evidently came with goods transported
+    straight to the north. Yates' "Textrinum Antiquorum,"
+    vol. i. p. 225-246.
+
+    [46] These northern ideas, spreading over Germany,
+    England, and France, flourished especially on German
+    soil; and Oriental-patterned embroideries for hangings
+    and dress were worked in every stitch, on every
+    material, as may be seen in the museums and printed
+    catalogues of Vienna, Berlin, Munich, &c.
+
+    [47] Except, perhaps, the Serpent and Tree cope in
+    Bock's Kleinodien.
+
+    [48] The different Celtic nationalities are always
+    recognizable. There was found in a grave-mound at Hof,
+    in Norway, a brooch, showing at a glance that it was
+    Christian and Celtic, though taken from the grave of a
+    pagan Viking. Another at Berdal, in Norway, was at once
+    recognized by M. Lorange as being undoubtedly Irish.
+    There are many other instances of evident Celtic
+    Christian art found on the west coast of Norway under
+    similar conditions--probably spoil from the British
+    Islands, which were subject to the descents of the pagan
+    Vikings for centuries after the time of St. Columba's
+    preaching of Christianity in Scotland. For information
+    on the subject, see G. Stephen's "Monuments of Runic
+    Art," and F. Anderson's "Pagan Art in Scotland."
+
+    [49] "Scotland in Pagan Times," by J. Anderson, pp. 3-7.
+
+    [50] On a vase in the British Museum, Minerva appears
+    with her ægis on her breast, and clothed in a petticoat
+    and upper tunic worked in sprays, and a border of
+    kneeling lions. On another Panathenaic vase she has a
+    gown bordered with fighting men, evidently the sacred
+    peplos. (Fig. 4.)
+
+    [51] See the account of the veil of Herè in the Iliad,
+    and that of the mantle of Ulysses in the Odyssey.
+
+    [52] See Butcher and Lang's Odyssey.
+
+    [53] "Der Stil."
+
+    [54] The Greeks collected into one focus all that they
+    found of beauty in art from many distant
+    sources--Egyptian, Indian, Assyrian--and thus fired
+    their inborn genius, which thenceforth radiated its
+    splendour over the whole civilized world.
+
+    [55] Homer's Iliad, xviii. 480-617 (Butcher and Lang).
+
+    [56] See "Woltmann and Woermann." Trans. Sidney Colvin,
+    p. 64.
+
+    [57] Except, perhaps, the keystone arch.
+
+    [58] Virg. Æneid iii. Trans. G.L.G.
+
+    [59] The Indian Cush.
+
+    [60] Except in the art of the Celts, whose Indo-Chinese
+    style shows evidence of Mongolian importation, and later
+    we find traces of a similar influence: for instance,
+    "Yarkand rugs are semi-Chinese, semi-Tartar, resembling
+    also the works of India and Persia. It is easy to
+    distinguish from what source each comes, as one
+    perceives the influence of the neighbouring native art"
+    ("On Japan," by Dresser, p. 322).
+
+    [61] See a paper by M. Terrien de la Couperie in the
+    Journal of the Society of Arts, 1881.
+
+    [62] "Rome had to be overthrown that the new religion
+    and the new civilization might be established.
+    Christianity did its work in winning to it those
+    Teutonic conquerors, but how vast was the cost to the
+    world, occasioned by the necessity of casting into the
+    boiling cauldron of barbarous warfare, that noble
+    civilization and the treasures which Rome had gathered
+    in the spoil of a conquered universe! Had any old Roman,
+    or Christian father been gifted with Jeremiah's
+    prescience, he might have seen the fire blazing amidst
+    the forests of Germany, and the cauldron settling down
+    with its mouth turned towards the south, and would have
+    uttered his lamentation in plaintive tones, such as
+    Jeremiah's, and in the same melancholy key" ("Holy
+    Bible," with Commentary by Canon Cook, Introduction to
+    Jeremiah, vol. i. p. 319).
+
+    [63] Scandinavian art became strongly tinctured with
+    that of Byzantium. The Varangian Guards were, probably,
+    answerable for this, by their intercourse between Greece
+    and their native land, which lasted so many centuries.
+    There have come down to us, as witnesses of this
+    intercourse, many coins and much jewellery, in which all
+    that is Oriental in its style has been leavened by its
+    passage through Byzantine and Romanesque channels.
+    Gibbon, writing of this period, says: "The habits of
+    pilgrimage and piracy had approximated the countries of
+    the earth" (see Gibbon's "Decline and Fall," chap. lv.).
+
+    Greek embroidered patterns and Greek forms of dress
+    still linger in Iceland. There was lately brought to
+    England a bride's dress, which might have belonged to
+    the Greek wife of a Varangian guardsman. It is
+    embroidered with a border in gold of the classical
+    honeysuckle pattern; and the bridal wreath of gilt metal
+    flowers might, from its style, be supposed to have been
+    taken from a Greek tomb.
+
+    [64] Evidently an imitation of the peplos of Minerva
+    (see fig. 4, p. 32).
+
+    [65] The descent from the Persian of Arab or Moorish
+    art, as we generally call it when speaking of its
+    Spanish development, is to be accounted for by the
+    presence of a considerable colony of Persians in Spain
+    in the time of the Moors, as attested by numerous
+    documents still in existence. See Col. Murdoch Smith's
+    "Preface to Persian Art," Series of Art Handbooks of the
+    Kensington Museum.
+
+    [66] Ronsard, poet, politician, and diplomatist,
+    compares the Queen of Navarre to Pallas Athene:--
+
+        "Elle adonnait son courage
+        A mainte bel ouvrage
+        Dessus la toile, et encor
+        A joindre la soie et l'or.
+        Vous d'un pareil exercise
+        Mariez par artifice
+        Dessus la toile en mainte traits
+        L'or et la soie en pourtraict."
+
+    [67] Mary de Medici brought back with her from Italy
+    Federigo Vinciolo as her designer for embroideries.
+
+    [68] See "Art Needlework," by E. Maxse, and "Manuel de
+    la Broderie," by Madame E. F. Celnart.
+
+    [69] From the Italian translation by Signor Minghetti.
+
+    [70] Gaston, Duke of Orleans (died 1660), kept hothouses
+    on purpose to supply models for floral textile designs.
+    Le Brun often drew the embroideries for the hangings in
+    rooms he had himself designed and decorated.
+
+    [71] We have all seen the dining-room wine-coolers
+    modelled in imitation of Roman tombs; and there is a
+    drawing-room in a splendid mansion still furnished with
+    cinerary urns covering the walls, while curule chairs
+    most uncomfortably furnish the seats.
+
+    [72] In his designs for papers and textiles, Mr. Morris'
+    poetical and artistic feeling--his admiration and
+    sensitiveness for all that is beautiful and graceful (as
+    well as quaint)--his respect for precedent, added to his
+    own fanciful originality,--have given a colour and seal
+    to the whole decorative art of England of to-day. It is
+    a step towards a new school. The sobriety and tenderness
+    of his colouring gives a sense of harmony, and
+    reconciles us to his repetitions of large vegetable
+    forms, which remind us sometimes of a kitchen-garden in
+    a tornado. For domestic decoration we should, as far as
+    possible, adhere to reposing forms and colours. Our
+    flowers should lie in their allotted spaces, quiet and
+    undisturbed by elemental struggles, which have no
+    business in our windowed and glass-protected rooms.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DESIGN.
+
+    _Gorgo._ Behold these 'broideries! Finer saw you never.
+
+    _Praxinoè._ Ye gods! What artists work'd these pictures in?
+    What kind of painter could these clear lines limn?
+    How true they stand! nay, lifelike, moving ever;
+    Not worked--_created!_ Woman, thou art clever!
+
+      (Scene at a Festival) _Theocritus_, Idyll xv. line 78.
+
+
+The word design, as applied to needlework, includes the principles and
+laws of the art: the motives and their hereditary outcome; the art
+creating the principles; the laws controlling the art.
+
+Design means intention, motive, and should as such be applied to the
+smallest as to the greatest efforts of art. That which results from
+it, either as picture or pattern, is a record of the thoughts which
+produced it, and by its style fixes the date, of its production.
+
+I will first consider the principles of design, and afterwards, in
+another chapter, inquire into the origin of patterns; investigating
+their motives, and using them as examples, and also as warnings.
+
+The individual genius of the artist works first in design, though his
+work is for the use of the craftsman or artisan, his collaborator; for
+the two, head and hands, must work together, or else will render each
+other inoperative or ineffective.
+
+The artisan, by right of his title, claims a part in the art itself;
+the craftsman, by his name, points out that he, too, has to work out
+the craft, the mystery, the inner meaning, of the design or intention.
+
+The designer himself is subject to the prejudices called the taste of
+his day. He is necessarily under the influence which that taste has
+imposed upon him, and from which no spontaneous efforts of genius can
+entirely emancipate him. Whether he is conceiving a temple for the
+worship of a national faith, or the edging for the robe of a fair
+votaress, or the pattern on the border of a cup of gold or brass, he
+cannot avoid the force of tradition and of custom, which comes from
+afar, weighted with the power of long descent, and which crushes
+individuality, unless it is of the most robust nature.
+
+Of very early design we have most curious and mysterious glimpses. The
+cave man was an artist. The few scratches on a bone, cleverly showing
+the forms of a dog or a stag, a whale or a seal, nay, the figure of a
+man, have enabled us to ascertain and to classify the Palæolithic cave
+man; from whom his less civilized successor, the Neolithic man, may be
+distinguished by his absence of all animal design.[73]
+
+These fragmentary scraps of information, pieced together only in these
+later years, teach us the value of very small facts which time and
+care are now accumulating, and which, being the remains of lives and
+nations passed away, still serve as the soil in which history can be
+fertilized.
+
+We have no means of judging whether the cave man was an artist on a
+greater or more advanced scale than is actually shown by the
+bone-scratchings; the only other relic of his handiwork is the
+needle.[74]
+
+It is evident that a direct imitation of nature, such as is seen in
+these "graffiti," and at an immense distance in advance of them, in
+the earliest known Egyptian sculptures, preceded all conventional art.
+Some of the earliest portrait statues in the Museum at Boulac exhibit
+a high degree of naturalistic design before it became subservient to
+the expression of the faith of the people. As soon as art was found to
+be the fittest conveyance of symbolism, it became the consecrated
+medium for transmitting language, thought, and history, and was
+reduced to forms in which it was contented to remain petrified for
+many centuries, entirely foregoing the study or imitation of
+nature.[75] It recorded customs, historical events, and religious
+beliefs; receiving from the last the impress of the unchangeable and
+the absolute, which it gave to the other subjects on which it touched.
+It ceased to be a creative art (if it had ever aspired to such a
+function), and was never the embodiment of individual thought. This
+phase prevailed under different manifestations in Assyria and China.
+Pictorial art had, in fact, become merely the nursing mother of the
+alphabet, guiding its first steps--the hieroglyphic delineation or
+expression of thoughts and facts.[76]
+
+In Egypt, the change from the first period of actual imitation of
+nature was succeeded by many centuries of the very slowest progress.
+Renouf speaks,[77] however, of "the astonishing identity that is
+visible through all the periods of Egyptian art" (for you could never
+mistake anything Egyptian for the produce of any other country). "This
+identity and slow movement," he says, "are not inconsistent with an
+immense amount of change, which must exist if there is any real life."
+In fact, there were periods of relative progress, repose, and decay,
+and every age had its peculiar character. Birch, Lepsius, or Marriette
+could at once tell you the age of a statue, inscription, or
+manuscript, by the characteristic signs which actually fix[78] the
+date.
+
+Design, unconsciously has a slowly altering and persistently onward
+movement, which but seldom repeats itself. It is one of the most
+remarkable instances of evolution. But it also has its cataclysms
+(however we may account for them), of which the Greek apotheosis of
+all art is a shining example, and the total disappearance of classical
+influence in Europe before the Renaissance is another.
+
+I will instance one prevailing habit of Egyptian art.[79] In the long
+processional subjects, and in individual separate figures, it was
+usual to draw the head in perfect profile, the body facing you, but
+not completely--a sort of compromise with a three-quarter view of
+it--and the feet following each other, on the same line as the
+profile. This mode of representing the human figure was only effaced
+gradually by the introduction of Greek art, and continued to be the
+conventional and decorative method even in the latest days of Egyptian
+art; and it is curious to observe, that in the Dark ages European
+design fell into the same habit. We cannot imagine that this distorted
+way of drawing the human figure could have any intentional meaning,
+and therefore may simply believe that it had become a custom; and that
+when art has so stiffened and consolidated itself by precedent and
+long tradition, as in Egypt and in India, certain errors as well as
+certain truths become, as it were, ingrained into it. Plato remarked
+of Egyptian art, that "the pictures and statues they made ten thousand
+years ago were in no particular better than those they make now."[80]
+
+One day, however, the Greek broke away from the ancient bonds of
+custom. The body was made to accompany the head, and the feet followed
+suit. But the strange fact remains that for several thousand years men
+walked in profile, all out of drawing. Evidently originality was not
+in much estimation among the Egyptian patrons of art. Design seemed to
+have restricted itself to effective adaptations in a few permitted
+forms in architecture and painting, and the illumination of the
+papyrus MSS.
+
+Egyptian elasticity of design found some scope in its domestic
+ornamentation, in jewellery and hangings, but especially in its
+embroideries for dress. Here much ingenuity was shown, and the
+patterns on walls and the ceilings of tombs give us the designs which
+Semper considers as having been originally intended for textile
+purposes. He strains to a point to which I can hardly follow him, the
+theory that all decorations were originally textile (except such as
+proceeded in China from the lattice-work motive); though I willingly
+accept the idea that textile decoration was one of the first and most
+active promoters of design.
+
+It is not possible for us to trace systematically the different points
+at which Egyptian and Asiatic art touch, but we can see that they were
+always acting and reacting on each other in the later centuries before
+our era, and that Greece profited by them. The first efforts of both
+to break through this chrysalis stage, resulted in the early Greek
+archaic style. Its strongly marked, muscular humanity reminds one of
+all the conflicting impressions struggling in the conception of the
+great artist who first embodied them. They appear to be breaking out
+from the trammels of Egyptian and Assyrian styles, which by meeting
+had engendered life; and Greek art was the child of their union. Then
+art, having shaken off symbolism as its only purpose, and seeking to
+represent the forms of men, yet possessed by a guiding spirit, first
+sought to convey the idea of expression. The worship of humanity,
+mingling with that of their gods, produced the Heroic ideal; and all
+the attributes of their heroes--majesty, beauty, grace, and
+passion--had to be depicted; as well as rage, sorrow, despair, and
+revenge. These were soon to be surrounded with all the splendours of
+the arts of decoration.
+
+Greece had prepared for this outburst of excellence and the perfect
+science of art, by collecting the traditions, the symbols, the
+experience in colouring, and the knowledge of beautiful forms, human
+and ideal. All that was needed for the advent of the man who could
+design and create types of beauty for all ages was thus accumulated,
+and the man came, and his name was Pheidias. A crowd followed him, all
+steeped in the same flood of poetry and art; and for several
+centuries they filled the world with the sense and science of beauty.
+Then the function of the designer--the artist--was changed and
+elevated, and he became, through the great days of Greek and Roman
+Pagan art, and afterwards through the rise of that of Christianity,
+the exponent of all that was poetical and ennobling in the life of
+man.
+
+But though the Greek artist had broken the chains of prescribed form,
+he still adhered to the "motive"--the inner symbolical thought--and
+strove to express it as it had never been expressed before.[81] New
+principles were evoked, and the artist, while revelling in the
+"sweetness and light" of freedom, framed for himself standards of
+taste and refinement, which he left as a heritage to all succeeding
+generations.
+
+I fear that I am repeating a platitude when insisting that freedom in
+all design, but especially that employed in decoration, must be kept
+within certain boundaries; otherwise it becomes lawless. Rules, like
+all other controlling circumstances, are of the greatest service to
+the artist, as they suggest what he can do, as well as decide what he
+ought not to attempt. All boundaries are highly suggestive; the size
+of a sheet of paper--the form of a panel--the colours in the box of
+pigments--even the touch of the brush which comes to hand,--all these
+help to shape the idea to our ends, and assist us in giving to the
+original motive the form which is most suitable. These restrictions
+are often regarded as impediments by the impatient artist; whereas he
+ought to look on them as hints and suggestions, and claim their
+assistance, instead of struggling against them. Let us accept the
+principle that it is good for each of our efforts at decoration that
+we are controlled by the space allotted to its composition. The
+relative size (small, perhaps, for a table-cover, but large for that
+of a book) and the shape to which we are limited, alter all the
+conditions of a design. Whether it is square or oblong, or lengthened
+into a frieze; whether it must be divided into parts, including more
+than one motive, or be grouped round one centre; whether it is to be
+repeated more than once within the range of the eye, or whether it is
+to disappear into space upwards or horizontally; and whether it is to
+stand alone, or be framed with lines or a border,--all these
+restrictions must govern the design, or, in its highest phase, the
+composition.
+
+The composition must consist of supporting lines well balanced, and
+"values" filling up the whole surface of the space, which is to
+contain it, and beyond which it must not seek to extend. As we have in
+embroidery no distances--only a foreground--the design must be placed
+all on one plane. The title of "composition" cannot be granted to a
+bouquet or a bird cast on one corner of a square of linen, however
+gracefully it may be drawn. It does not cover the space allotted to
+it.
+
+If we carefully study the great and guiding principles that have been
+distinctly formulated by some of the Continental authorities on
+decorative art, we shall find much help in composing our designs.
+Nothing is more interesting than to search for the foundation of the
+structure which centuries have helped to raise, and to dig out, as it
+were, the original plan or thought of the founder. So it is most
+instructive to learn the fundamental rules by which such results are
+secured.
+
+M. Blanc[82] says of the general laws of ornamentation: "There can be
+no nobler satisfaction to the mind, than to be able to unravel what is
+beyond measure complicated, to diminish what is apparently immense,
+and to reduce to a few clear points what has been till now involved in
+a haze of obscurity. Just as the twenty-six letters of the alphabet
+have been, and always will be sufficient to form the expression of the
+words necessary for all human thought, so certain elements susceptible
+of combination among themselves have sufficed, and will suffice, to
+create ornament, whose variety may be indefinitely multiplied."
+
+He reduces ornamental design to five principles, Repetition,
+Alternation, Symmetry, Progression, and Confusion.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 5.
+    Wave Pattern.]
+
+First, Repetition. "You may act on the mind, through sight, by the
+same means as those that will excite physical sensations. A single
+prick of a pin is nothing, but a hundred such will be intolerably
+painful. Repetition produces pleasurable sensations, as well as
+painful ones." An insignificant form can become interesting by
+repetition, and by the suggestion which, singly, it could not
+originate. For example, the rolling of the Greek scroll or wave
+pattern awakens in us the idea of one object following another. "It
+also suggests the waves of the ocean; or the poet may see in it a
+troop of maidens pursuing each other in space, not frivolously, but in
+cadence, as if executing a mystic dance." Change the curves into
+angular forms, as making the key pattern, and it will no longer flow,
+but become as severe as the other was graceful. No principle gives
+greater pleasure than repetition, and next to it, _alternation_.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 6.
+    Key Pattern.]
+
+Variety is here added to the law of repetition. "There can be
+repetition without alternation, but no alternation without
+repetition." Alternation is, then, a succession of two objects
+recurring regularly in turn; and the cadence of appearance and
+disappearance gives pleasure to the senses, whether it be addressed to
+taste, hearing, or sight. Alternate rhymes, and even short and long
+lines, soothe the ear in verse. In form, the alternations are the more
+agreeable, the more they differ. Such are, in architecture, a
+succession of metopes and triglyphs on a Doric frieze, where the
+circle and the straight lines relieve each other.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 7.
+    Metopes and Triglyphs.]
+
+Symmetry. The correspondence of two parts opposite to each other is
+symmetrical. "A living being, man or animal, is composed of two parts,
+which appear to have been united down one central line. Without being
+identical, if you folded them down the line, they would overlap and
+perfectly cover each other. Man is born with the sense of symmetry, to
+match his outward form; and he appreciates its existence, and
+instinctively feels the want of it. Symmetry is another word for
+justness of proportion. The Greeks understood by symmetry, the
+condition of a body of which the members have a common measure among
+themselves. We expect the two sides of a living being to correspond,
+and we look for these proportions in the living body to balance each
+other, which we do not expect to find in any other natural object. A
+large leaf at the end of a slender stem may be as appropriate, and
+give as much pleasure, as a small leaf in the same position; but a
+huge hand at the end of an arm is not so agreeable to our sense of
+symmetry as one of the size and outline which we naturally expect to
+see.
+
+"The mind of man expects to find, outside of himself and his own
+proportions, something which he feels is proportionate and
+symmetrical; in fact, he at once detects the want of it. The Japanese,
+with delicacy and taste, often substitute for symmetry its
+corollary--balance. The Chinese or Japanese vase will often have an
+appreciable affinity and resemblance to a Greek one, each preserving a
+secret balance, even in the extremest whimsicality of its composition.
+Proportion is another corollary to symmetry, if it is not another word
+for some of its qualities."
+
+"Progression. In this principle are included long perspectives,
+pyramidal forms in architecture, and certain processional
+compositions."
+
+"For pyramidal surfaces, such as pediments, a progressive ornament is
+the fittest. All the buildings in the East, and in the ancient cities
+of Central America, which are raised on pyramids of steps, show the
+tendency to this species of effect in giving dignity to the buildings
+placed on such platforms."
+
+"Perspectives are highly attractive specimens of progression, which,
+when made use of in the decorations of a theatre, produce delightful
+illusions."
+
+M. Blanc quotes Bernardin de St. Pierre, who says: "When the
+branches of a plant are disposed in a uniform plan of diminishing
+size, as in the pyramidal shape of a pine, there is progression; and
+if these trees be planted in long avenues, diminishing in height and
+colour, as each tree does in itself, our pleasure is redoubled,
+because progression here becomes infinite. It is owing to this
+feeling of infinity that we take pleasure in looking at anything that
+presents progression, such as nurseries in different stages of
+growth, the slopes of hills retreating to the horizon at different
+levels--interminable perspectives."
+
+All floral compositions which give the effect or impression of growth
+may be included in the progressive principle. A composition which,
+beginning as it were with a stem, spreads and floreates equally on
+each side; thrusting outwards and upwards, and ending in a topmost
+twig or bud, is governed by this principle.
+
+Confusion. Boileau is quoted by M. Blanc as saying, "A fine disorder
+is often the effect of art;" and he adds, "But before he said it,
+nature had shown it." Here we must observe that the confusions or
+disorders of nature are all subject to certain laws; and it is in
+adopting this idea, that an artistic confusion may give us the sense
+of its being ordered by, and subject to definite rules. These rules
+act as the frame affects the picture, circumscribing its
+irregularities, and restricting them to a certain area. "The
+artist-painter is, in a small space, permitted to employ confusion,
+because the art of the cabinet-maker will keep the geometrical effect
+in view." When the Japanese throw their ornaments, apparently without
+rule, here and there on the japanned box, they reckon on the square
+shape being sufficiently marked to the eye by its shining surface and
+sharp corners.
+
+The confusion in a Japanese landscape is so beautiful that one
+appreciates the innate sense of balance, which modifies the
+confusion--rules and orders it.
+
+"In the hands of the designer, confusion is only a method of rendering
+order visible in a happy disorder. Here contraries meet and touch....
+Admit these as the principles of all decoration, and you will find
+that, by following and combining them, you may produce varieties as
+numberless as the sands of the sea, and that a latent equilibrium will
+reduce nearly every complication and confusion to perfect harmony."
+
+Each of the five principles we have discussed has its corollary, which
+adds to the resources of the decorative artist. These are as
+follows:--To Repetition belongs harmony, or consonance; to
+Alternation, contrast; to Symmetry, radiation; to Progression,
+gradation; to balanced Confusion, deliberate complication.[83]
+
+_Harmonies_ in form and in colour are produced in different
+ways--sometimes by repetition with variation; sometimes by the
+different parts being rather reflected on each than repeated. This
+explains the harmony that may be called consonance, if I rightly
+understand M. Blanc's theory.
+
+_Contrast_ is most generally understood as a common resource in the
+hands of the artist for producing strong effects; but M. Blanc
+cleverly expresses the reticence needed to ensure contrast being
+pleasurable, not painful. "To adorn persons or things," he says, "is
+not simply for the purpose of causing them to be conspicuous; it is
+that they may be admired. It is not simply to draw attention to them,
+but that they may be regarded with feelings of pleasure.... If
+contrast be needed, let it be used as the means of rendering the whole
+more powerful, brilliant, and striking. For instance, if orange is
+intended to predominate in a decoration, let blue be mingled with it,
+but sparingly. Let the complementary colour be its auxiliary, and not
+its rival." Contrasts are always unpleasant, if the two forces
+struggle with each other for pre-eminence, whether it be in form or in
+colour. The rule to be observed in all ornamental design is this:
+"that contrasting objects, instead of disturbing unity, should assist
+it by giving most effect to that we wish to bring forward and
+display."
+
+_Radiation_ belongs to the principle of symmetry, starting from a
+centre from which all lines diverge, and to which all lines point.
+This is to be found throughout nature, from the rays of the sun to the
+petals of the daisy. All decorative art employs and illustrates it.
+
+"_Gradation_ in colour, as in form, is not quite synonymous with
+progression, but expresses a series of adroitly managed transitions.
+The English intermingle in their decoration, colours very finely
+blended; nor do they find any transition too delicate. This, as in all
+principles of ornament, has to be employed according to the feelings
+intended to be produced on the mind of the spectator--whether for
+absolute contrast or for imperceptible progression, when the tenderest
+colours are needed."
+
+_Complication_ is illustrated by M. Blanc, by a quotation from
+"Ziegler."[84] "Complication is another aspect of the art which owns
+the same sentiment as that expressed by Dædalus in his labyrinth,
+Solomon in his mysterious seal, the Greeks in their interlacing and
+winding ornaments, the Byzantines, the Moors, and the architects of
+our cathedrals in their finest works. Intertwined mosaics, and
+intersection of arches and ribs, all spring from complication."
+
+To follow the interlacing line of an ornament, gives the mind the
+pleasure of untying the Gordian knot, without cutting it. It gives the
+excitement of curiosity, pursuit, and discovery. "When we see these
+traceries so skilfully plaited, in which straight lines and curves
+intermingle, cross, branch out, disappear and recur, we experience a
+high pleasure in unravelling a puzzle which at first, perhaps,
+appeared to be undecipherable; and in acknowledging that a latent
+arrangement may be recognized in what at first, and at a distance,
+seems an inextricable confusion." The Celtic, Moorish, and Gothic
+styles illustrate and are explained by these remarks; and they are
+well worthy the attention of the designer.
+
+Having so freely borrowed from M. Blanc's chapter on the general laws
+of ornamentation, I will finish my quotations with the words with
+which he concludes: "There is no decoration in the works of nature or
+the inventions of men which does not owe its birth to one of the
+original principles here enumerated, viz. Repetition, Alternation,
+Symmetry, Progression, and Balanced Confusion; or else to one of their
+secondary causes, consonance, contrast, radiation, gradation, and
+complication; or lastly, to a combination of these different elements,
+which all finally lose themselves in a primordial cause--the origin of
+the movements of the universe--ORDER."[85]
+
+The extracts from M. Blanc's works I have carefully placed between
+commas, being most anxious to express my obligation to him for his
+carefully formulated epitome of the laws of design. But though I have
+largely quoted, there remains still much most interesting and
+suggestive matter, which I recommend the reader to seek in his book.
+
+Though we should call to our aid the general laws of design for all
+art, we must select from them what is specially appropriate for the
+needs of our craft. From the art of needlework we should eliminate
+as much as possible all ideas of _roundness_, all variety of surface
+and effects of light and shadow and contrasting colours. Unity,
+softness, grace, refinement, brightness, cheerfulness, pleasant
+suggestions,--these should be the objects in view when we design the
+panels for the drawing-room or boudoir, the hangings for the bed, or
+the cover for the table--harmony which will satisfy the eye, thoughts
+that shall please the mind.
+
+The objects in nature that give us the most unalloyed pleasure--birds
+and flowers--are those that from all time have served as the materials
+for decorative design, and therefore have been moulded into the
+traditional patterns which have descended to us from the earliest
+times. Design must follow the scientific laws of art, and shape the
+variations of traditional forms from which we cannot escape. In our
+present search after these inner truths, I repeat that we have nothing
+to do with the rules of painting, sculpture, and architecture, or any
+other of the secondary arts, such as wood carving, metal work, &c.;
+these having each their own intrinsic principles, which must be worked
+out as corollaries from the general laws of composition which govern
+all Aryan art.[86]
+
+It is curious that in drawing on the flat, in ancient frescoes, there
+appear to be no acknowledged rules of perspective--hardly more in
+Pompeii, than on early Chinese screens and plates; or than later in
+the Bayeux tapestries. And yet the Greeks, with their unerring
+instinct, actually made use of false architectural perspectives to add
+to the effects of height and depth in their colonnaded buildings.[87]
+They sensibly diminished the circumference of the columns, and used
+other means in their designs for this purpose. They understood the
+principle, but they did not carry it into flat decorative art. They
+did not attempt, when they painted a landscape on the wall, to do more
+than recall the idea they were sketching; and never thought of vying
+in scientific or naturalistic imitation with the real landscape they
+saw through the window; they did not wish to interfere with the effect
+of the statue, or the human figures grouped in front of it, to which
+the wall served as a background. Those threw shadows and cast lights;
+but in the flat there were no shadows, no perspective--all was
+flat.[88] We must draw from this the deduction that the Greeks held
+that flatness was an essential quality of wall decoration (except in
+friezes) as well as of all textile ornament; and for every reason we
+must accept this flatness as a general law for designs in embroidery.
+
+In hangings and dress materials, flatness is more agreeable than a
+complicated shaded design, especially when it is further confused by
+folds, disturbing and interrupting the flow of the lines of the
+pattern.
+
+The reader will perceive that the laws of composition for textiles
+quoted from M. Blanc, apply perfectly to designs on the flat, and to
+outlined sketches in black and white, as well as to the most
+elaborate compositions for pictures, either historical or "genre."
+They are rules which should be understood and employed by the man who
+draws for a wall-paper or an area railing; and certainly by him who
+makes patterns for our schools of design.
+
+It may therefore be laid down as a general rule, that all designs for
+embroidery should be considered first as outlined drawings, covering a
+flat surface, and then filled in with colour. The outlines should as
+little as possible overlap one another, as flatness is one of the
+first objects to be remembered; and this, of course, will be disturbed
+by the parts passing over or under each other. Indian designs in
+flowers have invariably a wonderful flatness, in the absence of all
+light and shadow; joined to a naturalistic suggestion of detail, which
+is accounted for by their traditional mode of copying from nature. The
+branch or blossom to be copied, is laid on the ground and pegged down
+with care, to eliminate every variety of surface, and every branch and
+twig so arranged that they may not cross or touch each other. This
+conventional composition is then drawn, and every natural distinction
+in the form carefully copied. I would suggest that this idea should be
+accepted as useful for imitation among ourselves in certain
+conventional compositions of vegetable forms. Perhaps it is our Aryan
+ancestry that has given us a prevailing taste for such decorations;
+and it is worth while to consider how best to manipulate them.[89]
+
+Clinging as we do to these floral designs, we can see that they are
+the only ones that bear repetition, whether covering the surface of
+the material in the rich irregularity of the flowers in a field, or
+conventionalized into a form or a pattern.
+
+The eye is never shocked or fatigued by such repetitions in orderly
+confusion, or trained by the hand into artistic shapes or meanderings
+of tracery. But when embroidery or weaving attempts to represent
+animals or typical human figures, repetition immediately becomes
+tiresome. A Madonna surrounded by angels, comes in badly, repeated
+over and over again as a pattern, broken up by folds, cut up by a
+seam, dislocated in the joining, and repeated in tiers. Such a design
+is figured in Auberville's book.[90] The drawing is beautiful, but by
+repetition it becomes ridiculous. I therefore deprecate this kind of
+ornament in textile work. For this reason embroidery, which can be
+fitted to each space that is to be covered, is preferable to woven
+designs, however richly or perfectly they may be carried out.
+
+Another class of design, which must be considered apart, is the
+conventional-geometrical, of which the special distinction appears to
+be that it consists of echoes or fragments of what we have seen
+elsewhere. These conventional patterns are often merely the _detritus_
+of past styles or motives crushed and placed by time in a sort of
+kaleidoscope. They remind one of the little wreaths of broken shells
+and coloured sea-weeds left on the sands by the retiring waves after a
+storm, and are sometimes full of beauty and suggestion. (Pl. 17.) We
+trace in these fragmentary patterns forgotten links with different
+civilizations; and we ponder on the historical events which have
+brought them into juxtaposition. These kaleidoscope patterns are to be
+seen in Persian and Turkish carpets of the present day, and we find,
+on examination, little bits which can only be the remnants of a
+broken-up motive, probably as much lost now to the designer who
+inherits the traditional form, as to us who can only see the vague
+results.
+
+I illustrate this remark by giving the border of a modern Persian
+carpet which has certainly had Egyptian ancestry. The boat, the
+beetle, and the prehistoric cross are to be found in it.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 8.
+    Persian Carpet.]
+
+Many conventional patterns of to-day are descendants of the
+lattice-work of Chinese art, and of the zigzags, lines, and discs of
+barbarous primitive ornamentation.
+
+The traceries in Indian stone windows show some of the most charming
+geometrical forms, and are akin to the Persian and Russian modes of
+composing conventional patterns. They appear on very ancient metal
+work, and are the motives of all the embroideries in the Greek islands
+and the principalities, and of the linen embroideries of Russia. Their
+Byzantine origin gave its impress to the European schools of the
+Middle Ages, and the pattern-books of Germany and Venice of the
+sixteenth century are full of them. They are best suited for the
+mosaic stitches, and, kept in their places as decoration, they are
+useful for carpets and borders.
+
+It should be impressed on our young artists, that, in composing their
+designs, they must be influenced by the materials to be employed, and
+the purpose for which the decoration is intended. Thus in textile
+design for dress and hangings (excepting for tapestries) the fact must
+never be lost sight of that they will be subject to disturbance by
+crossing folds and crumplings, which will break up the lines of the
+pattern. It is therefore evident that a design fitted for a rigid
+material in a fixed place, such as an architectural decoration in
+wood, stone, or stucco, must be subject to a treatment different from
+that which befits an embroidered curtain or panel.
+
+Stone and wood, being materials of uniform colour, require all the
+help of recessed shadows and projections to catch the light; whereas
+in textiles, form is assisted by colour, and smoothness of surface is
+a primary consideration. The strongly accentuated design for
+wood-carving becomes poor and lifeless when deprived of its essential
+conditions and _raison d'être_, and the pattern which looks charming,
+outlined and filled in with colour, could be hardly seen incised on a
+flat stone surface. This seems a truism, but the neglect of these
+plain axioms causes many mistakes in decorative art. Mr. Redgrave
+says: "A design must be bad which applies the same treatment to
+different materials." He further says: "The position of the ornament
+requires special consideration. The varied quantities, bolder relief,
+and coarser execution are not only allowable, but absolutely
+necessary, at heights considerably above the eye. Moreover, each
+fabric has its own peculiar lustre, texture, &c. Thus, in the use of
+hangings, curtains, &c., the design might be suitable in silk, and
+coarse or dull in woollen."[91]
+
+Here I venture to differ from Mr. Redgrave. Perspective is as much to
+be respected in decoration as in pictures, near to the eye; and the
+gradation in size and colour, as the ornament travels up into height
+or fades into distance, is a phase of pleasure which should not be
+checked by enlargement of form or reinforcement of colouring.
+
+It is hardly necessary to warn our artists against a sort of design
+which is conventional, yet had its own meaning in the beginning. This
+is to be found in Indian carvings and embroideries of a certain date,
+or imitating the works of that distant period. It proceeded from a
+hideous worship of monstrous Dravidian divinities. Their statues are
+to be found, surrounded by coarsely designed patterns, in the temple
+architecture of the first and second centuries. Its characteristics
+are idols in niches or shrines, distorted in form or attitude; foliage
+of unnatural, twisted plants, added to the recurring of the lotus and
+tree of life; or animals destroying each other, or kneeling in worship
+to the idols. These ugly designs are purely conventional. Fergusson
+suggests that they were introduced into Mexico in the fourth or fifth
+centuries A.D. by Buddhism.[92]
+
+Those many-armed, sometimes many-faced divinities drove out the
+beautiful Aryan types, which, however, resumed their sway when the
+wave of the Renaissance flowed back to India, and was remodelled by
+Oriental taste to the lovely designs we find in the Taj Mahal.
+
+In M. Blanc's classification of ornament, he has placed Gothic design
+under the head of deliberate complication. The whole of the Gothic
+decorations, which are a gradual growth in one direction, arose from
+the study of interlacing boughs and stems, employed as the enrichment
+of the newly-grown forms of the vaulted roofs. The possibilities of
+great size and height covered these designs and inspired all their
+decoration; and the effect of reiteration and long recurring lines in
+perspective was essentially the motive of these avenues in stone.[93]
+
+Here enter the principles of repetition and progression, and you will
+find how carefully the designers of the twelfth, thirteenth, and
+fourteenth centuries worked up to these ideas. You will see in their
+embroideries, shining figures or pictures in gold, silver, and
+coloured silks, shimmering on dark velvet backgrounds, each design
+terminating a perspective of architectural forms which enhances their
+brilliancy. The most effective, probably, were generally employed for
+the adornment of the high altar, so as to be seen from a great
+distance. The smaller and less distinct and more delicate ornaments
+were reserved for the side chapels or for smaller churches, where such
+distant effects were inappropriate. But the motives of ecclesiastical
+embroidery will be discussed in a future chapter.
+
+All attempts at pictorial art are a mistake in textiles. It does not
+enter into such designs; and when by chance it is allowed to be so
+used, it is an error of judgment, and only exhibits a laborious and
+useless ingenuity. It is no longer an artistic delineation of a
+natural object, but becomes an imitation of another way of rendering
+such objects.
+
+Mr. Redgrave says that pictorial art in our manufactures is one of our
+great mistakes. "The picture must be independent of the material, the
+thought alone should govern it; whereas in decoration the material
+must be one of the suggestors of the thought, its use must govern the
+design."
+
+Perhaps it will appear to my readers that here I repeat, in different
+forms, what has been said in a previous chapter on the history of
+style. I think that it is better to do so, than to omit to show where
+style and design must accompany each other. Style, without any
+reference to design, would be but a barren subject; and design,
+without reference to style, would become lawless, and soon be lost in
+the mazes of bad taste and mannerism. Both subjects are of so large
+and important a nature that I do not attempt to do more than point out
+how, in their history and their influence, they belong to the craft of
+embroidery.
+
+Such influences belong to all art; and though I am anxious to confine
+myself to only one section of it, I find it difficult to resist the
+temptation to generalize and stray from the prescribed path, when
+large and important views are opened on every side, as I travel on
+from point to point.
+
+In sketching the history of design, as well as I may in so short a
+space, it is only considered in the light in which it illustrates our
+craft.
+
+I repeat that the design should be informed by the motive which
+suggested it, and by the need which has called it forth; and it must
+be moulded to the space it has to fill, and the position it will
+occupy. The design must be modified into different outward forms,
+according to whether it is to be fitted to the edge of a building
+against the sky; to a high panelled wall; to be applied as a frieze,
+or round the capital of a pillar; to the embroidered cover of an
+altar, or the silken hangings of a bed, or the framed flat spaces on
+the walls of a saloon. In fact, "intention," "place," and "shape" are
+necessary motives and limits to a flat design.
+
+Leaving aside all architectural ornamentation, and adhering only to my
+own subject, embroidery, I will limit my observations to the three
+purposes here suggested. Firstly, as the central effect of the holiest
+part of a church; secondly, in the domestic and comfortable room, to
+be adorned and made cheerful; and thirdly, as decking the refined and
+gay saloon or banqueting-hall.
+
+To the church we should devote the most splendid and effective
+contrasts, to blaze unframed against dark empty backgrounds, or amidst
+stone and marble decorations; something set apart from its
+surroundings, and asserting that separation, is the desirable effect
+to be attained.
+
+A totally different set of rules come into play when we have to select
+the decorations of a bedroom. Here a background does not exist. We are
+surrounded by four walls very near to the eye, so that perspectives
+are a secondary interest, if indeed they can claim any consideration;
+severe and magnificent ornamentation is out of place, except perhaps
+in that time-honoured institution--to be found in every great house
+possessing a suite of reception-rooms--the State bedroom, where the
+display of hangings and embroideries was the first motive of the
+decoration of the past, clothing and garnishing the bare spaces on the
+lofty walls. Space and separateness are not the object or aim of the
+bedroom of to-day; but lightness, snugness, and cheerful comfort, with
+which the design of the textile ornaments have much to do. This will
+in a later chapter come under the head of furniture.
+
+For the saloon we may accept any splendour of rich and costly design,
+and the variously shaped panels assist in suggesting the form of the
+decoration. The plain or moulded panels, called in Italian "targhe,"
+or shields, seem to be descended from the actual shields of gold which
+Solomon hung on the walls of the king's house in the Forest of
+Lebanon.[94] The motive was apparently Tyrian, and traces of it are
+also to be found in Assyrian sculpture.[95]
+
+The practice of framing the design gives opportunities for change of
+materials, colour, and pattern, permitting the employment of different
+flat surfaces laid on each other, and scope for endless enrichment;
+the framed picture being, perhaps, the central culminating attraction,
+crowning, as it were, the textile ornamentation.
+
+I merely give these instances as illustrating the rule that we have
+more than once laid down, that a design cannot fitly be employed
+except in the position for which the artist has composed it. I will,
+however, add that though it is right to give due consideration to the
+preparation of each work for its intended use, yet we often have
+charming suggestions offered to us, by the chance acquisition of a
+beautiful artistic specimen, which finds its own place and
+accommodates itself to the surrounding colours and forms. These are
+the happy accidents of which the cultivated artistic eye takes
+advantage, adding them to the experience which may help those who are
+seeking for the rules of harmony and contrast in design.
+
+Research into the mysteries and principles of design applies to woven
+arabesques and patterns, and must include machine-made textile
+ornament, and all decorative needlework. It is, in fact, the fabric
+for the million which most especially needs the careful study of
+guiding rules. When a plant sends forth hundreds of winged, wind-blown
+seeds, like the thistle, it spreads itself over wide fields, and is
+more mischievous than a more noxious growth, such as the deadly
+nightshade, which only drops an occasional berry into the earth. So a
+common cheap chintz or carpet, with a poor, gaudy, motiveless design,
+carries a bad style into thousands of homes wherever our commerce
+extends; disgracing us, while it corrupts the taste of other nations.
+
+In addressing our young designers, I would remind them that in art the
+race is not always to the strong. Prudence and educated powers,
+thoughtfulness and study, often carry us where unassisted and
+uncultivated genius has signally failed. Even such facilities as are
+afforded by the acquirement of freehand drawing, as taught in our
+schools of art, are not to be despised. The workman should thoroughly
+master his tools, or they will hamper him. The first step towards
+design is that you should learn to draw. After this, appreciation and
+observation are necessary, and due balance in outline and colour
+should be studied; and all this is as much needed in drawing a
+pattern as in composing a picture. The difference lies in our art
+being only decorative, wherein beauty and fitness are to be
+remembered, and nothing else; whereas the picture may have to record
+historical facts, or to inspire poetical thoughts--to awe or to touch
+the beholder. A decorative design is only asked to delight him.
+Intelligent delight, however, can only be evoked by intelligent art,
+and to this, decoration must be subjected.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [73] The earliest art we know (the bone-scratching) is
+    naturalistic and imitative. We are unaware of any
+    attempt at a pattern of the prehistoric period. The lake
+    cities are of so vague a date that their ornaments on
+    pottery are puzzling rather than instructive. The
+    earliest Hellenic pottery was scratched or painted.
+    Cuttle-fish, repeated over and over again, are among the
+    earliest attempts at a pattern, by repetition of a
+    natural object. Naturalism soon fell into symbolism,
+    which appropriated it and all art, and the upheaval of a
+    new culture was needed to lift it once more into the
+    region of individual creation. See Boyd Dawkins' "Early
+    Man in Britain;" also General Pitt Rivers's Museum of
+    Prehistoric Art, lately presented to the University of
+    Oxford.
+
+    [74] See Boyd Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain."
+
+    [75] "I hope, indeed, to enable them" (the members of
+    his class) "to read, above all, the minds of
+    semi-barbarous nations in the only language by which
+    their feelings were capable of expression; and those
+    whose temper inclines them to take a pleasure in mythic
+    symbols, will not probably be induced to quit the
+    profound fields of investigation which early art will
+    open to them, and which belong to it alone. For this is
+    a general law, that supposing the intellect of the
+    workman the same, the more imitatively complete his art,
+    the less he will mean by it, and the ruder the symbol,
+    the deeper the intention."--Ruskin's "Oxford Lectures on
+    Art," 1870, p. 19.
+
+    [76] See Isaac Taylor's "History of the Alphabet."
+
+    [77] Renouf's Hibbert Lectures, 1879, p. 67.
+
+    [78] Now there is a point of view in which we may regard
+    the imitative art of all races, the most civilized as
+    well as the most barbarous--in reference to the power of
+    correctly representing animal and vegetable forms, such
+    as they exist in nature. The perfection of such
+    imitation depends not so much on the manual dexterity of
+    the artist as on his intelligence and comprehension of
+    the type of the essential qualities of the form he
+    desires to represent. See Ch. T. Newton's "Essays on Art
+    and Archæology," p. 17.
+
+    [79] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians."
+
+    [80] Plato's Second Book of Laws, p. 656.
+
+    [81] "The religion of the Greeks penetrated into their
+    institutions and daily life. The myth was not only
+    embodied in the sculptures of Pheidias on the Parthenon,
+    and portrayed in the paintings of Polygnotus in the Stoa
+    Poikile; it was repeated in a more compendious and
+    abbreviated form on the fictile vase of the Athenian
+    household, on the coin circulated in the market-place,
+    on the mirror in which the Aspasia of the day beheld her
+    charms. Every domestic implement was made the vehicle of
+    figurative language, or fashioned into a
+    symbol."--Newton's "Essays on Art and Archæology," p.
+    23.
+
+    [82] "Art in Ornament and Dress," by M. Charles Blanc,
+    formerly Director of the French Institute. Eng. Trans.,
+    Chapman and Hall, London.
+
+    [83] See Charles Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress," p.
+    31.
+
+    [84] Charles Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress," p. 43.
+
+    [85] Charles Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress," pp.
+    43, 45, 46.
+
+    [86] Chinese design shows naturalistic art arrested and
+    perpetuated on totally different principles. Their
+    representations are all equally allied to their art of
+    picture-painting, whether on china with the brush, or on
+    textiles with the needle. The flatness of the picture is
+    still preserved by their ignorance of perspective. When
+    they attempted to express different distances, they did
+    so by placing them one above another, so that in reading
+    the composition the eye first takes in the distant
+    horizon; next below it, the middle distance; and being
+    thus prepared, it comes down to the actual living
+    foreground, on which rests the dramatic action and
+    interest addressed to the spectator. The Chinese
+    understood many of the secrets of art, yet never
+    achieved perspective.
+
+    [87] See Mr. Penrose's work on the measurements of the
+    Parthenon at Athens. Published by the Society of the
+    Dilettanti.
+
+    [88] Marked outlines in embroidery add to the flatness,
+    and enable us to omit cast shadows. In this it differs
+    entirely from pictorial art, where one of the great
+    objects is to avoid flatness.
+
+    [89] Semper's theory, already mentioned, is that textile
+    design was certainly flat; that it was the first form of
+    decoration, and was followed by bas-relief, which could
+    not at once rid itself of the original motive.
+
+    [90] Auberville's "Ornamentation des Tissus" (eleventh
+    century).
+
+    [91] Redgrave's "Manual of Design," pp. 43-45.
+
+    [92] This idolatrous type was introduced into England by
+    the Buccaneers, and reflected on our carvings and
+    embroideries of the time of James I., slightly modified
+    by the Italian Renaissance of that period. As this sort
+    of vulgar ornamentation has once prevailed, let us
+    protect ourselves against its possible recurrence.
+
+    [93] While making this passing allusion to the theory
+    that the origin of all Gothic decoration is mainly
+    founded on the motive of interlacing stems and foliage,
+    I wish to guard myself against being supposed in any way
+    to argue against other beginnings, whenever they can be
+    proved. I have said before that most decorations have a
+    mixed ancestry. But when I see single or clustered
+    columns starting from the ground--spreading at the base
+    like the gnarled root, and growing till they culminate
+    in crowns of foliage, forming symmetrical capitals, like
+    the first clusters of leaves on a strong young
+    sapling--then the branches spreading and interlacing,
+    only checked at equal intervals by a lovely leaf or
+    burgeon, till they meet in blossoms on the highest point
+    of the arch,--I cannot but adhere to the old idea that
+    rows of trees meeting overhead suggested Gothic ornament
+    as well as Gothic Architecture. The Spanish or Moresque
+    Gothic was overloaded with leaves and flowers, and the
+    German Gothic was enriched with fantastic trees and
+    flowers, each according to its national taste and
+    fashion. A Gothic tree is a very conventional plant; and
+    generally carries only one leaf on each branch. I have
+    given a specimen of archaic trees from the Bayeux
+    tapestry. They are typical of the Gothic botanical idea
+    and style down to the fourteenth century. (Fig. 13.)
+
+    Nor is this interpretation of Gothic design other than a
+    result of its descent from the Egyptian ancestral
+    motive, where the temple columns represented the single
+    stem of the lotus with one large blossom for its
+    capital, or else a bundle of stems of the lotus, palm,
+    and convolvulus flowering together into a beautiful
+    cluster. Even the gigantic columns of the great
+    hypæthral hall at Karnac are only a stupendous
+    exaggeration of the same stalk and flower motive. From
+    these were derived the forms of the early Greek
+    column--soon enriched by substituting the Acanthus for
+    the Lotus, but often retaining the convolvulus.
+
+    [94] 1 Kings x.; Ezek. xxvii. 10, 11. See Stanley's
+    "Lectures on the Jewish Church."
+
+    [95] Layard's "Nineveh and its Remains," vol. ii. p.
+    388; Rawlinson's "Ancient Monarchies," vol. ii. p. 2.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+PATTERNS.
+
+
+In the last chapter on design I have described patterns as the
+examples or illustrations of the art of decoration, and as being the
+records of the motives which produced them in different eras. My
+present object is to class and define patterns as decorative art.
+
+It is argued by some archæologists that the recurrence of a pattern,
+for instance the "wave," over the whole world, proves that it really
+came from many sources, under the same conditions of life and art;
+showing also that a pattern is a thing that, like a flower, must grow,
+if the culture of the race be equal. I do not believe this. We can
+nearly always trace the family history of a pattern to its original
+motive; and in the very few cases where we are unable to do so, it is
+hardly necessary to cover our ignorance by stretching the fashionable
+theory of development over the few instances that are as yet
+unaccountable.
+
+I have been repeatedly asked to procure or to invent a new pattern.
+Such is my respect for the decorative achievement called a "pattern,"
+that I cannot hope for the moment of inspiration in which I might
+create such a thing. If any one has in his lifetime invented a
+pattern, he has done something truly remarkable, and as rare as is a
+really original thought on any subject. Patterns are commonly, like
+men, the result of many centuries of long descent from ancestors of
+remote antiquity.
+
+Individuals differ from their ancestors through inherited and
+surrounding conditions, and through the modifying powers of evolution,
+climate, and education. So also a pattern has, besides its ancestry
+and descent, the unconscious mark or seal of its day; and it is easy
+to trace whence it comes, if we set ourselves to examine the style of
+it seriously.
+
+The patterns of which we can nearly always name at once the
+nationality, are the Assyrian, the Chinese, the Egyptian, the Hindu
+(Aryan and Turanian), the Persian, the Archaic and the highly
+developed Grecian; the Roman, the Celtic, the Byzantine, the Arabian,
+the Gothic, the Renaissance, the Spanish Plâteresque, the Louis
+Quatorze, and those of the art of Central America.
+
+The pattern cannot exist without design. Design means intention and
+motive. Many of the motives in Oriental textile decorations are
+suggestive of intention, as is shown by their names. Among Indian
+patterns we meet with "ripples of silver," "sunshine and shade,"
+"pigeon's eye," "peacock's neck," &c.[96]
+
+Patterns must be classed either by their dates, when ascertained, or
+according to their style, which must generally be allowed to cover
+vast areas and periods irregularly drifting down, overlapping, or
+being absorbed or effaced by the circumstances they have encountered.
+
+Only when a national style has been obstinately fixed, as in China,
+and bound down by strict laws and religious formulas, suited exactly
+to the people for whom they were evolved out of the national life, and
+imprinted on it by their own lawgivers, philosophers, and priests; and
+neither imposed by conquerors, nor swept over by the waves of a new
+civilization;--only in such cases can we find a continuity of
+decorative art which leads us far back on its traces. Then, on this
+long track, we learn how little, man, the decorating animal, has
+really advanced in his powers of creation. He has gone more than once
+to a certain point, and has then either been petrified by law and
+custom--turned into a pillar of salt, like Lot's wife, because he has
+looked back instead of striving to advance, or else through poverty or
+satiety has fallen into the last stage of the Seven Ages, "_sans_
+eyes, _sans_ teeth--_sans_ everything." When what is good is neither
+perceived nor desired, then the arts, small and great, dwindle and
+disappear, and nothing remains to show that they have been, but a
+name, and perhaps a pattern.
+
+Chinese design is the most striking example of the first of these
+phases; and the extinction of all classical art with the fall of
+Paganism in Rome is an instance of the second.
+
+In the chapter on style it is said that a pattern is as ineffaceable
+as a word. But one will occasionally disappear for a time, till the
+ruin that covers it is cleared away, and the lost design recovered and
+employed simply as a decoration, if it is beautiful; or perhaps fitted
+with a new meaning, and so it makes a fresh start.
+
+The importance of patterns, when traceable to their origin, as a means
+of investigating historical influences cannot be too much insisted on,
+and their history is full of suggestion as a guide to the decorator.
+Much has been argued and much ascertained from the evidence of these
+fragments of national civilizations, showing how an idea or a myth has
+been, as it were, engrafted into the essence of another national idea,
+partly altering what it finds, and changing to fit itself to its new
+surroundings. Eastern patterns have travelled far, and lasted long;
+and continue still to hold the fancy, and exercise the ingenuity, of
+the artist and decorator. When we find a pattern of which the
+nationality is strongly marked, it is worth our while to ascertain its
+date and history, which will help us to recognize cognate design
+wherever we may meet it. However, this is often not to be done; and
+then it is best to set these puzzling examples aside, and to await
+patiently the elucidation, which may come from some source of which we
+are as yet ignorant.
+
+In very early art we have little remaining but patterns, on which we
+may found theories by tracing them home to their original source. The
+oldest patterns had each a meaning and an intention. When a pattern
+has been enduring and far spread, it is because it was originally the
+expression of an idea or a symbol.
+
+In the earliest dawn of civilization, the arts were the repositories
+of the myths and mysteries of national faiths. Embroidery was one of
+these arts, and the border which edged the garment of a divinity, the
+veil which covered the grave of a loved one, or the flower-buds and
+fruit which fringed the hangings and curtains in the sanctuary, each
+had a meaning, and therefore a use. These symbolical designs and forms
+were constantly reproduced; and all human ingenuity was exercised in
+reforming, remodelling, and adding perfect grace to the expression of
+the same idea.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Patterns may be ranged under four heads--the Primitive, the
+Naturalistic, the Conventional, and the Geometrical.
+
+The primitive are those of which we know not the ancestry, and rarely
+can guess the motive. To us they are, in general, simply rude
+decorations. The naturalistic are those which are borrowed from
+natural forms, and are either only imitative, or else convey some
+hidden meaning. The conventional are those which, by long descent,
+have come to be accepted simply as ornamental art, with or without
+reference to an original motive, now lost. The geometrical or
+symmetrical are founded on form only, and in so far resemble our
+experience of the primitive; they express no meaning, and only serve
+to satisfy the eye by their balance and their ingenuity.
+
+
+PRIMITIVE.
+
+The first patterned forms with which we are acquainted are the
+primitive. They are found in all parts of the inhabited world. In our
+present ignorance as to the beginnings of the scattered tribes of men,
+we cannot judge if these are the remains of an earlier art or the
+first germs of a new one. Of one thing there is no doubt: this
+primitive decoration consists entirely of pattern; that is to say, of
+the repetition of certain (to us) inexpressive forms, which by
+reiteration assume importance and in some degree express beauty--the
+beauty of what Monsieur Blanc calls "cadence."
+
+After these first unintelligible forms, which simply by repetition
+become accepted patterns, come those called the Prehistoric, of which
+we know or guess something as to their original meaning, and which,
+having been reduced from the hieroglyphic-symbolical to the
+conventional, have thus crystallized themselves, by constant use, into
+a pattern. Such, for instance, is the simplest form of the "wave"
+pattern, which in very early art was a representation of water.
+
+The prehistoric water or wave patterns had other forms; for instance,
+zigzags, upright or horizontal, and undulating lines which are
+intelligible as expressing smooth or rough water. In general, however,
+the primitive and prehistoric patterns convey no idea, and consist, as
+we have said elsewhere, of lines, straight or wavy, sometimes
+intersected; of angles, zigzags, groups of dots, rings and little
+discs, and crosses of the Swastika shape. (Plate 10.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 10.
+    WAVE PATTERNS.
+    1, 4, 9, 12, 13. Greek Wave Patterns. 2. Key or Mæander, Greek
+        Wave. 3. Greek Broken Wave. 5, 6, 7. Egyptian Smooth and
+        Rippling Water Patterns. 8. Mediæval Wave. 10, 11, 14.
+        Assyrian. 15. Persian or Greek (from Glass Bowl, British
+        Museum). 16. English Waves (Durham Embroideries.)]
+
+Where shall the tartan be placed? It is certainly primitive, and
+apparently had no intention beyond that of employing as many coloured
+threads as there were dyes, so as to form the brightest contrasts, or
+else to be as invisible as possible either in the sunshine or in the
+shade. The Gauls brought this kind of weaving with them from the East,
+and probably invented the pattern, if such a motiveless design can be
+so called. It had its classical name, "Polymita," and was admired in
+Rome when newly imported, as being something original and barbaric.
+The Romans found it in Britain, and Boadicea wore a tartan dress on
+the day of her defeat. Perhaps even then fashions came from France,
+and it may have been her best tunic from across the Channel. This
+fabric may have been imported by the Belgic Gauls, and was so easily
+woven on house looms, that it became in time the feudal dress of the
+Scottish tribes and clans, and the colours were ingeniously arranged
+to show the most different effects. The tartan has always been a
+resource for the woollen trade, and the fashion constantly recurs in
+France, either from sentiment or the actually inherited Gallic taste;
+but it remains a primitive pattern, and nothing can make it artistic.
+No embroidery can soften the constantly recurring angles, and only
+fringes can be employed to decorate a tartan costume. Pliny tells us
+of the ingenuity of Zeuxis, who, to show his wealth, had his name
+embroidered in gold in the squared compartments of his outer
+garment.[97]
+
+Primitive patterns still linger in many savage nations, but especially
+throughout uncivilized Africa. Curious to say, the very ancient
+fossilized early art of Egypt does not assist us to trace it back to
+a prehistoric style, though it may lead us into prehistoric times.
+
+
+NATURALISTIC.
+
+The phases of the naturalistic patterns are constantly recurring. Art
+is always tending to realism, in the laudable effort to reach the
+motive without the shackles of rules. Each phase has fallen a prey to
+symbolism, to conventionalism, or to mannerism, which last symptom
+marks the decline and fall of art. We shall find these phases
+everywhere in the design of patterns.
+
+Naturalism has always striven, by simple repetition, to reduce to
+patterns the forms of flowers, fruits, animals, birds, insects,
+reptiles, and other natural objects.
+
+In flower patterns the simplest forms by repetition make sometimes the
+richest patterns, and the most effective. (Plate 11, Nos. 1 and 2.)
+
+It is remarkable that one very beautiful class of natural objects is
+rarely employed in ancient decoration[98]--shells and corals. The
+barbarous tribes of the West Coast of Africa alone seem to have
+appreciated their forms, and added them to their small repertory of
+naturalistic patterns. They do not appear in any European or Asiatic
+textiles till the seventeenth century, when shells were much used in
+the decorations of the reigns of Queen Anne and Louis Quatorze.
+
+The first change from naturalism into the conventional was through
+symbolism, and belonged to the time when unwritten thought was first
+recorded by pictured signs, which then ceased to be merely decoration.
+We find that the naturalism of the earliest Egyptians and Asiatics was
+soon entirely absorbed by the effort to express some hidden meaning or
+mystery, and then to fit the representation to a special place and
+purpose, and to restore it, as it were, to decorative art.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 11.
+    1. Persian Flower Border.
+    2. Egyptian Border, composed of Head-dress of the god Nile
+        (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians").
+    3. Assyrian.
+    4. Assyrian.]
+
+The lotus and the patterns founded on its forms, and the many
+emblematic meanings attached to them, are notable examples of these
+transmutations in style and intention, and of the value given to their
+intention and use in Egypt and India, where each development was
+immediately crystallized into a recognized pattern, and given its
+place and language. It received its "_mot d'ordre_," and continued to
+act upon it long after the meaning was forgotten or out of date.
+
+The rolling pattern which had so long represented only the "wave," was
+given to the really straight stem of the lotus, and its blossom,
+substituted for the wave's crest, now filled many a frieze in Indian
+temple architecture; whereas the lotus stems in Egypt were still bound
+in sheaves to form columns, and the flowers, buds, and leaves spread
+and blossomed into capitals. Here we have symbolism and
+conventionalized naturalism, all combined, showing how their
+principles, though quite distinct, can mix and unite. The conventional
+form often superseded and effaced the naturalistic, and became the
+sign of an idea, or the hieroglyphic picture of a thing; immovable and
+unalterable in Egypt, where every effort was made to secure eternity
+on earth, but continually returning to naturalism in India, where the
+Aryan tendency, with the assistance of the "Code of Manu," always
+recurred to the restoration of the ancient naturalistic motive.
+
+In the India Museum we may see the "wave" motive converted into a
+lotus pattern by rolling the long stems, and filling up the spaces
+between with the full-faced blossom. Sometimes the pattern is started
+by the figure of an elephant, from whose mouth the stem of the flower
+of the sun proceeds. This occurs so often that it must originally
+have had a meaning. Sometimes the sacred convolvulus takes the place
+of the lotus. (Plate 12.)
+
+On an Egyptian mural painting are seen parties of men snaring ducks
+among papyrus and lotus plants. These are entirely conventional, and
+are, in fact, a sort of recognized hieroglyphic representing the idea
+of a lotus.[99]
+
+The lotus was the accepted emblem of the sun, and reduced to a
+many-leaved radiating pattern may be found as an architectural
+ornament on the outside of the Buddhist "topes," of which the models
+are on the staircase of the British Museum.[100] (Plate 13.)
+
+We have Sir G. Birdwood's authority for believing that, though the
+actual lotus was a native of India, and carried thence to Egypt, its
+decorative use as a pattern was Egyptian, and so returned to India.
+Both accepted it as their "sunflower."[101]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 12.
+    1. Indian Rolling Lotus Pattern.
+    2, 3. Indian Lotus Patterns.
+    4, 5. Egyptian Lotus Patterns.
+    6. Sacred Convolvulus. Indian (seventeenth century).]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 13.
+    1, 2. Indian Designs of Assyrian Daisy and Egyptian Lotus.
+    3. Vitruvian Scroll. Vignola. Architecture.]
+
+Can it be our Aryan descent which induces in us the earnest adoration,
+in our art of to-day, of our northern prototype of the sun's emblem? I
+fear that we must acknowledge that our æsthetic worship of our
+sunflowers is somewhat false and affected. Æstheticism is not art.
+Sunflowers, painted or embroidered as decoration, do not "take" if
+they are ordered and ranged, and reduced to a pattern like those of
+Egypt. They must be naturalistic, and, if possible, remind us of a
+disorderly cottage garden; whereas in India they were adapted
+from nature on fixed principles, which immediately reduced them to
+the conventional.
+
+  [Illustration: Sunflower pattern, R. S. A. N.
+    XIX. Century]
+
+I give an illustration of a Gothic sunflower resembling a transfigured
+rose; and another of an ordered naturalistic sunflower pattern, from a
+design of the Royal School of Art Needlework. (Plate 14.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 9.
+    Gothic Sunflower. From Christ's College Chapel, Cambridge.]
+
+I have given this account of the patterns founded on the lotus, as we
+can almost from this distance of time take a bird's-eye view of its
+rise in naturalism, its spread, dispersion, and its crystallization
+into conventional forms; also we can trace how the lotus patterns of
+Indian art have resulted, when accepted in Europe, in nothing but the
+rolling wave, carrying flower forms which no longer represent a lotus;
+and how the lotus bud and flower pattern has become in time the
+classical "egg and tongue;" which, however, may have resulted also
+from a combination of other motives.
+
+Representations of animal forms are sometimes very remarkable in
+phases of naturalism. The few remains of Celtic art that have survived
+are entirely animal, or very nearly so. In their stone, gold, silver,
+and bronze work, and in illuminated MSS., we meet with only animal
+forms; never a flower or a leaf.
+
+Besides the Indo-Chinese patterns in Celtic art, which suggest the
+Chinese lattice-work (so strongly insisted on by Semper as a constant
+motive), we also find in all their decorations compartments containing
+involved patterns of cords or strings knitted or plaited, suggesting
+the entrails of animals, which by these hunting people were consulted
+as being mysteriously prophetic of approaching events, especially
+success or failure in the chase, and impending warlike raids.[102]
+There is no other way of accounting for these designs, which are
+peculiar to the race, unless we believe they always represent snakes.
+(Pl. 15.)
+
+In England much that was characteristic of the style was lost as soon
+as the Saxons drove out the Celts, who carried it to Ireland, as may
+be seen in the Book of Kells, and the carving of the Harp of Tara, and
+the Celtic jewels in the Irish museums; but the interlacing patterns
+survived throughout Anglo-Saxon art, and were marvellously ingenious
+and beautiful; witness the Durham Book of St. Cuthbert.
+
+We have no Celtic textiles remaining to us, unless some embroidery in
+the Marien-Kirche collection at Dantzic may be of that style and time.
+This is suggested by its altogether Indo-Chinese and very barbarous
+character;[103] and one of the coronation mantles in Bock's
+"Kleinodien" is Runic in its peculiar serpent design.
+
+  [Illustration: Illumination from the Lindisfarne Gospels, about A.D.
+      700]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 16.
+    Demeter. From a Greek Vase in the British Museum.]
+
+"Judging from their illuminated MSS.," it is said, "the elements
+borrowed from textile art by the Celts are plaits, bows, zigzags,
+knots, geometrical figures in various symmetrically developed
+combinations, crosses, whorls, and lattice-work; next, those taken from
+metal work, such as spirals and nail-heads let into borders; thirdly,
+simple or composite zoomorphic forms, such as bodies of snakes, birds'
+heads on long necks, lizards, dogs, dragons, and the like."[104] They
+well understood how to make a pattern by the repetition of objects of
+any class.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 17.
+    1. Embroidery on a Greek Mantle, third century B.C., from the Tomb
+        of the Seven Brothers, Crimea.
+    2. Egyptian Painted and Embroidered Linen. The cone, the bead, the
+        daisy, the wave, the lotus under water, are all shown on this
+        fragment.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 18.
+    EGYPTIAN TAPESTRY.
+    1. Woven and embroidered on a Sleeve. 2. Woven and embroidered. 3.
+        Painted and embroidered.]
+
+Representations of human figures in embroideries probably originated
+in hangings for the wall; but have been treated as decorative forms,
+both by the Indians and the Greeks, for wearing apparel. The peplos of
+Minerva was bordered with fighting gods and giants, and the Empress
+Theodora's dress in the Ravenna mosaic repeats exactly the same
+motive. (See Fig. 4, and Pl. 6.)
+
+There are two other examples of such Greek patterns. The mantle of
+Demeter on a Greek vase in the British Museum, of the best period (Pl.
+16), is embroidered with flying genii and victorious chariots; and the
+embroidered mantle lately found in a Crimean tomb, is of precisely the
+same style of design, and the one illustrates the other. These
+instances are so exceptional, that it is curious that here, as in the
+case of the peplos, in each case there should happen to be a
+duplicate. (Plates 16 and 17, No. 1.)
+
+In Babylonian, Assyrian, and Chaldean art we constantly find animal
+forms in patterns. The lion and the hare, birds and insects, are the
+commonest; and there are some instances of human figures reduced to a
+pattern in these sculptured representations of textiles. (Plate 2.)
+
+There are curiously woven little human figures finished with the
+needle on the sleeve of an Egyptian dress in the British Museum, from
+Saccarah (Pl. 18), and, of course, when such a design is small, it
+ceases to be very objectionable. On the whole, however, naturalistic
+designs for embroideries are more safely confined to floral
+decorations, excepting always flat tapestries for walls, which,
+representing pictures, may be as naturalistic as their purpose and
+style will admit.
+
+Animal forms are often reduced to patterns by repetition in Indian
+and Persian embroidery.[105] The drawing is naturalistic, but the
+colouring is fanciful. We may see any day, on Persian rugs, scarlet
+lions pursuing and capturing blue or yellow hares. The flatness and
+want of all shadows tends to the conventional. Lions, bulls, cats,
+beetles, and serpents abound especially in Egyptian design; insects,
+reptiles, and fish in Asiatic patterns, where animals are sometimes
+made to walk in pairs, with their heads and tails twisted into a
+pattern.
+
+Though landscapes are so rarely worked that the subject is, perhaps,
+hardly worthy of notice, yet such mistaken specimens of ingenuity have
+occurred. An altar frontal was exhibited at Zurich, in 1883,
+containing some really exquisitely worked landscapes, which were quite
+out of place, both as art and as decoration, for an ecclesiastical
+purpose. This was of the beginning of the last century.[106]
+
+While we appreciate and should take advantage of our national tendency
+to naturalistic design, we must beware of looking on fixed rules as
+bonds which cramp our liberty, and of thinking that nature should be
+our only guide to an otherwise unassisted and unfettered inspiration.
+Without the wholesome checks of experience and educated taste, and the
+knowledge which teaches us what to avoid, as well as what to imitate,
+founded on the successes and failures of others, we fall into weak
+imitations of natural objects.
+
+Mr. Redgrave points out how unpleasant and jarring to our sense of
+what is appropriate, and therefore how offensive to good taste and
+common sense, it is to tread on a carpet of water-lilies swimming in
+blue pools, or on fruits and flowers heaped up and casting shadows
+probably towards the light.[107] Woollen lions and tigers, as large as
+life, basking before the fire in a wreath of roses, are alarming
+rather than agreeable, and are of the nature of a practical joke in
+art. It is the search for novelty in naturalism that leads to such
+astonishing compositions; and these, being successively rejected in
+the heart of our civilization and culture, are drifted away to
+vulgarize our colonies, or to be sold cheap to furnish Continental
+hotels, and make the English traveller blush for his home
+manufactures.
+
+
+SYMBOLICAL AND CONVENTIONAL.
+
+Though it is true that the highest art, pictorial and sculptural, is
+always struggling towards naturalism, the art of decoration is, by its
+nature, constantly tending to conventionalism. Patterns, if not
+absolutely geometrical or naturalistic, must be classed under this
+principle. Let us examine what is meant by a conventional pattern.
+
+It may be said that the conventional includes every form--the
+symbolic, the naturalistic, or even the hieroglyphic--that is selected
+and consecrated to convey a certain idea. The lily of Florence, which
+is something between a lily and an iris, but unlike either, is a
+conventional form; likewise the lily of France, which it is said was
+once a conventional frog. The rose of England, the shamrock, and the
+thistle have always been more naturalistic than is usual in such
+heraldic designs; but the parti-coloured rose of York and Lancaster
+was decidedly conventional, and heraldic.
+
+Conventional patterns now are those which, having been originally
+naturalistic in style, but perhaps emblematic as to their motive, have
+been repeated till the meaning and form have been lost; or else, as in
+the case of the lotus, the emblem is forgotten, and nothing remains
+but the recognized conventional form.
+
+One conventional pattern which, having commenced by being a symbol,
+has been repeated and varied till it has allowed the original
+essential meaning to escape, is the "palm-leaf" or "cone" pattern on
+French or Paisley shawls, which, having been a sacred emblem--the tree
+of life--in Persia, became in Europe, when the religious myth was
+lost, only a shawl pattern--merely a leaf, with plant painted within
+its outlines. (Plate 23, Nos. 10, 11.)
+
+Decorative designs become conventional in spite of the intention of
+the designer. He is overruled by the spaces to be covered and the
+materials to be employed. His design must produce a flat pattern; he
+must repeat it again and again; he must give it a strong outline; he
+must distribute it regularly at certain intervals. Repetition at once
+conventionalizes the most naturalistic drawing, and the most sacred
+and mysterious emblem. Alternation is equally a source of
+conventionalism. There is no motive that cannot be conventionalized
+into a pattern by repetition. A Gothic crown and a true lily,
+repeated, will make an ecclesiastical conventional pattern. Then come
+all the Arabian and Moresque forms (which are mostly geometric), and
+also the Gothic (which are partly geometric and partly naturalistic,
+especially those in German and debased Spanish and Portuguese Gothic
+design).
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 19.
+    1. Key Pattern.
+    2. Broken-up Key.
+    3. Beads.
+    4. Key and sign of Land.
+    5. Wave and Babylonian Daisy.
+    6. Key and Fundata.
+    7. Wave and Bead.
+    8. Wave and Daisy.
+    9. Key and Sun Cross.
+    These Key Patterns from Ceiling of a Tomb at Saccarah, in Egypt.
+        (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians.")]
+
+Then we must accept as conventional all those which may be called
+kaleidoscope patterns, which are broken fragments of old motives,
+repeated or "radiated" so as to become partly geometrical, wholly
+conventional. (See Pl. 17, No. 2.)
+
+Conventional patterns may be reduced into three kinds.
+
+First, the naturalistic, which have by repetition been adapted for
+decorative art.
+
+Secondly, the symbolical--Pagan or Christian, religious or historical,
+including the Heraldic.
+
+Thirdly, those conventional forms which may never have had any inner
+meaning, or else, having originally had one, have lost it.
+
+All these exist, sometimes apart and sometimes mingled; so that some
+thought must be expended in seeking the motive which has brought them
+together, and finding in each the internal evidence of its descent.
+
+It is evident that patterns, conventionalized and brought from distant
+sources, sometimes meet and amalgamate. When the origin of a
+conventional pattern is disputed, it is worth while to examine if it
+has a double parentage. Let me give, as an instance, the key pattern.
+It may have been, as Semper believes, originally Chinese, and derived
+from wicker-work design. It represents also the broken or dislocated
+"wave," the symbol of the River Mæander,[108] and for water generally.
+We find it everywhere in company with the wave, which never could have
+had any connection with wicker-work, not only in China, but in Persia,
+India, Egypt, Arabia, Greece, Rome, and Central America. (Pl. 19.)
+
+Can any invention of man show a more symbolical intention than the
+wave pattern? The airy leap drawn downwards by the force of
+gravitation; controlled, and again made to return, but strong to
+insist on its own curve of predilection, rushing back under the same
+circle; strengthened by the downward movement to spring again from its
+original plane; beginning afresh its Sisyphus labour, and facing the
+next effort with the same grace and agility. Undying force, and
+eternal flowing unrest--these are the evident intention and symbol of
+the wave pattern. Though I believe the key pattern to be a
+modification of the wave form, yet the locking and unlocking movement
+suggests a repetition of the Tau, or key of life.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+When we admire the friezes of garlands hung between the skulls of oxen
+and goats, we cannot for a moment doubt the sacrificial idea on which
+the design was founded. When the wreaths are carried by dancing
+children, we recognize the impersonation of the rejoicing of the dædal
+earth.
+
+The Greeks, however strongly they exerted themselves to throw off the
+shackles of conventionality in sculpture, painting, and architecture,
+yet yielded to the traditional force of the symbolical pattern, and
+accepted most of the Oriental forms, merely remodelling them for their
+own use, and adding to their significance what their culture required;
+at the same time giving infinite variety, as their perfect taste
+dictated.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 20.
+    TREES OF LIFE.
+    1, 2, 3, 5. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian Silk. (Birdwood's "Indian Arts,"
+        pp. 331, 335, 336, 337.)]
+
+Aristophanes, in "The Frogs," laughs at the Persian carpet
+patterns--their unnatural birds and beasts and flowers--whilst he
+claims for his own frogs, that they at least have the merit of being
+natural.[109] This little touch of art throws a gleam of inner
+light on the struggle towards originality and truth which
+characterized the Greek principles of beauty and fitness in literature
+and art, in direct contrast to that which was always turning back to
+those fossil forms which were only respectable on account of their age
+and their mystery, but of which the tradition and intention were
+already lost.
+
+Roman patterns were merely Greek adaptations with an Etruscan flavour,
+which was a survival of the earliest Italian art. Perhaps the
+indigenous element had been already modified by Phoenician
+influence.
+
+In taking stock of Oriental symbolical patterns, we find that one of
+those of the widest ancestry and longest continuity is the "Sacred
+Hom."[110] (Pl. 20-24.) This is to be found in Babylonian,
+Persian,[111] Indian, Greek, and Roman art; and consequently it
+prevails in all European decoration (except the Gothic), where it was
+reduced to unrecognizable forms.
+
+Sir George Birdwood says the Hom or Homa was the Sanskrit Soma, used
+as an intoxicating drink by the early Brahmins, and was extracted from
+the plant of that name, an almost leafless succulent Asclepiad. It
+appears to have changed its conventional form as other plants by
+fermentation came to the front, containing what appeared to be the
+"spirit of life"--the _aqua vitæ_.
+
+The palm, with its wonderful fruit, which is convertible into
+intoxicating drinks, and afterwards the vine itself, were each of them
+moulded into analogous conventional fruit forms, which keep as much as
+possible within the limits of the original cone shape. (Pl. 21.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 21.
+    1. Tree of Life and Lions. Gate of Mycenæ. 2. Persian or Sicilian
+        Silk. Tree of Life and Leopards.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 22.
+    1. Split Lotus Fruit on Chinese Bowl. 2. Split Lotus resembling
+        Tree of Life. Frieze by Benozzo Gozzoli, Ricardi Palace,
+        Florence. 3. Petal of Flower on Glass Bowl from Southern
+        Italy. British Museum.]
+
+There is a palm-tree which absolutely carries a cone in the heart of
+its crown of fronds.[112] This may have helped to preserve the
+original motive of the sacred tree of life. The cone form in classical
+art was drawn from the pine cone and the artichoke; and in mediæval
+art these were sometimes replaced by the pomegranate, and in the late
+Renaissance by the pine-apple, newly arrived from the West
+Indies.[113] It is a good example of the blending of one vegetable
+form into another, making the sequence, of which each phase in the
+East had an historical cause or a symbolical meaning,[114] but which
+in Europe had gradually lost all motive, and was simply an
+acknowledged decorative form.[115] In architectural ornament it is
+called the honeysuckle,[116] which it had grown to resemble in the
+days of Greece.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 23.
+    Different forms of Tree of Life, from Sicilian Silks.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 24.
+    Modern Embroidery from the Principalities, in which the cone-shaped
+        tree grows into a vine, and the two animals at the foot have
+        lost their shape and intention.]
+
+This sacred tree, the Homa of Zoroaster and of the later Persians, has
+so early a beginning that we find it on Assyrian monuments.[117] Rock
+says "that, perhaps, it stood for the tree of life, which grew in
+Paradise." It is represented as a subject of homage to men and
+animals, and it invariably stands between priests and kings, or beasts
+kneeling to it. It is figured on the small bucket for religious rites,
+carried in the hands, or embroidered in the upper sleeve of the
+monarch's tunic. It always represents a shrub, sometimes bearing a
+series of umbels of seven flowers each. (Pl. 2, 20.)
+
+Sometimes the expression of the symbol is reduced to the cone-fruit of
+the homa alone; or even to a blossom, as in the two glass bowls in the
+Slade collection in the British Museum, from a tomb at Chiusi, in
+Etruria. Here the design is a flower, of which each petal contains the
+essential emblem--a plant within a plant. These bowls, pronounced to
+be Greek of the fourth century B.C., have yet to me a strong Oriental
+character. (Pl. 22, No. 3.)
+
+I have spoken of the lotus as a naturalistic pattern. One mode of
+drawing and embroidering its flower in India, is to cut it in two;
+half the blossom is then carefully and almost botanically copied, thus
+conveying the inner meaning of the sacred flower. (Pl. 22, No. 3.)
+
+Another conventional pattern, common to all times of art and all
+nations, is that called in architecture the "egg and tongue" pattern.
+(Pl. 13.) This, as I have already said, is supposed to be derived
+directly from the lotus. The Egyptians formed it from the bud and
+blossom; and the pattern is found in India, Greece, and Rome, changing
+continually and yet retaining its identity. Vitruvius claimed to have
+given it the last touch and finish, so that in Italy it was called the
+Vitruvian scroll; and it is common to all decoration, even in
+textiles, though it is hardly suited for weaving or embroidery. This
+is one of the earliest patterns which, having ceased long ago to be a
+religious emblem or sign, still survives by its decorative fitness,
+and perpetuates the echoes of its origin.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 25.
+    TYPICAL CROSSES.
+    1. Swastika. 2. From a Greek Vase, 765 B.C. 3. Indian Sectarial
+        Mark of Sakti race. 4. Buddhist and Jainis mark. 5. Early
+        Rhodian Pottery. 6. Egyptian prehistoric Cross. 7. Tau Cross.
+        8. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite. 9. Ditto. 10. Clavus.
+        11, 12, 13. Scandinavian Sun and Moon Crosses. 14, 15, 16.
+        Celtic. 17. Chrysoclavus. 18, 19. Stauracin patterns. 20.
+        Scandinavian, from Norway. 21. Runic Cross. 22. Cross at
+        Palenque, in Temple of the Sun. 23. Scotch Celtic Cross. 24.
+        Cross from Iona. 25, 26. Runic Crosses. 27. Cross on the
+        Dalmatic of Charlemagne. 28. From the Mantle of Henry II.,
+        Emperor of Germany.]
+
+Of the conventional symbolical forms of the early Christian Church I
+shall speak more fully in the chapter on ecclesiastical art, and
+therefore would only point out here, while touching on symbolical
+decoration, how that phase of Christian art is a great historical
+instance of the deep ancient meanings it illustrates; showing the
+motive to be often in accordance with the inherited pagan symbol, and
+yet differing from it. Pre-eminent among these is the emblem of the
+Cross, so early and universally used, full of mysterious secret
+allusions to the groping faiths of idolatrous nations, before the
+great fundamental idea of the "Word" was attached to it. This was one
+of the old signs used as a pattern, and transfigured into a fresh
+type, of which the radiance reflected back light upon all that
+preceded it, even as Chinese ancestors are ennobled by the deeds
+of their descendants.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 26.
+    1. Pallas Athene, from a vase in Lord Northampton's Collection.
+        2. Ajax in a cloak embroidered with swastika, sun cross, and
+        prehistoric water patterns. Etruscan Museum. Vatican.]
+
+The cross (Pl. 25), was a sign and a pattern in prehistoric art. It
+was the double of the Tau, the Egyptian emblem of life; and while the
+Jews reject the Christian cross, they still claim to have warned off
+the destroying angel by this sign in blood over the lintels of their
+doors in the first Passover.
+
+But the most ancient and universal form of the cross is that of the
+Swastika, or Fylfote. This "prehistoric cross" is said to be formed of
+two fire-sticks, belonging to the ancient worship of the sun, laid
+across each other ready for friction; but losing that meaning, from an
+emblem they fell into a pattern, and this you will still find, utterly
+meaningless, on Persian carpets of to-day.
+
+Sir G. Birdwood gives the Swastika as the sectarial mark of the Sakti
+sects in India. Fergusson names it with the mound buildings, as
+belonging to all Buddhist art; and examples of the Swastika are to be
+found on Rhodian pottery from the Necropolis of Kamiros, where we find
+also the key pattern.
+
+In early Greek art the Swastika and Gammadion are everywhere,
+especially as embroidery on dress. Minerva's petticoats are sometimes
+worked all over with the latter. On an early Greek vase in the Museo
+Gregoriano, are painted Ajax and Achilles playing at dice; and the
+mantle of Ajax is squared into an embroidered pattern that alternately
+represents a sun or star and a Gammadion (Pl. 26, No. 2). But it is
+unnecessary to multiply classical examples, which are endless.
+
+The Christian Cross was often formed by converting the Tau into the
+Gamma, the sacred letter of the Greeks. It is said to have been the
+emblem of the corner-stone, and as a pattern, was called, down to the
+thirteenth century, the "Gammadion;" and though it had lost its
+original motive, it continued to preserve the idea of a secret and
+mystical meaning.
+
+The Gammadion, as well as the Swastika, enters largely into the
+illuminations of the Celtic Book of Kells and those of the Lindisfarne
+MSS.; also it is to be found on the Celtic shields in the British
+Museum, together with the Swastika. Both appear in the Persian carpets
+of to-day, and as patterns were, in ecclesiastical decoration,
+employed down to the fifteenth century, both for European and British
+textiles. The Swastika, as well as the wave pattern, is of mysterious
+and universal antiquity, and has certainly traversed four thousand
+years,--how much more we dare not say. It is to be found throughout
+Egyptian and Indian art--never in that of Assyria.
+
+Of the time of Rameses the Second we have two figures in a mural
+painting, an ally and an enemy, a guest and a prisoner, both clothed
+in embroidered garments, _parsemés_ with the prehistoric cross.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 11.
+    Egyptian Enemy and Ally.]
+
+In the chapter on ecclesiastical art I shall again refer to this
+immemorial symbolical and conventional pattern. I much regret that, in
+the absence of a translation, I am prevented from availing myself of
+the accumulated learning on the subject of "The Prehistoric Cross," by
+Baron Ernest de Bunsen.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 27.
+    Imitation of a Carpet carved in stone, from Nineveh, showing the
+        Indian Lotus and the Assyrian Daisy. (In the British Museum.)]
+
+There was a pattern called the "crenelated" which apparently was
+derived from the Assyrian battlement, and is found throughout classic
+art, somewhat conventionalized.[118] It is named as an embroidered
+pattern in the inscription recording votive offerings of dresses in
+the temple of Athene at Athens.[119]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 12.
+    Crenelated Pattern.]
+
+We know something of the conventional and symbolical embroideries of
+Nineveh, which are quite unlike those of India, except in the adoption
+of the lotus for decoration.[120] These are best understood by
+illustrations; and, therefore, I give one of the beautiful sculptured
+carpets from Nineveh, in the British Museum (Pl. 27), showing the
+Assyrian use of the lotus and cone, and the embroidered garment of a
+king from one of the sculptures in low relief (Plate 1). These are
+very stately--perfectly conventional and decorative; and we feel that
+they have grown where we find them, and are not borrowed from another
+civilization. What strikes us most, is the constant repetition and the
+little variety of ornament in these patterns. The forms are strongly
+marked--wheels or whorls, or daisies, often repeated. (The daisy
+belongs to Assyria as the lotus to Egypt.) The flowers are simply
+leafless blossoms. Splendid embroideries of sacred emblematical
+designs are, however, occasionally found, such as those from Layard's
+"Monuments" (Plate 2).
+
+Much has been written on the early symbolism of plants and flowers.
+The sun-myths have enlisted all floral legendary lore, and
+conventional ornament was largely drawn from them.
+
+Many symbols are present to us when we name certain plants. The lily
+is the acknowledged sign of purity, the rose of love, the honeysuckle
+of enduring faith, the laurel of poetry, and the palm of victory; the
+oak of strength, the olive of peace. Some plants have accumulated more
+than one meaning. The vine has many attributes. It is an emblem of the
+mysteries of the Christian Church. It symbolizes plenty, joy, the
+family. Ivy means friendship, conviviality, remembrance.
+
+The symbolism of beasts (_bestiaria_),[121] of birds (_volucraria_),
+and of stones (_lapidaria_) filled many volumes in the mediæval ages,
+and are well worthy of the study of the decorative artist. The
+symbolism of animals and birds especially, constantly attracts our
+attention in the Oriental and Sicilian textiles of the early Christian
+times, and to the end of the thirteenth century. Later, in European
+textile decoration, most animals were accepted as emblematic in
+Christian art, beginning with the symbols of the four Evangelists. All
+the virtues and all the vices found their animal emblems
+conventionalized, and were thus woven, embroidered, and painted.[122]
+
+Reptiles and insects are included under the head of "beasts," and
+perhaps fishes also. Each was dowered with a symbolical meaning; and
+thus admitted into art, they were conventionalized by being strongly
+outlined, coloured flat; and by repetition without variation, were
+converted into patterns.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 28.
+    1, 2. Gothic Tiles. 3. Gothic Border of a Dress. 4. Gothic Vine.
+        Westminster Abbey.]
+
+When the use of heraldic illustration was added to the already
+accepted symbolism, animal decoration became very common, and soon
+forgot its symbolical motives, which were succeeded by Renaissance
+fanciful patterns; and then the conventionalized beast and its
+symbolism disappeared from European decoration, except when it was
+a direct copy of an Oriental design.
+
+Certain symbolical forms have, however, survived. The eagle has always
+meant empire, and the double-headed eagle, a double royalty.[123]
+Ezekiel represents Babylon and Egypt, symbolically, as two
+eagles.[124] But here we approach the subject of heraldry, which
+became a science in mediæval days; and every man and woman in any way
+remarkable, every chivalrous action and national event, became a
+subject for textile art, and was woven or worked with the needle on
+banner, hanging, or dress. The altar decorations received a new
+stimulus as historical records, as well as religious symbols, and
+pride and piety were equally enlisted in these gifts to the Church.
+
+Byzantine patterns have a barbaric stamp, and yet have much of the
+grandiose about them; but they are to the last degree conventional. In
+the early mosaics, both in Constantinople and Rome, every face and
+head, every flower and animal, represents a type and not an
+individual.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 13.
+    Gothic Trees, from Bayeux tapestry.]
+
+Gothic foliage patterns, in England and elsewhere, are a struggle
+between the naturalistic and the conventional. The Norman style and
+the Romanesque, which preceded it, and from which it was modified and
+elevated, show their vegetable forms thick-stemmed and few-leaved,
+whereas the Gothic aspired to a developed gracefulness; and the
+Renaissance, which succeeded it, assumed all the freedom of natural
+flowers and plants, floating in the breeze, on their delicate stems.
+(Pl. 28.)
+
+All the Renaissance patterns, which, as their name denotes, were born
+again, like butterflies to frolic for a day of gay enjoyment, are
+purely decorative. Their generally charming, graceful forms group
+together to cover empty spaces with every regard to the rules of
+design and composition, but without any inner meaning. If we take
+these arabesques to pieces, we generally find the parts come from
+various sources; and having served last in pagan Rome for pagan
+purposes, had been slightly refashioned for Christian decorative
+art,[125] before the Byzantine inartistic taste, and barbaric
+splendour of metal-work patterns, had extinguished all the gay fancy
+of the arts of Southern Europe.
+
+The mediæval revival was a return to the light and fantastic, and a
+protest against the solemnity of all Gothic art, which had had its
+great day, had culminated, and died out. The patterns of the
+Renaissance are all guided by the principles of repetition and
+duplication, or that of doubling the pattern, which repeats itself to
+right and left, as if folded down the middle.
+
+The principal lines thus echoed one another; but the artist was
+permitted to vary the conventionalism of the general forms of figures,
+flowers, fruit, or butterflies, so as to balance and yet differ in
+every detail.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 29.
+    CLOUD PATTERNS.
+    1, 2, 3, 7. Japanese.
+    4. Chinese.
+    5, 8, 9. Mediæval.
+    6. Badge of Richard II.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 30.
+    Indo-Chinese Coverlet, supposed to have belonged to Oliver
+        Cromwell. Hatfield House.]
+
+Amongst the conventional patterns which have descended to us, and are
+in general use without any particular symbolical meaning being
+attached to them, we must instance those derived from the Cloud
+pattern. This is to be found in early Chinese and Indian art, but I do
+not recognize it in Egyptian or Greek decoration. It came through
+Byzantium, and took its place amongst early Christian patterns. (Pl.
+29.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 31.
+    THE FUNDATA OR NETTED PATTERN.
+    Portion of a Phoenician Bowl from Cyprus.
+    Egyptian.
+    Egyptian.
+    Egyptian.]
+
+The cloud pattern is also Japanese, and is supposed to have been
+originally derived from Central Asia. It varies in shape, and is found
+as an ornament on the head of the sceptre in the collection at Nara,
+in Japan, which is twelve or thirteen hundred years old. There is an
+example of the cloud pattern in Aelfled's embroidery at Durham; and it
+is often found under the feet of saints in painted glass and
+embroideries before the fourteenth century. A curious Indian example
+exists in a coverlet belonging to the Marquis of Salisbury, said to
+have been the property of Oliver Cromwell, on which the central
+medallion is filled with white horses careering amidst the cloud
+pattern.[126] (Pl. 30.)
+
+The _netted_ pattern called Fundata is extremely ancient. We find it
+in Egyptian mural paintings, as well as in the centre of a
+Phoenician bowl from Cyprus, now in the Louvre. The mediæval Fundata
+was a silk material, covered with what appeared to be a gold network
+covering the stuff. It is supposed to be the same as that worn by
+Constantine,[127] and is named in ecclesiastical inventories as late
+as the fifteenth century. (Pl. 31.)
+
+All the wheel patterns are very ancient, and appear to be simply
+conventional wheels. In France they were called _roés_. There is a
+fine instance of this wheel pattern in Auberville's "Tissus." The
+wheels sometime enclose triumphal cars and other pictorial subjects.
+(Pl. 34.)
+
+The patterns which are apparently composed with the intention of
+avoiding all meaning, are the Moorish. They are neither animal,
+vegetable, nor anything else. They show no motive in their complicated
+domes, their honeycombing, and their ingenious conventional forms; but
+cover equally textile fabrics or stucco ceilings without suggesting
+any idea, religious or symbolical.
+
+All the splendid Italian brocades and velvet damasks were of
+conventional patterns, and like their Arab and Sicilian models, and
+also like their Spanish contemporaries, represented, and sought to
+represent nothing on earth. It was all floreated and meandering
+design; the motive reminding one of the pine-apple and the acanthus,
+or of vine stems meeting or parting, but never anything naturalistic
+for a moment. When animals were introduced it was always as a pattern
+doubled face to face, as if folded down a straight line.
+
+We may say the same of the succeeding Louis Quatorze and the Louis
+Quinze styles, which were of the culminating period of clever and
+fantastic conventional decoration.
+
+Our modern designs have phases of imitation, and the patterns of rich
+brocades which our great-grandmothers wore, came into fashion again
+about the third decade of this century. Now we have been trying to
+find our inspirations further back, and some of our copies of the
+simpler Sicilian patterns, with an occasional pair of birds, or a
+conventional plant, imitating the motive of the tree of life, have
+been very pretty. The only defect is the poverty which results from
+the absence of any active and informing motive. It is, however, easier
+to criticize than to create.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 14.
+    Radiated Pattern.]
+
+I would venture here to find fault with a very common method of
+converting a natural object into a conventional pattern, by radiation.
+Certain modes of repetition are very objectionable. A pattern, for
+instance, repeated four times round a centre, or a natural flower
+repeated exactly, but lying north, south, east, and west, are more or
+less inartistic, we may say vulgar. (Fig. 14.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 15.
+    Radiated Sunflower.]
+
+A natural flower may be conventionalized and radiated by placing it in
+the centre of the composition facing you; and the leaves arranged
+surrounding it, so as to formalize the design, though there is nothing
+really unnatural in the way in which they are made to grow. The
+illustration of a radiated sunflower explains my meaning.
+
+It has been already observed that by repetition almost any object may
+be reduced to a pattern, but taste must be exercised in the selection
+of what is appropriate and beautiful. Radiation is also really a
+useful factor in conventional art, but common sense must guide the
+artist here as well as taste. In radiating the forms of a flower,
+nature gives endless hints of beauty; but a radiating pattern of human
+figures would be ridiculous, and even the branches of a tree cannot be
+so treated.
+
+The awning of the classic hypæthral hall or court was often reproduced
+in Roman arabesques. Sometimes we find it in a classical tomb, painted
+over the ceiling, and recalling its original use. This was revived in
+the Cinque-cento Renaissance; and again in Adams' "Eighteenth Century
+Decorations," it became an accepted pattern, called "the shell,"
+losing its original motive, and descending to fill up the panels of
+tea-caddies and surround keyholes. When thus reduced to the appearance
+of a little ruff, it needs some thought to recognize it, and give it
+credit for its first motive.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+It is amusing to find how a form which it seems impossible to reduce
+to a pattern, will yet fall into one by a judicious arrangement of
+light and shadow, and by repetition. There is a little frieze in one
+of the Indian cases on the staircase in the British Museum, which is
+extremely pretty and effective. It consists of a repetition of little
+balconies with recesses and pillars and figures in pairs. I give it as
+illustrating the way conventional patterns grow. This balcony pattern
+is of the sixth century, A.D.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 17.
+    Indian Balcony Pattern, from steps of tope of Jamal-Zartri,
+        Afghanistan. British Museum.]
+
+The ancient palmated pattern called Chrysoclavus, from the beginning
+of our era to the thirteenth century was partly a nail-headed design,
+and had become a Christian symbol. It was, probably, originally the
+primitive spot pattern; afterwards promoted to being an ornament of
+discs in colour or metal: this was Assyrian, Etruscan, and
+Mycenæan.[128] (Pl. 70.)
+
+Among the conventional patterns which have apparently no hidden
+meaning, but which clearly show their descent, are the Chinese and
+Japanese wicker and lattice-work designs. The beauty of these is
+wonderful.
+
+Semper shows that wicker (including bamboo work) was the foundation of
+all Chinese civilized life, for constructing houses, bridges,
+utensils, and for decoration. He gives this wicker-work origin to the
+universal key pattern, which may, however, have a double source--the
+wave, and the wicker-work.
+
+We find the Key pattern in a tomb at Essiout, in Egypt, painted
+perhaps about 1600 B.C., in company with some other very old
+friends,[129] the Tuscan border, the Egg and Tongue, and the Bead, the
+Daisy, and the Wave. (Pl. 17, No. 2.) We meet it everywhere in ancient
+and modern decoration. There are several forms of it on a large
+terra-cotta vase in the British Museum from Kameiros in Rhodes, and on
+Chinese fictiles and embroideries. It is found also on garments in
+Iceland, whither the Greek patterns must have drifted through Norway,
+and, as they could go no further, there they remained.
+
+I have often spoken of the extraordinary survival of a pattern. This
+is easy to account for when fashion, "the disturber," had not yet
+existed. Then the ancient motive told its own tale, and its great age
+was its claim to perpetual youth; but it is more remarkable where we
+meet with revivals at distant periods, and apparently without any
+connecting link of ancestry or style.
+
+For instance, the women of Genoa wore large cotton veils, printed with
+the Indian conventional tree and beast pattern, down to thirty years
+ago, when the fashion changed, and winter bonnets and summer muslin
+veils displaced the old costume. These patterns are now being printed
+in England on scores of cotton curtains for beds and windows.
+
+
+GEOMETRICAL.
+
+Geometrical patterns may be reduced to a very few primitive elements.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 18.
+    Varied adjustments of Square and Circle.]
+
+1. The Line, including straight and wavy lines.
+
+2. The Angular Forms, including squares, oblongs, cubes, &c.
+
+3. The Triangular, including zigzags, diamonds, &c.
+
+4. The Circular, including all spots, discs, and radiations.
+
+All these can be blended or mixed so as to form endless varieties. For
+instance, the square and the circle can intersect each other in
+different proportions, so as to give an entirely new effect to the
+pattern, each time the balance is altered or the phase of the
+repetition varied. The illustration will explain this. (Fig. 18.)
+
+Right angles may intersect each other so as to produce the whole gamut
+of Chinese lattice-work decoration, and all the Celtic and
+Scandinavian entwined patterns, from which so many of the embroideries
+in the Italian pictures of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are
+probably descended.
+
+The Moorish patterns are geometrical, and are created on the principle
+of avoiding in art the representation of any created thing. They show
+much ingenuity in keeping clear of any possible meaning. Most of these
+conventional patterns are founded on the ogee-arch and a kind of
+honeycomb pattern, involved and inverted. Their tiles, which nearest
+approach textile design, have, indeed, certain vegetable forms added
+to the others, but always geometrically arranged as no vegetables ever
+grew.
+
+Geometrical patterns begin with primitive forms, and come down to the
+floor-cloth designs of to-day. They can be extracted in endless
+variety from the combinations of the kaleidoscope. This style is well
+suited for pavements in mosaic--either secular or ecclesiastical.
+
+The Opus Alexandrinum furnishes us with most beautiful examples and
+adaptations for large or small spaces, so as to form the richest or
+the simplest floor decorations. How worthily a church may be thus
+adorned may be seen on the vast area of the floor of Santa Maria
+Maggiore in Rome, or that of the Church of St. Mark in Venice.
+
+The nearest approach to the Opus Alexandrinum in textiles has been in
+Patchwork, of which a more artistic use may yet be made. We might
+exercise ingenuity in this direction, giving really fine and effective
+designs to our workers in patches, whose productions are, in general,
+simply alarming.
+
+The fine quilting patterns of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
+are almost always geometrical, and make the best background to more
+resplendent embroideries overlying them, which is partly owing to
+their being only forms, and conveying no idea or inherited meaning.
+These expressionless designs are well fitted for spaces and borders in
+which the centres are elaborated, and require enclosing or framing;
+likewise, they are suited for large areas, which must not be perfectly
+plain, and yet not too disturbing to the eye, so as to distract it
+from the more important ornaments on the wall or ceiling. They suit
+carpets in passages or on staircases much better than any other kind
+of design, and form the best figured backgrounds for pictures. Both
+eye and mind often need repose, and therefore the simpler the
+geometrical pattern is, the better. Complicated and too ingenious
+combinations are painfully fatiguing. Simplicity and flatness are the
+greatest merits in such forms, as in shadowless patterns for textiles,
+and especially for embroideries.
+
+If we turn to nature to assist us with new geometrical patterns, we
+shall find the most exquisite forms in the crystals of every
+newly-fallen snowflake, and in the nodal-points on a plate of metal or
+glass, covered with sand, and struck by sound. We shall hardly ever
+find in these a repetition of exactly the same combination, and their
+variety is only equalled by their beauty.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [96] Sir G. Birdwood tells us of patterns of an Indian
+    brocade called "Chundtara" (moon and stars), figured all
+    over with representations of heavenly bodies.
+
+    [97] Pliny, "Natural History," lib. xxx. c. 8, § 34.
+
+    [98] There is a shell pattern in gold on a twelfth
+    century fragment of a Bishop's garment at Worcester.
+
+    [99] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," vol. iii. pp.
+    132, 133, 350, 553.
+
+    [100] Bötticher, in his "Tektonik," will allow of but
+    one origin for the "egg and tongue" pattern. I cannot
+    give up the evident descent from the lotus flower and
+    bud; but I have said before that a pattern has sometimes
+    a double parentage, and it may be so in this case.
+
+    [101] The lotus is almost entirely lost as a native
+    growth in India, and is fast disappearing in Egypt. The
+    lotus blossom in Egypt was not only a sacred emblem, but
+    also an _objet de luxe_. At their feasts, the honoured
+    guests were presented with the flowers, and as they
+    faded, slaves carried round baskets of fresh blossoms.
+    See Wilkinson's "Manners and Customs of the Ancient
+    Egyptians."
+
+    [102] See the Book of Lindisfarne, and the two Celtic
+    bronze shields in the British Museum. These last are
+    very curious. The long involved lines show their origin,
+    and the shields are enriched with enamel and corals, in
+    repetitions of the prehistoric cross.
+
+    [103] See "Album of Photographs of the Marien-Kirche,
+    Dantzic," Taf. 31.
+
+    [104] Woltmann and Woermann, Eng. Trans., p. 202.
+
+    [105] Charlemagne's dress, in his tomb, was covered with
+    golden elephants. This must have been Indian. His mantle
+    was "_parsemé_" with golden bees.
+
+    [106] Elsewhere there is a notice of Miss Morritt's
+    really beautifully embroidered landscapes at Rokeby; and
+    all who saw them will remember the extremely clever and
+    effective pictures in crewels by an accomplished
+    American lady, Mrs. Oliver Wendell Holmes, exhibited in
+    London a few years ago. These exceptional cases do not,
+    however, disprove the objections against employing the
+    most unfit and unmanageable materials for producing
+    subjects alien to the art of embroidery.
+
+    [107] See Redgrave's "Manual of Design," pp. 50-61.
+
+    [108] See Appendix 21, by Ch. T. Newton, to the first
+    edition of Ruskin's "Stones of Venice." He gives, as
+    instances of this pattern, certain coins from Prienè,
+    where the River Mæander is symbolized by the angular key
+    pattern. Appendix, No. 1.
+
+    [109] "(Euripides _loquitur_) Not horse-cocks, nor yet
+    goat-stags, such as they depict on Persian carpets"
+    (Aristophanes, "The Frogs," v. 939-944). The Persian
+    carpets, which are the legitimate descendants of
+    Babylonian art, are curiously fragmentary. In a modern
+    design are to be seen birds, indicated by a head, bill,
+    and eyes; little coffee-pots, and flowers broken off at
+    the stalks, and small quadrupeds without any particular
+    form; also the prehistoric cross, the Tau, and bits of
+    broken-up wave and key patterns. All these, repeated
+    into a pattern, remind us of scraps in a kaleidoscope,
+    thrown together accidentally, or else taken up by chance
+    where history and art have dropped them.
+
+    [110] "Soma" or "Homa" ("Sarcostemma Viminale vel
+    Brevistigma"), from Cashmere and the Hindu Cush, still
+    used by the Brahmins, and the juice of which was the
+    first intoxicant of the human race. See Birdwood's
+    "Indian Art," vol. ii. pp. 336, 337.
+
+    [111] "The Hom, the sacred Persian tree, is constantly
+    placed between two animals, chained to it." See Pl. 23,
+    Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
+
+    [112] The Hom or Homa, the sacred tree of Assyrian and
+    Persian sculpture and textiles, is accounted for as a
+    pattern by Dr. Rock, who says: "From the earliest
+    antiquity a tradition came down through middle Asia, of
+    some holy tree, perhaps the tree of life spoken of as
+    growing in Paradise." It is always represented as
+    something like a shrub, and is a conventional portrait
+    of a palm; but Rock says it has every look of having
+    belonged to the family of the Asclepiadeæ. For its last
+    transformation into a vine, see Pl. 24.
+
+    [113] Rock's "Introduction," p. cxxxi.
+
+    [114] Sir George Birdwood says: "The intimate absorption
+    of Hindu life in the unseen realities of man's spiritual
+    consciousness is seldom sufficiently acknowledged by
+    Europeans, and, indeed, cannot be fully comprehended by
+    men whose belief in the supernatural has been destroyed
+    by the prevailing material ideas of modern society.
+    Every thought, wish, and deed of the Hindu belongs to
+    the world of the unseen as well as the seen; and nothing
+    shows this more strikingly than the traditionary works
+    of India. Everything that is made has a direct religious
+    use, or some religious symbolism. The materials of which
+    different articles are fashioned, their weight, and the
+    colours with which they are painted, are fixed by
+    religious rule. An obscured symbolism of material and
+    colour is to be traced also in the forms of things, even
+    for the most domestic uses. Every detail of Indian
+    decoration, Aryan or Turanian, has a religious meaning,
+    and the arts of India will never be rightly understood
+    until there are brought to their study, a familiar
+    acquaintance with the character and subjects of the
+    religious poetry, national legends, and mythological
+    scriptures that have always been their inspiration, and
+    of which they are the perfected imagery." See Sir George
+    Birdwood's "Indian Arts," part i. p. 2.
+
+    [115] The Persian tree of life was not alien to the
+    worship of the Zoroastrian religion of the Sassanides,
+    and is said to have been the origin of the worship of
+    Bacchus. It was introduced by Oriental weavers into
+    Sicilian and Spanish stuffs.
+
+    [116] Sir G. Birdwood suggests that the honeysuckle
+    pattern is derived from the Tree of Life, cone, and
+    palm, refashioned and combined with the graceful
+    ingenuity of Greek art, and covering a mixture of sacred
+    traditional emblems.
+
+    [117] Haug, in his "Essays on the Sacred Writings of the
+    Parsees" (pp. 132, 239), tells us that these people
+    still hold the homa to be sacred, and from it squeeze a
+    juice used by them in their religious ceremonies.
+
+    [118] See Perrot et Chipiez, "Histoire de l'Art," vol.
+    ii. pp. 260, 267, Pl. xiv.
+
+    [119] See Appendix, No. 1.
+
+    [120] India, in return, afterwards influenced Persia,
+    the successor of Babylon.
+
+    [121] In India, the elephant is a very common element in
+    a pattern; in Egypt, the serpent; in Persia, the lion.
+    In animal patterns, certain emblems were grouped
+    together. The lion and the goose represent strength and
+    prudence; the lion and eagle, strength and dominion; the
+    lion and dove, strength and gentleness. We may see these
+    double emblems on Sicilian textiles.
+
+    [122] Chinese art is crowded with symbolisms.
+
+    [123] The double-headed eagle was the badge of Saladin,
+    as well as that of the Holy Roman Empire.
+
+    [124] Ezekiel xvii.
+
+    [125] In the earliest days of Christianity.
+
+    [126] "A cloud pattern from which issue two clasped
+    hands is the device of Guizot Marchand or Guido
+    Mercator, printer, in 1498. He lived at the College of
+    Navarre."--Dibdin's "Decameron," ii. pp. 33-36.
+
+    [127] See Gori (tom. iii. pp. 20, 84), as cited by Rock,
+    Introduction, p. liii. The same netted pattern was found
+    in the grave of an Archbishop of York of about the end
+    of the thirteenth century. Its name, _fundata_, is
+    derived from _funda_, the fisherman's net; also, in
+    later times, it was called _laqueata_. See Rock's
+    Introduction (p. liv.). See also M. Ch. Clermont
+    Ganneau's "L'Imagerie Phénicienne," Coupe de Palestrina;
+    and Chaldée et Assyrie, in Perrot and Chipiez, ii. p.
+    736. Another instance is shown here of the fundata
+    occurring in the bronze flat bowl copied from Layard's
+    "Monuments," 2nd series, plate 62. The whole design of
+    the bowl is Babylonian, consisting of a rich border of
+    repetitions of the tree of life; each has the peculiar
+    ornament of little knobs often seen on their
+    head-dresses.
+
+    [128] See Bock's "L. Gewänder," p. 129; Gori, "Thes.
+    Dipt." ii. pp. 20, 275; Marquardt, "Handbuch Röm. Alt."
+    vii. pp. 527-31 (Eng. Trans.). Authorities differ in
+    describing the Chrysoclavus. Sir G. Birdwood calls it a
+    button pattern ("Indian Arts," vol. ii. p. 241). The
+    "Chrysoclavus" was the name given to the palmated or
+    triumphal pattern with which the consular robes are
+    invariably embroidered in the Roman Consular ivories at
+    Zurich, Halberstadt, and in the South Kensington Museum.
+    The tenacious life of this pattern is curiously shown in
+    the way it appears in the fifteenth century on Italian
+    playing-cards. (See "Cartes à Jouer," an anonymous
+    French book in the print-room of the British Museum.)
+    The kings and knaves wear the Byzantine humeral, and the
+    Chrysoclavus pattern is carved on their chairs. Till
+    lately English playing-cards showed the same
+    dress-pattern. I shall discuss the Latin Clavus and the
+    Chrysoclavus amongst ecclesiastical embroideries, pp.
+    308, 336 (_post_).
+
+    [129] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," i. p. 125.
+    The date of these mural paintings may, however, be even
+    as late as the time of Alexander the Great.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+MATERIALS.
+
+
+1. RAW MATERIALS.
+
+The history of an art must, more or less, include that of its raw
+material.
+
+This is too true to be disputed, but in the art of embroidery it opens
+out such endless avenues, through such vast regions of technical
+study, that we must acknowledge the difficulty, or rather the
+impossibility, of including in one volume even a tithe of the
+information already collected.
+
+I shall, therefore, only dedicate a few pages to the history of those
+fibres which have always been most important in the different phases
+of our civilization.
+
+Among books on textile materials, I must again name the "Textrinum
+Antiquorum," by Yates. His premature death, and the loss that the
+world of art and manufacture has sustained by the chain of his
+invaluable researches being broken, cannot be appreciated but through
+the study of the first and only volume of this already rare book, from
+which I venture to quote largely.
+
+Semper's "Der Stil" is a work of reference on this subject, so
+valuable that it should, by a good translation, be placed within the
+reach of non-German scholars.
+
+From Colonel Yule's "Marco Polo," and his abundant notes, we learn
+much of Asiatic textile art in the thirteenth century, and its early
+traditions in the immutable East, and Sir G. Birdwood's books on this
+Indian art are most instructive.
+
+Egyptian textiles are splendidly illustrated by Sir Gardiner
+Wilkinson. All these modern writers quote Pliny and the Periplus;[130]
+and Pliny quotes all the classic authors, from Homer to his day. Here
+is a wide field for gathering information regarding the materials for
+embroidery in past ages.
+
+When we use the phrase "raw material" so glibly, with an æsthetic
+contempt for that which the art of man has neither manipulated nor
+reorganized, we show our own coarse appreciation, if not ignorance, of
+the wonderful inherent beauty and microscopic delicacy of form,
+colour, and substance of those materials which we fashion for our own
+uses.
+
+Few know the structure of the tender filaments of wool, flax, cotton,
+and silk; or that each has its peculiar form and attributes, and its
+individual capabilities for the purposes for which they appear to us
+to have been created, i.e. the clothing and adornment of man's dress
+and his home.
+
+I should like to draw attention to these well-attested facts.
+
+Seen through a microscope, the forms of these raw materials differ
+greatly.
+
+Flax is difficult to describe, as it varies according to the soil and
+climate it comes from. Its fibre, however, has always a shiny outer
+surface, and is transparent, cylindrical, and pipe-like; apparently
+with breaks or joints like those of a cane.
+
+Cotton also varies so much in its own kind, that every description is
+different and somewhat puzzling. Semper says that it approaches the
+ribbon form, with thickened edges, and is like a half-cylinder twisted
+spirally; but when wetted with oil, it swells into a complete
+cylinder.[131]
+
+Wool and hair are hollow pipes without joints. Woollen fibres look
+like cylindrical snakes with a scaly surface. This roughness gives
+wool a clinging power which exceeds that of any other material, except
+the hair of some few animals.[132]
+
+Silk threads consist of twin pipes laid parallel, and held together by
+the varnish with which they are glazed. Silk is tough and elastic.
+
+The qualities needed for textile materials may be thus enumerated:
+Pliability, toughness (i.e. tensile strength), and intrinsic
+durability.
+
+Of course, the material must to a certain degree influence the style
+of the fabric, and its selection must be according to the effect
+intended to be produced.[133] The fashions of the day, and the needs
+of the special manufacture, must greatly modify the choice of
+materials, which fluctuate, often disappear, and sometimes revive
+again.
+
+Certain materials which have been, at one period, much admired, have
+been entirely lost; and indeed we may say that the only permanently
+employed textiles are wool, flax, cotton, and silk, which apparently
+never can be superseded. With them, all domestic requirements can be
+satisfied, and all artistic and decorative fabrics produced, varied,
+and perfected; and these, from all time recorded in history, have been
+enriched and glorified with gold, either inwoven or embroidered.
+
+The game of "animal, vegetable, or mineral" might well be played with
+textiles only. Nothing has been alien to the crafts which from time
+immemorial have spun, woven, felted, netted, and embroidered.
+
+The materials now in general use, and which, once known, have never
+been abandoned, I have already named, and shall discuss their history
+separately; they are wool, flax, cotton, and silk. To these I must add
+hemp, both wild and cultivated.
+
+Hemp is a kind of nettle. It was grown in Colchis, and in those cool
+regions which did not produce flax. Hemp is hardly grown in India,
+except to extract from it the narcotic, Cannabis Indica. It was a
+northern production used throughout Scandinavia. Herodotus (iv. 14)
+says, "Hemp grows in the land of the Scythians, in a wild state, but
+it is now cultivated." From its Latin name, _cannabis_, comes our
+canvas, which has always been much used as a ground for counted
+stitches and backing for embroidery, its stiffness being its
+qualification for such purposes.[134]
+
+Jute (a rough sort of hemp) has been long an article of commercial
+importance for the manufacture of coarse-figured fabrics, dyed and
+woven, sometimes embroidered.
+
+The fibre of the Aloe has been used in the Riviera for laces and
+"macrami" (knotted fringes).
+
+The fibres of grasses, such as the "Honduras silk grass" (Rhea or
+Ramie), valuable for beauty, fineness, and toughness, have been worked
+or woven into stuffs.[135] This material is now coming into notice.
+
+Spartum is often named for coarse weaving;[136] also the fibres of
+barks, especially those of palm branches.[137]
+
+Another substance of classic use, and even now employed, though rather
+as a curiosity than as an article of commerce, is the silky filament
+produced by the shell-fish pinna; and also the fibres of certain
+sea-weeds.
+
+Fur and hair, especially that of camels and goats, has always been
+much prized.[138] We have seen both African and Indian striped or
+primitively decorated rugs of wool, touched here and there with scraps
+of cotton or silk, or some other odd material; and amongst them, tufts
+of human hair. The sentiment that motived the use of human hair has
+been either love or hate--the votive or the triumphal. We know that
+Delilah was not a stranger to this art. She wove into her web Samson's
+seven locks of strength, and "fastened them with a pin" (Judges xvi.).
+
+In the thirteenth century it was the custom for ladies to weave their
+own hair into their gifts to favoured knights. King Ris, if he had
+received any such token from his lady-love, returned it with
+interest; for he sent her a mantle in which were inwoven the beards of
+nine conquered kings, a tenth space being left for that of King
+Arthur, which he promised to add in course of time.[139]
+
+Leather has been from the remotest antiquity employed for the art of
+embroidery, either for the ground, as in the mantle of Boadicea, made
+of skins with the fur turned inwards and the leather outside, dressed,
+and embroidered on the seams;[140] or else as fine inlaid and onlaid
+application, as in the "funeral tent of an Egyptian queen" in the
+museum at Boulac, which is certainly the earliest specimen of
+needlework decoration that exists.[141] (Pl. 44.) The old Indian
+embroideries in leather are generally applied one on another. The
+North American Indians also embroider on leather.[142]
+
+Feather work will be discussed under the heading of "Opus
+Plumarium."[143]
+
+On the surface of textiles many substances have been fastened down, in
+order to give brilliancy to the general effect--skins of insects,
+beetles' wings, the claws and teeth of various animals.[144]
+
+Asbestos linen is the only mineral substance, besides gold, silver,
+and tin,[145] that has been employed in embroidery. It has the
+remarkable quality of indestructibility by fire. Asbestos linen can be
+cleansed by fire instead of water.[146] It is a soapy crystal, found
+in veins of serpentine and cipolino in Cyprus, and other Greek
+islands. Pliny says it was woven for the funeral obsequies of
+monarchs, as it preserved the ashes apart, being itself unharmed by
+the fires of cremation. There are several fragments existing, found in
+tombs. One of these is in the British Museum.[147]
+
+Marco Polo speaks of a stone fibre found at Chinchin, which answers in
+description to asbestos. It was spun by mixing it with threads of flax
+soaked in oil; and when woven, was passed through the fire to remove
+the flax and the oil.[148]
+
+A miraculous napkin of asbestos was long kept at Monte Casino.
+
+Coral, pearls, and beads of many forms have been used for the
+enrichment of embroideries, and for decorating textiles. The whole
+surface of the original fabric has often been entirely covered with
+them, or the pattern itself has been worked in nothing else. Pearls
+are constantly seen worked on dress, coats-of-arms, and embroidered
+portraits. Seed pearls, large coarse pearls, and sometimes fine and
+precious ones, were surrounded with gold thread embroidery. Coral was
+so much used in Sicilian embroideries, and so little elsewhere, that
+one gives the name of "Sicilian" to all such work; but occasionally we
+find coral embroideries in Spain and elsewhere (Pl. 32).
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 32.
+    Portion of Dalmatic embroidered by Blanche, Queen of Charles IV.
+        of Bohemia (fifteenth century). The figures in pearls, on a
+        background of beaten gold. Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder."
+        Vol. i. taf. xi.]
+
+Beads of glass were common in Egypt from the earliest times, strung
+together by threads so as to form breastplates rather than necklaces.
+Whence beads originally came we cannot tell, but it seems that the
+Phoenicians dropped them on all the shores of the world. Then, as
+now, savages had a passion for beads, and civilized men and women
+still admire them as trimmings. In the Middle Ages they were sometimes
+worked into pictures.[149]
+
+In as far as materials are essential to the art of embroidery, I must
+restrict myself to the history of silk, wool, flax, cotton, and gold.
+With these all the finest works have been executed for the artistic
+adornment of dress and hangings. All other materials have been
+occasional experiments, or else were resorted to in the absence or
+ignorance of the above five most important factors in our domestic
+civilization. The history of wool must take precedence as being that
+of the original, if not the first, of textile materials.
+
+
+2. WOOL.
+
+The wool of sheep and the hair of goats were used very early in the
+world's history for clothing, and probably also for hangings. The
+earliest civilizations plaited, span,[150] wove, and felted them.
+
+There is no reason to suppose that goats and sheep preceded the
+creation of man. No early fossils record them. Our sheep are supposed
+by zoologists to be descended from the Argali or Ovis Ammon of
+Linnæus, inhabiting the central regions of Asia.[151]
+
+It is possible that plaited grasses may have preceded wool. But though
+certain prehistoric specimens are supposed to have been found in
+Spain, yet of this there is but imperfect proof.
+
+The pastoral tribes wandering over those fair regions that extend from
+Khotan to Arabia, following their flocks and herds, and studying where
+best to feed, increase, and multiply them, and obtain from them the
+finest texture of wool, are spoken of nowhere more than in the
+collected books of the Old Testament, open to us all; and there we
+learn how important a place these shepherds held in the world's
+civilization. "Watching their flocks by night," they watched the stars
+also, and they were astronomers; seeking the best pastures and fodder,
+they learned to be botanists, florists, and agriculturalists. They
+became also philosophers, poets, prophets, and kings.[152] Job and his
+country were enriched through the breeding of sheep. The seven
+daughters of Jethro, the High-priest, tended their father's flocks.
+
+The Arabians were always great breeders of sheep. The Greeks and
+Romans, from Homer to Virgil, sang of the herdsman's life. Our Lord
+Himself did not disdain to be called "the Good Shepherd."[153]
+
+The merchants who traded from the Arabian Gulf to Egypt, and across
+thence to the shores of the Mediterranean, and the Phoenicians of
+Sidon who brought overland their bales of raw material and
+manufactured Oriental fabrics, knew well where to find the best goods
+for their customers; and we hear frequently whence came this or that
+coloured wool. Chemmis, the city of Pan, retained its celebrity in the
+woollen trade down to the conquest of Egypt by the Romans. Nineveh and
+Babylon encouraged the manufactures and commerce in woollen tents,
+wall-hangings, and carpets. Nowhere were they so richly
+embroidered.[154]
+
+Solomon purchased woollens from Egypt. Damascus supplied the Tyrians
+with wool for their rugs. The stuffs and textile fabrics of wool, of
+the Chinese, Assyrians, and Chaldeans, are recorded in the earliest
+writings of the human race. How much their decoration depended on
+weaving, and how much on embroidery, we cannot tell. The products of
+the Babylonian looms are alluded to in the Book of Joshua,[155] and
+also by Ezekiel.[156]
+
+Assyrian stuffs were always celebrated for their splendid colours and
+various designs; among which were hunting scenes, battles, and special
+emblematic adornments.[157]
+
+From Miletus came the wool valued most highly by the Greeks. Spain
+produced the best black, and the north of Italy the best white wool.
+The Narbonensian and Egyptian wools were supposed to be the most
+durable, and when they became shabby, were dipped again and served
+another generation.
+
+From Yates' account of the great variety of wools, remarkable for
+their fine texture, their whiteness,[158] their blackness,[159] or
+their redness, their cool or their warm tints, it is evident that the
+ancients valued highly these different qualities.[160] The cloths that
+were of greatest account were of the finest or the warmest kinds. The
+sheep of Miletus, Attica, Megaris, and Tarentum were clothed in
+jackets, in order to preserve the fineness and whiteness of their own
+coats, and to protect them from being torn by the thorny bushes in
+their pastures. Columella calls them the "covered" and the "soft," and
+says they were often kept in the house.
+
+We find notices of the peculiarities of the various national breeds,
+caused by the soil on which their pasture grew, and the rivers and
+streams at which they drank, and these peculiarities were, if
+possible, encouraged. There is evidence also that some improvement of
+the breeds by crossing was practised in early times.
+
+As in all the life of the Greeks, the religious element had much
+influence in perfecting their flocks of sheep--only the most beautiful
+animals were considered worthy of sacrifice to the gods.
+
+A few of the rare specimens of stuffs which have been rescued from
+tombs, especially in the Crimea, and in the Fayoum, in Egypt, show a
+wool so fine and shining that it might be taken for silk, and the
+beauty of the weaving is marvellous, and much varied in style.
+
+A warrior's tomb in the district of Kuban contained a funeral pall,
+covering the sarcophagus, measuring at least three metres and a half
+each way, woven of brown wool, in twelve narrow strips sewn together
+and afterwards painted. The ground is yellowish, the design brown. The
+figures repeat mythical subjects, and alternate with patterns, and
+there is a border. One strip contains a scene from the story of Peleus
+and Thetis. Apparently this is Attic design. The coloured dresses worn
+by women of rank, and hung on the statues of the gods, were sometimes
+painted, sometimes stamped, and often embroidered, and they were
+nearly all of woollen fabrics.
+
+One of the great advantages of wool is its power of absorbing colour,
+as the pigment sinks into its very fibre, instead of clinging to the
+surface. It can be dyed of deeper colours than flax, cotton, or silk.
+
+Pliny tells us that Tanaquil combed, span, and wove her wool, and she
+herself made the royal mantle which Servius Tullius used to wear, and
+it was covered with a wavy pattern (undulata). Thence came the custom
+that when a maiden became a bride, her attendants carried a distaff
+trimmed with combed wool, and a spindle with yarn upon it. The robes
+worked by Tanaquil were dedicated by Servius Tullius to the statue of
+Fortune in her temple at Rome, and were still hanging there in the
+days of Tiberius.[161] Pliny remarks that it was a wonder that it
+neither fell from the image, nor was eaten by the moths, during five
+hundred and sixty years.
+
+He gives us interesting details of the weaving of woollen cloths, and
+speaks of the thick coarse wool with "great thick hair," used for
+carpets from the time of Homer. The same passage mentions felt. He
+tells us of the cloths with a curly nap, used in the days of Augustus;
+of the "papaverata" woven with flowers resembling poppies; and we hear
+from him of the cloth of divers colours woven in Babylon, and called
+thence Babylonica; and the Alexandrian webs, with many-coloured
+threads (polymita)[162], comparing them with those made in Gaul; and
+those woven by the Parthians.[163]
+
+We have already said that the wool of Miletus was a proverbial
+favourite with the Greeks. Eustathius speaks of the excellence of the
+Milesian carpets and hangings. Virgil represents the virgins of Cyrene
+spinning Milesian wool dyed of a deep sea-green.[164]
+
+In the British Museum is a fragment of Egyptian woollen or worsted
+embroidery on white linen, discoloured by its use as mummy wrapping;
+but the stitches of worsted remain a perfectly clear bright crimson
+and indigo blue. This shows how wool absorbs the colour and retains
+it. Even when the surface is faded, it can be made to emit it again by
+chemical processes.
+
+In tombs in the Crimea have been found variously woven and adorned
+woollen fabrics. There are fragments resembling in their texture a
+fine rep--a sort of corded stuff; another material resembling a
+woollen crêpe, or fine "nun's gauze." This veiled a golden wreath.
+Then there is a stuff like what is now called "atlas"--a kind of
+woollen satin. Some woollens are woven simply like linen; some are
+wide, some very narrow, sewn together in strips, woven in meandering
+designs. One, like a piece of Gobelin tapestry, has a border of ducks
+with yellow wings and dark green heads and throats,[165] and then
+another with a pattern of stags' heads. This description recalls the
+specimens on plate 16 and plate 39.
+
+From these tombs are collected stuffs of wool, woven and embroidered
+in gold with combinations of many colours; and, in fact, through this
+collection, now placed in the Museum at St. Petersburg, we become
+aware that 300 B.C. the Greeks had learned all the secrets of the art
+of weaving wool. They, however, lost it, and it is only in India that
+its continuity was never broken. Indian looms still weave, of the
+finest fleeces, such shawls of Babylonian design as repeat the texture
+of the ancient Greek garments. But were they Greek? or did those
+beautiful woven fabrics come from Persia or India?[166]
+
+The first we know of Scandinavian wool for dress, is a fragment from a
+Celtic barrow in Yorkshire--a woollen plaited shroud. This fabric was
+an advance upon the original northern savage costume--a sheep-skin
+fashioned and sewn with a fish-bone for a needle, sinews for thread,
+and a thorn for a pin. But we must imagine that some use was made,
+besides plaiting, of the spun wool, of which the early northern women
+have left us evidence, in the whorls of their spindles, from
+prehistoric times.
+
+Wool has always appeared to be a natural material for dress. It is
+warm in winter, light in summer, and is always beautiful as it hangs
+in lovely soft draperies, heavy enough to draw the fabric into
+graceful curved lines, and yet capable of yielding to each movement
+in little rippling folds, covering, but not concealing the forms to
+which they cling. Classical draperies are explained by it. What the
+Italians call the "eyes of the folds," are particularly beautiful in
+woollens, and lend themselves to sculpturesque art.
+
+The other natural use of wool is for carpets. We have the evidence of
+the imitations, in mosaic, of carpets from the stone floors in Nineveh
+(now in the British Museum), that the art of weaving large and small
+rugs, and the principles of composition for such purposes was at that
+date well understood. The carpet-weaving traditions of Babylon appear
+to have been inherited by the occupiers of the soil, as it is supposed
+that the Saracens learned from Persia the art of weaving pile carpets,
+and imported thence craftsmen into Spain. We can trace Persian carpet
+patterns in Indian floor coverings. The Greeks called them _tapetes_;
+and the Latins adopted the name; and hence the Italian _tapeti_,
+French _tapis_, and our word tapestry.
+
+As artistic material, to which the world owes much beauty and comfort,
+woollens have always played a great part in the decorations of our
+houses, as of our garments. Fabrics have been made of them of every
+description, from the cheapest and commonest to the most refined; but
+if woollen stuffs are to be beautiful, they must be _fine_, and worked
+or embroidered by hand.
+
+Woollens brocaded or figured are not so effective as silken hangings.
+Woollen velvets are without light, dull and heavy. Still, even amongst
+our English fabrics, there have always been varieties of texture[167]
+and adaptations to different effects, and some are beautiful.
+
+Worsted thread, so called from Worsted, in Norfolk, where the
+materials for weaving and embroidering are manufactured, has always
+been very important in embroidery. Worsteds after a time gave way to a
+very beautiful material, called "German wool," which again has yielded
+the supremacy to "crewels"[168] (resembling the old worsteds). These
+crewels are nearly the same in substance and in their loose texture as
+the threads prepared from wool for tapestry weaving.
+
+We may claim, in England, the superiority in this manufacture, though
+we are constantly receiving from France novelties which give us good
+hints, and urge us to keep pace with the science of the Gobelins in
+their woollen dyes. The French, in return, employ our wools,
+especially those of Lincolnshire, in their tapestry workshops.
+
+The wool and hair of goats should be a study by itself. They have from
+the earliest times been used in India for the finest and softest
+fabrics, such as the lovely shawls of Cashmere and the neighbouring
+provinces. Cloth of Tars in the Middle Ages is supposed to be what is
+now called Cashmere.
+
+
+3. FLAX.
+
+Boyd Dawkins tells us that "The art of spinning and the manufacture of
+linen were introduced into Europe in the Neolithic age, and have been
+preserved with little variation from that period to the present day,
+in certain remote parts of Europe, having only been superseded in
+modern times by the complicated machinery so familiar to us. The
+spindle and distaff, or perforated spindle whorls, are of stone,
+pottery, or bone, such as are constantly found in Neolithic tombs and
+habitations. Thread from the Swiss lake cities is proved to be of
+flax, and there is evidence of weaving in some sort of loom."[169]
+
+The meaning of the word Byssus has been disputed; some authorities
+asserting that it includes both flax and cotton fabrics. Without the
+aid of the microscope, the dispute as to whether the material of the
+Egyptian mummy wrappings was cotton or flax, or a mixture of the two,
+would never have been settled; but now that the difference of the
+structure of each has been clearly ascertained, we know that cotton
+was never employed in Egypt, except for certain domestic uses. The
+mummy wrappings are entirely linen. Cotton was forbidden for the
+priests' dress in the temple, though they might wear it when not on
+duty.[170]
+
+There are specimens of Egyptian painted or printed patterns on fine
+linen in the British Museum;[171] and it is curious to see in Egyptian
+mural paintings the same patterned chintzes on furniture that were
+common a hundred years ago in England. Both must have come from India,
+and therefore were certainly cotton fabrics.
+
+Herodotus says the mummy cloths were of "byssine sindon," which may be
+translated "linen cloth."[172] Cotton he calls "tree wool."
+
+Yates has carefully argued the whole question, and, we think, has
+proved that byssus was flax, and not cotton.[173] He quotes Philo,
+who certainly must have believed that it was made of flax, from the
+description he gives of its appearance and qualities, which in no way
+apply to cotton or hemp. He says that "The Jewish high priests wore a
+linen garment of the purest byssus--which was a symbol of firmness,
+incorruption, and of the clearest splendour, for fine linen is very
+difficult to tear. It is made of nothing mortal, and becomes brighter
+and more resembling light, the more it is cleansed by washing."[174]
+
+Here is another quotation: "Cloth of byssus symbolizes firm faith. Its
+threads surpass even ropes of broom in firmness and strength."[175]
+Pliny says the flax grown in Egypt was superior to any other, and it
+was exported to Arabia and India.[176] The first known existing
+fragment of flax linen in Europe was taken from the tomb of the Seven
+Brothers in the Crimea. Its date is 300 B.C.
+
+In Solomon's time the Jews evidently depended upon Egypt for their
+fine linen. Herodotus describes the corselet of Amasis, the fineness
+of the linen, and the embroidered decorations of men and animals,
+partly gold and partly tree wool (i.e. cotton).[177]
+
+All the finest linen certainly came then from Egypt, and was much
+finer than any that is now made. That we call cambric, was woven there
+many centuries before it was made in Cambray.[178]
+
+Through the Phoenicians the fine linen came to Rome, as appears
+from the following notice of embroidery on linen by Flavius Vopiscus,
+in his "Life of the Emperor Carinus:" "Why should I mention the linen
+cloths brought from Tyre and Sidon, which are so thin as to be
+transparent, which glow with purple, or are prized on account of their
+laborious embroideries?"[179]
+
+The history of a fine embroidered linen curtain for a Roman house
+might have been this:--Grown in Egypt; carried to Nomenticum (Artois),
+and there woven; taken to India to be embroidered, and thence as
+merchandise to Rome.
+
+While flax was making its way northward, the Celts must also have
+taken it across Europe from their resting-place, after emigrating from
+the East. The word _linen_--_lin-white_--is a Celtic epithet, whereas
+_flax_ is an Anglo-Saxon word.[180]
+
+The Atrebates wove linen in Artois, 1800 years ago. Jerome speaks of
+their "indumenta," or shirts of fine linen; and the great weavers of
+to-day are still the Flemish descendants of the Atrebates. Their
+Celtic descent is witnessed in the Irish by their superiority in the
+crafts of the loom.
+
+The fine laces of Venice, France, and Belgium are all of linen, i.e.
+flaxen thread. Clearness and strength in these delicate fabrics cannot
+be obtained with cotton, which, especially when it is washed, swells
+and fluffs, and never has the radiant appearance and purity of flax.
+
+Embroidery is always a natural accompaniment of fine linen. Those that
+are still preserved to us from early and Middle-Age times are nearly
+all on linen, if not on silk. The woollen fragments are very few and
+imperfect. They have been invariably "fretted" by the moth.
+
+White needle embroidery is mostly worked in linen-thread, though
+cotton-thread has been used a great deal, and is very fit for the
+purpose.
+
+
+4. COTTON.
+
+Cotton was native to India,[181] as flax was to Egypt. It not only was
+grown, woven, and printed there from the remotest antiquity, but was
+cultivated nowhere else. The Egyptians do not appear to have grown it
+till the fourteenth century A.D., though they had long imported it as
+raw material, and as plain and printed webs.[182] It was called
+tree-wool.
+
+It was first woven in Italy in the thirteenth century, and used for
+making paper; and in the sixteenth, the plant was grown in the south
+of Europe. From Italy it was carried into the Low Countries, and only
+reached England in the seventeenth century,[183] so lately has the
+great staple of our manufactures first belonged to us.
+
+The fibre of cotton has neither the strength nor the durability of
+flax or silk, but it is the third in the group of the most universally
+qualified materials for all purposes of domestic textile art, ranging
+from carpets and sails, to fine chintzes for dress, and filmy muslins.
+The cloudy effect of these delicate fabrics is their own peculiar
+beauty. Muslins for hangings, printed or embroidered, have always
+been a luxury from India; they were called "carbasa," and were much
+esteemed in Rome as a protection against the sun.[184]
+
+But we have much earlier notice of them, as being the curtains
+described in the Book of Esther, hung with silver rings to the pillars
+of marble in the banqueting hall at Susa or Shushan: "blue and white
+muslin" (i.e. carpas,[185] mistranslated "green" in the Authorized
+Version), "fastened with cords of fine linen and purple."
+
+The word "carbasina" occurs in a play by Statius, evidently translated
+from a writer of the new Greek comedy period. It may be inferred,
+therefore, that the Greeks used cotton 200 B.C.[186] A century before,
+Nearchus (one of Alexander's admirals) speaks of the cotton-trees in
+India as if they were a new discovery. Yates gives us many quotations
+from Latin classical authors, proving the common use of cotton. Its
+Latin name was _bambacinum_, from _bombax_, hence the Italian
+_bambagio_, _bambagino_, _bambasino_.
+
+The variety of cotton fabrics in India is very numerous, each having
+its distinctive beauties and qualities inherited by tradition from
+early times. They are enumerated and described in Sir G. Birdwood's
+"Arts of India." Almost all of them have been made to carry
+embroideries--the transparent muslins,[187] as well as the fine
+cloths, and the stronger and thicker fabrics.[188]
+
+Most old English houses contain some hangings of thickly woven cotton,
+probably Indian, worked in crewel or worsted, of the time of James I.,
+or a little earlier; and beautiful patterns wrought in silk or thread,
+on fine cotton linen, reminding one of the arabesques of the Taj
+Mahal, succeeded those of the Jacobean style.
+
+Transparent muslins were often embroidered in gold and silver, or
+spangled and embossed with beetles' wings; and gold, silver, and silk
+were lavished on Indian cotton grounds, as well as on silken stuffs.
+Linen was not much embroidered in India, but often printed like
+chintz.
+
+Buckram, or plush of cotton, was certainly imported from the East to
+England, from the thirteenth century to the time of Elizabeth. There
+is at Ashridge, in Hertfordshire, a small jacket of very fine
+cotton-plush amongst the baby linen prepared by Elizabeth for the
+expected heir of Philip and Mary, and there are other small dresses of
+this material of the date of James I. A similar material called
+fustian is also named by Marco Polo as a cotton fabric; it is supposed
+to have been made in Egypt by the Arabs. This sort of cotton-plush,
+variously manipulated, is repeatedly mentioned by Herr Graf'schen in
+his "Catalogue of Egyptian Textiles from the Fayoum."
+
+Plano Carpini says the tunics of the Tartars were "bacramo," or else
+of baudichin (cloth of gold). Falstaff's "men in buckram" may be thus
+explained.[189]
+
+I have already said that cotton is inferior in its qualities to silk
+and flax, except in the production of transparent muslins. Its
+peculiarity is its tendency to "crinkle" or crumple in wearing,
+therefore it does not present a smooth flat surface, except by means
+of dressing, which unfits it for clinging effects but suits printed
+patterns. Such stuffs as workhouse sheeting, imitating certain fabrics
+of the sixteenth century, and which it has been the fashion of late to
+cover with embroidery, do not repay, by effective beauty, the trouble
+bestowed upon them.
+
+
+5. GOLD.
+
+A somewhat profane French writer, giving his ideas on the Creation,
+says that gold, the latest metal, was expressly created for the
+demoralization of mankind. This is an ugly version of the fact that it
+is found on the surface of the earth's crust, and that its beauty and
+worth makes it a desirable possession for which men will ever contend.
+
+Gold adorns every work of the artistic animal--man. It is the most
+becoming setting to all other beautiful things, the most gorgeous
+reflection of light and colour, the richest and softest background,
+the most harmonious medium for high lights. In all works of decoration
+it represents sunshine where it is not, and doubles it where it is.
+The word "illumination" in books belongs to the gilded illustrations
+of immortal thoughts.
+
+In embroideries, as grounding or as pattern, gold gives the glory:
+"Her clothing is of wrought gold." The raiment of needlework is
+comparatively ineffective without golden lights or background. As
+colour, it never can offend the eye, except when used to accentuate
+aggressively a vulgar pattern, or when it flashes and dazzles from
+over-polish and too lavish expenditure.
+
+Silver follows gold as a splendid element in decoration,[190] but it
+is not of such universal application and use; and when employed
+together, the proportion of gold should preponderate. Golden tissues
+belong to the earliest civilizations.
+
+Sir G. Birdwood says that "The art of gold brocades is older than the
+Code of Manu.... The excellence of the art passed in the long course
+of ages, from one place to another; and Babylon, Tarsus, Alexandria,
+Baghdad, Damascus, Antioch, Tabriz, Sicily, and Tripoli successively
+became celebrated for their gold and silver-wrought tissues, silks,
+and brocades.... Through every disguise (and mingling of style) it is
+not impossible to infer the essential identity of the brocades with
+the fabrics of blue, purple, and scarlet, worked in gold, of ancient
+Babylonian art."[191]
+
+The Israelites wove gold with their coloured woollens for the use of
+the sanctuary, and probably brought the art from Egypt; though I am
+not aware of any gold-woven stuffs from Egyptian tombs.[192]
+
+Indian and Chinese stuffs were from time immemorial woven with gold.
+
+The historians of Alexander the Great continually name gold as a
+material in dress.[193] Arrian, Justin, and Quintus Curtius, all speak
+of golden tissues as part of the luxury of the East.
+
+We hear of Darius' dress woven with golden hawks; and of the golden
+spoils of Persepolis; the dresses worn by Alexander's generals, and
+all his attendants clothed in purple and gold. Then, perhaps, the
+Babylonian tradition was brought to Europe; and ever after, purple and
+gold became the state apparel for courtiers as well as kings.[194]
+
+The hangings of scarlet, purple, and gold used at the nuptials of
+Alexander, and at his funeral, and his pall of the same material, point
+to the fact that gold was a recognized element in splendid textile
+weaving, as well as in the earliest ornamental embroideries.[195]
+
+Attalus II., king of Pergamus, was credited with being the inventor of
+gold weaving, but this must have been a mistake, as it was practised
+long before his time; but he may have devised some splendid golden
+tissues, which were called "Attalic," in honour of the king's
+patronage.[196] As, however, the gold flat plate or wire was probably
+that woven before his time,[197] it is possible that he may have
+invented or patronized the making of thread of gold, by twining it
+round flax or cotton.[198]
+
+Pliny says gold may be woven or spun like wool without any admixture
+of wool or flax,[199] and he quotes as examples the golden garment of
+Agrippina, and that worn by Tarquinius Priscus, mentioned by Verrius.
+
+It appears that the Egyptians knew the art of drawing gold wire, as
+some pieces have been found in their jewellery;[200] but we know not
+by what process it was worked, either then, or in the dark ages.
+
+A mechanic of Nuremberg, in the fourteenth century, invented a machine
+for the purpose; and this art of drawing wire was introduced into
+England 200 years later, in 1560.
+
+The pure cut gold was in use in Rome to a late date.[201] St. Cecilia,
+martyred 230 A.D., was buried with her golden mantle lying at her
+feet; and in 821, when Pope Pascal opened her grave, he found the
+evidence of her martyrdom in that splendid garment, showing that it
+had been soaked in blood.[202]
+
+There were found under the foundations of the new Basilica of St.
+Peter's, the bodies of Probus Anicius and his wife, Proba Faltonia, in
+a wrapping of gold.
+
+Dr. Rock gives us more examples,[203] but we will only add that of the
+wife of the Emperor Honorius, who in the year 400 A.D. was buried in
+a golden dress, which in 1544 was removed from her grave, and being
+melted, weighed 36 lbs.[204]
+
+The Anglo-Saxon tomb opened at Chessell Down, in the Isle of Wight,
+contained fragments of a garment or wrapping woven with flat gold
+"plate." These remains are now in the British Museum.
+
+Childeric was buried at Tournai, 485 A.D., and his dress of strips of
+pure gold was discovered and melted in 1653. But gold _thread_ also
+was then very generally used in weaving gold tissues.
+
+Claudian describes a Christian lady, Proba, in the fourth century,
+preparing the consular robes for her two sons on their being raised to
+the consulate:[205]--
+
+    "The joyful mother plies her knowing hands,
+    And works on all the trabea golden bands;
+    Draws the thin strips to all the length of gold,
+    _To make the metal meaner threads enfold_."
+
+Pure gold was woven in the dark ages in England. St. Cuthbert's
+maniple at Durham is of pure gold thread. John Garland says the ladies
+wove golden cingulæ in the thirteenth century; and Henry I., according
+to Hoveden, was clothed in a robe of state of woven gold and gems of
+almost "divine splendour."[206]
+
+A wrapping of beautiful gold brocade covered the coffin of Henry III.
+when his tomb was opened in 1871.[207]
+
+The cope of St. Andrew at Aix, in Switzerland, is embroidered in a
+very simple pattern, with large circles containing St. Andrew's
+crosses.[208] This is worked in silver wire gilt, and is Byzantine of
+the twelfth century.
+
+In the writings of the Middle Ages we find constant reference to
+different golden fabrics. Among them are "samit" or "examitur" (a
+six-thread silk stuff, preciously inwoven with gold threads);[209] and
+"ciclatoun,"[210] which was remarkable for the lightness of its
+texture, and was woven with shining gold threads--but though light, it
+was stiff enough to carry heavy embroidery. We hear also of
+"baudekin," "nak," and cloth of pall. "Camoca" is "kincob."
+
+There appears to be a link between embroidery in gold and the
+jewellers' work which in the Dark and Middle Ages was so often applied
+to ecclesiastical and royal dress and hangings. This link was beaten
+gold work, "aurobacutos," "beaten work," or "batony."[211] Beauchamp,
+Earl of Warwick in the time of Henry VI., went over to France, having
+a "coat for my lord's body, beat with fine gold (probably heraldic
+designs). For his ship, a streamer forty yards long and eight broad,
+with a great bear and griffin, and 400 'pencils' with the 'ragged
+staff' in silver." This mode lasted some time; for in 1538, Barbara
+Mason bequeathed to a church a "vestment of green silk beaten with
+gold." Probably this beaten gold was really very thick gold-leaf laid
+on the silk or linen ground, as we see still in some Sicilian and Arab
+tissues. The embroidered banners taken from Charles le Téméraire, at
+Grandson, are finished with broad borders of gilded inscriptions, such
+as might be called beaten gold work.[212]
+
+But besides this thick gold-leaf, there was another mode of enriching
+embroideries. Laminæ of gold were cut into shapes, and finished the
+work by accentuating the design in Eastern embroideries; They are
+found also in Greek tombs, and in the Middle Ages they varied from the
+little golden spangle to many other forms--circular rings, stars,
+crescents, moons, leaves, and solid pendant wedges of gold, all which
+approached the art of the goldsmith.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 19.
+    Spangles.]
+
+Enamel was soon added to the enrichment of these golden spangles,
+plates, or discs, which were enlarged to receive a design.[213] Of
+this style of embellishment we know none so striking as the saddle in
+the Museum at Munich, said to have been taken from a Turkish general
+in the fifteenth century. This is Italian of the finest cinque-cento
+style: blue velvet, covered with beautiful gold embroidery, and
+every vacant space filled with spangles of endless forms, and of
+precious goldsmiths' and enamellers' work. The Persian stirrups
+attached to it are of a totally different style of enamelling and
+jewellery, and speak for themselves, and for the school they came
+from.[214]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 33.
+    Window Hanging, by Gentil Bellini, from a Portrait of Mahomet II.,
+        property of Sir H. Layard.]
+
+Dr. Rock describes part of a chasuble wrought by Isabella of Spain and
+her maids of honour, in which the flowing design is worked out in
+small moulded spangles of gold and silver, set so as to overlap each
+other and give the effect of scales.
+
+To a late period, gold and silver embroideries, enriched with
+spangles, have been lavished on the head-dresses and stomachers of the
+peasantry throughout the north of Europe and Switzerland.[215]
+
+Pearls and gems, either threaded like beads, or in golden settings,
+are to be studied in the early pictures of the German and French
+schools; and the Anglo-Saxons excelled in such enrichments.
+
+Sir Henry Layard has a portrait of the fifteenth century, of the
+Sultan Mahomet II., by Gentil Bellini, from which has been copied the
+accompanying beautiful embroidered design of a window-hanging.[216]
+The grace of the lines, and the delicate taste with which the gems are
+set in the work, are a lesson in art (pl. 33).
+
+India sent to Europe more art in gold thread than has ever been
+produced amongst us from our own workshops.[217]
+
+The people of Goa, mostly Arabs, embroidered for the Portuguese those
+wonderful fabrics, glittering with gold and radiant with colours,
+which cover the beds and hang the rooms throughout Portugal and
+Spain.[218] The precious metals (often forming the whole grounding)
+were employed without stint; the patterns being either embroidered in
+coloured silks and gold; or on velvets or satins, with gold alone or
+mixed with silver.
+
+The fine gold threads for embroidery, which have preserved their
+brilliancy for so many centuries, such as we find worked in
+Charlemagne's dalmatic, in Aelfled's maniple, and in the mitres of
+Thomas à Becket, are certainly Oriental. To England they came in the
+bales of the merchants who brought us our silk, and even our needles,
+from India. Later we imported and copied the different ways of giving
+effect to inferior metals, and the Spaniard's gilt parchment thread
+reached us from their Moorish manufactories.[219]
+
+Designs were sometimes, in the sixteenth century, worked in gold
+twisted with coloured silks, sometimes only stitched down with them.
+The badges of the Order of the Dragon, instituted by the Emperor
+Sigismund, were thus embroidered, and placed on the cloaks of the
+knights. The work was so perfect that it resembled jewels of enamelled
+gold. Two ancient ones are in the Museum at Munich.
+
+Gold or silver or base metal wire was, in the later Middle Ages and
+down to our own times, much employed in the form of what is called
+"purl," i.e. coiled wire cut into short lengths, threaded on silk, and
+sewn down. German, Italian, and English embroideries were often
+enriched with this fabric. Sometimes the wire was twisted with
+coloured silks before it was coiled. There are beautiful specimens of
+this work of the days of Queen Elizabeth.
+
+Still, throughout Europe the best works were carried out with the best
+materials, and these always came from the East. But we sometimes find
+that the pressure of circumstances has for a time caused the
+employment of adulterated metals that have perished; and thus many
+fine works of art have been spoiled.[220]
+
+The use of bad materials has therefore been as unfortunate for art as
+that of pure gold, which has tempted so many ignorant persons to burn
+golden embroideries and tapestries, and melt down the ore they
+contain. How little of all that human skill and invention have
+carefully elaborated is now preserved to us! To gold and silver
+textiles their materials have been often a fatal dower.
+
+It has sometimes puzzled any but the most experienced embroiderers to
+distinguish between the stuffs woven with the golden threads on the
+surface, and finely brocaded or patterned in the loom; and those other
+cloths, embroidered by hand, which have been so manipulated that
+hardly an atom of the gold can be detected at the back. This is done
+by a technical mode of treating the surface, which is more easily
+shown than described. The gold is really drawn into the spaces between
+the threads of the canvas or linen grounding, but never pulled
+through. For many reasons this is an advantage, and when executed
+cunningly, as it was in England in the twelfth century, it is rich,
+beautiful, lasting, and economical. It is a peculiar mark of the "opus
+Anglicanum," and it is to be seen in the mitre at Munich, where this
+stitch is employed on a white satin ground;[221] also in the working
+of the two pluvials at San Giovanni Laterano at Rome, and at the
+Museum at Bologna, as well as that at Madrid, which are all three
+English of the thirteenth century, by design as well as by stitches.
+
+I cannot close this chapter without naming the many schools of gold
+embroidery in Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. The King of
+Bavaria has an establishment for gold work, and this is very finely
+carried out, highly raised, and richly designed.[222] In Spain there
+is also a Royal School, where stately works are executed.
+
+It is to be regretted that the modern designs are motiveless, and not
+so beautiful as the old ones, and it is very difficult to have any
+ancient piece of work copied exactly. Little modernisms creep in
+wherever the pattern has to be fitted into a new shape; for the
+accomplished needlewoman is seldom an artist.
+
+All honour is due to certain manufacturers at Lyons who are working in
+the spirit of the old masters, and have been seriously considering how
+best to reproduce the beautiful soft surface of the gold thread of
+which the secret was lost in the fifteenth century.[223]
+
+The old Chinese flat gold was, about the sixteenth century, superseded
+by what was manufactured in Spain, and is no longer imported or,
+perhaps, even made.
+
+
+6. SILK.
+
+The origin and history of silk is learnedly and elaborately discussed
+in Yates' "Textrinum Antiquorum." He gives us his authorities, and
+literal translations for the benefit of the unlearned, who cannot read
+the original texts. I have availed myself without hesitation of his
+quotations, and of the carefully considered opinions he has drawn from
+them.
+
+It has been already said that wool and flax preceded silk in Egyptian,
+Greek, and Roman manufactures. There is no certain mention of silk in
+the Books of the Old Testament.[224] Silk is, however, named in the
+Code of Manu.[225]
+
+No shred of silk has been found in any Egyptian tomb, nor till
+lately, and with one exception only, in those of the Greeks.
+
+Auberville says, "La soie ne fit son apparition en Europe que 300 ans
+avant notre ère."[226]
+
+Pamphile, daughter of Plates, of Cos, is said by Aristotle to have
+there first woven silk (300 B.C.). Probably raw silk was brought to
+Cos from the interior of Asia, and Pamphile is by some supposed to
+have "effilèd" the solid manufactured silks, and woven them again into
+gauzy webs. Yates suggests that it is possible that Pamphile obtained
+cocoons and unwound them, as the passage in Aristotle may be so
+interpreted.
+
+The specimen of early silk-weaving which we have above alluded to, was
+taken out of the "Tomb of the Seven Brothers" at Kertch, in the
+Crimea, and is of the third century B.C. It consists of several bits
+of very transparent painted silk. These fragments are an actual and
+yet a contemporary witness to the truth of the tradition of Pamphile's
+Coan webs, which are of the same date: possibly they were her
+handiwork.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 34.
+    1. Classical Silk. Greek. (Semper's "Der Stil," p. 192.) 2.
+        Classical Silk. Roman. (Auberville, pl. 4.)]
+
+Whether Pamphile's silk gauzes were the only fine webs of Cos,[227] is
+a disputed question. She has the credit of being the first to clothe
+victorious generals in triumphal garments, and she has been
+immortalized by her cleverness and industry. Both Aristotle and Pliny
+assert that she first invented the Coan webs, and that some of them
+were of silk is undoubted. The question is, How came it there?
+whence and by what route? and what country was its original home and
+birthplace?
+
+After stating the _pros_ and _cons_ of the question, how and where did
+silk first make its appearance, Sir G. Birdwood concludes that both
+the worm and the cocoon were known to the Greeks and Romans, by report
+and rare specimens, from the time of Alexander's return from his
+Indian campaign.[228]
+
+Of course the remains of these fabrics are extremely scarce; and, in
+fact, only two are at present known to me besides the Kertch specimen.
+The first is given in Semper's "Der Stil," and is evidently classical
+Greek or Roman; but the silk material might have been effilèd from an
+Oriental stuff (pl. 34, No. 1). The second must have been originally a
+Roman pattern, modified by the Persian loom in which it was woven.
+This may have been a Roman triumphal robe of the date of Julius Cæsar
+(pl. 34, No. 2).
+
+It is clear that Chinese silken stuffs were not generally known in
+Southern Europe till the time of Julius Cæsar, who displayed a
+profusion of silks in some of his splendid theatrical representations.
+
+How silk first arrived from the East is disputed; some say it came by
+the Red Sea, and other authorities believe it was brought from China,
+_viâ_ Persia, by land.
+
+But it is not necessary that it should have entered our civilization
+by only one gate. The Periplus Maris Erythræi makes frequent mention
+of the trade in silks, through India, by the Indus to the coasts of
+the Erythrean Sea. They were also brought through Bactria to Barygaza,
+near Surat, from a city called Thina (China?). The author of the
+Periplus, of course, refers to some place in the country vaguely
+called Serica.[229]
+
+That the trade which brought it into Europe was difficult and
+limited, is proved by the fact that silk continued, even as late as
+the third century of our era, to be an article of luxury, of which the
+manufacture and use continued to be the subject of legal enactments
+and restrictions, for 600 years after Pamphile's first essay in
+silk-weaving in Cos.
+
+"The Seres" was the name given by the ancients to the nation which
+produced silk; and it was undoubtedly that accepted for the distant
+region now called China, including Corea, and later, the kingdom of
+Khotan. The first mention of these people as a distinct nation is by
+Mela (iii. 7), who speaks of them as an "honest people, who bring what
+they have to sell, and return for their payments."[230]
+
+The prevailing idea amongst the Greeks was that silk was combed from
+the trees. Seneca says:--
+
+    "Nor with Mæonian needle mark the web,
+    Gathered by Eastern Seres from the trees."
+
+              Seneca the Tragedian, "Herc. Ætæus," 644.[231]
+
+This was, till lately, believed to be only a fiction, intended to hide
+the truth and enhance the value of the new Coan material. But it is
+now ascertained that some of the wild silk in China is carried by the
+silkworm round the trees, wrapping them up, as it were, in large,
+untidy cocoons; so that, as usual, tradition had truth for its
+foundation.
+
+There was always much mysterious report about the new material.
+Dionysius Periegetes tells of a barbarous people called the Seres,
+who "renounce the care of sheep and oxen, but who comb the coloured
+flowers of the desert, and with them produce woven precious stuffs, of
+which they make figured garments, resembling the flowers of the field
+in beauty, and in texture the web of the spider."[232]
+
+There is no doubt that as Egypt was the first to weave linen, and
+India to produce cotton textiles, so in China originated the material
+of silk and its manufacture.
+
+M. Terrien de la Couperie, who has deciphered the Archaic books of the
+Chinese Records, sees there excellent linguistic proofs that the
+Chinese nation was originally a fragment of the first Babylonian
+civilization. He there finds that when these Accadians arrived on the
+furthest eastern coast of Asia, they met with and enslaved an
+aboriginal race, who already cultivated the silkworm, and wove and
+worked its produce, and were called by them "the Embroiderers."[233]
+
+This is supposed to have been an historical event contemporary with
+the life of Abraham, and, therefore, 5000 years old.
+
+The Chinese say that Tekin or Sin, the son of Japhet, instructed his
+children in painting, sculpture, and embroidery, and in the art of
+preparing _silk_ for different woven fabrics.[234]
+
+Whether we are justified or not in believing in so very early a date,
+at any rate we must remember that it is now ascertained that silk was
+used in China 2600 years before our era.
+
+Auberville says there is a legend that the Empress Si-ling-chi[235]
+(2600 B.C.) had the happy inspiration to invent the unwinding of the
+cocoon before the insect cut the threads; and for this discovery she
+was placed among the divinities.
+
+Before her time, they had certainly for more than 300 years used the
+precious material in its mutilated condition.[236]
+
+Some centuries later the Emperor Chan received tribute in linens and
+silken stuffs. Tissues of many colours were painted or richly
+embroidered.[237]
+
+In the second century A.D., a prince of Khotan,[238] Kiu-sa-tan-na,
+was desirous of obtaining from China the eggs of the silkworm, but his
+request was refused; and it was prohibited that either eggs of the
+silkworm or seed of mulberry-trees should cross the border.
+
+Then the King of Khotan asked for a Chinese princess in marriage, and
+this favour being granted, he found means to inform the lady privately
+that in her future kingdom she would find no silk to weave or work.
+The dread of such an aimless life roused all her womanly instincts.
+Defiance of the law, love of smuggling, and the wish to please her
+husband and benefit her future people, gave her courage to conceal the
+eggs and seeds in the folds of her dress and the meshes of her
+beautiful hair, and so she carried a most precious dower into her
+adopted country.[239] Thus was broken the spell which for more than
+3000 years had confined the secret of China within the fence of its
+wonderful wall; and later on, A.D. 530, the eggs were brought to
+Byzantium.[240]
+
+From China, therefore, comes our silk.[241] We may say it is traced to
+the beginning; but how far back had the archæologist to grope before
+he could find it!
+
+I transcribe a few more quotations from Yates' translations and
+authorities.[242]
+
+In the Hippolytus of Euripides, 383, Phædra _loquitur_:--
+
+    "Remove, ye maids, the vests whose tissue glares
+    With purple and with gold; far be the red
+    Of Syrian murex; this the shining thread
+    Which furthest Seres gathers from the boughs."
+
+Lucan describes the transparent material which veiled Cleopatra's
+form:--
+
+    "Her snowy breast shines through Sidonian threads,
+    First by the comb of distant Seres struck;
+    Divided then by Egypt's skilful hand,
+    And with embroidery transparent made."
+
+Pliny's account of silk and its manufacture is mostly fanciful, though
+founded on half-known facts.
+
+The Latin poets of the Augustan age speak of silk attire with other
+luxurious customs from the East.[243] The Roman senate, in the reign
+of Tiberius, decreed that only women should wear silk, on account of
+its effeminacy.
+
+Silk was accumulated for the wardrobes of the empresses till A.D.
+176, when Marcus Aurelius, "the Philosopher," sold all the imperial
+ornaments and the silken robes of his empress by auction in the Forum
+of Trajan.[244]
+
+We learn that silk was precious and fabulously esteemed to the end of
+the second century A.D.; but it is seldom mentioned in the third
+century.
+
+Ælius Lampridius speaks of a silken cord with which to hang himself,
+as an imperial extravagance on the part of Heliogabalus (and of this
+only one strand was silk); and he mentions that Alexander Severus
+rarely allowed himself a dress of silk (holosericum), and only gave
+away robes of partly silken substance.
+
+Flavius Vopiscus says that Aurelian had no dress wholly of silk
+(holosericum).[245] His wife begged him to allow her a shawl of purple
+silk, and he replied, "Far be it from me to permit thread to be
+reckoned worth its weight in gold!"--for a pound of gold was then
+worth a pound of silk.
+
+Flavius Vopiscus further states that the Emperor Carinus, however,
+gave away silken garments, as well as dresses of gold and silver, to
+Greek artificers, players, wrestlers, and musicians.[246]
+
+Yates gives us a translation of an edict of Diocletian, giving a
+maximum of prices for articles in common use in the Roman empire. It
+reads like a tailor's or a dress-maker's bill of to-day:--
+
+                                                             DENARII.
+  To the tailor, for lining a fine vest                         6
+  To the same, for an opening of an edging of silk             50
+  To the same, for an opening and an edging of a mixed
+    tissue of silk and flax                                    30
+  For an edging of a coarser vest                               4[247]
+
+A monument at Tivoli is erected to the memory of his estimable wife,
+Valeria Chrysis, by "M. N. Poculus, silk manufacturer." This was
+probably an imperial office in the fourth century.[248]
+
+From the first to the sixth centuries, poets and historians
+continually speak of silk,[249] praising its beauty or blaming it as
+extravagance or luxury; but according to Yates, all the information we
+collect from these sources requires to be tested as to accuracy, and
+is often erroneous.
+
+I have spoken of the first silk-weaving in Cos, 300 B.C. The first
+arrival of the silkworm in Europe was in the sixth century, 900 years
+later. Cosmas Indicopleustes and another monk brought eggs from China
+in the hollow staves they carried in their hands. This was a great
+event in European commerce. The eggs were solemnly presented to the
+Emperor Justinian, and the monopoly of their cultivation is to be
+found in his law-ordaining codex.[250]
+
+The monopoly of the silk manufactures was confined to the area of the
+imperial palace of Constantinople, but the cultivation of the worm
+gradually spread over Greece, Asia Minor, and India.
+
+The first allusion to the use of silk in the Christian Church is by
+Gregory Nazianzen (A.D. 370), "Ad Hellenium pro Monarchis Carmen:"
+"Silver and gold some bring to God, or the fine thread by Seres
+spun."[251] Basil illustrates the idea of the resurrection by the
+birth of the butterfly from the cocoon.[252]
+
+Paul the Silentiary (A.D. 562) alludes to the frequent use of silk in
+the priests' vestments at the Church of St. Sophia at Constantinople.
+
+Bede relates that the first Abbot of Wearmouth went to Rome for the
+fifth time in A.D. 685, and brought back with him two scarves or palls
+of incomparable workmanship, and entirely of silk, with which he
+purchased land of three families at the mouth of the Wear. Bede's own
+remains were wrapped in silk.
+
+Auberville gives us, in his "Tissus," specimens of Roman silks between
+the first and seventh centuries, but he cannot fix their exact
+date.[253]
+
+The finest webs of Holosericum from the imperial looms were generally
+bestowed upon the Church, and thus consecrated, the earliest
+ascertained specimens that have survived have been preserved; and of
+these, most have been found in the tombs of saints, bishops, and kings
+who were buried in priestly as well as in royal garments.[254]
+
+Among the silk and satin fabrics, the tissue called "Imperial" is
+mentioned by several early English authors. Roger de Wendover and
+Matthew Paris describe the apparition of King John as clad in "royal
+robes of Imperial."[255] William de Magna Villa brought from Greece,
+in 1170, a stuff called Imperial, "marbled" or variegated, and covered
+with lions woven in gold.
+
+In the Eastern Empire, this industry after a time fell into the hands
+of the Jews; and in 1161, Benjamin of Tudela says the city of Thebes
+contained about 2000 Jewish silk-weavers.
+
+The breeding of the worm in Europe seems to have been confined to
+Greece from the time of Justinian to the twelfth century; but in 1148,
+Roger, King of Sicily, brought as prisoners of war, from Corinth,
+Thebes, and Athens, many silk-weavers, and settled them at Palermo.
+"Then might be seen Corinthians and Thebans of both sexes, employed in
+weaving velvet stoles interwoven with gold, and serving like the
+Eretrians of old among the Persians."[256]
+
+Hugh Falcandus[257] has left a description of the Royal manufactory at
+Palermo, and the Hotel de Tiraz which absorbed all the smaller
+Saracenic factories already started. The Hotel de Tiraz had four
+great workshops, in which were separately carried on the weaving of
+plain tissues, velvets, examits and satins, and flowered stuffs
+(damasks), and lastly, gold brocades and embroideries. It was from the
+last that proceeded the real works of art, and the embroideries with
+pearls and precious stones.[258] The highest efforts of the loom were
+apparently finished with the needle,[259] as in the figured textiles
+of Egypt.
+
+The continuity of Sicilian textile designs from the sixth to the
+sixteenth centuries (a thousand years) is very remarkable. Owing to
+its originally strongly stamped Oriental character, great knowledge of
+the arts of weaving, spinning, and dyeing silk is required to enable
+any one to assign an exact date to materials which only remodelled
+their style three times.
+
+Dr. Rock's rules for deciphering these three dates may, however, be
+easily learned, as they are broad and simple. In his comprehensive
+"Introduction to the Textiles in the Kensington Museum" (p. lxvii) he
+says that the three defined periods of silk-weaving in Sicily are:
+First, from the time of Justinian to the Hohenstaufen (from the sixth
+to the twelfth century); secondly, from the accession of Frederick I.
+(Barbarossa), 1152, to Charles IV., 1347 (twelfth to fourteenth
+centuries); the third period is of one century only, from 1347 to
+1456.
+
+The first period especially shows African animals, such as the giraffe
+and the different kinds of antelopes, mixed with Arabian mottoes; and
+the patterns are generally woven with gold. This is merely gilt
+parchment, the silk being mingled with cotton.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 35.
+    Peacock Pattern. Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.]
+
+The second period, beginning in the twelfth century, shows the arrival
+of Count Roger's Persian and Greek workmen, captives from Thebes,
+Corinth, and Athens. The fresh designs show fragments of Greek taste,
+such as masks and foliage, and give one a slight foretaste of the
+Renaissance.[260]
+
+These semi-classical echoes are contemporary in the Sicilian looms
+with such Norman motives as a crowned sovereign riding with a hawk
+upon his wrist.
+
+This description singularly applies to the relics removed from the
+tomb of St. Cuthbert, at Durham, in 1827; among which are fragments of
+three wrappings, or garments of silk, so suggestive of the artistic
+traditions of many nationalities, and the long descent of patterns,
+recognizable after the lapse of centuries, that a description of them,
+accompanied by illustrations, can hardly fail to be interesting. They
+are all now reduced by time to a rich golden brown, though there are
+indications that blue, green, and red have been woven into their
+fabric, and there are also on one of them traces of gilding. The first
+(plate 35) shows Oriental conventional peacocks, double-headed and
+collared, framed within circles which slightly intersect each other,
+thus giving the opportunity for varying the original motive by
+breaking up the rolling arabesqued pattern, and uniting the stems and
+flowers contained in the border. The spaces between the circles are
+filled in with gryphons in pairs, of the Babylonian stamp, thick
+limbed with strongly-marked muscles. There is a border or guimp,
+Persian in character, in which are small crosses surmounting
+repetitions of the crenelated pattern found in Assyrian ornament.
+
+The second piece of silk contains a large rosace. Scattered about it
+are repetitions of the Persian leaf or tree of life, and the border
+consists of kneeling hares or fawns between a Persian arabesque and a
+corded line. The mixture of Egyptian and Assyrian styles is remarkable
+throughout, till we come to the centre of the rosace, where we find a
+most incongruous man in armour on horseback with a hawk on his wrist,
+giving the Norman stamp of the reigning house and influence in Sicily.
+The central subject is exactly repeated on an embroidered twelfth
+century chasuble in the treasury of the Cathedral of Bamberg, only
+that a royal crown and robes are worn by the horseman (pl. 36).[261]
+
+The third specimen is the most noteworthy (plate 37). There is nothing
+of Assyrian here, but it reminds one of Egyptian and Greek art, and at
+once suggests Count Roger's Greek slaves at the Sicilian looms, but
+the design is probably of a much earlier date, and the subject is
+puzzling. A piece of drapery resembling an Egyptian sail with its
+fringes[262] (pl. 38) is looped up on each side to the head of a
+thyrsus, and above it hangs a large cluster of fruits. The lower part
+of the drapery rests upon water, and is somewhat like a boat, with
+ducks swimming towards it, and fish disporting themselves in the
+rippling waves. Between the circles the ducks are repeated, facing a
+shield enriched with rows of the crenelated pattern surmounted by a
+vine.
+
+These fragments have belonged each to a very large and freely woven
+silk shawl or mantle. The circles are about two feet across. There is
+a different arrangement of the threads in each web, giving different
+fine diapers, and the last described has a raised pattern which might
+have been intended to represent water.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 36.
+    NORMAN AND PERSIAN TYPE.
+    A Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 37.
+    GRÆCO-EGYPTIAN STYLE.
+    A Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 38.
+    Boat with coloured sail, from the tomb of Rameses III. at Thebes.
+        (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," iii. p. 211.) Explanatory of
+        the design on St. Cuthbert's silk shroud, pl. 37.]
+
+It is most likely that in the twelfth century, or even a little
+later, the body of St. Cuthbert was wrapped in these shawls, and so
+left when at the Reformation, his shrine was destroyed, and the coffer
+containing his remains buried in the same place, and piously concealed
+till our own day. I shall describe the beautiful embroideries in which
+the body had been clothed in the tenth century when I come to the
+subject of English work.
+
+The third period of silk-weaving art is unmistakably Sicilian. At the
+end of the thirteenth century and beginning of the fourteenth, Palermo
+struck out her own line. The Greek cross appears in various forms. The
+designs are of a wonderful richness and capricious ingenuity. They
+show alike Asiatic, African, and European animals, and every kind of
+mythological creature--griffins, dragons, dogs, and harts, with large
+wings; swans, pheasants, and eagles, single or double-headed, often
+pecking at the sun's rays; beautifully drawn foliage and flowers, and
+heraldic emblems and coats-of-arms. One peculiarity of the third
+period is the frequent use of green patterns on "murrey"-coloured
+grounds.
+
+All this splendour of design was commonly lavished on poor material.
+The silks continued to be mixed with cotton, and the gold, or rather
+the gilding, was so base that it has almost always become black on the
+foundation strips of parchment or paper.[263]
+
+The heraldic silks are mostly of the time of the Crusades, when the
+distinguished pilgrims and warriors, especially the English, made
+Sicily their half-way house to the Holy Land, and brought from thence
+fabrics woven to suit their tastes. In Auberville's book we find,
+under the dates of many centuries, the most remarkable fragments now
+known. On portrait-tombs and in some very ancient pictures are figured
+beautiful silks woven in gold, which are recognizable at once by their
+Arab-Sicilian style. Of this type, the remarkable fragment of the
+dress of Richard II., in the Kensington Museum, dates itself, by
+carrying the cognizances of his grandfather and his mother, and the
+portrait of his dog Math.[264]
+
+The last period of the Sicilian silks is especially marked by the
+inscriptions being mostly nonsense, and only woven in as ornament,
+with the forms of Arab lettering.[265]
+
+Sir G. Birdwood says that whether the Saracens found the manufacture
+of silk already established in India or not, they certainly influenced
+the decorative designs. He adds that kincobs are now woven at
+Ahmedabad and Benares, identical in design with the old Sicilian
+brocades; while the Saracenic Sicilian silks abound in patterns which
+prove their origin in Assyrian, Sassanian, or Indian art.
+
+We know that the Saracens introduced colonies of Persian, and probably
+Indian workmen into Spain, after the beginning of the ninth century,
+to assist them in their architecture and textile manufactures, and in
+return the Mogul emperors of Delhi invited many Italian and French
+designers into India.
+
+The Taj and other buildings in Rajpootana are decorated with exquisite
+mosaics coeval with those of Austin of Bordeaux. Their styles of art
+in textiles, and in other materials, have acted and reacted upon each
+other; and nothing throws more light on the affinities and the
+development of the modern decorative arts of Europe than the history
+of the introduction, under Justinian, of the silk manufactures from
+the East into the West.[266]
+
+From Palermo, all the stages of the manufacture of silk spread
+themselves over Italy and into Spain. According to Nicolo Tegrini, the
+flourishing silk-weavers of Lucca having been ejected from the city in
+the early part of the fourteenth century, carried their art elsewhere,
+and even to Germany, France, and Britain.[267]
+
+Italian weavers went to Lyons in 1450, and so started the silk
+industry that it has steadily increased till now. It gives employment
+to about 31,000 looms and 240,000 workpeople of both sexes.
+
+The Moors, when they overflowed into Iberia, carried with them all
+their Orientalisms, traditions, manufactures, and designs; thus
+disobeying their prophet, who forbade the use of silk except to women.
+
+Senhor F. de Riano tells us that from the ninth to the eleventh
+centuries, Spain was producing fine silk tissues. The Moorish
+Cordovese writer, Ash-Shakandi, who lived in the beginning of the
+thirteenth century, says, "Malaga is famous for its manufactures of
+silks of all colours and patterns, some of which are so rich that a
+suit made of them will cost many thousands. Such are the brocades with
+beautiful designs and the names of the Caliphs, Ameers, and other
+wealthy people woven into them."[268]
+
+The same author, speaking of the manufactures of silk at Almeria, says
+that thence came the brightest colours; and Al-Makhari adds a list of
+precious silk tissues, naming the "Tiraz," the "Iscalaton," and the
+robes called each by its own special name.[269] Ash-Shakandi also
+mentions the looms of Murcia, and its carpets.[270]
+
+When the Moors were driven from Spain, the silk works of Malaga and
+Almeria were ruined. But those of Valencia became famous, and flourish
+to this day. Talavera della Reina also produces fine ecclesiastical
+fabrics, and at Toledo the ancient traditions are preserved, and they
+still weave sixteenth-century designs.
+
+In Italy, Genoa, Florence, and Milan followed the Sicilian silk
+manufactures, and each has left specimens of the craft, of which Rock
+has pointed out the marked individualities.
+
+The rich stuffs with inscriptions inwoven in gold, in the Middle Ages,
+were called "literatis."
+
+The designs of Lucca at first imitated the Moorish Sicilian type; and
+introduced as their speciality, white figures, such as angels in white
+garments, and exchanged the Oriental intricate patterns for a bolder
+and simpler style.
+
+Venice, of course, also showed at first the Oriental impress; but she
+soon struck out a line of her own; and her especial invention was
+shown in weaving, from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries,
+square pieces of silken tissue, representing sacred subjects.
+
+Florentine tissues, especially their velvet and gold brocades, were
+particularly splendid, and can be recognized by the loops of gold
+thread drawn to the surface and left there. Of these early Florentine
+gold brocades we have still beautiful examples in the palls of our
+City companies and in ancient ecclesiastical vestments. The loops of
+gold have been the custom since the thirteenth century, and still
+prevail in certain traditional fabrics, for instance, in the banners
+woven annually for the prizes at the horse races in Florence. The
+Corsini family, who have for many generations and for hundreds of
+years competed in these races, had, in their princely palace at Rome,
+a room entirely hung with the silk of these gorgeous banners.
+
+In Hungary, Queen Gisela, in the eleventh century, established looms
+for weaving silk; and many convents throughout Europe and in England
+wove silken tissues for the service of the Church, till the great
+manufactures absorbed these partially private enterprises.[271]
+
+Individual exertion produced copies, or motives that are taken from
+Eastern, Southern, or Northern inspirations; but it is only in large
+national schools of arts or crafts that an absolutely recognizable
+style becomes apparent. For example, the early French silks from
+monastic establishments are not remarkable for either style or texture
+till the sixteenth century, when they came to the front as a national
+manufacture, and have held the highest place in silk-weaving ever
+since.
+
+The Flemish towns of Ypres, Ghent, and Mechlin were known for their
+silken webs in the thirteenth century, and at that time innumerable
+small schools of the craft seem to have covered Europe. They are
+constantly named in the lists of fine furnishings in Germany. In
+England, France, and Germany, as well as in the Low Countries, each
+convent had, besides its silk-weaving looms, its workshops for
+embroideries on silk, woollens, and linens, borrowing from the
+Byzantine Empire, Sicily, and Spain, their designs and patterns.
+
+About this time (the thirteenth century), Marco Polo resided and
+travelled in Asia. He visited the principal cities of Syria, Persia,
+Khotan, and Cathay, and from him we have information of the different
+Asiatic textiles, generally bearing the name of the city where they
+were woven. He names, for instance, the mediæval "baudas" and
+"baudakin" (with endless modifications in the spelling), from Baghdad.
+This afterwards gave the word baldachino to the awning or canopy over
+the altar, which it retained even when textiles had given place to
+marbles and mosaics.[272]
+
+Satin is only found named in catalogues about the fourteenth century.
+But the dalmatic of Charlemagne, at Rome, is embroidered on a stout
+blue satin, and has never been transferred; and at Constantinople,
+Baldwin II., at his coronation in 1204, was shod and clothed in
+vermilion satin embroidered with jewels; while all the Venetian and
+French barons present were clad in satin.[273] Semper and Bock believe
+that it had been a Chinese material long before it reached Europe.
+
+Satin was often called "blattin," in connection with the colour of the
+cochineal insect (blatta), whose dye was invariably used for satin. We
+cannot tell, however, which was certainly named from the other.[274]
+
+In the poem of "The Lady of the Fountain," translated by Lady
+Charlotte Guest from the Welsh ballads of the thirteenth century, silk
+and satin are often named. At the opening of the poem, King Arthur is
+described seated on a throne of rushes, covered with a flame-coloured
+satin cloth, and with a red satin cushion under his elbow.
+
+Fiery red was the orthodox colour for satin. In old German poems we
+find it described as "pfellat," always as being fiery. One kind of
+pfellat was called salamander.[275] Bruges satins were the most
+esteemed in the Middle Ages. Chaucer speaks of "satin riche and
+newe."[276]
+
+Satin and velvet are the contrasting silken materials. In satin the
+threads are laid along so that the shining surface ripples with every
+ray of sunshine, and the shadows are melted into half-lights by the
+reflections from every fold. It makes a dazzling garment, splendid in
+its radiant sheen; whereas in velvet, where each thread is placed
+upright and shorn smoothly, all light is absorbed and there are no
+reflections, and the whole effects are solemn, rich, and deep.[277]
+Some of the oldest velvets resemble plush in the length of their pile,
+and have not the dignity of velvet.
+
+Semper, from the different derivations that have been suggested,
+selects the connection of the word "velvet" (German, _Felbert_) with
+"welf," the skin or fur of an animal.[278]
+
+Among the gifts to Charlemagne (ninth century) from Haroun el Raschid
+were velvets; and the earliest existing specimen we know of is named
+by Bock as being in the Pergament Codex at Le Puy, in Vendôme, where,
+amongst other curious interleaved specimens of weaving, is a fine
+piece of shorn silk velvet.[279]
+
+Marco Polo, in the thirteenth century, frequently speaks of velvet as
+an Asiatic fabric. It is first known as a European textile in Lucca,
+about 1295, and we may therefore say that it was imported from the
+East.[280]
+
+In the next chapter on colour I have noticed the curious fact that the
+word purple was sometimes used to mean colour, and sometimes to
+express the texture of velvet, thus confounding the two; but I have
+also pointed out that it had other meanings, and had become a very
+comprehensive word for everything that expressed richness and warmth.
+
+While examining and judging embroideries, we must be careful not to
+be deceived by the different dates often occurring in the grounding
+and the applied materials. Much embroidery was worked on fabrics that
+were already old and even worn out; and others have been transferred
+centuries ago, and perhaps more than once, to fresh grounds.[281]
+
+This sometimes causes a good deal of difficulty in dating specimens.
+One should begin by ascertaining whether the needlework was originally
+intended to be cut out (_opus consutum_), and so laid on a ground of
+another material, and worked down and finished there.
+
+Of course it is always evident and easily ascertained, whether the
+work has been transferred at all. If so--and from each succeeding
+transference--small fragments may be found showing on the cut edges.
+You will often see remains of two or more of these layers, reminding
+you of the three Trojan cities dug up at different depths under each
+other at Hissarlik.
+
+In judging each specimen the acumen of the expert is needed to obtain
+a correct opinion, and he should not only be an archæologist, but a
+botanist and a herald besides;[282] and, in fact, no kind of knowledge
+is useless in deciphering the secrets of human art. But even when so
+armed, he is often checked and puzzled by some accidental caprice of
+design or mode of weaving, and after wasting trouble and time, has to
+cast it aside as defying classification.
+
+It is, however, as well to note these exceptions, as, when compared,
+they sometimes explain each other.
+
+What I have said regards, of course, the historical and archæological
+side of the study of textiles, and I have treated of them as being
+either the origin or the imitations of different styles of embroidery,
+and so inseparably connected with the art which is the subject and
+motive of this book; and not only in this does the connection between
+them exist, but in the fact that as embroideries always need a ground,
+silken and other textiles are an absolute necessity to their
+existence.
+
+For these reasons alone I have given this chapter on materials, short
+and imperfect, but suggesting further research into the writings of
+the authors I have quoted, and, I hope, exciting the interest of the
+reader.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [130] Periplus of the Erythrean Sea.
+
+    [131] It is described by Yates as having the appearance
+    of a flat ribbon, with the edges thickened like a hem.
+
+    [132] This rough bark is probably the reason that it
+    absorbs colour into its substance (perhaps under the
+    scales); and it may also account for its being capable
+    of felting.
+
+    [133] It may be laid down as a fundamental rule in
+    technical style, that the product shall preserve the
+    peculiar characteristics of the raw material.
+    Unfortunately, the artist is often ignorant of the
+    qualities of the fabric for which he is designing, and
+    the workman who has to carry it out is a mechanic, in
+    these days, instead of a craftsman.
+
+    [134] Molochinus, or malva silvestris (wild hemp),
+    Yates, pp. 292-317, is sometimes spoken of as a mallow,
+    sometimes as a nettle. In the Vocabulary of Papias (A.D.
+    1050) it is said that the cloth called molocina is made
+    from thread of mallow, and used for dress in Egypt.
+    Garments of molochinus were brought from India,
+    according to the Periplus (see Pliny, 146, 166, 170,
+    171). It was seldom used by the ancients, but both
+    Greeks and Romans made it serve for mats and ropes. The
+    Thracians wove of it garments and sheets. It is not
+    named in the Scriptures.
+
+    [135] See Gibbs' "British Honduras."
+
+    [136] Spartum was a rush. Pliny says it was used for the
+    rigging of ships.
+
+    [137] The bark of trees such as the Hybiscus Tiliaceus,
+    and that of the Birch (see Yates, p. 305-6). Birch bark
+    was embroidered, till latterly, by the Indian women in
+    North America with porcupines' quills. Pigafetta says
+    (writing in the sixteenth century) that in the kingdom
+    of Congo many different kinds of stuff were manufactured
+    from the palm-tree fibre. He instances cloths on which
+    patterns were wrought, and likewise a material
+    resembling "velvet on both sides."
+
+    [138] "Camoca" or caman in the Middle Ages is supposed
+    to have been of camels' hair, mixed with silk. Edward
+    the Black Prince left to his confessor his bed of red
+    caman, with his arms embroidered on each corner. Rock
+    (p. xliv) gives us information about the tents and
+    garments of camels' hair found throughout the East,
+    wherever the camel flourishes and has a fine hairy
+    winter coat, which it sheds in the heat. The coarser
+    parts are used for common purposes, and the finest serve
+    for beautiful fabrics, especially shawls. Marco Polo
+    tells of beautiful camelots manufactured from the hair
+    of camels; and of the Egyptian coarse and very fine
+    fabrics woven of the same materials.
+
+    [139] "Le Chevalier à Deux Epées" (quoted by Dr. Rock),
+    and Lady Wilton, "Art of Needlework," p. 128.
+
+    [140] See p. 359, _post_, for Boadicea's dress.
+
+    [141] See Mr. Villiers Stuart's "Funeral Tent of an
+    Egyptian Queen."
+
+    [142] The Moors in Spain excelled in leather-work and
+    embroidery upon it; and Marco Polo describes the
+    beautiful productions of the province of Guzerat, of
+    leather inlaid and embroidered with gold and silver
+    wire. Yule's "Marco Polo," p. 383.
+
+    [143] See chapter on Stitches.
+
+    [144] See Chardin, vol. i. p. 31.
+
+    [145] Tin, called "laton," was used to debase the metal
+    threads in the Middle Ages. It is also named as a
+    legitimate material for metal embroideries.
+
+    [146] For all information about asbestos, see Yates, pp.
+    356, 565.
+
+    [147] There is one at the Barberini Palace at Rome. A
+    sheet, woven of asbestos, found in a tomb outside the
+    Porta Maggiore, is described by Sir J. E. Smith in his
+    "Tour on the Continent" (vol. ii. p. 201) as being
+    coarsely spun, but as soft and pliant as silk. "We set
+    fire to it, and the same part being repeatedly burnt,
+    was not at all injured."
+
+    [148] See Yule's "Marco Polo," vol. i. pp. 215, 218, and
+    Yates, p. 361.
+
+    [149] There are specimens of bead-work pictures at St.
+    Stephen's at Coire, in the Marien-Kirche at Dantzic, and
+    elsewhere. See Rock, p. cv. This is, in fact, mosaic in
+    textiles, without cement.
+
+    [150] Witness the stone whorls for the spindles in our
+    prehistoric barrows, and the "heaps" of the lake cities.
+
+    [151] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 129.
+
+    [152] An Egyptian Dynasty called themselves the Shepherd
+    Kings.
+
+    [153] Yates gives endless quotations to show how ancient
+    and how honourable an occupation was that of tending
+    sheep.
+
+    [154] Semper, i. p. 139. The cover of the bed on which
+    was laid the golden coffin in the tomb of Cyrus was of
+    Babylonian tapestry of wool; the carpet beneath it was
+    woven of the finest wrought purple. Plautus mentions
+    Babylonian hangings and embroidered tapestries. See
+    Birdwood's "Indian Arts," i. p. 286.
+
+    [155] Joshua vii.
+
+    [156] Ezekiel xxvii. 22.
+
+    [157] Semper, "Der Stil," i. p. 138.
+
+    [158] Yates, pp. 79, 91, 93, 99, 102, 445. Lanæ Albæ.
+
+        "The first, Apulia's; next is Parma's boast;
+        And the third fleece Altinum has engrossed."
+
+                                      Martial, xiv. Ep. 155.
+
+    Martial also speaks of the matchless Tarentine togæ, a
+    present from Parthenius:--
+
+        "With thee the lily and the privet pale
+        Compared, and Tibur's whitest ivory fail;
+        The Spartan swan, the Paphian doves deplore
+        Their hue, and pearls on the Erythrean shore."
+
+                                      Martial, viii. Ep. 28.
+
+    [159] The sheep of Tarentum, from the days of the Greek
+    colonists, were famed, as they are still, for the warm
+    brown tints on their black wool. Pliny says that this is
+    caused by the weed _fumio_, on which they browsed.
+    Swinburne says, in his "Travels in the Two Sicilies,"
+    that there the wool is so tinged by the plant now called
+    _fumolo_, which grows on the coast.
+
+    [160] See Blümner's "Technologie," p. 92; also "Comptes
+    Rendus de la Commission Impériale Archéologique" of St.
+    Petersburg, 1881; also the Catalogue Raisonnée of Herr
+    Graf'schen's Egyptian Collection of Textiles at Vienna.
+
+    [161] See Pliny's "Natural History," viii. 74, § 191.
+    Tanaquil is credited with the first invention of the
+    seamless coat or cassock.
+
+    [162] The Gauls in Britain wove plaids or tartans. See
+    Rock, p. xii; Blümner, pp. 152-54; Birdwood, p. 286.
+
+    [163] Pliny, "Natural History," book viii., 73, 74.
+
+    [164] "Georgics," iv. 334; Yates, p. 35.
+
+    [165] "Comptes Rendus de la Commission Impériale
+    Archéologique," St. Petersburg, 1881. Much of this
+    Gobelin weaving has lately been found in Egypt. See
+    "Katalog der Teodor Graf'schen Fünde in Ægypten," von
+    Dr. J. Karabacek.
+
+    [166] Semper considers that the famous Babylonian and
+    Phrygian stuffs were all woollen, and that gold was
+    woven or embroidered on them. See "Der Stil," i. p. 138.
+
+    [167] Worcester cloth was forbidden to the Benedictines
+    by a Chapter of that Order at Westminster Abbey in 1422,
+    as being fine enough for soldiers, and therefore too
+    good for monks. See Rock's Introduction, p. lxxviii.
+
+    [168] Both these fabrics are represented in Egyptian and
+    Greek fragments, and are equally well preserved.
+
+    [169] Boyd Dawkins, "Early Man in Britain," pp. 268,
+    275.
+
+    [170] See Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," vol. iii. p.
+    116; Yates, p. 23.
+
+    [171] It appears that the art of printing textiles was
+    known in Egypt in the time of Pliny. See Yates, p. 272,
+    quoting Apuleius, Met. l. xi.; also see Wilkinson,
+    "Ancient Egyptians," vol. ii. p. 196, pl. xii.
+
+    [172] See Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 268, 335;
+    Herodotus, ii. 86. Herodotus and Strabo speak of
+    Babylonian linen, cited by Yates, p. 281.
+
+    [173] "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 267-80. A peculiarity
+    of Egyptian linen is that it was often woven with more
+    threads in the warp than in the woof. A specimen in the
+    Indian Museum, South Kensington, shows in its delicate
+    texture 140 threads in the inch to the warp, and 64 to
+    the woof. Another piece of fine linen has 270 to the
+    warp, and 110 to the woof. Generally there are twice or
+    three times as many threads, but sometimes even four
+    times the number. Wilkinson gives a probable reason for
+    this peculiarity. See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians,"
+    vol. i. chap. ix. pp. 121-226. See Rock's Introduction,
+    p. xiv.
+
+    [174] De Somniis, vol. i. p. 653. Yates, p. 271.
+
+    [175] Philo, cited by Yates, p. 271.
+
+    [176] Paulinus ad Cytherium, cited by Yates, p. 273.
+
+    [177] Herodotus, l. ii. c. 182, l. iii. c. 47.
+    Rawlinson's Trans.
+
+    [178] Proverbs vii. 16.
+
+    [179] Yates, p. 291. Denon describes a tunic found in a
+    sarcophagus, which he examined, and says: "The weaving
+    was extremely loose, of thread as fine as a hair, of two
+    strands of twisted flax fibre."--Auberville's "Ornement
+    des Tissus," p. 4. Some marvellously fine specimens of
+    such cambric may be seen at the South Kensington Museum
+    and the British Museum.
+
+    [180] Not that we have any remains of flax linen from
+    their tombs.
+
+    [181] It was carried thence, at a prehistoric date, to
+    Assyria and Egypt.
+
+    [182] There is no proof that it was grown in Egypt till
+    the fourteenth century A.D., when it is mentioned for
+    the first time in a MS. of that date of the "Codex
+    Antwerpianus." See Yates, Appendix E, p. 470.
+
+    [183] Birdwood, p. 241.
+
+    [184] Puggaree. Yates says that cotton has always been
+    supposed to be the best preserver against sunstroke, p.
+    341.
+
+    [185] _Carpas_, the proper Oriental name for cotton, is
+    found in the same sense in the Sanskrit, Arabic, and
+    Persian languages. Yates, p. 341.
+
+    [186] In the Æneid, the garment of Chloreus the Phrygian
+    is thus described:--
+
+        "His saffron chlamys, and each rustling fold
+        Of muslin (_carpas_), was confined with glittering gold."
+
+                                             Æneid, xi. 775.
+
+    [187] Dakka muslins are the most esteemed. Their poetic
+    names, "running water," "woven air," "evening dew," are
+    more descriptive than pages of prose. See Birdwood, ii.
+    p. 259.
+
+    [188] Chintzes, calicoes, fine cloths, and strong
+    tent-cloths, cotton carpets, &c., &c. Forbes Watson
+    classifies the calicoes as being white, bleached and
+    unbleached, striped, &c., printed chintzes, or
+    pintadoes. See Birdwood, p. 260.
+
+    [189] For Buckram and Fustian, see Rock, pp. lxxxv,
+    lxxxvi. In Lady Burgeweny's (Abergavenny) will, 1434,
+    she leaves as part of the furnishings of her bed "of
+    gold of swan," two pairs of sheets of Raine (Rennes),
+    and a pair of fustian. Anne Boleyn's list of clothes
+    contains "Bokerams, for lining and taynting," gowns,
+    sleeves, cloaks, and beds. Rock, lxxxvi. Renouard, in
+    his "Romaunce Dictionary," quotes the following: "Vestæ
+    de Polpia e de Bisso qui est bacaram." For the antiquity
+    of this fabric, see Herr Graf'schen's Catalogue of
+    Textiles from the Fayoum.
+
+    [190] See Yates, p. 300, citing "Herod's silver
+    apparel."
+
+    [191] "Indian Arts," ii. p. 237.
+
+    [192] Rock, p. xxv. Yates (p. 3) says they cut their
+    gold for wearing apparel into thin plates, and did not
+    draw it into wire, as it is translated in the Vulgate
+    (Exodus xxxix.). The ephod made by Bezaleel was of fine
+    linen, gold, violet, purple, and scarlet, twice dyed,
+    with embroidered work. This tradition must have guided
+    the artist who designed the ephod in the National Museum
+    at Munich, in the seventeenth century, for a prince
+    boy-bishop.
+
+    [193] Quintus Curtius says that many thousands, clothed
+    in these costly materials, crowded out of Damascus to
+    meet Alexander.
+
+    [194] There is a very ancient local tradition at Shûsh,
+    that A.D. 640, in the reign of the Kaliph Omar, the body
+    of the prophet Daniel was found, wrapped in cloth of
+    gold, in a stone coffin; and, by order of the victorious
+    general, it was placed in one of glass, and moored to
+    the bridge which spanned the branch of the Euphrates
+    flowing between the two halves of the city, so that the
+    waters flowed over it. See "Chaldea and Susiana," by
+    Loftus, and Sir G. W. Gore Ouseley's translation of a
+    Persian version of "The Book of Victories." Alexander is
+    said to have been buried in a glass coffin. (See
+    Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," ii. p. 102, note +.)
+
+    [195] Yates, pp. 367-70; Rock, p. xxvi.
+
+    [196] "Aura intexere eadem Asiâ invenit Attalus Rex unde
+    nomen Attalicis."--Pliny, viii. c. 48, and Yates, p.
+    371. The reign of Attalus II. was B.C. 159-188.
+
+    [197] "And they did beat the gold into plates, and cut
+    it into wires, and work it into the blue, and the
+    purple, and the fine linen."--Exod. xxxix.
+
+    [198] See Yates, p. 371; and Bock, xxxiii.
+
+    [199] Pliny, xxxiii. In the Museum at Leyden there is a
+    shred of gold cloth found in a tomb at Tarquinia, in
+    Etruria. This is a compactly woven covering over bright
+    yellow silk.
+
+    [200] Gold wire is still worked through leather at
+    Guzerat. See Birdwood, p. 284, Ed. 1880. Marco Polo
+    mentions this embroidery 600 years ago. Bk. iii. chap.
+    xxvi. (Yule). The hunting cuirass of Assurbanipal (pl.
+    1) appears to be so worked, and of such materials. Also
+    see Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," vol. iii. p. 130.
+    This gold for weaving was beaten into shape with
+    hammers.
+
+    [201] Pope Eutichinus, in the third century, buried many
+    martyrs in golden robes.
+
+    [202] "Liber Pontificalis," t. ii. p. 332.
+
+    [203] See Rock, pp. xxvii, xxxv; and Parker's "Use of
+    the Levitical Colours," p. 49.
+
+    [204] See Yates, p. 376.
+
+    [205] Rock, p. xxxv. The toga picta, or trabea, part of
+    the official dress of her sons.
+
+    [206] Hoveden's "Annal." p. 481, Ed. Savile; Rock, p.
+    xxx.
+
+    [207] See "Archæologia," 1880, pp. 317, 322; also Pl.
+    74, No. 20 (_post_).
+
+    [208] Bock, "L. Gewänder," taf. ix. vol. i.
+
+    [209] Rock, p. xxxvii.
+
+    [210] Ciclatoun, according to Rock, p. xxxix, is a
+    common Persian name for such tissues in the East. This,
+    in common with nasick, nak, and many other beautiful
+    tissues, was wrought in gold with figures of birds and
+    beasts.--Yule's "Marco Polo," ed. 1875, i. p. 65.
+
+    Dr. Rock quotes the old ballad,--
+
+        "In a robe right royall bowne,
+        Of a red ciclatoune,
+          Be her fader's syde;
+        A coronall on her hede sett,
+        Her clothes with byrdes of gold were bette
+          All about for pryde."
+
+    [211] In St. Paul's in London there was formerly an
+    amice adorned with the figures of two bishops and a
+    king, hammered out of silver, and gilt. Dugdale, ed.
+    1818, p. 318. See also Rock, pp. xxix-xxxii.
+
+    [212] Museum at Berne.
+
+    [213] A piece of Venetian work to be seen at the South
+    Kensington Museum is an altar frontal, worked in coral,
+    gold beads, seed pearls, and spangles. All jewellers'
+    work, including enamel, was much admired and introduced
+    into their embroideries. (See Rock's Introduction to
+    Catalogue of the Kensington Museum, pp. civ-cviii, ed.
+    1870.)
+
+    [214] On this gorgeous piece of Italian art there are
+    added a number of buttons (for we can give them no other
+    name), with crosses and hearts under crystal, which seem
+    to have belonged to another period and workmanship, or
+    else are to be attributed to a superstitious feeling on
+    the part of the maker, who placed these Christian signs,
+    perhaps, surreptitiously, and for the good of his own
+    soul.
+
+    [215] The Museum of National Art at Munich has a fine
+    collection of gold and silver, spangled, and black bead
+    head-dresses, now mostly antiquated, though in peasant
+    dress it yet survives.
+
+    [216] It is embroidered in gold, with red silk and gems;
+    and I have elsewhere said that it probably issued from
+    the Hotel de Tiraz at Messina.
+
+    [217] Terry, in his "Voyage to the East Indies," speaks
+    of the rich carpets (p. 128): "The ground of some of
+    these is silver or gold, about which such arabesques in
+    flowers and figures as I have before named are most
+    excellently disposed."
+
+    [218] These of late years have been the most gorgeous
+    objects at exhibitions of old needlework, and the
+    ambition and despair of collectors.
+
+    [219] Gold thread was also made of gilt paper, equally
+    by the Moors and the Japanese.
+
+    [220] In Aikin's "Life of James I.," p. 205, we have a
+    curious account of the monopoly of gold thread, that had
+    been granted, with others, to George Villiers, Duke of
+    Buckingham. The thread was so scandalously debased with
+    copper as to corrode the hands of the artificers, and
+    even the flesh of those who wore it. This adulterated
+    article they sold at an exorbitant price, and if they
+    detected any one making a cheaper or better article,
+    they were empowered to fine or imprison them, while a
+    clause in their patent protected themselves. The
+    manufacturers of this base metal thread were two
+    Frenchmen, Mompesson and Michel, and Edward Villiers,
+    the Marquis' brother, was one of the firm. Doubtless
+    they drove for a time a roaring trade, as gold
+    embroideries were then universally worn, both by men and
+    women; but the House of Commons interfered, and the
+    monopoly was abolished.
+
+    [221] Mitre of white satin, with two figure subjects in
+    flat gold--the martyrdom of St. Stephen, and that of St.
+    Thomas of Canterbury.
+
+    [222] The School of Gold Embroidery at Munich produces
+    work of a richness and precision which has, perhaps,
+    never been excelled. The raised parts of the design are
+    first cast in soft hollow "carton," and the gold is
+    worked on it and into the recesses with the help of a
+    fine stiletto, which pioneers the needle for each
+    stitch. This is embroidery "on the stamp," but without
+    padding.
+
+    [223] Bock, "L. Gewänder," vol. i. p. 48. Prizes are
+    offered at Lyons for the best mode of manufacturing gold
+    and silver thread that will not tarnish.
+
+    [224] Yates says, pp. 160-162: "Whether silk was
+    mentioned in the Old Testament cannot, perhaps, be
+    determined. After fully considering the subject,
+    Braunius decides against silk being known to the Hebrews
+    in ancient times ('De Vestitu Heb. Sacerdotum,' i. c.
+    viii.)." The contrary opinion is founded on the passage,
+    "I clothed thee with broidered work, and shod thee with
+    badger-skins. I girded thee about with fine linen, and
+    covered thee with silk" (_meshi_).--Ezekiel xvi. But the
+    translation is disputed.
+
+    [225] "Code of Manu," xi. 168; xii. 64. Yates,
+    "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 204.
+
+    [226] Auberville, "Ornement des Tissus," p. ii.
+
+    [227] Yates (pp. 173, 174) believes that "Cos" should
+    always be read for Cios, about which there seems to be
+    some confusion. Chios has also been substituted for the
+    name of "Cos," the island.
+
+    There is no doubt that the Roman ladies obtained their
+    most splendid garments from Cos--perhaps of wool as well
+    as of silk.
+
+    [228] Birdwood, "Textile Arts of India," ii. p. 269.
+
+    [229] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 204.
+
+    [230] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," note (*), p. 184.
+    Aristotle (fourth century B.C.), however, had already
+    given evidence respecting the use of silk, which was
+    adopted and repeated by Pliny, Clemens Alexandrinus, and
+    Basil. Aristotle tells the story of Pamphile. One
+    thousand years later Procopius (sixth century A.D.) says
+    the raw material was then brought from the East, and
+    woven in the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Berytus.
+    See Yates, pp. 163, 164.
+
+    [231] Ibid., note (*), p. 184.
+
+    [232] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 181.
+
+    [233] I have mentioned this already, to prove the
+    antiquity of the art of embroidery. Here I repeat it in
+    reference to the first mention of silk. (See p. 38
+    _ante_.)
+
+    [234] "Bibliothèque Orientale de M. Herbelot," ed. 1778,
+    vol. iii. p. 19.
+
+    [235] Auberville, p. 2; Yates (pp. 172, 173) calls her
+    Si-ling, wife of Hoang-ti, and quotes the "Resumé des
+    Principaux Tractes Chinois," traduits par Stanislas
+    Julien, 1837, pp. 67, 68.
+
+    [236] Auberville, "Histoire des Tissus," pp. 2-4; "Du
+    Halde," vol. ii. pp. 355, 356 (8vo edition, London,
+    1736).
+
+    [237] Related by Klaproth, the Russian Orientalist.
+
+    [238] Yates, p. 238. "History of Khotan," translated by
+    M. Abel Rémusat, pp. 55, 56.
+
+    [239] Khotan or Little Bucharia would, in common
+    parlance, be included in Serica; and therefore silk
+    exported thence to Europe would have been perfectly
+    described as coming from the Seres. Yates, p. 231, 232.
+
+    [240] Yates, p. 231.
+
+    [241] While in Europe the arts of daily use and
+    decoration were struggling for life after many
+    interruptions and revolutions, the civilization of
+    Japan, which is nearly contemporary with Christianity,
+    spent itself in perfecting to the most exquisite finish
+    the arts which had been imported from China and Corea.
+    Japan also inherited the power and the tradition of
+    concealment, and so Europe remained unconscious, until
+    the last century, of the miraculous arts which a
+    semi-barbarous people were cultivating--_not_ for
+    commercial purposes. Auberville, "Tissus," pp. 2-4.
+
+    [242] Yates, pp. 175-184.
+
+    [243] Yates, p. 176. The silken flags attached to the
+    gilt standards of the Parthians inflamed the cupidity of
+    the army of Crassus. The conflict between them took
+    place 54 B.C. About thirty years after this date, Roman
+    luxury had reached its zenith--
+
+        "The insatiate Roman spreads his conquering arm
+        O'er land and sea, where'er heaven's light extends."
+
+                               "Petronius Arbiter," c. cxix.
+
+    After these words he says that among the richest
+    productions of distant climes, the Seres sent their "new
+    fleeces."
+
+    [244] Yates, p. 183.
+
+    [245] "Holosericum," whole silk; "subsericum," partly
+    cotton, hemp, or flax. The longitudinal threads or warp,
+    cotton; the cross threads, silk. Rock, "Textile
+    Fabrics," p. xxxvii (ed. 1870).
+
+    [246] Yates, p. 195.
+
+    [247] Yates, p. 198. For the value of the denarius, see
+    Waddington, "Edit. de Diocletien," p. 3.
+
+    [248] Gruter, tom. iii. p. 645; Yates, p. 205.
+
+    [249] Yates, p. 246. The words "silk" and "satin" are
+    spoken of by Yates as having two derivations--the one
+    imported to us through Greece and Italy, the other from
+    Eastern Asia, through Slavonia, by the north of Europe.
+
+    [250] Yates, p. 231; who remarks, p. 203, that the laws
+    of Justinian are not directed against the use of silk as
+    a luxury, but rather as appropriating it as an imperial
+    monopoly and source of revenue.
+
+    [251] Tom. ii. p. 106 (ed. 1630). See Yates, p. 213.
+
+    [252] Yates, p. 214.
+
+    [253] Auberville, Plate 4. Amongst these are what he
+    calls "Consular silks." These are, or may be, included
+    in the palmated class, as they are evidently woven for
+    triumphal occasions. One of the most remarkable has
+    every mark of Oriental design. It represents a picture
+    in a circle, repeated over and over again, of a warrior
+    in his quadriga. Black or coloured slaves drive the
+    horses, either running beside them or standing upon
+    them; and other slaves carry beasts on their shoulders,
+    and are stooping to give them drink at a trough. The
+    space between the circles is filled in with the tree of
+    life, growing out of its two horns. The colours are
+    purple and gold. He places this between the first and
+    seventh centuries (see pl. 34).
+
+    [254] There are, however, a few that have not had the
+    security of the tomb, and yet have survived, such as the
+    chasuble and maniple at Bayeux, of the seventh century,
+    and Charlemagne's dalmatic.
+
+    [255] Roger de Wendover, "Chronica," t. iv. p. 127, ed.
+    Coxe. Quoted by Rock from Ralph, Dean of St. Paul's. See
+    Rock, Introduction, p. lv.
+
+    [256] Roger de Wendover, "Chronica," t. iv., ed. Coxe;
+    also Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 243, 244.
+
+    [257] In the twelfth century. Semper, i. p. 38.
+
+    [258] See illustration from the portrait of Sultan
+    Mahomet II., by Gentil Bellini. _Ante_, p. 146, Plate
+    33.
+
+    [259] See Semper, p. 157.
+
+    [260] The Sicilian type of design in silk-weaving was
+    carried into Germany about the end of the second period.
+    We are informed by Auberville that there existed at that
+    time a manufacture of ecclesiastical stuffs at Leipzig,
+    from which he gives us fine examples.
+
+    [261] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," vol. ii. Taf.
+    xxxiii. The pattern is twelfth century "metal work,"
+    embroidered in gold.
+
+    [262] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," iii., pl.
+    xvi.; v., pl. xxxiv. In general, a scarf floats from the
+    prow or from the oars.
+
+    [263] The Crusaders carried away splendid booty from the
+    towns they took and ransacked. As it was the great
+    gathering-place of all Eastern and Western nations,
+    Jerusalem was a mart for rich merchandise from Persia,
+    Arabia, Syria, and Phoenicia, till the times of the
+    Latin kings. Antioch, as well as Jerusalem, yielded the
+    richest plunder. Matthew Paris (a contemporary
+    historian), speaking of what was taken at Antioch, 1098,
+    says, "At the division of costly vessels, crosses,
+    weavings, and silken stuffs, every beggar in the
+    crusading army was enriched." Alexandria, as early as
+    the middle of the sixth century, A.D., had been the
+    depôt for the silken stuffs of Libya and Morocco. Here
+    is a wide area opened to us for suggestions as to the
+    origin and traditions of patterns in silk textile art.
+    See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," vol. i. pp. 29, 30.
+
+    [264] Rock, Introduction, p. ccxlviii, and p. 268, No.
+    8710.
+
+    [265] The weaving of inscriptions in textiles is not a
+    Saracenic invention. Pliny says it was a custom among
+    the Parthians. See Rock's "Textile Fabrics," p. lxi.
+
+    "In allusion to lettered garments, Ausonius thus
+    celebrates Sabina, of whom we otherwise know nothing:--
+
+        "'They who both webs and verses weave,
+        The first to thee, oh chaste Minerva, leave;
+          The latter to the Muses they devote.
+        To me, Sabina, it appears a sin
+        To separate two things so near akin;
+          So I have writ these verses on my coat.'"
+
+    See Lady Wilton on "Needlework," p. 53.
+
+    [266] Birdwood, "Indian Arts," p. 274.
+
+    [267] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 244; Tegrini,
+    "Vita Castruccii," in Muratore, "Ital. Script.," t. xi.
+    p. 1320.
+
+    [268] Riano, "Cat. of Loan Exhibition of Spanish Art in
+    South Kensington Museum," 1882, p. 46.
+
+    [269] In Hoveden's account of the fleet of Richard I.
+    coasting the shores of Spain, he speaks of the delicate
+    and valuable textures of the silks of Almeria. Rog.
+    Hoveden, Ann., ed. Savile, p. 382. Rock, p. xx.
+
+    [270] Bock, pp. 39, 40, quotes from Anastasius and the
+    Abbot of Fontenelle, proving that silken rugs were
+    manufactured in Spain by the Moors.
+
+    [271] Auberville, "Histoire des Tissus," p. 14.
+
+    [272] Yule's "Marco Polo," p. 224. "Baudakin" from
+    Baghdad, "damask" from Damascus. "Baudakin" was woven
+    with beasts, birds, and flowers in gold.
+
+    [273] "Récit de Robert Clari." He was one of the
+    companions of Ville d'Hardouin, and a witness to the
+    coronation of Baldwin II. See Auberville's "Histoire des
+    Tissus," p. 21.
+
+    [274] Satin is called by Marco Polo "zettani," and he
+    says it came from Syria. The French called it "zatony;"
+    the Spaniards named it "aceytuni," which is probably
+    derived from "zaituniah," the product of Zaiton. Yates
+    (p. 246) gives the derivations of the words satin and
+    silk; the one imported to us through Greece and Italy,
+    the other from Eastern Asia, through Slavonia and
+    Northern Europe.
+
+    [275] Ibid. In the Wigalois, a story is told of a cavern
+    in Asia full of everlasting flames, where costly fellat
+    was made by the Salamanders, which was fireproof and
+    indestructible.
+
+    [276] "Man of Lawe's Tale: Canterbury Pilgrims."
+
+    [277] "Ohitos terciopelos" (three-piled-velvet eyes) is
+    a pretty Spanish phrase, describing the soft, dark,
+    shadowy eyes of the Spanish girls.
+
+    [278] The Italian word _velluto_ means "shaggy."
+
+    [279] Bock, i. pp. 99-101.
+
+    [280] Buckram was sometimes a silken plush, but
+    generally was woven with cotton. This was also Asiatic,
+    and named by travellers of the twelfth and thirteenth
+    centuries. I have already mentioned it as a textile in
+    the chapter on cotton. When woven of silk it belongs to
+    the class of velvets.
+
+    [281] Elsewhere I have spoken of the embroideries of the
+    early Christian times found in the Fayoum, in Egypt.
+    These afford notable examples of the ancient method in
+    putting in patches on a worn or frayed garment. They
+    invariably embroidered them, and so added a grace to the
+    old and honoured vestment, and justified the classical
+    appellation, "Healer of clothes" for a darner. The
+    comparatively modern additions of the restorer, are in
+    ancient as in later specimens, often a puzzle to the
+    archæologist.
+
+    [282] The specimens in the South Kensington Museum,
+    where Dr. Rock gives their approximate dates, are most
+    useful to the student of this subject.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+COLOUR.
+
+    "My soul, what gracious glorious powers
+    To hue and radiance God has given!"
+
+                                  Cautley, "Emblems," p. 21.
+
+
+It is my intention to confine myself to the discussion of colour, in
+as far as it belongs to the dyes of textiles and the materials for
+embroidery. I will adhere as closely as I can to this part of what is
+a great and most interesting subject--one which the science of to-day
+has opened out, and by the test of experiment, cleared of erroneous
+theories; revealing to us all its beauty and fitness for the use and
+delight of man.
+
+As through all ages the eye has been gradually educated to appreciate
+_harmony_ in colour, so _dissonance_--that is, what errs against
+harmony--hurts us, without apparently a sufficient reason; and we have
+to seek the causes of our sensations in the scientific works and
+lectures of Professor Tyndall and others.
+
+There is no doubt that the appreciation of colour has belonged in
+different degrees to the eye of every animal, but especially to that
+of man, ever since light first painted the flowers of the field. The
+eye is created to see colour, as well as form. But we know that men,
+being accustomed to acquiesce in the powers with which they find
+themselves gifted by nature, enjoy and use them, long before they
+begin to study, classify, and name them.
+
+When we recollect that the circulation of the blood was not known
+within the last three hundred years, and that Albert Dürer painted
+the skeleton Death on the bridge of Lucerne, with one bone in the
+upper and one in the lower arm, we shall be surprised to find that the
+ancients had named the colours they saw, with some degree of
+descriptive and scientific precision. The word "purple," for instance,
+covered a multitude of tints, which had not as yet been
+differentiated, either in common parlance or in poetry,[283] though as
+articles of commerce the purple tints had been early distinguished.
+
+What names have we now, in this present advanced day, for defining
+tastes or smells? We say that something smells like a violet, or a
+rose, or a sea breeze, or a frosted cabbage. We say a smell is nice or
+nasty, that a taste is delicious or nauseous; but beyond calling it
+sweet or sour, we have no descriptive words for either smells or
+tastes, whereas the nations who traded in the materials for dyes
+exchanged their nomenclatures, which we can recognize from the
+descriptive remarks of different authors.
+
+Colour, as an art, was born in those lands which cluster round the
+eastern shores of the Mediterranean--the northern coasts of Syria and
+Arabia, and the isles of Greece. All art grew in that area, and all
+its adjuncts and materials there came to perfection, though often
+imported from more southern and eastern sources.[284]
+
+E. Curtius says that the science of colour came into Europe with the
+Phoenicians and accompanied the worship of Astarte. This, of course,
+applies to artistic textiles, as the Greeks had already acquired the
+art of dyeing for plain weaving. Numa, in his regulations for
+necessary weaving, refers also to colour. The Italians therefore
+must at that time have made some advance in the art, especially the
+Etruscans.[285]
+
+The infinity of variation in colour is difficult to imagine. The
+chemists of the Gobelins have fixed and catalogued 4480 tones.
+Besides, we must not forget that it is now all but ascertained that
+the same colour is probably appreciated differently by nearly every
+eye.[286]
+
+How the eye accepts colours and conveys them to the mind is still a
+question in dispute, though the theories of Tyndall, Helmholz, Hering,
+Charpentier, and others, aided by experiments, are drawing ascertained
+facts into a circle, which will ere long be complete, and the
+mysteries of colour may be ascertained.
+
+Probably the effects of colour on educated minds are as various as the
+tints and shades of tones of the many substances which receive
+them,--reflected from all surrounding objects, blazing in light, or
+softened by shadow,--fresh and glowing, or permanently faded--shining
+with modern varnish, or sobered by the dust of ages.
+
+It is the art of the colourist, whether he paints pictures, or dyes
+textiles, or embroiders them, to reduce the tints of the prism to an
+endurable and delightful lowness of tone, while preserving as far as
+possible all their light and purity.
+
+Prismatic colours are so radiantly glorious, that when we see the
+rainbow in the sky it is each time a joyful surprise. The most stolid
+natures are moved by it; we have even seen our dog staring at it.
+
+When, in experiments on light, the shafts of colour are thrown on the
+wall, they are greeted with shouts of admiration; but these glories
+are veiled to us by the fact that the eye cannot dissect the prismatic
+ray without the assistance of the instrument that has revealed it.
+This is a merciful arrangement; for we are not fitted to live in a
+prismatic display, any more than in a continuity of lightning flashes.
+We should go mad or blind if exposed to either.
+
+Science has shown us the perfect beauty of colour without form, the
+soothing pleasures of its harmonies, and the delightful surprises of
+its contrasts. From the glimpses we have of its nature and laws, we
+may hope for fresh inspiration for the art of the colourist.
+
+Though it is true that each eye, even when educated, retains its own
+special appreciation of the colours that gratify its seeing nerve, yet
+there are certain standards which give almost universal pleasure.[287]
+
+The blind and the colour-blind must remain exceptions for all time;
+and there are many gradations in colour-blindness, till we come to the
+normal class of seeing eyes; and passing them by, reach to those few
+men, gifted beyond all others with that fund of sensitive eye-nerve
+and mental power, which enables them to create new thoughts in
+colour.[288] Titian and his school arose from the inherited science
+and tradition, and carefully prepared pigments of his immediate
+predecessors, acting on an exceptional eye and mind, imbued with the
+splendours of the early mornings and the sunsets in the glowing
+atmosphere of Venice.
+
+Colour has long been supposed to convey certain impressions to the
+mind. The absence of all colour, which we call "black," symbolizes in
+dress, grief, pride, or dignity; according as it drapes the mourner,
+the Spanish grandee, or the priest.[289] Yellow being the colour of
+the sun and of corn and gold, represents riches, generosity, and
+light. Red stands between the dark and the lively colours, and
+represents warmth and animation, dignity, splendour, life, love, and
+joy.
+
+The expression of blue is that of purity. It recalls the distant sky,
+the calm ocean, and has an immortal and celestial character. It
+ascends to the highest and descends to the lowest tones of
+_chiaro-oscuro_. Nothing so nearly approaches pure white as the palest
+blue; nothing is so nearly black as the darkest.
+
+Green has been assigned by nature the place of the universal
+background. It is the complementary colour of red, softening and
+assimilating it by reflected shadows, and setting off the glory of
+every flower and fruit. The expression of green is gaiety and modesty,
+light and tenderness, shadow and repose, to both the eye and the
+mind.[290]
+
+It must be allowed that it is by the earliest associations of the
+individual, or by those derived from the family, the tribe or the
+nation, that colours are connected with such attributes welded by art
+and time into traditional meanings, which they absolutely
+possess,[291] and from which fashion cannot disconnect them; such,
+for instance, is the royalty of purple.
+
+The word purple is so indiscriminately used as a poetic epithet,
+rather than as a distinctive appellation, that much confusion has been
+caused by it. Historically, among the Persians, Greeks, and Romans it
+appears to have been simply the royal colour, varying from the purest
+blue, through every shade of violet, down to the deepest crimson.
+Sometimes, poetically, "purple" seems to have described only a
+surface. The breezy or stormy sea was purple; the sky was purple; the
+hyacinthine locks of Narcissus, the rosy lips of Venus were purple. As
+a textile, velvet was purple, even when it was white.[292]
+
+The epithets "purple" and "wine-coloured" are often bestowed on the
+Mediterranean Sea, and are justified by its occasional hue:--
+
+    "As from the clouds, deep-bosom'd, swell'd with showers,
+    A sudden storm the purple ocean sweeps,
+    Drives the wild waves, and tosses all the deeps."
+
+                       Pope's Homer, "Iliad," b. xi. v. 383.
+
+Professor Tyndall suggests that the soft green of the sea, shadowed by
+clouds, assumes a subjective purple hue. Homer must have observed this
+before he became blind.
+
+Pliny gives us much information about this colour; he enumerates the
+different sea-shores and coasts, Egyptian, Asiatic, and European,
+whence came the shell-fish (the murex and pelagia) that produced the
+so-called Tyrian purple dyes.[293]
+
+He says that Romulus wore the purple, and that the dyed garments, all
+purple, were sacred to the gods in those days. After saying that it
+was still a colour of distinction, he continues: "Let us be prepared
+to excuse the frantic passion for purple, though we are impelled to
+inquire why such a high value is placed on the produce of this fish,
+seeing that in the dye the smell of it is offensive, and the colour,
+of a greenish hue, resembles the sea when tempestuous." He describes
+purples[294] as being differently coloured according as to whether
+these "conchylia" inhabited the sea mud, the reefs, or the pebbly
+shores, the last being the most valuable.[295] This purple, said to
+have been imported from the coasts of Tyre, was till lately sold in
+Rome for its weight in gold; it gave the burning rosy red dye of the
+Cardinal's robes, and was called "Porpora encarnadina," purple
+incarnadine. It is full of light and freshness, and never fades; in
+fact, it has all the qualities ascribed to it by Pliny. It intensifies
+in the light.[296]
+
+After purple, scarlet was the colour most esteemed by the ancients.
+The Israelites must have carried with them the dyes which coloured the
+hangings, woven or embroidered, belonging to the sanctuary in the
+wilderness, of which the outer covering of rams' skins was dyed
+scarlet, and was probably of the nature of red morocco.[297]
+
+There was the mineral dye, (cinnabar or red sulphate of mercury), and
+the insect dye; the first was probably used in mural painting. It is
+translated in our Bible as vermilion, in the account given by Jeremiah
+of a "house, ceiled with cedar, and painted with vermilion."[298] Also
+Ezekiel gives us another instance of house-painting in vermilion.[299]
+Homer, who as a rule does not describe colouring, says the Greek ships
+were painted red.
+
+It is probable that cinnabar was tempered, by admixture of white or
+other colours, for the monochrome painting of the Egyptians and
+Greeks. It was called by the Greeks miltos, by the Romans minium.
+
+The dye of the red portions of the funeral tent of Queen Isi-em-Kheb,
+Shishak's mother-in-law, is found by analysis to be composed of
+hematite (peroxyde of iron) tempered with lime. This is a beautiful
+pink red.[300]
+
+The mineral red now called vermilion must have borrowed its name from
+the insect dye which the Greeks and Romans called "kermes." In the
+Middle Ages the dye from the kermes was still called "vermiculata," of
+which the word vermilion is a literal translation.
+
+We should be fortunate if we could find how the Greeks and Romans
+prepared the cinnabar for mural painting, of which we find remnants in
+ruins and tombs--a lovely and pure red, with a tender bloom on it like
+a fragment of the rainbow, and not the slightest shade of yellow.
+
+One of the most beautiful specimens of this scarlet that I am
+acquainted with, is a small drinking-cup (a "rhyton") at the British
+Museum, in the form of a sphinx, with a white face, gilded hair, and a
+little cap of pure cinnabar, which is so soft in tone that it suggests
+the texture of scarlet velvet.
+
+Cochineal, which was first brought from America in the sixteenth
+century, has now replaced almost every other scarlet dye for textiles.
+
+Crimson is once mentioned in Chronicles as karmel,[301] which may mean
+the dye of the kermes insect;[302] and from this the word crimson is
+legitimately derived. Whether the scarlet coupled with it is a
+vegetable, mineral, or insect colour, we have no means of
+ascertaining. "Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white
+as snow; though they be red as crimson, they shall be as wool."[303]
+
+From what Pliny says, it appears that some green dyes were produced
+from a green clay; others from metals. Copper furnished the most
+beautiful shades.
+
+Blue has always been extracted from indigo. Pliny tells us that the
+Phoenicians brought it from Barbarike, in the Indies, to Egypt; and
+he quotes the "Periplus" on this subject. He gives an amusing report
+that indigo is a froth collected round the stems of certain reeds; but
+he was aware of its characteristic property, that of emitting a
+beautiful purple vapour when submitted to great heat; and he says it
+smells like the sea. The Egyptians likewise extracted blues from
+copper.
+
+Yellow was anciently, in Egypt, sometimes a vegetable and sometimes a
+mineral dye. Browns and blacks were prepared from several substances,
+especially pine wood and the contents of tombs burned into a kind of
+charcoal.
+
+We find that lime, chalk, white lead, and other mineral substances
+were employed by the ancients for the different approaches to dazzling
+whiteness. That of the lily, the emblem of purity, can only be
+emulated in textile or pictorial art by opaque substances reduced as
+much as possible by bleaching to the last expression of the colour of
+the raw material. Nothing that is transparent can be really white, as
+colours are seen through it, as well as the reflected lights on the
+two surfaces.
+
+In painting, we can produce the effect of whiteness in different ways,
+leading by the gradation of tender colours and shadows up to a high
+light. But in textile art, which is essentially flat, it is necessary
+to pursue a different method, and that of isolation is the most simple
+and effective, and was well understood in Egypt, Greece, and India.
+The white pattern, or flower, is surrounded with a fine dark line
+(black is the best), which effectually separates it from all the
+surrounding colours, and gives it the effect of light, even when the
+whiteness retains enough of the natural colour of the raw material to
+tone it down very perceptibly. The eye accepts it as white, and
+ignores the tint that pervades it, and is hardly to be expelled from
+silk or wool. Linen and cotton are the whitest of materials, after
+passing through the hands of the chemist or the bleacher.
+
+It is amusing to observe that Pliny regarded colours, whether
+vegetable or mineral, rather as useful for the pharmacopeia of his
+day, than as dyes or artistic pigments. He speaks contemptuously of
+the art of his time, and yet he gives some curious hints that are well
+worth collecting for experiment. His fragmentary information, though
+often inaccurate, is most valuable to those who are seeking once more
+to find lasting colours, and despair of discovering mordants that will
+fix the aniline tints. From him we learn more of the Egyptian
+colouring materials than of any others, as he named their sources,
+European, Asiatic, or African; and there is no doubt of the perfection
+of their mural pigments and textile dyes, which have remained
+unimpaired to the present time.
+
+Renouf says that "painting, as it is now understood, was totally
+unknown to the Egyptians; but they understood harmony of colour,[304]
+and formulated in it certain principles for decorative uses. They made
+the primary colours predominate over the secondary by quantity and
+position. They introduced fillets of white or yellow in their
+embroideries, as well as in their paintings, between reds and greens,
+to isolate them; and they balanced masses of yellow with a due
+proportion of black." They never blended their colours, and had no
+sense of the harmony of prismatic gradations, or the melting of one
+tint into another; each was worked up to a hard and fast edge line. If
+in one part of a building, one set of colours predominated, they
+placed a greater proportion of other colours elsewhere, within the
+range of sight, so as to readjust the balance. Those they employed
+were mostly earthy mineral colours (used alike for frescoes and for
+painting cotton cloths, though vegetable dyes were needed for woollens
+and linens). These were: for _white_, pure chalk; for _black_,
+bone-black mixed with gum; for _yellow_, yellow ochre; for _green_, a
+mixture of yellow ochre and powdered blue glass; for _blue_, this same
+blue glass mixed with white chalk; for _red_, an earthy pigment
+containing iron and aluminium.[305] They understood the chemistry of
+bleaching, and the use of mordants in dyeing.[306]
+
+The statistical records of China of the time of Hias (2205 B.C.),
+according to Semper, mention colours as being of five tints, and all
+the produce of the Chinese Empire.[307]
+
+In the unchanging art of India, the ancient colours are used now.
+Therefore, when we give the following list, we must suppose that it
+embraces all that have been known from the beginning.
+
+Indian dyes are mostly vegetable. For _yellow_, akalbir, the root of
+the Datiscus Canabinus; also yellow is dyed with asbarg, the flower of
+the Cabul larkspur (_Delphinium sp._).
+
+_Orange._ Soneri dyed with narsingar, the honey-scented flower of
+nyclanthes (_Arbor Tristis_).
+
+_Scarlet_ is first dyed with cochineal (formerly with kermes), which
+gives a crimson colour; next with narsingar, which turns it vermilion.
+
+_Purple_ is dyed first with cochineal (formerly kermes), afterwards
+with indigo.
+
+_Lilac._ Ditto, only paler.
+
+_Blue._ All shades of indigo.
+
+_Green._ With indigo first, and next the various yellow dyes.
+
+_Brown._ Sandal-wood, called "sandali;" almond colour (Badami).
+
+_Grey._ Sulphate of iron and gold.
+
+_Black._ Deepest shade of indigo.[308]
+
+Speaking of Indian coloured textiles, Sir G. Birdwood says: "All
+violent contrasts are avoided. The richest colours are used, but are
+so arranged as to produce the effect of a neutral bloom, which tones
+down every detail almost to the softness and transparency of the
+atmosphere." He says that in their apparel both the colouring and the
+ornaments are adapted to the effect which the fabrics will produce
+when worn and in motion. "It is only through generations of patient
+practice that men attain to the mystery of such subtleties."
+
+An outline, in black or some dark colour that harmonizes with the
+ground, or else worked in gold, is common in Indian work, not only for
+the purpose of isolating the colours of the design, but also to give a
+uniform tone to the whole surface of the texture. Their traditional
+arrangements of tints were thoroughly satisfying to the eye. But
+degenerated by European commerce, the artistic sense of beauty itself
+is disappearing throughout our Indian Empire.
+
+Persian carpets (the fine old ones of the fourteenth to the
+seventeenth centuries) give us lessons in the art of isolating
+colours. In these, a flower will lie upon a surface which contains two
+or more other tints, and as the design passes over them, the outline
+colour is changed, so as to isolate the flower equally on the
+different grounds. This is done with such art that the eye ignores the
+transition till it is called to remark it. For instance, as a white,
+or no-coloured pattern, wanders over a green and red ground, the
+outline changes suddenly from green to red, and again to green as it
+leaves the opposite colour on the ground pattern.
+
+Mr. Floyer speaks of the brilliancy and lasting qualities of the dyes
+which the Persians, by slow and tedious processes, extract from
+plants; from the "runaschk" (madder), a fine red; from the "zarili"
+(the golden), which is a yellow flower from Khorasan, and also from
+the leaves of the vine, a bright yellow.[309] They import indigo from
+Shastra (or from India), by the Khurum river. He says these dyes are
+perfectly fast, leaving no trace on a wetted rubber, whereas the
+European dyes they sometimes use come off freely.
+
+Pliny says the Gauls had invented dyes counterfeiting the purple of
+Tyre; also scarlet, violet, and green, all of these were dipped in the
+juices of herbs.[310]
+
+Vitruvius says the Romans extracted dyes from flowers and fruits, but
+he neither specifies nor describes them.
+
+The ancient Highland tartans were dyed with bark of alder for black,
+bark of willow for flesh colour. A lichen growing on stones supplied
+their violets and crimson.[311] The lichen on the birch-tree gives a
+good brown; heather gives red, purple, and green.[312]
+
+Thus we see that pure colours for dyeing textiles have been extracted
+from vegetable substances--herbs, wood, seeds, flowers and fruits,
+mosses and sea-weeds;[313] mineral substances--earths, sands, ores,
+metals, rusts, and stones; animal substances--both of land, water, and
+air; beasts, fishes, shells, birds, and insects.
+
+It is evident, from the derivation of the word, that there were
+chromatic scales in colour before the phrase was ever applied to
+music.
+
+The Greeks and Romans are supposed to have understood chromatic scales
+of tints--animal, vegetable, and mineral--and except with the
+intention of producing startling effects, they did not mix them. They
+felt that each was harmonious as a whole, and, unlike the Egyptians,
+they studied harmony. They arranged their scales according to the
+materials from which they were extracted, and kept those from
+different chemical sources apart, as being discordant.[314] One scale
+was that of the iodine colours, of and from the sea. Marine products
+are mostly iridescent. To comprehend this, think of the harmonious
+interchange of delicate tints, called by the ancients "purple," on a
+string of pearls. Shells and shell-fish, sea-weeds and fish, furnished
+these dyes. They were called "conchiliata."
+
+The chemistry of the arts of bleaching was not unknown to the
+ancients; but they reserved and regulated it for certain purposes,
+preferring to retain at least a part of the original colouring, as
+shades of grounding which served, as a surface glaze does in painting,
+to connect and harmonize the superinduced tints.
+
+Experiments with the object of reviving this mode of producing
+harmonious combinations, have been made lately at the Wilton Carpet
+Works, by dyeing shades of colour on unbleached goat's and camel's
+hair, and sheep's wool; and the tones produced are beautifully soft
+and rich.
+
+M. Edouard Charton ascribes the great change in the modern scales of
+colours to the discovery by the French, in the Gobelins, of a pure
+scarlet dye, the use of which made it necessary to raise the tone of
+all other colours. He says that scarlet was formerly represented by
+the dye called kermes, which indeed was not scarlet, but altered from
+crimson to something approaching it by the addition of narsingar, of
+which the bright yellow gave the scarlet effect.
+
+M. Chevreul, director of the dyeing department of the Gobelins, has
+succeeded in composing the chromatic prism, to which I have already
+alluded, containing 4420 different tones. We may take it for granted,
+that from these may be selected any possible scale of tints required
+for decorative work. This vast area for choice of our material will
+impose on the artist of the future fresh responsibilities.
+
+In the typical Oriental colouring, the whole arrangement was
+traditional, and it was irreligious to depart from what had been fixed
+by statute many centuries before, and only perfected by the experience
+of many generations of men; and this veneration for traditional custom
+has hitherto been prevalent in European art to a certain point. But
+the old conservative perfection of unadulterated colour has already
+been done away with. The freedom of experimental art is chartered, and
+mercantile interests now, as ever, govern the supply of materials.
+
+Our normal bad taste and carelessness has been cast back on the lands
+which were the cradle of art, and we receive, to our surprise, gaudy,
+vulgar, and discordant combinations from the East, whence we drew our
+first inspirations. For the future we shall have to study ancient
+specimens, and correct our errors by the help of their teaching to the
+eye and mind.
+
+Gas colours are at present our worst snares. They are in general very
+beautiful; but they are so evanescent, and fade into such unexpected
+and contradictory tones, that we cannot reckon upon them. When
+embroidering with the coloured materials of the day, we are in
+constant dread of what disastrous effect may be produced by the first
+shaft of sunshine that may fall from our moderately illuminated sky,
+through the uncurtained window.
+
+The trade in colours can hardly be an honest one, till the means of
+fixing each tint permanently is ascertained.[315] At any rate,
+something should be done towards grouping them, with respect to their
+enduring qualities, so that when they fade, if fade they must, they
+may do so harmoniously, and in sympathy with each other; and while
+they are in their first glow they should be selected, as much as
+possible, from what Pliny calls natural colours,[316] which recall the
+exquisite effects of nature, searched out and displayed by every sunny
+gleam, reflected on each other in lovely tones, and subdued and veiled
+by passing shadows. It is said that Mr. Wardle, of Leek, is now
+seeking for dyes of pure unadulterated colours, and mordants to fix
+them. He deserves all success.
+
+The reason I have entered, in even so cursory a manner, into the
+history of colours is my desire to point out the great value placed,
+long ago, on the careful preparation of those used in ancient textile
+art; and to show how our forefathers sought them out in many lands
+and waters; how they noted their varieties; how they classed and
+prized them for their endurance as well as for their pristine beauty;
+how they paid their weight in gold or silver for certain culminating
+tints; and how they, therefore, produced works which became matters of
+history and landmarks in civilization.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [283] "Seeing, they saw not, neither did they
+    understand."
+
+    [284] See Pliny's "Natural History," which gives much
+    information on the subject.
+
+    [285] E. Curtius, "Greek History;" Engl. Trans., i. p.
+    438; Blümner's "Technologie," p. 216.
+
+    [286] Charpentier "differentiates in every normal eye a
+    sensibility for light, a sensibility for colour, and a
+    sensibility for form (a visual sensibility)."--See
+    "Modern Theories of Colour," _The Lancet_, August 19th,
+    1882, p. 276. We can perceive, by studying works of art,
+    how variously these gifts are distributed, or, at any
+    rate, how differently they are received and acted upon
+    by individual minds.
+
+    [287] The effect of colour on the brain is a subject
+    only just now beginning to attract attention.
+    Experiments on the insane have been made in Italy,
+    especially, I believe, at Venice; and it is said to be
+    ascertained that red and green are irritants, whereas
+    windows glazed with blue glass alternating with white
+    have sensibly calmed the nerves of the patients.
+
+    [288] Let us compare the beautiful creations of the
+    Venetian school with the demoralizing brightness of
+    aniline colours, or the opaque, earthy tints which some
+    call beautiful, mistaking their dulness for softness and
+    sobriety of colouring. But they, too, have their uses.
+
+    [289] Black and red are, in ecclesiastical work, the
+    emblems of mourning.
+
+    [290] The Bardic rules in early Britain enjoined three
+    simple colours: sky blue, the emblem of peace, for the
+    bard and poet; green, for the master of natural history
+    and woodcraft; spotless white (the symbol of holiness),
+    for the priest and Druid.
+
+    [291] The blind man said that red was like the sound of
+    a trumpet, which shows what a soul-stirring colour it
+    was in his mind's eye.
+
+    [292] "Purpura" is supposed to mean crimson velvet. It
+    came, like "cramoisi," to be a name for a tissue. Fr.
+    Michell quotes velvet of Vermeil-cramoisi, "violet and
+    blue cramoisi, and pourpre of divers colours," but he
+    says he never met with "pourpre blanche." Yule, ed.
+    1875, i. p. 67. Plano Carpini (p. 755) says the
+    courtiers of Karakorum were clad in "white purpura;" and
+    that on the first day of the great festival in honour of
+    the inauguration of Kuyuk Khan, all the Mogul nobles
+    were clad in pourpre blanche, the second day in ruby
+    purple, and the third in blue purple: on the fourth day
+    they appeared in Baudichin (cloth of gold). (Yule,
+    "Marco Polo," vol. i. p. 376.) White purple is also
+    named in the inventories of Sta. Maria Maggiore at Rome,
+    and those of Notre Dame in Paris. "Histoire du Tissu
+    Ancien, à l'Exposition de l'Union Générale des Arts
+    Décoratifs."
+
+    [293] François Le Normant, in his "Grande Grèce," tells
+    of the dye of the purple of Tarentum from the murex,
+    found in the Mare Piccolo. He says that Tarentine
+    muslins, woven from the filaments of the pinna dipped in
+    the dye of the murex, rivalled those of Cos. Le Normant
+    laments the total neglect of the murex in these days
+    (could its trade be revived?) Plutarch says that
+    Alexander the Great, having made himself master of Susa
+    (Shushan), found, amongst other riches of marvellous
+    value, "purple of Hermione" worth forty thousand talents
+    (Quintus Curtius says fifty thousand), which, though it
+    had been stored 190 years, retained all its freshness
+    and beauty. See Plutarch's "Lives," edited by J. and W.
+    Langhorne, vol. ii. p. 739; Blümner, i. p. 224-240. The
+    reason assigned for their dye being so perfect was that
+    the Susanians knew how to comb the wool to be dipped,
+    and prepare it with honey. According to Aristotle the
+    dress of Alcisthenes, the Sybarite, was dyed with this
+    purple from Shushan (Ciampini, Vet. Mon.).
+
+    [294] Semper gives us an account of iodine colours.
+    Some, he says, were extracted from sea-weeds, green and
+    yellow; the purples, when finest, from the shell-fish.
+    The Phoenician coasts gave the best purples; those of
+    the Atlantic the best blacks and browns. And thus he
+    completes the scale of iodine colours. See Semper, "Der
+    Stil," i. p. 206.
+
+    [295] Heaps of the shells of this "murex trunculus" have
+    been found at Pompeii, near the dyers' works. Hardouin
+    says that in his time they were found at Otranto, and
+    similar remains have been noticed at Sidon. Sir James
+    Lacaita informs me that the living shells are still
+    found along the shores of the Adriatic, as well as on
+    the wash near Argos. No doubt the Phoenicians traded
+    first in the produce of the Sidonian and Tyrian coasts,
+    though they afterwards went farther afield in collecting
+    their dyes. Auberville says that the purple of the
+    Romans was a deep violet (double dyed, purpuræ dibaphæ),
+    and that this colour was Asiatic. The Phoenicians
+    traded in it, and sold it for its weight in silver.
+    Instead of fading in the sunshine, its colour
+    intensified. The enduring nature of this colour is
+    proved by the purple fragments from a Greek tomb in the
+    Crimea of about 300 B.C., described in chapter on
+    stitches, p. 217. See "Histoire du Tissu Ancien, à
+    l'Exposition de l'Union Générale des Arts Décoratifs."
+
+    [296] Though really red of the purest colour, it
+    doubtless received its name of Tyrian purple as being
+    one of the materials of the amethystine double dye. The
+    web or fleece was first dipped in the dye of Purpura,
+    and then in that of the Buccinum, or they reversed the
+    process to give a different tint. This is Pliny's
+    account of the process of dyeing, which is very simple,
+    and gives no details. Semper says that the ancients
+    called black and white the two extremes of purple--white
+    the thinnest, and black the thickest or most solid layer
+    of colour. Both were thus considered as colour. (Semper,
+    i. pp. 205-7.) As long as there is light, black always
+    appears to be either blue, or brown, or green, till with
+    darkness all colour disappears.
+
+    [297] Exod. xxv. Semper (i. p. 103) suggests that these
+    rams' skins were dyed with the periploca secamone--a
+    plant still used for this purpose in Egypt.
+
+    [298] Jeremiah xxii. 14.
+
+    [299] Ezekiel xxiii. 14: "The images of the Chaldeans."
+    "The men portrayed in vermilion on the wall."
+
+    [300] Villiers Stuart, "Funeral Tent of an Egyptian
+    Queen." See Appendix.
+
+    [301] 2 Chron. ii. 7.
+
+    [302] The Arabs received the kermis from Armenia, and
+    the name was originally "Quer-més," "oak-apple." Sardis
+    was famed for its kermes dye. See Birdwood, "Indian
+    Arts," p. 238, ed. 1880, and Yule's "Marco Polo," i. p.
+    67.
+
+    [303] Isa. ii. 18.
+
+    [304] Renouf's Hibbert Lectures, p. 67-69. It may be
+    called balance, rather than harmony.
+
+    [305] Wilkinson, "Manners of the Ancient Egyptians,"
+    vol. iii. pp. 301-3.
+
+    [306] Blümner, p. 220. See Pliny, "Natural History,"
+    xxxv. 42.
+
+    [307] Semper, i. p. 248.
+
+    [308] See Birdwood's "Indian Arts," p. 272. In the Code
+    of Manu, black garments are sacred to the Indian Saturn,
+    yellow to Venus, and red to Mars. See Birdwood, p. 235.
+
+    [309] See Floyer's "Unexplored Baluchistan," pp. 278,
+    373, 406. The Persians produce their deep yellow from
+    the skin of the pomegranate, by boiling it in alum.
+    Major Murdoch Smith describes the Persian processes for
+    dyeing patterns red and black in textiles. The Italian
+    women dye their own dresses in the pomegranate yellow;
+    also in turmeric yellow, and other vegetable dyes.
+
+    [310] Pliny, "Natural History," xxii. 3. Unfortunately,
+    Pliny seldom condescends to give us the recipes for
+    dyeing processes.
+
+    [311] Logan's "Scottish Garb."
+
+    [312] See Elton's "Origins of English History."
+
+    [313] The Cretan tincture was extracted from a plant
+    which Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny respectively
+    name. The last calls it the _Phycos thalassion_. This
+    was not a sea-weed, but a lichen--probably the same from
+    which the orchid purple of modern art is prepared. See
+    Birdwood, "Indian Arts," i. p. 238.
+
+    [314] The same scale of colour varies as much on the
+    different textiles employed, as it does from the colours
+    extracted from other chemicals. Silk, wool, cotton,
+    flax, give very different results. The colouring matter
+    may be identical, yet you cannot place them side by side
+    without being aware that they may be repellant, instead
+    of harmonious in tone. The scale is sometimes removed to
+    another pitch, and they will no more harmonize than
+    instruments that have not been attuned to the same
+    diapason. See Redgrave's Report on Textile Fabrics.
+
+    [315] With the changes in colouring materials has arisen
+    the necessity for discovering new mordants. The gas
+    colour of madder is exactly the same chemically as that
+    extracted from the vegetable, but the old mordant does
+    not fix it, and it changes very soon to a dull
+    blackish-purple hue.
+
+    [316] Pliny, "Natural History," ix. 12. The most
+    unnatural, and the most disagreeable dyes, are the
+    magentas. Sir G. Birdwood tells us that the Maharajah of
+    Cashmere has adopted a most efficient plan for the
+    suppression of magenta dyes within his dominions--first,
+    a duty of 45 per cent. on entering the country, and at a
+    certain distance within the frontier, they are
+    confiscated and destroyed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+
+_Part 1._
+
+STITCHES.
+
+Stitches in needlework correspond to the touches of the pencil or
+brush in drawing or painting, or to the strokes of the chisel in
+sculpture. The needle is the one implement of the craft by which
+endless forms of surface-work are executed. With a thread through its
+one eye, it blindly follows each effort of its pointed foot, urged by
+the intelligent or mechanical hand grouping the stitches, which, being
+long or short, single or mixed, slanting, upright, or crossed, are
+selected as the best fitted for the design and purpose in hand. The
+word "stitches" does not, however, in this chapter represent merely
+the plural of one particular process of needle insertion, but the
+produce and effect of each different kind of stitch by grouping and
+repetition, according to its most ancient nomenclature. That which is
+astonishing is the endless variety of surface, of design, of hints and
+suggestions, of startling effects, and of lovely combinations,
+resulting from the direction of the needle and manipulation of the
+materials, and differing from each other according to the power or the
+caprice of the worker. But the machine is always the same--the
+threaded needle strikes the same interval, forming the "stitch."
+
+This venerable implement, _the needle_, has, through the ages, varied
+but little in form. The attenuated body, the sharp foot, the rounded
+head, and the eye to hold the thread, are the same in principle,
+whether it is found in the cave-man's grave, formed of a fish's bone
+or shaped from that of a larger animal; hammered of the finest bronze,
+as from Egypt, or of gold, like those found in Scandinavia. A bronze
+needle was lately discovered in the tomb of a woman of the Vikings in
+Scotland, and its value is shown by its being placed in a silver case.
+Steel needles were first made in England in 1545, by a native of
+India. His successor, Christopher Greening, established a workshop in
+1560 at Long Crendon, in Bucks, which existed there as a needle
+factory till quite lately. The rustic poetic drama, entitled "Gammer
+Gurton's Needle," performed at Ch. Coll., Cambridge, in 1566, was a
+regular comedy, of which a lost needle was the hero. In those days the
+village needle was evidently still a rare and precious possession.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 20.
+    1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Bronze needles from Egyptian tombs now in British
+        Museum. 6. Cave-man's needle from the Pinhole, Churchfield,
+        Ereswell Crag. 7. Bone needle from La Madeleine, Dordogne.]
+
+The art of embroidery consists of a design, which includes the
+pattern, and the handicraft or stitches--the "motive" and the
+"needlework."
+
+In painting, as in sculpture, the first idea, as well as the last
+touch, must come from the same head and hand. But in needlework it is
+not so. The pattern is the result of tradition. It is almost always
+simply a variation of old forms, altered and renewed by surrounding
+circumstances and sudden or gradual periods of change.
+
+However much the design may alter, rising often to the highest point
+of decorative art, and as often falling back to the lowest and most
+meaningless repetitions and imitations, the _stitches_ themselves vary
+but little. The same are to be found in Egyptian and Greek specimens,
+and the classical names are those used by mediæval writers, and have
+come down to us, "floating like bubbles on the waves of time."
+
+Sir George Birdwood[317] thinks that every kind of stitch is found in
+traditional Indian work. I confess that I have not been able hitherto
+to trace any of the "mosaic" stitches to India, nor do we ever see
+them in Chinese or Japanese embroidery, which shows every other
+variety. They are, however, occasionally found in Egyptian work.
+
+The following is a list of stitches, under the nomenclature of
+classical, Roman and mediæval authors:--
+
+    Opus Phrygionium or Phrygium.     Passing or metal thread work.
+    Opus Pulvinarium.                 Shrine or cushion work.
+    Opus Plumarium.                   Plumage or feather work.
+    Opus Consutum.                    Cut work.
+    Opus Araneum or Filatorium.       Net or lace work.
+    Opus Pectineum.                   Tapestry or combed work.
+
+Here are two English lists of stitches; their quaintness must be my
+excuse for copying them. The first is from Taylor, the water-poet's
+"Praise of the Needle" (sixteenth century):--
+
+    "Tent work, raised work, laid work, prest work,
+    Net work, most curious pearl or rare Italian cut work,
+    Fine fern stitch, finny stitch, new stitch, and chain stitch,
+    Brave bred stitch, fisher stitch, Irish stitch, and queen's stitch,
+    The Spanish stitch, rosemary stitch, and maw stitch,
+    The smarting whip stitch, back stitch, and the cross stitch.--
+    All these are good, and these we must allow,
+    And these are everywhere in practice now."
+
+The second list is from Rees' "Cyclopædia" (Stitches), 1819:--
+
+    "Spanish stitch,
+    Tent stitch on the finger,
+    Tent stitch in the tent or frame,
+    Irish stitch,
+    Fore stitch,
+    Gold stitch,
+    Twist stitch,
+    Fern stitch,
+    Broad stitch,
+    Rosemary stitch,
+    Chip stitch,
+    Raised work,
+    Geneva work,
+    Cut work,
+    Laid work,
+    Back stitch,
+    Queen's stitch,
+    Satin stitch,
+    Finny stitch,
+    Chain stitch,
+    Fisher's stitch,
+    Bow stitch,
+    Cross stitch,
+    Needlework purl,
+    Virgin's device,
+    Open cut work,
+    Stitch work,
+    Through stitch,
+    Rock work,
+    Net work, and
+    Lent work.
+
+    "All which are swete manners of work wroughte by the
+    needle with silke of all natures, purls, wyres, and weft
+    or foreign bread ('braid'), etc., etc."
+
+
+_Part 2._
+
+PLAIN WORK AND WHITE WORK.
+
+We are told that the primal man and woman sewed in Paradise.
+
+To "sew," in contradistinction to the word to "embroider," is derived
+from the Sanskrit _su_, _suchi_, and thence imported into Latin,
+_suo_.[318] To prove how highly esteemed needlework was among the
+Romans, I may mention that the equivalent of the phrase "to hit the
+right nail on the head" was _rem acu tangere_, "to touch the question
+with the point of the needle."
+
+"Plain work" is that which is necessary. As soon as textiles are
+needed for covering and clothing, the means are invented for drawing
+the cut edges together, and for preventing the fraying where the
+material is lacerated by the shaping process. Hence the "seam," the
+"hem," and all the forms of stitches that bind and plait. These
+necessary stitches constitute plain needlework, and are closely
+followed by decorative stitches, which in gradation cover the space
+between plain needlework and embroidery.
+
+Semper has given us his archæological theories for the origin of
+needlework and its stitches.
+
+These are his arguments, if not always his words. He says: "The seam
+is one of the first human successful efforts to conquer
+difficulties."[319]
+
+A string, a ribbon, a band, may serve to keep together several loose
+things; but by means of the seam, small things actually become large
+ones. For example: a full-grown man can, by its help, cover himself
+with a garment made of the skins of many small animals. When Eve sewed
+fig-leaves together, she made of these small pieces a garment of
+patchwork.
+
+Acting on the principle of making a virtue of necessity, accepting and
+adorning the severe facts of life, seams came to be an important
+vehicle of ornament. The Gauls and Britons embroidered the seams of
+their fur garments. "We may judge of the antiquity of the seam by its
+universal and mythological meaning. The seam, the tie, the knot, the
+plait, and the mesh are the earliest symbols of fate uniting
+events."[320]
+
+We find but little mention of plain work in mediæval writings. When
+linen was worked for some honourable purpose, such as a gift to a
+friend or a royal personage, it was generally embroidered or stitched
+in some fancy fashion. Queen Elizabeth presented Edward VI., on his
+second birthday, with a smock made by herself. Fine linen was about
+this time constantly edged with bone laces.
+
+Mrs. Floyer has written so well, and given us so much practical
+information on plain needlework, that I feel it unnecessary to enter
+at any length into the principles of plain sewing, as my theme is
+needlework as decorative art.
+
+Mrs. Floyer has, as it were, unpicked and unravelled every stitch in
+plain work, till she has discovered and laid bare its intention, its
+construction, and effect. She, has also given us rules made clear to
+the dullest understanding, instructing us how to teach the young and
+ignorant. She shows us the quickest and most perfect way of working
+different materials for different purposes, and tells us how to select
+them. I will, therefore, refer my readers to her most useful and
+instructive books,[321] and pass on at once from the craft of plain
+needlework, to stitches as the art of embroidery.
+
+The link between plain and decorative work deserves attention. This
+link is "white embroidery." I imagine it was not a very ancient form
+of the art, and was practised first in mediæval days; when we begin to
+have constant notices of it. The first white laces appear to have
+followed close upon the first white embroideries.
+
+There is a tomb of the fourteenth century in the Church of the Ara
+Coeli at Rome, where the effigy of a knight lies on his bed, draped
+with a sheet and a coverlet, both embroidered. These are evidently of
+linen worked in white.[322] I give a drawing of them in illustration
+(pl. 39).
+
+From that date we find continually mention of such work by nuns and
+ladies.[323] In England it was especially called "nuns' work" (plate
+42). There is a great survival of this stitchery in Italy amongst the
+peasantry. They have always adorned their smocks and aprons, and their
+linen head-coverings, and the borders of sheets for great occasions,
+with patterns in "flat stitches," "cut stitches," and "drawn work."
+The Greek peasants do the same. In Germany will be found much curious
+white embroidery, of designs which show their antiquity; and from
+Spain we get "Spanish work" in black, on white linen, which is nearly
+allied to the stitches of white work.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 39.
+    Embroidery imitated in marble on the tomb of a knight, in the Church
+        of the Ara Coeli, Rome.]
+
+Lord Arundel of Wardour possesses a linen cover for a tabernacle (or
+else it is a processional cloak) which is of the purest
+Hispano-Moorish design, and unrivalled in beauty. It is
+embroidered in Spanish stitches in white thread, on the finest linen,
+and is intersected with fine lace insertion (pl. 40). It is said to
+have been found in the time of Elizabeth with some other articles in a
+dry well; among them a little satin shoe, of which the shape proves
+its date to be of the end of Henry VIII.'s reign. Russian embroidery,
+consisting of geometrical patterns in red, blue, and black thread, is
+of this class.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 40.
+    Processional Cloak, time of Henry VIII., belonging to Lord Arundel
+        of Wardour.]
+
+In England alone, the peasantry do no white work for home use, and we
+must suppose it has never been a domestic occupation. Indeed, the love
+of the needle is by no means an English national tendency, in the
+lower classes. Nothing but the plainest work is taught in our schools.
+Anything approaching to decorative art, with us, has been the
+accomplishment of educated women, and not the employment of leisure
+moments in the houses of the poor.
+
+Semper, in "Der Stil,"[324] gives rules for white embroidery, and the
+reasons from which he deduces them are good. He says, that allowing it
+as a maxim that each textile has its own uses and its own beauties, we
+should place nothing on linen which would militate against its
+inherent qualities and merits; and that, as the great beauty of flax
+is its smoothness and purity, all projections and roughnesses should
+be avoided which would catch dust or throw a shadow. Carrying out this
+idea, it would appear that satin, and not lace stitches are therefore,
+the most suitable for this kind of decoration. The accepted rule for
+selecting the stitch for each piece of work is this: on stout grounds
+the thread should be round and rich, whereas delicate materials carry
+best the most refined and shining thread work; and in embroidering the
+smooth surface of linen fabrics, the flattest stitches are the most
+appropriate.
+
+
+_Part 3._
+
+OPUS PHRYGIUM (_or gold work_).
+
+Gold embroideries were by the Romans attributed to the Phrygians. All
+gold work was vaguely supposed to be theirs, as all other embroidery
+was included in the craft of the Plumarii in Rome.
+
+It has been disputed whether needlework in gold preceded the weaving
+of flat gold or thread into stuffs, or whether it was an
+after-thought, and an enrichment of such textiles. I imagine that the
+embroidery was the first, and that the after-thought was the art of
+weaving gold. Babylonian embroideries appear to be of gold wire, as we
+see them in the Ninevite marbles.
+
+An instance of the way golden embroideries were displayed among the
+Greeks is that of the Athenian peplos, which, as I have already said
+(p. 32), was worked by embroideresses under the superintendence of two
+Arrhephoræ of noble birth. It was either scarlet or saffron colour,
+and blazed with golden representations of the battles of the giants,
+or local myths and events in the history of Athens.[325]
+
+The art of the Phrygians, who gave their name in Rome to all golden
+thread-work, has come down to us through the classic "auriphrygium"
+and the "orphreys" of the Middle Ages. Semper thinks that the flat
+gold embroidery was the first invented.[326]
+
+The Phrygians had attained to the utmost perfection in tissue ornament
+when the Romans conquered them, and finding their art congenial to the
+growing luxury of Rome, they imported and domesticated it; both the
+people and their work retaining their national designation. Pliny,
+ignorant of the claims of the Chinese, gave to the Phrygians the
+credit of being the inventors of all embroidery.[327] The garments
+they thus decorated were called "phrygionæ," and the work itself "opus
+Phrygium." The term "auriphrygium," at first given to work in gold
+only, was in time applied to all embroidery that admitted gold into
+its composition; and hence the English mediæval term, "orphreys."
+
+All the gold stitches now called "passing" came from Phrygia; Semper
+attributes all the "mosaic stitches" to the Phrygians, calling them
+"opus Phrygionium."[328] Gold stitches are splendidly exemplified in
+the embroidered mantle of St. Stephen, of the ninth century. The only
+somewhat earlier piece of mediæval gold embroidery with which I am
+acquainted is the dalmatic of Charlemagne in the Vatican, richly
+embroidered in fine gold thread; and the mantle of the Emperor Henry
+II. in the Museum at Munich, worked by his Empress Kunigunda, who
+appears to have been somewhat parsimonious in her use of the precious
+material.
+
+Almost all ecclesiastical and royal ancient embroideries were
+illuminated with golden grounds--golden outlines or golden flat
+embroideries. Later still, raised gold thread work has imitated gilt
+carvings or goldsmiths' jewellery; and we feel that it was at once
+removed from its place as embroidery, and became an elaborate
+imitation of what should belong to another craft.[329] Such
+deviations from the proper office and motive of needlework are so
+dangerously near to bad style and bad taste, that they always and
+inevitably have fallen into disrepute.
+
+
+_Part 4._
+
+OPUS PULVINARIUM (_or cushion work_).
+
+This "opus pulvinarium" is not only to be found in Oriental work, but
+it has also survived in a very few fragments from Egypt.[330] One of
+these, in the British Museum, is worked on canvas, in wool and flax;
+another in a white shining thread, resembling asbestos, on linen or
+fine canvas. They are regular "canvas" or "cross" stitches, and
+therefore, under mediæval nomenclature, would be classed as "opus
+pulvinarium." This name must include all stitches in gold, silk, and
+wool, whether Phrygian, Egyptian, or Babylonian in their origin,
+excepting the flat and lace stitches (plate 41).
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 41.
+    MOSAIC STITCHES.
+    1. Italian Pattern, sixteenth century. From Frida Lipperheide's
+        Musterbuch. 2. Scandinavian. Bock, i. taf. xi. 3. Egyptian.
+        From Auberville's "Tissus," p. 1.]
+
+Semper's term, "mosaic" stitches, is a good one, as it covers all that
+are relegated into patterns in small square spaces, counted by the
+threads of the textile on which they are laid.[331] He believes that
+the mosaic patterns and cross stitches in needlework preceded the
+tesselated pavements, and formed their first motive, though the stitch
+now refers itself back to the mosaic, at least in name.
+
+It is remarkable that in Chaldea and Assyria there still exist some
+ruined walls, which are adorned with pilasters, panels, and other
+architectural forms, covered with some sort of encaustic, imitating
+textile patterns.[332] The effect is produced by means of a kind of
+mosaic work of small nails or wedges of baked clay, with china or
+glazed coloured heads. These are inlaid into the unbaked clay or
+earth, of which the walls are constructed, and while binding it
+together, give the effect of the surface being hung with a material
+which has a pattern worked all over in cross stitch.
+
+The Chinese, the Chaldeans, and the Assyrians long continued to show
+in their buildings the tradition of this style of decoration. In Egypt
+there has been found some unfinished mural painting where the plaster
+has been previously prepared by dividing it into small rectangular
+spaces, apparently on the principle of the canvas ground for cross
+stitches.
+
+The name "mosaic" stitch does not interfere with, or militate against
+the classical appellation of _opus pulvinarium_, which means "shrine
+work" or "cushion stitches." These appear to have been from the first
+considered as the best suited for adorning cushions, chairs,
+footstools, and the beds on which men reclined at their feasts, as
+they are firmly-set stitches which will stand friction.
+
+Most of the work now done in Syria, Turkey, Greece, and the
+Principalities, shows different forms of the mosaic stitches; so also
+does the national Russian work, which is Byzantine. All these designs
+are conventional and mostly geometrical.
+
+This work, in the East, is generally the same on both sides. We may
+infer that the spoil anticipated by Sisera's mother, "the garments
+embroidered on both sides, fit for the necks of those who divide the
+spoil," was of this kind.
+
+Thus we see that the "opus pulvinarium" has a very respectable
+ancestry; and though it had somewhat degenerated in the early part of
+our century, and had languished and almost died out under the name of
+Berlin wool work, yet it has done good service through the days of
+mediæval art down to the present time, both in England and throughout
+Europe (pl. 42); and it will probably revive and continue to be
+generally used.
+
+Though the least available for historical or pictorial work, and not
+by any means the best for flower-pieces (as the squareness of the
+stitches refuses to lend itself to flowing lines or gradations of
+colour, unless the stitches are extremely fine, and the work, in
+consequence, very laborious), yet it finds its especial fitness in all
+geometrical designs. It is also particularly well suited to heraldic
+subjects.
+
+A remarkable example of the use of cross stitches exists in the
+borders of the Syon cope, in which the coats-of-arms are so executed.
+This is of the thirteenth century; and besides these cushion stitches,
+it exhibits all those which are grouped in the style called opus
+Anglicum or Anglicanum.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 42.
+    Italian "Nun's Work," from a pyx cloth, sixteenth century.]
+
+Many charming designs for this kind of stitch may be found in the old
+German pattern-books of the Renaissance (Spitzen Musterbücher), and
+also in those Venetian "Corone di Vertuose Donne" lately reprinted by
+the Venetian publisher Organia. These are worthy of a place in every
+library of art.
+
+It would seem best to place the chain stitch named "tambour" in this
+class, as it naturally assimilates with the plaited and cross
+stitches. It is so called from the drum-shaped frame of the last
+century in which it was usually worked.
+
+
+_Part 5._
+
+OPUS PLUMARIUM (_or plumage work_).
+
+The "Opus Plumarium" is one of the most ancient groups, and includes
+all flat stitches, of which the distinguishing mark is, that they
+_pass_ each other, overlap, and blend together. "Stem," "twist,"
+"Japanese stitch," and "long and short" or "embroidery stitch," belong
+to this class, to which I propose to restore its original title of
+plumage work.
+
+The origin of the name is much disputed, but it is supposed to have
+pointed to a decoration of plumage work, and we find that feathers
+have been an element in artistic design from the earliest times. There
+were patterns in Egyptian painting which certainly had feathers for
+their motive (fig. 21, p. 208).
+
+Semper, finding that birds'-skins were a recognized article for trade
+in China, 2205 B.C.,[333] believes that they were used as onlaid
+application for architectural decoration; and this is possible, for we
+still obtain from thence specimens of work in different materials
+partly onlaid in whole feathers, whereas sometimes the longer threads
+of the feathers are woven by the needle into the ground web. In Her
+Majesty's collection there are some specimens from Burmah--creatures
+resembling sphinxes or deformed cherubim, executed in feathers,
+applied on silk and outlined in gold. We have likewise from Burmah, in
+the Indian Museum, two peacocks[334] similarly worked; the legs and
+beaks are solidly raised in gold thread; and the outlines also are
+raised in gold, giving the appearance of enamelling. The _cloisonné_
+effect of brilliant colours, contrasted and enhanced by the separation
+of the gold outlines, can be seen to perfection in specimens of the
+beautiful Pekin jewellers' work, where the feathers are inlaid in gold
+ornaments for the head and in the handles of fans. Nothing but gems
+can be more resplendent.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 21.
+    Feather patterns, Egyptian.]
+
+These survivals help us to understand the casual mention we find in
+classical authors, of the works of the Plumarii, which appellation was
+given at last to all embroiderers who were not Phrygians.[335]
+
+We have other glimpses of Oriental feather-work in different parts of
+India.[336]
+
+The use of feathers is common in the islands of the Pacific. It is
+native to the Sandwich islanders; and M. Jules Remy describes the
+Hawaiian royal mantle, which was being constructed of yellow birds'
+feathers through seven consecutive reigns, and was valued in Hawaii at
+5,000,000 francs. A mantle of this description is the property of Lady
+Brassey.
+
+In Africa, ancient Egyptian art furnishes us with traditional feather
+patterns and head-dresses; and Pigafetta tells us of costumes of
+birds' skins, worn in the kingdom of Congo in the sixteenth century
+for their warmth; sea-birds' feathers being highly esteemed.[337]
+
+In America, where birds are most splendid, the art of the feather
+worker was carried to the greatest perfection. It was found there by
+the Spaniards, and recorded in all their writings for its beauty of
+design and execution, and for its great value, equal to that of gold
+and precious stones.
+
+Though now looked down upon, as being a semi-barbarous style of
+decoration, because it exists no longer except in semi-barbarous
+countries, we must consider feather work as a relic of a past higher
+civilization which has died out, rather than simply as the effort of
+the savage to deck himself in the brightest colours attainable.
+
+Feather-work is a lost art, but the name of "opus plumarium" remains,
+and proves that it was still recognized as such in the days of Roman
+luxury. The name survived when the practice was all but forgotten in
+Europe,[338] and the art itself disused, probably, because the birds
+of our continent rarely have any lovely plumage to tempt the eye.
+
+But the glory of feather-work was found again in Mexico and Peru, and
+the surrounding nations, in the sixteenth century--praised, exalted,
+demoralized, and crushed out by the cruelties of conquest. The
+Spaniards at first brought home beautiful garments and hangings,
+representing gods and heroes, all worked in feathers.[339] Under their
+rule the natives produced pictures agreeable to the taste of their
+masters. Pope Sixtus V. accepted a head of St. Francis, which had been
+executed by one of the ablest of the "amantecas" (the name for an
+artist in feathers). Sixtus was struck with surprise and admiration at
+the beauty and artistic cleverness of the work, and, until he had
+touched and examined it closely, would not believe that plumage was
+the only material used.
+
+There are beautiful hangings and bed furniture at Moritzburg, near
+Dresden, said to have belonged to Montezuma. They were given to
+Augustus the Strong, King of Poland, by a king of Spain.
+
+In the seventeenth century, and later, feather work was still an art
+in Mexico, the convents continuing to preserve its traditions.
+Bustamente says that this industry was still in operation in the
+beginning of our century. The Mexican Museum preserves specimens of
+the last three hundred years, from the time of the conquest of Mexico.
+
+There is in the Cluny Museum, in Paris, a beautiful triptych,
+evidently of the sixteenth century. It is worked in feathers, with
+delicate outlines in fine gold thread. Nothing can exceed the
+tenderness and harmony of the colouring in shades of blue, and warm
+and cool brown tints. This is probably a survival of that lost art of
+Mexico which was carried on in their convents, and may have been a
+copy of a treasured relic of European art.
+
+Among the few noteworthy specimens that have survived, is the mitre of
+St. Carlo Borromeo at Milan, described by M. F. Denis as being both
+artistic and beautiful. He tells us in his Appendix that even now, a
+tissue of feathers is woven in France, as soft and flexible as a silk
+damask; and rivalling the Mexican scarlet feather fabric, which the
+Spaniards admired so greatly. He also speaks of the inlaid feather
+work, invented by M. Le Normant of Rouen, in the last century, and
+afterwards continued in Paris by his English pupil, Mr. Levet, who
+sold two of his works to the then Duke of Leeds, in 1735. The first is
+a vase of flowers, the second a peacock, designed by M. Oudry (peintre
+du Roi). Both of these, framed as screens, are now at Hornby Castle.
+
+Unfortunately feathers are, by their nature, most attractive to that
+greatest destroyer, next to Attila--the moth. Ghirlandajo called
+mosaic in marble and glass, "painting for eternity;" we may call
+feather work, "painting for a day."
+
+From the essays of M. Ferdinand Denis,[340] much may be learned of the
+_arte plumaria_ of the Mexicans and their neighbours of Brazil,
+Guatemala, Peru, and Yucatan, and the land of the Zapotecas, &c.,
+where it was also cultivated. He says that their civilization is so
+mysterious that we have as yet no means of judging whence came their
+art.
+
+Fergusson suggests the similarity between Central Asian and Central
+American art, both in architectural forms and plastic and sculptured
+remains. He thinks that its tradition was transmitted from Asia to
+America in the third and fourth centuries of our era. If so, it was an
+unlucky moment for the recipients, as the art of Asia, as well as that
+of Europe, was then at its lowest and most debased phase; perhaps,
+however, the more fit for the fertilization of that of a perfectly
+barbarous people. There is something fascinating in the suggestions on
+this subject in Mr. Donelly's "Atlantis;" but when conjecture is only
+founded on tradition, and without proof, we must not take it into
+serious consideration.
+
+Having proved the universal use of feathers, it is not difficult to
+appreciate the causes which suggested everywhere the transfer of this
+decorative art to another craft, employing less perishable materials.
+Embroidery probably followed it closely and absorbed it throughout
+Asia and in Egypt; and the survivals now are only an accidental
+specimen, a tradition, and a name.[341]
+
+The name "Plumarii," for the embroideries, is thus fully accounted
+for, and we need seek no further elucidation. It was commonly used in
+classical Roman times. "Opus plumarium" seems to have become the
+legitimate term for all needlework. The Plumarii were the
+embroiderers, whether their work was in wool, or thread, or in silk
+(at a later period),[342] with or without admixture of gold or silver
+(as the Argentarii were the jewellers).
+
+The article on the word "plumarius" in Hoffman's Lexicon,[343] after
+describing two kinds of Plumarii, Phrygians and Babylonians, proceeds
+to say, "These latter, who wove garments and hangings of various
+colours, were called 'Plumarii;' but though this name was at first
+confined to craftsmen who wove patterns in the shape of feathers, in
+course of time the name was extended to those artists who, with the
+needle or by painting, embellished robes."[344]
+
+The "opus plumarium" included, as I before said, all flat stitches;
+and I repeat that "feather application" was certainly its first
+motive; and next came the stitches that conveyed the same desired
+effect, though a new material was employed, fitted for the needle,
+which, having served its apprenticeship in "plain work," now came to
+the front as a decorative agent.
+
+Painting with the needle began with an attempt to model with it; the
+lay of stitches being so arranged as to give the whole effect of
+light and shadow, so as to delineate the forms without changing the
+shades of the material used. I give on the opposite page some Japanese
+birds, which will explain what I mean. The stitches are so
+intelligently placed as absolutely to give the forms of the birds
+imitated. They represent plumage, and a more artistic representation
+cannot be imagined. (Pl. 43.)
+
+The same stitch which we find prevailing in China and Japan as plumage
+work, is employed in embroidering flowers. Here satin, stem, and
+plumage stitches are blended together, and excellent decorative
+effects are produced; but the texture of flowers is not to be
+imitated, as is that of the plumage of birds. "Satin" stitch is a more
+restricted form of plumage stitch; and "stem" is another variety of
+these flat stitches, very useful in its place. I therefore have
+assigned the name of "plumage stitch" to that hitherto called
+"embroidery" or "long and short" stitches; and I give the term
+"plumage work" to include all the "flat" stitches.
+
+Practically, it is allowed that these flat stitches, especially the
+plumage stitch, give most scope for freedom in needlework, as they are
+laid on at once, and according to the inspiration of the worker, and
+may cover the outline and efface it. The stitches are not counted, and
+have more of the nature of touch than any others, as their length,
+thickness, and closeness may be varied at will. The artist's design
+thus admits of interpretation according to the taste and feeling of
+the needlewoman.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 43.
+    Japanese Opus Plumarium.]
+
+
+_Part 6._
+
+OPUS CONSUTUM (_or cut work_).
+
+This is "Patchwork," or "Appliqué" ("inlaid" and "onlaid"). Vasari
+calls it "Di commesso," and says that Botticelli invented it for the
+use of Church banners, as being much more effective than any other
+style of work, or even than painting, as the outlines remained firm
+(non si stinguano), and were not affected by the weather (as in
+painted cloths) and were visible on both sides of the banner.
+Botticelli drew with his own hand the baldachino of Or San Michele,
+and the embroideries on a frieze carried in procession by the monks of
+Santa Maria Novella; he died 1515. Perhaps he may have revived the art
+of application in his own day.
+
+There are, however, much earlier examples of patchwork, of which the
+first and most remarkable is the Egyptian funeral tent of Queen
+Isi-em-Kheb, mother-in-law of Shishak, who besieged and took Jerusalem
+three or four years after the death of Solomon, B.C. 980. It may be
+described as a mosaic, or patchwork of prodigious size, made of
+thousands of pieces of gazelles' skins, dyed, and neatly sewn together
+with threads of colour to match, resembling the stitching of a glove,
+the outer edges bound with a cord of twisted pink leather, sewn on
+with stout pink thread (pl. 44). The colours are described as being
+wonderfully preserved, when it is remembered that they are nearly as
+old as the Trojan War; though perhaps their preservation is less
+surprising than that the flowers wreathed about several royal mummies
+of the same period should have shown their colours and forms when the
+cases were first opened, so as to be recognized as blue larkspur,
+yellow mimosa, and a red Abyssinian flower, massed closely together on
+the foundation of a strong leaf cut in zigzags. Among the flowers lay
+a dead wasp, whose worthless little form and identity were as
+perfectly preserved as those of the mighty monarch on whose bosom it
+had completed its short existence. The tent itself consists of a
+centre or flat top, divided down the middle, and covered over one
+half with pink and yellow rosettes on a blue ground; on the other half
+are six large vultures, each surrounded with a hieroglyphic text which
+is really an epitaph. The side flaps are adorned first with some
+narrow bands of colour; then with a fringe pattern; then with a row of
+broad panels, red, green, and yellow, with a device or picture and
+inscription in the two other colours; on this border there are
+kneeling gazelles, each with a pink Abyssinian lotus blossom hanging
+to its collar. The rest of the side flaps and the whole of the front
+and back flaps are composed of large squares, alternately pink and
+green. This, for its antiquity, its style, its stitchery, materials,
+and colours, is a most interesting work of early art, and an example
+of the perfection to which it had attained. It is remarkable how much
+variety of effect has been produced with only four colours, by the
+artistic manner of placing and contrasting them. To our more advanced
+taste, however, the whole effect of the contrasting colours is
+inharmonious and gaudy, though certainly striking and typical.[345]
+
+Another piece of Egyptian application, from the Museum at Turin, is a
+pretty leaf pattern cut out in red stuff, laid on a white ground, and
+worked down with a darker outline of the same colour.[346]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 22.
+    Piece of appliqué in red stuff and red outlines from Egypt.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 44.
+    Funeral Tent of Isi-em-Kheb. From Villiers Stuart's "Funeral Tent
+        of an Egyptian Queen."]
+
+We have an instance of ancient "application" of about 600 years
+later, Greek in its beauty of design and execution. Alas! we can only
+ascertain, from tattered fragments taken out of a tomb in the Crimea,
+that it was parsemé with figures on horseback or in chariots. The
+border is very beautiful. Compare the fragments of which we have
+obtained a copy with the mantle of Demeter, from a Greek vase, and you
+will perceive how the styles correspond (Pl. 16, Fig. 23). The ground
+material is of the finest woven wool, of a deep violet or purple
+colour, enriched with application of another fine woollen fabric of a
+most brilliant green, worked down, outlined and embroidered in white,
+black, and gold-coloured wool, apparently in stem stitches.[347] The
+accompanying illustration gives the effect and general design of the
+outer border only, in which the applied leaf is worked down in red,
+gold, and white.
+
+It is much to be regretted that the centre of the mantle is so
+tattered and discoloured that it is impossible to do more than
+ascertain that the design that is embroidered on it consists of
+figures on horseback or in chariots, in spirited attitudes. The second
+and broader border is to be found (pl. 17).
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 23.
+    Narrow border of a Greek mantle.]
+
+"Opus consutum" cannot in any sense perhaps be the name of a stitch or
+stitches. But it applies to a peculiar style of embroidery employing
+certain stitches. It is the term given to all work cut out of plain or
+embroidered materials, and applied by "working down" to another
+material as grounding. It includes all raised and stuffed application
+in silk, woollen, and metal thread work. It has been given to all work
+in which the scissors are active agents, whether in cutting out the
+outlines or in incising the pattern, as in much of the linen and
+muslin embroideries of our day, now called "Madeira work," of which a
+great deal was made in the first part of the century by English ladies
+who designed and collected patterns from each other, and gave the
+produce of their industry as gifts to their friends for collars,
+cuffs, and trimmings.[348]
+
+"Cut work" is named by Chaucer, and is constantly to be found in
+inventories from his time to the beginning of the last century. At
+Coire, in the Grisons, is a very beautiful chasuble, of which the
+orphrey is of the school of the elder Holbein or Lucas Cranach,
+applied and raised so as to form a high relief. The figures are
+covered with satin and embroidered. The chasuble itself is of fine
+Saracenic silk, woven with golden inscriptions in broad stripes. The
+colours are brown, crimson, and gold.
+
+  [Illustration: Wall Pilasters
+    Appliqué Cut work, Italian XVI. Cent^ry
+    Property of Countess Somers]
+
+In the later Middle Ages, a good deal of this work was executed in
+Germany for wall hangings; figures were cut out in different
+materials, and embroidered down and finished by putting in the details
+in various stitches. As art they are generally a failure, being more
+gaudy than beautiful. This, however, is not necessarily the case, for
+there is at the Hotel Cluny a complete suite of hangings of the time
+of Francis the First, partly applied and partly embroidered, which
+are beautiful in design and colouring, especially the fruit and
+trophies in the borders.
+
+In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries cut work was much employed
+in Italy for large flowered arabesque designs, commonly in velvet or
+silk, making columnar wall hangings, which are often very effective;
+giving the rooms an architectural decoration, without interfering with
+the arrangement of works of art, pictures, statues and cabinets,
+placed in front of them. Besides, it was supposed that the utmost
+effect of richness was thus accomplished with the least labour, and
+very large spaces and very high walls covered, without losing anything
+of beauty by distance, as must be the case when the work's highest
+merit is in the delicacy of the stitches and the details of form. (Pl.
+45.)
+
+The Earl of Beauchamp has inherited a most beautiful suite of hangings
+of "appliqué work;" silks of many kinds are laid on a white brocade
+ground with every possible variety of stitch, forming richly and
+gracefully designed patterns; and showing to what cut work can aspire.
+
+A great deal of "opus consutum" has been done in the School of Art
+Needlework, in the way of restoration of old embroideries. Here may be
+seen copies of different models of many periods; amongst other British
+specimens, part of a bed at Drumlanrig, in which James I. slept. In
+this work the application is cut out, raised and stuffed, and
+"couched" with cords, and the whole thing is as stiff, strong,
+conventional, and enduring as if it were a piece of upholstery that
+was carpentered yesterday, instead of being needlework of at least 250
+years ago.
+
+One of the most remarkable large works of this style that exists was
+shown in 1881, at the South Kensington Museum, during the Spanish
+Exhibition.[349] It was of the kind called "on the stamp." This was a
+landscape seen between columns wreathed with flowers and creepers. In
+the foreground couched a stag, the size of life--a wonderful
+reproduction of the hide of the creature in stitches. The relief is so
+high that the columns appear to be circular by the shadows they throw;
+and the stag is stuffed so as to be raised about six inches. The work
+is superb, and causes pleasure as well as wonder; and yet, in spite of
+the beauty of the design, and the richness of the materials--gold,
+silver, silk, and wool profusely used--it is a divergence from the
+legitimate art of embroidery, and is simply the attempt of the
+needlewoman to combine again the arts of sculpture and painting with
+the help of so inadequate an implement as the needle. Therefore,
+except as being a marvellous and beautiful curiosity, it is a failure;
+it is not art.[350]
+
+Practically, cut work is the best mode of arriving at splendid effects
+by uniting rich and varied tissues.[351] The Italian curiosity vendors
+know this well, and often cut up the remnants and rags of rich stuffs,
+old faded silks, and scraps of gold and silver tissues, and with them
+copy fine old designs, and sell them as authentic specimens of such
+and such a date.
+
+I was once requested to give an opinion as to the date of a curtain
+border bought in Italy, and on consideration I gave the following
+verdict: "The design is of the sixteenth century; the applied velvet
+and gold cord, of the seventeenth century; the brocaded silk ground,
+eighteenth century; the thread with which the whole was
+worked--machine-made silk thread (English)--middle of nineteenth
+century." The whole effect was excellent, and very antique.
+
+This art of "application" is the distinctive part of the "opus
+consutum," and it is the best and most economical method for
+restoration of old embroideries, of which the grounding material is
+generally worn out long before the stitches laid upon it. Much
+beautiful work has thus been rescued from annihilation, and restored
+to use from its long imprisonment in the boxes and drawers of the
+garret and store-room. But it is cruel to transfer historical or
+typical works, and so puzzle the artist and the historian.
+
+It is so troublesome to embroider on velvet or plush, or gold tissues,
+that application is the easiest and most effective mode of dealing
+with these fabrics.[352] The outlines laid down in cord have the best
+effect, while binding the edges and securing them from fraying, and it
+is almost certain that the eye receives most pleasure, in flat art,
+from a defined outline, which satisfies it; where there are no cast
+shadows, it lifts the work from the background, and separating the
+colours, it enhances their beauty. It would appear, however, as a
+rule, that either black or gold metal should invariably be employed,
+because they do not interfere with any colour they approach. White is
+distracting and aggressive. The Greeks sometimes used gold colour
+instead of gold, as we see in the mantle from the Crimea already
+referred to; but this is not nearly so agreeable to the eye as pure
+gold.
+
+A great deal of modern "opus consutum," or application cut work, has
+been done in Constantinople of late years. The designs in general, are
+not artistic; nor are the colouring and materials very commendable.
+The onlaid material is, in general, sewn down with chain stitches, and
+cut out afterwards.
+
+
+_Part 7._
+
+LACE.--OPUS FILATORIUM OR ARANEUM.
+
+Mrs. Palliser says that from the earliest times the art of lace-making
+has been so mixed up with that of needlework, that it is impossible to
+enter upon the one without naming the other. This is, in fact, what
+she has done, showing the intimate connection between the two in her
+charming work on lace, where much information about embroideries in
+general, may be found in the introduction.[353]
+
+M. Blanc also considers that there is but a slight transition between
+embroidery and guipure, which he says was the first lace.[354] As all
+the earliest specimens and designs for guipure were Venetian, the art
+was, therefore, probably an Italian invention, though an Oriental
+origin has sometimes been attributed to it. The objection to this last
+theory is that we find no ancient specimens, and no modern
+continuation of such work in the East.
+
+The word "guipure" is a stumbling-block. It has been applied to many
+forms in the varying art of lace-making; which same variableness has
+caused its nomenclature to assume the terms belonging to other textile
+arts where they approach or touch each other, (as in netting, fringes,
+or embroideries). The nearest approach to laces before the thirteenth
+century was more in the nature of what we now call guimp.[355]
+
+Embroidery differs from lace, in that it is worked on already woven
+tissues; whereas lace is manufactured at once, both ground and
+design.[356] But the link between the two is not missing.
+
+In the twelfth century they worked "opus filatorium," which consisted
+of embroidery with the needle on linen, of which half the threads had
+been drawn out, and the remainder were worked into a net by knotting
+them into groups, then dividing, and knotting them again.[357] There
+is a piece of work described in an old catalogue quoted by Rock. "St.
+Paul's, London, had a cushion covered with knotted thread: Pulvinar
+copertum de albo filo nodato." Here lace and embroidery touch each
+other.[358] Sir Gardiner Wilkinson notices some early Egyptian work in
+the Louvre as "a piece of white network pattern, each mesh containing
+an irregular cubic figure." This sounds much like lace-work.
+
+It may be fairly asserted that the term "embroidery" embraces the
+craft of lace-making, as almost all ancient and much modern lace is
+simple embroidery, and formed entirely by the needle.
+
+Some kinds of lace, however, are made by plaiting and twisting the
+threads attached to bobbins round pins which are previously arranged
+in the holes of a pattern, pricked on parchment or glazed paper.[359]
+The original motive and idea of lace is a net. The patterns called by
+the ancients "de fundata," are netted designs meshed. You will see
+them constantly in Egyptian and Greek art, both in wall painting and
+textile decoration. Homer speaks of golden cauls, and so does
+Isaiah,[360] as adorning women's heads. They also mention nets of
+flax.
+
+The capitals of the brazen columns adorned with "nets of chequer work"
+in Solomon's Temple are very curious.[361] And the author of "Letters
+from Italy, 1776," tells of the garment of a statue at Portici, edged
+with a border resembling fine netting. Egyptian robes of state appear
+to have been sometimes trimmed with an edging of a texture between
+lace and fringe.[362]
+
+Lace has been made of many materials in many ways. We may instance
+"passementerie," made with bobbins (bone lace), with or without pins,
+or with the needle only, by hand. The materials have been gold,
+silver, silk, thread (these two last white or coloured), the fibres of
+plants, and human hair.[363] A lace called "yak" is made of wool or
+hair.
+
+Bone laces in gold and silver, or the two mixed and interchanged, are
+continually mentioned in the inventories of the fifteenth, sixteenth,
+and seventeenth centuries. Bed hangings, chair and cushion covers, and
+table cloths were constantly trimmed with gold and silver bone lace,
+and fringes of the same.[364] Laces in coloured silks were made in
+Spain and the Balearic Isles late in the last century.[365]
+
+In 1542, a sumptuary law was passed in Venice, forbidding the metal
+laces embroidered in silk to be wider than "due dita," i.e. about two
+inches. This paternal interference in the details of life is truly
+Venetian. It was intended to "protect the nobles and citizens from
+injuring themselves and setting a bad example."
+
+Perhaps this strict rule was relaxed in favour of crowned heads and
+royal personages; for there is at Ashridge, among the relics of Queen
+Elizabeth's enforced visit, a toilet-cover of red and gold striped
+silk, with a trimming of lace, four inches broad, of Venice gold and
+silver lace embroidered in coloured silk. Specimens of these laces are
+rare, owing to the intrinsic value of the metal. We must suppose the
+origin of these golden trimmings to belong to a very early period. A
+piece of gold wire lace guimp was lately found in a tomb near Wareham,
+and is supposed, with reason, to be Scandinavian.[366]
+
+M. Blanc describes lace as a "treillage" or network, and says it is
+made in three ways. You may complete the ground first, and then work
+the pattern with the needle. This he calls lace "pure et simple;" and
+he considers that it differs from guipure in that the latter consists
+of flowers and arabesques worked separately, and then connected with
+bars, lines, or meshes. This guipure is the second mode of
+lace-making.[367] The third is by machinery; but this has the inherent
+defect of all machine-made fabrics, to a practised eye; i.e. a certain
+rigidity and coldness in the exactly repeated forms, in which the
+human touch is wanting. It is curious how in art, even a "pentimento"
+is valuable, recalling the hand that erred as well as created; the
+attention that strayed, or reconsidered the design.[368]
+
+M. Blanc, speaking of the beauty of point d'Alençon, praises it
+especially as being entirely needlework. He names the different modes
+of lace-making, and judges their merits. Of needle-made lace he says:
+"And the value of this lace not only arises from its representing a
+considerable amount of labour, but also because nothing can replace in
+human estimation the fabrics produced by a man's, and still less by a
+woman's handicraft. However the hand may have been restrained by the
+necessity of faithfully following, on green parchment, the designs
+imagined and traced by another person, there is always, even in
+copying an outline, an individuality, an imperceptible deviation to
+the right or to the left, above or below the tracing, which impresses
+on the design the accent of strength or weakness, of indecision or
+determination."[369] I would add, of intelligence or stupidity; of
+knowledge or ignorance.
+
+This is not the first time, and will certainly not be the last, that I
+shall have sought to impress on the needlewoman the fact that her
+individuality cannot fail to be strongly marked in her work; and I
+would urge her to carry out the suggestions that her experience and
+her taste afford her, while seeking to render faithfully the original
+motive of the designer. In lace-making, as in all art, the interest
+and the life, as it were, is imparted to each specimen by the
+attention and thought bestowed upon it.
+
+Mrs. Palliser shows us, by her beautiful illustrations, how much
+variety may be given to designs for lace-making, which have changed
+with each period of contemporary art, and are markedly distinctive of
+their nationalities.
+
+Mr. A. Cole's lectures on lace, his volume of photographs, and M.
+Seguin's valuable work, are full of information.
+
+M. Urbani de Gheltof's "Technical History of Venetian Laces,"
+translated into English by Lady Layard, is a beautiful little book and
+a worthy imitation of the ancient lace-books of the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries.[370]
+
+The subject has been so thoroughly discussed by adepts in connection
+with its revival as a local industry in its original cradle, that I
+will confine myself to a few observations on its history and its place
+in decorative art.
+
+Fringes, Knotting, Netting, Knitting, Crochet, Tatting, and
+Lace-making, are all parts of the same branch of ornamental
+needlework. They are all "trimmings," in the sense of being decorative
+edges to more solid materials. They are not available as coverings for
+warmth or decency; but they serve to give the grace of mystery to the
+object they drape or veil. They soften the outlines and the colours
+beneath them, while they permit them to peep through their meshes.
+They are hardly to be included in what is called high art, having more
+affinity with grace, refinement and coquetry, than with æsthetic
+culture or noble thought.
+
+This tendency in lace work may be the reason that the masculine mind
+does not, in general, appreciate these lovely textures, but rather
+despises them (even when the designs are beautiful and ingenious), as
+being flimsy and deficient in honest intention; whereas women have
+always greatly prized them for their delicacy and refinement, and
+their great value, on account of the time, trouble, and eyesight
+expended upon them. Their knowledge of stitches also enables them to
+appreciate their variety, and the taste shown in their selection and
+arrangement for carrying out each design.
+
+Lace stitches are almost innumerable.[371] Upwards of a hundred are
+named, and their variations are endless. But a volume would not
+suffice us for entering into the details of the craft; many of its
+stitches have been imported into embroideries in gold, silk, and
+crewels; and such adaptations are always allowable, provided the
+effect is good.
+
+We have every reason to believe that the claims of Venice as the first
+and original school of lace-making have been satisfactorily
+proved.[372] Genoa, Florence, Milan, especially the last,[373]
+followed suit. Germany, France,[374] and Spain soon started their
+schools; but Lady Layard believes that Spain received all her
+inspiration and the greater part of her laces from Venice, which
+likewise sent teachers to France and to Brussels--or rather, we may
+say, had many first-class workwomen decoyed from her manufactories to
+assist in starting rival industries in other countries.[375]
+
+The first pattern-books were printed in Venice in the sixteenth
+century; and these "Corone di belle e virtuose donne," as they are
+sometimes entitled,[376] were imitated in France and Germany.
+
+Venice was proud of her industry, and of the noble ladies who fostered
+it. It is recorded in the "Virtù in Giocco of Giovanna Palazzi" that
+Giovanna Dandolo, or "la Dandola," (wife of the Doge Malapiero,) was
+the first patroness of Venice laces. She also fostered the art of
+printing in Venice, and is spoken of as a "principessa di gran'
+spirito, ne di private fortune," and her memory is cherished in
+connection with these proofs of her patriotism. We hear also that
+Morosin or Marosin, wife of the Doge Marin Grimani, patronized
+Venetian lace-making. Her forewoman, or _maestra_, was a certain
+Cattina Gardin, and through her the art was settled at Burano, where
+it has been so lately revived.
+
+At the Cathedral of Burano, is kept in the sacristy, perhaps the
+finest existing piece of artistic lace of the sixteenth century. It
+contains many groups of figures from the history of our Lord,
+beautiful both in design and execution, worked in "Punti Fogliami,"
+and filled in with exquisite tracery. This was the border of an
+antipendium.
+
+Mrs. Palliser laments the extinction of the art in Venice, and says
+that but one woman of the old craft had survived; but her elegy was
+premature, as that old woman, by name Cencia Scarpariola, has lived to
+see hundreds of girls at Burano reviving all the old traditions,
+having learnt from her the secrets of the "mestiere," or "mystery."
+Under the patronage of the Princess Margherita, now Queen of Italy,
+and with the active help and superintendence of Countess Adriana
+Marcello and Princess Giovanelli, most beautiful laces are now made in
+every old point, French and Flemish, as well as Venetian. Pezzi,
+merli, and merletti are executed in the different styles which include
+all lace-making, and of which we here give a list from M. de Gheltof's
+book:--
+
+    Net lace.
+    Cut lace.
+    Open lace.
+    Flowered lace.
+    Knotted lace.
+    Darning or square netting.
+    Venice point.
+    Burano point.
+    Drawn lace.[377]
+    Embroidered linen.[378]
+
+The price of these laces is very high, but not beyond their value when
+we consider the vast amount of skilled labour bestowed on them. We are
+often told that old lace is cheaper than new, as an absurd fact,
+because the antiquity of lace is supposed to add to its value. Yes,
+but principally as an object of archæological interest; whereas that
+which is being made now is supporting by its daily wage the
+needlewoman and her family, and perhaps providing for her old age;
+and as the strain on the eye is very heavy, many lace-workers early in
+life lose their sight, at least for all the purposes of their
+craft.[379] For these reasons we cannot say that the prices required
+for such luxurious trimmings are unreasonable. Zanon da Udine gives us
+an idea of how costly they were in old times. He says that Giuseppe
+Berardi, a lace merchant in Venice, made a profit of 75,000 francs on
+a commission for a set of lace bed-hangings for the wedding of Joseph
+II., Emperor of Germany, which proves the high prices paid for the new
+laces of their day.
+
+Blond laces, which take their turn occasionally as fashionable
+trimmings, veils, and Spanish mantillas, are so called from their
+original Venetian name, "merletti biondi," pale laces. De Gheltof
+derives this appellation from the celebrated collar of Louis Quatorze,
+and fancies it was made of the fair hair of the workers; but this is
+only vague conjecture. The term was applied in the seventeenth century
+to laces in silk, gold, and silver--never to thread laces. I confess I
+do not find the reason for the name, but accept De Gheltof's
+information that it was given by the authority of the magistrates of
+Mercanzia in 1759.
+
+This is but a very slight sketch of the history of lace. Venice being
+its birthplace, and likewise the busy scene of its rehabilitation, I
+have lingered over its school, and left but little space for the
+discussion of those of Spain, Flanders, Belgium, and France. But these
+have been thoroughly investigated, and their individual merits are
+well appreciated, both as antique and modern dress decoration.
+
+I have already said that the lace schools in France were instituted by
+Colbert, who placed one at Auxerre, under the especial care of his
+brother, the bishop of that city. Louis Quatorze made it one of his
+splendid caprices, and not only set the example, but forced the
+fashion into this luxurious and extravagant channel.
+
+In Spain, lace was made to look its best by being worn stretched over
+the great hoops of the "Guard-Infante;" and the fashion spread all
+over Europe. The white laces, resembling carved ivory or those in gold
+and silver, which remind one of solid jewellers' work, when spread
+over the surface of these fortified outworks, guarding from all
+approach the persons of the Infantas of Spain, assume in the portraits
+by Velasquez, a dignity which is in keeping with their value. The
+splendid designs show brilliantly on a background of scarlet, rose
+colour, or black silk; and that which, hanging loosely, looks only
+tawdry and ragged, had a magnificent effect when thus displayed.
+
+For ecclesiastical purposes, these grand solid laces seem most
+appropriate, being effective in large spaces, and easily seen at a
+distance, hanging over the edge of the altar, as a border to the linen
+cloths, or finishing the white alb of the officiating priest.
+
+One cannot but agree with M. Blanc, who points out that each piece of
+lace had its intention, and that a fashionable ball-dress trimmed with
+the edging of an antique altar-cloth in loops, is in false taste, to
+say no worse of the misappropriation.
+
+Though we have had no schools of lace in England (unless we can call
+our imitative industries schools), we have samplers of the time of
+Queen Elizabeth, and down to the middle of the last century, showing
+that drawn lace and cut lace were regularly taught, probably as an
+accomplishment, by Italians. The laces of Devonshire and the Isle of
+Wight (called Honiton) form a group totally distinct from those of
+Northamptonshire, Bedfordshire, and Oxfordshire, which last are very
+simple cushion bobbin-laces.
+
+From the sixteenth century English ladies have, for their amusement,
+made cut laces. Still, we must confess we have no national style of
+lace, and the only enduring ones have been those of France and
+Belgium, which have always kept the lead since their establishment,
+though fluctuating in design with the varying fashions of each epoch.
+Perhaps the reason of their longevity is that they have followed
+always the taste of their day. That of our time being decidedly
+archæological, ancient patterns are now the most successful.
+
+There is a kind of embroidery darned-work, called "Limerick lace,"
+which is said to be only made in Ireland, and being partly
+machine-made, is not pure lace, and therefore little esteemed. Very
+fine thread laces have been produced at Irish work schools; but no
+commercial result has followed. Clever imitations of Venice point have
+come from Ireland lately, called "raised crochet." This is a novelty,
+and it is extremely fine and beautiful work.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 46.
+    Egyptian "Gobelins," Woven and Embroidered.]
+
+The Exhibition of Irish Lace in London (June, 1883), shows how
+widespread have been the efforts of Irish ladies to employ the
+peculiar genius of the sister island for delicate work with the
+needle, which has always been shown in their beautiful embroideries on
+muslin and cambric. It appears that every kind of lace, except,
+perhaps, Brussels point, has been made in Ireland within the last 180
+years; but as in each case the effort was always that of one
+individual woman, the school fell away when she died.
+
+The names of these ladies are now worthily recorded in the official
+catalogue of the exhibition, with photographs of the specimens
+produced under their superintendence and care. Perhaps a permanent
+industry may crown, however late, their exertions to help the women of
+Ireland.
+
+
+_Part 8._
+
+TAPESTRY--OPUS PECTINEUM.
+
+It is necessary to define precisely what is meant by the word
+"tapestry."[380] The term has been applied to all hangings, and so
+caused confusion between those that are embroidered with a design, on
+a plain or brocaded woven material, and those which are inwoven with
+the design from the first.[381] This latter was called in classical
+language, "opus pectineum," because it was woven with the help of a
+comb (the "slay"),[382] to push the threads tight between each row of
+stitches; and the individual stitches were put in with a sort of a
+needle, or by the fingers only, and laid on the warp. It was thus
+practised by the Egyptians, by the Persians, Indians, and Peruvians;
+and in Egypt was often finished by embroidery. (Pl. 46.) In Egyptian
+tombs we have evidence of their tapestry, from the mural paintings
+representing men and women weaving pictures in upright looms. The
+comb which served to push the threads together after the stitches were
+laid in is sometimes found in the weaver's tomb.
+
+We have, in the British Museum, pieces of "opus pectineum" from
+Saccarah, in Egypt; and also fragments from a Peruvian tomb, of
+barbarous design, but the weaving is equal to the Egyptian; and both
+resemble the Gobelins weaving of to-day. Whence came the craft of the
+Peruvians?
+
+Tapestry is woven in two ways, by a high or by a low-warp loom
+(_haute-lisse_ or _basse-lisse_), vertical or horizontal. The "slay"
+is the implement which is peculiar to the craft. I shall not enter
+into any description of the mode of working the looms, as this has
+been thoroughly well done by masters of the art.[383] But I would call
+attention to the Frontispiece, copied from a Greek vase, where
+Penelope is portrayed sitting by her _haute-lisse_ frame. I also refer
+the reader to the illustration from the Rheims tapestries, in which a
+mediæval artist shows the Blessed Virgin weaving at one that is
+horizontal or "basse-lisse." (Pl. 47.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 47.
+    Portion of a Tapestry Hanging. Cathedral. Rheims. The Virgin weaves
+        and embroiders at a _basse-lisse_ frame.]
+
+For the best information I have been able to obtain regarding tapestry
+weaving, I must acknowledge my indebtedness to M. Albert Castel's
+"Bibliothèque des Merveilles."[384] He has given great care to the
+consideration of this subject, and has collected good evidences to
+prove his conclusions, which I willingly accept _en bloc_. Of course
+he has chiefly dealt with the French branch of the art, and with the
+Flemish, from which it immediately descends. He begins, however, by
+quoting Pliny, to prove the antiquity of weaving, and gives a verse of
+Martial's to this effect: "Thou owest this work to the land of
+Memphis, where the slay of the Nile has vanquished the needle of
+Babylon."[385]
+
+Homer makes Helen weave the story of the siege of Troy; this may have
+been partly embroidered; and there are some pieces of woven tapestry
+introduced most ingeniously into the web of a linen shirt or garment,
+of which the sleeve is in the Egyptian department of the British
+Museum, proving that figures were pictured by weaving quite as early
+as the date of Troy, and unmistakably finished with the needle (Plate
+18); at any rate, as early as the days of Homer. Arachne's web was
+interwoven with figures. She and Minerva rivalled each other in
+ingenious design and perfect execution. The description of the
+beautiful hangings they wove, the glorious colours with their
+tenderly graduated tints, and the graceful borders, appear to be
+almost prophetic of the highest efforts of the looms of the
+Gobelins.[386][387] Arachne's name is derived from the Hebrew word
+for weaving, "Arag."
+
+It appears that the town now called Arras, but anciently Nomenticum,
+was always a centre of the trade of the weavers;[388] for Flavius
+Vopiscus, writing in A.D. 282, says that thence came the Byrri--woven
+cloaks with hoods, which were much in vogue amongst all classes in the
+later Roman Empire. The craft of weaving, which flourished in the
+Flemish and other adjacent countries, seems to have become native to
+that soil, and to have clung to it, surviving many historical
+cataclysms.[389]
+
+Though in the fifth century the inhabitants of that country were
+transported wholesale to Germany by the Vandals, and among them those
+of the town of Arras, yet, thanks to the monasteries, there was a
+survival and a revival; the craftsmen grouping themselves round the
+religious houses. Specimens as models were brought from the East.
+Aster, Bishop of Amasis (a town in Asiatic Turkey), describes these
+Oriental hangings in one of his homilies. He says that animals and
+scenes from the Bible were woven on white grounds.[390]
+
+Sidonius Apollinaris, Bishop of Clermont Ferrand,[391] says that some
+foreign tapestries are "pictured" with the summits of Ctesiphon and
+Nephates, "wild beasts running rapidly across void canvas, and also by
+a miracle of art, the Parthian of wild aspect with his head turned
+backwards." This might be a description of a Chinese composition, and
+probably it is so.[392]
+
+Woven tapestry is also called "Arras,"[393] because that town in the
+Netherlands was the home and school of the art of picture weaving in
+the Middle Ages. It has been hitherto excluded from the domain of
+needlework, because of the different use of the needle employed in
+it. It has always been woven on a loom, and is, in fact, embroidery
+combined with the weaving; for the shuttle, or slay, or comb completes
+each row of stitches. It belongs as much to our art as does tambour
+work, which is done with a hook instead of a needle. Tapestry weaving
+is the intelligent craft of a practised hand guided by artistic skill.
+The forms of the painted design must be copied by a person who can
+draw; and the colours require as much care in selection, as in
+painting with oils or water-colours. Such a thing as a purely
+mechanical exact copy is impossible in any art; and the difficulties
+are increased a hundredfold when it is a translation into another
+material, and another form of art. Besides, in this case, the copies
+are worked from the back, and the picture is reversed. The question is
+this: Can it be claimed as belonging to the same craft as embroidery?
+I answer in the affirmative, and I claim it.
+
+"When the Saracens began to weave tapestry we cannot tell; but the
+workers in woven pictures were called Sarassins, and their craft, the
+'opus Saracenicum.'"[394] The French and Flemish artisans who
+continued to weave in the old upright frames (_haute-lisse_) were,
+whether Christians or not, called "Sarassins." Probably they came
+through Spain, possibly from Sicily to Flanders and to France, or else
+from Byzantium. Viollet-le-Duc says that the "Saracinois" was a term
+applied to the makers of velvety carpets (_tapis veloutés_).[395] This
+is possible.[396] Woven carpets of Oriental type were spreading
+themselves as articles of luxury through Europe early in the Middle
+Ages; and the Persian style of design was much the same then, when the
+first models were brought to Spain, and thence to Arras, as it is now
+in the carpets we buy just woven in Persia.[397] The oldest specimens
+known here have been exhibited in the Indian Museum, and may be of the
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The perishable nature of the
+material makes us dependent on the sculptured records of all artistic
+design for our knowledge of carpets and hangings of more than a
+thousand years ago; and we must confess that we find nothing really
+resembling a Persian pattern in any classical tomb or sculpture of the
+Dark Ages.[398]
+
+I have allowed myself to touch upon carpet weaving, as it is germane
+to tapestry; though it is a branch that soon loses itself and leaves
+artistic work in the distance. Except the first design, it has become
+purely mechanical.
+
+After what has been quoted from Ovid's "Metamorphoses," and bearing in
+mind the pictured webs described by Homer, and likewise the evidence
+of the frescoes in Egypt, and the woman weaving on the Greek fictile
+vase found at Chiusi, we may be justified in concluding that, like all
+other arts, that of tapestry existed in very early days, died out, and
+had to begin afresh, and gradually return to life, during the Middle
+Ages.
+
+Bishop Gaudry, about 925, possessing a piece of tapestry with an
+inscription in Greek letters surrounded by lions "parsemé," was much
+put about till he obtained something to match it, to hang on the
+opposite side of his choir at Auxerre.[399] And it is known that the
+monks of St. Florent, at Saumur, wove tapestries about 985, and
+continued to do so for two centuries. St. Angelme of Norway,[400]
+Bishop of Auxerre, who died in 840, caused many tapestries to be
+executed for his church. At Poitiers this manufactory was so famous in
+the eleventh century, that foreign kings, princes, and prelates sought
+to obtain them, "even for Italy." The rules of their order of the
+monks of the Abbey of Cluny, dated 1009, were followed by those of St.
+Wast and of the Abbey of Fleury, and others in France, who all wove
+wool and silk for tapestries. Le Père Labbé, from whom much of this
+information is drawn and acknowledged by M. Charton (my authority),
+says that in 876, at Ponthièvre, in presence of the Emperor Charles
+the Bold, the hall of the council-chamber was hung with pictured
+tapestries, and the seats were covered with them.[401]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 48.
+    Order of the Golden Fleece. Tapestry at Berne, taken from Charles
+        the Bold at the Battle of Grandson, 1476.]
+
+Sufficient has been said to show that during the dark ages hangings
+were woven in France, Germany, and Belgium,[402] and that England was
+not behind the rest of the civilized world in this craft. I think,
+also, that we have indicated its Oriental origin.[403]
+
+Arras continued to lead as the great tapestry factory till the end of
+the fifteenth century, when the commercial failure of the city began,
+at the death of Charles le Téméraire, Duke of Burgundy.[404] Plate 48
+shows a portion of his tent hangings woven with the order of the
+golden fleece taken at the battle of Grandson--now in the museum at
+Berne. Till then Arras had supplied most of the splendid decorations of
+which we find such marvellous lists. Every possible subject--religious,
+romantic, historical, and allegorical--was pressed into the service,
+and pictured hangings were supposed to instruct, amuse, and edify the
+beholders. The dark ages were illuminated, and their barbarity
+softened, by these constant appeals to men's highest instincts, and to
+the memories of their noblest antecedents and aspirations, which
+clothed their walls, and so became a part of their daily lives. The
+great Flemish and French workshops became the illustrators of the
+history of the world, as it was then read or being enacted. It is a
+record of faiths, religious and political; and of national and family
+lives and their changes. The Exhibition at Brussels in 1880 showed, by
+its "Catalogue Raisonné," how much could be extracted from its storied
+tapestries of both archæological and artistic information.[405]
+
+Though the art continued to be the servant of refined luxury in the
+fifteenth century, Arras itself had done its work,[406] and was
+superseded as the greatest weaver of artistic tapestry by a neighbour
+and rival. Brussels, which had been gradually asserting itself as a
+weaving community, from that date absorbed most of the trade of Arras,
+and thence forwards, till Henri IV. established the works of the
+Savonnerie, Brussels led European taste, and employed the best
+artists. Brussels employed Leonardo da Vinci and Mantegna, Giovanni da
+Udine, Raphael, and later, Rubens and the great Dutch painters, to
+design cartoons for tapestry works. Raphael's pupil, Michael Coxsius,
+of Mechlin, superintended the copying of his master's cartoons.
+Shortly afterwards, Antwerp, Oudenarde, Lille, Tournai, Valenciennes,
+Beauvais, Aubusson, and Bruges all had their schools;[407] and the
+adept can trace their differences and peculiarities, and name their
+birthplace, without referring to their trade-mark, or to that of the
+manufacturer, which is usually to be found in the outer border.
+Poitiers, Troyes, Beauvais, Rheims, and St. Quentin likewise had their
+schools, and became famous.
+
+Want of space prevents my entering more fully into this subject of the
+northern tapestries, and I must refer my readers to the authorities I
+have quoted from so largely.
+
+
+ITALIAN TAPESTRY.
+
+The word Arrazzi shows us whence the Italians drew their art.
+Doubtless there were looms in the Italian cities, and especially under
+ecclesiastical patronage, through the dark ages. Rome was in
+communication with the Atrebates in the third century, by whom she was
+supplied with the Byrri, or hooded cloaks then worn; and as it had
+been a centre for weaving commerce, it is probable that Rome received
+from Arras the craftsmen as well as the produce of their looms. At the
+Renaissance we find factories for pictured webs in Florence, Rome,
+Milan, Mantua, and elsewhere. The best artists of the Italian
+schools--Mantegna, Leonardo, Raphael and his scholars, &c., &c.--gave
+their finest designs to be executed in Italy, before they were sold to
+Arras, Brussels, France, or England, and they are accumulated in the
+treasure-room of every palace in Italy. But the finest collections are
+those of the Vatican, and of the Pitti in Florence. A splendid volume
+might be edited of these grand artistic works; such a record would be
+invaluable. Vasari[408] and Passevant give us occasional glimpses of
+local factories for tapestry, but, as we have before said, this
+subject has still to be investigated.
+
+
+FRENCH TAPESTRY.
+
+In France, as elsewhere, tapestry was probably woven in private looms
+and in the religious houses from early days. M. Jubinal believes that
+it was made at Poitiers, Troyes, Beauvais, Rheims, and St. Quentin as
+early as 1025.[409] Froissart describes the entry of Isabel of
+Bavaria as a bride into Paris, when the houses were covered with
+hangings and tapestries representing historical scenes.[410] The Cluny
+Museum possesses a most curious mediæval suite of hangings from the
+Chateau de Boussac, of the early part of the fifteenth century. They
+tell the story of the "Dame au Lion," and are brilliantly coloured and
+charmingly quaint and gay in design. Hangings designed by Primaticcio
+were woven at Fontainebleau, where Francis I. started the manufacture
+in 1539. However, the first national school of tapestry weaving was
+that at Chaillot, under the experienced teaching of workmen from
+Arras; afterwards transferred to the town of Gobelins, 1603, by Henri
+Quatre.[411] Louis Quatorze and his minister Colbert splendidly
+protected this manufacture by law, privilege, and employment; so did
+Louis Quinze. Before the Revolution, other considerable tapestry works
+were flourishing at Aubusson in Auvergne, at Felletin in the upper
+Marches, and at Beauvais. These two last were especially famed for
+velvety tapestries (_veloutés_).
+
+As usual, the French have surpassed all other nations in this textile
+art. The pictorial tapestries of the Gobelins have carried the beauty
+of wall hangings to the utmost perfection. Nothing can be more festive
+than a brilliantly lighted hall, glowing with these woven pictures or
+arabesques, framed in gilded carvings or stuccoes. Still we must
+acknowledge that, in choice of worthy subjects, the Flemish ideal,
+which had been left far behind, was the highest. The weavers of the
+time of Louis Quatorze aspired only to teach the glories of France,
+not the moralities of society and civilization, in their historical
+compositions, which were then superseded by classical mythology, or
+else by scenes from rustic life, of the Watteau School. La Fontaine's
+fables gave some of the prettiest and gayest designs, and were
+generally the centres of splendid arabesques. The drawing and
+execution were perfect.
+
+It is to be feared that in the future, great works of textile
+decoration will be few and far between. It is only when the State, or
+the monarch that represents the dignity of the State, protects and
+fosters these artistic factories, that they can continue to thrive.
+Without such powerful encouragement, fashion, commercial depression,
+or a war will stop for a time the orders without which funds fail,
+discouragement sets in, and ruin quickly follows; and the best workman
+when unemployed, or forced for some years to wield the sword, loses
+his practised skill never to be restored. In France, whatever has been
+the form of government, the old traditions of protection for the
+Gobelins have been acted up to and maintained. The consequence is that
+science and art still contribute their efforts in the machinery, the
+colouring, and the designing of hangings of which the materials[412]
+and the execution are unrivalled. Probably there will never again be a
+Tuileries or a Versailles to adorn, but an Hôtel de Ville, especially
+if it is occasionally destroyed, may give from time to time
+opportunity for such decorations.
+
+
+ENGLISH TAPESTRY.
+
+When we consider the antiquity and the excellence of the art of
+tapestry on the Continent, we cannot pretend that there can be the
+same general interest in that of our English looms. But to ourselves
+it naturally assumes the greatest importance; and I have tried to
+trace the efforts of our ancestors in this direction, by noting every
+certain sign of English production, in what must have been an
+imitation of Flemish or Oriental weaving. The few facts here collected
+may be of service to the future writer of the history of English
+tapestries.
+
+Comnenus, Prince of Arras, fled before the Romans from Nomenticum to
+England; and he and his Atrebates settled themselves between
+Silchester and Sarum, and the Belgæ and Parisi did the same. The
+Romans found them here when they invaded England. Wherever the Belgic
+tribes spread themselves, the art of weaving was established. Comnenus
+probably brought over, and left to his descendants, the inheritance of
+this craft.
+
+Dr. Rock thinks that pictured tapestry was woven at an early period in
+the Middle Ages by the monks in England. The earliest proof of this
+that we possess, is the notice by Matthew Paris (thirteenth century)
+describing the three reredos for St. Alban's Abbey; the first, a large
+one, depicting the finding of the body of the Protomartyr; the others,
+"The Prodigal Son" and "The Man who fell among Thieves." All these
+were executed by the orders of Abbot Geoffrey.[413]
+
+While in London in 1316, Simon, Abbot of Ramsay, bought for the use of
+his monks, looms, shuttles, and a slay. "Pro weblomes emptes xx^d. Et
+pro staves ad eadem vj^d. Item pro iiij Shittles, pro eadem opere
+vj^d. Item j sloy pro textoribus viii^d."[414]
+
+In Edward II.'s time there were hangings woven in England which appear
+to have been absolutely tapestries. They were much valued abroad, and
+were called "Salles d'Angleterre." Charles V. of France (1364)
+possessed among his articles of costly furniture, "Une salle
+d'Angleterre vermeille brodée d'azur, et est la bordure a vignettes,
+et le dedans de Lyons, d'Aigles, et de Lyopars."[415]
+
+Our trade with Arras must have improved our tapestries. We are told of
+Edward III. selling his wools to that town, and being therefore called
+by Philip de Valois, his "Marchant de Laine." Horace Walpole refers to
+an act, "De Mysterâ Tapiciarorum," of the time of Edward III., 1327,
+"regarding certain malpractices of the craft," which proves its
+existence in England at that period.[416]
+
+Mr. French, in his catalogue of the Exhibition in London, 1851, quotes
+the tapestries of St. Mary's Hall at Coventry, to prove that there was
+a manufactory in England, _temp._ Henry VI. There were certainly
+individual looms, though we doubt whether it had yet become a national
+industry, as we have so few specimens remaining. The St. Mary's
+tapestries contain portraits of Henry VI., Cardinal Beaufort, &c., and
+are probably contemporary works. The subject is the marriage of Henry
+VI.
+
+There is also a piece of tapestry at Bude, in Cornwall, the property
+of Mr. Maskell, which came from a royal sale. Here the marriage of
+Henry VII. is depicted, and the style resembles that of the Coventry
+hangings. The costumes are certainly English, and the original
+pictures must have been English, though they might have been wrought
+at Arras, reminding one of the groups of figures and the dresses on
+the Dunstable Pall (see Plate 78).
+
+Dr. Rock also quotes the reredos belonging to the Vintners' Company,
+representing St. Martin sharing his cloak with a beggar. He thinks
+this is executed by the monks of St. Alban's, and attributes to those
+of Canterbury the fine tapestries of the legends of the Virgin at Aix,
+in Provence, of which we have the history. They were originally given
+to Canterbury Cathedral by Prior Godstone, and were called Arras work.
+There is no doubt that there were looms and artists in the convents
+and monasteries before there was any recognized school of such work in
+England. Probably till the Reformation such hangings were being woven
+all over Europe, and only then ceased in Germany and England. One
+cannot but regret that the weight of the evil which preponderated over
+the good in the Houses of the Church, should have caused so much that
+was beautiful in art to be crushed by their ruin.
+
+Chaucer speaks of "tapestry of verd."[417] This green tapestry seems
+to have been intended to give a bowery effect to the room it hung; and
+one can imagine that it pleased the taste of the poet of the "Flower
+and the Leaf." It seems to have been much the fashion in England and
+elsewhere about that period, and generally represented landscapes and
+woody foregrounds only; but sometimes figures and animals were
+portrayed, and always in the same tints of bluish-green.
+
+Dr. Rock gives us an extract from the wardrobe accounts of Edward II.,
+containing the following items: "To a mercer of London for a green
+hanging of wool, woven with figures of kings and earls upon it; for
+the king's service upon solemn feast days in London;" therefore the
+"tapestry of verd" was not a novelty even in the time of Chaucer.[418]
+
+Oudenarde was famous for these "hallings" or "salles." All the
+specimens mentioned in the catalogue of tapestries exhibited at
+Brussels in 1880, are said to be from thence. But we see no reason why
+it should not have been an English style of weaving also. The first
+establishment of a permanent manufactory in England, did not, however,
+take place until the latter end of the reign of Henry VIII., when
+Robert Sheldon "allowed" his manor-house at Barcheston, in
+Warwickshire, to "one Hicks," whom he signalizes in his will as "the
+author and beginner of all tapestry of Arras in England." This will is
+dated 1576.[419]
+
+  [Illustration: SUMMER
+    English Tapestry, Temp. Henry VIII. at Hatfield]
+
+There are four pieces of tapestry representing the Seasons, removed
+from an old family house and placed by Lord Salisbury at Hatfield
+House, where they hang in the great corridor. These were probably
+woven in Barcheston. (Plate 49.) The style is English Renaissance, and
+the design full of intention; in fact, they have the seal of the time
+of Henry VIII. Only one characteristic reminds one of Flemish art,
+and that is the mode of drawing the plants and flowers, which might
+have been taken out of an old German herbal. The landscapes and
+peasantry are unmistakably English. The pictures are worked with
+strong black outlines which emphasize every detail and give the effect
+of a highly coloured outlined engraving; reminding one of the
+children's books by Marcus Ward or by Walter Crane.[420]
+
+The tapestries called the "Spanish Armada hangings" were probably
+woven here late in Elizabeth's reign. In her time we find in
+catalogues of household goods, descriptions of splendid hangings,
+furnishings of palaces and private houses. The MS. inventory of the
+Earl of Leicester's belongings, in the library at Longleat, astonishes
+us with the abundance of suites of hangings of tapestry that it
+enumerates, as well as those embroidered by hand, and others of
+stamped and painted leather.
+
+It was in the reign of James I. that the manufacture was set up at
+Mortlake, in Surrey. Aubrey, in his "History of Surrey, i. p. 82,"
+however, dates the institution in the subsequent reign; but Lloyd[421]
+is not only positive for the former date, but affirms it was "of the
+motion of King James himself," who gave £2000 towards the undertaking;
+and we have further proofs extant that he spent largely, and
+encouraged it in every way. He gave to Sir Francis Crane, who erected
+the house at Mortlake, "the making of three Baronets" towards his
+project for manufacture of tapestry.[422]
+
+Another curious item which we quote, shows that the funds for the
+enterprise were not easily forthcoming. It is a warrant "to Sir
+Francis Crane: £2000 to be employed in buying £1000 per ann. of
+pensions or other gifts made of the king, and not yet payable, for
+ease of His Majesty's charge of £1000 a year towards the maintenance
+of Sir Francis Crane's tapestry manufacture."[423]
+
+Apparently this little arrangement did not succeed, for there is an
+acknowledgment by Charles I., in the first year of his reign,[424]
+that he is in debt to Sir F. Crane: "For three suits of gold tapestry
+we stand indebted to Sir Francis Crane £6000. Also Sir F. Crane is
+allowed £1000 annually for the better maintenance of said works for
+ten years to come." The king also granted the estate of Stoke Bruere,
+near Stamford, in Northamptonshire, as part payment of £16,400 due to
+him on the tapestry works at Mortlake.[425] The great value of these
+tapestries is shown by the prices named in the Domestic Papers of the
+State Paper Office, and in private inventories; they were woven in
+silk, wool, and gold, which last item accounts both for their price
+and for their disappearance.
+
+William, Archbishop of York and Lord Keeper, gave £2500 for four
+pieces of Arras representing the four Seasons.[426] Their value,
+however, fell during the civil wars, for the tapestries of the five
+Senses from the Palace of Oatlands, which were from the Mortlake
+looms, were sold in 1649 for £270. The beautiful tapestries at
+Houghton were woven at Mortlake: these are all silk, and contain whole
+length portraits of James I. and Charles I., and their Queens, with
+heads of the royal children in the borders. A similar hanging is at
+Knowle, wrought in silk, containing portraits of Vandyke and Sir
+Francis Crane.[427]
+
+Francis Cleyne was a decorator and painter employed in the works at
+Mortlake by Charles I., who, while he was still Prince of Wales,
+brought him over to England from Rostock, in Mecklenburg (his native
+place), while the Prince was in Spain wooing the Infanta. Cleyne was
+great in grotesques, and also undertook in historical designs.[428]
+
+Three of the Raphael cartoons were sent to be copied at Mortlake.[429]
+The purchase of these cartoons by the king, showed how high was the
+standard to which he tried to raise the art in England. The "Triumph
+of Cæsar," by Mantegna, was obtained for the same purpose in 1653; and
+certain Dutch prisoners were forwarded to the manufactory to be
+employed on the work.[430] It was entrusted to the care of Sir Gilbert
+Pickering, who was either an artist or the superintendent of the
+works.
+
+After the death of Sir Francis, his brother, Sir Richard Crane, sold
+the premises to Charles I. During the civil wars, the property was
+seized upon and confiscated as having belonged to the Crown. It
+occupied the site of what is now Queen's Head Court. The old house
+opposite was built by the king for the residence of Cleyne the artist.
+Gibson, the dwarf, and portrait painter, who had been page to a lady
+at Mortlake, was one of his pupils.[431]
+
+The value of the king's collection of tapestries was well understood
+during the Protectorate. The tapestry house remained in the occupation
+of John Holliburie, the "master-workman." After the Restoration,
+Charles II. appointed Verrio as designer, intending to revive the
+manufactory. This was not, however, carried out; but the work still
+lingered on, and must have been in some repute, for Evelyn names some
+of these hangings as a fit present among those offered by a gallant to
+his mistress.[432]
+
+Arras is said to have been woven at Stamford, but we have no data of
+its establishment or its suppression. Burleigh House contains much of
+it; and there is a suite of hangings at Belton House, near Grantham,
+of which there are duplicates at Wroxton House, in Oxfordshire, all
+having the same traditional origin at Stamford. Possibly Sir Francis
+and Sir Richard Crane may have received orders at their house at
+Stoke Bruere, which lay near enough to Stamford to account for the
+magnates of the town and neighbourhood obtaining furnishings of their
+tapestries, and, perhaps, vying with each other in decorating their
+apartments with them.[433]
+
+In Northumberland House there was a fine suite of tapestry, woven in
+Lambeth, 1758.[434] This is the only sample of that loom of which we
+ever find any mention. There were also works at Fulham, where
+furniture tapestry in the style of Beauvais was made. This manufactory
+was closed in 1755.[435] It may be hoped that the revival of tapestry
+weaving at Windsor in our own day may be a success, but without the
+royal and noble encouragement it receives, it would probably very soon
+fall into disuse.
+
+Unless it is supported by the State, such an exceptionally expensive
+machinery cannot possibly be kept at work. It requires the
+superintendence of the best artists, and the weavers themselves must
+needs have the highest technical education to enable them to copy
+really fine designs. These artistic requirements, besides the extreme
+tediousness of the work, make it the most expensive of all luxurious
+decorations--even more costly than embroideries by the hand, covering
+the same spaces. However, the two styles of hangings never can enter
+into competition, except in a financial point of view. Tapestries are
+the best fitted for wall coverings, and embroideries for curtains of
+all kinds--for beds, for windows, and for portières.
+
+The old hangings are now again having their day, and we are striving
+to save and restore all that remain to us. We must continue to guard
+these treasures from the moths, their worst enemies; and science
+should be invoked to assist us in the preservation of these precious
+works of art, of which the value is now again understood and
+appreciated, and which increases with every decade that is added to
+their antiquity.
+
+Tapestry, as art, has its own peculiar beauties, and one of them is
+the softening, yet brilliant effect of the alternate lights and
+shadows of the ridge-like surface; the separation of each stitch and
+thread also casting minute shadows in the opposite direction, and
+giving an iridescent effect. It is a mistake to struggle against this
+inherent quality, instead of seeking to utilize it. The coarser and
+simpler tapestries of our ancestors are really more beautiful and
+effective in large spaces--flat in the arrangement of colours, and
+sharply outlined--than the imitations of paintings of the last two
+centuries, in which every detail of form and colour is sought to be
+expressed.[436]
+
+M. Blanc says that tapestries were intended to cover the bare walls,
+but not to make us forget their existence. The wall being intended for
+comfort and defence, the mind is solaced with the idea it conveys. It
+is a mistake, therefore, to substitute a surface picture, so real that
+it at once does away with this impression of security, while a
+certain conventional art should amuse the mind with shadowy
+representations and suggestions.
+
+It is, perhaps, fortunate that the possibilities of tapestry weaving
+are restricted, and thus its very imperfections become the sources of
+its best qualities as decoration and comfort. One element of textile
+weaving, the use of gold, both in the backgrounds and in the
+draperies, takes it at once out of the region of naturalism, while
+giving it light and splendour.
+
+The designer for tapestry need not be a great genius. Harmony, repose,
+grace, and tender colouring are the qualities most valuable to such an
+artist. Battle-pieces, and other exciting and awful subjects, are only
+bearable in apartments that are used for state occasions, or for
+hanging corridors and anterooms. They are painful to live with.
+
+All tapestries are liable to suffer by the double nature of their
+materials--their woollen surface and linen threads which are affected
+by both damp and heat crinkling the forms and puckering the faces, and
+bringing out unexpected expressions and deformities. For this reason
+the design should be as flat and as simple in its outline and shading
+as is consistent with beauty.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [317] Birdwood, "Indian Arts," p. 283.
+
+    [318] "The word in Sanskrit for a needle is _suchi_,
+    from _such_, to sew or pierce. This is the same word as
+    the Latin _suo_, to sew; so probably the common word
+    used by the Aryans in their primeval habitations was
+    _su_, and they clearly knew how to sew at that remote
+    period. Eve sewed fig-leaves together. Adam sewed also.
+    The Hebrew word is _tafar_, and clearly meant _sewing_,
+    not _pinning_ together with thorns. Sewing is the first
+    recorded art of our forefathers."--Letter from Mr.
+    Robert Cust.
+
+    [319] Semper, "Der Stil," Textile Kunst, i. pp. 77-90.
+
+    [320] Semper, Textile Kunst, "Der Stil," i. p. 77. The
+    German word "naht," here literally translated, would be,
+    uniting, weaving, bringing together.
+
+    [321] "Handbook of Plain Needlework," by Mrs. Floyer.
+    See also her "Plain Hints for Examiners," &c.
+
+    [322] Dr. Rock, "Introduction," pp. cix, cx, calls it
+    "thread embroidery," and names some specimens in the
+    South Kensington Museum. He says it was sometimes done
+    in darning stitches for ecclesiastical purposes, for
+    instance, for coverings for the pyx. It is mentioned in
+    the Exeter inventory of the fourteenth century. There is
+    notice of white knotted thread-work belonging to St.
+    Paul's, London, in 1295, by Dugdale (p. 316).
+
+    [323] St. Catherine of Sienna's winding-sheet is
+    described as being cut work (punto tagliato) on linen.
+    This sounds like embroidery of the type now sold as
+    "Madeira work," the pattern being cut out and the edges
+    overcast.
+
+    [324] Semper, "Der Stil," i. pp. 132, 203.
+
+    [325] See Semper, "Der Stil," i. p. 289.
+
+    [326] Ibid. He cites Athenæus, iv. 64.
+
+    [327] Phrygia in general, and especially Babylon, were
+    famed for their embroideries. "Colores diversos picturæ
+    intexere Babylon maxime celebravit et nomen
+    imposuit."--Pliny, lib. viii. 74. See D'Auberville,
+    "Ornement des Tissus," p. 7.
+
+    [328] "Der Stil," i. p. 196. "Opus Phrygium," in the
+    Middle Ages, included all gold work in flat stitches.
+    The cloak worked by Queen Gisela in the ninth century,
+    for her husband, St. Stephen, King of Hungary, the
+    imperial mantle at Bamberg, of the date of 1024, and the
+    robes of Bishop William de Blois (thirteenth century),
+    in the library at Worcester Cathedral, are all "opus
+    Phrygium," and resemble each other in style.
+
+    [329] In the Museum at Munich are two remarkable
+    examples of these imitations. There is an embroidered
+    badge of the Order of the Dragon, worked in gold and
+    woven over with coloured silks, so as to present the
+    appearance of enamel (sixteenth century). The second is
+    a dress for a herald of the Order of St. Hubertus, which
+    is richly embroidered in gold and silver, and the badge
+    and collar are imitated in the most extraordinary
+    manner, and laid on entirely in gold needlework. This is
+    of the seventeenth century.
+
+    [330] In Salt's collection from Saccarah (British
+    Museum); also at Turin, in the Egyptian Museum; and in
+    the collections in the Louvre, figured by Auberville in
+    the "Ornamentation des Tissus."
+
+    [331] Hence the French name, _pointes comptées_.
+
+    [332] See Semper, ii. p. 213, for wood-work at
+    Panticapæum, Kertch, in the Crimea, which evidently has
+    descended in style from panelled needlework hangings.
+    Chaldean wall decoration at Khorsabad and Warka, near
+    Nimroud, recalls the effect of "opus pulvinarium"
+    according to Loftus. See Semper, i. p. 327.
+
+    [333] "Der Stil," i. pp. 196, 248. This is known from
+    the archaic books of imperial commerce.
+
+    [334] Peacocks' feathers, either woven or onlaid, are
+    those most commonly used in China and Japan. "Ka Moolelo
+    Hawaii," by M. Jules Remy, Paris, 1861. See Ferdinand
+    Denis, "Arte Plumaria," p. 66.
+
+    [335] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 373, translates
+    from Publius Syrus the word _plumata_, "feathered." The
+    word "embroidered" would have here improved the sense,
+    even though it is a peacock that is described.
+
+        "Thy food the peacock, which displays his spotted train,
+        As shines a Babylonian shawl with feather'd gold."
+
+    He also quotes Lucan, who is praising the furnishings of
+    Cleopatra's palace: "Part shines with feathered gold;
+    part sheds a blaze of scarlet."--Yates, p. 373.
+
+    [336] Sir G. Birdwood, with all his enthusiasm for
+    Indian art and its forms, yet cannot resist a touch of
+    humour when he describes a state umbrella, of which the
+    handle and ribs are pure gold, tipped with rubies and
+    diamonds, the silken covering bordered with thirty-two
+    fringed loops of pearls, and "also appropriately
+    decorated with the feathers of the peacock, heron,
+    parrot, and goose."--Birdwood, "Indian Arts," ii. p.
+    182.
+
+    [337] "History of the Kingdom of Congo," c. viii. p. 55,
+    by Filippo Pigafetta (translated by Mrs. M. Hutchinson).
+
+    [338] In the Tyrol certain embroideries are called
+    "Federstickerei."
+
+    [339] For the feather hangings at Moritzburg, see
+    Appendix 2.
+
+    [340] "Arte Plumaria," by M. Ferdinand Denis. Paris,
+    1875.
+
+    [341] The Plumarii mentioned by Pliny were craftsmen in
+    the art of _acu pingere_, or painting with the needle.
+    Though Seneca speaks of the "opus plumarium" as if it
+    were absolutely feather-work, yet it may have been at
+    that time undergoing its transition into embroidery,
+    suggested by feathers, and imitating them in gold,
+    silver, wool, or thread. When Lucan describes the
+    extraordinary change introduced into Roman habits and
+    luxury by Cleopatra's splendours, his use of the words,
+    "pars auro plumata nitet," probably means their
+    imitation or mixture with gold embroidery, and would,
+    therefore, come under the head of "opus Phrygium."
+
+    [342] It is said that the work, named "Plumarium," was
+    made by the needle; and the Greeks, from the variety of
+    the threads, called it "Polymitum." "Plumarium dicitur
+    opus acu factum quod Græci a licionum varietate
+    multiplici polymitarium appellant."--Robert Stephan.
+    "Thesaurus Linguæ Latinæ," s.v. Plumarius.
+
+    [343] Blümner, i. p. 209. "The Plumarii were a class of
+    persons mentioned by Vitruvius, and found likewise in
+    inscriptions. It cannot be decided with certainty what
+    was their occupation; their name would lead us to
+    suppose that it has something to do with
+    feathers."--Becker's "Gallus," ii. p. 288. But see
+    Marquardt, "Handbuch d. Röm. Altert." vii. pt. 2, p.
+    523.
+
+    [344] "Plumarium qui acu aliquod depingit super
+    culcitris plumeis."--R. Steph., "Thesaur. Lat."
+
+    [345] See "The Funeral Tent of an Egyptian Queen," by
+    Villiers Stuart.
+
+    [346] See Auberville's "Tissus," Plate i.
+
+    [347] "Compte Rendu de la Commission Archéologique, St.
+    Petersburg, 1881." Pl. iii. pp. 112,119.
+
+    [348] In the British Museum is the lining of a shield
+    which shows the arms of Redvers, third Earl of Albemarle
+    (who died 1260), applied in different coloured silks.
+
+    [349] Lent by the Archæological Museum at Madrid.
+
+    [350] Rees' Cyclopædia speaks of embroideries "on the
+    stamp or stump," as being so named "when the figures are
+    high and prominent, supported by cotton, wool, or hair;"
+    also in "low and plain embroideries, without enrichment
+    between." He speaks of work "cut and laid on the cloth,
+    laid down with gold, enriched with tinsel and spangles."
+    Rees' Cyclopædia, "Embroidery," 1819.
+
+    [351] "Opus consutum." The way in which this applied
+    work is used in India, for the special adornment of
+    horse-cloths, saddles, and girths, is very interesting.
+
+    [352] The chapter on "application," in the Handbook of
+    Embroidery of the Royal School of Art Needlework, will
+    be useful to those who need instruction in the most
+    practical, and therefore the quickest way of doing cut
+    work.
+
+    [353] Mrs. Palliser's "History of Lace." The origin of
+    needle-made lace-work is attributed by M. de Gheltof to
+    the necessity for disposing of the frayed edges of
+    worn-out garments. This I think somewhat fanciful.
+    _Fringes_ may have been so suggested.
+
+    [354] See M. Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress" (p.
+    200).
+
+    [355] Mrs. Bayman (late Superintendent in the School of
+    Art Needlework) writes thus: "I see no reason to doubt
+    that the word guipure is derived from 'guipa' or
+    'guiper,' a ribbon-weaver's term for spinning one thread
+    round another; and that guipure was originally more like
+    what we now call 'guimp,' or like 'point de Raguse,'
+    first being made of thread, of more or less thickness
+    and commoner material, wound round with a finer flax,
+    silk, or metal; then they cut shapes, bold scrolls, and
+    leaves out of cartisane, vellum, or parchment, winding
+    and covering them over with the more precious thread.
+    These figures were then connected by brides, only as
+    close as was required to hold them together, and leaving
+    large open spaces, thus forming the large scroll
+    patterns seen in so many old pictures." No doubt the
+    heavy "Fogliami" and "Rose point" laces developed
+    themselves from these still older kinds of point. As the
+    cord and card lace disappeared, the name slid on to all
+    laces with large, bold patterns and open brides, though
+    the special method which first created it had been
+    effaced. Latterly, embroidered netting or laces have
+    been called "guipure d'art." Littré gives the derivation
+    of the word; he says it is from the Gothic _Vaipa_, or
+    German _Weban_ or _Weben_ (_g_ and _p_ replacing the _w_
+    and _b_).
+
+    [356] The word lace came from France, where it was
+    called _lacis_ or _lassis_, derived from the Latin
+    _laqueus_ (a noose). These words originally applied to
+    narrow ribbons--their use being to lace or tie.
+
+    [357] The Venetians early made much lace for furniture
+    or ecclesiastical linen adornment, of what they called
+    "maglia quadrata," which was usually squared netting,
+    afterwards filled in with patterns in darned needlework.
+    This somewhat primitive style of lace trimming was
+    popular on account of its simplicity, and descended to
+    the peasantry for their domestic decorations in Spain,
+    Germany, France, and Italy. There are specimens of this
+    work believed to be of the thirteenth century. At the
+    time of the Renaissance the simple geometrical designs
+    developed into animals, fruits, flowers, and human
+    figures.
+
+    [358] See Rock, p. cix, cx. He says that a sort of
+    embroidery was called network, and certain drawn work he
+    calls "opus filatorium." See Catalogue of Textiles in
+    the South Kensington Museum, by D. Rock, p. cxxvii.
+
+    [359] Reminding us of the description of a net--"holes
+    tied together by a string." As a contrast in descriptive
+    style, we would quote Dr. Johnson on network: "Anything
+    reticulated or decussated at equal distances, with
+    interstices between the intersections."--Johnson's
+    Dictionary.
+
+    [360] Isaiah iii. 18, xix. 9.
+
+    [361] The nets of chequer work which hung round the
+    capitals, with the wreaths of chain work, were designed
+    by Hiram of Tyre, at Solomon's desire (1 Kings vii. 17).
+
+    [362] A fringe lace is made on the Riviera, of the
+    fibres of the aloe, and is called "macramè," which is an
+    Arabic word. Mrs. Palliser's "History of Lace," p. 64.
+
+    [363] A collar of fine white human hair was made in
+    point lace stitches at Venice, and worn at his
+    coronation by Louis Quatorze. It cost 250 pieces of
+    gold. "Scritti di V. Zanon da Udine" (1829). Cited by
+    Urbani de Gheltof, "Merletti di Venezia," pp. 22, 23.
+
+    [364] See, for example, the inventory of the household
+    goods of the great Earl of Leicester at Longleat; also
+    the lists of the possessions of Ippolito and Angela
+    Sforza (sixteenth century).
+
+    [365] Coloured thread and silk laces are still made in
+    Venice.
+
+    [366] In the British Museum.
+
+    [367] M. Blanc's use of the word "guipure" is different
+    from that found in the notices of the art by other
+    authorities.
+
+    [368] The first lace-making machine was contemporary, or
+    nearly so, with the stocking-making frame. About the
+    year 1768 it was altered, and adapted for making
+    open-work patterns. In 1808, the Heathcot machine was
+    started for bobbin net. In 1813, John Leaver improved on
+    this idea, with machine-woven patterns. The Jacquard
+    apparatus achieved the flat patterns, and the new
+    "Dentellière" has perfected the art. Lace-making by
+    machinery employed by the latest official returns in
+    1871, 29,370 women in England, and 24,000 in France. See
+    Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th edition, p. 183-5.
+
+    [369] M. Charles Blanc, "Art in Ornament and Dress," p.
+    211.
+
+    [370] The information contained in these volumes is most
+    valuable, for the lace-worker as well as the collector.
+
+    [371] Lady Layard suggests that the cut lace work, which
+    was the earliest made in Venice ("punto tagliato,"
+    "point coupé"), simply consists of button-hole stitch
+    with purl ornaments. These are varied with geometrical
+    stitches and needle-weaving in those solid laces called
+    "punti tagliati Fogliami," and "Rose point de Venise,"
+    of the finest kinds.
+
+    [372] Urbani de Gheltof, in his book, "Merletti di
+    Venezia," p. 9, says that Venetian laces and fringes
+    were furnished thence for the coronation of Richard III.
+    (1483). I fancy that gold guimps or braid, rather than
+    netted laces, must be here intended, as we have no other
+    notice of lace so early. See _Ibid._ pp. 10-20.
+
+    [373] Henry VIII. had a pair of hose of purple silk,
+    edged and trimmed with a lace of purple silk and gold,
+    of Milanese manufacture. Harl. MSS., 1519.
+
+    [374] The manufacture of point d'Alençon was created
+    under the special orders of Louis Quatorze, by Colbert,
+    in 1673. Now more than 200,000 women, besides the
+    machinists, are employed in lace-making in France.
+    Colbert imported the teachers from Venice.
+
+    [375] Yriarte says that Alençon, Argenton, Sedan,
+    Mercourt, Honiton, Bedford, Buckinghamshire,
+    Oxfordshire, Mechlin, Bruges, Brussels, all followed in
+    imitation of Venice. Yriarte's "Venise," p. 250.
+
+    [376] Titian drew the designs for one of these books for
+    "punti tagliati." The laces made in the Greek islands
+    probably owe their origin to Venice, showing the same
+    "punti in aria."
+
+    [377] I have already spoken of "lacis" as either darned
+    netting or drawn work. Of this there is an English
+    specimen at Prague, said by tradition to be the gift of
+    Queen Anne of Bohemia, wife of Richard II. It originally
+    trimmed or bordered an ecclesiastical garment.
+
+    [378] For further information, we refer the reader to M.
+    Urbani de Gheltof's book on Venice laces already cited
+    (Organia, Venice, 1876), and Lady Layard's translation
+    (1882).
+
+    [379] I am assured on the best authority that this is
+    unknown as yet at Burano; but the workers, as well as
+    the revived industry, are very young. The modern school
+    of Burano has only been established eleven years. It is
+    certainly delightful to see the 320 happy faces,
+    singing, chattering, and smiling over their graceful
+    occupation; and the beauty of the Buranese women, which
+    is celebrated, has not suffered from their occupation.
+    There is a charming little article of the _Revista di
+    Torino_, 1883, which describes the improvement in the
+    social condition of Burano, morally and physically, and
+    the way it is recognized by the inhabitants. Instead of
+    signs of miserable poverty, the promoters of the lace
+    school are greeted by the women leaning from the windows
+    with, "Siestu benedetta!" ("Be thou blessed!").
+
+    [380] The word "tapestry" comes from the Greek _tapes_,
+    which is used equally for hangings or carpets. The
+    Italians call carpets "tapeti" to this day. It is
+    believed to have been originally an Egyptian word for
+    such fabrics.
+
+    [381] For instance, the embroidered hangings of the
+    eighth century at Gerona, in Spain, have been more than
+    once quoted as proofs of tapestries having been
+    manufactured there at that period.
+
+    [382] The "slay" means the "strike." The word had the
+    same meaning originally: to slay a man was to strike
+    him.
+
+    [383] See De Champeaux, South Kensington Museum Art
+    Handbook, 1878.
+
+    [384] "Bibliothèque des Merveilles" (sur les
+    Tapisseries), publié sous la direction de M. Edouard
+    Charton, à Paris, 1876.
+
+    [385] Martial, xiv. 150.
+
+    [386] Minerva accepts the challenge of the Mæonian
+    Arachne, who will not yield to her in the praises of
+    being first in weaving wool. The girls desert the
+    vineyards round the little town of Hypæpa, to look at
+    her admirable workmanship. She boasts that hers is finer
+    than that of Pallas, and, desiring a vain victory,
+    rushes upon her own destruction. "... They stretch out
+    two webs on the loom, with a fine warp. The web is tied
+    to the beam; the slay separates the warp; the woof is
+    inserted in the middle with sharp shuttles, while the
+    fingers hurry along, and being drawn with the warp, the
+    teeth (notched in the moving slay) strike it. Both
+    hasten on their labour, and girding up their garments to
+    their bosoms, they move their skilful arms, their
+    eagerness beguiling their fatigue. There are being woven
+    both the purples, which are subjected to the Tyrian
+    brazen (dyeing) vessel with fine shades of minute
+    difference; as in the rainbow with its mighty rays
+    reflected by the shower, where, though a thousand
+    colours are shining, yet the very transition eludes the
+    eyes that look upon it; to such a degree is that which
+    is adjacent the same, and yet the extremes are
+    different. The pliant gold is mingled with the threads,
+    and ancient subjects are represented on the webs." Then
+    follows the list of the subjects. The web of Pallas had
+    a large central design, and a smaller one on each
+    corner, surrounded with a border of olive leaves.
+    Arachne's contained nineteen pictures, of two or more
+    figures each, and was surrounded by a border of flowers,
+    interwoven with the twining ivy. Ovid's "Metamorphoses,"
+    book vi.
+
+    Through the kindness of my friend, Lord Houghton, I am
+    enabled to give the sequel of the story--Arachne's
+    transformation into the Spider, as--
+            A PARAPHRASE AND A PARABLE.
+
+        Lo! how Minerva, recklessly defied,
+        Struck down the maiden of artistic pride,
+        Who, all distraught with terror and despair,
+        Suspended her lithe body in mid-air;
+        Deeming, if thus she innocently died,
+        The sacred vengeance would be pacified.
+        Not so: implacable the goddess cried--
+        "Live on! hang on! and from this hour begin
+        Out of thy loathsome self new threads to spin;
+        No splendid tapestries for royal rooms,
+        But sordid webs to clothe the caves and tombs.
+        Nor blame the Poet's Metamorphoses:
+        Man's Life has Transformations hard as these;
+        Thou shall become, as Ages hand thee down,
+        The drear day-worker of the crowded town,
+        Who, envying the rough tiller of the soil,
+        Plies her monotonous unhealthy toil,
+        Passing through joyless day to sleepless night
+        With mind enfeebled and decaying sight,
+        Till some good genius,[437] kindred though apart,
+        Resolves to raise thee from the vulgar mart,
+        And once more links thee to the World of Art."
+
+    [387] Appendix 3.
+
+    [388] Guicciardini ascribes the invention of woven
+    tapestry to Arras, giving no dates; so we do not know
+    whether he attributes it to the Belgic Atrebates or to
+    their successors, the Franks. In either case the craft
+    was probably imported from the East.
+
+    [389] The Atrebates were the inhabitants of that Belgic
+    region till the fifth century; now it is the province of
+    Artois, probably a corruption of the name "Atrebates."
+    Taylor, "Words and Places" (1865), pp. 229-385.
+
+    [390] Castel, "Des Tapisseries," p. 30.
+
+    [391] Sidonius Apollinaris, Epist. ix., 13. Cited in
+    Yule's "Marco Polo," p. 68.
+
+    [392] Castel, "Des Tapisseries," p. 31.
+
+    [393] The commentators of Vasari, MM. Lechanché and
+    Jenron, believe that this art was coeval in the Low
+    Countries with Roman civilization and Christianity; but
+    it would appear that the weavers had fled to Britain to
+    escape from the Romans. Ibid. p. 52. Traces of the name
+    Arras have been found by Bochart and Frahn in Ar-ras,
+    the Arabian name for the river Araxes and the people who
+    inhabit its shores; but this may be accidental, and is
+    at best an uncertain derivation.
+
+    [394] Rock, Introduction, p. cxii. This "Saracenic work"
+    is really so like what is called by the Germans
+    "Gobelins" when found in Egyptian tombs that one can
+    hardly doubt whence the Moors brought their art. There
+    are several Egyptian specimens in the British Museum.
+    See also the catalogue of Herr Graf'schen's collection
+    of Egyptian textiles, from the first to the eighth
+    century. "Katalog der Teodor Graf'schen Fünde in
+    Ægypten, von Dr. Karabacek. Wien, 1883."
+
+    [395] Viollet-le-Duc, "Dictionnaire du Mobilier
+    Français, Tapis," p. cxii; also M. Jubinal, "Tapisserie
+    Historique." It is difficult absolutely to assign to any
+    known specimens a date anterior to the fifteenth
+    century; although M. de Champeaux thinks that the
+    "Sarazinois" were mostly or entirely carpet-weavers
+    about the eleventh century. He says there is documentary
+    authority to prove that these were woven with flowers
+    and animals. There is a very deep-piled velvety carpet
+    at Gorhambury (the Earl of Verulam's place). Here Queen
+    Elizabeth's arms and cypher appear on a Persian or
+    Moresque ground pattern surrounded with a wreath of oak
+    leaves. It may have been a gift from Spain,--left after
+    one of her visits to her Chancellor.
+
+    [396] "Tapisseries des Gobelins," A. L. Lacordaire, p.
+    10 (1853). He considers that the Sarazinois were
+    embroiderers as well as weavers--and this theory is
+    supported by extracts from an inventory of Charles VI.'s
+    hangings of 1421.
+
+    Every detail of the art and its materials was carefully
+    regulated by the French statutes of 1625-27, containing
+    many laws for the perfecting of the manufacture of new
+    as well as the restoration of old tapestries--and fines
+    were imposed for not using materials as nearly as
+    possible matching the original ones; and likewise for
+    any other dereliction from the rules of the craft. Ibid.
+    pp. 9, 10, 14.
+
+    [397] At the Poldi Bezzoli Museum in Milan there are
+    some very fine carpets; one especially, a Persian, is
+    supposed to be of the fifteenth century. This is very
+    finely woven of pure, tender colours, and the whole
+    composition, flowers and animals (most beautifully drawn
+    lions, &c.), is delicately outlined in black on a white
+    ground. The colouring is rich and harmonious, and has
+    the iridescent effect of mother of pearl.
+
+    [398] In the San Clemente frescoes at Rome there are
+    hangings which show a semi-Asiatic style.
+
+    [399] "Mémoires Historiques et Ecclesiastiques
+    d'Auxerre," par M. l'Abbé Leboeuf, i. pp. 178, 231.
+
+    [400] There are very interesting Norwegian tapestries of
+    the sixteenth century, which show distinctly an Eastern
+    origin.
+
+    [401] Jubinal, "Tapisseries," pp. 25, 26;
+    Viollet-le-Duc, "Dic. de Mobilier Français," p. 269.
+
+    [402] There is much splendid tapestry--German, and
+    especially Bavarian,--to be seen at Munich; and, indeed,
+    the more one seeks, the more one finds that private
+    looms were constantly at work in the Middle Ages for
+    votive offerings. There is a tapestry altar-piece at
+    Coire, in the Grisons, of the Crucifixion, which is
+    evidently of the fourteenth century. The colours are
+    still brilliant, and the whole background is beautifully
+    composed of growing flowers. No sky is seen. There is at
+    Munich an altar frontal of tapestry, Gothic of the
+    fifteenth century, exquisitely beautiful. The weaver has
+    introduced a little portrait of herself at her loom,
+    under the folds of the virgin's cloak at her feet.
+
+    [403] M. Albert Castel ("Tapisserie," p. 53) believes
+    that the taking of Constantinople, when Earl Baldwin was
+    elected to the throne of Byzantium, had a great effect
+    on Flemish art, which then received a strong impulse
+    from Oriental designs and traditions. See M. Jubinal's
+    very interesting account of the tapisserie de Nancy
+    which lined the tents of Charles the Bold at the siege
+    of Nancy (p. 439). These tapestries are an allegory
+    against gluttony. "Tapisseries Hist.," pp. 1-5.
+
+    [404] Charles the Bold has left us records of his taste
+    in tent hangings of Arras at Berne, as well as at Nancy.
+    These are the plunder from his camp equipage after the
+    battle of Grandson. The whole suite, of many pieces,
+    represents battles and sieges, and sacred subjects also,
+    such as the adoration of the Magi. They are finely drawn
+    and splendidly executed with gold lights, and are of the
+    most perfect style of the fifteenth century. The
+    National Museum at Munich contains most valuable
+    specimens of very early and very fine tapestries;
+    amongst others, a Virgin, which was certainly designed
+    in the school of Dürer, and is of the greatest
+    perfection of its art, both as to colour and drawing and
+    the general effect, which has a soft, dreamy beauty,
+    only to be seen in fine woollen tapestries, and
+    differing from pictorial design and intention.
+
+    [405] See Rock, cxii: Among the remarkable suites of
+    tapestry of which we find historical mention are the
+    following: In 1334, John de Croisette, a "Tapissier
+    Sarazinois, demeurant à Arras vendit au Duc de Touraine
+    un tapis Sarazinois à or: de l'histoire de Charlemagne"
+    (Voisin, p. 6). Of the many recorded as belonging to
+    Philip, Duke of Burgundy and Brabant, one piece, "Haulte
+    lice sanz or: de l'histoire du Duc de Normandie, comment
+    il conquit Engleterre."--"Les Ducs de Bourgogne," par le
+    Comte de Laborde, ii. p. 270, No. 4277.
+
+    [406] M. de Champeaux, the author of the "Handbook of
+    Art Tapestry" belonging to the series of the Kensington
+    Museum, 1878, says that the history of Arras has yet to
+    be written. He, however, gives a great deal of
+    interesting information, especially about the French
+    tapestries, on which subject we fancy there is little
+    more to tell. Their art does not come from such a
+    distant time as that of the Belgian manufactures. After
+    Louis IX. had decimated the inhabitants, and dispersed
+    the remainder, Arras yet made a gallant struggle to
+    revive her industry and compete with the rising
+    prosperity of Brussels; but France had decreed against
+    her.
+
+    [407] "Encyclopædia Britannica" ("Art Tapestry"), pp.
+    17, 97.
+
+    [408] Vasari vividly describes the design for a tapestry
+    for the King of Portugal--the history of Adam--on which
+    Leonardo da Vinci, then aged twenty, was engaged. He
+    lingers tenderly over the picture of the flowery field
+    and the careful study of the bay-trees. Vasari, tom.
+    vii. p. 15; ed. Firenze, 1851.
+
+    [409] See M. Jubinal's "Tapisseries Historiées," p. 26;
+    Viollet-le-Duc, "Mobilier Français," i. p. 269.
+
+    [410] Froissart's "Chronicles," iv., chap. 23; Johnes
+    ed. 1815.
+
+    [411] M. de Champeaux, "Handbook of Art Tapestry," p.
+    24; also Rock, "Textiles," p. 122. M. Lacordaire,
+    "Tapisserie des Gobelins," p. 15, tells us that under
+    Louis XIII. the statutes of 1625-27 contain many
+    regulations for the perfection of the materials employed
+    in weaving new as well as in restoring old tapestries.
+    Fines were imposed for not matching the colours
+    carefully.
+
+    [412] English wool is still used for the finest
+    tapestries at the Gobelins. The wool from Kent is
+    considered the best.
+
+    [413] "Vitæ St. Alban. Abbatum," p. 40; Rock, p. cxi.
+    That the walls were covered with tapestry in the
+    thirteenth century is supposed to be proved by the
+    description of Hrothgar's house in the Romance of
+    Beowulf. We are told that the hangings were rich with
+    gold, and a wondrous sight to behold. "History of
+    Domestic Manners, &c., in England during the Middle
+    Ages," by Thomas Wright, p. 2.
+
+    [414] Matthew Paris, in Dugdale Monast., ed. 1819, ii.
+    p. 185.
+
+    [415] Quoted by Michel from MSS. in the Imperial
+    Library, Paris.
+
+    [416] This was a writ to the Aldermen and Sheriffs of
+    the City of London, principally levelled against the
+    dealings of "certain Frenchmen which were against the
+    well-being of the trade of the Tapissiarii ... by
+    petition of Parliament at Westminster." Calend. Rot.
+    Pat. Edward III., p. 148, "De Mysterâ Tapiciarorum,"
+    Lond. M. 41.
+
+    [417] Called "verdures" in French inventories.
+
+    [418] Rock's Introduction, p. lxxix.
+
+    [419] "The art of weaving tapestry was brought to
+    England by William Sheldon, Esq., about the end of the
+    reign of Henry VIII."--See Dugdale's "Warwickshire"
+    ("Stemmata:" Sheldon), 2nd edition, folio, vol. i. p.
+    584; also Lloyd's "State Worthies," p. 953, quoted by
+    Manning and Bray, "Hist. of Surrey," vol. iii. p. 82.
+    But we have an earlier notice of a spirited attempt to
+    make fine tapestries at Kilkenny. Piers, Earl of
+    Ormonde, married the daughter of Fitzgerald, Earl of
+    Kildare, "a person of great wisdom and courage." They
+    brought from Flanders and the neighbouring provinces
+    artificers and manufacturers, whom they employed at
+    Kilkenny in working tapestries, diaper, Turkey carpets,
+    cushions, &c. Piers died 1539. Carte's Introduction to
+    the "Life of James, Duke of Ormonde," vol. i. p. 93
+    (Oxford, 1851).
+
+    [420] William Sheldon at his own expense brought workmen
+    from Flanders, and employed them in weaving maps of the
+    different counties of England. Of these, three large
+    maps, the earliest specimens, were purchased by the Earl
+    of Orford (Horace Walpole), by whom they were given to
+    Earl Harcourt. He had them repaired and cleaned, and
+    made as fresh as when out of the loom, and eventually
+    gave them to Gough, the antiquary, who bequeathed them
+    to the University of Oxford. The Armada tapestry, which
+    is stated to have been designed by Henry Cornelius
+    Vroom, the Dutch marine painter, and woven by Francis
+    Spiering, appears to have been, in 1602, in the
+    possession of Lord Howard, Lord High Admiral and the
+    hero of the Armada. Fuller particulars are given in
+    Walpole's "Anecdotes," i. p. 246, under the name of
+    Vroom, Sandart being the principal authority. Part of
+    them were in the House of Lords till 1834, when they
+    perished in the fire. These had been engraved in 1739 by
+    John Pine, but it appears that at that time there were
+    in the royal wardrobe other pieces, now lost.
+
+    [421] Lloyd's "Worthies."
+
+    [422] Calendar of State Papers, cx. No. 26, James I.,
+    1619-23.
+
+    [423] Calendar of State Papers, vol. clxxxi. No. 48.
+
+    [424] Rymer, "Foedera," vol. viii. p. 66, ed. 1743.
+
+    [425] Brydges, "Northamptonshire," i. p. 323, under the
+    head of "Stoke Bruere," pt. 1, p. 48.
+
+    [426] Manning and Bray's "History of Surrey," vol. iii.
+    p. 302.
+
+    [427] Horace Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting in
+    England," vol. ii. p. 22.
+
+    [428] Macpherson, "Annals of Commerce."
+
+    [429] There is in Brydges' "Northamptonshire," under the
+    head of "Stoke Bruere" (the estate which King James gave
+    to Sir F. Crane as part payment of the deficit of
+    £16,400 in his tapestry business), mention of the
+    cartoons of "Raphael of Urbin, ... had from Genoa," and
+    their cost, £300, besides the transport. M. Blanc says,
+    with great justness, that Raphael, when he prepared
+    these cartoons for tapestry, made designs for weaving,
+    and _did not paint pictures_. If they had been intended
+    for oil pictures, they would have been very differently
+    treated.
+
+    [430] Calendar State Papers, Domestic, Sept. 28th, 1653.
+
+    [431] Horace Walpole's "Anecdotes of Painting," vol.
+    iii. p. 64.
+
+    [432] See Evelyn's very scarce tract, entitled "Mundus
+    Muliebris," printed 1690, p. 8.
+
+    [433] Lord Tyrconnell, Lord Exeter, and Lord Guildford
+    had married three of the Brownlow heiresses of Belton,
+    who had a winter residence at Stamford.
+
+    [434] Designed by Francesco Zuccharelli. Rock,
+    Introduction, p. cxiv.
+
+    [435] It has been at different periods the crowning
+    glory of the craft of the weaver to place different
+    patterns or pictures on the two sides of the web. This
+    would almost appear to be impossible, but that it has
+    been done in late years, according to Rock, who tells us
+    that he saw a banner so woven, with the Austrian eagle
+    on one side and the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception
+    on the other. He says that the same manufacturer was
+    then being employed in producing ecclesiastical garments
+    with the colours and patterns so varied.
+
+    [436] In old tapestries three tints only were employed
+    for the complexions of men, women, and children--the
+    man's reddish, the woman's yellow, and the child's
+    whiter than either. It is an agreeable economy of
+    colours, simple and effective, and avoids the pictorial
+    imitation that one deprecates. See M. Charles Blanc's
+    "Grammaire des Arts Décoratifs: Tapisserie," p. 112.
+
+    [437] The poet here refers to H.R.H. the Princess
+    Christian.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+HANGINGS.
+
+    "... Her bedchamber was hang'd
+    With tapestry of silk and silver...."
+
+                             "Cymbeline," Act II., Scene IV.
+
+
+The most important works that have been executed in embroidery, have
+been hangings or carpets. We may look upon these as belonging to the
+history of the past. Never again will such works be undertaken. Their
+_raison d'être_, as well as the means for their production, have
+ceased to exist. We have very ancient historical evidence of the use
+of hangings (or tapestries), either as curtains to exclude prying
+eyes, or as coverings to what was sacred or else unseemly, or as
+ornamental backgrounds in public and private buildings.
+
+There is no doubt that in pillared spaces the enclosures and
+subdivisions were completed by hangings from pillar to pillar, from
+the earliest times of Asiatic civilization. In Assyria, and afterwards
+in Greece and Rome, the open courts and rooms were shaded from the sun
+and rain by umbrella-like erections with hangings stretched over them.
+From the Coliseum's vast area to that of the smallest atrium in the
+Pompeian house, the covering principle was the same.
+
+Palace-halls and temples alike were furnished in this way, and the
+cold splendour of the polished marbles was enhanced by contrast with
+the shadowing folds of soft textures richly embroidered in bright
+colours and gold. The statues, the gold and silver vessels, the
+shrines heaped with votive offerings, were all brought into higher
+relief and effect by the screens, the curtains, and the veils which
+classical perfect taste would plan so as to carry out the decorator's
+intention. Babylonians, Persians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks, and
+Jews, each adorned their sacred places in similar fashions.[438]
+Clemens Alexandrinus says that behind the hangings of the Egyptian
+temples were hidden their "foolish images."[439]
+
+The word "hangings" was applied to all large curtains and tapestries,
+tent coverings, screens dividing empty spaces, or pendant between
+pillars; also sails,[440] banners, and decorations for processional
+purposes covering walls or hanging from windows; all these have been
+embroidered or woven with pictures and patterns. Carpets, from having
+originally the same name, "tapete," are to be added to this list, and,
+in fact, their uses are often interchanged. Kosroes' famous hangings
+were used as a carpet, and Persian and Babylonian carpets have been
+hung on the walls. A Babylonian hanging must have resembled, in its
+style (of which we have descriptions), the Persian carpet of to-day.
+
+Semper gives excellent reasons for his theory that, next to dress,
+hangings (the clothing of architecture) were the earliest phase of
+art.[441] He looks upon the most ancient paintings on architecture as
+absolutely representing textile coverings. Some of the earliest
+Babylonian decorations show men supporting draperies, which he
+believes to be the tradition of the time when the tallest slaves held
+up the hangings to their own height; and above them, in tiers, were
+men, dwarfs, and even children fastened on brackets, carrying the
+hangings up to the roofs. This was an Assyrian custom, and was adopted
+by the Romans as a mode of disposing of their prisoners of war.
+Woltmann and Woermann appear to lean to the suggestion that permanent
+imitations of hangings were carried out in painted or encaustic tiles
+covering the masonry of Chaldean buildings at Nimroud and Khorsabad.
+The pale ones associated with low reliefs, and really resembling them,
+as they were partly raised, and the reliefs in alabaster and stone,
+which were partly coloured, were in harmony, and yet in contrast, with
+the brilliant tiles of Babylon.[442]
+
+We know exactly what were the purple, scarlet, and white hangings of
+the Sanctuary in the wilderness, designed by Bezaleel, and that the
+veil of the Temple was blue, purple, crimson or scarlet, and white,
+i.e. worked on white linen; and we know from Josephus, that "the veil
+of the Temple, which was rent in twain" sixteen centuries later, was
+that dedicated by Herod, and was Babylonian work, representing heaven
+and earth[443] (see p. 23 _ante_). Its colouring was scarlet, white,
+and blue. Scarlet and white hangings seem indeed to have been an
+Oriental fashion; and fashion then was not ephemeral, but lasted
+hundreds of years. The embroidered curtains of the Tabernacle are
+repeated in the hangings of Alexander's wedding tent, after 1500
+years; and a thousand years later still they reappear in the seventh
+century, when Pope Sergius gave curtains to the high altar
+(baldachino) in the basilica of St. Peter's at Rome of this same
+scarlet and white embroidery.
+
+In early Oriental art, the enormous expenditure of work is appalling
+to think of. Abulfeda describes the palace of the Caliph Moctader, on
+the banks of the Tigris, as being adorned with 38,000 pieces of
+tapestry, and of these 12,000 were of silk worked in gold. What a
+wealth of women had to be wasted in creating such a wealth of
+embroideries![444]
+
+There is a Bedouin romance which describes the tent of Antar, and
+shows the taste for large works. Five thousand horsemen could skirmish
+under its embroidered shade; and Akbar's largest tent held 10,000
+persons.
+
+Nadir Shah's gorgeous tent, which was of the end of the seventeenth
+and the beginning of the eighteenth century, was of scarlet cloth on
+the outside, lined with violet satin embroidered with gold and
+precious stones. The peacock throne was placed within it, and was kept
+there during the remainder of Nadir Shah's reign.
+
+Sir John Chardin says that "The Khan of Persia caused a tent to be
+made which cost two millions: they called it the house of gold;" and
+it was resplendent with embroideries.[445] These are comparatively
+modern works, and sound commonplace and vulgar compared to those of
+Greece and Egypt.
+
+The Greeks imitated the tents and temporary buildings of the Eastern
+monarchs. This phase of Oriental luxury was imported by Alexander the
+Great, and we have the description of two of his gorgeous creations at
+Alexandria, where he outrivalled the ancient traditional glories of
+Assyria and Persia. His own tent was supported by fifty golden
+pillars, carrying a roof of woven gold, embroidered in shimmering
+colours, and divided from the surrounding court, filled with guards
+and retainers, by scarlet and white curtains of splendid material and
+design.
+
+But more gorgeous is the account of the tent in which he entertained
+ninety-one of his companions-in-arms on the occasion of his marriage.
+This tent was supported by columns twenty cubits high, plated with
+silver and gold, and inlaid with precious stones. The walls of the
+court were formed by curtains adorned with figures worked in gold, and
+were hung from beams plated with the precious metals, to match the
+columns. The outer court was half a mile in circumference.[446]
+
+Yet Alexander's wedding-tent was exceeded in splendour by that erected
+by Ptolemy Philadelphus for his great pomp at Alexandria, described by
+Kallixenos, as cited by Athenæus.[447] This tent, crowned with golden
+eagles, was supported by pillars fifty cubits high. They upheld an
+architrave with cross-beams covered with linen, on which were painted
+coffers, to imitate the structure of a solid roof. From the centre was
+suspended a veil of scarlet bordered with white. The pillars in the
+four angles represented palm-trees of gold, and the intermediate
+columns were fashioned as thursi, and were probably wreathed with
+golden vines and bunches of grapes made of amethysts, as we know of a
+Persian tent so adorned, and the whole idea of the erection was
+evidently fresh from the East.[448] A frieze eight cubits high was
+composed of niches containing groups of tragic, comic, and Satyric
+figures "in their natural garb;" and nymphs and golden tripods from
+Delphi. The tent was separated from the outer peristyle by scarlet
+hangings, covered with choice skins of wild beasts. Upon these were
+hung the celebrated Sikyonian pictures, the heritage of the Ptolemaic
+dynasty, alternating with portraits and rich hangings, on which were
+embroidered the likenesses of kings, and likewise mythological
+subjects. Between these and the frieze hung gold and silver shields.
+Opposite the entrance, vessels of the most costly materials and
+workmanship, valued at 10,000 talents of silver, were ranged, so as to
+strike the eye of all who entered there. Golden couches supported by
+Sphinxes were placed along the sides of the tent, furnished with soft
+purple woollen mattresses, and coverings gaily and exquisitely
+embroidered. The floor was strewn with fresh blossoms, except where a
+most costly Persian carpet covered the centre. In the doorways and
+against the pillars stood a hundred precious statues by the greatest
+artists.
+
+This description dazzles the imagination! To be an upholsterer (a
+vestiarius) in those days was to be an engineer, architect, and
+artist! Semper, from whose translation we are quoting, remarks that
+the luxurious "motive" of such an erection naturally arose from the
+desire to make use of the mass of artistic materials acquired by
+conquest, and the effort to reduce them to certain architectural
+principles already accepted.[449]
+
+That Alexander did not purposely destroy the Persian embroideries is
+evident from the fact that Lucullus speaks of them 200 years later.
+
+Rome accepted and adopted all the Oriental uses of hangings, in the
+Temple and the house for temporary festive occasions.
+
+By both Greeks and Romans hangings were used in triumphal processions,
+covering immense moving cars or draping the temporary buildings which
+lined the avenues of their progress. Also the funeral pyres which
+Greece and Rome copied from Assyria were hung with splendid materials
+and embroideries. Without describing one of these awful erections, it
+is impossible to give any idea of how much artistic treasure was
+thrown into the flames which consumed the remains of a great man. The
+funeral pyre dedicated by Alexander to his friend Hephæstion recalls
+that erected by Sardanapalus in one of the courts of his own palace,
+on which he perished, surrounded by his wives and his treasures.
+Hephæstion's catafalque was built of inflammable materials, 250 feet
+high, raised in many stories, and hung with pictorial tapestries,
+painted and embroidered. Each story was adorned with images of ivory
+and gold. In the upper story were enormous hollow figures of Sirens,
+filled with singers, who chanted the funeral odes.[450] It is to be
+hoped that they were released before the conflagration.
+
+The records of such extravagant funeral ceremonies teach us how much
+of human thought, how much of art and beauty which had helped to
+civilize the world, were torn from the places they were intelligently
+designed to decorate, heaped up by the conquerors, and as ruthlessly
+spent and destroyed for the boast of a day.[451]
+
+Christian Rome adopted the traditions of Pagan decoration, and
+introduced them in her worship, processions, and shows. A great
+religious procession like that of the "Corpus Domini" in our own
+times, has reminded us of a Roman triumph. The baldachini and the
+banners; the torches; the streets, festooned with draperies; even the
+Pagan emblems, which have been converted into Christian symbolism--all
+these were the echoes of classical days; but they are fast
+disappearing. Two thousand years will have worn out and effaced these
+customs, and our children will not see them.
+
+I have not space to linger over the many descriptions of Oriental,
+Grecian, and Roman work to be gathered from classical authors, but
+from them this lesson is to be learned that the first principle which
+guided those great decorators was the individuality and
+appropriateness of each design to the purpose for which it was
+intended and the place it was to fill. But even their peculiar
+excellences did not save them from the universal law of destruction.
+When the hangings were worn, or became for any reason distasteful,
+they were replaced by others, often by gifts or spoils from friendly
+allies or conquered kings. The quantity of gold laid upon these great
+religious or national works was the cause of their destruction as soon
+as they were withdrawn and superseded by something of a newer fashion.
+The intrinsic value in precious metals of such works is proved by
+Pliny's statement that Nero gave four millions of sesterces for covers
+of couches in a banqueting-hall.[452] The hangings or carpets taken by
+the Caliph Omar from Kosroes' white palace (A.D. 651) must have been
+some of the finest and most valuable embroideries ever known. They
+formed a tapestry carpet or hanging, representing all the flowers of
+spring, worked in coloured silks, gold, and precious stones. Kosroes
+entreated Omar to keep it intact for himself, but he was so virtuous
+that he cut it up into little bits and divided it amongst his
+generals. Gibbon describes this wonderful piece of work.[453] We have
+heard much of a marvellous carpet, given lately by the Guicowar of
+Baroda to the tomb of Mahomet at Medina, which, from its description,
+recalls the style of Kosroes' hangings; and their history gives us a
+notable instance of how works of art in the time of war and conquest
+come to be considered only for the value of their materials. War, the
+enemy of culture, all but effaces whole phases of art when a country
+is overrun and plundered. But there is almost always a residuum, which
+has influence whenever there is a revival, beginning with the smaller
+arts of luxury in more peaceful and prosperous days.[454]
+
+To return to the classical veils and hangings. You may see them on
+Babylonian bas-reliefs, on Greek fictile vases, or painted in frescoes
+on the walls of Egyptian tombs and temples; in the houses in Pompeii
+and Herculaneum, and in the remains of Roman villas and tombs
+everywhere. From all of these we may learn something.
+
+The obvious intention of hangings in household decoration is to cover
+bare walls, so as to adorn at once that which was rough or common,
+without delay or trouble. They were also used as curtains to shut out
+the cold or the heat, and to give privacy to rooms without doors or
+windows. Hangings on bare walls have always been meant to hang
+straight down, undisturbed by folds, whereas curtains and portières
+would probably have to be looped up or continually drawn aside. The
+designs to be worked upon them should necessarily be regulated by
+their shape and use.
+
+Semper considers that a square is an expressionless form, and that it
+should be avoided.[455] If you wish to give dignity to a room, its
+hanging decorations should be divided into panels of greater height
+than breadth, so as to elevate the spaces they cover. Horizontal
+stripes bring down the ceiling, and even in furniture, look ill except
+as borders. Nothing can be more ugly or inartistic than the curtains
+one finds in old illuminations, covered with bands of the same pattern
+throughout the surface, but even this is less unpleasant on the walls
+than lines crossing each other at right angles. The Romans looked on
+chequers as barbarous national characteristics, and left them to the
+Gauls and Britons. Chequers should be avoided unless they express a
+meaning, as in Scotch tartans. Semper observes that the striped
+stuffs, especially those of Oriental fabrics, were never intended to
+be spread out flat, but to be draped in folds and loops, and the lines
+only seen broken up. He continues:--"One rule, which cannot be
+neglected with impunity, is this: that whether the hanging or screen
+is supposed to stand or to hang, there must be an above and a below to
+every pattern, and it must, moreover, be upright." All foliage
+designs, and those containing animals, must start from below, and grow
+upwards. Another of his laws is that the heaviest colours should be
+placed below, and the palest and brightest above. This may be
+disputed. It must be first determined where contrast is needed. If
+the darkest part of the pattern is below, it may be necessary to give
+it the lightest background, on the principle of balancing quantities
+in colour. The dado, or lowest border, will often give the necessary
+weight to the design. Semper goes on to say, "A surface may be made to
+appear to stand, or to hang down, according to its decoration. For
+instance, a triangle will hang or stand, according as its apex points
+downwards or upwards. But in draped curtains all symmetry of design is
+lost, and the rich forms and fulness of folds rather tend to destroy
+the effect of elaborate patterns, and to take their place."
+
+Another important difference between standing and hanging tapestries
+is their finish or edge, the upper one being an upright continuous
+border, and the lower one a fringe. In both cases it is a continuation
+of the main threads of the material, and these belong exclusively to
+the hanging tapestries and curtains. The fringe is so essential a part
+of hanging decoration, that we must pause and give it our best
+consideration. In Babylonian art it is most important. The extreme
+solidity of the knotted fringes in their dress and hangings show
+either the thickness of the woven substance, or that the fringes were
+made by enriching the warp and adding to it. They are almost always,
+on the Assyrian sculptures, simply knotted fringes; but the little
+portable Chaldean temple on the bronze gates from Balawat (near
+Nimroud), in the British Museum, shows fringes of bells or fruit like
+those of the Jewish tabernacle in the wilderness (fig. 2). On Egyptian
+linen we sometimes see, woven or worked, a reticulated pattern which
+imitates a fringe.
+
+The carpets of the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Persians were evidently
+used sometimes as hangings, though many of their designs would not
+have served both purposes equally well. That the Babylonian weavers,
+however, understood that a carpet lying on the ground should be
+covered with an even pattern, and be finished with a border all round,
+is evident from the exquisitely chiselled designs, imitating carpets,
+on two portions of pavements in the British Museum (pl. 27); and we
+may compare these with the different treatment of designs for the
+veils of the temples, both in Babylon and Egypt, on which were
+represented the signs of the zodiac and all the heavenly bodies, and
+other symbolical and unconventional forms. The Atrium of the Greek and
+Pompeian houses, which was modelled on the same idea, was separated
+from the Court by curtains, hung on rods or nails. On festive
+occasions these may have been garlanded with natural flowers. If so,
+we may be sure that the little wreaths worked on them, as we learn
+from frescoes, would combine with the gala day's decorations, and
+would be designed with that view. The Greek artist would never have
+approved of natural flowers or trees, embroidered as if growing out of
+a dado, simulating a garden worked in wool. This would have been
+considered a bad attempt at pictorial art.
+
+M. Louis de Ronchaud, in his "Tapisseries des Anciens," speaks of the
+hangings which he supposes to have decked the recess that contained
+the chryselephantine statue of Athenè Parthenos in her temple at
+Athens. He says these votive hangings dressed the pillars that
+surrounded the Hecatompedon, and formed a tent over the head of the
+goddess. M. de Ronchaud believes that among the subjects of the
+Delphic embroideries, described by Euripides in the tragedy of Ion,
+may be recognized some derived from the designs on saffron-coloured
+hangings, spoken of by the poet as "the wings of the peplos."[456]
+
+The downfall of decorative art, domestic as well as national, kept
+pace with the downfall of the Roman Empire. During the Dark Ages, of
+such art there seems to have been very little; and of that the best
+was Celtic or Anglo-Saxon. But the darkness shrouds from our view the
+artistic life of the world, and the dawn was very long in breaking. We
+must therefore return to the subject of hangings, after a gap of
+nearly a thousand years, when the first stirrings of the European
+revival came, in the twelfth century.[457] Symonds says: "The arts and
+the inventions, the knowledge and the books, which suddenly became
+vital at the time of the Renaissance, had long lain neglected on the
+shores of that Dead Sea which we call 'The Middle Ages.'"[458]
+
+There can be no doubt that, during the Dark Ages, hangings woven and
+embroidered continued to be the custom throughout Europe. Our own
+Anglo-Saxon records prove that such furnishings were employed to
+mitigate the cold bareness of our northern homes from the earliest
+times. Sir G. Dasent informs me that in Icelandic Sagas, as early as
+the eleventh century, there are frequent notices of hangings both in
+churches and in the halls of houses; such, for instance, as the Saga
+of Charlemagne, i.e. scenes out of Charlemagne's life, worked on
+hangings 20 ells long. In Scaldic poetry, a periphrasis for a "lady"
+is "the ground of hangings," or "the bridge of hangings," all pointing
+to embroidery.
+
+From illuminated MSS. engraved in Strutt's "Antiquities of the
+English," and contemporary European work of the tenth to the
+thirteenth centuries, we find that the favourite style of embroidery,
+when not representing historical or sacred subjects, was a _parsemé_
+pattern. Armorial bearings were generally reserved for cushions,
+chair-backs, and the baldachinos of altars, beds, and thrones.[459]
+Richer and more flowing designs were later introduced.
+
+In the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, splendid
+tapestries of Arras, and hangings even of cloth of gold, were common
+as palatial decorations. Sometimes we have a glimpse of less ambitious
+hangings; for instance, in the London house of Sir Andrew Larkynge,
+Knight, in the fifteenth century, the hall was hung with sage-green
+panels, bordered with gold "darned work," and the "parler" with
+sage-green, bordered with crimson.
+
+French embroidered hangings were very fine in the sixteenth century.
+Jeanne d'Albret, the mother of Henri IV., was a great patroness of
+such works. Miss Freer tells us that--
+
+"When Jeanne and Antoine took possession of the Castle of Pau, they
+found their new abode rich in works of art and splendid decorations.
+The refined taste of Marguerite d'Angoulême was visible everywhere.
+Jeanne's presence-chamber was adorned with hangings of crimson satin,
+embroidered by the hand of Marguerite herself. The embroidery
+represented a passage from the history of the Queen's own life."
+
+"During the hours which the Queen allowed herself for relaxation, she
+worked tapestry, and discoursed with some one of the learned men whom
+she protected."
+
+"The Queen daily attended the afternoon sermon, preached by her
+chaplains in rotation. Often, however, weary with the excess of her
+mental labours, and lulled by the drowsy intonation of some of these
+ministers, the Queen slept during part of the discourse. Jeanne always
+felt severe reproach of conscience when she had thus involuntarily
+yielded to fatigue; and finding the inclination grow upon her, she
+demanded permission from the Synod to work tapestry during the sermon.
+This request was granted; and from thenceforth, Queen Jeanne, bending
+decorously over her tapestry-frame, and busy with her needle, gave due
+attention to the rambling addresses of her preachers."
+
+"Comme elle (Jeanne d'Albret) estoit grandement adonnée aux devises,
+elle fit de sa main de belles et grandes tapisseries, entre lesquelles
+il y a une tente de douze ou quinze pièces excellente qui s'appelle
+_les Prisons brisées_, par lesquelles elle donnoit à connôistre
+qu'elle avoit brisé les liens et secoué le joug de la captivité du
+Pape. Au milieu de chaque pièce, il y a une histoire du Vieu Testament
+qui resent la liberté, comme la délivrance de Suzanne, la sortie du
+peuple de la captivité d'Egypte, l'élargissement de Joseph. Et à tous
+les coins il y a des chaisnes rompues, des menottes brisées, des
+strapades et des gibbets en pièces, et par-dessus en grosses lettres
+ce sont ces paroles de la deuxième aux Corinthiens, ch. iii.: _Ubi
+spiritus, ibi libertas._"[460]
+
+Cluny boasts a most curious suite of hangings from the Chateau de
+Boussac, of the early part of the fifteenth century, which are
+charming, quaint, and gay, and historically and archæologically
+interesting. They tell the story of the "Dame au Lion."
+
+Modern French tapestries, from the manufactories of the Savonnerie,
+the Gobelins, and elsewhere, are decorative to the highest degree.
+Nothing can be more festive than these works of the time of Louis
+XIII., XIV., and XV., framed in white and gold, carved wood, or
+stucco, reflected in mirrors, and lighted by crystal or glass
+chandeliers and girandoles. Such hangings have nothing in common with
+those of early times; they are not temporary coverings of bare spaces,
+but panels in decorated walls, where they form an integral part of the
+architectural composition and design. They do not merely serve to give
+warmth, comfort, and colour to desolate halls, as did those ancient
+tapestries belonging to the furniture of the great man who sent them
+on before him from palace to palace, carrying them away with his
+baggage lest some one else should do so in his absence. These were
+probably merely attached by loops and nails, as one sees in country
+villas or castles in Italy to this day.
+
+We find that the Italians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
+often hung their walls with upright strips of work, in the guise of
+pilasters. The walls were thus divided into panelled spaces, which
+separated pictures, statues, and cabinets, of which the style did not
+agree in juxtaposition. These pilasters were generally of "opus
+consutum," or "appliqué" in its different forms. Above, next to the
+cornice, and below, next to the dado, or even touching the floor, they
+were connected by borders of similar work. The spaces between were
+mostly filled in with rich brocades or velvets of one colour, so as to
+make the best backgrounds for the artistic treasures grouped against
+them. Sometimes fine tapestries filled the intervening spaces, and
+sometimes splendid embroideries. There is a beautiful example of this
+sort of decoration at Holland House, where the dining-room is adorned
+with pilasters worked on velvet in gold and coloured silks, with
+tapestries between them. This is Florentine work, of the sixteenth or
+beginning of the seventeenth century.
+
+Hangings entirely in needlework, to cover large spaces, are rare, but
+a few are to be found all over Europe in museums, palaces, and private
+houses, which are interesting as objects of art. The genealogical tree
+of the Counts of Kyburg, designed in the sixteenth century, and
+carried to France as plunder, and now restored to its home near
+Zurich, is a remarkable instance of a piece of needlework that
+deserved the value placed on it. Many splendid pieces of embroidered
+tapestries are at the Cluny Museum. The beatitudes of St. Catherine,
+from the castle at Tarrascon, and the hangings worked in appliqué and
+flat stitches with portraits of Henri IV., Jeanne d'Albret, &c., are
+monuments of industry, and design; and are very beautiful.
+
+There, is a large room at Castle Ashby hung with tapestry in cross
+stitches, worked by the ladies of the family, and finished 150 years
+ago. The industry shown here is indubitable, but the designs are
+barbarously bad and funny. In the Palazzo Giustini at Florence there
+is a suite of hangings worked also in cross stitches of the same
+period, of which the design is very clever and graceful, and the
+effect beautiful and artistic. An irregular bank of brown earth is
+crowded with grasses and small flowers about a foot above the dado,
+and from this grow rose-bushes, covered with blossoms of different
+shades, held back to a treillage of delicate "cane colours." The
+leafage is brown, against a sky that is not blue, but which rather
+reminds one of blue than of grey. It is conventionally treated, and
+the effect is singularly rich and harmonious. Had it been a little
+more naturalistic, it would have looked too much like a painted
+picture; but as it is, the decoration is charming, and so universally
+admired that we cannot but wonder it has never been imitated. In the
+Borghese Palace at Rome there is a ball-room hung with white satin
+embroidered with wreaths of flowers, and a similar one in the Caetani
+Palace, on crimson satin. These are about 150 years old, and are so
+far above being mere objects of fashion, that they must be placed by
+their beauty of design and execution amongst objects of art, and so
+will probably survive more centuries of change, holding their own, and
+increasing in value and esteem.
+
+For hangings in church decoration, the reader is referred to the
+chapters on ecclesiastical art and on tapestry.
+
+Having discussed the origin and reason for hangings, and having tried
+to draw from what has been accepted as beautiful and perfect in taste,
+some guidance in hanging our modern rooms, supposing always that the
+spaces are fitted for really fine decorations, I yet would add a few
+more words on this subject. There are in general some previous
+conditions which will help us to choose the style and design of such
+furnishings. In the first place, we should study what is appropriate
+to the persons who will first inhabit the rooms. The bride's apartment
+may be white and gold, garlanded with roses, and gay with groups of
+Cupids; but such prettinesses would not be suitable to the home of a
+mourning Queen. Tender or subdued colouring equally sets off groups of
+young and lovely faces, and the bent form robed in black. Embroideries
+are always agreeable on such backgrounds, and it is as a vehicle for
+needlework that I now allude to the design of the artist in hangings.
+We are somewhat restricted, or we ought to be, when there are
+treasures of art already in the house, by the desire to exhibit them
+to the best advantage. The hangings should be of a colour which suits
+all pictures, and if the walls are either embroidered or tapestried
+with woven designs, they should be very much subdued, both in form and
+colour, so as not to prevent the eye from perceiving at once the
+precious objects hung against them. A fine brocade or velvet of one
+colour suits pictures best; but if our object is to show off our
+cabinets, which are generally black, and our statues, which are mostly
+white, then richly embroidered backgrounds in brilliant colours are
+the best, compensating the eye in variety and splendour.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [438] The "women who wove the hangings for the grove"
+    were probably priestesses of the worship of Astarte
+    (2 Kings xxiii. 7).
+
+    [439] He says that within the sacred shrine was revealed
+    their god--a beast rolling on a purple couch--veiled
+    with gold embroidered hangings; and he describes the
+    magnificent temples, gleaming with gold, silver, and
+    electrum. Quoted from Clemens Alexandrinus, in Renouf's
+    "Hibbert Lectures," p. 2.
+
+    [440] "Fine linen with broidered work from Egypt was
+    that which thou spreadest forth to be thy
+    sail."--Ezekiel xxvii. 7. Egyptian sails were woven and
+    painted; sometimes they were blazoned with embroidered
+    patterns. The Phoenix was set there to indicate the
+    traveller's return. See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians,"
+    vol. iii., ed. 1837, p. 211.
+
+    [441] See Semper, "Der Stil," vol. i. p. 273.
+
+    [442] The figure-painting of the nations we have spoken
+    of, successful so far as it concerns its special purpose
+    of exhibiting a clear and comprehensive chronicle of
+    events, is at the same time no more, so far as it
+    concerns its artistic effect, than a piece of tapestry
+    or embroidery done into stone, and can only be estimated
+    ... as a piece of coloured wall decoration. Woltmann and
+    Woermann, "History of Painting," Eng. Trans., pp. 23-30.
+    See also Perrot and Chipiez, "Histoire de l'Art dans
+    l'Antiquité," for tile decorations at Nimroud; vol. ii.
+    p. 704.
+
+    [443] Compare this record with Solomon's veil for the
+    Temple, of blue, and purple, and crimson, and fine linen
+    (2 Chron. iii. 14), and the hangings designed by
+    Bezaleel, of scarlet, blue, purple, and embroidered with
+    gold (Exod. xxxix. 2, 3, 5; see also Josephus, "Wars of
+    the Jews," Whiston's trans., p. 895).
+
+    [444] As cited from Abulfeda by Gibbon, chap. lii. ix.
+    p. 37, ed. 1797. When one is moved to pity, thinking of
+    the enforced labour of thousands of captive women,
+    fallen, perhaps, from high estate, and only valued for
+    the toil of their hands, it comforts one to believe that
+    they would hardly have produced beautiful works without
+    enjoying some happiness in the creation of that beauty.
+
+    [445] Yule's "Marco Polo," vol. i. p. 394, note 7.
+
+    [446] See Semper, "Der Stil," i. pp. 310, 311; Chares,
+    ap. Athen. xii. 54, p. 538.
+
+    [447] Semper's "Der Stil," i. p. 311; Athen. v. 25, p.
+    196.
+
+    [448] Phylarchus, ap. Athen. xii. 55, describes a
+    Persian tent in which were golden palm-trees, and vines
+    fruited with precious stones, under which the Persian
+    kings held their state. On an Assyrian sculpture at the
+    British Museum is seen Assurbanipal on a couch, the
+    queen opposite to him, under an arbour of jewelled
+    vines; unless it represents a rural entertainment, which
+    is unlikely.
+
+    [449] The art of the "tapezziere," "tapissier,"
+    "tapestry-hanger," is not a recognized one with us,
+    though it is in Italy and France, where the hangings for
+    special occasions in churches and houses are stored
+    away, treasured for hundreds of years, cleaned and
+    mended, and hung and placed to the best advantage by men
+    educated for the purpose. In poor churches which possess
+    no fine materials for decoration, one has often wondered
+    at and admired the picturesque effects extracted from
+    yards of muslin, gold tinsel, and box wreaths,
+    artistically combined. Our house carpenter is the only
+    representative we have of the vestiarius, and he is but
+    a feeble descendant from the ancestors of his craft, who
+    were expected to study and evolve the adornments of the
+    building for its completion, the materials of decoration
+    for special occasions, and lastly, the mechanical means
+    for hanging and stretching the draperies. These were
+    sometimes movable frames or posts--"scabella" (whence
+    "escabeau," échafaudage, scaffolding).
+
+    [450] Semper, "Der Stil," i. pp. 314, 315.
+
+    [451] Never again will such great works be executed with
+    the needle. In civilized countries, sovereign splendours
+    are at a discount. The East occasionally produces
+    something fine, because there they still have harems and
+    slaves; but even these ancient institutions are losing
+    their stability and in the interest of humanity, if not
+    in that of needlework, we may soon hope there will be
+    neither the one nor the other. We must allow, however,
+    that the purple and gold embroideries now being executed
+    for the King of Bavaria in his school at Munich are
+    royally splendid, and, by their execution, worthy of
+    past days.
+
+    [452] Pliny, viii. 44, 196.
+
+    [453] Gibbon's "Roman History," ix. c. 51, p. 370, ed.
+    1797; also see Crichton's "History of Arabia," i. p.
+    383.
+
+    [454] The utter dispersal of accumulated family and
+    household treasures has had a sad illustration in the
+    loads of Turkish and Slav embroideries which have
+    flooded the markets of Europe since the Russo-Turkish
+    war. Work, treasured for generations, sold for a piece
+    of bread, robbed from the deserted home or the bazaar,
+    stolen from the dying or the dead. These are so
+    suggestive of the horrors of war, and touch us so nearly
+    in connection with the rights and wrongs of the Eastern
+    question, that they cause us more pain than pleasure
+    when we study these beautiful specimens of well-blended
+    colours and designs, that show their Aryan (Persian or
+    Indian) origin. Lady Layard's residence in
+    Constantinople was, perhaps, the "happy accident" which
+    will have preserved the secrets and practice of this
+    work for future generations, by her active and generous
+    institution of a working organization for the poor
+    exiled and starving women, and for the sale of their
+    work in England.
+
+    [455] Semper, "Der Stil," i. p. 30, § 10.
+
+    [456] This subject has been ably treated in the
+    Introduction to "La Tapisserie," by Eug. Müntz; Paris,
+    1885.
+
+    [457] I refer to the chapter on "English Embroideries"
+    for the _parsemé_ patterns of our mediæval hangings, and
+    to the section on tapestry in the chapter on "Stitches."
+
+    [458] "Renaissance in Italy," J. A. Symonds, p. 4.
+
+    [459] But to this rule there are notable exceptions, of
+    which Charles the Bold's hangings for his tent (now at
+    Berne) furnish a brilliant example. Here the Order of
+    the Golden Fleece is repeated on a field of flowers,
+    exquisitely designed.
+
+    [460] "Life of Jeanne d'Albret," by Miss Freer, pp. 68,
+    123, 330.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FURNITURE.
+
+    "Jane, I hate æsthetic carpets;
+    High-art curtains make me swear.
+    Pray cease hunting for the latest
+                      Queen Anne chair.
+    I care nothing for improvements,
+    On the simple style of Snell,
+    Which will suit both you and me ex-
+                      tremely well."
+
+                 ROBERT CUST, "Parody of the Last Ode of the
+                           First Book of Horace."
+
+    "First, as you know, my house within the city
+    Is richly furnish'd with plate and gold;
+    Basons and ewers, to lave her dainty hands;
+    My hangings all of Tyrian tapestry;
+    In ivory coffers I have stuff'd my crowns;
+    In cyprus chests my arras, counterpoints,
+    Fine linen, Turkey cushions boss'd with pearl,
+    Costly apparel, tents and canopies,
+    Valance of Venice gold, in needlework;
+    Pewter and brass, and all things that belong
+    To house, or housekeeping."
+
+       SHAKESPEARE, "Taming of the Shrew," Act II., Scene I.
+
+
+The last chapter on hangings, their history and uses, and the
+preceding account of tapestries, naturally lead to the consideration
+of the furniture which may accompany them.
+
+Homer's description of Penelope's bridal couch is very curious. The
+central idea is the bedpost, fashioned out of the stem of an
+olive-tree growing in the court, and inlaid by Ulysses himself with
+gold, silver, and ivory, and bands of dyed purple ox-hide. The stone
+walls and roof were built over to cover it in, as it stood yet rooted
+in the ground.[461]
+
+The illustration is a very quaint delineation of a Chaldean
+four-roomed house, where the rooted tree with its stem and branches is
+suggestive of the state of the domestic art of the architect and the
+upholsterer in those Archaic days.[462]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 24.
+    Assyrian delineation of Chaldean House.]
+
+Furniture has been the excuse and the vehicle for embroideries, from
+the footstool and the cushion to the window curtain and the
+bed-hangings.[463]
+
+Such curtains are the most permanently important features in the
+economy, or rather the luxury of the house. Let us begin with the
+decorations of the state bedroom.
+
+Now the shape of the bed must regulate the design. If there is only a
+canopy--like that over a throne--one may have fine work for the head
+of the bed inside the canopy, and a rich border round its valance;
+this should contrast with the walls; and the curtains should marry the
+two together, by the embroidered borders belonging to the fashion of
+the bed, and accompanying the window curtains; while the plain surface
+should match with the wall hangings. Another method is to have the bed
+and curtains hung with plain materials, to contrast with embroidered
+or tapestried hangings on the walls.
+
+This style of bed canopy absolutely belongs to the decoration of the
+wall to which it is attached. But when we have to deal with a large
+four-post bed--"a room within a room," as poor Prince Lee Boo
+said--the bed may, in its own decoration, be totally independent of
+the wall hangings; and care must be taken that we do not injure the
+effect of both by too much contrast or too much similarity. Every room
+has its own individuality, and the first beginning of its decoration
+must be the key-note to guide the rest of the furnishing and
+adornment. I am anxious to point out that the bed and its belongings
+are a most important element in the beauty and dignity of style of the
+room and the house that contains it. It is a splendid opportunity for
+displaying the embroideries of the women of the family, and for
+exercising their taste. "The chamber of Dais," as it was called in old
+times, was always carefully adorned for the welcome of the honoured
+guest. The bed-hangings, and even the linen, were embroidered,[464]
+and the greatest care and the most artistic work were lavished on the
+coverlet in firm stitches and twisted threads, while on the curtains
+the frailest materials and most delicate stitches were freely
+bestowed, as they were safe from friction. We may employ floss-silk
+and satin-stitch for such works with safety.
+
+As a rule we should avoid too great a variety of design in the
+decoration of a bedroom, and at the same time beware of its becoming
+monotonous.
+
+I should say that a change in the design, though not in the style, of
+the different parts of the bed is admissible, and gives opportunities
+for rich and graceful work. For instance, a parsemé pattern may be
+varied judiciously on the curtains, the valance, and the heading;
+provided there is a connecting link (say a cypher) found throughout.
+If the back of the Baldachino is embroidered, it admits of totally
+different treatment, and the valance must include a border according
+to its outline.
+
+The ingenuity and magnificence of the Elizabethan bedroom furnishings
+are proved by the inventories to be found in old houses. Those
+describing the property of the Earl of Leicester, in the Library at
+Longleat, are so characteristic of a time when each room contained
+artistic furniture, that I cannot help making here some extracts, and
+pointing out that embroidery was usually employed to individualize
+each decoration.
+
+"At Killingworth (Kenilworth) Lord Leicester's Bedsteads." "A fayre,
+rich, standing Square Bedstead of carved walnut-tree wood: painted
+with silver hearts, ragged staves and roses. The furniture and teste
+crimson velvet embroidered with silver roses, and lined throughout
+with Buckram." There was apparently a second set of curtains inside
+of striped white satin, trimmed and fringed with silver, and the
+velvet curtains were also fringed with silver with long "buttons and
+loops."
+
+Another bedstead is described, with the pillars painted red, and
+varnished. The teste and curtains of red silk edged with gold and
+silver bone lace, and embroidered "in a border of hops, roses, and
+pomegranates."
+
+Another "Bedstead painted red and gold, and varnished; with crimson
+velvet, gold and silver in breadths, embroidered over with red, gold,
+and silver,--lined with Milion (Milan) fustian," &c., &c. The
+catalogue of the tapestries and embroidered hangings include fifteen
+suites at Kenilworth only; and three other houses are equally well
+provided. The ground of one of these suites of five pieces of
+embroidery, of animals and flowers, is described as being "Stannel
+cloth lined with cannevois" (canvas). Each room has chairs, cushions,
+carpets (which appear to have covered the floor and the tables), and
+"Cabinutts" (cabinets) covered with embroideries.
+
+In a Florentine Palace (the Alessandri), there is a state
+apartment,[465] where the bed, the walls, the curtains, and the
+furniture are entirely decorated with the same splendid materials,
+i.e. gold brocaded with crimson velvet. The eye longs for some repose
+amidst the gorgeous reiterated forms and colours. If the bed and
+curtains had been either plain crimson velvet or embroidery, it would
+have been much more beautiful. This sort of example is a lesson and a
+warning, which is valuable even under less splendid conditions.
+
+Amongst our fine Indian embroideries, those of Lucknow, Gulbargah,
+Aurungabad, and Hyderabad are well fitted for beds and furniture.
+These we can study in the Indian Museum, and it seems a pity not to
+profit by, and encourage the resources of our own Empire.
+
+Carpets and rugs were sometimes embroidered as well as woven in
+patterns. They were anciently spread on thrones, couches and sofas, at
+entertainments;[466] and used for covering the catafalques at funeral
+ceremonies, or for laying over tombs, as is still the custom in the
+East. We who restrict their use to domestic purposes, are beginning to
+understand that these decorations look best when the patterns are
+geometrical, and that natural objects, such as rabbits and roses, even
+when conventionalized, are unpleasant to tread upon.
+
+The sofa and chairs are so often the vehicles for embroidery that we
+must give them a separate share of our attention. The square shapes of
+the chair-backs repeated several times give us an opportunity for
+balancing colours and introducing forms of decoration which may be
+made to contrast with everything else in the room, and so enhance the
+general effect. Say that the carpet is red, and the furniture and
+hangings are of tender broken tints, it will be a pleasure to the eye
+if the cushions on the sofa and the chairs and seats are panelled with
+a deeper or lighter colour than the carpet, but always reposing the
+eye by contrasting plain surfaces with richness of design. Then the
+footstool or cushion should break away entirely from the carpet on
+which it lies, that the poor thing may be spared the kick it
+invariably receives, when the master of the house has tripped over its
+invisible presence.
+
+For furniture, the cushion stitches, i.e. canvas and cross stitches,
+are certainly the best. They are the most enduring, as they bear
+friction without fraying; and are therefore, in this case, preferable
+to satin stitches, which are liable to be spoilt by contact, and give
+the lady of the house, who is probably the artist, a pang each time an
+honoured guest occupies the comfortable chair embroidered in floss
+silk, unaware that it is an æsthetic investment, and that a percentage
+of its beauty is disappearing every time it is brought into collision
+with broadcloth.[467] This brings us to the subject of the covers
+called "housses" by French upholsterers, and which may come under the
+head of small decorations, or rather, of petty disfigurements. The
+things which went by the horrid name of "antimacassars" have, however,
+given way to "chair-backs," and crochet has been displaced by linen
+veils worked in crewels. This is a step in the right direction. No
+well-regulated eye could do otherwise than suffer from the glaring
+white patterns of crochet-work, mounted aggressively on the back of
+every chair in the room, as a buffer between it and the human head and
+shoulders. The suggestion was disagreeable, and the present chair-back
+still recalls it. To reconcile us to its use, it must be sparingly
+used, and artistically disposed. The "antimacassar" is a remaining
+sign of the overlap of dress and manners. Our great-grandmothers
+embroidered the chairs, and valued them exceedingly, and never would
+have contemplated that they should be soiled by a male or female head
+lying back upon them. True, they wore powder and pomatum then--but
+they never leant back; such a solace, and solecism in manners, was
+reserved for the privacy of the bedroom and the arm-chair covered with
+cotton piqué or washing chintz. Under the new manners, and since the
+introduction of the graceful lounge, the antimacassar doubtless has
+saved many ancestral works, but nowadays we wear neither powder nor
+pomatum. On the contrary, we dye, dry, and frizzle our hair till it
+might serve as a brush to remove any dust it encountered, and it
+spoils nothing.
+
+The table-cover is a source of endless variety;[468] on the whole I
+should recommend here plain surfaces and deep borders. The articles
+thrown on the table are best set off by plain grounds. The colour of
+the table-cover may be a test of artistic taste, and may make or mar
+the whole effect of the furnishings of the room, especially if it is
+newly acquired, in order to enliven the fading glories of ancestral
+taste.
+
+The Screen.--This evidently began its existence as a curtain hung on a
+movable frame for the purpose of dividing large chambers for separate
+uses.[469] The Chinese seem to have been the first to stretch the
+curtain tight over the frame, making it a fixture, and often an actual
+partition, painted with pictures by brush or needle.
+
+To our modern home, the screen in a large room, gives a sense of
+snugness, and is an actual necessity for keeping off the draughts
+drifting in through ill-fitting window-frames and doors; and at the
+same time serving æsthetically as a background to high chairs and
+tables heaped with objects of art, and tall vases of flowers. The
+high screen groups and unites the pictures of active and still life
+around it; and meanwhile the little fire-screens are performing the
+merciful service of saving the complexions of our daughters from being
+sacrificed to Moloch in front of our scorching coal fires. I need not
+recommend these as fit surfaces for embroidery--they offer themselves
+to it; and the School of Art Needlework is a living witness to how
+much they are appreciated and how largely employed. On the screen,
+decorative ambition is permitted to rise to pictorial art. Nothing in
+furniture is prettier than the screen covered with refined needle
+painting, either arabesqued or naturalistic. You may vary the designs
+to any extent, either as large pictures covering many folds, or in
+small pictures repeated or varied on each. Here design to
+individualize the living-room comes into play, and is most conspicuous
+for good or for evil effect.
+
+Amongst the occasional furnishings of the home, we would instance
+embroidered curtains to veil pictures, which are perhaps too sacred to
+expose to the general eye. We know how often in churches and
+sacristies on the Continent, one, or even two veils have to be
+withdrawn before the holy and precious picture is displayed. We have
+seen these little curtains beautifully worked so as to form by their
+design a picture in the space they cover. Crimson silk is perhaps
+worked in gold and colours for a gilt frame, and white and silver
+within ebony or walnut settings. I would recommend this style of work
+to the consideration of our decorators. It is interesting to find in
+an old catalogue at Hampton Court, how pictures of sacred subjects
+were thus decently veiled, in the profaner moments of court
+gaieties.[470]
+
+Embroidered book coverings were often very beautiful, either as
+simply clothing the boards, or when finished with metal-work corners,
+backs, and clasps.
+
+I quote the following lines, said to have been written by Tasso on a
+case for a book, embroidered for him by Leonora d'Este:--
+
+    "Questo prezioso dono,
+    Ch' ornar coll' ago ad Eleanora piacque,
+    Lo vidde Aracne, e tacque.
+    Or se la mano, che la piaga fè al core,
+    Si bello fè d' amore il dolce laberinto,
+    Come uscirne potro, se non estinto?"
+
+In the catalogue of Charles V.'s library, the materials used for
+bindings are thus named: Soie veluyau, satin damas, taffetas, camelot,
+cendal, and drap d'or; and many were embroidered.
+
+Tact, discretion, and knowledge are required when we undertake to
+adorn the home to be lived in; and while employing the art of
+embroidery to embellish it, we must never forget that harmony, and the
+absence of anything startling, tends to the grandiose as well as the
+comfortable. Bright bits of colouring should be reserved for pictorial
+art, or for small objects, such as cushions and stools. If for the
+general tint blue be chosen, let it be either pure pale colour, like
+the æther, or a soft one, pale or dark, such as indigo; but the
+startling aniline blues should be avoided as being offensive to the
+nerves of the eye. If red be the foundation colour, let it be Venetian
+red, part scarlet, part crimson; or pure crimson (Tyrian purple), or
+pure scarlet (cochineal). Never employ scarlet with a yellow tinge; it
+may not affect yourself, but it is blinding to many eyes. Avoid
+brickdust, which is simply a dirty mixture of earthy colours. Of green
+there are few shades that are not beautiful, soothing, and more or
+less fitted for a background to needlework. Olive-green, sea-green,
+pea-green, emerald-green, and sage-green,--Nature teaches us how
+these harmonize together and with all other colours. Only arsenical
+green is impracticable and repulsive. Yellow, pale as a primrose,
+glowing as gold, or tender as butter, is always beautiful; but one
+tint we would exclude from our list, called "buff," which never can
+assimilate with any other colour, and is often the refuge of the
+weak-minded man that cannot face the responsibility of choosing an
+atmosphere in which he will have to spend many hours of his existence,
+when the walls, the ceiling, and the hangings will inevitably obtain a
+subtle, but real influence on his nerves; which, in the case of buff,
+will be that of a yellow fog, while pale primrose will have the effect
+of early sunrise, and pure gold that of sunset.
+
+A rule to be respected is that decoration should be reposing instead
+of exciting. The unexpected, which is an element in the enjoyment of
+what is new, should be such as to become the more agreeable the longer
+we are accustomed to it. Mr. Morris's golden rule is this: "Have
+nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful or believe to
+be beautiful."[471] In decorative art, and therefore in embroidery,
+the first object to consider is beauty--beauty in conception,
+proportion, drawing, and colour. I would not have it thought that I am
+placing our secondary art too high, and giving it too much importance,
+when I apply to it the first essential rules of art; but one of these
+furnishes my excuse. It is that "the simplest and smallest creation
+should be as faultless as the greatest and grandest." Now beauty
+cannot be obtained, even in little works, without proportion in size,
+harmony and balance in colour, and correctness in form, and these
+require the careful study of first principles.
+
+Proportion in size is most important, both as regards ourselves and
+our surroundings--objectively and subjectively. When our masters, the
+Greeks, wished to express force and majesty, they sculptured their
+gods of unearthly size, larger than their heroes, who yet exceeded in
+stature their human models. The statue of the god placed in the temple
+was the largest object seen, and the delicacy and refinement of the
+details in dress, throne, and base only enhanced the effect of
+majestic proportion.
+
+In the temple men were to be reminded of their own nothingness. In the
+gymnasium, and on the racecourse, and at the public games, the
+surrounding pictures and statues were all intended to excite ambition
+by showing men the heroic size to be attained by the awards of fame.
+But at home, in the house, man is already supreme, and needs no
+incentive to assert himself, and no tall standard by which he may be
+measured. The Lares and Penates themselves were very small objects to
+look at, whatever may have been the thoughts they suggested. Nothing
+is so alarming or unpleasant as gigantic figures worked in tapestry or
+embroidery.
+
+And if even the guardian gods of the house were kept in due subjection
+as to size, why not all decorations, and especially those representing
+the flowers of the field? Certainly in worked decorations flowers
+should be no larger than in nature--perhaps on the whole they are best
+rather smaller. Botanical monstrosities on the wall dwarf the flowers
+in a bow-pot near them, and nature has her own lovely proportions,
+which should be studied and respected. These remarks, of course, apply
+exclusively to domestic decoration, which is the special object of our
+art, and for the guidance of which the suggestions contained in this
+chapter are intended.
+
+I would strongly advocate the return to the old system for the
+production of large embroideries. If ladies would design, or have
+designed for them, curtains or tapestries, and let the work-frame be
+the permanent occupier of the morning sitting-room, they might at
+least commence works that members of the family or friends might
+continue and complete at their leisure; and should they at any time
+hang fire, a needlewoman or clever professional worker might be called
+in to help to finish it. Thus ladies might assist the art of
+needlework by their own original ideas, and give individual beauty to
+their homes, and an impetus to the occupation which helps to support
+so many of our struggling sisters. The frame or métier is always a
+pretty object in the drawing-room or boudoir. The French understand
+this well; and make it one of their most useful "properties" in their
+scenic representations of refined home life.
+
+I will conclude this chapter with two quotations. The first is part of
+Sir Digby Wyatt's advice in a Cambridge Lecture. "You can never hope
+(he says) to have the means of supplying yourself with what is
+beautiful unless you take pains to add to the production of that
+beauty. The colour which the decorative painter" (and the embroiderer
+also) "may cast around you is neither more nor less than an atmosphere
+in which your eye will be either strengthened or debilitated. If you
+accustom your eye only or mainly to contemplate what is satisfactory
+in colour and form to the highest tastes, it will gradually become
+allured to such delicacy of organization as to reject unintentionally
+all that is repugnant to perfect taste."
+
+Mr. Morris, in a lecture to the "Birmingham Society of Arts and School
+of Design," says of ugly furnishings: "Herein the rich people have
+defrauded themselves as well as the poor. You will see a refined and
+highly educated man nowadays, who has been to Italy and Egypt and
+where not, who can talk learnedly enough (and fantastically enough
+sometimes) about art and literature of past days, sitting down without
+signs of discomfort in a house that, with all its surroundings, is
+just brutally vulgar and hideous. All his education has done for him
+no more than that."
+
+"You cannot civilize man unless you give him a share in art." But the
+man must be civilized by education to accept that share of art that
+his life offers to him. It must be admitted that though a man may be
+educated enough to enable him to theorize, he may yet be too poor to
+furnish with taste. If he is able to act up to his theories, and to
+surround himself with what is refined, and fail to do so, and is
+contented not to stir in this matter, he is not truly educated.
+
+"Now that which breeds art is art. Any piece of work that is well done
+is so much help to the cause." "The cause is the Democracy of Art, the
+ennobling of daily and common work."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [461] Odyssey, xxiii., l. 190.
+
+    [462] Layard's "Monuments," 1st series, pl. 77; see
+    "Histoire de l'Art," ii., Perrot and Chipiez.
+
+    [463] A bed may be absolutely without any hangings or
+    tester, and yet carry embroidery, as in the curious
+    funeral couch of a sepulchral monument in painted
+    terra-cotta in the Campana Museum of the Louvre. Here
+    the mattress is worked to resemble ticking, striped, and
+    the cushions have embroidered ends; and are made in the
+    form of bolsters. There is a similar sepulchral monument
+    in the British Museum. Both of them were found at
+    Cervetri, and are quaint examples of early Etruscan art.
+    See Dennis' "Etruria," 2nd ed., p. 227.
+
+    [464] The thread embroideries in counted stitches were
+    worked in an endless variety of beautiful designs, of
+    which the collection in Franz and Frida Lipperheide's
+    "Musterbücher für Weibliche Handarbeit" is most
+    interesting and exhaustive; including Italian and German
+    "Lienenstickerei," Berlin, 1883.
+
+    [465] Of the seventeenth century.
+
+    [466] The carpets used by the Romans were called
+    Triclinaria Babylonica, for the use of the triclinium,
+    and Polymata cubicularia, for the cubiculum. These were
+    dyed crimson, scarlet, and purple. See Horace's Satires,
+    ii. 6; also Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman
+    Antiquities," s.v. Tapes., p. 102-106, Triclinium.
+
+    [467] "Marco Polo," p. 92, ed. Yule, speaking of the
+    ladies of Caramania in the thirteenth century, says they
+    produced exquisite needlework on silk stuffs of divers
+    colours, with figures of birds, beasts, trees, and
+    flowers. They worked hangings for the noblemen's use, as
+    well as cushions, pillows, quilts, and all sorts of
+    things.
+
+    [468] Lampridius ("Antonin. Heliogab." cap. xxvi. see
+    Bock, p. 129) says, in the life of Heliogabalus, that
+    table-covers were embroidered for the emperor,
+    representing the dishes which were to be placed upon
+    them at the festal table of this epicure.
+
+    [469] See the screen on the Assyrian bas-relief in the
+    British Museum, placed round the back of the throne on
+    which the king is seated. This is apparently a frame on
+    which hangings are fixed.
+
+    [470] See inventory Of Henry VIII.'s goods, &c., I. Ed.
+    VI. (Bib.) Harl. 1419, quoted by Felix Summerley in his
+    "Handbook of Hampton Court."
+
+    [471] I would add, "except that which is consecrated by
+    time or sentiment."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+DRESS.
+
+    "Whatever clothing she displays,
+    From Tyre or Cos, that clothing praise;
+    If gold show forth the artist's skill,
+    Call her than gold more precious still;
+    Or if she choose a coarse attire,
+    E'en coarseness, worn by her, admire."
+
+             OVID, "Ars Amat." ii. 297, 300 (Yates, p. 180).
+
+
+Having glanced at the decoration of the house, I must now proceed to
+say a few words on Dress. Semper, Labarte, and Sir Digby Wyatt all
+take it for granted that the Art of Dress preceded all other arts.
+
+Every ancient record shows how early decoration of dress by needlework
+began, and how far it had gone; and when we read of festal
+hospitalities and marriage gifts, embroidered garments are invariably
+named. Solomon in all his glory, though he praised the lily, yet shone
+in splendid apparel. The Greeks refined the gold, and painted the
+lily.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 50.
+    Italian Knight dressed for conquest, by Gentile da Fabriano.
+        Academia at Florence.]
+
+As soon as dress became an art, and not merely an acknowledged
+necessity for warmth and decency, I see no reason to deny that the
+same decorative genius that embroidered the garment might at the same
+time have imagined the carving of the chair and the inlaying of the
+sword and bow; but as regards the precedence of the arts, we can only
+guess at what is probable. Beauty in dress is certainly a universal
+instinctive passion. Perhaps the birds (which Mr. Darwin and others
+credit with preening their plumage, conscious that their spots are
+the brightest, and their feathers the glossiest, and that they are
+therefore adored by the hens, and the envy of the shabbier cocks)
+suggested to men the same method for securing the preference of the
+other sex, who in return willingly helped to adorn the idols of their
+hearts and homes. (Plate 50.) This natural state of things still
+prevails in Central Africa, where Schweinfürth describes a king
+dancing before his 100 wives costumed in the tails of lions and
+peacocks, and crowned with the proboscis of an elephant. It appears,
+however, that, unlike Cleopatra, "custom had staled his infinite
+variety," and the 100 ladies looked on the splendid display with blank
+indifference.
+
+This is only a barbarous illustration of the fact that in the earliest
+civilizations magnificent garments were worn by men to dazzle and awe
+the beholders by the splendour which represented wealth and conquest.
+How glorious a man could appear apparelled to represent majesty and
+dominion, may be learned by studying Canon Rock's book on the
+coronation dresses of the Emperors of Germany--a book great in every
+sense of the word. The portrait of Charles V. robed and crowned is a
+dazzling example of the arts of dress, embroidery, and jeweller's
+work. These garments have for ages been treasured at Vienna,
+Aix-la-Chapelle, and in the Vatican at Rome.
+
+The coronation garments of the Emperors of Russia are said to be
+gorgeously beautiful.
+
+It seems hardly necessary to assert that embroidery has always been
+especially applicable to dress. Each garment, being individualized by
+the design depicted on it, was fitted for individual uses and
+occasions. The conqueror's palmated mantle, the coronation robe, the
+bridal garment, the costume of the peasant for festival days, and the
+officiating vestments of the priests for special services of prayer
+and praise--these were loyally or piously worked; they descended from
+generation to generation as family treasures or as historical
+memorials, and sometimes as holy relics,[472] till they and the call
+for them, were swept away at once by social changes; yet some still
+remain and hold their place. Priestly garments, together with Church
+decorations, never laid aside in the Roman and Greek Churches, are
+being partially revived in our own; and for secular adornment the
+embroiderer is often called upon to work a garland, to enwreathe the
+form of a pretty woman, to lie on her shoulders and encircle her
+waist.
+
+The greatest loss to the art is that men as a rule have ceased to
+individualize themselves, or their position or office by dress,[473]
+and have left entirely to the women the pleasure and duty of making
+themselves as lovely and conspicuous as their circumstances will
+permit. The same linen and broadcloth are cut in the same shapes, of
+which the only merit is that they are said to be comfortable, and
+whose highest aim is to be spotless and unwrinkled; these show the
+altered conditions of the highly civilized man, and woman too, for he
+has long left behind him the idea of dazzling the female eye or heart
+by the attraction of colour. This applies only to European costume at
+home or in the colonies. The East still retains its pleasure in
+gorgeous combinations, in which man enfolds his person, and shows how
+beautiful he can make himself when thus clothed, in accordance with
+the classical axioms, as to how much of the human form should be
+revealed, and how much concealed.
+
+The principle on which the ancients embroidered their garments was
+like that of the Indians, the large surfaces plain, or covered with
+quiet diapers or spots, the rich ornaments being reserved for the
+borders, the girdles and the scarves. Their garments hung loose from
+the shoulders or girdle; whether long or short they clung to the
+figure or fluttered in the wind. The long flowing robes to the feet
+veiled the form completely, and were only thrown off for the battle or
+the chase, or in the struggles for victory in the races and games.
+Dress, in the supreme reign of beauty, was intended to flow around, or
+to conceal, but never to _disguise_, the human frame it enclosed.
+
+Homer thus describes Juno's toilet before calling on Jupiter:--
+
+    "Around her next a heavenly mantle flow'd,
+    That rich with Pallas' labour'd colours glow'd;
+    Large clasps of gold the foldings gather'd round;
+    A golden zone her swelling bosom bound."
+
+                                         Iliad, xiv. v. 207.
+
+The Greeks certainly wore delicate and tasteful embroidery on their
+garments, frequently finished with splendid borders, while the large
+space between was dotted with stars or some simple pattern. We learn
+this from the paintings on Greek fictile vases. In the British Museum
+there is a little bronze statuette of Minerva (with twinkling diamond
+eyes). She has a broad band of embroidered silver foliage from her
+throat to her feet.
+
+As the beauty of Greek forms acted and reacted on the beauty of their
+"Art of Dress," so we may be certain that all deformity of dress has
+been produced by deformity of race in mind or body, and that climate
+is an important factor in both. The cold of the farthest north has
+produced people short, fat, and hairy; which natural gifts have been
+supplemented by their warm clothes or coverings, in the same way that
+a "cosy" covers a teapot. Flowing garments there would be utterly out
+of place, petticoats are unknown, and the Lapp hangs out nothing that
+can be the vehicle for carrying an icicle. Their dresses, or cases,
+are planned to keep out the cold, and to place another atmosphere
+between the heart of the breathing mass, and the cruel, cutting, outer
+wind. Hence, the materials used are not only woven hair, but the furry
+skins themselves. In the south, under the sunshine, dress is for the
+greater part of the year only needed for decency and beauty. The
+flowing and delicate cottons and silks and fine woollens, are shaped
+to cover and adorn the beautiful forms, which for entire isolation
+take refuge in the never-failing mantle. The mantle was the great
+opportunity for the embroiderer's craft. Alkisthenes, the Sybarite,
+had a garment of such magnificence that when it was exhibited in the
+Temple of Juno at Lacinium, where all Italy was congregated, it
+attracted such universal admiration that it was sold to the
+Carthaginians by Dionysius the Elder for 120 talents. The ground was
+purple, wrought all over with animals, except the centre, where were
+seen Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Minerva, Venus, and Themis. On one border
+was the figure of Alkisthenes himself, on the other was depicted the
+emblematic figure of his native city, Sybaris. The size of the
+garment was Homeric--it was fifteen cubits, or twenty-two feet in
+breadth.[474]
+
+That the ladies of Greece in the fourth century carried down the
+historical and Homeric traditions of the embroidery frame, and made it
+part of their daily lives, while the Persian women of rank left such
+work to their slaves, is evident from the pretty legend told of
+Alexander the Great, who desiring to beguile the weariness of his
+prisoners, the wife and family of Darius, sent them some of his
+garments to embroider. When it was reported to him that these
+princesses were much mortified, believing it was a suggestion of their
+fallen fortunes, Alexander hastened to reassure them--saying that his
+own mother and sisters occupied themselves in embroidering dresses.
+
+The Persians and Babylonians seem to have preferred subjects for their
+embroidered dresses somewhat in the style of the mantle of
+Alkisthenes, which was probably Oriental, and suggests the Babylonian
+mantle in Jericho, "which tempted Achan to sin." The Egyptian frescoes
+on the other hand, sometimes give us women and goddesses dressed in
+small flowery patterns that remind one of Indian chintzes. These were
+probably woven, painted, and embroidered, and filled in with threads
+of gold. The Romans varied their fashions, but they preferred for a
+time striped borders on their garments,[475] and called them
+"molores," "dilores," "trilores," up to seven. The Greeks but seldom
+departed from the rule of plain or quietly patterned surfaces with
+rich borders in their delineations of dress, though there are examples
+of large designs covering the whole garment.
+
+The embroidered dresses of early Christian times are to be judged of
+by mosaics and frescoes--mostly Italian. Those of the dark ages were
+till lately only names and guesses. But a hiatus in our knowledge has
+been filled up lately by the store of entombed textiles discovered in
+the Fayoum in Egypt, and now at Vienna, in Herr Graf'schen's
+Collection. Here we have a variety of shapes, designs, and stitches,
+and every kind of subject, sacred and profane, Christian and Pagan,
+and the missing links between Indian and Byzantine fabrics are
+revealed. They cover nearly 400 years, from the third to the seventh
+century, and many of them may be looked upon as apart from any
+ecclesiastical or even Christian suggestions. I have spoken of them in
+the chapter on Woollen Materials.[476]
+
+After the seventh century, we again come into the dawning light of
+history--and find here and there an illustrative fragment, nearly
+always ecclesiastical, taken from the graves of priests and monarchs.
+Charlemagne's mantle and robe embroidered with elephants and with
+bees, preserved at Aix-la-Chapelle--his dalmatic in the Vatican--the
+Durham embroideries, are rare and precious examples of that early
+period.
+
+Semper describes the difference between "the covering" and the
+"binding." This seems to be little considered in modern costume, but
+it is so essential that I would impress it on my readers. He says that
+"the covering seeks to isolate, to enclose, to shelter, to spread
+around, over a certain space, and is a collective unit," whereas
+binding implies ligature, and represents a "united plurality,"--for
+example, a bundle of sticks, the _fasces_ of the lictors, &c. "Binding
+is linear, in dress it is either horizontal or spiral." What can the
+united plurality be that justifies the binding often bestowed on the
+figure in fashionable costumes? more fitted for binding together the
+bones of the dead, than for permitting the agility of the muscles of
+the living. Semper continues,--"Anything that goes against this
+important axiom is wrong."[477]
+
+I think we must all agree that the objects of dress are decency,
+isolation, warmth, grace, and beauty. As long as fashion takes the
+place of taste, and extravagant _chic_ supersedes grace and beauty, we
+must not hope that fine designs to individualize dress will be called
+for. The French machine-made embroideries are so beautiful, and
+comparatively cheap, that we cannot compete with them. The best
+artists design them, and the only fault to be found is this, that as
+they are made by thousands of yards, and can only be varied by
+interchange of colours, they become common the day they are produced.
+It has been said that "fashion is made for a class, but taste for
+mankind."[478] Fashion is the enemy of taste, though she makes use of
+her services. The gown, of which the fashion is in every sense
+imported from France, will probably never again be the vehicle for
+home embroideries. But there are other articles of personal adornment
+which will always be available for the fancies of decorative
+taste--the fan, the purse or satchel, the apron, the fichu, the point
+of the shoe, and the muff--all these are objects on which thought and
+ingenuity may well be expended, and which will remain as records of
+personal feeling when the workers and givers of such graceful
+mementoes are far away. Carriage-rugs and foot-muffs, and embroidered
+letter-cases, and book-covers, must be placed somewhere between
+furniture and personal ornament. In all these the "_imprévu_," or
+"unexpected," is what is valuable, including all that is original and
+quaint.
+
+Embroidery will, however, probably continue occasionally to be
+employed in the adornment of dress--and will leave of each phase and
+period of art some fine examples on which the archæologist of the
+future may pause and reason.
+
+There are in most old houses some specimens of old secular work--few
+earlier than the date of Henry VIII. Gothic dress is very rare, except
+the ecclesiastical. But from the fifteenth century till now, there
+remains enough to exercise our curiosity, our artistic tastes, and our
+power of selection and comparison; and hints for beauty and grace may
+often be found and adapted to the style of our own day.
+
+Planché's "Dictionary of Dress," and Ferrario's "Costumi antichi e
+moderni di tutti i Popoli," are great works on dress and costume, and
+both are splendidly illustrated and worthy of study.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [472] Elsewhere I have spoken of dress being continually
+    offered to the images of the pagan gods in the temples.
+    Herodotus (ii. p. 159) tells us that Pharaoh Necho
+    offered to the Apollo of Branchidæ the dress he happened
+    to have worn at both his great successes (the victory of
+    Magdalus and the taking of Cadytis). In the procession
+    of Ptolemy Philadelphus the colossal statue of Bacchus
+    and his nurse Nysa were draped, the former in a shawl,
+    the latter in a tunic variegated with gold. See Yates,
+    "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 369. Old clothes were sent as
+    votive offerings to temples, and inscriptions recording
+    lists of such decorations are still extant. See Appendix
+    1. The Greeks honoured the menders and darners, and
+    called them "healers of clothes." Blümner, p. 202.
+
+    [473] Men in former days preferred to show by their
+    dress their station and the company they belonged to.
+    Guilds had their ceremonial dresses, and their
+    "liveries," and their cognizances, and considered it an
+    honour to wear them. See Rock, "Church of our Fathers,"
+    ii. p. 115.
+
+    [474] Aristotle, De Mirab. Auscult., xcvi.
+
+    [475] Asterius, Bishop of Amasis, in the fourth century,
+    describes both hangings and dress embroidered with
+    lions, panthers, huntsmen, woods, and rocks; while the
+    Church adopted pictorial representations of Christian
+    subjects. Sidonius alludes to furniture of like
+    character. See Yule, "Marco Polo," p. 68.
+
+    [476] "Katalog der Theodor Graf'schen Fünde in Ægypten,"
+    von Dr. J. Karabacek, Wien, 1883.
+
+    [477] Semper, "Der Stil," p. 28.
+
+    [478] Unfortunately this axiom may be reversed. Taste
+    only belongs to a small class, and mankind follows it,
+    whether good or bad, if it only be the fashion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERY.
+
+    "And now as I turn these volumes over,
+    And see what lies between cover and cover,
+    What treasures of art these pages hold,
+    All ablaze with crimson and gold....
+    Yes, I might almost say to the Lord,
+    Here is a copy of Thy Word
+    Written out with much toil and pain;
+    Take it, O Lord, and let it be
+    As something I have done for Thee!
+    How sweet the air is! how fair the scene!
+    I wish I had as lovely a green
+    To paint my landscapes and my leaves!
+    How the swallows twitter under the eaves!
+    There, now, there is one in her nest;
+    I can just catch a glimpse of her head and breast,
+    And will sketch her thus, in her quiet nook,
+    For the margin of my Gospel-book."
+
+                       LONGFELLOW, "The Golden Legend" ("The
+                               Scriptorium"), p. 176.
+
+    "Upon Thy right hand did stand the queen in a vesture of
+    gold, wrought about with divers colours.... The king's
+    daughter is all glorious within: her clothing is of
+    wrought gold. She shall be brought unto the king in
+    raiment of needlework."--Psalm xlv. 10, 14, 15.
+
+
+If the Bride is the type of the Church, how truly has she been, for
+eighteen centuries, throughout Christendom, adorned with gold, and
+arrayed in raiment of needlework.
+
+By ecclesiastical embroideries, we mean, of course, Christian work for
+Christian churches. The first pictured decorations of our era, in
+early frescoes, mosaics, and illuminated MSS., and the first specimens
+that have come down to us of needlework and textiles, testify by their
+_naïveté_ to their date.[479]
+
+The prosperity of the Church's hierarchy was founded on the ruins of
+the Empire, over which Attila had boasted that where his horse trod no
+grass grew; and truly the cultivated art of those splendid days had
+lapsed at once to a poverty of design and barrenness of ideas which
+would soon have dwindled into mere primitive forms, had not a fresh
+Oriental impulse arrived from Syria, Egypt, and Byzantium,--and then
+the arts were born anew.[480] The continuity was broken; yet, being
+devoted to the service of the Church, the new arts were by it moulded
+and fostered. Little lamps twinkled here and there in monastic houses.
+Hangings for the churches, coverings for the altars, robes for the
+priests, occupied the artist and the embroiderer.
+
+The forms, the colours, the uses, were adapting themselves to become
+the symbols of orthodoxies and heresies, and thus became a part of the
+history of the Church. The links are many between them and the history
+of the State; and here ecclesiastical embroideries come in as
+landmarks.
+
+Royal and princely garments, which had served for state occasions,
+were constantly dedicated as votive offerings, and converted into
+vestments for the officiating priest, and so were recorded and
+preserved.[481]
+
+Royal and noble ladies employed their leisure hours in work for the
+adornment of the Minster or the home church or chapel. Gifts of the
+best were exchanged between convents, or forwarded to the holy father
+at Rome, and were often enriched with jewels. The images of the Virgin
+and saints received from wealthy penitents many costly garments,[482]
+besides money and lands.
+
+This dedicatory needlework has preserved to us the records of
+classical, Byzantine, and Arab-Gothic design, which otherwise must
+have been lost.
+
+The Church records and illuminated MSS. give us most trustworthy
+information of the way in which the altars, the priests, and even the
+kings were arrayed; and the catalogues of royal wardrobes are also
+very instructive, as we find how often princely gauds became, as gifts
+to the Church, commemorative of historical events, such as a victory
+or an accession, a marriage or a coronation.
+
+Woltmann and Woermann say that the efforts of the Christians in the
+time of Constantine tended to delay the extinction of classical design
+in Rome. Of the fourth century they give as examples the mosaics of
+"S^ta. Pudenziana," where we can still find antique beauty of
+design. We may also mention the church of "St. Agnese fuori le mura,"
+which once contained the sarcophagi of Constantine and his mother
+Helena, and of which the decorations in the ceilings are entirely
+classical, though the motives had been transferred to Christian
+symbolism.[483]
+
+The total disappearance of Greek art did not occur till the eighth
+century, when the new blood infused from foreign sources began to
+assert itself.[484]
+
+Rome had succeeded to Greece as being the centre of Christian art,
+which assumed the phase commonly called the Romanesque. This was a
+conglomerate of Oriental, Byzantine, and Græco-Roman, varied in
+different countries. Then there were the Scandinavian, and Runic, and
+Celtic styles drifting from the North; the Lombardic, of Central
+Italy; the Ostro-Gothic, of Ravenna; the Byzantine, of Venice, all
+acting and reacting upon each other.
+
+All these rough and inchoate attempts at the beautiful, prepared the
+world for the acceptance of the Arabic influence, which is said to
+have been imported at the end of the eleventh century by the
+Crusaders, to whose pious enterprise some attribute the whole of the
+splendid Gothic art of the three succeeding centuries. But the marking
+characteristic of the Arabic arch is wanting; the ogee shape is seldom
+to be found in Christian architecture;[485] and the pointed arch so
+naturally results from the intersection of the round arches, that we
+cannot but look upon these causes as co-incident.
+
+I have elsewhere remarked how often in art different causes co-operate
+to form a style. The father and mother are of different nationalities,
+and the result shows the characteristics of its double parentage. The
+learned antiquaries, who draw their arguments mainly from the form of
+the arch, must settle whence and how Gothic art in stone came into
+Europe. It was doubtless the effect or result of more than one cause.
+
+But in as far as it influenced textile art, we have come to the period
+when it must be studied in Sicily, the half-way house and
+resting-place of the Crusaders on their highroad to the Holy Land.
+
+Sicily, which had succeeded to Constantinople as being the great
+manufacturing mart during the Middle Ages, was, in the hands of the
+Moors, the origin and source of all European Gothic textile art. Yet
+even at Palermo and Messina they were controlled by the traditions of
+the schools of Greece, ancient and modern, and by Babylonian, Indian,
+and African forms and symbolisms.
+
+Byzantium furnished many of their designs, which were sometimes of
+very remote date, though pressed into the service of the new style and
+the Church.
+
+These and all the streams of ecclesiastical decoration throughout
+Europe flowed towards Rome, and were re-issued with the fiat and seal
+of the Central Church, which also afterwards presided over the art of
+the Renaissance.[486]
+
+By studying what remains to us of fragments and records we know all
+the materials which clothed the primitive and mediæval Church, and we
+find that there was but little originality in textile decoration or in
+the forms of dress, which either resembled those of the priests in the
+Jewish synagogue or those of the heathen temples; and were adapted
+from traditional patterns.
+
+The constant repetition of the cross and the signs of the Passion,
+with the emblems of saints and martyrs, were interwoven with the
+ancient classical forms, mixed up with the old symbolisms partially
+altered to suit their new service of Christian art. Of course such
+changes were inevitable, while the old motives were being translated
+to the new uses.
+
+The corselet of Amasis (the Egyptian corselet, p. 20, _ante_) closely
+resembles the Jewish ephod, which probably was borrowed from
+Egypt.[487]
+
+In Rock's "Church of Our Fathers," vol. i. p. 409, we find mention of
+the consular trabea, profusely worked in gold, as being the origin of
+the cope.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 51.
+    St. Mark. Anglo-Saxon Book of the Four Gospels in the Cathedral
+        Library at York.]
+
+It has been suggested and disputed that the stole was an adaptation of
+the latus clavus; indeed, if we compare the examples given by
+Bock[488] we can hardly doubt that the consular trabea and the latus
+clavus either served as the models for the Christian Bishop's dress,
+or were derived from the same traditional sources. Such is the
+intimate chain of design from century to century, from age to age;
+from Egypt to the Holy Land, and thence to Rome.
+
+Bock gives his authorities for saying that the clavus was sometimes an
+applied border, sometimes a loose stripe hanging down in front, as may
+be seen in two consular diptychs given in plate 70. Much has been
+written on this latus clavus, its origin and meaning, and I shall
+return to it in reference to the chrysoclavus pattern, p. 337, _post_,
+and I refer the reader, who may wish to enter more fully into the
+questions raised by conflicting opinions regarding the clavus, to
+Marquardt's "Handbuch Röm. Alterthümer," vii. p. 2, pp. 528-533, where
+great learning and ingenuity have been expended, without arriving at
+any satisfactory conclusions.[489]
+
+This keeping to the old lines and outward appearance as much as
+possible was mainly due to a regard for safety during the
+persecutions, and also to the Christian spirit of adoption and
+conversion, rather than that of antagonism, which influenced all their
+early manifestations.
+
+This unchanging character of art was also partly owing to the absolute
+sterility of the ashes of Roman Imperialism.
+
+It is true that through the Dark Ages individual genius occasionally
+flashed and left a mark here and there; but such phenomena are so
+rare, that when they occur we hesitate before we assign them to that
+age.
+
+The Anglo-Saxon art of illumination shows these inspired moments; I
+would point to their drawings in the books in the Bodleian at Oxford,
+and the "Book of the Four Gospels" (of the tenth century) in the
+Minster Library at York, which are original and graceful, and have a
+reflection from the classical traditions. To an artistic eye they are
+beautiful. (Plate 51.)
+
+The conscientious colouring of the Anglo-Saxon MSS. is liturgical. Mr.
+Clapton Rolfe[490] says that the Levitical traditions in the earlier
+system of decoration in the Christian Church had a far stronger hold
+on the popular mind than we are willing now to admit; and that the
+five Levitical colours, gold, blue, purple, red, and white, were
+retained in the Christian ritual. Whenever we come across figures of
+Anglo-Saxon bishops, the liturgical vesture entirely agrees with the
+Biblical description.
+
+Embroideries before the twelfth century generally preserve a
+semi-Roman, semi-Oriental character, which is nearly related to the
+art which is called Lombardic. This differs from what we know of
+Scandinavian and Celtic design through illuminated books,[491] carving
+on stone crosses throughout the north of Europe, Great Britain, and
+Ireland, and the remains we possess of their metal work. I am not
+aware of any ecclesiastical embroideries which show a Celtic
+origin,[492] unless the intertwined patterns on Italian dresses in
+paintings of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries may be supposed
+to be derived from that source. (See p. 91, _ante_.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+In accounting for the instances of evident Oriental influence on
+Christian art, which came through Byzantium, we must not restrict
+ourselves to searching out the Arabian traditions, but we must
+remember also how much Babylon and Persia, as well as India, had given
+to the Empire of the East, and these influences were in full force at
+the time that Christian art was being organized.
+
+We know, for example, that the great veil of the temple at Jerusalem,
+given by Herod, was Babylonian.
+
+The materials--linen, silk, and woollen--on which ecclesiastical
+embroideries were worked at Rome and Constantinople were accepted all
+over the Christian world. The fabrics were plain, striped, and
+figured; and came from Persia and India, Greece, Alexandria, and
+Egypt. Even Chinese and Thibetian stuffs are often named. Cloths of
+gold and silver also came from the East, as in the days of Attalus.
+All these furnished the grounds on which needlework was lavishly
+spent.
+
+The great veils which divided the pagan and Jewish temples were at
+first adopted in the Christian churches, but they gradually
+disappeared from common use, in spite of occasional survivals and
+revivals during the Dark Ages.
+
+Records exist of the hangings of the ancient basilica of St. Peter at
+Rome, spread between the pillars supporting the baldachino over the
+high altar and those of the choir; and at the Ostro-Gothic imperial
+court of Ravenna, in the fifth century, Maximianus ordered a set of
+similar splendid curtains (tetravela) to be worked for the altar.
+Anastasius Bibliothecarius (ninth century), in his biographies of the
+popes, mentions curtains and embroidered altar-pieces worked in the
+sixth and seventh centuries.[493]
+
+Sergius (A.D. 687) ordered four white and four scarlet curtains, and
+Pope John (701) hung white ones between the pillars on either side of
+the altar at St. Paul's. St. Zacharias[494] gave similar hangings to
+the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul. Stephen IV. placed immense
+silver curtains at the entrance of the basilica of St. Peter's, and in
+768 gave to it sixty-five curtains of figured Syrian stuffs.[495] The
+same hangings prevailed at intervals in England, France, and Germany,
+till the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when the new Gothic style
+of high, pointed arches altered the decorative customs.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 52.
+    Fragments of Silk to be seen at Coire in Switzerland, also in the
+        South Kensington Museum.]
+
+From Anastasius's mode of speaking of ecclesiastical garments, it
+appears that they were named in the treasury catalogues after the
+animals represented on them--"the peacock garment," "the elephant
+casula," "the lion cope." Evidently these were Oriental gold brocades,
+Indian or Persian, or else reproductions of their designs, and from
+Auberville's and Bock's books of engravings we can judge how they
+repeated and varied their motives. One woven subject, which evidently
+started its textile career as one of the labours of Hercules, was
+gradually transferred to Samson, or to Daniel in the lions' den.
+(Plate 4, Auberville's "L'Ornement des Tissus.") (Plate 52.)[496]
+
+However, in Russia and throughout the Greek Church the ancient
+Byzantine use of hangings still remains in force.
+
+The art of embroidery has always given its best efforts to these
+church draperies.
+
+Rome was so laden with splendid embroideries by her eastern conquests,
+that probably the Christian decorators would have availed themselves
+of some of the accumulated stores; but we have no record of such
+adaptations, unless the splendid curtains and the silver hangings of
+Pope Stephen IV. were taken out of some imperial treasure-house.
+
+The contrast between early ecclesiastical art and that which
+immediately preceded it in the palaces of the Cæsars (at Rome, Tivoli,
+and wherever we find their ruined glories) is most remarkable.
+
+The lovely and the lively had been suddenly abandoned for the heavy
+earnest solemnity and inartistic drawing of the frescoes of the
+underground church of St. Clemente in Rome, and that of the early
+Christian mosaics.
+
+It is as if the arts which had lent, nay, given themselves to the
+glorification of idols, had suddenly died out, leaving behind them
+neither an artist, nor a skilled artisan, scarcely a tradition.
+
+The new Christian ideas had to be painfully recorded on sacred
+buildings and their furnishings for more than a thousand years; with
+all the patient acquiescence of untaught ignorance, and the struggling
+uncertainty of genius pursuing a distant glimmering light, apparently
+unconscious of all that had preceded it in Egyptian and classic art.
+The great political and religious revolutions in Europe had crushed
+and buried the arts under the ruins of the Empire over which Time
+himself seemed to have broken his hour-glass, so little was there to
+show any memory of their past, or hope for their future. The alternate
+progress and destruction of the arts in European civilization strike
+the student, in vivid contrast with the immutability of those of the
+East, especially in India and China, where the old forms were still
+being maintained by the swaddling bands of codified custom[497] that
+had restricted their development, but prolonged their existence, and
+so they had survived, while Greece conquered and robbed the East and
+Egypt, and Rome crushed Greece and was in her turn despoiled by the
+Goths and Huns.[498]
+
+Christian art had to begin at the very beginning, and collect its own
+traditions, and organize its own forms. These gradually accumulated,
+availing themselves of accepted symbols, and adding to them hidden
+meanings. The Reformation checked this development in the north of
+Europe, but after 300 years we are now witnessing its revival, which
+is not merely owing to a religious impulse, but also to the
+archæological tendency of our day and to the historical interest we
+attach to the ceremonials of the East.
+
+As the Reformation in Germany was less sweeping and iconoclastic than
+our own, we find there many more remains of ecclesiastical art
+collected in the churches to which they have always belonged, or in
+museums into which they have drifted;[499] and the Germans have thus
+been enabled to do more than even the French, in training the
+different schools of work throughout the Continent.
+
+They have proved the Oriental character of the fabrics employed
+through the Dark and Middle Ages, i.e. for about 1400 years, whether
+they were Syrian, Indo-Chinese, Indian, Alexandrian, Greek, Sicilian,
+or Spanish, or whether they had come from Asia by the north or the
+south of Europe. The same traditional forms governed them all. But an
+adept is able generally to class and name each specimen by the
+texture of the webs, by the way gold or gilt thread is inwoven in
+them, whether the metal is pure or alloyed, round or flat; also by the
+mode of twisting and dyeing the wool, flax, or silk, and its quality
+and colouring matter.
+
+Among the earliest historical church embroiderers the foremost figure
+is that of the Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, claimed in
+Wales and in the Welsh ballad of "The Dream of Maxen Wledig" as being
+a Welsh princess married to the Emperor Constans. She is said to have
+embroidered an image of the Virgin, which Muratori speaks of as
+existing in the Church of Vercelli in the seventeenth century. Bock
+says it is still there, and he quotes an ancient inventory of the
+treasures of Phillip the Good, of Burgundy, which names a "Riche et
+ancienne table d'autel de brodeure que on dit que la première
+Emperriez Christienne Fist."[500] The Empress Helena died in the
+fourth century.[501]
+
+Then after a long interval comes "Berthe aux grands pieds" the mother
+of Charlemagne, who in the eighth century was famed for her
+needlework, which is celebrated in a poem by Adhelm in the eighth
+century, quoted by Mrs. Palliser,[502] "a ouvrir si com je vous dirai
+n'avoit meillior ouvriere de Tours jusqu'a Cambrai," and her
+grand-daughter Gisela followed in her footsteps. Nearly contemporary,
+is Aelfled's Durham embroidery,[503] described in the chapter on
+English work.
+
+Christian art before the twelfth century is very often rich, usually
+picturesque, from its fulness of intention; sometimes beautiful, when
+it recalls some echo from the East, or some tradition of Greek
+art;[504] but the embroideries of those centuries are almost always
+quaint; this is invariably the archaic phase of all early art. Born in
+the catacombs of Rome--roused by impulses from the north, by education
+in the south, and everywhere encouraged by the fostering hand of the
+Church, and the patronage of papal and of royal and imperial
+houses,--it evolved its forms, and emancipated itself at last from its
+poor and sordid condition; and the Gothic phase of each nation
+attained to its own peculiar growth and characteristics; and among
+them the foremost in the world's estimation was the English school of
+embroidery, to which the next chapter is devoted.
+
+There has been much controversy as to the date of the dalmatic of
+Charlemagne in the Vatican treasury. Like every good early piece of
+Gothic work in Italy, it is allotted to the days of Pope Boniface
+VIII. (thirteenth century). But when we examine this splendid relic we
+cannot doubt that it is of a much earlier time, as there is nothing
+Gothic to be found in it. It is full of the lingering traces of Greek
+art (not Byzantine). It reminds us most of the mosaics of Santa
+Pudenziana, which are always quoted to prove that Greek art still
+survived in Rome in the eighth century.[505] The dalmatic has been
+much restored, but, I believe, most carefully kept to the old lines.
+It is worked on a thick, dark-blue, or purple, satiny silk, which had
+entirely fallen into little stripes, but has been skilfully mended,
+and the embroidery has never been transferred. On the front is our
+Lord in glory, saints below, and angels above, with a border of
+children playing, which is truly Greek. The motive of this is the "Ibi
+et Ubi." On the back is the Transfiguration, and on the humerals are
+the sacraments of bread and wine. The whole, as art, is beautiful; and
+it is historically most interesting. Lord Lindsay tells us that in the
+dalmatic of Charlemagne, (called that of Leo III.) Cola di Rienzi
+robed himself over his armour, and ascended to the Palace of the Popes
+after the manner of the Cæsars, with sounding trumpets before him, and
+followed by his horsemen--his crown on his head and his truncheon in
+his hand--"Terribile e fantastico."[506]
+
+This dalmatic must be ranked first and highest among ecclesiastical
+embroideries. (Plates 53, 54, 55.)
+
+Some of the details are curious. The whole of the blue satin ground is
+worked with crosses "parsemé." Parts of the design are so adorned with
+larger and smaller Greek crosses--and others with the starry cross. On
+the shoulder is once embroidered the mystic swastika.[507]
+
+  [Illustration: Charlemagne's Dalmatic
+    The Vatican, Rome]
+
+  [Illustration: Charlemagne's Dalmatic
+    The Vatican, Rome]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 55.
+    Details of Charlemagne's Dalmatic. Vatican Treasury.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 56.
+    Cope called "of St. Silvester." Treasury of St. John Lateran, Rome.
+        English Embroidery, thirteenth century.]
+
+Rock says, "Those who have seen, in the sacristy of St. Peter's at
+Rome, that beautiful light-blue dalmatic said to have been worn by
+Charlemagne when he sang the gospel at High Mass, at the altar vested
+as a deacon, the day he was crowned Emperor in that church by Pope
+Leo III., will remember how plentifully it is sprinkled with crosses
+between its exquisite embroideries, so as to make the vestment a real
+'stauracin.'"[508]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 57.
+    Portion of the Cope at St. John Lateran, showing its condition.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pluvial, English, XIII. Century
+    Museum at Bologna]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 59.
+    The Daroca Cope. Museum at Madrid. Opus Anglicanum, fourteenth
+        century.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 60.
+    Portion of the Cope of Boniface VIII., twelfth century. From
+        Anagni. Now in the Vatican Collection.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 61.
+    Altar Frontal from Anagni, Italy.]
+
+Signor Galletti, Professor of Embroidery to the Pope, says it is
+undoubtedly of the eighth century. It has been suggested that the
+design is of the date of the Exarchate. It is, however, something of
+infinitely finer style; it is noble, simple Greek.
+
+Charlemagne's dalmatic is embroidered mostly in gold--the draperies in
+basket-work and laid stitches; the faces in white silk split-stitch,
+flat, with finely-drawn outlines in black silk. The hair, the shadowy
+part of the draperies, and the clouds are worked in fine gold and
+silver thread with dark outlines. The hands, feet, and draperies have
+a fine bas-relief effect. (Plate 53, 54, 55).
+
+The "pluvial of St. Silvester," in the church of St. John Lateran at
+Rome, is probably, from its Gothic style, of the time of Boniface
+VIII. (thirteenth century).[509] It never served St. Silvester, except
+as being perhaps dedicated to him. On seeing it, one is convinced that
+it is English. It has one peculiarity of English Gothic design in the
+canopies being supported by twisted pillars of vine-stems, in this
+case intersected by green shoots, and carrying leaves. The angels, the
+two cherubim clothed in peacocks' feathers, the fine split-stitch, the
+gold grounding, and the drawing are also distinctly English.
+
+I give an outline of the pluvial from photographs,[510] and a finished
+woodcut of the centre to show the style and condition of the work. The
+design is most beautiful, and we can only regret the loss of the
+border, which has been entirely cut off. This shows how elaborate is
+the design, yet how artistically arranged as a whole composition.
+(Plate 56, 57.)
+
+It is difficult to settle the precedence between this splendid piece
+of church decoration and the rival pluvial of Bologna in the Museo
+Civico, said to have come from the church of San Giacomo. It resembles
+in style and execution that of St. Silvester, but its architectural
+arrangement contains six circles of subjects, worked like the other in
+silk and gold, with gold groundings; and both are embroidered on
+linen. On careful examination of this splendid work of art, I have
+come to the conclusion that it is English. (Plate 58.)
+
+The Daroca cope (lately belonging to the Archæological Museum at
+Madrid) is undoubtedly English. We can claim it by its peculiar
+shrine-work, and the twined columns on the orphreys; by the cherubim,
+by the peacock-feathered angels, and by the form of the panels
+enclosing the different subjects, from the "Life of Our Lord." (Plate
+59.)
+
+The cope of Boniface VIII. in the Vatican came from the church of his
+native place, Anagni (plate 60), where are still very curious old
+embroideries (see Hon. and Rev. I. Clifford's list of embroideries in
+Appendix 5). Some appear extremely ancient, but there is no sign by
+which they may be dated. Some are probably of the thirteenth century,
+and are very coarse Italian work, though finely designed (plate 61).
+There are doubtless many interesting specimens still to be found in
+the sacristies of Italian churches. But they have generally been
+transferred to museums.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 62.
+    1. From Tomb in Worcester Cathedral, of Bishop Walter de Cantilupe,
+        consecrated 1236.
+    2. Embroidered Cope at Aix in Switzerland.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 63.
+    Mitre of Thomas à Becket at Sens, showing the Scandinavian Fylfot
+        Cross (thirteenth century).
+    Jewelled Cross on Rose-coloured Cope at Rheims (twelfth century).]
+
+In the tomb of Walter de Cantilupe (eighteenth century) at Worcester,
+were found the remains of a dress which is decidedly of an earlier
+date--evidently of Oriental material, but Anglo-Saxon work--so exactly
+resembling in style that at Aix given by Bock,[511] that we
+can hardly doubt that they proceeded from the same workshop, or at
+least are of coeval design. Both are worked with a dark red outline on
+a red silk ground. The faces and hands are in white silk--all the rest
+between the outlines is gold thread, flat stitch. Bock places its date
+as antecedent to the tenth century, and indeed there is no reason to
+doubt that this is correct, though the Worcester fragment was taken
+out of a tomb of two centuries later. As these garments were stored in
+the church treasuries; and as antiquity (without an historical
+interest) was then of no value, these old clothes, holy by their use
+and office, yet by their shabbiness unfit for public show, may have
+been reverently disposed of in clothing the bodies of departed
+priests, who probably had worn those very vestments, when officiating
+at the altar near which they were laid to rest. When the date of the
+wearer of the garment is ascertained, the dress cannot be of a later
+period, but it may have belonged to a much earlier one. The
+architectural part of these two embroideries, i.e. the canopy work,
+resembles that of the Bayeux tapestry. Both appear to be English.
+(Plate 62.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 64.
+    From Tomb of Bishop William of Blois, died 1236. Worcester
+        Cathedral Library.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 65.
+    A portion of the Mantle embroidered by Gisela for her husband, St.
+        Stephen of Hungary. From Bock's "Kleinodien."]
+
+In the eleventh century, and for some part of the twelfth, needlework
+design in England, France, and Germany first assumed a phase, which
+may be called the metal-work style. It is to be found on the robes and
+mitres of St. Thomas of Canterbury (Thomas à Becket) at Sens[512]--on
+the famous rose-red cope of satin embroidered with gold and pearls at
+Rheims (which we should incline to believe is English)[513] (plate
+63). The fragment of the cope of William of Blois, found in his tomb,
+is in this style. (He died in 1236.) The fragments of this curious
+garment, worked in gold on a purple silk material, evidently Oriental,
+are also preserved under glass in the Cathedral Library at Worcester
+(plate 64).
+
+Amongst the finest instances of ecclesiastical needlework, and,
+indeed, we may say, of ecclesiastical art of the twelfth century, is
+the coronation robe of St. Stephen of Hungary, decorated by his queen,
+Gisela,[514] which is preserved in the Imperial Treasury at Ofen
+(plate 65).
+
+Of this authentic historical work we have the whole story. The
+original design,[515] drawn on linen, carefully coloured, is to be
+seen at the Benedictine convent abbey of Martinsburg, near Raab in
+Hungary. The care with which the work was carried out shows the value
+then placed on such undertakings considered as art, and it has been
+justified by its survival of 800 years; time having spared it owing to
+its perfect materials and manipulation, till it received cruel
+injuries by being carried off and thrown into the bog of Orsava during
+the revolution under Kossuth. It was, however, recovered and restored,
+and was worn by the present emperor at the splendid and picturesque
+ceremonial of his coronation at Pesth. The design reminds us of the
+mosaics in the apse of Santa Maria Maggiore and other churches at
+Rome, and it is extremely beautiful. It consists of an arrangement of
+medallions and inscriptions, with "metal-work" ornaments in bands
+alternated with smaller medallions. Yet the figures are not so finely
+drawn as those of the Durham relics of the beginning of the tenth
+century. The drawing of the figures of the Gisela mantle resembles
+those on the garments of Walter de Cantilupe (plate 62), which, from
+their design and stitches, seem to be of this period. The
+architectural parts are very like in design to those of the Bayeux
+tapestry, though they are infinitely better, and they have Lombardic
+characteristics.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 66.
+    Portion of the Coronation Mantle of Henry II. of Germany,
+        embroidered by the Empress Kunigunda. From Bock's
+        "Kleinodien."]
+
+It appears that Queen Gisela had personally embroidered this
+many-figured, richly-embroidered representation of the "Ibi et
+Ubi"--The Saviour in His glory as Victor over death and hell, seated
+on the bow of heaven, surrounded by choirs of angels and saints, and
+prophets of the Old Testament; below on thrones, are the twelve
+Apostles. The figures are worked in Oriental gold thread on Byzantine
+crimson silk.
+
+In contrast to the Ubi, the heavenly hereafter, the queen, in the
+lowest broad hem (border) has represented the Present, the then "Ibi,"
+by the leaders of the Hungarian magnates and the half-figures of the
+royal givers in large gold-embroidered medallions.
+
+The next finest specimen of eleventh century needlework was the gift
+of Henry II., Emperor of Germany, and his wife Kunigunda, to the
+cathedral of Bamberg, where it still exists[516] (plate 66).
+
+This, again, consists of medallions great and small, of which the
+borders, gracefully intertwined, form a large composition[517]
+covering the whole surface of the imperial pallium it once adorned.
+But in the fifteenth century it was transferred from its original
+purple silk ground to one of dark-blue damask, and altered to the form
+of a chasuble, as we see it now. The general design resembles that of
+the mantle of Gisela.
+
+Bock calls the style of these works Romanesque; and he thinks that
+they show a Saracenic influence. They appear, however, as I said
+before, to be rather Lombardic than anything else. The reader is
+referred to Dr. Bock's preface for further lists of Continental works
+and workers.
+
+Abbé Martin considers that in the thirteenth century the opening out
+of Gothic art was extended to the laity, and was really the sign of a
+great social revolution. Gothic art had till then only served the
+Church, and had been by circumstances closed to the people, who were
+yet unfitted, by their want of education, for artistic life.[518]
+
+Art was till then almost exclusively produced by the monastic orders,
+into which all talent had drifted. But about this time it fell into
+the hands of architects and other originators of design, who presently
+banded themselves together into brotherhoods and guilds.[519]
+
+Embroidery till the thirteenth century had been entirely in the hands
+of cloistered women, and the ladies who practised it learned their
+craft with the rest of their education in convents, and their work was
+simply ecclesiastical and dedicatory. At that period social burgher
+life in the towns had first begun to develope its love of luxury,[520]
+and to follow the fashions of other countries, and the changes of
+forms in dress and furnishing which came from foreign parts, though
+frequently checked by sumptuary laws. This social movement preceded
+everywhere political and religious revolutions. Embroidery then became
+customary in lay dress, and lost its religious character, or rather
+its religious monopoly.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 67.
+    The Syon Cope, South Kensington Museum (thirteenth century).]
+
+We find that about this time throughout the Church the forms of
+ecclesiastical garments were considerably modified, and made more
+comfortable for the officiating priest; and the old traditional trabea
+was cut down to the mediæval chasuble.
+
+English needlework of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries had its own
+peculiar style of metal-work pattern, resembling the hinges and
+spreading central ornament branching across the wood-work on our
+church doors.[521]
+
+When we meet with this kind of design on foreign church vestments, we
+feel inclined always to claim the merit of them for the English
+school. The foreign metal-work patterns are much lighter and more
+geometrical, and have not the firmness and at the same time the fancy
+that we find in our own of the twelfth century; and they remind us
+rather of the goldsmiths' than of the blacksmiths' craft. The English
+embroidery of this style has the character of "appliqué," i.e. one
+material laid upon another and fastened down.
+
+There are differences of opinion as to the accepted characteristics of
+the "opus Anglicanum," which in the twelfth century began to be
+celebrated.[522] Some say that it was principally remarkable for its
+admixture of jewellers' work in the borders, or the imitation of it in
+gold thread. Some give the attempt to reproduce the effect of
+bas-reliefs in the embroidered groups of figures; others, again, point
+out the peculiarities of the "laid stitches" in gold, which so
+permeated the linen grounding, as to give the look of a material woven
+with gold thread. We may fairly say that _all_ these, which were then
+ingenious novelties, combined to give this opus Anglicanum its value,
+as well for its beauty as for its ingenuity.[523]
+
+The Syon cope, (now one of the treasures of art in the Kensington
+Museum), is a perfect example of this work; and is also, according to
+Bock, "one of the most beautiful among the liturgical vestments of the
+olden period anywhere to be found in Christendom." Dr. Rock's study of
+this piece of thirteenth century work in his "Catalogue of the
+Embroideries in the South Kensington Museum" is most interesting, as
+exemplifying all the characteristics of the Gothic art of the period,
+in its historical, æsthetic, heraldic, liturgical, emblematical, and
+textile aspects. I have ventured to transcribe the whole of this
+notice in the Appendix.[524] I will only add here that the one error
+into which I think he has fallen, is in naming the stitches. The
+"diapers" are not opus plumarium, but opus pulvinarium, of the class
+of "laid stitches." This was ascertained by examining the back of the
+material under the ancient lining by a most competent judge[525] in my
+presence, and so a long-disputed point is set at rest (plate 67).
+
+Ciampini says that in the twelfth century, the arts went hand in hand,
+each lending something to the design of the others. This, however,
+has always been the case.[526] (Whether they greatly profited by such
+exchanges is another question.) I cannot but agree with Semper's
+often-reiterated theory, that textile art was a leading influence and
+constant suggestion to _all_ art from the beginning. And the way that
+ecclesiastical decoration was so led in the twelfth century is very
+apparent. In the new art of stained mosaic glass in church windows we
+see the reflex of the flat illuminations and embroideries of that
+period; and while these were being influenced by metal-work, painting
+was being transferred again to textile art, pictures being woven as
+well as embroidered,[527] while textiles were seeking to emulate
+reliefs in a forced and unnatural manner, more ingenious than
+artistic.
+
+While England in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was exciting the
+admiration of all European artists by the imitation of bas-reliefs in
+needlework, by the arrangement of the light and shadows in the "lay"
+of the stitches, and by a little help from the pressure of hot irons,
+to accentuate its apparent indentations, a similar inroad into the
+sister art of sculpture, or, perhaps, we should say a similar
+adaptation from the sister art, was going on in Switzerland and
+Germany, especially in Bavaria.
+
+There was a clever and artistic mode of stuffing and raising of the
+important parts of the embroidered design, such as the figures, the
+coats-of-arms, or the emblems of the Passion, &c., in sacred subjects
+in imitation of high-relief. There are some beautiful specimens that
+have been evidently designed in the School of Cranach. I will only
+mention the orphrey, of which the subject is the "Tree of Jesse,"
+exhibited at Zurich, 1883, the chasuble at Coire in the Grisons, and
+the little triptych in the museum of the Wasser-Kirche in Zurich. This
+last is exquisitely pretty. The finest, however, is the altar-piece
+belonging to Prince Borghese at Rome, which is certainly German in its
+design.[528]
+
+Beautiful as these few examples are, they yet show the mistake of
+mixing different forms of art. The designs are reduced to a compromise
+between painting, sculpture, and needlework, which excites interest
+and perhaps amusement rather than admiration.
+
+Glass painting, of which we have no notice till the tenth century,
+shares many of the rules which hitherto had applied only to
+embroideries. It was intended to give colour and interest to those
+parts of a building which otherwise were cold and lifeless. _Flatness_
+in the composition, and the avoidance of pictorial effects (especially
+any perspectives) show that it was intended for conventional
+decoration, rather than as a rival to mural painting. There is no
+doubt that it generally superseded textile hangings, because it
+supplied the want of colour for the large traceried windows just
+coming into architectural design, toning down the crudeness of the
+masses of light, and tinting the walls and pavements on which it was
+cast.
+
+When coloured glass came into general use, embroidered hangings mostly
+disappeared. Whatever may have been the cause, there is no doubt of
+the coincidence.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 68.
+    An embroidered Panel, designed by Pollaiolo, and worked by Paulo
+        da Verona. In the Church of St. Giovanni at Florence (fifteenth
+        century).]
+
+The applied embroideries of the north of Germany were evidently
+inspired by the newly-discovered art of glass-painting, and
+resemble its designs, both in the compositions of figures and heraldic
+subjects. Of this we may remember examples in the Scandinavian
+Exhibition at South Kensington in 1881.[529]
+
+All the most beautiful and picturesque needlework that we possess of
+the true ecclesiastical Gothic type, and which belongs to the perfect
+flowering of the art, is of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
+just before the spirit of the Renaissance crept northward over Europe,
+preceding the Reformation and its iconoclastic effacements. This
+remark especially applies to England.[530] The art of representing
+Scriptural subjects in flat stitches, as medallions accompanied by
+beautiful foliage, and heraldic designs, is illustrated to us by the
+palls belonging to several London companies--and by those belonging to
+churches, especially that of the church at Dunstable, in which court
+ladies, knights, and saints form a most artistic border--the costumes
+being of the date of Henry VII. (see p. 378, _post_).
+
+The perfection of the embroideries of Flanders of that period has
+never been exceeded, and it continues still to produce the most
+splendidly executed compositions in gold and silken needlework, of
+every variety of stitches. The Flemish work and its peculiar mode of
+laying golden grounds with flat-laid thread stitched down in patterns
+was carried into Italy, where great artists did not disdain to design
+for textiles. I give, as an instance, Vasari's account of the
+embroidered set of vestments designed by Antonio Pollaiolo for the
+church of San Giovanni at Florence. These were carried out by Paolo da
+Verona, and took twenty-six years for their completion; and they were
+only one set of vestments, "embroidered by the most subtle master of
+the art, Paolo da Verona, a man most eminent in his calling, and of
+incomparable ingenuity (_ingenio_). The figures are no less admirably
+executed with the needle than drawn by Pollaiolo with the pencil,--and
+thus we are largely indebted to one master for his design, and to the
+other for his patience" (plate 68).
+
+Towards the end of the fifteenth century the Gothic styles were
+replaced by the Renaissance, but the technical part of the art of
+embroidery for the churches lost none of its value. All the talent of
+the artist and the ingenuity of the craft continued to be lavished on
+altar decoration and priestly garments, in Flanders, Spain, France,
+and Italy. But the solemnity of these works was certainly impaired by
+their being emancipated from the traditional ecclesiastical forms and
+their accompanying symbolism, to which the old designers had so
+faithfully adhered. Ecclesiastical decorative art became, so to speak,
+unorthodox.
+
+As a proof of this secular, I might almost say irreverent spirit, I
+quote Bock's accusation against Queen Mary of Hungary, who in her
+embroideries, preserved at Aix-la-Chapelle, is said to have
+represented herself as the Queen of Heaven, surrounded by her adorers
+on their knees.
+
+There is no doubt, however, that needlework aspired in the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries to the highest place in art, and was
+enthusiastically cultivated by women of rank and position, of artistic
+taste, who still gave themselves to the productions of beautiful
+decorations, though they no longer confined themselves to
+ecclesiastical motives.
+
+  [Illustration: Spanish Altar Frontal, Gold Embroidery
+    XVII. Cen^y]
+
+Gabrielle of Bourbon and Isabella, sister of Louis XI., spent their
+lives in preparing and overlooking fine works in their own apartments,
+and assembled around them noble damsels for this purpose. Anne of
+Brittany, who lived in an artistic atmosphere, had her own workshop of
+embroidery. Pictorial design now asserted its dominion over
+needlework, which accepted it, just as it had been influenced in the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries by metal-work motives, and, before
+then, by the art of mosaic.
+
+In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the Spanish plâteresque
+embroideries (adopted and modified in Flanders and in France),
+consisting of heavy gold and silver arabesques of mutilated vegetable
+forms, superseded the graceful Renaissance of the classical
+taste.[531] These Spanish embroideries forced their way by their
+gorgeousness, in spite of their want of real beauty. They varied their
+effects with pearls, corals, and precious stones[532] (plate 69).
+
+Spain, though she was much despoiled during the Peninsular War by her
+French invaders, yet still possesses some of the finest ecclesiastical
+work in the sacristies of Seville, Granada, Burgos, Toledo, Segovia,
+and Barcelona. Don Juan F. Riano[533] says that Toledo is a perfect
+museum of the work of the sixteenth century.
+
+Sicilian and Neapolitan ecclesiastical needlework showed the Spanish
+taste of their masters, but not its perfection. The use of pearls,
+coral, and beads[534] prevailed, and we may in general affix its date
+and its origin to each specimen by the silver largely used in the two
+kingdoms of Sicily and rarely elsewhere; also by the extreme
+brilliancy or rather the gaudiness of its colouring.
+
+English ecclesiastical work came suddenly to an end at the
+Reformation. What was not destroyed is to be found in the possession
+of the old Roman Catholic families who have religiously collected the
+residue, preserved by concealment or by being overlooked; and in the
+wardrobes of Continental sacristies.[535]
+
+But the church decorations of France, Germany, Flanders, Spain, and
+Italy have meantime, for the last 300 years, gone through all the
+variations of lay styles, emanating from anything but ecclesiastical
+motives. First, the Renaissance's semi-pagan (so-called) arabesques;
+then the Spanish plâteresque, which was a revolt against their own
+bastard Moorish-Gothic; next, the "Louis Quatorze," followed by the
+"Louis Quinze" and the "Louis Seize," light, frivolous, and elegant,
+essentially social, and not serious.[536] Then a return to the
+classical of the Empire; and finally, since the beginning of this
+century, to a conglomerate, lawless imitation of forms and styles,
+utterly meaningless and uninteresting, as well as wanting in
+ecclesiastical dignity and decorum. We are glad to believe that we are
+ourselves striving to reconstruct some sort of style that shall be
+able to express poetical and religious ideas, especially in our church
+decorations. At any rate, it must be of some use to understand the
+hidden springs which once raised ecclesiastical embroideries, and
+especially those of England, so high as objects of beauty, worthy to
+adorn the house of God, and to be for centuries valued as monuments of
+pious industry and thoughtful art.
+
+One of these hidden springs and ancient underlying motives was the
+symbolism which gave a religious intention to the smallest design for
+the humblest use, provided that its purpose was the service of the
+Church.
+
+Sacred symbolism is a subject to which I have alluded more than once;
+and it has played such an important part in the construction and
+growth of ecclesiastical art, that I cannot but give a short notice to
+the subject under this aspect.
+
+Symbolism in art is what metaphor is in speech. It is the
+representation to the eye of an object which suggests something else
+besides itself.
+
+Dr. Rock tells us that the symbolism of Scripture texts was given to
+the world in a book by St. Melito, Bishop of Sardis, A.D. 170. Its
+title is "The Key."[537] In the fourth century were produced two great
+works on Scriptural symbols, that of St. Basil in his homilies on the
+six days of the creation, and that by St. Ambrose; both entitled
+Hexameron.
+
+We meet this subject at every turn in the succeeding centuries,
+till in the twelfth we find it formulated and divided into
+branches--Bestiaria, Volucraria, and Lapidaria--and each type had
+frequently more than one meaning. Thus a lion represented power,
+sovereignty, dominion; also the "House of Judah;" a hare the emblem
+of man's soul; a peacock that of wisdom (many-eyed). The ruby
+represents love. The pearl, innocence. The twelve stones in a
+breastplate, the twelve tribes of Israel.[538] Trees and flowers had
+also their symbolical meanings, though we are not aware of their
+being recorded in any mediæval book. We know that the vine is the
+tree of life; the stem of Jesse, the sacramental emblem; that the
+lily stands for purity, the woodbine for chastity, and the rose for
+religious ecstasy. The crowned lily was always the special emblem of
+the Virgin.
+
+These symbols had many of them a distant source, and had been, as I
+have already indicated, emblematic of other inner meanings in the
+expression of pagan faiths. The tree of life was Babylonian; the horn,
+Persian; the fire-sticks of the prehistoric cross, Egyptian or Indian;
+and the composite animals representing many qualities, Ninevite
+(probably Accadian).[539]
+
+All these were utilized, so that their already accepted uses should be
+helps and adjuncts, instead of impediments to the appreciation of
+divine truths; in the same way that "all that was lovely and of good
+repute" in the belief and morals of the ancient peoples, reasserted
+and purified, was claimed by the new teachers as types and antitypes.
+The symbolism of colours has been always considered very important in
+liturgical decoration,[540] and their meanings are discussed in the
+chapter on colour.
+
+The mystical colours, as has been already stated, are five--red, blue,
+purple, white, and gold. These the Christian Church inherited from the
+Levitical law, and continued faithful to them till the modern Roman
+use introduced green and black. The Church of England before the
+Reformation never allowed any but the original five mystic colours.
+
+The symbolism of ecclesiastical embroideries, as well as that of all
+Christian art, being intended to illustrate the truths of Christianity
+by the teaching of the eye, the great symbol of our faith, the
+_Cross_, naturally drew to itself all its prehistoric forms as being
+the prophetic types of the "true cross."
+
+The earliest form of the prehistoric cross, [Illustration], is supposed
+to refer to the worship of the sun, and is said to be formed of two
+fire-sticks (for producing fire by friction) laid across each other.
+This is almost universal in prehistoric, archaic, classical, and
+Christian art to the thirteenth century. The next most ancient form is
+a broken cross, thus, [Illustration], said to be the double of the Tau,
+or Egyptian sign of life, and claimed by the Rabbins as having been the
+sign in blood, which stopped the hand of the angel of death, over the
+doors of the Israelites at the first Passover. This afterwards was
+called the "Gammadion," from its likeness to a doubled Greek gamma,
+and it was also said to symbolize the "corner-stone."[541] The third
+commonest form, apparently a modification of that of the fire-sticks,
+[Illustration], is to be found throughout Celtic and Scandinavian art,
+and was called in England "the fylfote" (from its likeness to the arms
+of the Isle of Man), and likewise "the Gammadion," though it shows
+another source than the Greek letter.
+
+From these three forms already in use, added to that of the
+Crucifixion, endless varieties were composed to suit the
+ecclesiastical taste and requirements of different national styles of
+symbolical decoration. I refer my readers to plate 26 in the chapter
+on patterns for a few of these from different sources. They are
+extremely suggestive. I have there entered more fully into the
+subject, regarding it as a fertile pattern motive in textile art.[542]
+
+The cross "bearing twelve fruits for the saving of the nations"[543]
+is so like some of the representations of the Persian or Indian Tree
+of Life, that the transmission and adoption of the symbolic form is
+evident. The cross (plate 63) is a good mediæval example, and is taken
+from the celebrated rose-coloured cope at Rheims, embroidered with
+gold and pearls on a rose-coloured satin ground.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 70.
+    IVORY CONSULAR DIPTYCH.
+    1. In the Wasser-Kirche Museum, Zurich. Sixth century. 2. Of an
+        earlier period, and finer workmanship, at Halberstadt. No
+        date given.]
+
+The Roës is an ecclesiastical pattern of wide use and of very long
+descent, often named in ancient Church inventories. It is sometimes
+called the "Wheel and Plate." Its origin is probably Oriental, but it
+certainly was adopted by the Romans as the motive of their triumphal
+garments, the _togæ pictæ_, worn in the processional return of a
+conqueror, whether he were a general or a sovereign. The first motive
+was a surface covered with circles, closely touching each other, and
+containing figures which had a reference to their purpose. In
+Christian times the heads of saints were sometimes inserted,
+especially in that form of the Roës called the chrysoclavus, from the
+intersticial ornament between the circles.
+
+I have written (p. 308-9) about the Trabea, which on the Roman
+consular ivory diptychs of several centuries is so invariably
+embroidered with this same clavus pattern (plate 70) that we must
+conclude that it had a meaning and a tradition.
+
+The very ancient superstition that driving in a nail is a fortunate
+rite, may have been connected with the pattern called the clavus; and
+the chrysoclavus, from being merely a nail pattern, became consecrated
+in Christian art as representing the heads of the nails of the
+Crucifixion, and hence its early Christian name.[544] It was
+originally filled in with a radiated ornament like the sun; (probably
+the first motive of this pattern, which seems to be the same as the
+Egyptian sun-cross,) and its peculiar decoration remained in
+possession of the descriptive name "palmated," though it is difficult
+to discover in it any likeness to the palm branch or tree, unless it
+is supposed to resemble it as seen from above.
+
+The toga triumphalis was also called the toga picta, because its
+precious purple fabric was covered with gorgeous embroideries. After
+it had been worn at the triumph or festival, by the victorious
+general, the distinguished noble, or the Emperor, it was laid by and
+dedicated in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Thus these palmated
+triumphal patterns, and their traditional decorations, having by their
+dedication to the gods assumed a religious character, were woven for
+Christian ecclesiastical use during the dark ages, and were repeated
+in Sicily and Spain down to the beginning of the fifteenth
+century.[545]
+
+I have elsewhere spoken of the "cloud pattern," which is very ancient,
+Chinese, Indian, and mediæval. Its use has always been for celestial
+subjects in embroidery, either isolating or supporting spiritual
+figures. This was appropriated by ecclesiastical art, and we find it
+nowhere else in Europe.
+
+This sketch of the history of ecclesiastical needlework, (necessarily
+incomplete from want of space), is founded on the works of Semper,
+Bock, Rock, and the comparison of many specimens in collections and
+exhibitions in London and elsewhere. Auberville absolutely places
+before us the materials as well as the patterns of the weaving of the
+Christian era, as well as fragments of Egyptian textiles, in his
+beautiful book on Tissues.
+
+For forms and patterns we cannot do better than study Bock's
+liturgical chapters and their illustrations, as well as Dr. Rock's
+"Church of our Fathers."
+
+The stitchery of Christian art has been discussed in the chapter on
+stitches, and I repeat that there is nothing new in the treatment of
+solid embroideries, (lace stitches having been the only innovation of
+the last 400 years), though many of the ancient stitches have lost
+their distinctiveness, and fallen into a pitiful style by gradual
+descent which reached its lowest point in the early part of this
+century, as is shown by the robes embroidered for the coronation of
+Charles X. in the museum of the Louvre.
+
+In the commencement of this our nineteenth century, there was a total
+cessation of embroidery, which had, for nearly 2000 years held its own
+as an art, apart from all others; perhaps a secondary one--yet mixed
+up with every refinement and luxury of civilization.
+
+Its revival in England, especially, is owing to many causes. As
+ecclesiastical decoration I have already attributed it to the
+archæological tendencies of our day, as well as to the æsthetic
+sentiment which protests, after so long a period of abstention,
+against the puritanical bareness and coldness of our national forms of
+worship. The obliteration of embroidery from the list of the arts was
+more complete in England than elsewhere; as the church of Rome still
+continued to be adorned with beautiful work on altar-cloths and
+frontals, and priest's dresses, which, though too much regulated in
+design by the lay tastes and fashions of the time, have combined to
+keep up a traditional school of needlework throughout the Continent.
+
+Exhibitions abroad and at home have shown us what a latent power in
+art embroidery still preserves, and architects have employed the
+women's needles to give colour and beauty to the decaying churches,
+which have been restored to their original architectural effects by
+careful copies of what remained in wood, stone, and glass.
+
+The number of new churches has also given rise to the production, in
+more than one semi-conventual establishment, of beautiful and
+effective works, such as the altar-cloth at Durham, and those at
+Canterbury and Worcester. Such works have revived the impulse of
+artistic and ecclesiastical taste, and in many small churches we have
+seen beautifully embroidered altar decorations.[546]
+
+There are, however, many amateurs who are perhaps mistresses of the
+craft of needlework, and who are yet not educated sufficiently to
+design a really thoughtful and beautiful work of art, and to these a
+few remarks may be addressed, which may help the struggling aspirants,
+and show them how they fail, and where to seek for assistance.
+
+I shall begin by pleading for more careful design, and less parsimony
+in expenditure upon the usual church adornments. It is once more a
+received dogma in ecclesiastical art, one in which all religious
+opinions agree, that the building in the parish which is set apart for
+the first public duty, that of worship, should show as much beauty as
+the means and taste of the community can command.
+
+Perhaps the little church has just been restored, or completely
+rebuilt from the foundations; the consecration is imminent. The white
+stone, carved or plain, shines fresh and cold, and the whole space
+looks poor and bare.
+
+The rich woman of the neighbourhood sees and feels that colour is
+wanting (for the windows must wait till their use as pious memorials
+fills them with glowing tints). The central point of the whole
+edifice, the altar, calls for the first key-note in colour to be
+struck, and a splendid altar-cloth is the fitting instrument.
+
+She consults the architect, who probably is also an artist, and the
+design is agreed upon, and hurriedly drawn and carried out; for there
+is not a moment to lose if it is to be ready for the opening day. It
+may be beautiful, and it sometimes is so, but the mere want of time
+for due consideration often results in the commonplace ornamentation,
+which neither satisfies the eye nor the mind. It is often only a mere
+bit of colour and a mediæval pattern, and has no apparent motive or
+meaning to give it value.
+
+One sometimes finds that a conventional form has been selected, of
+which the emblematic intention it originally expressed has been
+forgotten or overlooked. Therefore, while to the unlearned it conveys
+no meaning, it is read as absolute nonsense by the ecclesiastical
+archæologist, simply because it is worked in a language of
+undeciphered hieroglyphics--unknown to the worker--meaningless,
+reminding us of the Græco-Egyptian inscriptions, of which the pictured
+words seem to have been copied at random for their prettiness, or the
+Arabian lettering on some of the ancient Sicilian textiles, which is
+nonsense. The sense and the emblematic meaning are forgotten, and the
+conventional form--an empty shell--is alone retained, conveying no
+idea, and reduced to the low purpose of being a pretty pattern, vague
+and unintelligent.
+
+I have so often said that a pattern always originally possessed, and
+should always retain a meaning, that I fear to become tiresome; but I
+repeat it here, as in ecclesiastical design it is more important than
+elsewhere; the meanings are deeper, and convey more essentially solemn
+traditions and allusions. If the motive of the designer is evident,
+and is conscientiously worked out, its value receives an enduring
+quality, and its present interest is enhanced.
+
+Embroidery is not less eloquent than her sister-arts in the teaching
+of divine lessons, and appealing through the beauty of form and
+colour to the poetical instincts of the congregation, of which the
+least educated members almost unconsciously feel the influence; and
+besides, the people are always alive to the charms of symbolism, when
+it is placed within their reach. As a proof of this, among our own
+peasantry and mechanics, I would point to their universal enjoyment of
+the "Pilgrim's Progress."
+
+In the symbolism of art, the thoughts which are individual to the
+artist can only be expressed by known forms and colours, even as the
+poet must employ the words and the metres already accepted by the
+literature of his language.
+
+Hurry is fatal to art. But another and very serious cause of its
+deterioration is its costliness.
+
+In the dark and mediæval ages, time was of no account. Skilled labour,
+such as was needed for carving, illuminations, and embroideries, was
+freely given as the duty of a life, for one particular object, the
+good of a man's soul. The cloistered men and women worked for no
+wages; neither to benefit themselves nor their descendants; hardly for
+fame,--that was given to the convent which had the credit of
+patronizing and producing art,[547] while the very name of the artist
+was forgotten.
+
+It was from pure love of the art as a craft, and the belief that it
+was a good work in which they were engaged, and from their abundant
+leisure, that they were enabled to evolve the lovely creations which
+delight and astonish us when shown in the sacristies and treasuries of
+foreign religious houses and churches, where they have been cherished
+for centuries. Like the silkworm they spent themselves; and by their
+industrious lives were surrounded in their living graves by the
+elaborated essence of their own natures, a joy and consolation to
+themselves, and a legacy to all time. To them, also, art appeared as
+the consoler.
+
+But to return to the grievances of to-day--cheapness and hurry,
+economy of pence and hours--these often are the bane of the work which
+we give to the Church, sometimes as a memorial, sometimes as a
+thank-offering. The colours are bad, because cheap dyes fade, and none
+others can be had without much trouble, and we have only time to
+select among those that are for sale. The work is poor because it must
+be done quickly, and we cannot afford to delay and pay for the extra
+hours necessary to make the stitches worthy and capable of lasting.
+Possibly we cannot give the time ourselves, nor can find any one
+effectually to organize and overlook the work.
+
+Though the design, the motive, the colours and materials, as well as
+the stitches, need to be each carefully studied, yet we perhaps accept
+an ancient drawing intended for a different place and use; and thus we
+fail to produce any effect, with uncongenial surroundings. Sometimes
+we feel obliged to take the design forced upon us by a shopwoman as
+ignorant as ourselves, with the submissive hope "that it will do."
+
+Now to a truly artistic mind it would appear that each little church,
+however simple and devoid of ornament, requires its own special
+colours and design, besides the individual motive of the giver; and
+people forget that the whole effect in any such compositions must be
+comprehensive, and that one careless mistake spoils all.
+
+The High Church, in its love of ritualistic vestments, has sometimes
+been prejudicial to the general adoption of properly studied altar
+decorations; as there is a common suspicion that a clergyman's
+personal wish for ornament, akin to a woman's addiction to fine
+clothes, governs all his attempts to adorn the altar; whereas there
+should be, and there often is, a real artistic feeling for the fitness
+of things, in the furnishings of the most beautiful building set aside
+by the community for the glory of God. But it is not necessary for
+beautiful effects that there should be any coloured vestments. When
+the clergy are duly robed in the orthodox surplice and scarves, there
+is, perhaps, something funereal in the white linens and black Geneva
+silk, but yet the traditional white and black have their own value
+against a background of altar-cloth and reredos splendidly coloured.
+
+Now that, in spite of prejudice, church decoration is so much the
+custom of our day, it is worth our while to consider seriously how
+best to carry it out, and search into the principles which may apply
+to all ecclesiastical embroideries, whether they are to be dedicated
+in the Minster, the village Church, or the home Chapel.
+
+We must begin by remembering that in these days, if we cannot do the
+work ourselves, it must be highly paid for. The skilled artisan who is
+no artist, receives enough to feed his family, according to the higher
+wages of the time. The woman's slow stitchery has to support probably
+as many claims, and yet it is always grudged as being too costly. The
+sculptor or the painter who succeeds in obtaining employment, is
+highly paid, but the designer for metal-work or embroideries occupies
+an unrecognized place in art, and barely earns enough to live by. The
+illuminator has ceased to exist; he would starve--probably has been
+starved out long ago.
+
+The decorative designer, having, therefore, no status, has no
+education; and it is almost impossible to find in England an artist to
+accept orders for thoughtful ecclesiastical designs. Hundreds of boys
+and girls are taught "freehand drawing," and having copied some casts
+and lithographs and drawn some flower-pieces, without any particular
+aim, find a precarious living by designing frightful wall-papers for
+the million. These poor creatures, from whose lives all ambition and
+originality have been effaced, are our decorative artists.
+
+Still a beautiful original design can sometimes be obtained, and if
+that is beyond our reach, we may courageously copy from ancient
+models, selecting judiciously what is most suitable for our purpose.
+
+The ecclesiastical artist should be well informed in the modes of
+working a design. The stitch if selected without experience may mar
+the effect of the whole composition, as some stitches of themselves
+convey the meaning of shadow, and others that of light.
+
+In ecclesiastical work which is intended to be effective in the
+distance, as well as perfect in detail, it is worth while to weigh the
+claims of the architectural low-relief motive, i.e. a flat raised
+surface, with an edge sufficiently accentuated to catch a light on one
+side, and cast a sharp shadow on the other. All flat _raised_ stitches
+conduce also to this effect, especially if edged with a cord, and it
+is much more striking than in stuffed work (on the stamp), which has
+not the incisive effect that is given by the tool to the sharp edge of
+stone or wood carvings.
+
+If we can afford to give to our church without stint, let us seek for
+the most beautiful textiles, such as are again woven in imitation of
+the old fabrics; gratefully acknowledging all that Pugin, Ruskin, and
+the foreign manufacturers, especially those at Lyons, have done in the
+revival of woven designs. Let us avoid those materials which are
+easily spoiled by sunshine, dust, and smoke, and all those that fray
+easily. Woollens are not long lived. Crewels, beautiful as they are,
+are not salient in their effect. Silks, satins and velvet, and gold
+brocades,[548] or groundings worked in with gold thread, are the only
+materials worthy of bearing fine embroidery, fit to receive them, and
+capable of keeping them for centuries. Plushes and worsted velvets are
+unworthy, indeed they are worthless.
+
+The gold we employ must be either pure "passing," or else the Chinese
+or Japanese gold threads which differ in colour, but have each their
+own value, and never tarnish, even in the coal smoke of London. Pure
+silver, too, is beautiful, and if it is really pure, can be kept
+bright with bread crumbs.
+
+In composing the altar decoration for the cathedral or the village
+church, we ought to take into consideration what is suitable for the
+surrounding architecture. In great spaces, the majestic altar-cloth or
+frontal, shining with gold and silver, and glowing with silken
+embroideries, recalls the splendid altar "palli" encrusted with gems
+in St. Mark's, St. Peter's, and other ancient churches; and is in
+perfect keeping with the high and gorgeous reredos, the rich screen,
+the fretted roof and clustered ornaments of a great cathedral choir.
+Such glories are unattainable in the modest village church.
+
+But though we may subdue the brilliancy of our decoration, we should
+try to make it yet a work of art. The design may have as much
+intention, the work be as refined and individual, and the gold as
+pure, as in larger works. The precious metals may be confined to small
+spaces in the parts we desire to accentuate, such as the cross in the
+centre, or the edges of the orphreys, or they may be entirely replaced
+with fine silk work.
+
+The altar-cloth we desire to present, may be simply a gift, so that we
+may choose any design that will agree with the date of the building.
+We may prefer any subsequent style, but not one anterior to that of
+the architecture. It would be a mistake to imitate Anglo-Saxon
+ornaments in a church of the flamboyant style.
+
+Perhaps the altar-cloth we are discussing may be intended as a sort of
+votive offering, a memorial of a baptism, a wedding, or a funeral.
+
+For the first, white silk worked in gold and silver, or gold-coloured
+silk, or parsemé with conventional spring flowers would be
+appropriate. For a marriage, crimson, rose-colour, blue and gold, or a
+mixture of all these, to produce a festive and gorgeous effect. For a
+funeral, purple or violet silk or velvet, with palms and the crown of
+thorns in gold or silver.[549] These would serve at the festivals of
+the Church: the purple for Good Friday,[550] the crimson for Saints'
+days, the white for Christmas and Easter Sunday.
+
+The reredos, or the screen curtain behind the altar, should be made
+available for enhancing its effect, as well as for enlarging the area
+of textile coloured decoration.
+
+As this is intended for a background, it should be either subdued or
+else contrasting, in juxtaposition with that which it is intended to
+supplement. Woollen embroideries or tapestries are the most usually
+selected for this purpose. The softness of fine crewels is well shown
+near the more glowing tints of silk, velvet, and gold of the altar
+frontal. If this is white, or light coloured, the reredos hanging
+should be of dark or richly worked material; if the frontal is dark,
+the contrast should be preserved by hangings of tender shades.
+
+The pulpit and reading-desk, with their small cushions and veils, and
+beautiful worked covers for the books, give opportunities for
+repetition of colour which is often required for picturesque effect.
+
+I should recommend the young ecclesiastical designer to study the
+principles which guided the authors of some of the fine Gothic
+examples remaining to us, such as the great Stoneyhurst cope, and the
+palls of the different London companies, as well as the very few fine
+altar-cloths still existing. All these have their brilliant and
+effective treatment; they are intended to be glorious, and either
+represent massive jewellers' work or tissues of wrought gold.
+
+Anciently, the ornaments for the different church services, which we
+timidly reduce to floral decorations (often, however, very beautifully
+planned and executed), gave the opportunity for displaying costly
+embroidered hangings.
+
+The paschal of the choir of Durham, for example, was a marvellous
+construction of wood and gilding, metal-work, and (probably) hangings.
+It was as wide as the "lateral" of the choir, and as high as the
+building, so that the central and seventh candlestick (that from which
+the new fire for the year was kindled) was so near the roof that there
+was a "fine convenience through the said roof of the church for the
+help of lighting it." I quote from a rare book printed by G. S. Ross
+for Mrs. Waghorn, 1733.
+
+This little book is full of interesting matter regarding Durham
+Cathedral, though the author is most concerned in relating the
+vandalisms committed by the dean's wife, Mrs. Whittinghame, who
+evidently had "no culture," and a strong turn for appropriating odds
+and ends, such as tombstones, embroidered silk, and other curiosities
+which she deemed valueless except for her own purposes,--such a woman
+is a real archæological misfortune!
+
+The corporax used in celebrating the mass by St. Cuthbert in the
+seventh century (he died and was buried at Holy Isle in 657) was
+supposed to be endowed with miraculous powers and was carried into
+battle on many occasions as a banner.
+
+This banner was of crimson velvet on both sides, wrought with flowers
+in green silk and gold, and fringed with red silk and gold. The
+corporax cloth was inserted in the centre, and covered with a square
+of white velvet, having on it a cross of red velvet, "most
+artificially worked and fringed, with little silver bells in the
+fringe." This was carried into battle, till Dame Whittinghame "did
+most injuriously destroy the same in her fire."
+
+One feels as if this woman were spiteful, as well as stupid. But for
+her punishment, her memory is kept quite the contrary to green by Mrs.
+Waghorn's careful record of her iniquities; which has at the same time
+fortunately preserved to us the description of the banner of St.
+Cuthbert, and gives also an idea of "the good and sumptuous furniture
+of changeable suits," and of "the divers vestments wrought and set
+round about with pearls, both stoles and flannels, &c."
+
+Looking at it from a distance, it appears that the "fair white linen"
+for the communion service always requires the softening of the edges
+by fringes, by cut work embroidery, or by thick lace edgings. If a
+white ground for embroidery is required, nothing is more beautiful
+than linen, especially if it is not over-bleached. White, in art,
+should be represented by the nearest approach to no colour; but it is
+more agreeable to the eye by its being tempered with a suggestion of
+the natural tint, of which all textile substances possess something
+(excepting cotton) before they have passed through the hands of the
+fuller or the chemist.
+
+Corporals and veils for the pyx used to be of white linen, embroidered
+with white silk or linen thread; the silk gives a beautiful, varied,
+shining brightness.
+
+I think a few words should be said about the fringe.[551] Its motive
+and _raison d'être_ is the disposal of the threads of the warp when it
+is cut out of the frame; these being tied and knotted symmetrically,
+become an artistic decoration instead of an untidy tangle of threads
+and thrums. Edging the material and finishing it with its own loose
+ends is a very ancient custom; and we can see from the sculptures of
+Nineveh that they were great in that city in the art of fringe-making,
+and the Israelites, when they made their hangings for the sanctuary,
+trimmed them with fringes. It stands to reason that an added fringe
+should be arranged with reference to the origin of the decoration, and
+the moment we think of it, the eye is annoyed by seeing a deep fringe
+of one or two colours traversing the whole widths of the frontal and
+super-frontal, quite irrelevantly, and without any reference to the
+masses of colours, woven or embroidered, above them; and the
+consequence of this carelessness is, that it makes it look as if this
+part of the decoration, came from another source, independent of the
+composition which it ought to supplement. The fringe should belong to
+the whole design, and be carefully fitted to the spaces occupied by
+the colours above it, each of its compartments or divisions being
+filled in with those tints which are most conspicuous in the general
+design and would show effectively in the warp. It is not necessary to
+account for all the colours, as the threads employed to form the woof
+would naturally disappear at the sides of the web. The sections of the
+fringe should be skilfully arranged so as to reappear at equal
+distances, or at least they should be so balanced as to produce that
+effect. If this is impossible, the fringe should be all of one shade,
+matching exactly the ground of the textile. It may be relieved by
+clustered knobs, or hanging beads or cups of different colours and
+gold. The celebrated pluvial at Aix-la-Chapelle has a fringe of gold
+bells hanging to a gold cord, which amalgamates with the pattern.[552]
+The veils of the Sanctuary in the wilderness were fringed with
+attached ornaments, bells, blossoms, knops, flowers, and fruit, which
+sounds extremely pretty.
+
+To resume, let me once more urge that in church work neither time nor
+trouble be spared; nor yet money grudged, if possible. The design
+should be full of intention, the stitching perfect, and the materials
+most carefully chosen for tints, for endurance and smoothness.
+Remember that no inferior substitute will serve to give present
+effect, nor will it last into the future.
+
+Design, as I have elsewhere said, is all the better for being to a
+certain degree circumscribed, relegated, and regulated by the laws of
+traditional usage, as well as those of good taste, and this applies
+especially to ecclesiastical design.
+
+These laws serve as the frame which encloses the motive thought, and
+makes it a complete whole, that can admit of no amplifications.
+
+New symbols should not be adopted except for the expression of new
+facts or altered circumstances, and these can but seldom enter into
+liturgical art.
+
+There is so much already formulated and admitted, and the area in
+which we may gather our materials is so large, that we need not seek
+for more than we find under our hand, ready for use.
+
+Besides the symbolism of dogma, we have all the heraldry of the
+Saints; and can repeat and vary the emblems of those to whom the
+church we are working for is dedicated. The keys of St. Peter, the
+sword of St. Paul, the lilies of the Virgin, the cross of St. Andrew,
+the eagle of St. John,--I need hardly enumerate all these legitimate
+sources of decoration. Then there is the lay heraldry which belongs to
+the history of each church, and which memorializes the reign of the
+monarch when it was begun, finished, or restored, and the pious work
+and care of the founder and benefactor, the architect, and sometimes
+that of the sculptor.
+
+Now as our forefathers accepted all this material for ecclesiastical
+design, remodelling it to their own uses in different centuries, so we
+cannot ourselves do better than imitate them, and profit by their
+experience; never missing an opportunity of studying ancient
+embroideries; and while we admire in them all that is admirable, and
+appreciate their historical and archæological value, we may yet
+extract greater benefit for ourselves, by criticizing what is
+imperfect, as well as what is possibly a descent and failure from a
+higher type.
+
+We must make a judicious selection of what to imitate and what to
+avoid.
+
+As a general rule, I should warn the young artist against the
+imitation of "naïveté" and so-called "quaintness;" especially in our
+designs for Church embroidery as it is hardly a noble quality in art,
+though we look on it with a tender pity, half-way between admiration
+and contempt, when we find it inevitably in mediæval work; struggling
+to overcome the expression of something difficult, and expressing a
+difficulty only partly overcome. We find ourselves putting our minds
+into the attitude of the artist who conceived those figures with arms
+conventionally growing out of the encasing garment; conventionally
+holding a book, and giving a blessing with a conventional twist, not
+entirely ungraceful, nor devoid of a certain dignity, rather felt than
+perceived. Yet we contemplate them with a smile of conscious
+superiority, appreciating our own refined sense of their merits and
+infantine progress towards something good, that time--a long
+time--would, and did evolve. But those efforts at last culminated in a
+Christian art, such as is seen in the splendid forms and adornments in
+stone, gold, silver, glass, and embroideries of the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries. Such splendours as the windows of Bourges, the
+Sainte-Chapelle at Paris, or those of the Cathedral of Toledo, or
+King's College Chapel at Cambridge. Such sculptures and traceries as
+those of the Puits de Moise at Dijon, and the Chapter House at
+Southwell in Nottinghamshire. Such embroideries as the Syon cope, and
+the Borghese triptych. These are types worthy of all praise, and they
+are full of instruction to the student of ecclesiastical art.
+
+The Kensington Museum offers us endless help and suggestions in its
+very interesting collection of liturgical vestments of every date and
+school; and its textiles, illustrated by the inventory of their
+learned collector, Dr. Rock, are most instructive.[553]
+
+In the library of that museum are to be found many of the learned
+works on these subjects by French and German _savants_. The
+exhibitions in the English counties are never without a case or a room
+full of embroideries, collected from the treasure-chests of the
+neighbouring churches and country houses, and especially from those of
+the ancient Roman Catholic families. The colleges of Oscott and
+Stoneyhurst have collected, by purchase or by gift, many fine relics
+of the craft, which are most liberally granted for exhibition.
+
+For those who can go further afield there is instruction in almost
+every Continental town. Rome, Florence, Milan, Toledo, Sens, Rheims,
+Aix-la-Chapelle, Berne, Vienna, Halberstadt, Berlin, and Munich--each
+and all have stores of beautiful liturgical objects carefully
+preserved; of many dates, and many styles, and showing endless
+varieties of design, which can be employed on new works by careful
+selection and adaptation. Most of these belong to the eleventh and
+succeeding centuries; any earlier examples are fragmentary, and have
+generally been taken from the tombs of kings and bishops.
+
+It seems to savour of desecration, this opening of shrines and
+disturbing the ashes of the illustrious dead, if only for the
+satisfaction of archæological curiosity. But except where it has
+hitherto been protected by the sanctity of the tomb, there is so
+little that remains to us,--so few textiles have survived the friction
+of use, or even that of the air, through as many as a thousand years
+or more, that we may plead the hunger for truth, and the eager desire
+for proofs of identity and verification of historical legends, which
+are to be extracted from the shape of a garment, from the pattern on
+the border, or the lettering on the web of which it is composed;
+whence we reverently cut a fragment, and preserve it under glass.
+
+    "If studious, copie fair what time hath blurr'd,
+    Redeem truth from his jawes."[554]
+
+Before closing this chapter, I would wish to observe that I have
+entered into the subject of church decoration in no ritualistic
+spirit; I do not treat it theologically, but as art; and if these
+decorations are to be carried out at all, I feel that I am rendering a
+service to those whose duty or pleasure it is to provide them, by
+pointing out where they may find the principles which have been the
+spring and life of mediæval art, and the survivals which are now the
+best exponents of those principles to guide us in the works of our
+day.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [479] Figure-drawing in early Christian art was for
+    nearly a thousand years primitively barbarous, with
+    occasional exceptions. The rapid decline in Europe,
+    through the art of the Catacombs and St. Clemente at
+    Rome, and the frescoes and mosaics of Ravenna, down to
+    the Bayeux tapestries, is very remarkable. In those
+    inartistic compositions during the early Middle Ages,
+    the figures were drawn facing the spectator, the head
+    and feet in profile, differing in nothing from the
+    Egyptian and Assyrian modes of representation. We can
+    hardly account for this return to childish ways, from
+    which Greece and Rome had so long been emancipated,
+    except by supposing that they came from the imitations
+    of Oriental textiles, which still retained very ancient
+    forms; for instance, the motive of the sculptured lions
+    over the gate of Mycenæ. We cannot say that Greek art in
+    Rome was quite extinct till the eighth century. About
+    that time there was a remarkable revival in England.
+
+    [480] Till very lately we have been entirely dependent
+    on the frescoes in the Catacombs and in the underground
+    Church of St. Clemente at Rome, and on monumental art
+    and illuminations, for our knowledge of the textiles of
+    the earliest days of Christianity. But Herr Graf'schen's
+    discoveries in Egypt will, when published, add greatly
+    to our information on this subject.
+
+    [481] The book by Parker on the "Liturgical Use" says
+    that only the five liturgical colours were permitted in
+    the use of the Church of England. Before the Reformation
+    the Norman and English liturgical colours were
+    different. (Rock, "Church of our Fathers," ii. p. 268.)
+    Perhaps nothing was originally worked departing from
+    this rule, but votive offerings are inventoried as being
+    of all colours, having been accepted and used as
+    decoration and for vestments.
+
+    [482] I have already spoken of the custom of clothing
+    the images of the gods as a classical tradition. The
+    Greeks draped their statues in precious garments, often
+    the spoils of subjugated nations, offerings from the
+    conquerors, or obsequious tribute from the conquered.
+    Newton (Appendix 1) tells us of inscriptions containing
+    inventories of old clothes offered in the Greek Temples.
+    Ezekiel (xvi.) speaks of silk and linen embroideries
+    given for covering the idols. The images of the saints
+    in Roman Catholic churches are, we know, constantly
+    draped in splendid embroideries, and hung with jewels.
+
+    [483] There is here an overlap of several centuries.
+
+    [484] Charlemagne's dalmatic, described hereafter, of
+    which the pedigree is well ascertained, justifies
+    Woltmann and Woermann's theory; as this eighth-century
+    embroidery shows, by its design, that Greek art was
+    still a living power.
+
+    [485] Of which we have yet examples on the Continent,
+    here and there; for instance, in the Cathedral at Coire
+    in the Grisons, and in the Romanesque church at Clermont
+    in Auvergne (not the cathedral). I do not include in
+    this statement of the rare occurrence of the ogee, the
+    European countries which were subject to Moorish rule,
+    i.e. Spain and Portugal.
+
+    [486] This, slightly modified, continued to prevail till
+    the time of Louis XIV., when France took the lead, and
+    gave a style to the world which entirely broke away from
+    all mediæval tradition.
+
+    [487] Rock's "Church of our Fathers," i. p. 409. Compare
+    Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," i. p. 332 (see fig. 1);
+    and Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," taf. i., i. p. 130,
+    fig. 6. Bock does not give his authority for the pattern
+    on the ephod.
+
+    [488] Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. i., iii.,
+    vi.
+
+    [489] Yates' "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 203, 376, §
+    103. He quotes from Claudian the description of a
+    trabea, said to have been woven by the goddess Roma
+    herself, for the consul Stilicho. I give this as showing
+    how forms and patterns become sacred by their being
+    attributed to the inspiration of the gods. The name of
+    Stilicho marks his tomb in Sant' Ambrogio's Church at
+    Milan, on which is a curious moulding, carved with
+    alternate roses and mystic crosses.
+
+    [490] Clapton Rolfe, "Ancient Use of Liturgical
+    Colours."
+
+    [491] See the Book of Kells, Library, Dublin; also St.
+    Cuthbert's Durham Book, British Museum, and the Celtic
+    MSS. in the Lambeth Palace Library.
+
+    [492] Celtic and Scandinavian designs are characterized
+    by meandering, interlaced, and knotted lines, which are
+    described and discussed in the chapter on patterns. The
+    forms of the Celtic stone crosses are very beautiful.
+    See "L'Atlas de l'Archéologie du Nord, par la Société
+    Royale des Antiquaires du Nord" (Copenhagen, 1857),
+    where the metal remains are shown by careful engravings;
+    also George Stephen's "Old Northern Runic Monuments."
+
+    [493] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. p. 126,
+    quoting Anastasius Bibliothecarius, pp. 153, 156, 189.
+
+    [494] Ibid. p. 189.
+
+    [495] The information here collected proves that these
+    sovereign gifts to the great basilicas were by no means
+    of costly materials, especially as compared with the
+    preceding splendours of Rome, or the still more
+    astounding luxury of Alexandria through the Greek
+    conquests of the Eastern nations. To these rules of
+    economical decoration, however, we find occasionally
+    exceptions. We gather also from later lists that the
+    embroideries of the Papal See were culled, in the
+    thirteenth century, from France, Spain, Germany, and
+    England.
+
+    [496] See also Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," vol. i.
+    pp. 9, 18, 56, 86, plate 2. At a later period the lion
+    motive is supposed to have represented a Christian in
+    the arena, and it certainly in time was symbolical of
+    man struggling with the dominion of sin. However, Bock
+    considers the design to have been originally classical
+    Greek, and it survived to the seventh and eighth
+    centuries, and was reproduced as late as the sixteenth.
+
+    [497] The Code of Manu in India, which 2500 years ago
+    regulated all the crafts and ruled their decorations, is
+    still in full force, and Chinese art was crystallized in
+    the reigns of the first emperors of the Hia dynasty,
+    2197 B.C.
+
+    [498] We cannot but respect the memory of Attila, who
+    checked the spoliation of Rome by his troops.
+
+    [499] The collections of needlework in Germany are very
+    rich. The treasury of the cathedral at Halberstadt, the
+    Markt-Kirche of Brunswick, the sacristy of the
+    Marien-Kirche of Dantzic, and that of the Kaland
+    Brethren at Strahlsund are especially quoted by Bock. At
+    Quedlinburg are the tapestries of its famous abbess; at
+    the Pilgrim Church of Marie at Zell are fine remains of
+    stuffs and embroideries by the ladies of the imperial
+    house of Hapsburg, of the thirteenth century; at the
+    Abbey of Göss (near Lieben, Steiermark) is to be seen
+    the remarkable needlework of the Abbess Kunigunda, and
+    in the cathedral treasury of Heidelberg the antipendium
+    of the fourteenth century, made for the church at Tirna.
+    The museums of Berlin, Munich, and Vienna are very rich
+    in textiles.
+
+    [500] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," p. 133.
+
+    [501] Helen Lwyddawc. See "Mabinogion," by Lady C.
+    Guest, pp. 279-284. This beautiful story is told in the
+    language of the romance period, and yet has a certain
+    Celtic colouring in it, which shows its origin. The
+    ballad opens with a description of Helen watching a game
+    of chess, clothed in white and gold, seated on a chair
+    of gold, when Maxentius finds her in her father's
+    palace.
+
+    [502] See Mrs. Palliser's "Lace," p. 4.
+
+    [503] See chapter on English embroidery, _post_.
+
+    [504] Early decorations of ecclesiastical dress are so
+    thoroughly illustrated by the ancient frescoes and
+    mosaics in Italy, that we can form an idea of the
+    embroidered vestments of each period by studying them,
+    and the early illuminated books that are scattered over
+    Europe. Dr. Bock gives authentic illustrations as well
+    as information about the finest Continental specimens.
+
+    [505] For the mosaics of Santa Pudenziana, see Woltmann
+    and Woermann, i. p. 167, "History of Painting."
+    Translated by Sidney Colvin.
+
+    [506] Appendix 4. Lord Lindsay's "History of
+    Ecclesiastical Art," i. p. 136. These gorgeous vestments
+    are engraved by Sulpiz Boisserée in his "Kaiser
+    Dalmatika in der St. Peterskirche," and far better by
+    Dr. Rock, in his splendid work on the "Coronation Robes
+    of the German Emperors."
+
+    [507] It is singular that we find the starry cross and
+    the swastika filling alternate square spaces on the
+    mantle of Achilles--playing at dice with Ajax--on a
+    celebrated Greek vase in the Etruscan Museum at the
+    Vatican. I have referred to this design elsewhere.
+    (Plate 26.)
+
+    [508] Rock's "Introduction," p. liii.
+
+    [509] This date is assigned to it by Monsignor Clifford.
+
+    [510] Kindly supplied to me by the Father Superior of
+    San Clemente in Rome.
+
+    [511] In the cathedral of Aix, Switzerland. Bock's
+    "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. ii.
+
+    [512] One of these mitres has, it is said, been brought
+    to England.
+
+    [513] Bock, "Liturgische Gewänder," ii. taf. xii. This
+    is dyed in Tyrian purple (rosy red), and is simply the
+    cross, representing the tree with twelve leaves, "for
+    the healing of the nations."
+
+    [514] Bock, "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. iii. pp.
+    157-160.
+
+    [515] Bock, _ibid._, p. 158, quotes the Jesuit Erasmus
+    Fröhlich, (1754).
+
+    [516] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. iv. pp.
+    165, 166. "One of three costly garments."
+
+    [517] Modifications of the "wheel pattern" ("wheel and
+    plate"). Of these works of the tenth and eleventh
+    centuries the fine Roman lettering in the borders is a
+    marking characteristic.
+
+    [518] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. p. 214.
+
+    [519] There was no guild of embroiderers in England that
+    we know of till that incorporated in the reign of
+    Elizabeth. See chapter on English embroidery.
+
+    [520] Bock, i. 214, says that the splendid stuffs and
+    embroideries were entirely consecrated to the use of the
+    Church, till the luxurious arts invaded European
+    domestic life from the seventh to the twelfth century.
+
+    [521] See the cross on the Rheims cope (plate 63).
+
+    [522] There is no doubt it was only used for church
+    work.
+
+    [523] At Aachen, in Switzerland, there is a very
+    remarkable pluvial of one kind of opus Anglicanum, which
+    has been already alluded to. The border, of splendid
+    gold embroidery, has the pattern completed in fine
+    flowers of jewellers' work. (See Bock, "Liturgische
+    Gewänder," ii. p. 297, taf. xli.-xliv.) Rock, "Textile
+    Fabrics," Introduction, p. xxxi, cites from Mon. Angl.
+    (ii. 222), the vestments given to St. Alban's Abbey by
+    Margaret, Duchess of Clarence, A.D. 1429, as being
+    remarkable for pure gold in its texture and the
+    splendour of the jewels and precious stones set into it,
+    as well as for the exquisite beauty of its embroideries.
+    These are some of the characteristics of the opus
+    Anglicanum.
+
+    [524] Appendix 6.
+
+    [525] Mrs. Bayman, of the Royal School of Art
+    Needlework.
+
+    [526] If it is true that in the days of the Greeks and
+    Romans the art of acupictura or needle-painting copied
+    pictorial art, so likewise in the Egyptian early times,
+    painted linens imitated embroideries. This we learn by
+    specimens from the tombs. Painted hangings and
+    embroideries appear to have been equally used for
+    processional decorations. In the Middle Ages painted
+    hangings imitated embroideries and woven hangings, and
+    were considered as legitimate art.
+
+    [527] See Bock, vol. i. p. 10.
+
+    [528] Exhibited in the "Esposizione Romana" in 1869, in
+    the cloisters of Santa Maria degli Angeli.
+
+    [529] See Woltmann and Woermann, who quote evidence as
+    to works in painted glass as early as the ninth and
+    tenth centuries in France and Germany ("History of
+    Painting," vol. i. pp. 316-339). They remark that the
+    character of painted glass is nearly akin to textile
+    decoration, that it is essentially flat and unpictorial.
+    And doubtless there is an analogy between the two, but
+    rather suggesting patchwork or cut work than legitimate
+    embroidery.
+
+    [530] "Vasari," ed. Monce, taf. v. p. 101.
+
+    [531] See plate 69, which is a fine altar-frontal of the
+    plâteresque Spanish.
+
+    [532] The dress of the "Virgin del Sagrario" at Toledo,
+    embroidered with pearls, and the chasuble of Valencia,
+    worked with corals, show how profusely these costly
+    materials were employed.
+
+    [533] See "The Industrial Arts of Spain," pp. 250-264,
+    by Don Juan F. Riano, and catalogues of Loan Exhibition
+    by him for the South Kensington Museum series, 1881. The
+    works of Spanish Queens and Infantas are to be seen at
+    the Atocha, the church of the Virgin del Pilar at
+    Madrid.
+
+    [534] There are most interesting examples of Scriptural
+    subjects in Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. x.
+    pp. 207, 208; taf. xi. pp. 239-278. These are of the
+    thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; and we have some
+    good fifteenth century bead-work in the South Kensington
+    Museum.
+
+    [535] The splendid embroideries from Westminster Abbey,
+    sold to Spanish merchants at the Reformation, now at
+    Valencia, and the cope in the Museum at Madrid, are
+    instances of these exportations. The Syon cope also was
+    returned to England, after its long wanderings, about
+    sixty years ago. I give its history by Dr. Rock in the
+    Appendix 6.
+
+    [536] For examples of this ornate and graceful, but
+    frivolous style, we may remember the mosaic altar
+    frontals throughout the basilica of St. Peter's at Rome.
+
+    [537] See Dr. Rock's "Catalogue of Textile Fabrics,"
+    South Kensington Museum, Introduction, p. cxxxvi.
+
+    [538] Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. vi., vii.,
+    pp. 385-392. The emblematic meanings of stones is
+    constantly alluded to in the Old Testament. Their
+    symbolism has, therefore, a high authority and most
+    ancient descent. In the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford is an
+    illuminated copy of Philip de Than's Bestiarium,
+    composed for Adelais, second wife of Henry I.
+
+    [539] "Cyclopædia of Bible Literature," vol. vii. p.
+    477.
+
+    [540] See Clapton Rolfe, "The Ancient Use of Liturgical
+    Colours." (Parker, 1879.)
+
+    [541] See "Indian Arts," by Sir G. Birdwood, i. p. 97.
+    He says this [Illustration] form is the sign of the
+    Buddhist or Jainis, and that the [Illustration]
+    fire-stick form was that of the Sakti race in India.
+
+    [542] See chapter on patterns, p. 103-4, _ante_.
+
+    [543] Revelations chap. xxii. v. 2.
+
+    [544] In mediæval times the cross in a circle was
+    sometimes called the "clavus" [Illustration]. It was
+    the same as an Egyptian sign, meaning "land" (plate 25).
+    Donelly fancifully claims the sign as being that of the
+    garden of Eden, and of the four rivers flowing from it
+    (see "Atlantis").
+
+    [545] See plate 70, No. 1. In the upper part of the
+    Halberstadt diptych, No. 1, the "gens togata" are
+    sitting on Olympus, clothed in such purple garments
+    embroidered with the chrysoclavus.
+
+    [546] I would instance the little church of St. Mary,
+    built and adorned by the late W. E. Street, at Feldy, in
+    Surrey.
+
+    [547] The art of illumination had in general kept a
+    little in front of that of the painter, and illumination
+    and embroidery went hand in hand.
+
+    [548] The fine brocades of velvet and gold, of which we
+    find examples in the centres of palls, and a notable one
+    in the celebrated Stoneyhurst cope, are still reproduced
+    to order at Lyons, Genoa, Florence, and in Spain. The
+    Florentine is distinguished by the little loops of gold
+    thread which pervade it.
+
+    [549] In the English ritual gold was permitted wherever
+    white was enjoined. This shows a true appreciation of
+    the effect of the metal, separating and isolating all
+    colours, and being of none.
+
+    [550] The purple is not one of the five mystic colours
+    named; it is included in blue, and therefore the most
+    ritualistic critic need not object to it.
+
+    [551] Under the Carlovingians, priestly garments were
+    often enriched with splendid fringes, trimmed with
+    bells. A Bishop of Elne, who died in 915, left to his
+    church a stole embroidered with gold and garnished with
+    bells. So rich were the fringes at that epoch, that King
+    Robert, praying one day in the church, became aware that
+    while he was lost in meditation a thief had ripped off
+    part of the fringes of his mantle. He interrupted his
+    proceedings by saying, "My friend, suppose you content
+    yourself with what you have taken, and leave the rest
+    for some other member of your guild." See "Histoire du
+    Tissu Ancien," Union Central des Arts Décoratifs. For a
+    fringe with bells, see the beautiful example in Bock's
+    "Liturgische Gewänder" (plates xli. xlii. xliii. vol.
+    ii. p. 297), already quoted.
+
+    [552] Resembling the fringe of St. Cuthbert's corporax,
+    with its silver bells.
+
+    [553] This valuable collection of textiles is so ancient
+    and therefore so frail, that it seems a pity to send
+    portions of it continually travelling about the country
+    for loan exhibitions. Change of climate--cold, heat, and
+    damp--carelessness in packing and unpacking--above all,
+    the reckless exposure to floods of sunshine even when
+    they are protected from dust by glass,--all these
+    endanger the preservation of what can never be replaced,
+    and has only survived till now because of the quiet and
+    darkness in which it has lain for centuries.
+
+    [554] George Herbert, "The Churchyard Porch," v. 15.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+ENGLISH EMBROIDERY.
+
+
+Through the preceding chapters I have tried to moderate my predominant
+interest in our national school of needlework, seeking to place it in
+its just position alongside of the coeval Continental schools.
+However, the more I have seen of specimens at home and abroad, the
+more I have become convinced of the great superiority of our
+needlework in the Middle Ages. As information about our own art must
+be valuable to us, I give a short account of English embroidery.
+
+In England our art, like our language, is mixed. Our early history is
+one of repeated conquest, and we can only observe where style has
+flowed in from outside, or has formed itself by grafting upon the stem
+full of vitality already planted and growing. It is interesting to
+seek its root.
+
+There is every reason to believe, from the evidence of the animal
+remains of the Neolithic Age (including those of sheep), that they
+came with their masters from the central plateau of Asia.
+
+The overlap of the Asiatic civilizations over the barbarism of
+Northern Europe shows that Assyria[555] as well as Egypt was a highly
+organized empire, and the Mediterranean peoples far advanced in the
+arts of life, while the Neolithic man survived and lingered in
+Britain, France, and Scandinavia. Yet, even at that early period, the
+craft of spinning and the use of the needle were practised by the
+women of Britain.[556]
+
+Our first glimpses of art may have come to us by Phoenician traders,
+touching at the Scilly Islands and thence sailing to the coasts of
+Cornwall and Ireland. From Ireland we have curious relics as witnesses
+of their presence--amongst others, jewellery connected by, or pendant
+from, "Trichinopoly" chains, similar to those dug out of Etruscan
+tombs, and which were probably imported into Ireland as early as the
+sixth century B.C.[557]
+
+In the Bronze Age the chiefs and the rich men wore linen or woollen
+homespun. Fragments of these have been found in the Scale House barrow
+at Rylston, in Yorkshire. Dr. Rock says that an ancient Celtic barrow
+was opened not long ago in Yorkshire, in which the body was wrapped in
+plaited (not woven) woollen material.[558] Before this time the Cymri
+in Britain probably wore plaited grass garments; they also sewed
+together the skins of animals with bone needles.
+
+Dyeing and weaving were well understood in Britain before the advent
+of the Romans. Hemp and flax, however, though native to the soil, were
+not employed by the early Britons. Linen perhaps came to us first
+through the Phoenicians, and afterwards through the Celts, and was
+naturalized here by the Romans.
+
+Anderson ("Scotland in Early Christian Times") gives a high place to
+the forms of pagan art which prevailed in the British Isles, before
+the Roman civilization; and differing from and influencing that which
+came from Scandinavia. We must certainly allow that it was art, and
+that it contained no Greek or other classical element. His
+illustrations explain and give great weight to his theories.
+
+Cæsar invaded England forty-five years B.C.[559] The Romans gave us
+Christianity and the rudiments of civilization, but their attempts to
+Romanize us met with little success. Probably they imported their
+luxuries, and removed all they valued at the time of their exodus.
+From them we know what they found and what they left in Britain.
+Boadicea, Queen of the Iceni, the day of her defeat wore a tartan
+dress (polymita) and an "embroidered" or "fur" mantle; probably the
+fur was inside, and the skins embroidered outside. Dion Cassius,[560]
+who describes Boadicea's motley tunic, says that the bulk of the
+people wore what was apparently a chequered tartan. Semper says that
+the early tribes of Northern Europe, like the North American Indians
+of the present time, embroidered their fur wraps. The Emperor
+Honorius, in the fourth century, made it illegal for Roman nobles to
+wear extravagantly-worked fur robes; perhaps the report of Boadicea's
+dress had set the fashion in Rome.
+
+During the first four centuries of our era, all art in Britain must
+have come from our Roman masters; and owing to their neglect of the
+people they conquered, we benefited little by their civilization.
+
+All that we know of their decorative art in Britain, is that it was,
+with few exceptions, chiefly of small bronze statues, somewhat crude
+and colonial, as appears from the remains of their architecture,
+sculpture, mosaics, and tombs.[561] Of their textiles we have no
+relics, and hardly know of any recorded, if we except the works of the
+Empress Helena. See p. 316, _ante_. We must remember that, as she was
+a British princess, it is likely that she had learnt her art at home,
+and therefore that the women of England were already embroiderers as
+early as the beginning of the fourth century.[562]
+
+On the departure of the Romans, chaos ensued, till the Britons, who
+had called in the Saxons to help them, were by them driven into Wales,
+Brittany, and Ireland, which last they Christianized; and mingled the
+art of the Germans and Celts with that of the Danes and Norsemen[563];
+all which may be traced in the Irish remains to be seen in the
+College Museum at Dublin and elsewhere. From the time that England
+became Anglo-Saxon, literature, law, and art began to crystallize; and
+when, under Egbert, one kingdom was formed out of the heptarchy, order
+and a sense of beauty were in the course of development. Then came the
+invasion of the Danes (ninth century), who robbed, destroyed, and
+arrested all artistic improvement, till Alfred got rid of them for a
+time. Early in the seventh century the women of England had attained
+great perfection in needlework. This appears from a passage in a poem
+by Adhelme, Bishop of Sherborne. He speaks of their shuttles, "filled
+not with purple only, but with various colours, moved here and there
+among the thick spreading threads."[564] He had himself a robe "of a
+most delicate thread of purple, adorned with black circles and
+peacocks." This may or may not have been woven in England, but at that
+time weaving, as well as needlework, was the delight and occupation of
+the ladies of the court and of the cloistered nuns.[565] The thralls
+(slaves or serfs) were employed in weaving in the houses of the
+nobles, probably they embroidered also.
+
+Mrs. Lawrence sees reason to believe that in the seventh century, silk
+and fine linen were the materials for altar decorations, vestments,
+and dress; whereas the hangings of the house were of coarse canvas
+adorned with embroidery in thick worsted.[566] She says the term
+"broiderie" was reserved for the delicate works on fine grounds, in
+silk and gold and silver thread, and enrichments in metal work.
+Precious stones and pearls had already been introduced into the
+Byzantine and Romanesque designs imported from Greece and Rome.
+
+The English Dominican Friar, Th. Stubbs, writing in the thirteenth
+century, describes in his notice of St. Oswald a chasuble of
+Anglo-Saxon work, which exactly resembles that of Aix.[567] This is
+splendidly engraved in Von Bock's "Kleinodien" amongst the coronation
+robes of the Emperors of Germany, and is adorned with the richest
+golden orphreys, imitating jewellers' work, enriched with pearls and
+silver bells.
+
+There is an Icelandic Saga of the thirteenth century which relates the
+history of Thorgunna, a woman from the Hebrides, who was taken to
+Iceland on the first settlement of the country by Norway, A.D. 1000.
+She employed witchery in her needlework, and her embroidered hangings
+were coveted by, and proved fatal to, many persons after her death,
+till one of her inheritors burned them.[568]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 71.
+    One of the ends of the Stole of St. Cuthbert at Durham, which
+        together bear the inscription, "Aelfled fieri precepit pio
+        Episcopo Fridestano."]
+
+English ecclesiastical art did not necessarily keep to Christian
+subjects; for it is recorded that King Wiglaf, of Mercia, gave to
+Croyland Abbey his splendid coronation mantle and "velum;" and that
+the latter was embroidered with scenes from the siege of Troy.[569]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 72.
+    St. John.
+    St. Roger.
+    Durham Embroideries, tenth century.]
+
+It was probably on account of such derelictions from orthodox subjects
+of design that in the eighth century the Council of Cloveshoe
+admonished the convents for their frivolous embroideries.[570]
+
+In the eighth century our English work in illuminations and
+embroideries was finer than that of any Continental school; and
+therefore, in view of the great advance of these secondary arts, we
+may claim that we were then no longer outer barbarians, though our
+only acknowledged superiority over Continental artists was in the
+workrooms of our women and the cells of our religious houses.
+
+During the terrible incursions of the Danes, and the many troubles
+that accrued from these barbarous and idolatrous invaders, the
+convents and monasteries, especially those of the order of St.
+Benedict, kept the sacred flame of art burning.[571] Both monks and
+nuns wrote, illuminated, painted, and embroidered. They evidently
+continued their relations with foreign art, for it is difficult to say
+at what period the Norman style began to be introduced into England.
+It was the outcome of the Romanesque, and of this, different phases
+must have come to us through the Danes and the Saxons.
+
+I cannot but dwell on the early life and springtide of our Anglican
+Christian art, which in many points preceded and surpassed that of
+other northern nations, as we arose from that period commonly called
+the Dark Ages. Ours was a gradual development, adding to itself from
+outer sources new strength and grace. The better perfection of details
+and patterns was succeeded by Anglo-Saxon ingenuity and refinement in
+drawing the human figure. The art, which was native to England, may be
+judged by the rare examples that we possess, and of which we may well
+be proud; though we must remember with shame how much was destroyed at
+the Reformation. Enough however, remains to prove that our English art
+of illumination of the ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries was very
+beautiful, and we are not surprised therefore to find in the
+embroideries of that period grace and artistic feeling.
+
+The stole and maniple of the Durham cathedral library, which bear the
+inscription "Aelfled fieri precepit pio Episcopo Fridestano," are of
+the most perfect style of Anglo-Saxon design; and the stitching of the
+silk embroidery and of the gold grounding are of the utmost perfection
+of needlework art (plates 71, 72).
+
+The history of this embroidery is carefully elucidated by Dr. Raine in
+his "Saint Cuthbert." He says that Frithestan was consecrated bishop
+in 905, by command of Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the Great.
+Aelfled was Edward the Second's queen. She ordered and gave an
+embroidered stole and maniple to Frithestan. After her death, and that
+of Edward, and of the Bishop of Winchester, Athelstan, then king, made
+a progress to the north, and visiting the shrine of St. Cuthbert, at
+Chester-le-Street, he bestowed on it many rich gifts, which are
+solemnly enumerated in the MSS. Cott. Brit. Mus. Claud. D. iv. fol.
+21-6. Among these are "one stole, with a maniple; one girdle, and two
+bracelets of gold." That the stole and maniple are those worked for
+Frithestan by the command of his mother-in-law, Aelfled, may fairly be
+said to be proved. These embroideries, worked with her name and the
+record of her act, were taken from the body of St. Cuthbert in
+1827.[572]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 73.
+    St. Dunstan's Portrait of himself in adoration. From his Missal in
+        the Bodleian Library, Oxford.]
+
+Another and earlier Aelfled was the widow of Brithnod, a famous
+Northumbrian chieftain. She gave to the cathedral of Ely, where his
+headless body lay buried, a large cloth, or hanging, on which she had
+embroidered the heroic deeds of her husband. She was the ancestress of
+a race of embroiderers, and their pedigree will be found in the
+Appendix.[573] At this time a lady of the Queen of Scotland was famed
+for her perfect skill in needlework, and the four daughters of Edward
+the Elder were likewise celebrated embroiderers.
+
+St. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, is said to have designed
+needlework for a noble and pious lady, Aedelwyrme, to execute in gold
+thread, A.D. 924.[574] He prepared and painted a drawing, and directed
+her work.[575] I here give the portrait of our celebrated early
+designer from the MS. in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, said to be
+by his own hand, and which represents him kneeling at the feet of the
+Saviour (plate 73).
+
+Shortly before the Norman conquest, in the beginning of the eleventh
+century, we have notices of sundry other very remarkable pieces of
+work.
+
+The Danish Queen Emma, daughter of Richard, Duke of Normandy, when she
+was wife to Ethelred the Unready, and again during her second marriage
+to Canute, gave the finest embroideries to various abbeys and
+monasteries. Canute, being then a Christian, joined her in these
+splendid votive offerings. To Romsey and Croyland they gave
+altar-cloths which had been embroidered by his first queen,
+Aelgitha,[576] and vestments covered with golden eagles. She worked
+one altar-cloth on shot blood-red and green silk,[577] with golden
+orphreys at the side and across the top. When one considers what the
+life of poor Queen Emma was, one hopes that "Art the Consoler" came to
+her in the form of her favourite craft, and that she did find
+consolation in it.
+
+Croyland Abbey seems to have been most splendidly endowed by the
+Anglo-Saxon monarchs. There is continual mention in the records of
+those times of offerings of embroideries and other Church apparels.
+Queen Editha, the wife of the Confessor, dispensed beautiful works
+from her own workrooms, and herself embroidered King Edward's
+coronation mantle.
+
+When in the eleventh century the Normans became our masters, they
+found cathedrals, churches, and palaces which almost vied with their
+own; likewise sculptures, illuminated books, embroidered hangings,
+and vestments of surpassing beauty.
+
+William of Poitou, Chaplain to William the Conqueror,[578] relates
+that the Normans were as much struck on the Conqueror's return into
+Normandy with the splendid embroidered garments of the Saxon nobles,
+as with the beauty of the Saxon youth. Queen Matilda, who evidently
+appreciated Anglo-Saxon work, left in her will, to the Abbey of the
+Holy Trinity, "My tunic worked by Alderet's wife, and the mantle which
+is in my chamber, to make a cope. Of my two golden girdles, I give the
+one which is adorned with emblems to suspend the lamp before the great
+altar."
+
+I come now to the earliest large work remaining to us of the
+period--the Bayeux tapestry. We must claim it as English, both on
+account of the reputed worker, and the history it commemorates, though
+the childish style of which it is a type is indeed inferior in every
+way to the beautiful specimens which have been rescued from tombs in
+Durham, Worcester, and elsewhere. They seem hardly to belong to the
+same period, so weak are the designs and the composition of the
+groups. Though Mr. Rede Fowke gives the Abbé de la Rue's doubts as to
+the accepted period of the Bayeux tapestry, which he assigns to the
+Empress Matilda, he yet leans to other equally good authorities who
+consider the work as being coeval with the events it records.[579]
+
+Mr. Collingwood Bruce is of the same opinion, and for this
+reason--the furniture, buildings, &c., are all of the eleventh
+century, and our ancestors were no archæologists, and always drew what
+they saw around them. Mr. Bruce fancies the design to be Italian,
+"because of the energetic action of the figures;" this seems hardly
+justified when we look at the simple poverty of the style. Miss A.
+Strickland suggests that the artist was perhaps Turold the Dwarf, who
+has cunningly introduced his effigy and name. That the tapestry is not
+found in any catalogue before 1369, is only a piece of presumptive
+evidence against the earlier date, and cannot compete with the
+internal evidence in its favour. On 227 feet of canvas-linen, twenty
+inches wide, are delineated the events of English history from the
+time of Edward the Confessor to the landing of the Conqueror at
+Hastings. The Bayeux tapestry is worked in worsted on linen; the
+design is perfectly flat and shadowless. The outlines are firmly drawn
+with cords on thickly set stem-stitches. The surfaces are laid in flat
+stitch. Though coarsely worked, there is a certain "maestria" in the
+execution.
+
+The word "orphrey" (English for auriphrigium or Phrygian gold
+embroidery) is first found in Domesday Book, where "Alvide the maiden"
+receives from Godric the Sheriff, for her life, half a hide of land,
+"If she might teach his daughters to make orphreys."[580]
+
+In the end of the eleventh century, Christina, Abbess of Markgate,
+worked a pair of sandals and three mitres of surpassing beauty, sent
+through the Abbot of St. Alban's to Pope Adrian IV., who doubtless
+valued them the more because they came from his native England.[581]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 74.
+    English Patterns, chiefly from Strutt's "Royal and Ecclesiastical
+        Antiquities of England."
+    1. 1066. 2. 1092. 3. 1100. 4. 1171. 5. 1171. 6. 1189. 7. 1189. 8.
+        1361. 9, 10. 1377. 11. 1399. 12. 1422. 13. 1426. 14. 1440. 15.
+        1445. 16. 1416. 17. 1445. 18. 1477. 19. 1530. 20. 1272.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 75.
+    1. Panel of a Screen in Hornby Church. Painted fifteenth century.
+    2. Dress pattern from painted glass. St. Michael's Church, York.
+        Fourteenth century.
+    3. A portion of the material of the Towneley Copes. Fifteenth
+        century.]
+
+Of the twelfth century (1170) we have the robes and mitres of Thomas
+à Becket at Sens; and another mitre of the period, white and gold, is
+in the museum at Munich, with his martyrdom embroidered on one side,
+and that of St. Stephen on the other. The gold needlework is so
+perfect that it resembles weaving. It is recorded that a splendid
+dress was embroidered in London for Elinor of Aquitaine, which cost
+£80, equal to £1400 of the value of to-day.[582]
+
+Rock ("Church of our Fathers," t. ii. p. 279) truly says that it is
+shown by plentiful records and written documents, from the days of St.
+Osmond to the time of Henry VIII., that the materials employed in
+English ecclesiastical embroideries were the best that could be found
+in our own country or in far-off lands, and the art bestowed on them
+was the best we could learn and give. Various fabrics came from
+Byzantine or Saracenic looms, which are described as damasked, rayed,
+marbled, &c. The few surviving specimens fully justify the admiration
+bestowed on them throughout Christendom.
+
+Matthew Paris, in the reign of Henry III., says that Innocent III.
+(1246), seeing certain copes and infulæ with desirable orphreys, was
+informed they were English work. He exclaimed, "Surely England is a
+garden of delight! In sooth this is a well inexhaustible! And where
+there is so much abundance, from thence much may be extracted!"[583]
+
+From the Conquest to the Reformation the catalogues of Church
+vestments which are to be found in the libraries of York, Lincoln, and
+Peterborough, show the luxury of ecclesiastical decoration. In Lincoln
+alone there were upwards of 600 vestments wrought with divers kinds of
+needlework, jewellery, and gold, upon "Indian baudichyn," samite,
+tartarin, velvet, and silk. Even in reading the dry descriptions of a
+common inventory, we are amazed by the lists of "orphreys of goodly
+needlework," copes embroidered with armorial bearings, and knights
+jousting, lions fighting, and amices "barred with amethysts and
+pearls, &c. &c." The few I have named will give an idea of the
+accumulation of riches in the churches, and the gorgeousness of
+English embroideries.[584]
+
+I have collected from Strutt's "Illustrations"[585] and other sources
+a number of patterns for domestic hangings, copied from MSS. of
+contemporary dates, covering about 400 years, from the time of Harold
+to Edward IV. The hangings may have been more effective than appears
+at first sight, if the materials were rich and enlivened with gold. I
+give two textile designs which in their style are peculiarly English
+(plates 74, 75).
+
+Now we enter on the age of romance and chivalry, when all domestic
+decorations began to assume greater refinement. Carpets from the East
+covered the rushes strewn on the floors, and splendid tents were
+brought home by crusading knights; and the decorative arts of northern
+Europe were once more permeated with Oriental taste and design.
+
+We know that in the so-called "days of chivalry," i.e. from the
+Conquest till the beginning of Henry VIII.'s reign, needlework was the
+occupation of the women left in their castles, while the men were away
+fighting for the cross, for the king, for their liberties, or for
+booty.
+
+This period included the Crusades, the Wars of the Roses, wars with
+France, and rebellions at home; and yet there was a taste for art,
+luxury, and show spreading everywhere.[586]
+
+The women were expected to provide, with their looms and their
+needles, the heraldic surcoats, the scarves and banners, and the
+mantles for state occasions.[587] They also worked the hangings for
+the hall and chapel, and adorned the altars and the priests'
+vestments. Alas! time, taste, and the moth have shared in the
+destruction of these gauds. The taste for the "baroc" is a new
+acquisition; no one cared for what was old, merely because it was old.
+The rich replaced their hangings and their clothes when they became
+shabby; the poor let them go to pieces, and probably burned the old
+stuff and the embroideries for the sake of the gold thread, which was
+of intrinsic value. But both in prose and poetry we read descriptions
+of beautiful works in the loom, or on the frame, executed by fair
+ladies for the gallant knights whose lives and prowess these poems
+have preserved to us. I will give one quotation from that of Emare,
+in Ritson's collection: "Her mantle was wroughte by a faire Paynim,
+the Amarayle's daughter." This occupied her seven long years. In each
+corner is depicted a pair of lovers, "Sir Tristram and Iseult--Sir
+Amadis and Ydoine, &c., &c. These pictures were adorned with precious
+stones." The figures were portrayed--
+
+    "With stonès bright and pure,
+    With carbuncle and sapphire,
+    Kalsèdonys and onyx clere,
+    Sette in golde newe;
+    Diamondes and rubies,
+    And other stones of mychel pryse."
+
+The lady who owns this mantle is herself great in "workes of
+broderie."
+
+From the Conquest to the Wars of the Roses, England may claim to have
+gradually acquired a higher place in art. Our architecture, sculpture,
+manuscripts, and paintings were not surpassed on the Continent:
+witness Queen Eleanor's crosses, and her tomb in Westminster Abbey;
+and the portrait of Richard II., surrounded by saints and angels, at
+Wilton House,[588] a picture which, preceding Fra Beato Angelico's
+works by at least a quarter of a century, yet suggests his style,
+refined drawing, and tender colouring. All who saw the frescoes found
+in the Chapel at Eton College when it was restored, will remember
+their extreme beauty, and regret that they were effaced, instead of
+being preserved and restored. They were a lesson in what English art
+was in the end of the thirteenth, during the fourteenth, and into the
+beginning of the fifteenth centuries.
+
+During the Wars of the Roses, when a duke of the blood-royal is said
+to have begged his bread in the streets of the rich Flemish towns,
+ladies of rank, more fortunate, were able to earn theirs by the work
+of their needle.[589]
+
+The monuments of the eleventh and twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries, are our best authorities for the embroideries then worn.
+The surcoat of the Black Prince in Canterbury Cathedral is a
+noteworthy example. The sculptured effigy on the tomb over which it is
+suspended is absolutely clothed in the same surcoat, with the same
+accidents of embroidery, as if it had been modelled from it.
+
+In Worcester, when the archæologists opened King John's tomb in 1797,
+they found him in the same dress and attitude as that portrayed on the
+recumbent statue.[590] Dress was then extravagantly expensive, and
+embroidered dresses were worn with borders richly set with precious
+stones and pearls.
+
+The Librate Roll of Henry III. gives us a list of embroiderers' names:
+Alain de Basinge, Adam de Bakeryne, John de Colonia, &c.; and in the
+wardrobe accompts of Richard II., William Sanstoune and Robert de
+Ashmede are called the "Broudatores Domini Regis." These may have
+been the artists to whom the orders were delivered, for in the Librate
+Roll of Henry III. we find Adam de Baskeryne receiving 6_s._ 8_d._ for
+a "cloth of silk, and fringe, purchased by our commands to embroider a
+certain chasuble which Mabilia of St. Edmunds made for us." There were
+certainly then purveyors and masters of the craft. Stephen Vigner, in
+the fourteenth century, is so warmly commended by the Duke of Berri
+and Auvergne to Edward III., that Richard II. appointed him his chief
+embroiderer, and Henry IV. pensioned him for his skilful services.
+
+John Garland, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, is a good
+authority for the use by our women of small hand-looms. In these they
+wove, in flax or silk (often mixed with gold), the "cingulæ" or
+"blode-bendes" so often mentioned, supposed to be gifts between
+friends for binding the arm, when blood-letting was so much in fashion
+that the operation was allowed to assume a certain air of coquetry.
+But the idea suggests itself that this was oftener the gift of the
+fair weaver to her favoured lover, to fold round his arm as a scarf in
+battle or tourney, to be ready in case it was needed for binding up a
+wound, and had possibly served as a snood to bind her own fair hair.
+There is an account of a specimen of this kind of weaving by M.
+Léopold Delisle.[591] He describes the attachment of a seal to a grant
+from Richard Coeur de Lion to Richard Hommet and Gille his wife,
+preserved in the archives of the Abbey of Aunai, in the department of
+Calvados. He considers it to be either French or English, and says it
+was a "lac d'amour," or "tie of love," cut up to serve its present
+purpose. It is woven with an inscription in white on a ground of
+green, backed with pale blue, and the material is silk. The woven
+legend is thus translated from the old French--"Let him perish who
+would part us."
+
+  [Illustration: Opus Anglicanum, XIII. Century
+    British Museum]
+
+The term "opus Anglicanum" is first recorded in the thirteenth
+century, and is supposed simply to mean "English work." But there is
+also good authority for its having been applied, on the Continent
+especially, to a particular style of stitchery, of which the Syon cope
+in the Kensington Museum is the best preserved great example known.
+Its peculiarity consists in its fine split-stitch being moulded so as
+to give the effect of a bas-relief; and this appears to have been
+generally reserved for the medallions representing sacred subjects,
+and especially employed in modelling the faces and the nude parts of
+the figures delineated. The effect of this work has often been
+destroyed, as time has frayed and discoloured the parts that are
+raised, exhibiting the canvas ground, reversing the high lights, and
+causing dark spots in their stead. This reversal of the intended
+effect is an additional practical argument for the flatness of
+embroidery.[592]
+
+From the Librate Roll of Henry III. one can form an estimate of the
+value of the "opus Anglicanum" in its day.[593] In 1241 the king gave
+Peter de Agua Blanca a mitre so worked, costing £82. This would be,
+according to the present value, £230.
+
+The finest specimens of this English work are to be found on the
+Continent, or have been returned from it.[594] They had either been
+gifts to popes or bishops before the Reformation, or they had been
+sold at that time of general persecution and pillage. Among the most
+remarkable are the pluvial (called) of St. Silvester at Rome, the
+Daroca pluvial at Madrid, the great pluvial at Bologna, and the Syon
+cope, of which I have already spoken. The general idea and prevailing
+design of these three great works are so singular, and yet so alike,
+that they must have issued from the same workshop, and that was
+certainly English.
+
+In the Daroca cope the cherubim, with their feet on wheels, which are
+peculiar to English design, and the angels (in the vacant spaces
+between the framed subjects from the life of our Lord) have their
+wings carefully done in chain split-stitch representing peacocks'
+feathers, of which the silken eyes are stitched in circles, and then
+raised with an iron by pressure, so as to catch a light and throw a
+shadow. The ground is entirely English gold-laid work. This cope, so
+markedly national in design and stitches, probably drifted to the
+Continent at the time of the Reformation.[595]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 77.
+    Characteristic English Parsemé Patterns for Ecclesiastical
+        Embroideries.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 78.
+    Dunstable Pall. Property of the Vicar of Dunstable _ex officio_.]
+
+A wonderfully preserved specimen of the "opus Anglicanum," of which a
+photogravure is here given, was lately presented by Mr. Franks to the
+Mediæval Department of the British Museum (plate 76). In this may be
+seen most of the characteristics of this work in the thirteenth
+century; such as the angels with peacock feather wings, moulded by hot
+irons; the features of all the figures similarly manipulated; the
+beautiful gold groundwork, which in this instance is covered with
+double-headed eagles; and lastly, the fashion of the beard on the face
+of our Lord and of all the men delineated--the upper lip and round the
+mouth being invariably shaven; whereas, in Continental work, the
+beard is allowed to grow into the moustache, closely surrounding the
+mouth. There are other peculiarities belonging to English design--such
+as the angels rising between the shrine-work on the pillars out of a
+flame or cloud pattern, and the pillars very often formed of twined
+stems bearing vine-leaves or else oak-leaves and acorns. The
+compartments which frame the groups, when they are not placed in
+niches, are usually variations of the intersected circle and square.
+Plate 77 shows the cherubim which from the thirteenth to the sixteenth
+centuries are found on English ecclesiastical embroideries--also the
+vase of lilies (emblematic of the Virgin), and the Gothic flowers
+which are so commonly _parsemé_ over our mediæval altar frontals and
+vestments.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+It appears that in the reign of Edward III. the people ingeniously
+evaded the penalties against the excess of luxury in dress, by wearing
+something that looked as gay, but was less expensive than the
+forbidden materials; and which did not come under the letter of the
+law. They invented a spurious kind of embroidery which was, perhaps,
+partly painted (such examples are recorded). In the 2nd Henry VI.
+(1422) it was enacted that all such work should be forfeited to the
+king. The accusation was that "divers persons belonging to the craft
+of Brouderie make divers works of Brouderie of insufficient stuffe and
+unduly wroughte with gold and silver of Cyprus, and gold of Lucca, and
+Spanish laton (or tin); and that they sell these at the fairs of
+Stereberg, Oxford, and Salisbury, to the great deceit of our Sovereign
+Lord and all his people." In those days any dishonest work or material
+was illegal and punishable.[596]
+
+This was, in fact, a protectionist measure in favour of the chartered
+embroiderers, and gave them a slight taste of the advantages of
+protection. For a time it was doubtless useful in keeping up the
+standard of national work. Then followed further measures for the
+benefit of the established monopolies. First, a statute in 1453 (Henry
+VI.), forbidding the importation of foreign embroideries for five
+years. This is re-enacted under Edward IV., Richard III., and Henry
+VII.; and was partially repealed in the 3rd and 5th George III. While
+we are on this subject, we may remark that in 1707, the importation of
+embroidery was forbidden to the East India Company, and we closed our
+ports to all manufactured Indian goods. The only artistic trade _now_
+protected is that of the silversmith; no plate from foreign workshops
+being permitted to enter England--not even do we allow Indian plate to
+come in, except under certain conditions. This may be the reason that
+our own plate is so very bad in design and execution, for want of
+competition and example.
+
+Protection is always more or less fatal to art. The Wars of the Roses
+had injured our own best schools, and we needed refined imported ideas
+to raise our standard once again. Perhaps, since embroidery had become
+a regular industry, our markets were overstocked by home productions
+which were outrivalled by the works from the Continent, and it was
+distress that caused the plea for protection.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 79.
+    Pall of the Vintners' Company (sixteenth century).]
+
+It is fair to say that some of the English works of that time, of
+which we have specimens, are as good as possible. In the Dunstable
+pall, for instance, the figures of which are perfectly drawn and
+beautifully executed, the style is excellent and pure English (plate
+78). The pall itself is of Florentine crimson velvet and gold brocade,
+with the little loops of gold drawn through the velvet, showing the
+loom from whence it came. The white satin border carries the
+embroidery. It is a more perfect specimen of the later fourteenth
+century work than the famous pall of the Fishmongers' Company, which
+shows the impress of the Flemish taste, which was at its perfection in
+the fifteenth. The style reminds us of that of the fine tapestries
+from the St. Mary's Hall, Coventry, of which the subject is King Henry
+VI. and Cardinal Beaufort praying. The Vintners' Company's pall is
+also very fine (plate 79).
+
+  [Illustration: Henry VII.'s Cope from Stoneyhurst]
+
+Of the time of Henry VII. we have the celebrated cope of Stoneyhurst,
+woven in Florence, of a gold tissue, the design raised in crimson
+velvet. It is without seam, and the composition which covers the whole
+surface is the crown of England lying on the portcullis; and the Tudor
+rose fills up the space with a magnificent scroll. The design is
+evidently English, as well as the embroidery, which is, however, much
+restored[597] (plate 80).
+
+This is one of the "whole suite of vestments and copes of cloth of
+gold tissue wrought with our badges of red roses and portcullises, the
+which we of late caused to be made at Florence in Italy ... which our
+king, Henry VII., in his will bequeathed to God and St. Peter, and to
+the Abbot and Prior of our Monastery at Westminster,"[598] which were
+designed for him by Torrigiano.
+
+From the portraits of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries we can
+judge of the prevailing taste in dress embroideries of that period,
+which consisted mostly of delicate patterns of gold or silver on the
+borders of dresses, and the linen collars and sleeves. Of this style I
+give a small sampler, from Lord Middleton's collection. We have a good
+many specimens of the work of these centuries, both ecclesiastical and
+secular. They had still a Gothic stamp, which totally disappeared in
+the beginning of the sixteenth century in the new style of the
+Renaissance.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 27.
+    Sampler, from Lord Middleton's collection.
+    Time, Henry VIII.]
+
+The next great change throughout northern Europe affecting all the
+conditions of life, most especially in England, was caused by the
+Reformation, which swept away both the art and the artist of the
+Gothic era. The monasteries which had fostered painting, illumination,
+and embroidery, and the arts which had been so passionately devoted to
+the Church, were doomed. George Gifford, writing to Cromwell of the
+suppression of a religious house at Woolstrope, in Lincolnshire, after
+praising that establishment says, "There is not one religious person
+there, but what _can_ and _doth_ use either embrotheryng, wryting
+bookes with a fayre hand, making garments, karvynge, &c."[599]
+
+In the general clearance the churches and shrines were swept, though
+never again garnished, and the survivals have to be painfully sought
+for, and are so few that a short catalogue will tell them all.
+
+The greater part of the fine embroideries which escaped the
+"iconoclastic rage" of the Reformation, and the final sweep of the
+Puritans, are to be seen now in the houses and chapels of the old
+Roman Catholic families, who have either preserved or collected them;
+also in the museums of our cathedrals, and spread about the Continent.
+For instance, at Sens are the vestments of Thomas à Becket, and at
+Valencia, in Spain, there are yet in the chapter-house a chasuble and
+two dalmatics, brought from London by two merchants of Valencia, whose
+names are preserved--Andrew and Pedro de Medina. They purchased them
+at the sale of the Roman Catholic ornaments of Westminster Abbey in
+the time of Henry VIII. They are embroidered in gold, and represent
+scenes from the life of our Lord. The background of one is a
+representation of the Tower of London.
+
+In 1520 was held the famous tournament of the Field of the Cloth of
+Gold.[600] Here came all England's chivalry surrounding their splendid
+young king; followed by squires and men-at-arms, and carrying with
+them tents, banners, and hangings covered with devices and mottoes.
+Their own dresses, of rich materials and adorned with embroidery (as
+well as the housings of their horses), vied in ingenuity and splendour
+with those of the still more luxurious court and following of Francis
+I., the French king. The tradesmen and workmen and workwomen in
+England were driven crazy in their efforts to carry out the ideas and
+commands of their employers. It is recorded that several committed
+suicide in their despair. It was worse than the miseries caused by a
+Court Drawing-Room now. Ingenuity in devices was the order of the day.
+Francis and his "Partners of Challenge" illustrated one sentimental
+motto throughout the three days' tourney. The first day they were
+apparelled in purple satin, "broched" with gold, and covered with
+black-ravens' feathers, buckled into a circle. The first syllable of
+"corbyn" (a raven) is _cor_, a "hart" (heart). A feather in French is
+_pennac_. "And so it stode." The feather in a circle was endless, and
+"betokened sothe fastnesse." Then was the device "Hart fastened in
+pain endlesse."
+
+The next day the "Hardy Kings" met armed at all points. The French
+king and his followers were arrayed in purple satin, broched with gold
+and purple velvet, embroidered with little rolls of white satin, on
+which was written "Quando;" all the rest was powdered with the letter
+L--"Quando Elle" (when she). The third day the motto was laboriously
+brought to a conclusion. Francis appeared dressed in purple velvet
+embroidered with little white open books; "Liber" being a book, the
+motto on it was, "A me." These books were connected with worked blue
+chains; thus we have the whole motto: "Hart, fastened in pain
+endlesse, when she delivereth me not of bondes." Could painful
+ingenuity go further? On the English side we have similar devices.
+Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, the bridegroom of the Dowager Queen of
+France, Henry's sister, was clothed on one side in cloth of frise
+(grey woollen), on which appeared embroidered in gold the motto,--
+
+    "Cloth of frise, be not too bold
+    That thou be match'd with cloth of gold."
+
+This parti-coloured garment was on the other side of gold, with the
+motto,--
+
+    "Cloth of gold, do not despise
+    That thou be match'd with cloth of frise."
+
+Besides mottoes, cyphers and monograms were the fashion, embroidered
+with heraldic devices. These particulars we find in Hall's account of
+the tournament, with a detailed description of the golden tent in
+which the monarchs met, and which gave its name ever after to the
+plain near Guisnes, where the jousts were held. What we read of its
+construction recalls the Alexandrian erections, of which I have spoken
+already, as well as their hangings and embroideries.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 81.
+    English Specimens of Spanish Work. Time of Henry VIII. Lord
+        Middleton's Collection.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 82.
+    English Specimen. Spanish Work. Henry VIII. Louisa, Lady Waterford's
+        Collection.]
+
+Incrustations of pearls and precious stones gave a dazzling brilliancy
+to the tent, divided into many rooms, and adapted to the climate of
+the north. It covered a space of 328 feet. Hall describes the tent,
+the jousts, and the splendid apparel belonging to this last chapter of
+the magnificence of chivalry. Brewer remarks that magnificence was, in
+those days, often supposed to be synonymous with magnanimity (at any
+rate, it was erected into a royal virtue). "The Mediæval Age," he
+says, "had gathered up its departing energies for this last display of
+its favourite pastime, henceforth to be consigned without regret to
+the mouldering lodges of the past."[601]
+
+We cannot say how much of French taste was imported from this meeting
+of French and English luxury. The spirit of the Renaissance, fresh
+from Italy, was reigning in France, but we had also in Italy our own
+emissaries. John of Padua was probably only one of many Englishmen who
+travelled to learn and improve themselves in their special crafts.
+
+Catherine of Aragon introduced the Spanish taste in embroidery, which
+was then white or black silk and gold "lace stitches" on fine linen
+(plate 81). This went by the name of "Spanish work," and continued to
+be the fashion down to and through the reign of Mary Tudor, who
+remained faithful to the traditions of her mother's and her
+grandmother's work[602] (plate 82). Catherine of Aragon had learned
+her craft from her mother, Queen Isabella, who always made her
+husband's shirts. To make and adorn a shirt was then an artistic feat,
+not unworthy of a queen. Isabella instituted trials of needlework
+amongst her ladies. In the days of her disgrace and solitude,
+Catherine turned to her embroidery for solace and occupation. She came
+forth to meet the Cardinals Wolsey and Campeggio with a skein of red
+silk round her neck.[603] Taylor, the water poet, says,--
+
+                    "Virtuously,
+    Although a queen, her days did pass
+    In working with her needle curiously."
+
+At Silbergh Castle, in Westmoreland, was a counterpane and toilet
+embroidered by Queen Catherine.
+
+Anne of Cleves brought with her the taste for Flemish and German
+Renaissance designs; and all the cushion stitches were in vogue. The
+Renaissance borders for dress were mostly worked in gold on coloured
+silk on the linen collars and cuffs. Holbein's and other contemporary
+portraits illustrate this peculiarity of the costumes of the time. The
+women's head-dresses also carried much fine, beautifully designed, and
+delicate work.
+
+In the reign of Henry VIII. fine hangings were worked and woven in
+England; the royal inventories give us an idea to what extent.
+Cardinal Wolsey's walls were covered with splendid embroideries,
+besides the suites of tapestries still adorning the hall at Hampton
+Court. One room was hung with embroidered cloth of gold.
+
+Mary Tudor, as I have said, was Spanish in all her tastes, and we
+have lists of her "smocks" all worked in Spanish stitches, black and
+gold, or black silk only.[604] This taste, following the political
+tendencies of the time, entirely disappeared under Elizabeth. It
+survives, however, in peasant dress in the Low Countries.
+
+Queen Elizabeth spent much of her time in needlework. She herself had
+received the education of a man, as well as her cousin, Lady Jane
+Grey; and doubtless many women were taught at that time Greek and
+Latin, and to study philosophy, mathematics, and the science of music,
+as a training for serious life. Elizabeth studied and embroidered too;
+at any rate, she stood godmother to many pieces of embroidery, which
+are to be seen still in the houses she visited or occupied.
+
+While at Ashridge, and afterwards as a prisoner at Hatfield, she so
+employed herself; and among the specimens of work of the sixteenth
+century exhibited at South Kensington in 1873, were her shoes and cap,
+worked in purl, a semainière in the same stitch, also cushion-covers
+in divers cushion stitches, and a portmonnaie in exquisitely fine
+satin-stitch; all of which articles, and many more, were left by her
+at Ashridge when she was hurried away in the dead of night to
+Hatfield.[605]
+
+The character of the Renaissance of the sixteenth century, just
+released from the trammels of Gothic traditions, was somewhat lawless
+in England, being unchastened by the classical element which entirely
+controlled the movement in Italy.
+
+The queen's dress soon departed from the severe simplicity which she
+at first affected, and every part of her costume was covered with
+flowers, fruit, and symbolical designs; while serpents, crowns,
+chains, roses, eyes and ears crowded the surfaces of the fine
+materials of her dresses. These symbolical designs were rich without
+grace, and ingenious rather than artistic, although their workmanship
+was perfect. In Louisa, Lady Waterford's collection we find a jacket
+for a slight girl's figure, of white linen, covered with flowers,
+fruit, and berries, all carried out in satin and lace stitches. There
+are butterflies with their wings disengaged from the ground; pods
+bursting open and showing the round seeds or peas; caterpillars
+stuffed and raised; all these astonish us by their quaint perfection,
+and shock us by their naturalistic crudeness of design, and the utter
+want of beauty or taste in the whole effect. The impression left on
+the mind is, how dear it must have cost the pocket of the purchaser
+and the eyes of the workers. There are, however, exceptions to these
+defective poor designs; and in the same collection is a cushion-cover
+worked in gold and silver plate, purl and silk, on a red satin ground,
+which is as good as possible in every respect, and is purely English
+in style. The stitches and materials are most refined and varied.
+Purl, which was a newly made material imported from Italy and Germany,
+was then in much vogue, and we have seen a few fine specimens of it,
+that have been imitated from the Italian cinque-cento raised and
+stuffed needlework, which are very curious and almost very
+beautiful,--only one feels that the same effect could have been
+produced by simpler means. This work is characteristic of the reigns
+of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and James I. We have needlework of another
+most unhappy queen of this date. Poor Mary, Queen of Scots, tried to
+soften Elizabeth's heart towards her prisoner by little gifts of her
+own embroideries.[606]
+
+We have no account of the cause of the incorporation of the
+Embroiderers' Company by Queen Elizabeth,[607] in the third year of
+her reign, Oct. 25th, 1561, confirmed by James II., April 12th, 1686,
+which is still a London guild. It received the lions of England as a
+special favour. The arms are thus blazoned: "Palée of six argent and
+azure on a fess gules, between three lions of England pass. gardant
+or. Three broches in saltire between as many trundles (i.e. quills of
+gold thread), or. Crest: on a wreath a heart; the holy dove displayed
+argent, radiated or. Supporters: two lions or (guttée de sang). Motto:
+'Omnia Desuper.' Hall, 20, Gutter Lane." There were branches,
+incorporated and bearing the arms, at Bristol and Chester, in 1780.
+(See Appendix.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 28.
+    Arms of Embroiderers' Guild.]
+
+In the reign of James I. it was the fashion to do portraits in
+needlework, stitched flat or raised. Some are artistic in design and
+execution, but they are mostly ridiculously bad.
+
+The East India Company was founded in 1560, under Elizabeth, and
+obtained the monopoly of the Anglo-Indian trade, under Cromwell, in
+1634. This would have been the moment for encouraging a fresh
+importation of Oriental taste into our degenerate art. Cromwell's own
+service of plate was scratched over ("graffito") with a childish and
+weak semi-Indian, semi-Chinese design; and we must accept this as
+typical of the artistic Oriental knowledge of that day. Grafted on the
+style of James I., it shows, however, that Indian ideas were creeping
+in and sought for, if not understood in high places, under the
+auspices of the East India Company. Needlework alone was excluded from
+all benefit. From that date, for 150 years, Indian manufactures
+were imported, _with the exception of embroidery_, which was
+contraband by the ancient statutes. This accounts for our faint and
+ignorant imitations of Indian work, and the extreme rarity of the true
+specimens to be met with in England, unless of a later period.
+
+  [Illustration: Cushion cover Temp. Queen Elizabeth
+    XVI. Century]
+
+But our Aryan instincts have always led our English tastes towards
+conventional naturalism. Although we have lost the rules and
+traditions which converted natural objects into patterns, we are
+continually, in our style, leaning and groping in their direction, and
+twining flowers, those of the field by preference, into
+semi-conventional garlands and posies.
+
+In the seventeenth century, when James I. was king, protection had
+done its worst. The style of work called "embroidery on the stamp" was
+then the fashion. This sort of work in Italy continued to be artistic,
+but the English specimens that have survived from this reign are
+mostly very ugly. Continental art had ceased to influence us, and bad
+taste reigned supreme, except in our architecture, which had
+crystallized into a picturesque style of our own called "James I.,"
+and was the outcome of the last Gothic of Henry VIII. and the Italian
+style of Edward VI. and Elizabeth. But the carvings of that phase of
+architecture were semi-barbarous. Nothing could have been poorer than
+their composition, or coarser than their execution, and the needlework
+of the day followed suit. Infinite trouble and ingenuity were wasted
+on looking-glass frames, picture frames, and caskets worked in purl,
+gold, and silver. The subjects were ambitious Solomon and the Queen of
+Sheba, and James and Anne of Denmark,[608] and other historical
+figures were stuffed with cotton or wool, and raised into high
+relief; and then dressed and "garnished" with pearls; the faces either
+in painted satin or fine satin stitch; the hair and wigs in purl or
+complicated knotting. Windsor Castle as a background for King James
+and King Solomon alike, pointed the clumsy allegory, and the lion of
+England gambolling in the foreground, amid flowers and coats-of-arms,
+filled up the composition.
+
+The drawing and design were childish, and show us how high art can in
+a century or less slip back into no art at all. Any one comparing the
+Dunstable or the Fishmongers' pall with one of the best caskets of
+this period would say that the latter should have preceded the former
+by centuries. In James I.'s time, ignorance of all rules of
+composition was added to the absence of any sort of style.[609] I give
+the illustrations of the time of James I. Plate 83 is a cushion from
+Hatfield House, rich and rather foolish, with tiny men filling in the
+corners left vacant by large flowers, caterpillars, &c.
+
+Charles I. gave a raised embroidered cope to the Chapter of Durham, of
+this description of work.[610]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 84.
+    English embroidered curtain (James I.), at Cockayne Hatley, Beds.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 85.
+    Embroidered Hangings. Crewels on Linen. Hardwicke Hall.]
+
+The other fashionable work of that day had its merits. It was the
+custom to embroider hangings or linen in crewels. Considering how
+often in this book and my preceding lectures I have said that this
+style of work was common (even in the early days of Egypt and
+Assyria), it may well be said, when was it _not_ the fashion? and I
+must answer, "only since the days of Queen Anne." It seems as if
+before that time our designs for work were partially influenced by the
+fine Indian specimens which had surreptitiously crept into England.
+Some of these are very cleverly executed. Huge conventional trees grow
+from a green strip of earth carrying every variety of leaf and flower
+done in many stitches. The individual leaf or flower is often very
+beautiful. On the bank below, small deer and lions disport themselves,
+and birds twice their size perch on the branches (plate 84).[611] But
+even where the work is finest, the incongruities are too annoying. The
+modern excuse for it, "that it is quaint," does not reconcile us to
+its extravagant effect. To be quaint in art is, as I have said before,
+to be funny without intending it; and these curtains are funny by
+their absence of all intention or perspective, and when hung they
+make everything in the room look disproportionate to the unnatural
+size of the foliage. (Plate 85.) Specimens of this work are to be
+found in most English country houses. It has lasted till now, partly
+because the crewels first manufactured in the sixteenth century were
+of an excellent quality, and secondly, because there was no gold to
+make it worth any one's while to destroy them; so the old hangings
+went up into the attics in all the disgrace of shabbiness, and have
+come down again as family relics. Even the moths have been deprived of
+their prey, by these curtains having served for the beds of the
+household, so that they have been kept for their nearly 300 years of
+existence, aired and dusted. Much of this work has been recovered from
+farmhouses and cottages in tolerable preservation. In many cases the
+flowers have survived the stout linen grounds on which they were
+worked. The Royal School of Needlework has often been commissioned to
+restore and transfer the crewel trees on to a new backing. The
+hangings and the curtains I have described, prevailed from the end of
+Elizabeth's reign to that of Queen Anne, and gradually deteriorated.
+The stitches, of which the variety at first was infinite, had given
+place to a coarse uniform stem stitch--"gobble stitch." The materials
+also were of inferior quality, and less durable, so that the latest
+specimens are in general in the worst condition.
+
+It is remarkable how little the beautiful Continental work influenced
+our English school. We were enjoying perfect protection, and were
+clumsily taking advantage of our security from all competition. In the
+Italian palaces this was the moment of the finest secular embroideries
+in satin stitches, gold and silver, and "inlaid" and "onlaid"
+appliqués. Likewise in Spain and Portugal the Oriental work,
+especially that executed at Goa, filled the palaces and the convents
+with gorgeous hangings, carpets, table-covers, and bed furniture. We
+feel it painful to contrast with these our own shortcomings in art,
+and our faded glories.
+
+The fact is, that, owing to our art-killing protectionist laws,
+embroidery had the misfortune to be treated at that time as textile
+manufacture, and not as art at all.
+
+In the reign of William and Mary, Dutch taste had naturally been
+brought to the front.[612] This included Japanese art, or imitations
+of it, and also had something of late Spanish. The Georges brought
+into England, and naturalized a rather heavy work, in gold and
+silver--the design being decidedly a German "Louis Quatorze"--richly
+stitched and heavily fringed, and much employed on court dresses and
+on state furniture. We have seen royal beds and court suits which show
+very little difference in style. It does not appear that this was
+worked by ladies. It has, somehow, a professional look.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 29.
+    Part of James II.'s Coronation Dress.
+    From an old Print.]
+
+Occasionally, however, we meet with pieces of exceptionally beautiful
+work of the end of the seventeenth and early part of the eighteenth
+centuries. The style is the most refined Louis Quatorze, but the work
+is actually English. The white satin coverlets belonging to the
+Marquis of Bath and the Duke of Leeds are not to be exceeded in
+delicacy and splendour. The embroidered dresses of the Duke and
+Duchess of Buckingham, in Westminster Abbey (early eighteenth
+century) are of this description.
+
+From Queen Anne to George III., a great deal of furniture was covered
+with the different cushion stitches, either in geometrical or
+kaleidoscope patterns, or else displaying groups of flowers or
+figures, quaint and sometimes pretty. These designs are generally,
+however, wanting in grace, and their German feeling shows them to be
+the precursors of the Berlin wool patterns.
+
+When the crewel-work hangings ceased to be the fashion, home work took
+another direction. All the ladies imitated Indian dimity patterns, on
+muslin, in coloured silks or thread, with the tambour-frame and
+needle;[613] but in 1707 the "Broiderers' Company," we presume, found
+that the Indian manufactures were engrossing the market, and a fresh
+statute was obtained, forbidding the importation from India of any
+wrought material. This cruel prohibition carried its own punishment.
+The Indian trade was ours, and we might have adapted and assimilated
+the Indian taste for design. We might have brought over men and women
+great in their most ancient craft, and so produced the most splendid
+Indo-English School. The Portuguese at least sent out their own silks
+and satins to be worked at Goa; _we_ threw away our chance, and signed
+the death-warrant of our art.
+
+About the middle of the last century, several ladies, notably Miss
+Linwood, Miss Moritt, of Rokeby, and Mrs. Delany, copied pictures in
+worsteds. Some of these are wonderfully clever and even very pretty,
+but they are rather a painful effort of pictorial art under
+difficulties, than legitimate embroideries. These pictures would have
+served the purpose of decoration better as medallions in the centres
+of arabesque panels, than framed and glazed in imitation of oil
+paintings. Some of the followers of this school produced works that
+are shocking to all artistic sense, especially as seen now, when the
+moths have spoiled them. They can only be classed with such abortive
+attempts at decoration as glass cases filled with decayed stuffed
+birds, and vases of faded and broken wax flowers.
+
+I may record with praise the efforts of Mrs. Pawsey,[614] a lady who
+started a school of needlework at Aylesbury. She was patronized by
+Queen Charlotte; and for her she worked the beautiful bed at Hampton
+Court, of purple satin, with wreaths of flowers in crewels touched up
+with silk, which look as if they might have been copied from the
+flower-pieces of a Dutch master. The execution is very fine, and
+reminds one of the best French work of the same period. Mrs. Pawsey
+taught and helped ladies to embroider in silk and chenille, as well as
+crewels, and in many country houses we can recognize specimens of her
+style; usually on screens worked in silk and chenille, with bunches of
+flowers in vases or baskets, artistically designed.
+
+This was our last attempt at excellence, immediately followed by the
+total collapse of our decorative needlework, and the advent of the
+Berlin wool patterns.
+
+
+POSTSCRIPT.
+
+A postscript to this chapter will perhaps be acceptable to those who
+have taken an interest in the "History of English Embroidery," and who
+will therefore care to know about the revival which has filled so many
+workshops with what is now called "Art Needlework."
+
+There was a public demand for something better than the worsted
+patterns in the trade, and the Royal School of Art Needlework rose and
+tried to respond to that call by stimulating original ideas and
+designs, and imitating old ones in conformity with modern
+requirements. The difficulties to be overcome were at first very
+great. The old stitches had all to be learned and then taught, and the
+best methods to be selected; the proper materials had to be studied
+and obtained--sometimes they had to be manufactured. Lastly, beautiful
+tints had to be dyed; avoiding, as much as possible, the gaudy and the
+evanescent.
+
+The project of such a school was first conceived in the autumn of
+1872.
+
+Lady Welby, herself an accomplished embroideress, had the courage to
+face all the difficulties of such an undertaking. A small apartment
+was hired in Sloane Street, and Mrs. Dolby, who was already an
+authority on ecclesiastical work, gave her help. Twenty young ladies
+were selected, and several friends joined heartily in fostering the
+movement.
+
+H.R.H. the Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein gave her name as
+President, and her active co-operation.[615]
+
+The school grew so fast, that for want of space for the work-frames,
+it had to remove into a larger house, No. 31, Sloane Street, and
+finally in the year 1875 it found its present home in Exhibition Road,
+when the Queen became its Patron. In 1878 the Association was
+incorporated under the Board of Trade, with a Managing and a Finance
+Committee, and a salaried manager to overlook the whole concern.
+
+From 100 to 150 ladies at a time have there received employment. Their
+claims were poverty, gentle birth, and sufficient capacity to enable
+them to support themselves and be educated to teach others.
+
+Branch schools have been started throughout the United Kingdom and in
+America.[616]
+
+The education of the school has been much assisted by the easy access
+to the fine collections of ancient embroideries in the Kensington
+Museum, and by the loan exhibition of old artistic work, which was
+there organized in 1875, at the suggestion of H.R.H. the President;
+and since then there have been three very interesting loan exhibitions
+in the rooms of the Royal School.
+
+It was, indeed, necessary that the acting members should avail
+themselves of every means of instruction, in order to fit themselves
+for the task they had undertaken. They were expected at once to be
+competent to judge all old work, to name its style and date, and even
+sometimes its market value. They were to be able to repair and add to
+all old work; to know and teach every stitch, ancient and modern; and
+produce designs for any period, Gothic, Renaissance, Elizabethan,
+James I., or Queen Anne; besides contemporary European work,--all
+different, and each requiring separate study.
+
+Some important works have been produced which will illustrate what has
+been said:--
+
+    1. A suite of window curtains for her Majesty, at
+    Windsor (style, nineteenth century; sunflowers).
+
+    2. Curtains for a drawing-room for the Duchess of
+    Buccleuch: crimson velvet and gold appliqué (Louis
+    Quatorze).
+
+    3. Curtain for Louisa, Lady Ashburton: coloured silk
+    embroidery on white satin (Venetian, sixteenth century).
+
+    4. Curtain, also for Louisa, Lady Ashburton: brown
+    velvet and gold appliqué (_Italian_).
+
+    5. Dado for the Hon. Mrs. Percy Wyndham: linen and
+    crewels. Peacocks and vines (_Mediæval_).
+
+    6. Furnishings and hangings for state bedroom for
+    Countess Cowper, Panshanger: crimson satin, embroidered
+    and coloured silks (_Chinese_).
+
+    7. Curtains for music gallery for Mr. Arthur Balfour:
+    blue silk, appliqué, velvet, and gold (_Italian_).
+
+The earnest attempt to produce an artistic school of embroidery met
+with recognition and help from the highest authorities. Sir F.
+Leighton granted permission for appeals to his judgment. Mr. Burne
+Jones, Mr. Morris, Mr. Walter Crane, and Mr. Wade gave original
+designs.
+
+We cannot guess whether the taste which has sprung up again so
+suddenly will last. Perhaps its catholicity may prolong its
+popularity, and something absolutely new in style may be evolved,
+which shall revive the credit of the "opus Anglicanum." Of one thing
+we may be sure--that it is inherent in the nature of Englishwomen to
+employ their fingers. And the busy as well as the ignorant need a
+guide to the principles of design, as well as the technical details of
+the art of embroidery. This should be supplied by the Royal School of
+Art Needlework, which by inculcating careful drawing, by reviving old
+traditions and criticizing fresh ideas, becomes a guarantee for the
+improvement of domestic decorative design.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [555] "The people of Babylon, the Accadians, had a
+    written literature and a civilization superior to that
+    of the conquering Assyrians, who borrowed their art of
+    writing, and probably their culture, which may have been
+    the centre and starting-point of the western
+    civilization of Asia, and therefore the origin of our
+    own. Accadian civilization was anterior to that of the
+    Phoenicians and the Greeks, and is now received in
+    these later years as the original form, and become again
+    the heritage of mankind. It has been said that Assyrian
+    art was destitute of originality, and to that of the
+    Accadians, which they adopted, we ourselves owe our
+    first customs and ideas. Four thousand years ago these
+    people possessed a culture which in many of its details
+    resembles that of our country and time."--"Assyrian Life
+    and History," p. 66, by M. Harkness and Stuart Poole.
+
+    [556] "The arts of spinning and the manufacture of linen
+    were introduced into Europe and drifted into Britain in
+    the Neolithic Age. They have been preserved with but
+    little variation from that period down to the present
+    day in certain remote parts of Europe, and have only
+    been superseded in modern times by the complicated
+    machinery so familiar to us.... The spindle and distaff
+    are proved by the perforated spindle-whorls, made of
+    stone, pottery, or bone, commonly met with in Neolithic
+    habitations or tombs. The thread is proved, by
+    discoveries in the Swiss lakes, to have been made of
+    flax; and the combs that have been found for pushing the
+    threads of the warp on the weft show that it was woven
+    into linen on some sort of loom."--Boyd Dawkins' "Early
+    Man in Britain," p. 275.
+
+    [557] I am aware that the presence of the Phoenicians
+    (or Carthaginians) on our coasts has been disputed; but
+    I think that the evidence of the Etruscan ornaments I
+    have mentioned gives more than probability to the truth
+    of Pliny's account of the expedition of Himilco from
+    Gades, 500 B.C. By some he is supposed to have been a
+    contemporary of Hanno, and of the third century B.C.
+    There is some confusion in the imperfect record of the
+    voyage; but it is difficult to interpret it otherwise
+    than that he touched at several points north of Gaul.
+    (See Boyd Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain," pp. 457-461;
+    see also Perrot and Chipiez, "L'Histoire de l'Art dans
+    l'Antiquité," t. iii.; "Phénicie et Cypre," p. 48.) For
+    a contrary opinion, see Elton's "Origins of English
+    History." Elton ascribes the first knowledge of the
+    British islands to the voyage of Pytheas in the fourth
+    century B.C.; he acknowledges that the geography of
+    Britain was well known to the Greeks in the time of
+    Alexander the Great. We owe to Pliny and Strabo the few
+    fragments from Pytheas that have been rescued from
+    oblivion, and to Pliny the notices of Himilco. (See
+    Bouillet's "Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Géographie.")
+
+    [558] See Rock's Introduction to "Textile Fabrics," p.
+    xii.
+
+    [559] I give the following amusing tradition, which was
+    probably founded on the celebrity of the English pearl
+    embroidery of the Anglo-Saxon times, of which much went
+    to Rome:--
+
+    "Then Cæsar, like a conqueror, with a great number of
+    prisoners sailed into France, and so to Rome, where
+    after his return out of Brytaine, hee consecrated to
+    Venus a surcote of Brytaine pearles, the desire whereof
+    partly moved him to invade this country."--(Stow's
+    "Annales," p. 14, ed. 1634.) Tacitus, in the Agricola
+    12, says that British pearls are grey and livid.
+
+    [560] See Rock's Introduction to "Textile Fabrics," p.
+    xii.
+
+    [561] These are the poor results of the Roman invasion
+    and neglect of Britain during their occupation. The
+    second invasion of Britain by the Romans, under
+    Claudius, was caused by the squabbles between the chiefs
+    of the different tribes. Comnenus, the prince of the
+    Atrebates, was at war with the sons of Cunobelinus
+    (Cymbeline). He took his grievances to Rome, and the
+    Roman legions were despatched to settle the matter, and
+    to dazzle the world by the echoes rather than the facts
+    of the triumphant victories in the land of the "wintry
+    pole." Claudius marched with elephants clad in mail, and
+    bearing turrets filled with slingers and bowmen,
+    accompanied by Belgic pikemen and Batavians from the
+    islands in the Rhine, A.D. 44. The dress of Claudius on
+    his return from Britain was purple, with an ivory
+    sceptre and crown of gold oak leaves. One officer alone
+    was entitled to wear a tunic embroidered with golden
+    palms, in token of a former victory. The Celts, the
+    Gauls, the Gaels, the Picts, the Scots, and the
+    Saxons,--all crowded and settled in Britain when the
+    Romans left it in 410, after nearly four hundred years
+    of misgovernment. (See Elton's "Origins of English
+    History," pp. 306-308.)
+
+    [562] Semper, "Der Stil," pp. 133, 134. See Louis
+    Viardot, "Des Origines Traditionnelles de la Peinture en
+    Italie" (Paris, 1840), p. 53, note. Also see "Les Ducs
+    de Bourgogne," part ii. vol. ii. p. 243, No. 4092.
+    Muratori was born in 1672; and he says the Empress
+    Helena's work was in existence in the beginning of the
+    eighteenth century. (See p. 316, _ante_.)
+
+    [563] When St. Augustine (546) came to preach to the
+    Anglo-Saxons, he had a banner, fastened to a cross,
+    carried before him, on which was embroidered the image
+    of our Lord. (See Mrs. Lawrence's "Woman in England,"
+    pp. 296, 297.) Probably this was Roman work.
+
+    [564] Quoted by Mrs. Lawrence, "Woman in England," p.
+    49, from one of Adhelme's Latin poems. Adhelme, Bishop
+    of Sherborne, died in 709, having been thirty years a
+    bishop. He wrote Latin poems, of which the most
+    important, in praise of virginity, is in the Lambeth
+    Library, No. 200. The MS. contains his portrait. See
+    Strutt's "English Dresses," ed. Planché.
+
+    [565] An Anglo-Saxon lady named Aedelswitha, living near
+    Whitby, in the sixth century, collected a number of
+    girls and taught them to produce admirable embroideries
+    for the benefit of the monastery. (See Rock's "Church of
+    our Fathers," p. 273; also his Introduction to
+    "Textiles," p. xxvii.) Bock speaks of Hrothgar's
+    tapestries, embroidered with gold, of the thirteenth
+    century. See Appendix 8. But the earliest English
+    tapestry I have seen is that in York Minster, in which
+    are inwoven the arms of Scrope, 1390. Wright says of the
+    Anglo-Saxon women, "In their chamber, besides spinning
+    and weaving, the ladies were employed in needlework and
+    embroidery, and the Saxon ladies were so skilful in this
+    art, that their works were celebrated on the
+    Continent."--"History of Manners in England during the
+    Middle Ages," by Thomas Wright, p. 52.
+
+    [566] See Mrs. Lawrence's "Woman in England," i. p.
+    296-7.
+
+    [567] See Rock's "Church of our Fathers," ii. p. 272,
+    quoting Th. Stubbs. "Acta Pontif. Th. ed. Twysden," 1.
+    ii. p. 1699; also Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. p.
+    212, and p. 325 _ante_.
+
+    [568] Appendix 9.
+
+    [569] This could hardly have been intended originally
+    for an ecclesiastical purpose. It sounds as if it were a
+    stray fragment from Græco-Roman art, rather than a
+    survival of the classical legend employed as a pretty
+    motive for decoration. Wiglaf's veil is named by
+    Ingulphus. See Strutt's "English Dresses," pp. 3, 7. See
+    also "Historia Eliensis," l. 2, ed. Stewart, p. 183.
+
+    [570] See Rock's "Textile Fabrics," p. xxi.; also for
+    Council of Cloveshoe, see his "Church of Our Fathers,"
+    p. 14.
+
+    [571] The Benedictines drained the marshes of
+    Lincolnshire and Somersetshire to employ the poor in the
+    eighth century. St. Bennet travelled to France and
+    Italy, and brought back from his seven journeys cunning
+    artificers in _glass_ and stone, besides costly books
+    and copies of the Scriptures, in order (as is expressly
+    said by Bede) that the ignorant might learn from them,
+    as others learned from books. See Mrs. Jameson's
+    "Legends of the Monastic Orders," pp. 56, 57.
+
+    [572] See Raine's "St. Cuthbert," pp. 50-209. Mr. Raine
+    describes it as being "of woven gold, with spaces left
+    vacant for needlework embroidery." Beautifully drawn
+    majestic figures stand in niches on rainbow-coloured
+    clouds, and the effect is that of an illumination of the
+    ninth century. The style is rather Greek or Byzantine
+    than Anglo-Saxon. For further notices of St. Cuthbert's
+    relics, see chapter on Materials, _ante_; also see
+    Rock's "Introduction," p. cxvii.
+
+    [573] Appendix 10.
+
+    [574] See "Calendar of the Anglican Church," by J. H.
+    Parker (1851): "St. Dunstan was not only a patron of the
+    useful and fine arts, but also a great proficient in
+    them himself; and his almost contemporary biographers
+    speak of him as a poet, painter, and musician, and so
+    skilled a worker in metals that he made many of the
+    church vessels in use at Glastonbury."
+
+    [575] See Rock's "Church of our Fathers," p. 270.
+
+    [576] Strutt's "English Dresses," p. 70, quoted from
+    Ingulphus' "History of Croyland Abbey."
+
+    [577] Shot, or iridescent materials, were then and had
+    been some time manufactured at Tinnis in Egypt, a city
+    now effaced. It was called "bouqualemoun," and employed
+    for dresses and hangings for the Khalifs. See Schefer's
+    "Relations du Voyage de Nassiri Khosrau," p. cxi. The
+    original was written in the middle of the eleventh
+    century.
+
+    [578] See Duchêsne's "Historiæ Normanorum." Fol. Paris,
+    1519.
+
+    [579] Queen Matilda was not the originator of the idea
+    that a hero's deeds might be recorded by his wife's
+    needle. Penelope wove the deeds of Ulysses on her loom,
+    and it is suggested by Aristarchus that her peplos
+    served as an historical document for Homer's "Iliad."
+    See Rossignol's "Les Artistes Homériques," pp. 72, 73,
+    cited by Louis de Ronchaud in his "La Tapisserie," p.
+    32. Gudrun, like the Homeric woman, embroidered the
+    history of Siegfried and his ancestors, and Aelfled that
+    of the achievements of her husband, Duke Brithnod. The
+    Saga of Charlemagne is said to have been embroidered on
+    twenty-six ells of linen, and hung in a church in
+    Iceland.
+
+    [580] Domesday ed. Record Commission, under head of
+    Roberte de Oilgi, in co. Buckingham. See also another
+    entry under Wilts, where "Leivede" is spoken of as
+    working auriphrigium for King Edward and his Queen.
+
+    [581] Canon Jackson, writing of embroidery, says: "That
+    this was cared for in the great monasteries at this
+    early date appears from a MS. register of Glastonbury
+    Abbey in the possession of the Marquis of Bath. It is
+    called the Liber Henrici de Soliaco, and gives an
+    account of the affairs of that abbey in A.D. 1189
+    (Richard I.)." There was a special official whose
+    business it was to provide the monastery with church
+    ornaments generally, and specially with "aurifrigium,"
+    or gold embroidery, on vestments. For this a house and
+    land, with an annual allowance of food, was set apart.
+    Another tenant also held some land, to which was
+    attached the obligation to find a "worker in
+    gold."--Letter from Canon Jackson to the Author.
+
+    [582] See Mrs. Lawrence's "Woman in England," vol. i. p.
+    360. She quotes an entry from Madox, a sum of £80 (equal
+    to £1400 of to-day) for an embroidered robe for the
+    Queen, paid by the Sheriffs of London.
+
+    [583] Matthew Paris, "Vit. Abb. St. Albani." p. 46;
+    Rock, "Church of our Fathers," vol ii. p. 278.
+
+    [584] See Mrs. Dolby's Introduction to "Church
+    Vestments."
+
+    [585] Strutt's "Royal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of
+    England," ed. mdcclxxiii.
+
+    [586] Though the work was domestic, the materials came
+    from the East and the South; and while the woven gold of
+    Sicily and Spain was merely base metal on gilded
+    parchment, our laws were directed to the preservation of
+    pure metals for textile purposes.
+
+    [587] Matthew Paris, "Hist. Angl.," p. 473, ed. Paris,
+    1644. See Hartshorne's "Mediæval Embroideries," pp. 23,
+    24.
+
+    [588] The reproduction by the Arundel Society of this
+    picture will familiarize those who care for English art
+    with what is, perhaps, its finest example, next to the
+    crosses of Queen Eleanor. It has been erroneously
+    attributed to Van Eyk, but it is undoubtedly English.
+    That its art is contemporary with the time of Richard
+    II., is shown by the design and motives of the woven
+    materials and embroidery in which the king and his
+    attendant saints are clothed. They remind us of the
+    piece of silk in the Kensington Museum, into which are
+    woven (probably in Sicilian looms) the cognizance of the
+    King's grandfather, the sun with rays; that of his
+    mother Joan, the white hart; and his own, his dog Math.
+    This is a good example of the value of an individual
+    pattern. It helps us to affix dates to other specimens
+    of similar style.
+
+    [589] See Miss Strickland's mention of the Countess of
+    Oxford in her "Life of Queen Elizabeth of York," p. 46.
+
+    [590] From the fragments found, it appeared that King
+    John's mantle was of a strong red silk. Till lately,
+    when it was effaced by being completely gilt, the mantle
+    on the recumbent effigy was of a bright red, bordered
+    with gold and gems. See Greene's "Worcester," p. 3,
+    quoted in the "Report of the Archæological Association
+    of Worcester," p. 53.
+
+    [591] "Notice sur les Attaches d'un Sceau," par M.
+    Léopold Delisle (Paris, 1854); and also Rock's
+    Introduction to "Textile Fabrics," p. xxii.
+
+    [592] The opus Anglicanum often included borders and
+    orphreys set with jewellers' work (or its imitation,
+    worked in gold thread), gems, and pearls.
+
+    [593] Edward III. had from William de Courtenay an
+    embroidered garment, "inwrought with pelicans, images,
+    and tabernacles of gold. The tabernacles were like
+    niches, with pinnacles and roofs."
+
+    [594] Bock, "Liturgische Gewänder," i. p. 211, says
+    there is a piece of opus Anglicanum in the treasury of
+    Aix-la-Chapelle, called the Cope of Leo III.
+
+    [595] For further notice of the "opus Anglicanum," see
+    chapter (_ante_) on ecclesiastical embroideries.
+
+    [596] Appendix 11.
+
+    [597] The orphreys are probably not the original work.
+
+    [598] "Testamenta Vetusta," ed. Nicholas, t. i. p. 33.
+
+    [599] Woolstrope, Lincolnshire. Collier's
+    "Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain," v. p. 3 (ed.
+    Lothbury). This proves that the monks sometimes plied
+    the needle.
+
+    [600] See Hall's "Union of the Houses of York and
+    Lancaster," pp. lxxv-lxxxiii.
+
+    [601] See Brewer's "Reign of Henry VIII.," vol. i. pp.
+    347-376.
+
+    [602] In the Public Record Office is an inventory of
+    Lord Monteagle's property, 1523 A.D.; amongst other
+    things, is named a piece of Spanish work, "eight
+    partletts garnished with gold and black silk work." This
+    Spanish work is rare, but the description reminds us of
+    a specimen belonging to Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford
+    (Plate 82)--a square of linen, worked with ostriches,
+    turkeys, and eagles in gold and black silk stitches. See
+    Mrs. Palliser's "History of Lace," pp. 6, 12.
+
+    [603] Quoted from Cavendish by Miss Strickland, "Queens
+    of England," iv. p. 132.
+
+    [604] "The invalid queen, in her moments of
+    convalescence, soothed her cares and miseries at the
+    embroidery frame. Many specimens of her needlework were
+    extant in the reign of James I., and are thus celebrated
+    by Taylor, the poet of the needle:--
+
+        "'Mary here the sceptre sway'd;
+          And though she were no queen of mighty power,
+        Her memory will never be decay'd,
+          Nor yet her works forgotten. In the Tower,
+        In Windsor Castle, and in Hampton Court,--
+          In that most pompous room called Paradise,--
+        Whoever pleases thither to resort,
+          May see some works of hers of wondrous price.
+        Her greatness held it no disreputation
+          To hold the needle in her royal hand,
+        Which was a good example to our nation
+          To banish idleness throughout the land.
+        And thus this queen in wisdom thought it fit;
+          The needle's work pleased her, and she graced it.'
+
+    "According to Taylor, Mary finished the splendid and
+    elaborate tapestry begun by her mother."--Miss
+    Strickland's "Life of Mary Tudor," v. p. 417.
+
+    [605] "After the action at D'Arbre de Guise, Elizabeth
+    (of England) sent to Henri IV. a scarf embroidered by
+    her own hand. 'Monsieur mon bon frère,' wrote the queen,
+    'its value is naught in comparison to the dignity of the
+    personage for whom it is destined; but I supplicate you
+    to hide its defects under the wings of your good
+    charity, and to accept my little present in remembrance
+    of me.'"--"Henri IV.," by Miss Freer, p. 311.
+
+    [606] In the year 1683 the Marchese Luca Casimiero degl'
+    Albizzi visited England, and his travels were recorded
+    in manuscript by Dr. A. Forzoni. At Windsor he observed
+    over a chimney-piece a finely wrought piece of
+    embroidery--"un educazione di fanciulli"--by the hands
+    of Mary Queen of Scots.--Loftie's "History of Old
+    London;" also article on "Royal Picture Galleries," by
+    George Scharf, p. 361 (1867).
+
+    [607] "The Company of the Embroiderers can make appear
+    by their worthy and famous pieces of art that they have
+    been of ancient use and eminence, as is to be seen in
+    divers places at this day; but in the matter of their
+    incorporation, it hath relation to the fourth year of
+    Queen Elizabeth."--Stow's "Survey of London and
+    Westminster," part ii. p. 216; also see Edmonson's
+    "Heraldry," vol. i. (1780). "The Keepers, Wardens, and
+    Company of the Broiderie of London.... 2 keepers and 40
+    assistants, and the livery consists of 115 members. They
+    have a small but convenient hall in Gutter
+    Lane."--Maitland's "History of London," book iii. p.
+    602.
+
+    [608] The fashion of this work began much earlier, for
+    we find in the inventory of "St. James's House, nigh
+    Westminster," 1549: "42 Item. A table wherein is a man
+    holding a sword in his one hand and a sceptre in his
+    other hand of needlework, partly garnished with seed
+    pearl" (p. 307).
+
+    [609] The merit or blame of this rounded padded work (a
+    caricature of the raised embroidery of the opus
+    Anglicanum) is often erroneously awarded to the "nuns of
+    Little Gidding." The earliest specimens we know of this
+    "embroidery on the stamp" are German. At Coire in the
+    Grisons, at Zurich (see chapter on ecclesiastical art),
+    and in the National Museum at Munich are some very
+    beautiful examples. The Italians also executed elaborate
+    little pictures in this manner; but I cannot praise it
+    however refined in execution or beautiful the design. I
+    have seen no English specimens that are not beneath
+    criticism; they are only funny.
+
+    [610] In the Calendar of the State Papers Office
+    (Domestic, Charles I., vol. clxix. p. 12), Mrs. H.
+    Senior sues the Earl of Thomond for £200 per annum, her
+    pay for teaching his daughter needlework. Mrs.
+    Hutchinson, in her Memoir, says she had eight tutors
+    when she was seven years old, and one of them taught her
+    needlework. This shows how highly this accomplishment
+    was still considered in the days of Charles I. and the
+    Commonwealth. Later, Evelyn speaks of the "new bed of
+    Charles II.'s queen, the embroidery of which cost £3000"
+    (Evelyn's Memoirs, January 24, 1687). Evelyn says of his
+    own daughter Susanna, who married William Draper: "She
+    had a peculiar talent in designe, as painting in oil and
+    miniature, and an extraordinary genius for whatever
+    hands can do with a needle." See Evelyn's "Memoirs,"
+    April 27, 1693; also see Mrs. Palliser's "History of
+    Lace," pp. 7, 8.
+
+    [611] The tree-pattern, already common in the latter
+    days of Elizabeth, reappeared on a dress worn by the
+    Duchess of Queensberry, and described by Mrs. Delany;
+    she says, "A white satin embroidered at the bottom with
+    brown hills, covered with all sorts of weeds, and with a
+    brown stump, broken and worked in chenille, and
+    garlanded nasturtiums, honeysuckles, periwinkles,
+    convolvuluses, and weeds, many of the leaves finished
+    with gold." Mrs. Delany does not appreciate this ancient
+    pattern.
+
+    [612] Queen Mary only knotted fringes. Bishop Burnett
+    says: "It was strange to see a queen work so many hours
+    a day." Sir E. Sedley, in his epigram on the "Royal
+    Knotter," says,--
+
+        "Who, when she rides in coach abroad,
+        Is always knotting threads."
+
+    Probably it was the fashion, as Madame de Maintenon
+    always worked during her drives with the king, which
+    doubtless prevented her dying of _ennui_!
+
+    [613] I quote from the _Spectator_, No. 606: "Let no
+    virgin receive her lover, except in a suit of her own
+    embroidery."
+
+    [614] Her style was really legitimate to the art. It was
+    flower-painting with the needle. Miss Moritt copied both
+    figures and landscapes, with wonderful taste and
+    knowledge of drawing. Miss Linwood's and Mrs. Delany's
+    productions are justly celebrated as _tours de force_,
+    but they caused the downfall of the art by leading it on
+    the wrong track.
+
+    [615] Lord Houghton alludes to H.R.H.'s patronage of the
+    revival of embroidery in his paraphrase of the "Story of
+    Arachne," p. 238, _ante_.
+
+    [616] "Opposed to the 'utility stitches' are the art
+    needlework schools that have branched out in many
+    directions from New York.... The impulse that led to
+    their formation was derived from South Kensington
+    (England), and affords a striking instance of the
+    ramifications of an organization."--_Atlantic Monthly_
+    ("Women in Organization"), Sept., 1880.
+
+
+FINIS.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES.
+
+
+APPENDIX I., TO PAGE 105.
+
+_By Ch. T. Newton._
+
+Though the embroidered and richly decorated textile fabrics of the
+ancients have perished, all but a few scraps, we may form some idea of
+the richness and variety of Greek female attire from the evidence of
+the inventories of dedicated articles of dress which have been
+preserved for us in Greek inscriptions.
+
+In the Acropolis at Athens have been found a number of fragments of
+marble on which are inscribed lists of various female garments
+dedicated, for the most part, in the Temple of Artemis Brauronia, in
+the Archonship of Lykurgos, B.C. 338-35. These articles were thus
+carefully registered because they formed part of the treasures
+dedicated to the gods of the Acropolis, which it was the duty of the
+state to guard, and to commit to the custody of officers specially
+selected for that duty. One of these fragments is in the Elgin
+Collection at the British Museum, and has been published by Mr. Hicks
+in the "Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British
+Museum," Part 1, No 34; and the entire series has since been given to
+the world in the "Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum" of the Academy of
+Berlin, ii., Part 2., Nos. 751-65.
+
+The material of these garments seems to have been either linen or fine
+woollen; the colours white, purple, or some shade of red, mostly used
+as a border or in stripes; or a shade of green, the tint of which is
+described as "frog colour," saffron, or sea-green.
+
+The borders and patterns noted remind us of those represented on the
+garments of figures in vase pictures, such as the embattled border,
+the wave pattern, and certain patterns in rectangular compartments. A
+group of Dionysos pouring out a libation while a female serves him
+with wine, and a row of animals, are also noted among the ornaments.
+
+The inscription, "Sacred to Artemis," woven into the fabric of the
+garment, occurs twice. Gold, as an ornament fixed on the dress, is
+mentioned in these entries. It is noted that some of these dresses
+served to deck the statue of the goddess herself. Most of the garments
+are the _chiton_ or tunic, flowing to the feet; the _chitoniskos_, a
+shorter and more ornamental garment worn over it; and the mantle,
+_himation_. Pieces of cloth or rags are also mentioned among the
+entries; these were probably the remnants of cast-off garments
+dedicated by their wearers. Some of the dresses are described as
+embroidered with the needle.
+
+In the worship of the Artemis Brauronia, certain Athenian girls
+between the ages of five and ten were solemnly dedicated to the
+goddess every five years. In publishing the inventory in the British
+Museum already referred to, Mr. Hicks remarks, "It may have been the
+custom sometimes to dedicate to the goddess the garments worn by
+children at their presentation, just as we know that the garments in
+which persons had been initiated at the Greater Eleusinia were worn by
+them until threadbare, and then dedicated to some god. If so, the
+number of children's clothes mentioned in our inventory is easily
+explained. Or were these the clothes of children cut off by Artemis in
+infancy, such as bereaved mothers nowadays often treasure for years,
+having no temple wherein to dedicate them?" Mr. Hicks further remarks
+that it was usual for the bride before marriage to dedicate her girdle
+to Artemis; and at Athens the garments of women who died in childbirth
+were likewise in like manner so dedicated. It is probably on account
+of such dedications that Artemis was styled Chitonè--the goddess of
+the _chiton_.
+
+Another list of vestments is preserved in an inscription found at
+Samos, and published by Carl Curtius in his "Inschriften u. Studien
+zur Geschichte von Samos," pp. 17-21. The garments in this list were
+dedicated to the goddess Herè (Juno) in her celebrated temple at
+Samos. The entries relate chiefly to articles of female attire, but
+some few are dedicated to the god Hermes. Some of these articles were
+doubtless worn by the deities themselves on festive occasions, when
+their statues were decked out. The toilet, _kosmos_, of goddesses was
+superintended by a priestess specially chosen for that purpose. She
+was called _kosmeteira_, or "Mistress of the Robes."
+
+In the Samian list of garments, those which are embroidered or
+ornamented with gold are specially noted. Some of the tunics are
+described as Lydian. Curtains or hangings are also mentioned in this
+list. These must have been used to ornament the interior of the
+temple, or to screen off the statue of the goddess on the days when
+she was withdrawn from the gaze of the profane. Such hangings were,
+probably, a main cause of the conflagrations by which Greek temples
+were from time to time destroyed in spite of the solidity of their
+walls.
+
+
+APPENDIX II., TO PAGE 210.
+
+In the Castle of Moritzburg, built by Augustus the Strong, Elector of
+Saxony and King of Poland, is a quaint apartment, on the walls of
+which are hung rugs of feather-work, of which the borders are adorned
+with set patterns of fruit and flowers, and the colouring is as soft
+as a Gobelins tapestry. The feathers are woven tightly into the warp,
+in the same manner as the tufts are set in a velvety carpet; forming a
+surface as delicate as silk to the touch. There are four high-backed
+chairs covered with the same work in smaller patterns. But what is
+especially remarkable is an immense canopy, like that of a state bed,
+with urn-shaped ornaments of stiff feathers at the corners; and a
+pretty bell-shaped fringe of scarlet feathers. The same ornament edged
+a large rug like those on the wall, thrown over what at first appeared
+to be a bed; but on examination it was found to be a rough wooden
+platform, said to be the throne of Montezuma. The story is that
+Augustus the Strong went to Spain incognito at the age of eighteen, in
+search of adventures, and distinguished himself at a bull-fight. When
+the king (Charles II.) heard the name of the young hero, he gave him a
+hospitable reception, and afterwards sent these Mexican treasures to
+him as a token of friendship.
+
+
+APPENDIX III., TO PAGE 237.
+
+_Story of Arachne, abridged by Earl Cowper from Ovid's Metamorphoses._
+
+    Arachne's tale of grief is full:
+      Her father was of low degree;
+    No thought beyond his crimson'd wool,
+      His daughter and his wife had he.
+
+    The wife had fill'd an early tomb,
+      The daughter lived--and all the land
+    Of Lydia boasted of her loom,
+      Her needle, and her dexterous hand.
+
+    To watch her task the nymphs repair
+      From fair Timolus' vine-clad hill;
+    They deem the work divinely fair,
+      The maid when working fairer still.
+
+    The softness of the fleecy ball,
+      By skilful fingers taught to flow
+    In lengthening lines--they watch'd it all--
+      And round and round the spindle go.
+
+    Wondering, they view the rich design:
+      Ah, luckless gift! ah, foolish pride!
+    'Twas Pallas taught the art divine,
+      But this the haughty maid denied.
+
+    "Me taught," she cried, "by Pallas! Me
+      By Pallas! Let the goddess first
+    Accept my challenge. Then, should she
+      Surpass me, let her do her worst."
+
+    Vain, impious words! The goddess came
+      In likeness of an ancient crone,
+    With grizzled locks and tottering frame,
+      And spoke with warning in her tone.
+
+    "Though matchless in thine art," she cried,
+      "Though first of mortals, tempt not fate.
+    Age makes me wise. Thou hast defied
+      A goddess. It is not too late."
+
+    The unhappy maid, with madness blind,
+      Replied, and scarce restrain'd the blow.
+    "'Tis plain, old woman, that your mind
+      Is drivelling to address me so.
+
+    "Some daughter or some slave may want
+      Your counsel. Let her but appear,
+    This mighty Pallas whom you vaunt!"
+      The goddess answer'd, "She is here."
+
+    She spoke, and lo! that ancient crone
+      Was young and fair, and tall and proud:
+    --The nymphs fell prostrate. She alone--
+      Arachne--neither shrank nor bow'd.
+
+    One blush quick came and pass'd away,
+      Hovering as clouds, when night is done,
+    Grow rosy at the dawn of day,
+      Then whiten with the rising sun.
+
+    She did not shrink--she did not pause--
+      But headlong to destruction ran;
+    And thus the strife ordain'd to cause
+      Such dark calamity began.
+
+    Each for the contest takes her stand--
+      The goddess here, the mortal there--
+    And each proceeds with skilful hand
+      The means of victory to prepare.
+
+    The beam each loom supports full well,
+      And to the loom the warp is tied;
+    Nor will I now forget to tell
+      The reed that doth the warp divide.
+
+    The woof the shuttle in doth bring,
+      The nimble fingers guide its way;
+    And still from either work-frame ring
+      The blows inflicted by the slay.
+
+    Each to her bosom binds her vest:
+      The arms of each, quick moving, feel
+    No sense of toil, no need of rest,
+      For weariness is quench'd by zeal.
+
+    And all the gorgeous tints of Tyre
+      In varying shades are mingled there;
+    And every hue the sun's bright fire
+      Can kindle in the showery air,--
+
+    When the wide rainbow spans the sky;
+      The bow whose colours, in the end
+    So different, yet so like when nigh,
+      In harmony's own concord blend,--
+
+    And precious threads of glittering gold
+      Enrich the growing web. But say!
+    What ancient tale by each was told?
+      What legend of an earlier day?
+
+    Pallas her well-known triumph drew;
+      The gods assembled in their force,
+    And Neptune with his trident, too,
+      Exulting in the fiery horse,--
+
+    Which from the rock he made to bound:
+      But she herself, more deeply wise,
+    A greater blessing from the ground
+      The olive brought, and gain'd the prize.
+
+    The border of this main design
+      With Rhodope's sad tale was set;
+    And all who dared the gods divine
+      To rival--and the fate they met.
+
+    Meanwhile Arachne wove the wool:
+      The web with many a picture shone.
+    She drew Europa with her bull,
+      And Leda with her snow-white swan.
+
+    Deois with her snake display'd,
+      And Danäe with her shower of gold;
+    And many a tale besides the maid,
+      Had fate permitted, would have told.
+
+    But the dread goddess now no more
+      To check her rising envy strove;
+    The half-completed task she tore,
+      And all the pictured crimes of Jove.
+
+    The shuttle thrice the air did rend,
+      Thrice did the heaven-directed blow
+    Full on Arachne's head descend,
+      And made her purple blood to flow.
+
+    Arachne's soul was proud and high:
+      She drew a cruel cord around
+    Her tender neck--and, driven to die,
+      Was from a beam suspended found.
+
+    Her death the unpitying goddess stay'd;
+      "Henceforth, vain fool! for such a crime
+    For ever shall thou hang," she said;
+      "A warning to the end of time."
+
+    In scorn she spoke, and over all
+      Her rival's face and form she smear'd
+    A deadly drug. The head grew small,
+      And each fair feature disappear'd.
+
+    And off the beauteous tresses fell;
+      The tender waist that was so slim,
+    In loathly sort was seen to swell,
+      Shrivell'd and shrank each comely limb.
+
+    The spider's fingers still remain
+      To spin for ever.--We may vie
+    With fellow mortals, but 'tis vain
+      To struggle with the gods on high.
+
+    _January, 1885._             COWPER.
+
+
+APPENDIX IV., TO PAGE 318.
+
+_Extract from "History of Christian Art." By Lord Lindsay. Vol. i. pp.
+136-139._
+
+"But perhaps the noblest testimony to the revival under the Comneni is
+afforded by the designs on the Dalmatic or sacerdotal robe, commonly
+styled 'Di Papa San Leone,' preserved in the sacristy of St.
+Peter's--said to have been embroidered at Constantinople for the
+coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor of the West, but fixed by German
+criticism as a production of the twelfth, or the early part of the
+thirteenth century. The Emperors wore it ever after, when serving as
+deacons at the Pope's altar during their coronation-mass. You will
+think little of it at first sight, and lay it aside as a piece of
+darned and faded tapestry, yet I would stake on it, alone, the
+reputation of Byzantine art. And you must recollect, too, that
+embroidery is but a poor substitute for the informing hand and the
+lightning stroke of genius.
+
+It is a large robe of stiff brocade, falling in broad and unbroken
+folds in front and behind,--broad and deep enough for the Goliath-like
+stature and the Herculean chest of Charlemagne himself. On the breast,
+the Saviour is represented in glory, on the back the Transfiguration,
+and on the two shoulders Christ administering the Eucharist to the
+Apostles.
+
+The composition on the breast is an amplification of No. V. (as above
+enumerated) of the Personal traditional compositions.--In the centre
+of a golden circle of glory, 'Jesus Christ, the Resurrection and the
+Life,' robed in white, with the youthful and beardless face, his eyes
+directly looking into yours, sits upon the rainbow, his feet resting
+on the winged wheels[617] of Ezekiel, his left hand holding an open
+book, inscribed with the invitation, 'Come, ye blessed of My
+Father,'--his right raised in benediction. At the four corners of the
+circular glory, resting on them, half within it, half without, float
+the emblems of the four Evangelists; the Virgin and the Baptist stand
+to the right and left of our Saviour, the Baptist without, the Virgin
+entirely within the glory, the only figure that is so placed; she is
+sweet in feature and graceful in attitude, in her long white robe.
+
+Above Our Saviour's head, and from the top of the golden circle, rises
+the Cross, with the crown of thorns suspended upon it, the spear
+resting on one side, the reed with the sponge on the other, and the
+sun and moon looking down upon it from the sky.
+
+The heavenly host and the company of the blessed form a circle of
+adoration around this central glory; angels occupying the upper part,
+emperors, patriarchs, monks and nuns the lower; at the extremity, on
+the left side, appears Mary Magdalen, in her penitence--a thin
+emaciated figure, imperfectly clothed, and with dishevelled hair.
+
+In the corners, below this grand composition, appear, to the right,
+St. John the Baptist, holding the cross, and pointing upwards to Our
+Saviour; to the left, Abraham seated, a child on his lap, and resting
+his hand on another by his side.
+
+The background and scene of the whole composition is of blue, to
+represent heaven,--studded with stars, shaped like the Greek cross.
+
+The Transfiguration, which corresponds to this subject on the back of
+the robe, is the traditional composition, only varied by the unusual
+shape of the vesica piscis which encloses Our Saviour. The two
+compositions representing the Institution of the Eucharist, on the
+shoulders, are better executed and more original. In each of them, Our
+Saviour, a stiff but majestic figure, stands behind the altar, on
+which are deposited a chalice and a paten or basket containing crossed
+wafers. He gives, in the one case, the cup to St. Paul, in the other
+the bread to St. Peter,--they do not kneel, but bend reverently to
+receive it; five other disciples await their turn in each
+instance,--all are standing.
+
+I do not apprehend your being disappointed with the 'Dalmatica di San
+Leone,' or your dissenting from my conclusion, that a master, a
+Michael Angelo I might almost say, then flourished at Byzantium.
+
+It was in this Dalmatic--then _semée_ all over with pearls and
+glittering in freshness--that Cola di Rienzi robed himself over his
+armour in the sacristy of St. Peter's, and thence ascended to the
+Palace of the Popes, after the manner of the Cæsars, with sounding
+trumpets and his horsemen following him--his truncheon in his hand and
+his crown on his head--'terribile e fantastico,' as his biographer
+describes him--to wait upon the legate.[618]"
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [617] In the 'Manual of Dionysius,' recently published
+    by M. Didron (p. 71, &c.), these winged wheels are
+    interpreted as signifying the order of angels commonly
+    distinguished as Thrones. Their interpretation as the
+    Covenants of the Law and Gospel, sanctioned by St.
+    Gregory the Great in his Homilies, is certainly more
+    sublime and instructive.
+
+    [618] Cited from the original life, printed in
+    Muratori's 'Antiquit. Ital. Medii Ævi,' tom. viii., by
+    M. Sulpice Boisserée, in his essay, 'Ueber die
+    Kaiser-Dalmatica,' &c.
+
+
+APPENDIX V., TO PAGE 320.
+
+The Hon. and Rev. Ignatius Clifford has permitted me to make extracts
+from his "Memoranda of some remarkable Specimens of Ancient Church
+Embroidery." First on his list is the Cope now in the possession of
+Colonel Butler Bowden, of Pleasington, near Blackburn, Lancashire. I
+give his account of the mutilated condition, from which he has made
+his beautifully drawn restoration. "Formerly," he says, "portions of
+this cope, some made up into chasuble, stole, maniple, and some scraps
+detached, were at Mount St. Mary's College, Spink Hill, near
+Chesterfield, Derbyshire."
+
+The well-known architect, the late Augustus Welby Pugin, having seen
+them (or at least the chasuble), wrote on the 20th April, 1849, to the
+Rector of the College, "I found it to be of English work of the time
+of Edward I., and have no hesitation in pronouncing it to be the most
+interesting and beautiful specimen of church embroidery I have ever
+seen."
+
+Other portions of the cope had been made up into an altar-frontal, and
+were in the possession of Henry Bowden, Esq., of Southgate House,
+Derbyshire, some four or five miles from the college.
+
+The ground is crimson velvet. The designs are wrought in gold, silver,
+silk, and seed pearls. The silks are worked in chain, or rather in
+split stitch. It contains between seventy and eighty figures.
+
+Only two small fragments remain of the quasi-hood.
+
+In the orphrey are kings, queens, archbishops, and bishops. In the
+body of the cope are the Annunciation--Adoration of the Magi--Our Lady
+enthroned at the right of her Divine Son. _Lowest row_ of single
+figures--St. Simon, St. Jude, St. James, St. Thomas, St. Andrew, St.
+Peter, St. Paul, St. Barnabas, St. Matthew, St. Philip, St. James, St.
+Bartholomew. _Middle row_--St. Edward the Confessor--a Bishop--St.
+Margaret, St. John the Evangelist, St. John the Baptist, St.
+Catherine, an Archbishop, St. Edmund king and martyr. _Top row_--St.
+Lawrence, St. Mary Magdalene, St. Martha (or St. Helen?), St. Stephen.
+In the intervals, angels seated on faldstool thrones, and bearing
+stars; also two popinjays.
+
+Mr. Clifford describes the Steeple Aston Cope. The ground is of a
+richly ribbed faded silk. The design worked in gold and silks is
+enclosed in quatrefoils of oak and ivy. The Syon Cope he refers to
+Rock's "Textile Fabrics." See Appendix.
+
+The Dalmatic from Anagni, exhibited at Rome in 1870, he thinks is
+probably English.
+
+The Pluvial in the Basilica of St. John Lateran at Rome, he speaks of
+as "having much the appearance of the celebrated Opus Anglicanum."
+
+He describes the subjects embroidered on it thus: "No border round the
+curved edge. The orphrey is divided into tabernacles containing an
+archbishop, two bishops, and three kings and queens. Between the
+tabernacles are four angels, each accompanied by one of the
+evangelistic symbols. The body of the cope is cut into a most
+elaborate system of tabernacles, with a centre compartment of a
+different form for the group of the Crucifixion. The subjects are
+chiefly from the life of our Lord and the Blessed Virgin. The small
+quasi-hood is embroidered with two wyverns or griffin-like creatures.
+The pelican and the phoenix are introduced over the top central
+group of the enthronement of our Lady."
+
+Mr. Clifford gives the history of the Cope of Pius II. (Bartolomeo
+Piccolomini, "Æneas Silvius") fifteenth century. It is a masterpiece
+of Italian embroidery of the early Renaissance. The material was gold
+brocade, covered with wonderful designs carried out in needlework,
+representing saints and angels, trees and birds, and arabesques. The
+whole was adorned with pearls and precious stones valued at £80,000.
+At his death the pope bequeathed this vestment to the cathedral of his
+native town. The cope was stolen in March, 1884, from the treasury at
+Pienza; and shortly afterwards discovered in the shop of a dealer in
+antiquities at Florence, but completely stripped of its precious
+stones and of some of its more valuable embroidery. After magisterial
+investigation, the cope was restored to Pienza.
+
+The cope at Bologna is thus described: "Subjects from the New
+Testament contained in two rows of tabernacle compartments, twelve in
+lower, seven in upper row. Spandrils occupied by angels playing on
+various musical instruments. After each row, a border containing
+medallions with heads (of angels, prophets, &c.), twenty-three in
+lower, nine in upper row. No orphrey; no border or outside curve;
+quasi-hood very small."
+
+
+APPENDIX VI., TO PAGE 326.
+
+_From Rock's "Textiles," p. 275._
+
+"The Syon Monastery Cope; ground green, with crimson interlacing
+barbed quatrefoils, enclosing figure of our Lord, the Blessed Virgin
+Mary, the Apostles, with winged cherubim standing on wheels in the
+intervening spaces, and the orphreys, morse, and hem wrought with
+armorial bearings; the whole done in gold, silver, and various
+coloured silks. English needlework, thirteenth century; 9 feet 7
+inches by 4 feet 8 inches.
+
+"This handsome cope, so very remarkable on account of its
+comparatively perfect preservation, is one of the most beautiful among
+the several liturgical vestments of the olden period anywhere to be
+now found in Christendom. If by all lovers of mediæval antiquity it
+will be looked upon as so valuable a specimen of art of its kind and
+time, for every Englishman it ought to have a double interest,
+showing, as it does, such a splendid and instructive example of the
+opus 'Anglicum,' or English work, which won itself so wide a fame, and
+was so eagerly sought after throughout the whole of Europe during the
+Middle Ages."
+
+Dr. Rock gives a list of the subjects. St. Michael overcoming Satan
+(from Rev. xii. 7, 9). The next quatrefoil above this is filled with
+the Crucifixion. Here the Blessed Virgin is arrayed in a green tunic,
+and a golden mantle lined with vair; her head is kerchiefed, and her
+uplifted hands sorrowfully clasped. St. John--whose dress is all of
+gold--is on the left, at the foot of the cross, upon which the
+Saviour, wrought all in silver--a most unusual thing--with a cloth of
+gold wrapped about His loins, is fastened by three (not four)
+nails.... In the highest quatrefoil is figured the Redeemer in glory,
+crowned as a king, and seated on a cushioned throne. Resting upon His
+knee and steadied by His hand is the Mund, or ball representing the
+earth.... This is divided into three parts, of which the largest, an
+upper horizontal hemicycle, is coloured crimson (now faded to a
+brownish tint), but the lower hemicycle is divided vertically in two,
+of which one portion is coloured green, and the other white or
+silvered....
+
+The next two subjects to be described are--one on the right hand, the
+death of the Blessed Virgin Mary; the other, on the left, her
+burial....
+
+Below the burial we have our Lord in the garden, signified by two
+trees; still wearing the crown of thorns; our Lord in His left hand
+holds the banner of the Resurrection, and with His right bestows His
+benediction on the kneeling Magdalene, who is wimpled, and wears a
+mantle of green, shot yellow, over a light purple tunic.
+
+Below, but outside the quatrefoil, is a layman clad in gold, upon his
+knees, and holding a long, narrow scroll bearing words which cannot
+now be satisfactorily read.
+
+Lowermost of all we see the Apostle St. Philip, with a book in one
+hand, in the other the flaying knife.
+
+A little above him St. Peter, with his two keys, one gold, the other
+silver; and somewhat under him is St. Andrew with his cross. On the
+other side of St. Michael and the Dragon is St. James the
+Greater--sometimes called of Compostella, because he lies buried in
+that Spanish city--with a book in one hand and in the other a staff,
+and slung from his wrist a wallet, both emblems of pilgrimage to his
+shrine in Galicia.... In the next quatrefoil above is St. Paul with
+his sword, and over to the right St. Thomas; still further to the
+right St. James the Less. Just above is our Saviour, clad in a golden
+tunic, and carrying a staff, overcoming the unbelief of St. Thomas.
+Upon his knees that Apostle feels, with his right hand held by the
+Redeemer, the spear wound in His side.
+
+As at the left side, so here, quite outside the sacred history on the
+cope, we have the figure of an individual probably living at the time
+the vestment was wrought. The dress of the other shows him to be a
+layman; by the shaven crown of his head, this person must have been a
+cleric of some sort; but we cannot tell ... for the canvas is worn
+quite bare, so that we see nothing now but the lines drawn in black to
+guide the embroiderer.... This Churchman holds up another scroll
+bearing words which can no longer be read.
+
+"When this cope was new, it showed, written in tall gold letters more
+than an inch high, an inscription now cut up and lost ... the word
+_ne_, and a V on some of the shreds are all that remains of it.
+
+"In its original state it could give us the whole of the twelve
+Apostles. Portions can still be seen.... The lower part of the
+vestment has been sadly cut away, and reshaped with the fragments;
+perhaps at that time were added the present heraldic orphrey, morse,
+and border, probably fifty years later than the other portions of this
+matchless specimen of the far-famed 'Opus Anglicum.'" "Of angels,"
+the "nine choirs," and the three great hierarchies, Cherubim,
+Seraphim, and Thrones, are figured here. Led a good way by Ezekiel,
+but not following that prophet step by step, our mediæval draughtsmen
+found out for themselves a certain angel form. To this they gave a
+human shape, that of a comely youth; clothing him with six wings, with
+human feet; instead of the body being full of eyes, the wings are
+often composed of the bright-eyed feathers of the peacock. On this
+cope the eight angels standing upon wheels are so placed that they are
+everywhere nearest to those quatrefoils wherein our Lord's Person
+comes, and may therefore be taken as representing the upper hierarchy
+of the angelic host. The other angels, not upon wheels, no doubt
+belong to the second hierarchy; while those that have but one pair of
+wings (not three) represent the lowest hierarchy. "All, like our Lord,
+are barefoot. All of them have their hands lifted in prayer.... For
+every lover of English heraldry this cope, so plentifully blazoned
+with armorial bearings, will have a special value, equal to that
+belonging to many an ancient roll of arms." The orphrey, morse and hem
+contain the arms of Warwick, Castile and Leon, Ferrars, Geneville
+Everard, the badge of the Knights Templars, Clifford, Spencer, Lemisi
+or Lindsey, Le Botiler, Sheldon, Monteney of Essex, Champernoun,
+England, Tyddeswall, Grandeson, FitzAlan, Hampden, Percy, Chambowe,
+Ribbesford, Bygod, Roger de Mortimer, Golbare or Grove, De
+Bassingburn, with many others not recognized, and frequent
+repetitions.... "Besides their heraldry, squares at each corner are
+wrought with swans and peacocks of curious interest for every lover of
+mediæval symbolism...." These coats of arms, being mostly blazoned on
+lozenge-shaped shields, suggest that possibly they record those of the
+noble ladies who worked the border; while those on circles may be the
+arms of religious houses or donors.
+
+"A word or two upon the needlework; how it was done; and the now
+unused mechanical appliance to it after it was wrought, so observable
+on this vestment, lending its figures more effect."
+
+"We find that for the human face, all over this cope, the first
+stitches were begun in the centre of the cheek, and worked in circular
+lines, into which, after the first start, they fell, and were so
+carried on through the rest of the flesh tints.
+
+"Then with a little iron rod, ending in a small bulb slightly heated,
+were pressed down those parts of the faces worked in circles, as well
+as the wide dimple in the throat. By the hollows thus sunk a play of
+light and shadow is brought out that lends to the parts so treated a
+look of being done in low relief. Upon the lightly clothed figure of
+our Lord the same process is followed, and shows a noteworthy example
+of the mediæval knowledge of external anatomy.
+
+"We must not, however, hide from ourselves that the unequal surfaces,
+given by such a use of the hot iron to parts of the work, expose it to
+the danger of being worn by friction more than other parts, and soon
+betray the damage by their threadbare, dingy look, as is the case in
+the example just cited. The method for grounding the quatrefoils is
+remarkable for being done in a long zigzag diaper pattern (laid
+stitch)....
+
+"The stitching on the armorial bearings is the same as that now
+followed in many trifling things worked in wool (cross stitch).
+
+"The canvas (or linen) for every part of this cope is of the finest
+sort, but its crimson canvas lining is thick and coarse....
+
+"A word or two about the history of this fine cope...."
+
+Dr. Rock now enters into the history of the guilds, which included
+noble laymen and women, and members of the clergy; and tells us that
+the rolls of these associations sometimes grew to be exceedingly
+wealthy. He says that each of these guilds had usually in its parish
+church a chapel or altar of its own, splendidly provided for, to which
+offerings were spontaneously given by individuals, or by members
+clubbing together that their joint gift might be the more worthy.
+
+Perhaps the cleric and the layman worked on the cope may have been the
+donors. Dr. Rock suggests that possibly Coventry may have been the
+place of its origin, "where the famous Corpus Christi plays" (which
+this cope so well illustrates) "drew crowds every year to see them, as
+is testified by the Paston letters. Taking this old city as a centre,
+with a radius of no great length, we may draw a circle on the map
+enclosing Tamworth, tower and town, Chartley castle, Warwick,
+Charlcote, and Althorp. The lords of these broad lands would, in
+accordance with the religious feelings of those times, become brothers
+of the famous Guild of Coventry, and on account of their high rank
+find their arms embroidered on the vestments belonging to their
+fraternity. That such a pious queen as the gentle Eleanor, wife of
+Edward the First, who died 1290, should have in her lifetime become a
+sister is very likely, so that we may easily account for the
+shield--Castile and Leon."
+
+The other noble shields may possibly record munificent benefactions.
+"The whole must have taken very long in the working, and the
+probability is that it was embroidered by the nuns of some convent
+which stood in or near Coventry....
+
+"Upon the banks of the Thames at Isleworth, near London, Henry V.
+built and munificently endowed a monastery, to be called 'Syon,' for
+the nuns of St. Bridget's order. Among the earliest friends of this
+new house was a Master Thomas Graunt, an official in one of the
+Ecclesiastical Courts of the kingdom. In the Syon Nun's
+Martyrologium--a valuable MS. lately bought by the British
+Museum--this Churchman is gratefully recorded as the giver to their
+convent of several precious ornaments, of which this very cope
+seemingly is one. It was the custom for a guild or religious body to
+bestow some rich church vestment upon an ecclesiastical advocate who
+had befriended it by his pleadings before the tribunal, and thus to
+convey their thanks to him with his fee. After such a fashion this
+cope might easily have found its way, through Dr. Graunt, from
+Warwickshire to Middlesex.
+
+"At the beginning of Elizabeth's reign it went with the nuns, as they
+wandered in an unbroken body through Flanders, France, and Portugal,
+where they halted. About sixty years ago it came back again from
+Lisbon to England, and has found a home in the South Kensington
+Museum."
+
+For want of space I have been obliged to omit a great deal of Dr.
+Rock's interesting account of the Syon Cope. The reader is referred
+for further details, especially regarding the heraldry and the
+subjects in the quatrefoils, to Rock's "Textile Fabrics," pp. 275-291,
+in the South Kensington Museum (No. 9182).
+
+
+APPENDIX VII., TO PAGE 350.
+
+The Assyrians were great in fringes. Of this we can judge from their
+sculptures, in which the rich deep and broad fringe forms the ornament
+and accentuates the shaping of the garments of kings and priests and
+nobles. Loftus, in his "Babylon and Susiana," tells of the only
+actually existing remnant of their textile art of which I can find any
+record. Some terra-cotta coffins were opened at Warka (the ancient
+Erech), and in one of them was a cushion, on which the head, gone to
+dust, had reposed. It was covered with linen--fringed. Nothing else
+had survived the ages except a huge wig of false hair. Such
+fragmentary echoes from a life, a civilization, and an art dead for
+thousands of years, are curiously pathetic, and touch and startle the
+thinking mind.
+
+
+APPENDIX VIII., TO PAGE 369.
+
+The following poem from the Anglo-Saxon poem of Beowulf shows that the
+hospitable hall of the Saxon earl was hung with tapestry embroidered
+with gold.
+
+                Foela poera was
+                Much people were
+    Wera and Wifa pe pat win rued
+    Men and women who that wine house
+    Gest sele gyredon gold fag scinon
+    That guest-hall garnished. Cloths embroidered with gold
+    Web-after wagum. Wundersiòna feld
+    Those along the walls many wonderful sights
+    Sioga gustryleum para pe on swyle stara [female or Venus symbol]
+    To every person of those that gaze on such.
+
+                               Translation by Thomas Arnold.
+
+The poem of Beowulf is supposed to have been written in the early part
+of the twelfth century.
+
+The lines which follow are from a poem, recomposed from earlier sagas,
+in the beginning of the twelfth century. It serves to show that arras
+was used in bedrooms thus early in Germany.
+
+From the "Niebelungen Lied," übersetzt von Karl Simrock, p. 294.
+
+    Manche schmucke Decke von Arras da lag
+    Aus lichthellem Zeuge und manches Ueberdach
+    Aus arabischer Seides so gut sie mochte sein,
+    Darüber lagen leisten du gaben herrlicher Schein.
+
+I owe these notices to the kindness of the Rev. A. O. Winnington
+Ingram.
+
+
+APPENDIX IX., TO PAGE 362.
+
+_Abridged from Trans. by Sir G. Dasent._
+
+(_From the Ezrbyggja Saga._)
+
+In that summer in which Christianity was established by law in Iceland
+(A.D. 1000), there came a ship from off the sea out to Snowfellsness,
+in Iceland. It was a Dublin ship, and on board it were Irishmen and
+men from Sodor and the Hebrides, but few Norsemen.... On board the
+ship was a woman from the Hebrides, whose name was Thorgunna. Her
+shipmates said that they were sure she had such treasures with her as
+would be hard to get in Iceland.
+
+Thurida, the housewife at Frida, was envious and covetous of these
+precious goods, and received Thorgunna into her home in hopes, by some
+means, to possess herself of them, especially the embroidered hangings
+of a bed; but Thorgunna refused to part with them. "I will not lie in
+the straw for thee, though thou art a fine lady, and thinkest great
+things of thyself." Thorgunna made her own terms with Thurida and
+Master Harold, and set up her bed at the inner end of their hall. Her
+richly worked bed-clothes, her English sheets and silken quilt, and
+her bed-hangings and canopy were such "that men thought nothing at all
+like them had ever been seen." An air of truth is given to the whole
+story by the details. Thorgunna is described as "tall and strong and
+very stout. She was swarthy brown, with eyes set close together; her
+hair was brown and very thick. She was well-behaved in daily life, and
+went to church every morning before she went to her work." Then comes
+an account of a storm, and a rain of blood; and how Thorgunna sickened
+and died, and at her own desire was carried to be buried to Skilholt,
+which she prophesied would one day be considered holy, and that
+priests might there sing dirges over her.
+
+There is a curious and picturesque account of the two days' journey to
+Skilholt, and the adventures that befell the funeral cortége;
+including the incident of the corpse cooking the supper of the convoy
+at an inhospitable farmhouse where they had sought refuge and received
+no entertainment.
+
+On Harold's return home after the funeral, he proceeded to carry out
+the wishes of Thorgunna, who had warned him that the ownership of her
+embroidered hangings would cause trouble, and therefore she had
+desired they should be burned. Thurida, however, could not bear to
+lose them, and persuaded Harold to spare them. "After this followed
+many signs and portents, and deaths of men and women, and apparitions
+of ghosts, until Kjartan (Thurida's son) brought out all Thorgunna's
+bed-hangings and furniture, and burned them in the fire."
+
+
+APPENDIX X., TO PAGE 365.
+
+Aelfled or Athelfleda was the founder of a race of embroiderers. Their
+pedigree is as follows:--
+
+       BRITHNOD,     ===          ATHELFLEDA.
+   a Northumberland   |       She embroidered the
+  Chief or Alderman.  |  daring deeds of her husband.
+                      |
+                  LEOFLEDA. === KING OSWIC.
+                             |     Oswic's sister Aedelfleda was
+                             |  adopted by Hilda, Abbess of Whitby.
+                             |   She succeeded Hilda, and died 713.
+                             |      She was a great embroiderer.
+                  ___________|___________
+                  |          |          |
+               AELFWIN.   AELSWITH.   LEOFWED.
+                                        |
+                                      AELSWITH.
+
+Leofwed made her will in the time of King Cnut; dividing her revenue
+between her daughter Aelswith and the Abbey of Ely. Aelswith accepted
+the residence of Coveney, a small property belonging to the convent,
+and there she embroidered with her maidens. See Liber Eliensis, ed. D.
+J. Stewart, "Anglia Christiana," vol. i., 1848.
+
+
+APPENDIX XI., TO PAGE 377.
+
+In the Statutes at Large there is the following in vol. i. p. 526 (in
+old French):--
+
+2 Henry VI.
+
+A penalty on deceitful workers of gold and silver embroidery.
+
+Item. pur ceo que diverses defautes sont trovez en loveraigne de
+diverses persons occupiantz le mestier de brouderie. Ordonnez est &
+assentiez, que tout loveraigne & stuff de brouderie d'or ou d'argent
+de Cipre ou d'or de Luke melle avec laton de Spayne & mys a vent en
+deceit des lieges du Roi sont forfait au Roi ou as Seigneurs et autres
+accenz franchises d'autielx forfaitures ein quy franchise autiel
+overaigne soit trouvée et durera c'est ordinance longue parlement
+prochainement avenir.
+
+33 Henry VI.
+
+That if any Lombard or any other person, Stranger or Denizen, bring or
+cause to be brought by way of merchandize any wrought silk thrown,
+Ribbands, Laces, Corses of Silk, or any other thing wrought, touching
+or concerning the mystery of Silk women, the corses which come from
+Genoa only excepted, into any part or place of the Realm from beyond
+the Sea, that the same ... be forfeit.
+
+3 Edward IV.
+
+Whereby the importation of any wrought silk thrown, Ribbands, Laces,
+Corses of Silk, or other things wrought, concerning the craft of Silk
+women is prohibited or restrained.
+
+22 Edward IV.
+
+That no Marchant, Stranger, nor other person shall bring into the
+Realm to be sold, any Corses, Girdles, Ribbands, Laces, Coll. Silk or
+Colein Silk, thrown or wrought, upon pain of forfeiture of the same.
+
+Also Richard III. "An Act touching the bringing in of Silk Laces,
+Ribbands, &c."
+
+Also 19 Henry VII. "An Act for Silk Women."
+
+These acts appear to have been partially repealed, 3 and 5 George III.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Achilles, shield of, 33, 103.
+
+  Aelgitha, wife of Canute, embroideries by, 366.
+
+  Æsthetic, 17, 90, 339.
+
+  Agrippina, golden garment of, 143.
+
+  Alessandri Palace, Florence, 284.
+
+  Alexander the Great, 142, 299;
+    wedding tent of, 263-4;
+    pall of, 142.
+
+  Alkisthenes, mantle of, 298.
+
+  Altar, 42, 346;
+    altar-piece, 328;
+    altar-cloths, 340, 346;
+    by Queen Emma, 366.
+
+  Amasis, corselet of, 20, 308;
+    Bishop of, 299.
+
+  Anne of Brittany, 331.
+
+  Apollo of Branchidæ, 296.
+
+  Arabesque, 43, 80.
+
+  Arachne, 237.
+
+  Aragon, Catherine of, embroideries by, 383.
+
+  Aristophanes, 98.
+
+  Arras, 238, 243, 255-6, 274.
+
+  Arrazzi, 245;
+    Prince of, 249;
+    trade with, 250, 252.
+
+  Art of dress, 298;
+    of needlework, 396.
+
+  Art, Greek, 18, 35, 59, 306;
+    Egyptian, 20, 25, 34, 56-7;
+    Scandinavian, 29, 40;
+    Roman, 37, 60, 310;
+    Romanesque, 36, 323;
+    Christian, 37, 39, 300, 306, 311, 315, 317;
+    Chinese, 38, 73, 153, 155;
+    Japanese, 38, 64, 65, 393;
+    Gothic, 42, 52, 68, 307, 324;
+    Italian, 43, 311;
+    French, 46;
+    Ecclesiastical, 41, 78, 303, 305;
+    Aryan, 69, 70;
+    Celtic, 96, 273;
+    decorative, 289;
+    Lombardic, 310;
+    Pagan, 338.
+
+  Asbestos linen, 123.
+
+  Atrebates, 136, 246.
+
+  Attalus II., 142.
+
+  Auxerre, Bishop of, 242.
+
+
+  Balawat, bronze gates from, 271.
+
+  Baldachino, 170, 268, 283, 312.
+
+  Banner, 215;
+    of St. Cuthbert, 349.
+
+  Bas-relief, Assyrian, 287.
+
+  Bayeux tapestries, 367.
+
+  Beads, 332.
+
+  Bede, mention of worked palls by, 160.
+
+  Bedsteads, 282;
+    at Kenilworth, 283-4;
+    at Hampton Court, 395.
+
+  Bellini, portrait of Mahomet II., 147.
+
+  Black, 187.
+
+  Blode-bendes, or silk arm-bindings, 374.
+
+  Blue, 184, 187.
+
+  Boadicea, dress of, 87, 359.
+
+  Bombacinum or cotton, 138.
+
+  Book-coverings in library of Charles V., 289.
+
+  Borghese Palace, Rome, 277.
+
+  British Museum, sculptures in, 22;
+    vases, 31, 114;
+    frieze of Parthenon, 31;
+    mantle of Demeter, 93;
+    Egyptian dress, 93;
+    glass bowls, 101;
+    carpets from Nineveh, 105;
+    Egyptian woollen embroidery, 130;
+    fine linen printed, 134;
+    garment with gold ornaments, 144;
+    "opus pectineum" from Egypt, 236;
+    pavements, 272;
+    bronze statuette of Minerva, 297;
+    specimen of "opus Anglicanum," 376.
+
+  Brocade, 141.
+
+  Bronze age, 358;
+    statues, 359.
+
+  Brown, 187.
+
+  Buckram, 139.
+
+  Burleigh House arras, 256.
+
+  Byrri, 238.
+
+  Byssus, 134-5.
+
+  Byzantium, 306, 314.
+
+
+  Carpets, 261, 285;
+    Persian, 23, 73, 132, 188, 241, 271, 371.
+
+  Cashmere, 133.
+
+  Castle Ashby, tapestries at, 277.
+
+  Catacombs, 304.
+
+  Chair, 285;
+    chair-backs, 286.
+
+  Chaldean house, 281.
+
+  Charles I., 255, 390.
+
+  Charles V., library of, 289, 295.
+
+  Chasuble, 164;
+    by Isabella of Spain, 147;
+    at Coire, 328;
+    of St. Oswald, 362;
+    at Valencia, 381;
+    for Henry III., 374.
+
+  Chaucer, 251.
+
+  Chemmis, city of Pan, woollen trade in, 127.
+
+  Chenille, 395.
+
+  Church historical embroideries, 316.
+
+  Ciclatoun, 145.
+
+  Cinnabar, 183.
+
+  Clavus latus, 309, 337.
+
+  Cleves, Anne of, 384.
+
+  Cochineal, 184.
+
+  Code of Manu, 89.
+
+  Colour, 175-193;
+    prismatic, 177;
+    purple, 180;
+    crimson, 184;
+    copper, 184;
+    yellow, 185;
+    pure, 189, 192;
+    iodine, 190;
+    chromatic, 190;
+    Oriental, 191;
+    gas, 191;
+    foundation, 289;
+    green, 289;
+    liturgical, 305;
+    mystical, 335.
+
+  Complication, 67.
+
+  Confusion, 65.
+
+  Constantine, 306, 316.
+
+  Consutum, 214.
+
+  Contrast, 66.
+
+  Conventional, 71, 97.
+
+  Cope of St. Andrew, 144;
+    Syon, 206, 326;
+    of Boniface VIII., 320;
+    at Rheims, 321-2;
+    Daroca, 320, 376;
+    at Stoneyhurst, 348, 379;
+    of Innocent III., 369;
+    at Durham, 390.
+
+  Copper, 184.
+
+  Coral, 88, 124, 332.
+
+  Coronation robes, 295, 318, 362;
+    of St. Stephen of Hungary, 322;
+    of Charles X., 339;
+    of Edward the Confessor, 366;
+    of James II., 393.
+
+  Corselet of Amasis in temple at Lindos, in Rhodes, 20, 308.
+
+  Cotton, 137;
+    cotton trees, 138;
+    woven, 139;
+    cotton plush, 139.
+
+  Counterpane worked by Queen Catherine, 384.
+
+  Coverlets, 393.
+
+  Crewels, 133, 229, 345, 398;
+    work in, 390, 392.
+
+  Crimson, 184.
+
+  Cross, 103;
+    of St. Andrew, 144;
+    Greek, 165;
+    emblem of, 308;
+    prehistoric, 335-6.
+
+  Croyland Abbey embroideries, 366.
+
+  Crusaders, 307, 371.
+
+  Curtains, 261, 270, 272, 281, 288;
+    ordered by Sergius, 312;
+    by Pope John, 312;
+    by Stephen IV., 312.
+
+  Cushion at Hatfield, of James I.'s reign, 390.
+
+  Cuthbert, St., 144;
+    silk garments in tomb of, 163, 165, 364-5.
+
+  Cyprus bowls, 109.
+
+
+  Dado, 271.
+
+  Dais, the chamber of, 282.
+
+  Dalmatic of Charlemagne, 53, 317-18;
+    at Valencia, 381.
+
+  Damascus, 127.
+
+  Decoration, 5, 50, 70, 290, 355;
+    art of, 273.
+
+  Decorative, 81, 273.
+
+  Design, 54-81;
+    floral, 71, 345, 348;
+    English, 377;
+    by St. Dunstan, 365.
+
+  Detail, 71.
+
+  Dress, 70, 294, 301, 373;
+    Greek, 297-8;
+    Roman, 299;
+    early Christian, 300;
+    of Claudius, 360;
+    of Duke and Duchess of Buckingham, 393.
+
+  Durham Cathedral, 348.
+
+  Dyes, 183, 185, 358;
+    Indian, 187.
+
+
+  East India Company, monopoly of trade by, 388.
+
+  Ecclesiastical embroidery, 303, 327, 330, 353;
+    for images, 305;
+    priests' robes, 306;
+    materials used in, 311;
+    names of garments in, 313, 316;
+    at Durham, 316;
+    English, 332.
+
+  Edward II., 250.
+
+  Edward III., 377.
+
+  Eighteenth century decorations, 112;
+    embroidery, 393, 395.
+
+  Eleanor, Queen, crosses of, 372.
+
+  Emare, mantle of, 372.
+
+  Embroiderers' Guild, 388;
+    list of names, 373;
+    Company in Elizabeth's reign, 387, 394.
+
+  Embroideries, Babylonian and Ninevite, 22, 44, 105, 127, 132, 271,
+      299, 311, 350;
+    Greek, 31-2, 93, 103, 142;
+    German, 43, 149;
+    Italian, 43, 116, 147;
+    Spanish, 45, 150, 331, 383;
+    Portuguese, 45;
+    Scandinavian and Celtic, 68, 91, 104, 116, 131, 136, 306;
+    Egyptian, 93, 114, 130, 134, 209, 236, 271;
+    Assyrian, 93, 127, 262, 357;
+    Roman, 129, 143, 153, 313;
+    Chinese, 97, 113, 127, 151, 208;
+    Persian, 99, 266, 299;
+    Japanese, 109, 214;
+    Russian, 201, 206, 313;
+    Delphic, 272;
+    English, 319, 321, 325, 356-396;
+    spurious, in Henry VI.'s reign, 377.
+
+  Embroidery, art of, 16, 136, 173, 195, 289, 378;
+    white, 200;
+    in churches, 313, 341.
+
+  Emma, Queen, embroideries by, 366.
+
+  Enamel, 146.
+
+  Etruscan borders, 47;
+    tombs, 357.
+
+
+  Fashion, 301.
+
+  Fayoum, 39;
+    ancient Egyptian textile fabrics from, 139, 300.
+
+  Fictile vases, 31, 32, 93, 103.
+
+  Field of Cloth of Gold, 381-2.
+
+  Filatorium, 222.
+
+  Fitness, 81.
+
+  Flat, drawing on, 69-70;
+    stitches, 345.
+
+  Flavius Vopiscus, 158.
+
+  Flax, 133, 135.
+
+  Flemish work, 329.
+
+  Floral patterns, 71.
+
+  Floss silk, 374.
+
+  Flowers, 291.
+
+  Footstools, 285.
+
+  Frames, 292, 299, 371, 389.
+
+  Frescoes, 373.
+
+  Fringes, 271, 351.
+
+  Fulham, tapestry works at, 257.
+
+  Furniture, 280-293.
+
+
+  Gammadion, 104.
+
+  Gaudry, Bishop, tapestry of, 242.
+
+  Geoffrey, Abbot, 249.
+
+  Gisela, Queen, 323.
+
+  Giustini Palace, Florence, 277.
+
+  Gobelins, 131, 237, 247-8, 275, 277.
+
+  Gold, 140, 143;
+    threads, 346;
+    Gothic design in, 75, 377;
+    embroideries, 202;
+    needlework for Elinor of Aquitaine, 369;
+    Spanish lace, 381;
+    caskets, 389.
+
+  Gradation, 67.
+
+  Green, 187.
+
+  Gregory Nazianzen, 160.
+
+  Grey, 187.
+
+  Grotesque, 43.
+
+  Guimp, 163, 223.
+
+
+  Hair, 133.
+
+  Hampton Court, 288, 384;
+    bed at, worked by Mrs. Pawsey, 395.
+
+  Hand-looms, 374.
+
+  Hangings, 243, 260-274;
+    of the Hebrew Sanctuary, 262;
+    of Alexander's tent, 263;
+    portraits on, 265;
+    in Kosroes' "white palace," 268;
+    on Greek vases, 269;
+    in Pompeii, 269;
+    saffron, mentioned by Euripides, 272;
+    French, sixteenth century, 274;
+    modern French, 275;
+    in Holland House, 276;
+    in Florence, 277;
+    in Rome, 277;
+    English, from time of Harold to Edward IV., and others, 370, 384,
+        392-3.
+
+  Harmonies, 66.
+
+  Hawaiian royal mantle, 209.
+
+  Helen, 33.
+
+  Helena, Empress, 316, 360.
+
+  Hemp, 121.
+
+  Henry II., mantle of, 203, 323.
+
+  Henry VIII., manufacture of tapestry in reign of, 252;
+    embroidery, 302, 369, 384-5.
+
+  Hephæstion, catafalque of, 267.
+
+  Hexameron work of St. Ambrose and St. Basil, 333.
+
+  Holland House, 276.
+
+  Homer, 11, 19, 33, 130.
+
+  Hom, the sacred, 99, 334.
+
+
+  Icelandic Sagas, 273, 362.
+
+  Illumination, 273, 305, 310, 363.
+
+  Imperial, a silk tissue, 161.
+
+  India, arts of, 7, 27, 75, 83, 311;
+    Museum, 89, 285.
+
+  Indian carving, 75;
+    shawls, 133;
+    cotton fabrics, 138;
+    dyes, 187;
+    embroideries, 284, 299;
+    manufactures, 389, 391, 394.
+
+  Inscriptions, 105, 146, 341;
+    woven in, 168;
+    in tapestry, 242, 375.
+
+  Isabella of France, 331;
+    of Spain, 384.
+
+
+  Jacket in Lady Waterford's collection, 386.
+
+  James I., manufacture of tapestry in reign of, 254;
+    portrait of, 255;
+    work in reign of, 387, 388.
+
+  Josephus, 9.
+
+  Juno, toilet of, 297.
+
+  Jute, 121.
+
+
+  Kells, Book of, 30.
+
+  Khotan, Prince of, 156.
+
+  Kosroes' hangings, 261, 268.
+
+  Kunigunda, Empress, 203, 323.
+
+
+  Lace, 222-235;
+    bone, 225;
+    yak, 225;
+    needle-made, 227;
+    ancient lace-books, 228;
+    stitches, 229;
+    Venetian, 229;
+    Burano, 230;
+    list of, 231;
+    blond, 232;
+    schools in France, 233;
+    for ecclesiastical purposes, 233;
+    bobbin, 234;
+    Limerick, 234;
+    Irish, 234;
+    Honiton, 234;
+    Spanish, 383.
+
+  Lambeth tapestry works, 257;
+    missal at, 30.
+
+  Lares, 291.
+
+  Leather, 123.
+
+  Lilac, 187.
+
+  Linen, 357-8.
+
+  Lombardic, 310, 323.
+
+  Lotus, 89, 102, 105.
+
+  Louis XIV., 46, 247, 276, 332, 393.
+
+  Louis XV., 47, 110, 247, 276, 332.
+
+  Louis XVI., 332.
+
+  Lyons, 151, 167, 345.
+
+
+  Maniple of St. Cuthbert, 144;
+    in Durham library, 364.
+
+  Mantle of Demeter, 93;
+    of Ajax, 103;
+    of Servius Tullius, 129;
+    of Alkisthenes, 299;
+    of Gisela, 323;
+    of King Wiglaf, 363-4.
+
+  Manu, Code of, 314.
+
+  Manufactures of Nineveh and Babylon, 127;
+    at Lyons, 151;
+    of silk, 160;
+    at Palermo, 161.
+
+  Marcus Aurelius, 158.
+
+  Mark's, St., Venice, 346.
+
+  Mary, Queen of Scots, 387.
+
+  Mary's, St., Hall, Coventry, 250, 379.
+
+  Melito, Bishop of Sardis, book on Symbolism by, 333.
+
+  Middle Ages, 12, 23, 42, 73, 125, 137, 145, 168, 183, 202, 239, 242,
+      249, 273, 307, 315.
+
+  Mitre at Milan, 211;
+    of St. Thomas à Becket, 321, 369.
+
+  Monks of St. Florent, Saumur, 242;
+    of Cluny, 242;
+    of Fleury, 242;
+    in England, 249;
+    of St. Alban's, 251.
+
+  Monuments, 373.
+
+  Morris, William, 290.
+
+  Mosaics, 40, 300, 314;
+    Empress Theodora's dress figured in, 41, 93;
+    of Sta. Pudenziana, 306, 317;
+    early Christian, 314;
+    in Sta. Maria Maggiore, 117, 322.
+
+  Mummy-wrappings, 21.
+
+  Museum, Cluny, 247, 275, 277;
+    at Boulac, 56.
+
+  Muslin, 139.
+
+  Mycenæ, tomb of Agamemnon at, 19;
+    lion's gate of, 304.
+
+
+  Needle, the first, 14, 357;
+    bronze, steel, 195, 213;
+    bone, 358.
+
+  Nimroud, 24.
+
+  Nineteenth century, style of, 49, 339.
+
+  Normans, 366.
+
+  Northumberland House, tapestries at, 257.
+
+  Nunneries, 10.
+
+
+  Opus Alexandrinum, 117.
+
+  Opus Anglicanum, 325, 376.
+
+  Orange, 187.
+
+  Order, 59.
+
+  Oriental work, 392.
+
+  Orphrey, 368-9.
+
+  Oudenarde "hallings" or "salles," 252.
+
+
+  Painting, 4.
+
+  Palermo, silk-weaving at, 165, 307.
+
+  Pall of Alexander, 142;
+    at Dunstable, 251, 378;
+    of London Companies, 329, 379.
+
+  Pamphile silk-weaver, 152.
+
+  Panels, 69, 79.
+
+  Patchwork, 117;
+    appliqué, 214, 325, 392.
+
+  Patterns, 82-117;
+    wave, 62, 114;
+    key, 63, 97;
+    Oriental, 84, 99;
+    lotus, 89, 102;
+    animal, 93;
+    lily, 95;
+    rose, 95;
+    palm leaf on shawl, 96;
+    sacred hom, 99;
+    pine-apple, 100;
+    honeysuckle, 101;
+    egg and tongue, 102;
+    cross, 103;
+    crenelated, 104;
+    Renaissance, 108;
+    cloud, 109, 338;
+    fundata or netted, 109;
+    wheel, 110;
+    Moorish, 110;
+    Sicilian, 111;
+    shell, 112;
+    Indian balcony, 112;
+    chrysoclavus or palmated, 113;
+    wicker and lattice-work, 113;
+    bead, 114;
+    daisy, 114;
+    geometrical, 115;
+    German and Venetian books of, 206;
+    feather, 208;
+    Persian, 241;
+    check, 270;
+    metal-work, 325;
+    Roës, or wheel and plate, 336-7;
+    Indian dimity, 394.
+
+  Peacocks, 163, 211;
+    feathers, 376.
+
+  Pearls, 332, 362, 383, 389.
+
+  Pectineum, 235.
+
+  Penates, 291.
+
+  Penelope, bridal couch of, 281.
+
+  Peplos of Athene, 32.
+
+  Père Labbé, 242.
+
+  Persian carpets, 23, 73, 98, 132, 241, 266, 271;
+    rugs, 94;
+    silks, 153.
+
+  Perspective, 70.
+
+  Peter's, St., Rome, 346.
+
+  Pheidias, 59.
+
+  Phoenicians, 7, 21, 125, 176, 357;
+    bowls from Cyprus, 109.
+
+  Phrygium, 202.
+
+  Pictorial art, 79, 331.
+
+  Plâteresque, 45.
+
+  Plumarii, 207, 212.
+
+  Plush, 221.
+
+  Pluvial of St. Silvester, 319;
+    at Bologna, 320;
+    at Aix, 351;
+    Daroca, 376.
+
+  Polymita, 87.
+
+  Pompeii, 269.
+
+  Portraits of Charles V., 295;
+    of Richard II. at Wilton House, 372;
+    of fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 379;
+    in needlework in reign of James I., 388.
+
+  Portuguese silks, 394.
+
+  Progression, 64.
+
+  Proportion, 64, 291.
+
+  Pulvinarium, 204.
+
+  Purl, 387.
+
+  Purple, 187.
+
+
+  Queen Anne, style in reign of, 46, 49, 88, 391, 394.
+
+  Queen Elizabeth, embroidery of, 385-6;
+    style in reign of, 389.
+
+  Queen Mary of Hungary, 330.
+
+  Queen Matilda, 367.
+
+
+  Radiation, 67.
+
+  Raphael, 44, 245;
+    cartoons of, 255.
+
+  Renaissance, 26, 43, 45, 75, 108, 308, 329, 380, 383.
+
+  Repetition, 62.
+
+  Reredos at St. Alban's, 249, 347;
+    of Vintners' Company, 251.
+
+  Richard Coeur de Lion, 374.
+
+  Robes of Julius Cæsar, 153;
+    of Childeric, 144;
+    of Bishop Adhelme, 361;
+    of St. Thomas à Becket, 369.
+
+  Roger, King of Sicily, transports silk-weavers from Greece, 161.
+
+  Roman silks, 160;
+    fashions, 299.
+
+  Romanesque, 36, 306, 323, 362, 364.
+
+  Roses, Wars of, 371, 372-3, 378.
+
+  Rugs, 285.
+
+  Runic art, 29, 306.
+
+
+  Samit, 145.
+
+  Sampler of Henry VII.'s reign, 379-80.
+
+  Saracenicum, 240.
+
+  Satin, 161, 170;
+    of Bruges, 171.
+
+  Scarlet, 182, 187, 189.
+
+  School of Art Needlework, South Kensington, 219, 288, 392;
+    rise of, 396-7;
+    list of work executed at, 398;
+    designs for, 398.
+
+  Schools, branch of Art Needlework, 397.
+
+  Screens, 261, 287.
+
+  Sculptures, 4, 353.
+
+  Seam, 198.
+
+  Seres, 154, 160.
+
+  Seventh century work, 361-2.
+
+  Sewing, plain, 197.
+
+  Shells, 88, 124, 190.
+
+  Sicilian patterns, 111;
+    embroideries, 124;
+    textile designs, 162, 341;
+    silk manufactures, 168;
+    fabrics, 315;
+    ecclesiastical designs, 331.
+
+  Sicily, textile art in, 41, 307.
+
+  Si-ling-chi, Empress, inventor of unwinding the cocoon, 156.
+
+  Silk, origin of, 151;
+    first woven by Pamphile at Cos, 300 B.C., 152;
+    Roman and Chinese, 153, 160;
+    trade in, 153;
+    in cocoon, 153, 156;
+    wild silk in China, 154-5;
+    attire mentioned in Latin poets, 157;
+    silken robes sold by Marcus Aurelius, 158;
+    garments given by Emperor Carinus, 158;
+    edict of Diocletian, with prices of articles, 159;
+    silk mentioned by poets and historians from first to sixth century,
+        159;
+    silkworm, 159;
+    monopoly of silk manufactures in Constantinople, 159;
+    first allusion to use of silk in Christian Church, 160;
+    palls of silk brought from Rome, A.D. 685, 160;
+    Bede's remains wrapped in silk, 160;
+    specimens of silk in Auberville's "Tissus," silk tissues called
+        "Imperial," 161.
+
+  Silk-weavers, Jewish, at Thebes in 1161, 161;
+    transported by Roger, King of Sicily, from Greece to Palermo, 161,
+        165;
+    description of Royal manufactory at Palermo, by Hugh Falcandus,
+        twelfth century, 161;
+    three periods in Sicily, 162-3;
+    Saracenic, in India, 166-7;
+    Italian, in Lyons, 1450, 167, 169;
+    Spanish at Malaga and Almeria, 168;
+    in Hungary under Queen Gisela, 169;
+    in the Flemish towns, 170;
+    Asiatic, 170.
+
+  Smock of Mary Tudor, 385.
+
+  Society of Arts, Birmingham, 292.
+
+  Sofas, 285.
+
+  Spangles, 146.
+
+  Spanish Armada, hangings, 253.
+
+  Sphinx, 265.
+
+  Spinning, 357.
+
+  Stamford, Arras woven at, 256, 257.
+
+  Stitches, 194-259;
+    lists of, 196;
+    gold, 203;
+    mosaic, 204;
+    cushion, 204;
+    plumage, 207;
+    satin, 214;
+    sampler, 234;
+    ecclesiastical, 345;
+    stem, 214.
+
+  Stole, 308;
+    at Durham, 364;
+    of Aelfled, Queen of Edward II., 364.
+
+  Style, 14-53.
+
+  Sun-cross, Egyptian, 337.
+
+  Sunflower, 91;
+    radiated pattern of, 111.
+
+  Surcoat of Black Prince, 373.
+
+  Swastika, 103.
+
+  Symbolism, 59, 95, 98, 307, 333, 334-5, 352.
+
+  Symmetry, 63-4.
+
+
+  Table covers, 287.
+
+  Tanaquil, robes worked by, 129.
+
+  Tapestry, 235-259;
+    in British Museum, 236;
+    woven, 237;
+    of Charles, Duke of Burgundy, 243;
+    Gobelins, 237;
+    Arras, 238;
+    Saracenic, 240;
+    at Brussels, 245;
+    French, 245;
+    Italian, 245;
+    English, 248, 277;
+    revival of, at Windsor, 257;
+    in Cluny Museum, 277.
+
+  Taste, 52;
+    Oriental, 388.
+
+  Tau, 335.
+
+  Tent, funeral, of an Egyptian queen, 25, 215;
+    of Antar, 263;
+    of Nadir Shah, 263;
+    of Alexander, 264;
+    of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 264-5;
+    Persian, 265.
+
+  Textile art, 45, 59, 74, 77, 93, 104, 107, 174, 176, 187, 205, 307, 310.
+
+  Thebes, silk-weavers of, 161.
+
+  "Tissus" of Auberville, 160.
+
+  Titian, 178.
+
+  Toga, 338.
+
+  Tomb of Agamemnon, 19;
+    of Rameses, 20;
+    of warrior at Kuban, 129;
+    in Crimea, 130, 217;
+    Anglo-Saxon, 144;
+    of St. Cuthbert at Durham, 163.
+
+  Trabea, 309, 337.
+
+  Tree of Life, 336.
+
+  Triptych in Cluny Museum, 211;
+    at Zurich, 328.
+
+  Tyrian purple, 180, 289.
+
+
+  Ulysses, 281.
+
+
+  Vatican, Etruscan gold ornament, 21, 295, 300.
+
+  Veil of Temple, 22;
+    classical, 261, 265, 311, 312;
+    for pyx, 350;
+    of Hebrew sanctuary, 311, 351.
+
+  Velvet, 76, 345, 347;
+    stoles, 161, 172, 221;
+    pall, 378.
+
+  Venetian red, 289;
+    style, 306.
+
+  Vestments, 313, 326;
+    Italian, 329;
+    Spanish, 331;
+    modern, 343;
+    set presented to Romsey and Croyland by Canute, 366, 370;
+    set bequeathed to Westminster Abbey by Henry VII., 379.
+
+
+  Watteau, school of, 248.
+
+  Welby, Lady, founder of School of Art Needlework, South Kensington, 396.
+
+  Wiglaf, King, 362.
+
+  William and Mary, 393.
+
+  Wilton carpet works, 190.
+
+  Windsor, 257, 398.
+
+  Wool, 125, 127, 130;
+    Berlin, 395.
+
+  Worcester, dress in tomb of Walter de Cantilupe, 320;
+    cope of William of Blois, 322;
+    tomb of King John, 373.
+
+  Workhouse sheeting, 140.
+
+  Wroxton House, Arras at, 256.
+
+
+  York, Archbishop of, Arras with design of the Four Seasons, 255.
+
+
+  Zoroaster, 101.
+
+
+
+
+ERRATA.
+
+
+  Page xv, line 27, _for_ Albert Castet _read_ Albert Castel.
+    "  10,   "  24, _read_ as that of an important factor.
+    "  17,   "  22, _for_ slow _read_ swift.
+    "  26,   "  16, _for_ art _read_ artistic.
+    "  42,   "  16, _for_ are _read_ were.
+    "  56,   "   5, _read_ advance of them, in the earliest.
+    "  66,   "  21, _for_ we _read_ I.
+    "  75,   "  20, _for_ These _read_ Those.
+    " 101,   "  18, _for_ from Cervetri, in Southern Italy, _read_ from
+                      a tomb at Chiusi, in Etruria.
+    " 156,   "   8, _for_ Chin _read_ Chan.
+    " 195,   "  20, _for_ 6, 7. Bone needles from Neolithic cave-man's
+                      grave, _read_ 6. Cave-man's needle from the
+                      Pinhole, Churchfield, Ereswell Crag. 7. Bone
+                      needle from La Madeleine, Dordogne.
+    " 198,   "   5, footnote, _for_ act _read_ art.
+    " 208,   "   3, footnote, _for_ "Arte Plumarii" _read_ "Arte
+                      Plumaria."
+    " 237,   "   8, _for_ which prove _read_ proving.
+    " 239,   "  17, _delete_ " _after_ of art."
+    "  "     "  18, _insert_ " _after_ backwards.
+    " 242,   "   9, _for_ in the Crimea _read_ at Chiusi.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Page 202--the marker for footnote 2 was missing in the original. The
+transcriber has estimated where it should have been, based on the text
+and reference material therein.
+
+Page 303 includes an excerpt from Psalm 45, with quoted verse numbers
+of 10, 14 and 15. These should be verses 9, 13 and 14.
+
+Archaic spelling is preserved as printed. Variable spelling,
+hyphenation and use of accents has been made consistent where there
+was a clear prevalence of one form over the other, or with reference
+to reliable sources; otherwise, these are preserved as printed.
+Typographic errors, e.g. omitted, superfluous or transposed letters,
+and punctuation errors have been repaired. Other amendments are as
+follows:
+
+    Plate 71--precipit amended to precepit and omitted word
+    'pio' added--"... Aelfled fieri precepit pio Episcopo
+    Fridestano."
+
+    Page xx--3 amended to 9--"From Layard's "Monuments,"
+    Series i. pl. 9."
+
+    Page xxi--Edward amended to Richard--"6. Badge of
+    Richard II."
+
+    Page xxii--John amended to Mark--"ST. MARK. Anglo-Saxon
+    Book of the Gospels."
+
+    Page 115--5. removed from beginning of section title,
+    for consistency with others in that chapter, "GEOMETRICAL."
+
+    Page 197--Encyclopedia amended to Cyclopædia--"The
+    second list is from Rees' "Cyclopædia" (Stitches), 1819
+    ..."
+
+    Page 311--des Antiquités amended to Royale des
+    Antiquaires--""... par la Société Royale des Antiquaires
+    du Nord" ..."
+
+    Page 316--Lwewelig amended to Wledig--"... and in the
+    Welsh ballad of "The Dream of Maxen Wledig" ..."
+
+    Page 316, footnote 502--Pallison's amended to
+    Palliser's--"See Mrs. Palliser's "Lace," p. 4."
+
+    Page 320--T. amended to I.--"... (see Hon. and Rev. I.
+    Clifford's list of embroideries in Appendix 5)."
+
+    Page 331--Riario amended to Riano--"Don Juan F. Riano[533]
+    says that Toledo is a perfect museum ..."
+
+    Page 331, footnote 533--Riario amended to Riano--"See "The
+    Industrial Arts of Spain," pp. 250-264, by Don Juan F.
+    Riano, ..."
+
+    Page 417--350 amended to 348--"Design, ... floral, 71, 345,
+    348; ..."
+
+    Page 417--210 amended to 109--"Embroideries, ... Egyptian,
+    93, 114, 130, 134, 209, 236, 271; ..."
+
+    Page 419--47 amended to 46 and 308 amended to 276--"Louis
+    XIV., 46, 247, 276, 332, 393."
+
+    Page 419--167 amended to 93--"Mosaics, ... Empress Theodora's
+    dress figured in, 41, 93; ..."
+
+    Page 419--306 amended to 117--"Mosaics, ... in Sta. Maria
+    Maggiore, 117, 322."
+
+    Page 420--index entries for 'Pall' and 'Pamphile,' which
+    originally followed the entry for 'Pattern,' have been moved
+    to their correct places.
+
+    Page 421--399 amended to 345--"Stitches, ... ecclesiastical,
+    345; ..."
+
+There are a number of discrepancies between the information in the
+list of illustrations (LOI) and the information on the plates
+themselves. Some of these are simple omission, others involve
+conflicting information. The transcriber has resolved and repaired
+some of these differences with reference to alternative sources. In
+general, it seems that the information on the plate is correct. Those
+that could not be resolved are as follows:
+
+    Pl. 5--LOI has "Journal Asiatique,
+    Syro-Egyptien-Phoenicien." Plate has "Journal
+    Asiatique, Coupe de Palestrina."
+
+    Pl. 9--LOI has "sixteenth century." Plate has
+    "seventeenth century."
+
+    Pl. 10--LOI has "5, 6, 7. Egyptian smooth and rippling
+    wave pattern." Plate has "5, 6, 7. Egyptian Smooth and
+    Rippling Water Patterns."
+
+    Pl. 10--LOI has "10, 11, 14. Babylonian and Chaldean."
+    Plate has "10, 11, 14. Assyrian."
+
+    Pl. 11--LOI omits Assyrian references.
+
+    Pl. 12--LOI has "2, 3. Egyptian. 4, 5. Greek." Plate has
+    "2, 3. Indian Lotus Patterns. 4, 5. Egyptian Lotus
+    Patterns."
+
+    Pl. 15--LOI has "Book of Kells." Plate has "Lindisfarne
+    Gospels."
+
+    Pl. 20--LOI has "1, 2, 3. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian Silk. 5.
+    Mediæval." Plate has "1, 2, 3, 5. Assyrian. 4.
+    Sicilian Silk."
+
+    Pl. 28--LOI has "1. Dress patterns from old MS. 2, 3.
+    Old English tiles." Plate has "1, 2. Gothic tiles. 3.
+    Gothic Border of a Dress. 4. Gothic Vine."
+
+    Pl. 31--LOI omits mention of a third Egyptian fundata
+    pattern.
+
+    Pl. 32--LOI references "Bock's Lit. Gew. ii. p. 246."
+    Plate references "Vol i. taf. xi."
+
+    Pl. 35--LOI omits mention of a peacock pattern. Plate
+    omits mention of Persian type.
+
+    Pl. 41--The source of the examples are either omitted or
+    different on the LOI to those given on the plate.
+
+    Pl. 68--LOI has "sixteenth century." Plate has
+    "fifteenth century."
+
+    Pl. 70--LOI has "A.D. 434." Plate has "sixth century."
+
+    Pl. 72--LOI "ST. GREGORY AND ST. JOHN (PROPHET)." Plate
+    has "St. John" and "St. Roger."
+
+    Pl. 74--LOI gives different title for Strutt's book to
+    that given on the plate. From research, it seems that
+    the short title is actually "The Regal and
+    Ecclesiastical Antiqities of England."
+
+    Pl. 76--LOI has "twelfth century." Plate has "XIII.
+    century."
+
+Illustrations have been moved where necessary so that they are not in
+the middle of a paragraph. Some of the plates do not have numbers on
+the plate themselves.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Needlework As Art, by Marian Alford
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEEDLEWORK AS ART ***
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Needlework As Art, by Marian Alford
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Needlework As Art
+
+Author: Marian Alford
+
+Release Date: November 14, 2009 [EBook #30472]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEEDLEWORK AS ART ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller, jenniemuse, Sam W. and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<p><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+<p>The original text contained an errata list. The corrections have been made
+to this text, and the list moved to the end of the book for reference purposes
+only.</p>
+
+<p>There are a few less common characters in this text, including u with breve, &#365;,
+and a female/Venus symbol, &#9792;. If these do not display properly, you may
+need to adjust your browser font settings.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<h1 class="padtop">NEEDLEWORK AS ART</h1>
+
+<p class="center padtop">BY</p>
+
+<h2>LADY M. ALFORD</h2>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadboth" style="width: 142px;">
+<img src="images/naa01.jpg" width="142" height="250"
+alt="Floral decoration" />
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="center padtop">London:<br />
+SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, AND RIVINGTON,<br />
+<small>CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.<br />
+1886.</small></p>
+
+<p class="center padbase"><small>[<i>All rights reserved.</i>]</small></p>
+
+<p class="center padtop padbase">&mdash;&mdash;<br />
+<small>LONDON:<br />
+PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,<br />
+ST. JOHN&rsquo;S SQUARE.</small></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 237px;">
+<a name="pl00" id="pl00"></a>
+<img src="images/naap00t.jpg" width="237" height="400"
+alt="Penelope at her loom, reproached by her son Telemachus" />
+<p class="link"><a href="images/naap00.jpg">See larger image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">TELEMACHUS <span class="space">&nbsp;</span> PENELOPE</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="center padtop padbase">DEDICATED BY PERMISSION<br />
+<br />
+<small>TO</small><br />
+<br />
+<big>THE QUEEN.</big></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p class="center padtop"><small>TO</small></p>
+
+<p class="center lrgfont">THE QUEEN.</p>
+
+
+<div class="smlblock">
+<p><i>Your Majesty&rsquo;s most gracious acceptance of the Dedication of my
+book on &ldquo;Needlework as Art&rdquo; casts a light upon the subject that
+shows its worthiness, and my inability to do it justice. Still,
+I hope I may fill a gap in the artistic literature of our day,
+and I venture to lay my work at your Majesty&rsquo;s feet with
+loyal devotion.</i></p>
+
+<p class="sig padbase">MARIAN M. ALFORD.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>vii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>In the Preface to the &ldquo;Handbook of Art Needlework,&rdquo;
+which I edited for the Royal School at South Kensington
+in 1880, I undertook to write a second part, to be devoted
+to design, colour, and the common-sense modes of treating
+decorative art, as applied especially to embroidered
+hangings, furniture, dress, and the smaller objects of
+luxury.</p>
+
+<p>Circumstances have, since then, obliged me to reconsider
+this intention; and I have found it more practicable
+to cast the information which I have collected from
+Eastern and Western sources into the form of a separate
+work, which in no way supersedes or interferes with the
+technical instruction supposed to be conveyed in a handbook.
+I have found so much amusement in learning
+for myself the history of the art of embroidery, and in
+tracing the beginnings and the interchanges of national
+schools, that I cannot but hope that I may excite a
+similar interest in some of my readers, and so induce
+those who are capable, to help and lift it to a higher
+place than it has been allowed in these latter days to
+occupy. If I have given too important a position to
+the art of needlework, I would observe that while I have
+been writing, decorative embroidery has come to the front,
+and is at this moment one of the hobbies of the day;
+and I would point out that it contains in itself all the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>viii]</a></span>
+necessary elements of art; it may exercise the imagination
+and the fancy; it needs education in form, colour,
+and composition, as well as the craft of a practised hand,
+to express its language and perfect its beauty.</p>
+
+<p>I confess that when I undertook this task, I did not
+anticipate the time I have had to spend in collecting
+and epitomizing the many notices to be found in German,
+French, and English authors, on what has been considered
+among us, at least in this century, as merely a
+secondary art, and therefore, as such, of little importance.
+Cursory notices of needlework are scattered through
+almost every book on art; and under the head of textiles
+it is usual to find embroidery acknowledged as being
+worthy of notice, though not to be named in company
+with sculpture, architecture, or painting, however beautifully
+or thoughtfully its works may be carried out. I
+have tried to show that it deserves higher estimation.</p>
+
+<p>My first intention was simply to consider <span class="smcap">Style</span>, good
+or bad, as it influences our embroidery of to-day, and to
+find some rules by which to guide that of the future in
+its next phase. But when we search into the fluctuations
+of style, and their causes, we find they have an historical
+succession, and that we must begin at the beginning and
+trace them through the life of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>This led me to attempt a sketch of consecutive styles,
+their overlap and variations.</p>
+
+<p>I then found that <span class="smcap">Design</span>, <span class="smcap">Patterns</span>, <span class="smcap">Stitches</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Materials</span>, each require a separate study.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Colour</span>, as applied to dyes, claims to be regarded as
+differing from pigments on the painter&rsquo;s palette.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hangings</span>, <span class="smcap">Dress</span>, and <span class="smcap">Ecclesiastical Embroideries</span>
+each require different rules, and the study of the best
+examples of past centuries. Finally, it seems natural
+to dwell on our own proficiency in decorative work.
+<span class="smcap">English Embroidery</span> has always excelled; and, as we
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>ix]</a></span>
+have again returned to this occupation, it is worth while
+to recollect what we have done of old.</p>
+
+<p>In writing chapters on these subjects, I have found it
+most convenient to separate the historical and &aelig;sthetic
+questions from the technical rules, and the instruction
+which naturally belongs to a handbook, of which the
+purpose should be to teach the easiest and most orthodox
+manner of executing the simplest, and elaborating the
+finest works. Such questions ought not to be overlaid
+with arch&aelig;ological inquiries, or with the information
+which only profits the designer; though of course it is
+best that the knowledge of design should be part of the
+education of the craft.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps I may be found to have written a book too
+shallow for the learned, too deep for the frivolous, too
+technical for the general public, and too diffuse for the
+specialist of the craft.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>I must deprecate these criticisms by saying that I have
+written it for the benefit of those who know nothing of
+the art, and are too much engaged to seek information
+here and there; who yet, being women, have to select
+and to execute ornamental needlework; or, being artists,
+are vexed at the incongruities and want of intention in
+the decorations in daily domestic use; I have also
+sought to help the designer, that he or she may know
+something of the history of patterns and stitches.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>x]</a></span>
+If my readers should be aware of repetitions, they must
+forgive them; remembering that the same idea has to
+be looked at sometimes from a different point of view,
+according to the use to which it is to be fitted. The
+same material may be employed for wall-hangings and
+dress, and then the principles which have been formulated
+have to be varied. I do not shrink from repetitions if
+they make my meaning clear, remembering the Duke of
+Wellington&rsquo;s direction to his private secretary, &ldquo;Never
+mind repetitions; and <em>dot</em> your i&rsquo;s.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Portions of these chapters have been already published
+in No. 49 of the <i>Nineteenth Century</i>,<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a> in 1881; and more
+was delivered in three unpublished lectures the same
+year.</p>
+
+<p>I have acknowledged and noted on each page my
+authorities for the facts I have quoted. The illustrations
+that are not original, have been copied from other works
+by permission of authors and publishers. To all of these
+I wish to express my obligations and thanks, especially
+to Mr. Villiers Stuart, Dr. Anderson, Sir G. Birdwood,
+and Sir H. Layard, for their courtesy in allowing me
+the use of their plates. To my old and valued friend,
+Mr. Newton, I wish to express my gratitude for his
+unstinted gifts of time and trouble, bestowed in criticizing
+and correcting my book, encouraging me to give it to
+the public, and making it more worthy of publication.</p>
+
+<p>I have largely quoted Charles Blanc (&ldquo;Ornament in
+Dress,&rdquo; English translation), Von Bock (&ldquo;Liturgische
+Gew&auml;nder&rdquo;), Dr. Rock (&ldquo;The Church of our Fathers&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Introduction to Textiles&rdquo;), Semper (&ldquo;Der Stil&rdquo;),
+Yates (&ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum&rdquo;), and Yule (&ldquo;Marco
+Polo&rdquo;), besides many others. But these authorities
+often differ, and, after weighing their arguments, I have
+ventured to select for my use the facts and theories
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xi]</a></span>
+which accord with my own views. Facts are often so
+interdependent and closely linked, that it requires great
+care to distinguish where they have been shaped or
+coloured (however unintentionally) to fit each other or
+the writer&rsquo;s preconceived ideas. Certain it is that facts
+are but useless heaps till the thread of a theory is found
+on which to hang them. This process, like that of
+stringing pearls, has to be often repeated, till each occupies
+its right place. Only those who have adopted and
+cherished a theory can appreciate the pain of cutting the
+thread, to displace what appeared to be a pearl, but which,
+from its false position as to date or place, or its doubtful
+origin, has proved only an empty manufactured glass
+bead of error.</p>
+
+<p>This has happened to me more than once; and since
+I read my lectures I have had to change my opinions
+in several instances. If, therefore, any of my readers
+should observe such changes, I hope they will give me
+credit for trying to convey <em>now</em> what appears to me on
+each subject a correct impression.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a>
+Besides the art, I have sought to give something of the arch&aelig;ology
+of needlework. Now the qualifications for being a teacher on such
+subjects are rarely to be met with, all combined. Mr. Newton, in his
+&ldquo;Essays on Art and Arch&aelig;ology,&rdquo; p. 37, says that &ldquo;the arch&aelig;ologist
+should combine with the &aelig;sthetic culture of the artist, and the trained
+judgment of the historian and the philologist, that critical acumen,
+required for classification and interpretation; nor should that habitual
+suspicion which must ever attend the scrutiny and precede the warranty
+of evidence, give too sceptical a bias to his mind.&rdquo; Such
+authorities have been interrogated on each part of my subject.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a>
+Quoted by permission of the Editor.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii"><!-- blank page --></a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xiii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of contents">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><small>PAGE</small></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl" colspan="2">INTRODUCTION.</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER I.&mdash;STYLE.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind" colspan="2">
+Definition of style&mdash;Development of style&mdash;Primitive&mdash;Archaic&mdash;Egyptian&mdash;Babylonian&mdash;Ph&oelig;nician
+influences on early Greek style&mdash;Decoration of hangings of the Tabernacle
+in the wilderness&mdash;Aryan ideas&mdash;The Code of Manu&mdash;Indian
+art&mdash;Celtic style&mdash;Greek art in dress and embroideries&mdash;Homer&rsquo;s
+descriptions of embroideries&mdash;Pallas Athene&mdash;Shield of
+Achilles&mdash;Roman art&mdash;Byzantine art&mdash;Art of Central Asia&mdash;Its
+arrival in Europe&mdash;Art of China, Japan, and Java&mdash;Christian
+art&mdash;Scandinavian art&mdash;The Dark Ages&mdash;Sicilian textile
+art&mdash;Renaissance&mdash;Arabesque&mdash;Grotesque&mdash;Spanish
+Pl&acirc;teresque&mdash;Style of Queen Anne and the Chippendales&mdash;Louis
+XV. style&mdash;Classical revival&mdash;Young England&rsquo;s style&mdash;Nineteenth
+century style</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER II.&mdash;DESIGN.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind" colspan="2">
+Artist and artisan&mdash;Prehistoric design&mdash;Naturalistic
+design&mdash;Egyptian immutability&mdash;Slow evolution of design&mdash;Greek
+perfection&mdash;Necessity of following rules&mdash;M. Blanc&rsquo;s laws of
+ornamentation&mdash;Laws of composition&mdash;Repetition&mdash;Alternation&mdash;Symmetry&mdash;Progression&mdash;Confusion&mdash;Designs
+for hangings and dress materials&mdash;Floral design&mdash;Design for
+carpets&mdash;The conventional&mdash;First principles</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER III.&mdash;PATTERNS.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind" colspan="2">
+Ancestry of patterns&mdash;Classification&mdash;Their historical
+value&mdash;Primitive patterns&mdash;The wave&mdash;Tartan&mdash;Prehistoric African
+patterns&mdash;The naturalistic&mdash;Flowers&mdash;Shells&mdash;Indian forms
+of naturalistic patterns&mdash;Egyptian&mdash;The lotus&mdash;Sunflower&mdash;Celtic
+Zoomorphic patterns&mdash;The human figure on Greek
+textiles&mdash;Animal forms in Oriental patterns&mdash;Symbolical and
+conventional patterns&mdash;The wave patterns&mdash;The palm leaf&mdash;The
+cone&mdash;Gothic&mdash;Arab&mdash;Moresque&mdash;The Sacred Hom&mdash;Egg
+and tongue&mdash;The cross&mdash;Swastika&mdash;Fylfote&mdash;Gammadion&mdash;The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xiv]</a></span>
+crenelated pattern&mdash;The Ninevite daisy&mdash;Emblematic
+patterns&mdash;Bestiaria&mdash;Volucraria&mdash;Lapidaria&mdash;Byzantine
+patterns&mdash;Gothic&mdash;Renaissance&mdash;The cloud pattern&mdash;The
+fundata&mdash;Italian&mdash;French patterns&mdash;Radiated patterns&mdash;The
+shell&mdash;Patterns by repetition&mdash;Balcony pattern&mdash;Chinese
+wicker-work&mdash;Survival of a pattern&mdash;Opus Alexandrinum&mdash;Quilting
+patterns</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IV.&mdash;MATERIALS.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind" colspan="2">
+Raw materials&mdash;Revelations of the microscope&mdash;Hemp&mdash;Jute&mdash;Honduras
+grass&mdash;Spartum&mdash;Pinna silk&mdash;Hair&mdash;Leather&mdash;Feathers&mdash;Asbestos&mdash;Coral&mdash;Pearls&mdash;Beads&mdash;Wool&mdash;Classical
+notices of wool&mdash;Careful improvement of wool by the
+ancients&mdash;Tanaquil&mdash;Homeric woollen carpets&mdash;Crimson textile
+fragments&mdash;Scandinavian woollen garments&mdash;Qualities of
+wool&mdash;English wool&mdash;Goats&rsquo; hair&mdash;Flax&mdash;Lake cities&mdash;Byssus&mdash;Fine
+linen of Egypt&mdash;The Atrebates&mdash;Embroidery on linen&mdash;Cotton&mdash;Indian
+origin&mdash;Carbasa&mdash;Buckram&mdash;Cotton fabrics&mdash;Gold&mdash;Silver&mdash;Gold
+brocades&mdash;Jewish&mdash;Indian&mdash;Chinese&mdash;Dress
+of Darius&mdash;Attalus&mdash;Attalic textiles&mdash;Agrippina&rsquo;s golden
+garments&mdash;St. Cecilia&rsquo;s mantle&mdash;Roman tombs&mdash;Gold wire&mdash;Anglo-Saxon
+tomb&mdash;Childeric&rsquo;s tomb&mdash;Proba&rsquo;s gold thread&mdash;Golden
+wrappings from tombs of Henry I. and Henry III.&mdash;Gold
+embroideries and jewellers&rsquo; work of Middle Ages&mdash;Spangles&mdash;Enamels&mdash;Purl&mdash;Modern
+schools of gold
+embroidery&mdash;Silk&mdash;Pamphile of Cos&mdash;Early specimens of silk
+stuffs&mdash;Chinese silks&mdash;The Seres&mdash;Mela&mdash;Seneca&mdash;M. Terrien de
+la Couperie&mdash;Empress Si-ling-chi&mdash;Princess of Khotan&mdash;Euripides&mdash;Lucan&mdash;Pliny&mdash;Silk
+in Rome&mdash;&AElig;lius Lampridius&mdash;Flavius
+Vopiscus&mdash;Tailor&rsquo;s bill&mdash;Justinian&rsquo;s codex&mdash;Imperial
+monopoly&mdash;Paul the Silentiary&mdash;Bede&mdash;King John&rsquo;s apparition&mdash;Greek
+and Sicilian manufactories of silk&mdash;Distinctive
+marks of different periods&mdash;Lyons&mdash;Spain&mdash;Italy&mdash;Flemish
+towns&mdash;Marco Polo&mdash;Satin&mdash;Welsh poem, &ldquo;Lady of the
+Fountain&rdquo;&mdash;Chaucer&mdash;Velvet&mdash;Transference of work to new
+materials</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER V.&mdash;COLOUR.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind" colspan="2">
+Harmony and dissonance&mdash;Names of tints&mdash;Authorities for
+theories&mdash;Art of colouring&mdash;Expression of colouring&mdash;Purple&mdash;Red&mdash;Crimson&mdash;Blue&mdash;Yellow&mdash;Pliny&mdash;Renouf&mdash;Chinese
+colours&mdash;Indian dyes&mdash;Persian colours&mdash;Dyes of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xv]</a></span>
+Gauls&mdash;Romans&mdash;Scotch&mdash;Scales
+of colour&mdash;MM. Charton and Chevreul on
+tones of colour&mdash;Gas colours</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VI.&mdash;STITCHES.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind" colspan="2">
+Stitches&mdash;Part I.: The needle&mdash;Gammer Gurton&rsquo;s needle&mdash;Art
+of needlework&mdash;Lists of stitches&mdash;Part II.: Plain work&mdash;The
+seam&mdash;Mrs. Floyer&mdash;White embroidery&mdash;Nuns&rsquo; work&mdash;Greek&mdash;German
+&mdash;Spanish&mdash;Italian white work&mdash;Semper&rsquo;s rules for
+white work&mdash;Part III.: Opus Phrygium&mdash;Gold embroideries&mdash;Part
+IV.: Opus pulvinarium&mdash;Cushion stitches&mdash;Mosaic
+stitches&mdash;Traditional decorations from Chaldea and
+Assyria&mdash;German and Italian pattern-books&mdash;Part V.: Opus
+plumarium&mdash;The Plumarii&mdash;Feather-work of India&mdash;Islands of the
+Pacific&mdash;African work&mdash;Mexican and Peruvian&mdash;Cluny
+triptych&mdash;Mitre of St. Charles Borromeo&mdash;Essay by Denis&mdash;Chinese
+and Japanese feather-stitches&mdash;Part VI.: Opus consutum
+or cut work&mdash;Patchwork&mdash;Egyptian and Greek examples&mdash;Irish
+cut work&mdash;Chaucer&mdash;Francis I.&rsquo;s hangings at Cluny&mdash;Lord
+Beauchamp&rsquo;s curtains&mdash;Spanish examples&mdash;Remarks&mdash;Art
+of application&mdash;Part VII.: Lace&mdash;Opus filatorium&mdash;Mrs.
+Palliser&mdash;M. Blanc&mdash;Guipure&mdash;Sir Gardiner Wilkinson&mdash;Netted
+lace&mdash;Homer&mdash;Solomon&rsquo;s Temple&mdash;Bobbin laces&mdash;Yak&mdash;Coloured
+laces&mdash;Venetian sumptuary laws&mdash;Golden
+laces&mdash;Point d&rsquo;Alen&ccedil;on&mdash;Mr. A. Cole&rsquo;s lectures&mdash;M. Urbani
+de Gheltof on Venice laces&mdash;Lace stitches&mdash;Revival of lace
+school at Burano&mdash;English laces&mdash;Part VIII.: Tapestry&mdash;Opus
+pectineum&mdash;Modes of weaving tapestry&mdash;Its great antiquity&mdash;Egyptian
+looms&mdash;Albert Castel on tapestries&mdash;Homeric picture-weaving&mdash;Arachne&mdash;A
+paraphrase by Lord Houghton&mdash;Nomenticum&mdash;Sidonius
+Apollinaris&mdash;Saracenic weaving&mdash;Arras&mdash;Brussels&mdash;Italian
+tapestries from Florence, Milan, and
+Mantua&mdash;French tapestries&mdash;Cluny Museum collection&mdash;Gobelins&mdash;Beauvais&mdash;English
+tapestry&mdash;Comnenus&mdash;Matthew
+Paris&mdash;Early trade with Arras&mdash;Coventry tapestries&mdash;Chaucer&mdash;Tapestry
+&ldquo;of verd&rdquo;&mdash;Hatfield tapestries&mdash;Armada tapestries&mdash;Sir
+F. Crane&mdash;Mortlake manufactory&mdash;Francis Cleyne&mdash;Raphael
+cartoons&mdash;Percy tapestry from Lambeth</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VII.&mdash;HANGINGS.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind" colspan="2">
+Classical hangings&mdash;Babylonian and Persian&mdash;Semper&rsquo;s theory&mdash;Sanctuary
+in the wilderness&mdash;St. Peter&rsquo;s at Rome&mdash;Abulfeda&mdash;Akbar&rsquo;s
+tent&mdash;Nadir Shah&rsquo;s tent&mdash;Tent of Khan of Persia&mdash;Tents
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xvi]</a></span>
+of Alexander the Great at Alexandria&mdash;Roman hangings&mdash;Funeral
+pyres&mdash;Kosroes&rsquo; tent&mdash;Semper&rsquo;s rules for hanging
+decorations&mdash;Ancient carpets&mdash;English and French hangings&mdash;Rules
+for designs of hangings</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER VIII.&mdash;FURNITURE.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind" colspan="2">
+Penelope&rsquo;s couch&mdash;Chaldean furnished house&mdash;The bed&mdash;Earl of
+Leicester&rsquo;s inventories&mdash;State apartment of Alessandri Palace&mdash;Indian
+embroideries for furniture&mdash;The sofa and chair&mdash;The
+footstool&mdash;Furniture stitches&mdash;The table cover&mdash;The screen&mdash;Book
+covers&mdash;Morris on furniture</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_280">280</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER IX.&mdash;DRESS.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind" colspan="2">
+Art of dress&mdash;Ancient splendour&mdash;Persian, Greek, and
+Roman&mdash;Indian&mdash;Homeric&mdash;Early Christian&mdash;Charlemagne&rsquo;s mantle
+and robe&mdash;Objects of dress&mdash;Embroidered garments</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">CHAPTER X.&mdash;ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERY.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind" colspan="2">Christian art&mdash;Dark ages&mdash;Greek and Roman ecclesiastical dress&mdash;Northern
+influence&mdash;Continuity of ecclesiastical art&mdash;Authorities&mdash;Anglo-Saxon
+orthodox colours&mdash;Veils of the Temple&mdash;Hangings in Pagan temples and
+Christian churches&mdash;Russian use of veils&mdash;Art in the early Church&mdash;Rare
+examples&mdash;Destruction by the iconoclasts&mdash;Early embroiderers&mdash;Empress
+Helena&mdash;Bertha, mother of Charlemagne&mdash;His
+dalmatic&mdash;Pluvial of St. Silvester&mdash;Pluvial of museum at
+Bologna&mdash;Daroca cope&mdash;Cope of Boniface VIII.&mdash;Style of
+the twelfth century&mdash;Mantle of St. Stephen of Hungary&mdash;Kunigunda&rsquo;s
+work for Henry II.&mdash;The Romanesque&mdash;Movement
+perfecting Gothic art, thirteenth century&mdash;Opus
+Anglicanum&mdash;Syon cope&mdash;Embroidery on the stamp&mdash;Pictures
+in flat stitches&mdash;Flemish work&mdash;Renaissance&mdash;Work of some
+royal ladies&mdash;French&mdash;Spanish&mdash;Sicilian and Neapolitan&mdash;German
+work&mdash;Sacred symbolism&mdash;Melito&rsquo;s &ldquo;The Key&rdquo;&mdash;Mystical
+colours&mdash;Prehistoric cross&mdash;Many forms of the
+cross&mdash;The ro&euml;s&mdash;The chrysoclavus&mdash;Modern decoration&mdash;Principles
+and motives for church embroideries&mdash;The altar-cloth&mdash;The
+reredos&mdash;The pulpit and reading-desk&mdash;The
+ancient Paschal&mdash;The banner of St. Cuthbert&mdash;The fringe&mdash;Lay
+heraldry of the Church&mdash;South Kensington Museum</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xvii]</a></span>CHAPTER XI.&mdash;ENGLISH EMBROIDERY.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdind" colspan="2">
+First glimpse of art in England&mdash;Dyeing and weaving in Britain in
+early times&mdash;C&aelig;sar&rsquo;s invasion&mdash;Roman civilization&mdash;Anglo-Saxon
+times and art&mdash;Adhelme&rsquo;s poem&mdash;Icelandic Sagas&mdash;Saga
+or story of Thorgunna&mdash;English work in the eighth
+century&mdash;The Benedictines&mdash;Durham embroideries&mdash;Aelfled&mdash;St.
+Dunstan&mdash;Queen Emma&rsquo;s work&mdash;William of Poitou&mdash;The
+Bayeux tapestry&mdash;Abbess of Markgate&mdash;Gifts to Pope
+Adrian IV.&mdash;Robes of Thomas &agrave; Becket at Sens&mdash;Innocent
+III.&mdash;English pre-eminence in needlework from the Conquest
+to the Reformation&mdash;John Garland on hand-looms&mdash;Blode-bendes
+and lacs d&rsquo;amour&mdash;Opus Anglicanum&mdash;English
+peculiarities in ecclesiastical design&mdash;Penalties against luxury
+in dress&mdash;Protection the bane of art&mdash;Dunstable pall&mdash;Stoneyhurst
+cope&mdash;Destruction of fine works at the Reformation&mdash;Much
+on the Continent, much collected in our old
+Catholic houses&mdash;Field of the Cloth of Gold&mdash;Mary Tudor&rsquo;s
+Spanish stitches&mdash;Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s embroideries&mdash;Institution
+of Embroiderers&rsquo; Company&mdash;East India Company&mdash;Oriental
+taste discouraged on Protectionist grounds&mdash;Decay of the art
+in England&mdash;Style of James I.&mdash;Dutch style&mdash;Cushion stitches&mdash;Miss
+Linwood&mdash;Miss Moritt&mdash;Mrs. Delany&mdash;Mrs. Pawsey&mdash;Postscript&mdash;Revival
+of the art of needlework&mdash;&ldquo;Royal School
+of Art Needlework&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_356">356</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdlsc" colspan="3">Appendix</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">I.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Charles T. Newton on Votive Dresses</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#appendix_i">400</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">II.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">The Moritzburg Feather Hangings</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#appendix_ii">401</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">III.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">The Story of Arachne, translated by Earl Cowper</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#appendix_iii">402</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">IV.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Charlemagne&rsquo;s Dalmatic, by Lord Lindsay</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#appendix_iv">405</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">V.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Notices of various Medi&aelig;val Embroideries by the Hon. and Rev. W. Ignatius Clifford</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#appendix_v">407</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">VI.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Syon Cope, Rock&rsquo;s Introduction, &ldquo;Textile Fabrics&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#appendix_vi">408</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">VII.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Assyrian Fringes</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#appendix_vii">412</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">VIII.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Hrothgar&rsquo;s House Furniture: Poem of Beowulf</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#appendix_viii">412</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">IX.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Thorgunna, by Sir G. Dasent</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#appendix_ix">413</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">X.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Pedigree of Aelswith</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#appendix_x">414</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt">XI.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Statutes at Large</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><a href="#appendix_xi">414</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii"><!-- blank page --></a></span></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xix]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</h2>
+
+
+<h3>CUTS.</h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="List of figures">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br">Fig.</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">Page.</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br bt"><a href="#fig01">1</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br bt">20</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Egyptian corselet. Wilkinson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; p. 332.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig02">2</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">25</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Tabernacle of Balawat. Temp. Shalmaneser. British Museum.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig03">3</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">30</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Zoomorphic Celtic pattern.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig04">4</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">32</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Pallas Athene attired in the sacred peplos. Panathenaic vase, British Museum.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig05">5</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">62</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Wave pattern.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig06">6</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">63</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Key pattern.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig07">7</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">63</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Metopes and triglyphs.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig08">8</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">73</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Persian carpet. Egyptian symbolic patterns.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig09">9</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">91</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Gothic sunflower. R. S. A. N.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig10">10</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">98</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Wave.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig11">11</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">104</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Egyptian ally and enemy. Temp. Rameses II. Wilkinson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; iii. p. 364.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig12">12</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">105</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Assyrian crenelated pattern.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig13">13</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">107</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Gothic type of trees, Bayeux tapestry.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig14">14</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">111</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Radiated pattern.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig15">15</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">111</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Radiated sunflower.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig16">16</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">112</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Shell pattern.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig17">17</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">112</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Balcony pattern.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig18">18</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">115</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Varied adjustments of square and circle.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig19">19</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">146</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Spangles.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig20">20</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">195</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Needles.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig21">21</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">208</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Feather patterns. Egyptian.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig22">22</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">216</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Application. Egyptian. Auberville&rsquo;s &ldquo;Tissus.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig23">23</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">217</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Embroidered border on mantle. Crimea. &ldquo;Compte Rendu.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig24">24</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">281</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Babylonian or Chaldean house and furniture.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig25">25</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">311</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Italian fifteenth-century pattern. Celtic type.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig26">26</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">377</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Barbed quatrefoil.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig27">27</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">380</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Holbein pattern. Sampler.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig28">28</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">388</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Arms of Embroiderers&rsquo; Guild; given by Queen Elizabeth.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#fig29">29</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">393</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Portion of James II.&rsquo;s coronation dress; from an old print.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xx]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>PLATES.</h3>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="List of plates">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br">Plate</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">Page.</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;Ref.</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br bt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br bt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br bt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap"><a href="#pl00">Title-Page.</a></span> Penelope at her loom, reproached by her son Telemachus. From vase found at Chiusi, in Etruria. &ldquo;Monum. d. Inst. Arch. Rom.&rdquo; ix. Pl. 42.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl01">1</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">22</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Assurbanipal</span> (Sardanapalus). Sculptures from Nineveh. British Museum.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl02">2</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">22</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
+    <td class="tdindp">Portion of royal Babylonian mantle. From Layard&rsquo;s &ldquo;Monuments,&rdquo; Series i. pl. 9.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl03">3</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">29</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">St. John.</span> From King Alfred&rsquo;s Celtic Book of the Gospels. Lambeth Palace Library.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl04">4</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">30</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">A page</span> of the Book of St. Cuthbert, or Book of Lindisfarne.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl05">5</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">33</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Silver Bowl</span> from Palestrina. From Clermont Ganneau&rsquo;s &ldquo;Journal Asiatique, Syro-Egyptien-Ph&oelig;nicien.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl06">6</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">40</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Empress Theodora.</span> Ravenna Mosaic.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl07">7</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">42</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Italian Embroidery</span>, fifteenth century. South Kensington Museum.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl08">8</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">43</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Italian</span> and <span class="smcap">Spanish</span> orphrey, sixteenth century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl09">9</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">45</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Pl&acirc;teresque Design.</span> Spanish coverlet, green velvet and gold, sixteenth century. Goa work.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl10">10</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">87</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Wave Pattern.</span> 1, 4, 9, 12, 13. Greek wave pattern. 2. Key or
+M&aelig;ander Greek wave. 3. Greek broken wave. 5, 6, 7.
+Egyptian smooth and rippling wave pattern. 8. Medi&aelig;val
+wave. 10, 11, 14. Babylonian and Chaldean. 15. Persian or
+Greek, from glass bowl, British Museum. 16. English wave
+(or cloud). Durham embroideries, tenth century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl11">11</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">88</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Simple Patterns.</span> 1. Persian. 2. Lotus border, Egyptian.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl12">12</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">90</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Lotus Borders.</span> 1. Indian. 2, 3. Egyptian. 4, 5, Greek. 6. Indian.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl13">13</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">95</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Indian Lotus.</span> 1. With Assyrian daisy. 2. Lotus. 3. The egg
+and tongue, or Vitruvian scroll from Vignola. &ldquo;Regole di Ordine di Architettura.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl14">14</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">91</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Sunflower Pattern.</span> R. S. A. N. Nineteenth century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl15">15</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">92</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Portion of a page</span> of the Book of Kells. Dublin University Library.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl16">16</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">93</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Demeter.</span> Greek fictile vase. British Museum.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl17">17</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">93</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#Page_217">217</a></td>
+    <td class="tdindp">1. <span class="smcap">Greek Embroidery</span>, 300 <small>B.C.</small> From tomb of the Seven Brothers, Crimea.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">2. <span class="smcap">Egyptian</span> painted or embroidered linen. The cone, bead,
+daisy, wave. Lotus-under-water patterns are represented on this fragment.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl18">18</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">93</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Egyptian</span> Tapestry weaving finished with the needle. British Museum.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl19">19</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">97</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Egyptian</span> key patterns. Wilkinson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; p. 125.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl20">20</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">99</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Trees of Life.</span> 1, 2, 3. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian silk. 5. Medi&aelig;val. Birdwood&rsquo;s &ldquo;Indian Arts.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl21">21</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">101</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Trees of Life.</span> 1. Sculpture over gate of Mycen&aelig;. 2. Sicilian silks; Persian type.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxi" id="Page_xxi">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxi]</a></span><a href="#pl22">22</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">101</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Lotus merged into Tree of Life.</span> 1. Split Chinese Lotus.
+2. Split Persian Lotus, from a frieze by Benozzo Gozzoli.
+Ricardi Palace, Florence. 3. Petal of flower. Greek glass
+bowl from tomb in Southern Italy.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl23">23</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">101</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Trees of Life.</span> Sicilian silks. Auberville. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10. Persian type. 6, 7, 8, 9, 11. Indian type.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl24">24</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">101</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Tree of Life</span> transformed into vine. Modern pattern of work from the Principalities.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl25">25</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">103</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Typical Crosses.</span> 1. Swastika fire-stick cross. 2. From Greek
+vase, British Museum, 765 <small>B.C.</small> 3. Sectarial mark of Sakti
+race. India. 4. Sectarial mark of Buddhists and Jainis.
+5. On early Rhodian pottery. 6. Egyptian prehistoric cross.
+7. Tau cross. 8. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite.
+9. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite. 10. Clavus, &ldquo;nail&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;button,&rdquo; or sun-cross. 11, 12, 13. Scandinavian sun and
+moon crosses. 14, 15, 16. Celtic. 17. Chrysoclavus. 18,
+19. Stauracin patterns. 20. Norwegian. 21. Runic. 22. Cross
+in Temple of the Sun, Palenque. 23. Scotch Celtic cross.
+24. Cross at Iona. 25, 26. Runic and Scandinavian crosses.
+27. Cross diapered on Charlemagne&rsquo;s dalmatic. 28. From
+mantle of Henry II., Emperor of Germany.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl26">26</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">103</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Prehistoric Crosses.</span> 1. Greek. Pallas, with plaited tunic
+worked with Swastika. 2. Greek. Ajax playing at dice with
+Achilles. Cloak embroidered with Swastika and other prehistoric
+patterns. Fictile vase, Vatican Museum.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl27">27</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">105</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Assyrian Carpet</span> carved in stone, British Museum.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl28">28</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">107</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Gothic.</span> 1. Dress patterns from old MS. 2, 3. Old English tiles.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl29">29</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">109</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Cloud Patterns.</span> 1, 2, 3, 7. Japanese. 5, 8, 9. Medi&aelig;val. 4. Chinese. 6. Badge of Richard II.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl30">30</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">109</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Indo-Chinese Coverlet.</span> Hatfield. Supposed to have belonged to Oliver Cromwell.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl31">31</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">109</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Fundata Patterns.</span> 1. On Ph&oelig;nician silver bowl. (&ldquo;L&rsquo;Imagerie
+Ph&eacute;nicienne.&rdquo;) 2, 3. From tomb at Essiout, Egypt. Wilkinson&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; ii. p. 125. 1600 <small>B.C.</small></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl32">32</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">124</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Part of Border</span> of silk, gold, and pearls. Worked by Blanche,
+wife of Charles IV. of Bohemia. Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Lit. Gew.&rdquo; ii. p. 246.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl33">33</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">147</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Embroidered Window hanging</span> from portrait of Mahomet II.,
+by Gentil Bellini; belonging to Sir Henry Layard.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl34">34</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">153</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Classical Silks.</span> 1. Greek. 2. Roman.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl35">35</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">163</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Durham Relics.</span> Persian type of silk weaving.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl36">36</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">164</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Durham Relics.</span> Norman and Persian types mixed.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl37">37</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">164</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Durham Relics.</span> Gr&aelig;co-Egyptian type.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl38">38</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">164</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Egyptian Boat</span> with embroidered and fringed sails, and floating
+scarves. Wilkinson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; iii. p. 211.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl39">39</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">200</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">White embroidery</span> from sculptured tomb of a knight, fifteenth century. Ara C&oelig;li, Rome.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl40">40</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">201</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Processional Cloak</span>, Spanish work, temp. Henry VIII., belonging to Lord Arundel of Wardour.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl41">41</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">204</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Opus Pulvinarium.</span> Counted stitches. 1. Italian. 2. Scandinavian. 3. Ancient Egyptian. Turin Museum.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl42">42</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">206</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Italian Mosaic Stitch</span> work, sixteenth century. Alford House.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxii" id="Page_xxii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxii]</a></span><a href="#pl43">43</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">214</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Japanese Opus Plumarium.</span> White silk.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl44">44</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">216</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Opus Consutum.</span> Funeral tent of an Egyptian queen.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl45">45</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">219</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Opus Consutum.</span> &ldquo;Inlaid&rdquo; and &ldquo;onlaid.&rdquo; Italian, seventeenth century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl46">46</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">235</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Egyptian Gobelins</span> finished with the needle.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl47">47</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">236</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Rheims Cathedral Tapestry.</span> The Virgin weaving and embroidering on frame a &ldquo;basse-lisse.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl48">48</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">243</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Tent of Charles the Bold</span>, taken at Grandson, now in museum at Berne. The badge is that of the Golden Fleece.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl49">49</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">252</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">English Tapestry</span> belonging to Lord Salisbury, at Hatfield House, temp. Henry VIII.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl50">50</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">294</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Italian Knight</span> of fifteenth century armed for conquest. Gentile da Fabriano. Academia, Florence.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl51">51</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">309</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">St. Mark.</span> Anglo-Saxon Book of the Gospels. York Minster Library.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl52">52</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">312</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Classical Pattern</span> adapted into Christian art.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl53">53</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">318</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Charlemagne&rsquo;s Dalmatic.</span> Vatican Treasury.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl54">54</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">318</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Charlemagne&rsquo;s Dalmatic.</span> Vatican Treasury.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl55">55</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">318</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Portion of Charlemagne&rsquo;s Dalmatic.</span> Half-size.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl56">56</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">319</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">St. Silvester&rsquo;s Pluvial.</span> Treasury of St. John Lateran, Rome. Opus Anglicanum, thirteenth century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl57">57</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">319</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Portion of St. Silvester&rsquo;s Pluvial</span>, showing its condition.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl58">58</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">319</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Bologna Cope.</span> Museo del Municipio. Opus Anglicanum.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl59">59</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">319</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Daroca Cope.</span> Arch&aelig;ological Museum at Madrid. Opus Anglicanum.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl60">60</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">319</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Boniface VIII.&rsquo;s Cope</span> from Anagni, his native place; now in Vatican Treasury; twelfth century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl61">61</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">319</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Altar Frontal</span> at Anagni, Italy. Italian work, fourteenth century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl62">62</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">320</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Worcester Relics</span> of the tenth century. 1. From tomb of
+Walter de Cantilupe. 2. From Aix, in Switzerland. Same type.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl63">63</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">320</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp">1. <span class="smcap">Mitre of Thomas &agrave; Becket.</span> 2. The cross with twelve
+leaves, &ldquo;for the healing of the nations.&rdquo; Coronation vestments at Rheims.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl64">64</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">321</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Anglo-Saxon Work</span>, purple and gold, from tomb of William de Blois, Worcester. He died Bishop in 1236.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl65">65</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">321</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">A Portion of St. Stephen of Hungary&rsquo;s Mantle</span>, worked by his Queen Gisela. From Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Kleinodien.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl66">66</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">322</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Portion of Mantle of Henry II.</span>, worked by his Empress Kunigunda. From Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Kleinodien.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl67">67</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">325</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">The Syon Cope.</span> South Kensington Museum.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl68">68</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">329</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Italian Embroideries</span> designed by Pollaiolo; worked by Paolo da Verona. Sixteenth century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl69">69</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">330</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Spanish Altar Frontal. The Arms of Castile</span> embroidered
+in gold with pearls. Ashridge. Pl&acirc;teresque style, seventeenth century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl70">70</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">337</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Consular Ivories.</span> Two diptychs. 1. Zurich, Wasser-Kirche.
+Inscribed to Consul Areobindus, <small>A.D.</small> 434. 2. At Halberstadt.
+No date. From Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Lit. Gew.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xxiii" id="Page_xxiii">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>xxiii]</a></span><a href="#pl71">71</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">363</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Aelfled&rsquo;s Orphrey</span>, signed by her. Durham Cathedral Library.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl72">72</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">363</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">St. Gregory and St. John (Prophet)</span>, from Aelfled&rsquo;s orphrey. Durham. English work, tenth century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl73">73</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">365</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">St. Dunstan</span> in adoration, drawn by himself. Bodleian Library, Oxford. Tenth century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl74">74</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">369</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Small Parsem&eacute; Patterns</span> from Strutt&rsquo;s &ldquo;Royal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of the English from 1100 to 1530.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl75">75</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">369</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">English Patterns</span> of embroidery. 1. Panel of a screen in
+Hornby Church, Yorkshire. 2. Dress on a painted window
+in St. Michael&rsquo;s Church, York. 3. Woven material of the Towneley Copes.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl76">76</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">375</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Opus Anglicanum</span>, twelfth century. British Museum.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl77">77</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">376</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Typical English Ornaments</span> for ecclesiastical embroideries, twelfth century.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl78">78</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">377</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Dunstable Pall.</span> Temp. Henry VII.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl79">79</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">378</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Vintners&rsquo; Company Pall.</span> Henry VII.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl80">80</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">378</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Henry VII.&rsquo;s Cope</span>, from Stoneyhurst; designed by Torrigiano, the sculptor of his tomb.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl81">81</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">382</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Spanish Work.</span> Temp. Henry VIII.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl82">82</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">383</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">English &ldquo;Spanish Work.&rdquo;</span> Temp. Henry VIII.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl83">83</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">389</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Cushion Cover</span>, Hatfield House. Temp. Elizabeth.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl84">84</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">390</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">Oriental &ldquo;Tree and Beast&rdquo; Pattern.</span> Cockayne-Hatley. Temp. James I.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdrt br"><a href="#pl85">85</a></td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">391</td>
+    <td class="tdrt br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdindp"><span class="smcap">English Crewel Work.</span> Indian design. Temp. James I.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h1 class="padtop">NEEDLEWORK AS ART.</h1>
+
+
+
+<h2 class="padtop">INTRODUCTION.</h2>
+
+
+<p>The book of the Science of Art has yet to be written.
+Art has been called the Flower of Life, and also the
+Consoler;&mdash;adorning the existence of the strong and
+bright,&mdash;sheltering and comforting the sad and solitary
+ones of the earth. But, rather, it resembles a wide-spreading
+tree, covered with varied blossoms&mdash;bearing
+many fruits.</p>
+
+<p>To point out the history and the possibilities in the
+future of each branch that shades, refreshes, and gives
+wholesome fruit to the world, would be a task worthy of
+a master-hand and a pen of gold. But less ambitious
+labourers in the field of investigation which is only as
+yet partly cultivated, may each assist, by carefully
+collecting a little heap of ascertained facts; and it is,
+indeed, the duty of each as he passes to add his pebble
+to the slowly accumulating cairn of recorded human
+knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>Some one has said, &ldquo;Build your house of little bricks
+of facts, and you will soon find it inhabited by a body of
+truth; and that truth will ally itself with other houses of
+facts, and in time a well-ordered, cosmical city will arise.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>My pebble is not yet polished. It is neither a diamond
+nor a ruby, but I think there are a few streaks of golden
+light in it, which I may venture to add to the daily
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>2]</a></span>
+accumulating treasure in the house of human artistic
+knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>My object in writing this volume is to fill up an empty
+space in the English library of art.</p>
+
+<p>The great exponents of poetic thought&mdash;verse, sculpture,
+painting, and architecture&mdash;have long since been well
+interpreted and appreciated. Men and women have
+written much and well on these large subjects, and we
+may hope for more ere long. The secondary or smaller
+arts have been hitherto neglected by us,&mdash;either treated
+merely as crafts, to which artistic education may give
+help, or as the natural or inferior outcome of the primal
+arts, having no claim to the possession of special laws
+and history. And yet, when Moses wrote and Homer
+sang, needlework was no new thing. It was already
+consecrated by legendary and traditionary custom to the
+highest uses. The gods themselves were honoured by
+its service, and it preceded written history in recording
+heroic deeds and national triumphs.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said that ivory carving is sculpture, and
+illuminated manuscripts and coloured glass windows are
+painting. But for metal work, whether in iron or gold, a
+place must be kept apart; and the same privileges are due
+to embroidery and to metallurgy. All arts must of necessity
+have their own laws and rules, which ensure their beauty
+of execution and their special forms of design; these two
+last, from the nature of their materials, and the modes of
+working them, must be studied independently of any
+connection with painting, architecture, or sculpture.</p>
+
+<p>Yet, if the unity of nature is an accepted fact,<a name="FNanchor_3_3" id="FNanchor_3_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_3_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a> then
+the acceptance of the unity of art must follow. Art
+must be considered as the selection of natural phenomena
+by individual minds capable of assimilating and reproducing
+them in certain forms and with certain materials
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>3]</a></span>
+adapted to the national taste, needs, and power of
+appreciation. If man cannot originate materials, he can
+invent combinations;&mdash;and this is Art.</p>
+
+<p>If proportion, colour, and sound alike depend on
+certain mathematical measurements, and on rhythmical
+vibrations, there must be a real and tangible relation
+between these elements, though applied to obtain
+different results. In music, as in all art, harmony is, or
+ought to be, a first consideration. We have seen by
+experiment how a note of our scale can by touch form
+geometrical figures with sand on a sheet of glass,&mdash;here
+form obeys the force of harmony. But what is
+harmony?</p>
+
+<p>By analogy we may argue from the art of music.
+We who believe that we have acquired the knowledge
+of music as a science, beyond all preceding knowledge of
+the subject, have in Europe been able to enjoy only our
+own musical scales; whereas throughout the East, those
+accepted by the human ear are very various, and appear
+to depart from what to our senses is harmony. Those
+Oriental musics have either been adapted to the Oriental
+ear, or the ear has been adapted to appreciate the forms
+and laws of harmony with which it came in contact.</p>
+
+<p>The same questions occur to us while examining into
+the different forms of decorative art; and we are constantly
+reminded that the laws which should govern
+them, are perhaps, infinitely larger and wider than we
+with our limited human capacities and experience, have
+hitherto been able to appreciate.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Ars longa&mdash;vita brevis&rdquo; has been so often said, that
+from a proverb it has become a truism; but it must
+continue to be the refrain of those who write upon art.
+The subject is so long, and its ramifications are so
+intricate, that it is difficult to include them all under
+one category.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>4]</a></span>
+My furthest aim here is to trace back the art of
+needlework to its beginning, without turning my eyes to
+the right or the left, though I cannot help feeling myself
+drawn aside almost irresistibly by casual glimpses
+of architecture, sculpture, and painting, which here and
+there touch very nearly the history of needlework.</p>
+
+<p>Except where they visibly influence each other, I
+avoid dealing with the greater arts, leaving them to the
+study of the learned in each special branch.</p>
+
+<p>All art, however, throws reflected lights, and gleaning
+in the track of those authors who have preceded us, we
+often pick up valuable hints which we accept, and make
+use of them gladly.</p>
+
+<p>Some writers have thought it incumbent on them to
+give a local habitation and an abiding place to needlework,
+and they have regarded it as a branch of painting.
+But I cannot endorse this classification. According to
+Semper, indeed, it is the mother-art of sculpture and
+painting, instead of being the offspring of either or both,
+as others have maintained.<a name="FNanchor_4_4" id="FNanchor_4_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> They have, indeed, such
+distinct functions that each may justly boast its own
+original sources. Painting is the art of colour; sculpture
+is that of form; embroidery is the art of clothing forms.
+They are all so ancient, that in seeking to ascertain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>5]</a></span>
+their beginnings and dates. It is difficult to fix the
+precedence of one over another. We may compare,
+distinguish, and yet again change our opinions as fresh
+facts come under our observation.</p>
+
+<p>The art of needlework reached its climax long ago,
+and is now very old. History and faded rags are the
+only witnesses to its fabulous glories, in Classical, Oriental,
+and early Medi&aelig;val days. It would appear that nothing
+new remains to be invented. Copies of past styles, and
+selections from the scraps we retain and value as models,
+are all that we can boast of now.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Rock truly says that few persons of the present
+day have the faintest idea of the labour, the money, the
+time, often bestowed of old upon embroideries which
+had been designed as well as wrought by the hands of
+men and women, each in their own craft the best and
+ablest of their day.</p>
+
+<p>Time is too short, our life too densely crowded, to
+allow leisure for the extravagance of what is, after all,
+only a luxury of art&mdash;no longer a civilizer, as of old,
+but just an efflorescence of our culture.</p>
+
+<p>Embroidery is now essentially &ldquo;decoration,&rdquo; and nothing
+more. It is intended to appeal to the sense of beauty of
+the eye, rather than to the imagination. The designer
+for needlework should be an artist, but he need not be a
+poet. You may omit this art altogether, and you need
+be none the less sumptuously clothed and lodged. Yet
+it is worthy of careful study as historical evidence, and
+that in the present and future, as in the past, it may be
+an <em>art</em>, and not merely a <em>craft</em>.</p>
+
+<p>For the great web of history is composed of many
+threads of divers colours, and the warp and the woof are
+often exchanged, yet so connected and knotted together
+that the continuity is never broken. On this web, Time
+has drawn the picture of the past&mdash;sometimes faintly,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>6]</a></span>
+sometimes with indelible tints and pronounced forms.
+By poetry; by architecture and its decorations; by dress,
+which represents and distinguishes nationalities; by
+customs, such as the different forms of burial; or even by
+such details as painting the eyes; also by the tradition and
+outcome of the laws of the tribes that flowed consecutively
+over Europe from the East; by the institutions
+which remained immutably fixed on their native soil,
+such as those of the Code of Manu, and those of Babylon,
+inscribed on bricks or clay; or by the words, their form
+and lettering, in which these are handed down to us;&mdash;out
+of all these the history of man is being reconstructed.</p>
+
+<p>How valuable is every witness to the ancient records,
+which were fading into myths in the memories of men.
+How joyfully is each little fact hailed as a landmark, in
+the general fog of doubt!</p>
+
+<p>Now embroidery may boast that it is a source of landmarks
+for all time.</p>
+
+<p>Without presuming to fix a date for its first beginning,
+that which I wish to impress on the mind of the reader
+is the long continuity of the art of needlework.</p>
+
+<p>The sense of antiquity induces reverence, and I
+claim for the needle an older and more illustrious age
+than can be accorded to the brush. While the great
+pendulum of Time has swung art in sculpture, painting,
+and architecture, from its cradle as in Mycen&aelig;, to its
+throne in Athens in the days of Pericles, and then back
+again to the basest poverty of decaying Rome&mdash;needle
+work, continually refreshed from Eastern inspiration,
+never has fallen so low, though it had never aspired as
+high as its greater sister arts.</p>
+
+<p>The stuffs and fabrics of various materials of the
+Egyptians, Chinese, Assyrians, and Chaldeans are named
+in the earliest records of the human race. How much
+these decorations depended on weaving, and how much
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>7]</a></span>
+on embroidery with the needle, may in each case be
+disputed. The products of the Babylonian looms are
+alluded to in the Book of Joshua. Their beauty tempted
+Achan to rescue them when Jericho fell;<a name="FNanchor_5_5" id="FNanchor_5_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> and Ezekiel
+speaks of the embroideries of Canneh, Haran, and
+Eden, as well as of their cloths of purple and blue,
+and their chests of garments of divers colours<a name="FNanchor_6_6" id="FNanchor_6_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a>.</p>
+
+<p>All these fabrics are named as merchandise, and were
+carried to the sea-coast, and thence over the ancient
+world, by the Ph&oelig;nicians, the great shipowners and
+dealers of the East.</p>
+
+<p>Indian needlework and design is 4000 years old; and
+the long perspective of Egyptian art, while leading us
+still further back into unlimited periods, shows it changing
+so slowly, that we feel as if it had been all but stationary
+from the beginning.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese claim 5000 years as the life of their
+history; but if, as is now suggested, their civilization is
+Accadian or Proto-Babylonian, their wonderful artistic
+and scientific knowledge may have been fragments of
+the great dispersal, secreted and preserved behind the
+wonderful wall<a name="FNanchor_7_7" id="FNanchor_7_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> of stone, silence, and law, where it has
+lain fossilized ever since. One cannot but wonder at the
+perfection of the textile manufactures of the Chinese,
+their marvellous embroideries, and the peculiar modes
+of construction and design throughout their arts, which
+have shown but few moments of change in growth&mdash;scarcely
+a sign of evolution. And we may fairly surmise
+that this Accadian culture (if such it be) is reflected from
+antediluvian tradition.</p>
+
+<p>The arch&aelig;ology of Oriental art is most interesting.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>8]</a></span>
+We contemplate with awe the vast splendours of the
+consecutive civilizations of the East; the ancient richness
+and fertility of the whole of the Asiatic continent; the
+genius for empire and for commerce; the creative power
+which seemed to pour itself forth, unchecked by wars
+and conquests; the great dynasties which rose and fell,
+leaving behind them gigantic works, and the records of
+fabulous luxury in the empires of China, Assyria, India,
+and Persia, of which the remains have been of late years
+excavated, deciphered, and confronted with the historical
+texts which we have inherited, and had only partly
+believed. And studying these new aspects of history,
+we are saddened, thinking that the sunrise comes to us
+from shining over desert sands or the mounds of empty
+cities, where the lion and the jackal &ldquo;reassert their
+primeval possession,&rdquo; or where the European and the
+Tartar, from the West and from the East, dispute their
+rights to suzerainty. We are dazzled and confused when
+we look back to those great days when the over-peopled
+kingdoms sent forth whole tribes, eastward to the confines
+of Asia, southward over India, and westward over Europe;
+and we bow reverently before the mighty Power that led
+the Jews, by a promise and a hope, across the seething
+nationalities, through the long passage of time from
+Abraham to Solomon; and which is again giving into the
+hands of those Oriental-looking men, so much power in
+shaping the destiny of mankind through their great riches.</p>
+
+<p>Moses commanded the Hebrew people to lend and
+never to borrow. They have obeyed his precept, except
+in art; to that they have lent or given nothing. There
+is no national Jewish art. For music only do they show
+artistic genius, and that is European and not Oriental.
+As illustrating their lack of intuitive decorative art, one
+need only refer to the architecture of the first, second,
+and third Temple buildings, which apparently reflected
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>9]</a></span>
+Babylonian and Semitic influences on an early Chaldean
+type. The embroideries mentioned by different writers,
+from Moses to Josephus, appear to have had always a
+Babylonian, or later a Persian inspiration.</p>
+
+<p>This absence of artistic genius is very remarkable in a
+people that had its origin in the Eastern centre from
+whence all art has radiated.</p>
+
+<p>The reason that so little survives of ancient embroidery
+is evident. Woollen stuffs and threads decay quickly&mdash;the
+moth and rust do corrupt them&mdash;and the very few
+ancient bits that remain, have been preserved by the
+embalming process, which has kept the contents of tombs
+from becoming dust.</p>
+
+<p>As to more modern embroideries, we ought to be
+thankful that the art has had its fashions; otherwise, the
+world would be overwhelmed with shabby rags. Human
+nature has a tendency to dislike the &ldquo;old-fashioned&rdquo;&mdash;i.e.
+the fashion of the last generation. That which our
+mothers worked or wore, is an object for affectionate
+sentiment, and the best specimens alone are preserved.
+That which belonged to our grandfathers and grandmothers
+has receded into the rococo; and a few more
+generations take us back to the antique, of which so
+little survives, from wear and tear, carelessness and theft,
+that we put away and preserve it as being curious and
+precious. We may hope that the general law of the survival
+of the fittest has guarded what is most remarkable.</p>
+
+<p>Certain works have been consecrated by the hands
+that executed them, or by that of the donor, or by the
+purpose for which they were bestowed, and are mostly
+preserved in churches or national museums. Of these
+there are vestments and altar decorations worked by
+royal and noble ladies; and coronation garments given
+by Queens and Empresses, such as Queen Gisela&rsquo;s and
+the Empress Kunigunda&rsquo;s at Prague and Bamberg, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>10]</a></span>
+Charlemagne&rsquo;s dalmatic at the Vatican, described in the
+chapter on <a href="#Page_303">ecclesiastical embroideries</a>. Sculptured effigies
+help us as to embroidered patterns; for our forefathers
+often actually copied in bronze or stone the patterns of
+the garments in which the body was buried, or at any
+rate, those the man had worn in his life. Of these, King
+John&rsquo;s monument at Worcester, and the surcoat of the
+Black Prince at Canterbury, are remarkable examples.<a name="FNanchor_8_8" id="FNanchor_8_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a></p>
+
+<p>The succeeding chapters will contain sketches of
+the history of the different stitches, and of the best
+examples of stitch and style remaining to us; and I
+shall try to extract from both the best suggestions for
+guidance in design and handicraft.</p>
+
+<p>Embroidery from its nature is essentially the woman&rsquo;s
+art.<a name="FNanchor_9_9" id="FNanchor_9_9"></a><a href="#Footnote_9_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> It needs a sedentary life, industry and patience. It
+does not require a room to itself, and the worker may leave
+it at any moment between two stitches when called to
+other duties. Nunneries produced the finest work of the
+dark and middle ages; and their teaching inaugurated
+the workrooms in the palaces and castles, where young
+girls, whether royal, noble, or gentle, were trained in
+embroidery as an accomplishment and a household duty.</p>
+
+<p>The history of domestic embroidery ought to be looked
+upon as that of an important factor in the humanizing effect of
+&aelig;sthetic culture.</p>
+
+<p>The woman of the house has always been strong
+to fulfil her part in this civilizing influence with the
+implement which custom has awarded to her. Every
+man in the ancient East began his life under the tent or
+in the palace adorned by the hands of his mother and her
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>11]</a></span>
+maidens, and his home was made beautiful by his wife
+and his sisters and their slaves. There, as in medi&aelig;val
+homes, lessons of morality and religion, and the love and
+fame of noble deeds, were taught by the painting of the
+needle to the minds of the young men, who would have
+scorned more direct teaching; and the children felt the
+influence, as the women wove what the bards sang.</p>
+
+<p>Alas! we have but few specimens of embroideries of
+which we know the history, earlier than the tenth and
+eleventh centuries.<a name="FNanchor_10_10" id="FNanchor_10_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> Yet from the days of the books of
+the Old Testament and the song of the siege of Troy,
+down to the present time, the woman of the house has
+adorned not only herself and her dear lord, but she has
+hung the walls, the seats, the bed, and the tables with her
+beautiful creations.</p>
+
+<p>Homer&rsquo;s women were all artists with the needle.
+Venus seeking Helen,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Like fair Laodice in form and face,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The loveliest nymph of Priam&rsquo;s royal race,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Here in the palace at her loom she found:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The golden web her own sad story crown&rsquo;d.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The Trojan wars she weaved (herself the prize),<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And the dire triumph of her fatal eyes.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_11_11" id="FNanchor_11_11"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a><br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This must have been intended for hangings.</p>
+
+<p>Hecuba&rsquo;s wardrobe is thus described:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;The Phrygian queen to her rich wardrobe went,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Where treasured odours breathed a costly scent;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">There lay the vestures of no vulgar art,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sidonian maids embroider&rsquo;d every part.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Here, as the queen revolved with careful eyes<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The various textures and the various dyes<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">She chose a web that shone superior far,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And glow&rsquo;d refulgent as the morning star.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_12_12" id="FNanchor_12_12"></a><a href="#Footnote_12_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a><br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The women of the Middle Ages were great at the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>12]</a></span>
+loom and frame. From the Kleine Heldenbuch of the
+thirteenth century, Rock quotes these lines:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Who taught me to embroider in a frame with silk,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And to sketch and design the wild and tame<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Beasts of the forest and field?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Also to picture on plain surfaces;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Round about to place golden borders&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">narrow and a broad one&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With stags and hinds, lifelike.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gudrun, like the women of Homer, embroidered
+history&mdash;that of the ancestors of Siegfried.</p>
+
+<p>But in the Middle Ages the embroiderers were ambitious
+artists. The deeds of Roland and the siege of
+Troy, all romantic and classical lore, provided subjects
+for the needle.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare gives a pretty picture of the graceful
+weaver and embroiderer:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i1">* * * &ldquo;Would ever with Marina be:&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Be&rsquo;t when she weaves the sleided silk,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With fingers long, small, white as milk;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or when she would with sharp neeld wound<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The cambric, which she makes more sound<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">By hurting it....<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Deep clerks she dumbs; and with her neeld composes<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nature&rsquo;s own shape, of bud, bird, branch, or berry,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That even her art sisters the natural roses.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_13_13" id="FNanchor_13_13"></a><a href="#Footnote_13_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a><br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Before closing this Introduction, I will take the
+opportunity to protest against the abuse of the phrase
+&ldquo;High Art.&rdquo; It is generally appropriated by that which
+is the lowest and most feeble.</p>
+
+<p>An old design for a chair or table, by no means remarkable
+originally, but cheaply copied, and covered with
+a quaint and dismal cretonne or poorly worked pattern,
+of which the design is neither new nor artistic, is introduced
+by the upholsterer as belonging to &ldquo;High Art
+furniture.&rdquo; The epithet has succeeded to what was once
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>13]</a></span>
+&ldquo;fashionable&rdquo; and &ldquo;elegant.&rdquo; To get rid of carpets,
+and put down rugs, to hang up rows of plates instead of
+family portraits&mdash;this also is &ldquo;high art.&rdquo; Likewise gowns
+lumped upon the shoulders, with all the folds drawn across,
+instead of hanging draperies. The term is never used
+when we speak of the great arts&mdash;painting, sculpture, and
+architecture. It is, in fact, only the slang of the cabinet-maker,
+the upholsterer, and milliner.</p>
+
+<p>All true Art is very high indeed and apparent; and
+needs not to be introduced with a puff. It sits enthroned
+between Poetry and History. Even those who are
+ignorant of its laws feel its influence, and the soothing
+grace which it sheds, falling like the rain, equally upon
+the just and the unjust. Man&rsquo;s nature always responds
+to the truly high and beautiful; only the most degraded
+are deprived of this source of happiness. And there are
+but few women, till debased by cruelty, misery, or drink,
+that do not try in some humble way (but especially with
+their needle) to adorn their own persons, their children,
+and their homes; and if their art is not high, it yet has
+the power to elevate them.<a name="FNanchor_14_14" id="FNanchor_14_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a> While the most ambitious
+women try a higher flight, into the regions of poetry,
+literature, painting, and even sculpture (why has no
+woman ever been an architect?), millions have enjoyed
+the art of the needle for thousands of years, and it will
+continue to be a solace and a delight as long as the world
+lasts, for, like all art, it gives the ever new joy of creation.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_3_3" id="Footnote_3_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3_3"><span class="label">[3]</span></a>
+See Duke of Argyll&rsquo;s &ldquo;Unity of Nature.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_4_4" id="Footnote_4_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4_4"><span class="label">[4]</span></a>
+Walls, pillars, and roofs were certainly hung with textile ornament
+before they were carved or painted. This is Semper&rsquo;s theory, and
+though Woltmann and Woermann (&ldquo;History of Painting,&rdquo; Eng. Trans.,
+Sidney Colvin, p. 38) hardly accept this view, they do not gainsay it.
+The women who wove hangings for the grove, or more literally, &ldquo;coverings
+for the houses&rdquo; of the grove, were probably the priestesses of
+Astarte, and wove and worked the hangings of various colours. 2 Kings
+xxii.; Ezek. xvi. 16-18.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;It is probable that the earliest kind of pictures were either woven
+or embroidered upon figured stuffs of various colours; and that in these
+decorations the Greeks in the first instance imitated the Semitic races,
+who had practised them from time immemorial.&rdquo; See Woltmann and
+Woermann&rsquo;s &ldquo;History of Painting&rdquo; (Eng. Trans.), p. 38.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_5_5" id="Footnote_5_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5_5"><span class="label">[5]</span></a>
+Joshua vii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_6_6" id="Footnote_6_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6_6"><span class="label">[6]</span></a>
+Ezek. xxvii. 23.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_7_7" id="Footnote_7_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7_7"><span class="label">[7]</span></a>
+The wall of China, which, both figuratively and literally, enclosed its
+civilization, and fenced off that of the outer world, for thousands of years.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_8_8" id="Footnote_8_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8_8"><span class="label">[8]</span></a>
+When the tomb of King John was opened, the body was found
+wrapped in the same dress as that sculptured on his effigy. The surcoat
+of the Black Prince, of embroidered velvet, still hangs above his monument,
+on which it is exactly reproduced.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_9_9" id="Footnote_9_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9_9"><span class="label">[9]</span></a>
+Yet men, too, have wielded the embroidering needle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_10_10" id="Footnote_10_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10_10"><span class="label">[10]</span></a>
+These remnants are not, like the straws in amber, only precious
+because they are curious; they are most suggestive as works of art.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_11_11" id="Footnote_11_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11_11"><span class="label">[11]</span></a>
+Pope&rsquo;s Homer, Iliad, book iii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_12_12" id="Footnote_12_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12_12"><span class="label">[12]</span></a>
+Ibid. book vi.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_13_13" id="Footnote_13_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13_13"><span class="label">[13]</span></a>
+Shakespeare, &ldquo;Pericles, Prince of Tyre,&rdquo; act iv. 20; v. 5.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_14_14" id="Footnote_14_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14_14"><span class="label">[14]</span></a>
+Surely it is a humanizing and Christian principle which in Italy
+permits artistic work to be done in the prisons where criminals are
+confined for life. Sisters of Mercy teach lace-making to the wretched
+women who, having committed great crimes, may never be seen again.
+The produce of the work helps to pay the expense of the prison, and
+at the same time a very small percentage is given to the prisoners to
+send to their friends, or to spend on little comforts, thus encouraging the
+poor human creatures to exercise their best powers. We believe this is
+sometimes allowed also in England and France.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>14]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER I.</h2>
+
+<h3>STYLE.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In venturing to approach so great a subject as the
+history of style, I would beg my readers to believe how
+well I am aware that on each point much more has been
+already carefully treated by previous writers, than will
+fall within the limits of a chapter that is intended only
+to throw light on textile art, and especially on embroidery.</p>
+
+<p>I suppose it is the same in all subjects of human
+speculation which are worthy of serious study; and
+therefore I ought not to have been surprised to find
+how much has already been written on needlework and
+embroidery, and how unconsciously I, at least, have passed
+by and ignored these notices, till it struck me that I
+ought to know something of the history and principles
+of the art which with others, I was striving to revive
+and improve.</p>
+
+<p>Then new and old facts crowded round me, and
+became significant and interesting. I longed to know
+something of the first worker and the first needle; and
+behold the needle has been found!&mdash;among the d&eacute;bris
+of the life of the Neolithic cave-man, made of bone and
+very neatly fashioned.</p>
+
+<p>Alas! the workwoman and her work are gone to dust;
+but <em>there</em> is the needle!&mdash;proof positive that the craft
+existed before the last glacial period in Britain.<a name="FNanchor_15_15" id="FNanchor_15_15"></a><a href="#Footnote_15_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a> How
+long ago this was, we may conjecture, but can never
+finally ascertain. Then I find embroidery named by the
+earliest historians, by every poet of antiquity, and by the
+first travellers in the East; and it has been the subject
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>15]</a></span>
+of laws and enactments from the date of the Code of
+Manu in India, to the present century. One becomes
+eager to systematize all this information, and to share
+with the workers and thinkers of the craft, the pleasure
+found in its study.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps what is here collected may appear somewhat
+bald and disjointed; but antiquity, both human
+and historical, is apt to be bald; and its dislocation and
+disjointed condition are owing to the frequent cataclysms,
+physical, political, and social, which needlework has
+survived, bringing down to us the same stitches which
+served the same purposes for decoration under the Code
+of Manu, and adorned the Sanctuary in the wilderness;
+and those stitches probably were not new then.</p>
+
+<p>I propose to give a slight sketch of the origin of the
+styles<a name="FNanchor_16_16" id="FNanchor_16_16"></a><a href="#Footnote_16_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> that have followed each other, noting the national
+influences that have displaced or altered them, and the
+overlap of style caused by outside events.</p>
+
+<p>First, I would define what &ldquo;<span class="smcap">Style</span>&rdquo; means.</p>
+
+<p>Style is the mark impressed on art by a national period,
+short or long. It fades, it wanes, and then some historical
+element enters on the scene, which carries with it new
+materials, needs, and tastes (either imported or springing
+up under the new conditions). The style of the day in art
+and literature alters so perceptibly, that all who have had
+any artistic training are at once aware of the difference.</p>
+
+<p>Of late years, the science of history has been greatly
+assisted by the science of language. When the mute
+language of art shall have been patiently deciphered,
+the historian will be furnished with new powers in his
+researches after truth.</p>
+
+<p>The first &ldquo;ineffaceable&rdquo; is a <em>word</em>; the second a
+<em>pattern</em>. This is proved by the history of needlework.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>16]</a></span>
+As the world grows old, its youth becomes more interesting.
+Alas! the childhood of mankind is so distant,
+and it was so long before it learned its letters, that but
+few facts have come down to us, on which we may firmly
+build our theories; yet we must acknowledge the great
+stride that has been made in the last few years, in the
+scientific mode of extracting history from the ruins and
+tombs, and even the dust-heaps, of the past. Whole
+epochs, which fifty years ago were as blank as the then
+maps of Central Africa, are being now gradually covered
+with landmarks.</p>
+
+<p>Layard, Rawlinson, C. T. Newton, Botta, Rassam, Schliemann,
+Birch, G. Smith, and a crowd of arch&aelig;ologists,
+and even unscientific explorers, are collecting the materials
+from which the history of mankind is being reconstructed.</p>
+
+<p>From them I have sought information about the
+art of embroidery, and I find that Semper gives it a
+high pre-eminence as to its antiquity, making it the
+foundation and starting-point of all art. He clothes not
+only man, but architecture, with the products of the loom
+and the needle; and derives from them in succession,
+painting, bas-relief, and sculpture.<a name="FNanchor_17_17" id="FNanchor_17_17"></a><a href="#Footnote_17_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+
+<p>Style has to be considered in two different aspects,
+from two different standpoints. First, historically and
+arch&aelig;ologically, distinguishing and dating the forms
+which follow upon each other; and tracing them back
+in the order of their natural sequence; so as to guide us
+to the root, nay, to the seed<a name="FNanchor_18_18" id="FNanchor_18_18"></a><a href="#Footnote_18_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> of each and all art.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>17]</a></span>
+The subsidiary art of embroidery, in its highest form
+the handmaid of architecture, is full of suggestion, and
+may assist us greatly in the search which culminates in
+the text of &ldquo;In the beginning.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The other point of view from which style should be considered
+is the &aelig;sthetic. This enables us to criticize the
+works of different periods; extracting, as far as we may,
+rules for the beautiful and the commendable, and seeking
+to find the &ldquo;why?&rdquo; also observing the operation of the
+law by which decay follows too soon after the best and
+highest efforts of genius, thought, and invention in art.</p>
+
+<p>My present object is the history of consecutive styles,
+in so far as they concern needlework.</p>
+
+<p>Alas! nothing endures. This law is acknowledged by
+Goethe, when he makes Jove answer Venus, who bewailed
+that all that is beautiful must die,&mdash;that he had only
+bestowed beauty on the evanescent.</p>
+
+<p>It seems as if the moment the best is attained, men,
+ceasing to struggle for the better, fall back at once
+hopelessly and become mere imitators. They no longer
+follow a type, but copy a model, and then copy the copy.
+Imitation is a precipice, a swift descent through poverty of
+thought into the chaos of mannerism, in the place of style.</p>
+
+<p>The imitative tendency, as existing in all human minds,
+cannot be ignored or despised. In individuals it accompanies
+enthusiasm for the beautiful, and the graceful
+charm of sympathy. It maintains continuity between
+specimen and specimen, between artist and artist, between
+century and century; and it is this which enables an
+adept to say with certainty of consecutive styles, &ldquo;This
+is Spanish work of the sixteenth century; that is Flemish
+or German work of the seventeenth century.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>18]</a></span>
+The theory of development and of the survival of the
+fittest has been worked so hard, that it sometimes breaks
+down under the task imposed upon it. It would need to
+include Death in its procedure. In our creed, Death,
+means the moment of entrance into a higher existence;
+but in art it means extinction, leaving behind neither a
+history nor an artisan&mdash;only, perhaps, an infinitely small
+tradition, like the grain of corn preserved in the wrappings
+of a mummy, from which at first accident, and then care
+and culture, may evoke a future life.</p>
+
+<p>The various ways in which art has appeared at the
+beginning cannot here be discussed; nor how the Chinese
+and Hindu may have leapt into a perfection which has stood
+still for thousands of years, protected alike from expansion
+as from destruction, by the swaddling bands of codified
+custom; while Greek art rose like the sun, shone over
+the civilized world, and set&mdash;never again to see another
+epoch of glory. These subjects must be left for the study
+of the anthropological philosopher, who is working for the
+assistance and guidance of the future historian of art.</p>
+
+<p>Style in needlework has passed through many phases
+since the aboriginal, prehistoric woman, with the bone
+needle, drew together the edges of the skins of the animals
+she had prepared for food.</p>
+
+<p>For absolute necessity, in forming the garments and
+covering the tent, needlework need go no further than
+the seam. This, however, in the woven or plaited
+material, must fray where it is shaped, and become
+fringed at the edges. Every long seam is a suggestion,
+and every shaped edge a snare.</p>
+
+<p>The fringe lends itself to the tassel, and the shaped
+seam suggests a pattern; up-stitches are needed for
+binding the web, and before she is aware of it, the worker
+finds herself adorning, <em>embroidering</em>; and the craft enters
+the outskirts of the region of art.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>19]</a></span>
+The humble early efforts at decoration, called by the
+French &ldquo;primitif,&rdquo; are the first we know and class, and
+are found in all savage attempts at ornament. This
+style consists mainly of straight lines, zigzags, wavy
+lines, dots, and little discs.<a name="FNanchor_19_19" id="FNanchor_19_19"></a><a href="#Footnote_19_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a></p>
+
+<p>Gold discs of many sizes, and worked with a variety
+of patterns, are found equally in the tomb of the warrior
+at Mycen&aelig;, and in Ashantee, accompanied in both cases
+with gold masks covering the faces of the dead. The
+discs or buttons remind us of those found in Etruscan
+tombs, though the execution of these last is more advanced.
+They appear to be the origin of the &ldquo;clavus&rdquo; or nail-headed
+pattern woven into silks in the Palace of the C&aelig;sars.
+The last recorded survival of this pattern is in woven
+materials for ecclesiastical purposes in the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p>Of very early needlework we only find here and there
+a fragment, illustrated occasionally by passing allusions in
+poetry and history.</p>
+
+<p>The ornamental art of Hissarlik<a name="FNanchor_20_20" id="FNanchor_20_20"></a><a href="#Footnote_20_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a> is so primitive that
+we cannot feel that it has any resemblance to that
+described as Trojan by Homer, who probably adorned
+his song with the art he had known elsewhere.<a name="FNanchor_21_21" id="FNanchor_21_21"></a><a href="#Footnote_21_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a></p>
+
+<p>We know not what the actual heroes of the Iliad
+and Odyssey wore; but we do know that what Homer
+describes, he must have seen. Was Homer, therefore,
+the contemporary of the siege of Troy?&mdash;or does he
+not rather speak of the customs and costumes of his own
+time, and apply them to the traditions of the heroic ages
+of Greece? Whatever be the date of Homer himself,
+we can, with the help of contemporary survivals, reconstruct
+the house and the hall, and even furnish them,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>20]</a></span>
+and clothe the women and the princes, the beggars and
+the herdsmen.</p>
+
+<p>From the remains of Egyptian, Babylonian, and
+Assyrian art we can perceive their differences and their
+affinities. It is from textile fragments, found mostly in
+tombs, that we obtain dates, and can suggest them for
+other specimens.</p>
+
+<p>The funeral tent of Shishak&rsquo;s mother-in-law, at Boulac,
+is most valuable as showing what was the textile art of
+that early period.<a name="FNanchor_22_22" id="FNanchor_22_22"></a><a href="#Footnote_22_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="fig01" id="fig01"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 253px;">
+<img src="images/naaf01.png" width="253" height="400"
+alt="Corselet decorated with patterns and animal figures" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1.<br />
+Egyptian corselet. (Wilkinson&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Ancient Egyptians.&rdquo;)</span>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>The corselet which, according to Herodotus, was given
+by Amasis, King of Egypt, to the
+Temple of Minerva at Lindos, in
+Rhodes, was possibly worked in
+this style; for Babylonian embroidery
+was greatly prized in
+Egypt, and imitated.</p>
+
+<p>The second corselet given by
+Amasis to the Lac&aelig;demonians
+was worked in gold and colours,
+with animals and other decorations.
+This was of the seventh
+century <small>B.C.</small><a name="FNanchor_23_23" id="FNanchor_23_23"></a><a href="#Footnote_23_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a></p>
+
+<p>Amongst the arms painted on the
+wall of the tomb of Rameses, at
+Thebes (in Egypt), is a corselet, apparently of rich
+stuff,<a name="FNanchor_24_24" id="FNanchor_24_24"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a> embroidered with lions and other devices. (Fig. <a href="#fig01">1</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>21]</a></span>
+The Ph&oelig;nicians imbibed and reproduced the styles
+they met with in their voyages. The bowls found in
+Cyprus described and engraved in the September number
+of the &ldquo;Magazine of Art&rdquo; (1883), are most interesting
+illustrations of the meeting of two national styles, the
+Assyrian and the Egyptian.<a name="FNanchor_25_25" id="FNanchor_25_25"></a><a href="#Footnote_25_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a></p>
+
+<p>Homer&rsquo;s &ldquo;Shield of Achilles&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_26_26" id="FNanchor_26_26"></a><a href="#Footnote_26_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> must, in general design,
+have resembled these bowls (see Pl. <a href="#pl05">5</a>). They also
+recall the description by Josephus of the Temple veils
+at Jerusalem, which were Babylonian.<a name="FNanchor_27_27" id="FNanchor_27_27"></a><a href="#Footnote_27_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a></p>
+
+<p>Ph&oelig;nicia, which was the carrier of all art, dropped
+specimens here and there, for many hundred years, along
+the borders of the Mediterranean and the coasts of
+Spain. We fancy we can trace her ocean-path by the
+western shores of Africa, and even to America; otherwise,
+how could it happen that a mummy-wrapping in
+Peru should so nearly resemble some of those wrappings
+found at Saccarah,<a name="FNanchor_28_28" id="FNanchor_28_28"></a><a href="#Footnote_28_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> in Egypt, woven in precisely the
+same tapestry fashion?</p>
+
+<p>Among the puzzling phenomena due probably to Ph&oelig;nician
+commerce, is the complete suite of the sacerdotal
+ornaments of a High Priest, found in his tomb,<a name="FNanchor_29_29" id="FNanchor_29_29"></a><a href="#Footnote_29_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> now in
+the Vatican Museum. This reminds us of other specimens
+of archaic art from distant sources, that our
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>22]</a></span>
+attention is forcibly arrested, and we wonder whence
+they came, and whether they were collected from alien
+civilizations by the Ph&oelig;nicians before they dispersed
+them.<a name="FNanchor_30_30" id="FNanchor_30_30"></a><a href="#Footnote_30_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a></p>
+
+<p>Certain Egyptian sculptures of deformed and repulsive
+divinities&mdash;idols of the baser sort&mdash;are most interesting
+and puzzling by their affinity in style to the Indo-Dravidian
+and the art of Mexico, while they are entirely unlike that
+of Egypt. If Atlantis and its arts never existed, it may
+be suggested that it was the eastern coast of America
+that was spoken of under that name by the Egyptian
+priest with whom Herodotus conversed.</p>
+
+<p>The Babylonian and Ninevite embroideries, carefully
+executed on their bas-reliefs, have a masculine look, which
+suggests the design of an artist and the work of slaves.
+There is no following out of graceful fancies; one set of
+selected forms (each probably with a symbolical intention)
+following another. The effect, as seen on the sculptures
+in the British Museum, is royally gorgeous; and one feels
+that creatures inferior to monarchs or satraps could
+never have aspired to such splendours. Probably the
+embroidery on their corselets was executed in gold wire,
+treated as thread, and taken through the material; and the
+same system was carried out in adorning the trappings
+of the horses and the chariots. The solid masses of embroidery
+may have been afterwards subjected to the action
+of the hammer, which would account for their appearing
+like jeweller&rsquo;s work in the bas-reliefs (Pl. <a href="#pl01">1</a> and <a href="#pl02">2</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 220px;">
+<a name="pl01" id="pl01"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 1.</p>
+<img src="images/naap01t.jpg" width="220" height="400" alt="" />
+<p class="link"><a href="images/naap01.jpg">See larger image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Assurbanipal fighting lions.<br />
+British Museum.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 266px;">
+<a name="pl02" id="pl02"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 2.</p>
+<img src="images/naap02t.jpg" width="266" height="400"
+alt="Showing human and animal forms and plants" />
+<p class="link"><a href="images/naap02.jpg">See larger image</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Portion of a Babylonian Royal Mantle. Layard&rsquo;s &ldquo;Monuments,&rdquo; series i., pl. 9.</p>
+
+<p>The style of the Babylonian embroideries appears to
+have been naturalistic though conventionalized. We
+may judge of their styles for different purposes by the
+reliefs in the British Museum. From their veils and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>23]</a></span>
+curtains at a later date, when they had crossed their art
+with that of India, we may imagine the mystical design
+of the Temple curtain as described by Josephus; in
+fact, as much as possible embracing all things on the
+earth and above it, excepting the images of the heavenly
+bodies.<a name="FNanchor_31_31" id="FNanchor_31_31"></a><a href="#Footnote_31_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a></p>
+
+<p>Small carpets from Persia of the Middle Ages, as well
+as those woven and embroidered even to the present
+day, are echoes of the ancient Babylonian style, and most
+interesting as historical records of the traditions of human
+taste. Our artistic interests are stirred when we read in
+Ezekiel lists of the fabrics and materials of which Tyre
+had become the central dep&ocirc;t, and we enjoy tracing them
+to the various looms, named in verse and history, where
+they were adorned with embroidery, and then either
+became articles of commerce, or were stored away to be
+kept religiously as heirlooms, or presented as gifts to
+the temples or to honoured guests.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. G. Smith, after saying that the Babylonian is
+without doubt the oldest of civilizations, continues thus:&mdash;&ldquo;To
+us the history of Babylonia has an interest beyond
+that of Egypt, on account of its more intimate connection
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>24]</a></span>
+with our own civilization.<a name="FNanchor_32_32" id="FNanchor_32_32"></a><a href="#Footnote_32_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> Babylon was the centre from
+which it spread into Assyria, thence to Asia Minor and
+Ph&oelig;nicia, then to Greece and Rome, and so to all
+Europe. The Jews brought the traditions of the creation
+and of early religion from Ur of the Chaldees,<a name="FNanchor_33_33" id="FNanchor_33_33"></a><a href="#Footnote_33_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> and thus
+preserved they became the heritage of all mankind;
+while the science and civilization of that wonderful people
+(the Babylonians) became the basis of modern research
+and advancement.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_34_34" id="FNanchor_34_34"></a><a href="#Footnote_34_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a></p>
+
+<p>The hangings of the Tabernacle are so carefully described
+in the book of Exodus, that we can see in fancy
+the linen curtains, blue or white, embroidered in scarlet,
+purple, blue, and gold; the cherubim in the woven
+material; the fringes enriched with flowers, buds, fruit,
+and golden bells: and we can appreciate how little of
+Egyptian art and style the children of Israel brought
+back from their long captivity, and how soon they
+reverted to their ancient Chaldean proclivities, after returning
+to their wandering life of the tent.</p>
+
+<p>On the bronze gates from the mound of Balawat, near
+Nimroud, set up by Shalmaneser to celebrate his conquest
+of Tyre and Sidon,<a name="FNanchor_35_35" id="FNanchor_35_35"></a><a href="#Footnote_35_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> we find a portable tabernacle, evidently
+meant to accompany the army on a march. It is
+not much larger than a four-post bed, with transverse
+poles for drawing the curtains, all fringed with bells and
+fruit. This is an illustration of the motive for the Tabernacle
+of the forty years&rsquo; wandering in the desert. (Fig. <a href="#fig02">2</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>25]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 518px;">
+<a name="fig02" id="fig02"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf02.png" width="518" height="550"
+alt="A person under a canopy puts an object in a dish" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 2.<br />
+Tabernacle on gates of Balawat, time of Shalmaneser II. (British Museum).</p>
+
+<p>Egyptian textile art is, perhaps, that of which we
+have the most early specimens. These are to be seen
+at Boulac, at Vienna, Turin, and the British Museum.<a name="FNanchor_36_36" id="FNanchor_36_36"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>
+The Hieroglyphic, the Archaic, and the Gr&aelig;co-Egyptian
+are all unmistakably the consecutive outcome
+of the national original style, which had totally disappeared
+in the beginning of our era. Few of the
+embroideries are more than two thousand five hundred
+years old. But the great piece of patchwork in leather,
+&ldquo;the funeral tent of an Egyptian queen,&rdquo; as it covered
+the remains of a contemporary of Solomon,<a name="FNanchor_37_37" id="FNanchor_37_37"></a><a href="#Footnote_37_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> absolutely
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>26]</a></span>
+exhibits the proficiency of the designer and the needlework
+of the eleventh century <small>B.C.</small> (Pl. <a href="#pl44">44</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The connection between Indian and Egyptian early
+art appears to have existed only in their use of the lotus
+as an emblem and a constant decoration; but their
+manner of employing it was characteristically different.
+(Pl. <a href="#pl12">12</a> and <a href="#pl13">13</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The Ph&oelig;nicians carried with them the seeds of the
+Egyptian style over the ancient world; but these seeds
+only took root and flourished on the soil of Greece. The
+imitations of Egyptian style reappeared in Rome, and
+again in France &ldquo;under the two Empires.&rdquo; In both
+cases they were only imitations, and neither had any
+permanent influence on the art of their day.</p>
+
+<p>I shall have to allude very often to our Eastern
+sources of artistic culture.</p>
+
+<p>Our own Aryan ancestors were so impregnated with
+beautiful ideas, that we must believe that we inherit from
+them all our graceful appreciation of naturalistic ornament.
+But even Aryan art met with reverses on its
+Eastern soil, from which it constantly rose again and
+renewed itself.</p>
+
+<p>The Mongols crushed for a time the element of beauty
+in India. They introduced a barbarous and hideous
+style which has its only counterpart in that of Central
+America. It was the produce of a religion, superstitious,
+cruel, and devilish.</p>
+
+<p>The Aryan art of India, which was elegant and spiritual,
+was revived by the kindred influence of Persia, and by
+the Renaissance in Europe. Italian and other artists
+were employed in India, and &ldquo;the spirit of aerial grace,
+and the delicate sense of beauty in natural forms,
+blossomed afresh and flourished for 300 years. Birds,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>27]</a></span>
+flowers, fruit, butterflies, became once more the legitimate
+ornament of every material.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_38_38" id="FNanchor_38_38"></a><a href="#Footnote_38_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a></p>
+
+<p>I continue to quote from Sir G. Birdwood&rsquo;s &ldquo;Arts of
+India.&rdquo; &ldquo;The Code of Manu, from 900 to 300 <small>B.C.</small>, has
+secured to the village system of India a permanent class
+of hereditary artistic workmen and artisans, who have
+through these 2500 years, at least, been trained to the
+same manipulations, and who therefore translate any
+foreign work which is placed before them to copy, into
+something characteristically Indian.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_39_39" id="FNanchor_39_39"></a><a href="#Footnote_39_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a> Indian art has
+borrowed freely from all sources without losing its own
+individuality. It has been said, &ldquo;There is nothing
+newer in it than of the sixteenth century; and even then
+nothing was original, especially in the minor arts.&rdquo; But
+this is owing to the Hindu being equally endowed with
+assimilative and receptive capacity,<a name="FNanchor_40_40" id="FNanchor_40_40"></a><a href="#Footnote_40_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> so that in the hands
+of the Indian craftsman everything assumes the distinctive
+expression of ancient Indian art.</p>
+
+<p>In India everything is hand-wrought; but as the spirit
+of its decorative art &ldquo;is that of a crystallized tradition,
+its type has remained almost unaltered since the Aryan
+genius culminated in the Ram&acirc;yana and Mahabh&acirc;rata&mdash;and
+yet each artisan in India is a true artist.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_41_41" id="FNanchor_41_41"></a><a href="#Footnote_41_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a> In art,
+unfortunately, &ldquo;the letter killeth;&rdquo; and true artists as they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>28]</a></span>
+are, the ancient traditions bind and cramp them, while
+the ancient materials, the dyes, and the absolute command
+of time are failing: so that the beauty of Indian embroideries
+and other decorations is gradually reducing itself
+to mannerism, which is more dangerous to art than even
+had been the vicissitudes of war; for when peaceful days
+returned, and the waves of conquest had subsided, the
+ancient arts were found again deeply embedded in the
+traditions of the people. They gradually returned to
+their old ways, which are so indelible in the Hindu mind,
+that they will perhaps survive even the fashions of to-day.<a name="FNanchor_42_42" id="FNanchor_42_42"></a><a href="#Footnote_42_42" class="fnanchor">[42]</a></p>
+
+<p>From Yates&rsquo; account it would appear that Europe
+had been fertilized with taste in art and manufactures
+from the East by three different routes.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptian civilization, with all its Eastern antecedents
+and traditions, came to us by the Mediterranean
+and the Adriatic; the Ph&oelig;nicians being the merchants
+who brought it through those channels. The Etruscans,
+who were the pedlars of Europe, travelled north, conveying
+golden ornaments and coral, and bringing back
+jet and amber. Their commercial track is to be traced
+by the contents of tombs on their path.<a name="FNanchor_43_43" id="FNanchor_43_43"></a><a href="#Footnote_43_43" class="fnanchor">[43]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 267px;">
+<a name="pl03" id="pl03"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 3.</p>
+<img src="images/naap03t.jpg" width="267" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap03.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">St. John. From King Alfred&rsquo;s Celtic Book of the Gospels.<br />
+Lambeth Palace Library.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, there was also a Slavonian route from
+Eastern Asia, which conveyed Oriental art to the north
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>29]</a></span>
+of Europe. Celtic art, which certainly has something
+of the Indo-Chinese style, came to us probably by this
+route. Another branch of the Celtic family was settled
+on the north-eastern shores of the Adriatic. Celtic
+ideas and forms in art probably crossed Europe from
+this point,<a name="FNanchor_44_44" id="FNanchor_44_44"></a><a href="#Footnote_44_44" class="fnanchor">[44]</a> and came to us meeting a cognate influence,<a name="FNanchor_45_45" id="FNanchor_45_45"></a><a href="#Footnote_45_45" class="fnanchor">[45]</a>
+arriving from the north.<a name="FNanchor_46_46" id="FNanchor_46_46"></a><a href="#Footnote_46_46" class="fnanchor">[46]</a> (Pl. <a href="#pl03">3</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Thirdly, Oriental taste and textiles came from the
+Byzantine Empire in the early days of Christianity,
+spreading to Sicily, Italy, Spain, and finally to France,
+Germany, and Britain.</p>
+
+<p>Runic art, whether Scandinavian or our own purer
+Celtic, is so remarkable for its independence of all other
+European national and traditional design, that I cannot
+omit a brief notice of it, though we have no ascertained
+relics of any of its embroideries.<a name="FNanchor_47_47" id="FNanchor_47_47"></a><a href="#Footnote_47_47" class="fnanchor">[47]</a> It appears to have
+received, in addition to its own universal stamp&mdash;evidently
+derived from one original source&mdash;certain
+influences impressed on it like a seal by each country
+through which it flowed.<a name="FNanchor_48_48" id="FNanchor_48_48"></a><a href="#Footnote_48_48" class="fnanchor">[48]</a> Wherever the Runes are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>30]</a></span>
+carved in stone, or worked on bronze, gold, silver, ivory,
+or wood, or
+painted in their
+splendid illuminations
+(pl. <a href="#pl04">4</a>),
+the involved serpent,
+which was
+the sign of their
+faith, appears,
+sometimes covered
+with Runic inscriptions; and this inscribed serpent,
+later, is twined round or heaped at the foot of the
+peculiar Scandinavian-shaped cross, the type of conversion.
+The serpent was sometimes altered into the
+partial semblance of a four-footed animal, the body and
+tail being lengthened and twined, and sometimes split,
+to give a new turn to the pattern. (Fig. <a href="#fig03">3</a>.) All these
+zoomorphic patterns, as well as the human figures seen
+in the Book of Kells, the missal at Lambeth, and the
+Lindisfarne Book (which is, however, more English in its
+style), are yet of an Indo-Chinese type; the wicker-work
+motives often replacing the involved serpent design.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 450px;">
+<a name="fig03" id="fig03"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf03.png" width="450" height="219"
+alt="Section of a knotwork pattern showing a zoomorphic figure" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 3.<br />
+Celtic Zoomorphic pattern.</p>
+
+<p>The Paganism of our own Celtic art, when it appears,
+is an interpolation between our first and second Christian
+conversions, and was brought to us in the incursions of
+the Vikings over Scotland and into England.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl04" id="pl04"></a>
+<img src="images/naap04t.jpg" width="400" height="330"
+alt="A complex knotwork design" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap04.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Page from the Lindisfarne MSS. British Museum</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 242px;">
+<a name="pl05" id="pl05"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 5.</p>
+<img src="images/naap05t.jpg" width="242" height="400"
+alt="Showing human and animal figures and plants" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap05.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Silver bowl from Palestrina. Ganneau. &ldquo;Journal Asiatique, Coupe de Palestrina.&rdquo; 1880.</p>
+
+<p>Our knowledge of their advanced and most singular art
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>31]</a></span>
+comes out of their tombs, in which the warrior was laid
+with all his arms and his horse and his precious possessions,
+splendidly clothed according to his degree&mdash;in
+the belief that he would need them again in a future
+world.</p>
+
+<p>This northern tradition was so long-lived, that
+Frederick Casimir, a knight of the Teutonic Order, was
+buried with his sword and his horse at Treves, in 1781.<a name="FNanchor_49_49" id="FNanchor_49_49"></a><a href="#Footnote_49_49" class="fnanchor">[49]</a></p>
+
+<p>Greek embroideries we can perfectly appreciate, by
+studying Hope&rsquo;s &ldquo;Costumes of the Ancients,&rdquo; and the
+works of Millingen and others; also the fictile vases in
+the British Museum and elsewhere. On these are depicted
+the Hellenic gods, the wars, and the home life
+of the Greeks. The worked or woven patterns on
+their draperies are infinitely varied, and range over many
+centuries of design, and they are almost always beautiful.
+It is melancholy to have to confess that in this, as in all
+their art, the Greek taste is inimitable; yet we may profit
+by the lessons it teaches us. These are: variety without
+redundancy; grace without affectation; simplicity without
+poverty; the appropriate, the harmonious, and the serene,
+rather than that which is astonishing, painful, or awe-inspiring.
+These principles were carried into the smallest
+arts, and we can trace them in the shaping of a cup
+or the decoration of a mantle, as in the frieze of the
+Parthenon.</p>
+
+<p>Homer makes constant mention of the women&rsquo;s work.
+Penelope&rsquo;s web is oftenest quoted. This was a shroud
+for her Father-in-law. Ulysses brought home a large
+collection of fine embroidered garments, contributed by
+his fair hostesses during his travels.</p>
+
+<p>Pallas Athene patronized the craft of the embroiderers;
+and the sacred peplos which robed her statue, and was
+renewed every year, was embroidered by noble maidens,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>32]</a></span>
+under the superintendence of a priestess of her temple. It
+represented the battles of the gods and the giants (fig. <a href="#fig04">4</a>),
+till the portraits of
+living men were profanely
+introduced into
+the design. The
+new peplos was carried
+to the temple,
+floating like a
+flag, in procession
+through the city.</p>
+
+<p>The goddess to
+whom the Greeks
+gave the protection
+of this art was wise
+as well as accomplished,
+and knew
+that it was good
+for women reverently
+to approach
+art by painting with
+their needles. She
+always was seen in
+embroidered garments,
+and worked
+as well as wove them
+herself. She appeared
+to Ulysses in the
+steading of Eum&oelig;us,
+the swineherd, as a
+&ldquo;woman tall and fair, and skilful in splendid handiwork.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_50_50" id="FNanchor_50_50"></a><a href="#Footnote_50_50" class="fnanchor">[50]</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="fig04" id="fig04"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 296px;">
+<img src="images/naaf04.png" width="296" height="600"
+alt="Athene wearing embroidered dress and bearing a shield and short spear or javelin" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4.<br />
+Pallas Athene attired in the sacred peplos.<br />
+(Panathenaic Vase, British Museum.)</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>33]</a></span>
+Homer never tires of praising the women&rsquo;s work, and
+the chests of splendid garments laid up in the treasure-houses.<a name="FNanchor_51_51" id="FNanchor_51_51"></a><a href="#Footnote_51_51" class="fnanchor">[51]</a>
+Helen gave of her work to Telemachus:
+&ldquo;Helen, the fair lady, stood by the coffer wherein were
+her robes of curious needlework which she herself had
+wrought. Then Helen, the fair lady, lifted it out, the
+widest and most beautifully embroidered of all&mdash;and it
+shone like a star; and this she sent as a gift to his
+future wife.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_52_52" id="FNanchor_52_52"></a><a href="#Footnote_52_52" class="fnanchor">[52]</a></p>
+
+<p>Semper&rsquo;s theory is, that the one chief import of Oriental
+style being embroideries, therefore the hangings and
+dresses arriving from Asia gave the poetic Greek the
+motives for his art, his civilization, his legends, and his
+gods.<a name="FNanchor_53_53" id="FNanchor_53_53"></a><a href="#Footnote_53_53" class="fnanchor">[53]</a> This may or may not be; there is no doubt that
+they influenced them.<a name="FNanchor_54_54" id="FNanchor_54_54"></a><a href="#Footnote_54_54" class="fnanchor">[54]</a></p>
+
+<p>B&ouml;ttiger accordingly believes that Homer&rsquo;s descriptions
+of beautiful dress and furnishings are derived from, or at
+least influenced by, what he had learnt of the Babylonian
+and Chaldean embroideries. This is very probable, and
+would account for his poetical design on the shield
+of Achilles, in which his own inspiration dictated the
+possibilities of the then practised arts of Asia, of which
+the fame and occasional glimpses were already drifting
+westward. (Plate <a href="#pl05">5</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The description of the shield of Achilles is as follows:
+Hephaistos, &ldquo;the lame god,&rdquo; &ldquo;threw bronze that weareth
+not, into the fire; and tin, and precious gold and silver.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;He fashioned the shield great and strong, with five folds
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>34]</a></span>
+(or circles) in the shield itself.&rdquo; &ldquo;Then wrought he the
+earth and the sea, and the unwearying sun, and the
+moon waxing to its full, and the signs, every one wherewith
+the heavens are crowned.&rdquo; &ldquo;Also he fashioned
+therein two cities of mortal men; and here were marriage
+feasts, and brides led home by the blaze of torches&mdash;young
+men whirling in the dance, and the women standing
+each at her door marvelling.&rdquo; Then a street fight, and
+the elders sitting in judgment. The other city was being
+besieged; and there is a wonderful description of the
+battle fought on the river banks, and &ldquo;Strife, Tumult,
+and Death&rdquo; personified, and mingling in the fight.
+Then he set in the shield the labours of the husbandman.
+This is so exquisitely beautiful that with difficulty I refrain
+from quoting it all. &ldquo;He wrought thereon a herd of
+kine with upright horns, and the kine were fashioned of
+gold and tin,&rdquo; &ldquo;and herdsmen of gold were following
+after them.&rdquo; &ldquo;Also did the glorious lame god devise a
+dancing-place like unto that which once, in wide Knosos,
+Daidalos wrought for Ariadne of the lovely tresses.
+There were youths dancing and maidens of costly wooing,
+their hands upon their waists.&rdquo; &ldquo;And now would they
+run round with deft feet exceedingly lightly&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;and
+now would they run in lines to meet each other.&rdquo; &ldquo;And
+a great company stood round the lovely dance in joy;
+and among them a divine minstrel was making music on
+his lyre; and through the midst of them, as he began
+his strain, two tumblers whirled. Also he set therein the
+great might of the River of Ocean, around the utmost
+rim of the cunningly-fashioned shield.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_55_55" id="FNanchor_55_55"></a><a href="#Footnote_55_55" class="fnanchor">[55]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is, indeed, every proof that Greek art was the
+joint product of the Egyptian and Assyrian civilizations.
+Their amalgamation gave birth to the archaic style,
+struggling to express the strength and the beauty of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>35]</a></span>
+man&mdash;half heroic, half divine. Gradually, all the surrounding
+decorations of life assumed as a governing principle and
+motive, the worth of noble beauty.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks were the first artists. They broke away
+from the ancient trammels of customary forms, and
+replaced law with liberty of thought, and tradition with
+poetry.</p>
+
+<p>They destroyed no old ideas, but they selected,
+appropriated, and evoked beauty from every source.
+From the great days of Athens we may date the
+moment when materials became entirely subservient
+to art, and the minds of individual men were stamped
+on their works and dated them. Phases indeed followed
+each other, showing the links of tradition which
+still bound men&rsquo;s minds together to a certain extent,
+and formed the general style of the day. Yet there
+was in art from that time&mdash;life, sometimes death,&mdash;but
+then a resurrection.</p>
+
+<p>It appears from classical writers that about 300 <small>B.C.</small>
+Greek art had thrown itself into many new forms.
+Painting, for example, had tried all themes excepting
+landscapes. We are told that within the space of 150
+years the art had passed through every technical stage;
+from the tinted profile system of Polygnotus to the proper
+pictorial system of natural scenes, composed with natural
+backgrounds; and Peirai&iuml;kos is named as an artist of
+genre&mdash;a painter of barbers and cobblers, booths, asses,
+eatables, and such-like realistic subjects.<a name="FNanchor_56_56" id="FNanchor_56_56"></a><a href="#Footnote_56_56" class="fnanchor">[56]</a></p>
+
+<p>I suppose there is no doubt that all the Romans knew or
+felt of art was borrowed directly or indirectly from Greece,<a name="FNanchor_57_57" id="FNanchor_57_57"></a><a href="#Footnote_57_57" class="fnanchor">[57]</a>
+first through Ph&oelig;nician and perhaps Etruscan sources,
+and finally by conquest. Everything we have of their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>36]</a></span>
+art shows their imitation of Grecian models. Their
+embroideries would certainly have shown the same
+impress.</p>
+
+<p>Greece&mdash;herself crushed and demoralized&mdash;even as
+late as the Eastern Empire gave to Rome the fashion of
+the Byzantine taste, which she at once adopted, and it was
+called the Romanesque. This style, which was partly
+Arab, still prevails in Eastern Europe, having clung to
+the Greek Church. In her best days, Roman poetry,
+architecture, and decorative arts were Greek of Greece,
+imitating its highest types, but never creating.</p>
+
+<p>It is surely allowable to quote here one of Virgil&rsquo;s
+Homeric echoes, which touches upon our especial
+subject,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Mournful at heart at that supreme farewell,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Andromache brings robes of border&rsquo;d gold;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A Phrygian cloak, too, for Ascanius.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And yielding not the palm in courtesy,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Loads him with woven treasures, and thus speaks:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&lsquo;Take these gifts, too, to serve as monuments<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of my hand-labour, boy; so may they bear<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Their witness to Andromache&rsquo;s long love,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The wife of Hector:&mdash;take them, these last gifts<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thy kindred can bestow; in this sad world<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sole image left of my Astyanax!&rsquo;&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_58_58" id="FNanchor_58_58"></a><a href="#Footnote_58_58" class="fnanchor">[58]</a><br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is sad to mark how not only the refinements of
+taste, but even the guiding principles of art, were
+gradually lost in the humiliation of a conquered people,
+the dulness and discouragement which followed on
+the expatriation or destruction of their accumulated
+treasures, and the deterioration of the Greek artist and
+artisan, carried prisoners to Rome, and settled there
+because it was the seat of luxury and empire. As the
+captive Jews hung their harps on the willow-trees by
+the waters of Babylon, and refused to sing, so Greek
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>37]</a></span>
+genius succumbed, weighed down by Roman chains. It
+sickened and died in exile.</p>
+
+<p>Late Roman art reminds us of the art of Etruria in its
+archaic days, except that the freshness and promise are
+wanting, and that the one was in its first, the other its
+second childhood.</p>
+
+<p>Before entering on the subject of Christian art, I
+must again refer, however briefly, to the Eastern origin
+of all art. It is evident that this had always flowed in
+streams of many types from that high watershed of
+Central Asia, where our human race is said to have been
+created, and whence all wisdom and knowledge have
+emanated. In the image of the Creator, man issued
+from thence, endowed with the gift of the creative power.
+Wave after wave of fresh and apparently differing nationalities
+followed each other; partially submerging those
+that had gone before, and spreading till it had reached
+the furthest shores of the Northern seas and the Atlantic,
+and encircled the Mediterranean. They all followed the
+same course from east to west. The Greek civilization
+was indeed so dazzling and strong, that it lighted the
+world all around; and India, Persia, and Assyria felt its
+influence reflected back on its old Asian cradle.</p>
+
+<p>But from the same high watershed<a name="FNanchor_59_59" id="FNanchor_59_59"></a><a href="#Footnote_59_59" class="fnanchor">[59]</a> flowed other
+tribal types towards China, Java, and Japan, that had
+no affinity with any western civilization; and while the
+Assyrian, Persian, Indian, and Mongolian styles mixed
+and overlapped so near their sources, that it is sometimes
+hardly possible to reason out and classify their resemblances
+and their differences, the tribes flowing
+Eastward turned aside and went their own way, and have
+remained till now perfectly distinct.<a name="FNanchor_60_60" id="FNanchor_60_60"></a><a href="#Footnote_60_60" class="fnanchor">[60]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>38]</a></span>
+In spite of their matchless dexterity in the manipulation
+of their materials, the infinite variety of their
+stitches, and exquisite finish in execution, carrying out to
+the utmost point the intended effect, yet Chinese and
+Japanese textile art differs in its inner principles from all
+our accepted canons of taste; so that their want of
+harmony, and sometimes their absurdity, is a puzzle of
+which we cannot find the key. This I have already
+alluded to (p. <a href="#Page_3">3</a>).</p>
+
+<p>I purposely avoid the questions suggested by Chinese
+art. The immense antiquity it claims cannot be allowed
+without hesitation. M. Terrien de la Couperie, however,
+believes that he has found the actual point of departure
+of Chinese civilization, and he considers it to be an early
+offshoot from Babylon.<a name="FNanchor_61_61" id="FNanchor_61_61"></a><a href="#Footnote_61_61" class="fnanchor">[61]</a> He supports his theory on
+linguistic grounds, and we must anxiously wait to see
+if it is corroborated by further researches into the earliest
+records of the archaic Chinese literature. But immobility
+in art is a Chinese characteristic, and no national
+cataclysms seem to have disturbed it. The oldest
+specimens known are very like the most modern. Yet
+an adept, learned in Chinese art, can detect the signs
+which mark its different epochs.</p>
+
+<p>In this they differ from the Japanese, who, added to their
+inherited exquisite appreciation of natural beauty, have a
+power of assimilation that might lead in time to their
+possessing a school of art which, being really original,
+might become the style of the future. The civilization
+of Japan is not older than the fifth century <small>A.D.</small>, and was
+probably then imported from Corea. Some of the earliest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>39]</a></span>
+specimens we know of their art are embroidered religious
+pictures by the son of a Mikado Sholokutaiski, who was
+in the seventh century the great apostle of Buddhism in
+Japan; and the next earliest works are by the first nun,
+Honi, in the eighth century. We have European work as
+old, and it is most interesting to compare the differences
+of their styles and stitches.</p>
+
+<p>We must now return to the beginning of our era, when
+we find Greek taste, such as it was, still influencing and
+colouring art in Italy, and throughout Europe, Asia, and
+Africa, wherever Roman colonies were founded, till the
+eighth century. It died hard; but by that time the
+barbarians had poured from the east and north in
+successive waves, and conquered and suppressed the
+classical civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing is so puzzling in textile art as the mixture of
+styles during the first 1000 years <small>A.D.</small> The Gr&aelig;co-Roman,
+the Byzantine, and the Egyptian, crossed by the Arabian,
+Persian, and Indian styles, were reproduced in the Sicilian
+looms. Certain stock patterns, such as the reclining hares
+or fawns, as we find them on the Shishak pall, or that of
+the Tree of Life, approached by worshipping men or
+animals, originating in Assyrian art, are employed as
+borders, and fill up vacant spaces. The information
+collected from the tombs in the Crimea immediately
+preceding our era, is supplemented by the variety in
+style and materials from the Fayoum, now placed by
+Herr Graf&rsquo;schen in the Museum at Vienna.</p>
+
+<p>Christian art, which began in Byzantium, gradually
+grew, and formed itself into the Gothic,<a name="FNanchor_62_62" id="FNanchor_62_62"></a><a href="#Footnote_62_62" class="fnanchor">[62]</a> which in time
+overcame the general chaos of style.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>40]</a></span>
+Eastern art continued to flow westward, modifying
+and suggesting. When the Ph&oelig;nicians and Carthaginians
+had laid down their ancient commercial sceptre, it was
+taken up by the Greeks, and later by the Venetians and
+Genoese, always trading with Asiatic goods. Then the
+arts of the Scandinavians<a name="FNanchor_63_63" id="FNanchor_63_63"></a><a href="#Footnote_63_63" class="fnanchor">[63]</a> and of the Celts (who were
+the weavers), though barbaric, still retained and spread
+certain Oriental traditions. Luxury was born in Babylon,
+and Persia became its nurse, whence all its glories and
+refinements spread over the world. But if luxury was
+Babylonian, art was Greek. Alas! the love of luxury
+survived in Rome the taste for art.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl06" id="pl06"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 6.</p>
+<img src="images/naap06t.jpg" width="400" height="286"
+alt="The Empress flanked by other members of her court" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap06.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">The Empress Theodora. Mosaic at Ravenna. Church of San. Vitale.</p>
+
+<p>At Ravenna we learn much of the early Christian
+period from the mosaics in the churches. The Empress
+Theodora and her ladies appear to be clothed in Indian
+shawl stuffs. (Plate <a href="#pl06">6</a>.) These, of course, had drifted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>41]</a></span>
+into Rome, as they had long done into the Greek islands,
+by the Red Sea or by land through Tyre. Ezekiel (590
+<small>B.C.</small>) mentions the Indian trade through Aden. Theodora&rsquo;s
+dress has a deep border of gold, embroidered
+with classical warriors pursuing each other with swords.<a name="FNanchor_64_64" id="FNanchor_64_64"></a><a href="#Footnote_64_64" class="fnanchor">[64]</a>
+Works enriched with precious stones and pearls now
+appear for the first time in European art, and testify to
+its Oriental impress.</p>
+
+<p>The Byzantine Christian style was essentially the art
+of mosaic. Its patterns for architecture or dress, easily
+square themselves into little compartments, suggesting
+the stitches of &ldquo;counted&rdquo; embroideries (&ldquo;opus pulvinarium&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p>In the beginning of the fourth century, when Greek
+influence was still languishing, we may date the commencement
+of ecclesiastical art. It was a new birth, and
+had to struggle through an infancy of nearly 800 years,
+ignoring, or unconscious of all rules of drawing, colouring,
+and design. Outlines filled in with flat surfaces of
+colours represented again the art of painting, which had
+returned to archaic types, and in no way differed from
+the essential properties of the art of &ldquo;acu pingere&rdquo; or
+needlework, which was in the same phase&mdash;being, fortunately
+for it, that to which it was best suited.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore fine works of art were then executed by the
+needle, of which a very few survive, either in description
+or copied into more lasting materials; and showing that,
+with the minor arts of mosaic and illumination, it was
+in a state of higher perfection than the greater arts,
+which till the twelfth century were all but in abeyance.</p>
+
+<p>In discussing textile art, I am obliged to pass over
+a part of the dark ages, and to approach the period when
+it must be studied chiefly in Sicily, which became the
+half-way house on the high road to the East, and later
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>42]</a></span>
+the resting-place of the Crusaders to and from the Holy
+Land.</p>
+
+<p>Sicily, which had succeeded to Constantinople as being
+the great manufacturing mart during the Middle Ages,
+was in the hands of the Moors, the origin and source of
+all European Gothic textile art. Yet even at Palermo
+and Messina this art was long controlled by the traditions
+of Greece, ancient and modern, while fertilized by Persian
+and Indian forms and traditional symbolisms.</p>
+
+<p>The next European phase was the Gothic.<a name="FNanchor_65_65" id="FNanchor_65_65"></a><a href="#Footnote_65_65" class="fnanchor">[65]</a> This was
+Arab and Moresque steeped in northern ideas; and
+finding its congenial soil, it grew into the most
+splendid, thoughtful, and finished style, far transcending
+anything that it had borrowed from eastern or southern
+sources.</p>
+
+<p>All its traditions were carried out in the smaller
+decorative arts&mdash;mosaics, ivories, and metal works;
+and, last and not least, beautiful embroideries, to
+adorn the altars and the dresses of monarchs and
+nobles. (Plate <a href="#pl07">7</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>When taste was imperfect or declined, then the decorations
+were all rude, and the embroideries shared in
+the general rudeness or poverty; but as these crafts rose
+again, adding to themselves grace and beauty by study
+and experience, then needlework in England, Germany,
+France, Italy, and Spain grew and flourished.<a name="FNanchor_66_66" id="FNanchor_66_66"></a><a href="#Footnote_66_66" class="fnanchor">[66]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl07" id="pl07"></a>
+<img src="images/naap07t.jpg" width="400" height="273"
+alt="A woman kneels in prayer, a group of people, including some monks, stand behind her" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap07.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Italian embroidery XV. Century<br />
+Kensington Museum</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 152px;">
+<a name="pl08" id="pl08"></a>
+<img src="images/naap08at.jpg" width="152" height="400"
+alt="Both have intricate foliage designs, the one on the right also includes small portraits" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap08a.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Italian orphreys XVI. Century<br />
+South Kensington Museum</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 147px;">
+<img src="images/naap08bt.jpg" width="147" height="400"
+alt="French - features figures and curving patterns; Spanish - features fruiting vines and sheafs of wheat" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap08b.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Orphreys French and Spanish<br />
+XVI. Century</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>43]</a></span>
+Then came the Reformation, which, in Germany and
+England especially, gave a blow to the arts which had
+reserved their best efforts for the Church; and the change
+of style effected by the Renaissance was not suited to
+the solemnity of ecclesiastical decoration.</p>
+
+<p>The styles of the fifteenth and sixteenth century
+embroideries are better adapted for secular purposes;
+though their extreme beauty as architectural ornament in
+Italy, reconciles one to their want of religious character,
+on the principle that it was allowable to dedicate to the
+Church all that in its day was brightest and best.
+(Plate <a href="#pl08">8</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>We possess much domestic embroidery of the Renaissance
+which is exceedingly beautiful&mdash;Italian, Spanish,
+and German. English needlework had lost its prestige
+from the time of the Reformation.<a name="FNanchor_67_67" id="FNanchor_67_67"></a><a href="#Footnote_67_67" class="fnanchor">[67]</a></p>
+
+<p>The best efforts of the German schools of embroidery
+preceded the Reformation, while those of Belgium never
+lost their excellence,<a name="FNanchor_68_68" id="FNanchor_68_68"></a><a href="#Footnote_68_68" class="fnanchor">[68]</a> and still hold their high position
+among the workers of golden orphreys. In Italy they
+always retained much of the classical element. Probably
+the ancient frescoes which served as models were
+originally painted by Greek artists and their Roman
+imitators. This style flourished for a hundred years.
+The French adopted and modified it.</p>
+
+<p>The decorative style of that period is sometimes
+called the Arabesque, and sometimes the Grotesque.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>44]</a></span>
+The fashion was really copied from the excavated palaces
+and tombs of the best Roman era. Raphael admired,
+and caused his pupils to imitate and copy them; and
+they influenced all decorative art for a considerable
+period. As long as beautiful forms of flowers, fruit,
+birds, and animals were adhered to, the Arabesque was
+a charming decoration, gay and brilliant; but when the
+beautiful was set aside, and the ugly ideas were reproduced,
+the style became the Grotesque, which word
+only means the grotto, cave, or tomb style, and is as
+undescriptive to us as the word Arabesque, which has
+nothing to do with the Arabs or their arts.</p>
+
+<p>It would appear that if the beautiful only is permissible
+in decorative art, and that if without beauty there is no
+reason that it should exist at all, then the Grotesque
+should not be allowed, except as a scherzo of the pencil;
+to be relegated, like all other caricatures, to the portfolio.</p>
+
+<p>A grotesque is something startling, laughable, perhaps
+ridiculous. A woman with the head of a goose and a
+flowery tail may be a symbolical, but it never can be an
+agreeable object. When the idea conveyed is a great
+one, then it is excusable. The Ninevite bull, with a
+human head and five legs, is a grotesque, but it is also a
+symbol of majesty and might. A Satyr is a grotesque,
+but he has been so long recorded and accepted that he
+has ceased to surprise us; and the Greeks spent so
+much genius in making him a graceful creature, that he
+has become picturesque, if not beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>Arabesques and Grotesques have now so long prevailed
+in decoration, that we have ceased to criticize them on
+principle, and accept them gratefully, in proportion to
+the gay fancy and reticent genius of the designer.
+Most Arabesques are, in fact, only graceful nonsense.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 326px;">
+<a name="pl09" id="pl09"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 9.</p>
+<img src="images/naap09t.jpg" width="326" height="400"
+alt="A central phoenix, surrounded by vines and birds, with three decorative border strip patterns" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap09.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Spanish Coverlet, from Goa. Velvet and gold, Pl&acirc;teresque style, seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Vitruvius (writing first century <small>B.C.</small>) says, that &ldquo;in his
+time, on the covering of the walls were painted rather
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>45]</a></span>
+monstrosities than images of known things. Thus,
+instead of columns you will see reeds with crisp foliage,
+and candlesticks supporting temples; and on the top of
+these there are rods and twisted ornaments, and in the
+volutes senseless little figures sitting there; likewise
+flowers with figures growing out of their calyxes. Here
+a human head, there an animal&rsquo;s.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_69_69" id="FNanchor_69_69"></a><a href="#Footnote_69_69" class="fnanchor">[69]</a> Evidently Vitruvius
+did not approve of grotesques, and his contemporary
+criticism is most valuable and amusing.</p>
+
+<p>In the Louis Quatorze period, a species of vegetable
+grotesque was the fashion, from which we suffer even
+now, and it deserves censure. Leaves and flowers of
+different plants were made to grow from the same
+stem, as only artificial flowers could do. The Greeks
+introduced into their decorations sprays and wreaths
+of bay, olive, oak, ivy, and vine, with their fruits;
+which are exquisitely composed and carefully studied
+from nature. It is true that they sometimes invented
+flowers of different shapes, following each other on the
+same stem, and untrammelled by any natural laws.
+These classical freaks of fancy are so graceful that their
+want of truth does not shock us, but they are more safely
+copied than imitated.</p>
+
+<p>The Renaissance was particularly marked in Spain and
+Portugal by the embroideries which the latter drew from
+their Indian possessions in Goa, whilst we in England
+were sedulously thrusting from our shores any beautiful
+Indian textiles that we imagined could injure our own
+home manufactures. It was, consequently, the worst
+phase of needlework with us, while Spanish and Portuguese
+embroideries of the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries are especially fine, their designs being European,
+and their needlework Oriental. Their Renaissance, which
+went by the name of the Pl&acirc;teresque, is a style apart. (Pl. <a href="#pl09">9</a>.)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>46]</a></span>
+The reason of its name is that it seems to have been
+originally intended for, and is best suited to, the shapes
+and decorations of gold and silver plate. It is extremely
+rich and ornate; not so appropriate to architecture as to
+the smaller arts, and wanting, perhaps, the simplicity
+which gives dignity. The style called Louis Quatorze
+following on the Renaissance in Germany, England,
+Spain, Italy, and France, assumed in each of these countries
+distinguishing characteristics, into which we have not
+time to enter now. In this style France took the lead
+and appropriated it, and rightly named it after the
+magnificent monarch who fostered it. This was a
+splendid era; and its furniture and wall decorations,
+dress, plate, and books shine in all the fertile richness
+and grace of French artistic ingenuity.<a name="FNanchor_70_70" id="FNanchor_70_70"></a><a href="#Footnote_70_70" class="fnanchor">[70]</a> The new style
+asserted itself everywhere, and remodelled every art; but
+the long reign of Louis Quatorze gave the fashion time
+to wane and change. Under Louis XV. the defects
+increased and the beauties diminished. The fine heavy
+borders were broken up into fragmentary forms; all flow
+and strength were eliminated; and what remained of the
+Louis Quatorze style became, under its next phase, only
+remarkable for the sparkling prettiness which is inherent
+in all French art.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy this very ornate style was distinguished as the
+&ldquo;Sette-cento,&rdquo; and was a chastened imitation or appropriation
+of the Spanish Pl&acirc;teresque and the French
+Louis Quatorze. In Germany it was a decided heavy
+copy of both, of which there are splendid examples in
+the adornment of the German palaces, royal and episcopal.
+In England the Continental taste was faintly
+reflected during the reign of Queen Anne and the first
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>47]</a></span>
+Georges; but except in the characteristic upholstery of
+the Chippendales, and one or two palaces, such as
+Blenheim and Castle Howard, we did not produce much
+that was original in the style of that day.</p>
+
+<p>Under Louis XV., Boucher and Watteau, in France,
+produced designs that were well suited to tapestries
+and embroideries. All the heathen gods, with Cupids,
+garlands, floating ribbons, crowns, and cyphers were
+everywhere carved, gilded, and worked. It was the
+visible tide of the frivolity in which poor Marie Antoinette
+was drowned; though before the Revolution she had
+somewhat simplified the forms of decoration, and straight
+lines instead of curves, and delicacy rather than splendour,
+had superseded, at least at court, the extravagant richness
+of palatial furniture.</p>
+
+<p>This was followed by the Revolution; and then came
+the attempt at classical severity (so contrary to the
+French nature) which the Republic affected.<a name="FNanchor_71_71" id="FNanchor_71_71"></a><a href="#Footnote_71_71" class="fnanchor">[71]</a> Dress was
+adorned with embroidered spots and Etruscan borders,
+and the ladies wore diadems, and tried to be as like
+as possible to the Greek women painted in fictile art.
+Napoleon attempted a dress which was supposed to be
+Roman at his coronation. Trophies were woven and
+embroidered, and the &ldquo;honeysuckle,&rdquo; &ldquo;key,&rdquo; and &ldquo;egg and
+anchor&rdquo; patterns were everywhere. With the fall of the
+Empire the classical taste collapsed, and the Egyptian,
+Greek, and Roman furniture were handed over to hotels
+and lodging-houses. In most of the palaces on the
+Continent an apartment is still to be seen, furnished in
+this style. It was the necessary tribute of flattery to the
+great conqueror, who in that character inhabited so many
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>48]</a></span>
+of them for a short time. But there was no sign of the
+style being taken up enthusiastically anywhere out of
+France.</p>
+
+<p>After the fall of the Empire, all pretence of style was
+in abeyance, and it was then gradually replaced by a
+general craving for the &ldquo;antique,&rdquo; the &ldquo;rococo,&rdquo; and
+finally the &ldquo;baroc,&rdquo; as the outcome of that part of a
+gentleman&rsquo;s education called the &ldquo;grand tour.&rdquo; Every
+one bought up old furniture; Italy and Spain were
+ransacked; and foreign works of all ages were added to
+the hereditary house furnishings. Every wealthy home
+became a museum. Now the numerous exhibitions of
+the last few years, bringing together the works of all
+Europe and other continents, have enabled us to continue
+to collect and compare and furnish, without any
+reference to a particular style.</p>
+
+<p>Meantime &ldquo;Young England&rdquo; had become &aelig;sthetic.
+Bohemianism was the fashion, and the studio had to be
+furnished as a picturesque lounge:&mdash;ragged tapestries
+for backgrounds; antique chairs and bits of colour as
+cushions and draperies; shiny earthenware pots to hold
+a flower and to catch a high light. All these bridged
+the space between the new &aelig;stheticism and the old family
+museums; and from their combination arose the style
+called by courtesy the &ldquo;Queen Anne&rdquo;&mdash;a style which
+can be brought within the reach of the most moderate
+fortunes. In humble mansions you will be aware of the
+grouping of the old pieces of furniture, culminating
+perhaps in &ldquo;my grandmother&rsquo;s cabinet,&rdquo; and her portrait
+by Hogarth; or &ldquo;my great-grandfather&rsquo;s sword and
+pistols, which he carried at Culloden;&rdquo; and his father&rsquo;s
+clock, a relic perhaps of the Scotch Dutch.</p>
+
+<p>The English style of to-day is really a conglomerate
+of the preceding two hundred years, and it is formed
+from the d&eacute;bris of our family life. It belongs mostly to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>49]</a></span>
+the period of the pigtail; but it stretches back, and
+includes all that followed the Protectorate, and is therefore
+coeval with the wig. The name of &ldquo;Queen Anne&rdquo;
+would really do as well as any other, only that the
+style of her reign, which was heavy Louis Quatorze, is
+looked upon with suspicion, and never admitted for
+imitation. The &ldquo;Nineteenth Century&rdquo; would be a better
+name, for it has formed itself only within the last thirty
+years, in the very heart of the century, and is, in fact, a
+fortunate result of preceding conditions. It owes its
+existence, as I have said, partly to the arch&aelig;ological
+tendencies of the day.</p>
+
+<p>The maimed tables and chairs, which had painfully
+ascended from saloon to bedroom, nursery, and attic, till
+they reposed in the garret (the Bedlam of crazy furniture),
+now have descended in all the prestige of antiquarian
+and family interest. Their history is recorded; the old
+embroideries are restored, named, and honoured. What
+is not beautiful, is credited with being &ldquo;quaint&rdquo;&mdash;the
+&ldquo;quaint&rdquo; is more easily imitated than the beautiful; and
+we have elected this for the characteristic of our new
+decorations. To be quaint, is really to be funny without
+intending it, and its claim to prettiness is its <i>na&iuml;vet&eacute;</i>,
+which is sometimes touching as well as amusing: this
+was the special characteristic of the revival in the Middle
+Ages. To imitate quaintness must be a mistake in art;
+as in life it is absurd to imitate innocence.</p>
+
+<p>The nineteenth century &ldquo;Queen Anne&rdquo; has its merits.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>50]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_72_72" id="FNanchor_72_72"></a><a href="#Footnote_72_72" class="fnanchor">[72]</a>
+It combines simplicity, roominess and comfort, colour,
+light and shade. Soft colouring to harmonize the new
+furniture with the tender tints of the faded quaintnesses
+just restored to society; care in grouping even
+the commonest objects, so as to give pleasure to the
+eye; a revived taste for embroidered instead of woven
+materials, giving scope to the talents of the women of
+the house;&mdash;all these are so much gained in every-day
+domestic decoration. The poorest and most trivial
+arrangements are striving to attain to a something
+artistic and agreeable. This is still confined to the
+educated classes; but as good and bad alike have to
+begin on the surface, and gradually filter through to the
+dregs of society, we may hope that the women who
+wore the last chignon and the last crinoline may yet
+solace their sordid lives in flowing or tight woollen
+garments, adorned with their own needlework; and that
+the dark-stained floor of the cottage or humble lodging
+will set off the shining brass kettle, and the flower in a
+brown or blue pot, consciously selected with a view to
+the picturesque, and enjoyed accordingly.</p>
+
+<p>From what we know, it would seem that a vital change
+in a national style is never produced by the inspiration
+of one individual genius or great original inventor. It
+invariably evolves itself slowly, by the patient, persistent
+efforts of generations, polishing and touching up the
+same motive, and at last reaching human perfection.</p>
+
+<p>The annihilation of a style is oftenest caused by war
+passing over the land, or revolution breaking up the fountains
+of social life, and swamping the art and the artist.</p>
+
+<p>But another cause of such an extinction&mdash;perhaps the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>51]</a></span>
+saddest&mdash;is that having reached perfection as far as it
+may, it deteriorates, sickens, corrupts, and finally is
+thrown aside&mdash;superseded, hidden, and overlapped by
+a newer fashion; and the worst and latest effort discredits
+in the eyes of men, the splendid successes that
+preceded its fall. Though the next succeeding phase
+may be less worthy to live than the last, yet, carrying
+with it the freshness of a new spring, it is acceptable for
+the time being.</p>
+
+<p>The moral I should draw from this is, that you
+cannot force style; you may prune, direct, and polish
+it, but you must accept that of your day, and only in
+accordance with that taste can your work be useful.
+Not accepting it idly or wearily, but cheerfully, on
+principle, seeking to raise it; refusing by word or deed
+to truckle to the false, the base, or the lawless in your
+art, or to act against the acknowledged canons of good
+taste. Not for a moment should ambition be checked,
+but it should always be accompanied by the grace of
+modesty.</p>
+
+<p>To the young decorator or artist who feels the glow
+of original design prompting him to reject old lines,
+and follow his own new and perhaps crude ideas, a few
+words of warning, and encouragement also, may be of
+use.</p>
+
+<p>In art, as in poetry, we may recognize the Psalmist&rsquo;s
+experience: &ldquo;My heart burned within me, and at the last
+I spake with my tongue.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In small as in great things, crude ideas should not be
+brought to the front. No one should give his thoughts
+to the world till his heart has <em>burned</em> within him, and he
+has been <em>forced</em> to express himself.</p>
+
+<p>Another wise saying, &ldquo;Read yourself full, and then
+write yourself empty,&rdquo; also applies to art. Knowledge
+must first be accumulated before you can originate.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>52]</a></span>
+Wait till your experience and your thoughts insist
+on expression; then subject the expressed idea to cultivated
+criticism, and profit by the opinion you would
+respect if another&rsquo;s work, and not your own, were under
+discussion.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that taste is surprisingly various. Some will
+dislike your design, because its style is a reflection of
+the Gothic; another may be objected to as being
+frivolously Oriental-looking and brilliant, whereas the
+critic likes only the sober and the dull. Few are sufficiently
+educated to appreciate style: and we cannot
+rule our own by anybody&rsquo;s opinion; but we can generalize
+and find something that shall be agreeable to all&mdash;something
+approaching to a golden mean. The artist
+for decoration should be sensitively alive to any suggestion
+from the style of that which he is to adorn, remembering
+the antecedent motives of its form, its history,
+and its date. He should try to make his new work
+harmonize with the old; but of one thing he may be
+certain&mdash;unless he absolutely copies an old design, his
+own will carry the visible and unmistakable stamp of
+his day.</p>
+
+<p>Even while suggesting copies this difficulty arises&mdash;how
+can a perfect facsimile be obtained? No reproduction
+is ever really exact, unless cast off by the hundred,
+stamped or printed by a machine.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said that the translator of a poem adds to,
+or takes from the original, that which he has or has not of
+the same poetical power; and in art the copy requires the
+same qualities to guide the hand that transmits the original
+motive to another material. An artist usually carries
+out his own ideas from the first sketch blocked out on
+the canvas, or scribbled on the bit of waste paper, to the
+last finishing touch. It is, as far as it can be in human
+art, the visible transcript of his own thought. In needlework
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>53]</a></span>
+this can hardly ever be. The designer, whether
+he be St. Dunstan, Pollaiolo, Torrigiano, or Walter
+Crane, only executes a drawing which leaves his hands
+for good, and is translated into embroidery by the patient
+needlewoman who simply fills in an outline, ignorant of
+art, unappreciative of its subtleties, and incapable of
+giving life and expression, even when she is aware that
+they are indicated in the original design. This is almost
+always the case; but there are exceptions. Charlemagne&rsquo;s
+dalmatic, for instance, shows signs of having been either
+the work of the artist himself, or else carried out under
+his immediate supervision.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_15_15" id="Footnote_15_15"></a><a href="#FNanchor_15_15"><span class="label">[15]</span></a>
+Boyd Dawkins&rsquo; &ldquo;Early Man in Britain,&rdquo; p. 285. See also chapter on
+<a href="#Page_194">stitches</a> (<i>post</i>), p. <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_16_16" id="Footnote_16_16"></a><a href="#FNanchor_16_16"><span class="label">[16]</span></a>
+Some of these styles survive; some are still perceptible as traditions
+or echoes; some have totally disappeared in our modern art, such as
+the Primitive or the Egyptian.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_17_17" id="Footnote_17_17"></a><a href="#FNanchor_17_17"><span class="label">[17]</span></a>
+See Semper, &ldquo;Der Stil.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_18_18" id="Footnote_18_18"></a><a href="#FNanchor_18_18"><span class="label">[18]</span></a>
+The history of Gaul begins in the 7th, and that of Britain in the 1st
+century <small>B.C.</small>, while the civilization of Egypt dates back to more
+than 4000 <small>B.C.</small>; therefore the historical overlap is very great. It is
+probable that a large portion of Europe was in its neolithic age, while
+the scribes were composing their records of war and commerce in the
+great cities on the Nile, and that the neolithic civilization lingered in
+remote regions while the voice of Pericles was heard in Athens, and the
+name of Hannibal was a terror in Italy.&mdash;See Boyd Dawkins&rsquo; &ldquo;Early
+Man in Britain,&rdquo; p. 481.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_19_19" id="Footnote_19_19"></a><a href="#FNanchor_19_19"><span class="label">[19]</span></a>
+See chapter on <a href="#Page_82">patterns</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_20_20" id="Footnote_20_20"></a><a href="#FNanchor_20_20"><span class="label">[20]</span></a>
+In the Troad.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_21_21" id="Footnote_21_21"></a><a href="#FNanchor_21_21"><span class="label">[21]</span></a>
+Some of the Egyptian arts we know are pre-Homeric (if Homer
+really sang 800 <small>B.C.</small>), and Asiatic art was then in its highest development.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_22_22" id="Footnote_22_22"></a><a href="#FNanchor_22_22"><span class="label">[22]</span></a>
+See chapter on <a href="#Page_194">stitches</a>, <a href="#Page_214">cut work</a> (<i>post</i>). This funeral tent is a
+monumental work, inasmuch as the inscription inwrought on it gives us
+the name and title of her in whose honour it was made, and whose
+remains it covered. See Villiers Stewart&rsquo;s &ldquo;Funeral Tent of an
+Egyptian Queen.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_23_23" id="Footnote_23_23"></a><a href="#FNanchor_23_23"><span class="label">[23]</span></a>
+Herodotus, book ii. c. 182; book iii. c. 47 (Rawlinson&rsquo;s Trans.).
+See Rock&rsquo;s Introduction, p. xiv.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_24_24" id="Footnote_24_24"></a><a href="#FNanchor_24_24"><span class="label">[24]</span></a>
+Homer mentions &ldquo;Sidonian stuffs and Ph&oelig;nician skill&rdquo; (Iliad,
+v. 170); also &ldquo;Sidonian Embroidery.&rdquo; Ibid. vi. 287-295.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_25_25" id="Footnote_25_25"></a><a href="#FNanchor_25_25"><span class="label">[25]</span></a>
+The Assyrian designs are such as are now still worked at Benares,
+and being full of animals, they are called Shikurgah, or &ldquo;happy hunting-grounds.&rdquo;
+See Sir G. Birdwood&rsquo;s &ldquo;Industrial Arts of India,&rdquo; p. 236.
+See also Plate 4.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_26_26" id="Footnote_26_26"></a><a href="#FNanchor_26_26"><span class="label">[26]</span></a>
+See Perrot and Chipiez (pp. 737-757); also Clermont Ganneau&rsquo;s
+Histoire de l&rsquo;Art, &ldquo;L&rsquo;Imagerie Ph&eacute;nicienne,&rdquo; Plate 1, pt. 1. Coupe de
+Palestrina. He says that certain scenes from the &ldquo;Shield of Achilles&rdquo;
+are literally to be found on Ph&oelig;nician vases that have come down to us&mdash;vases
+of which Homer himself must have seen some of analogous design.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_27_27" id="Footnote_27_27"></a><a href="#FNanchor_27_27"><span class="label">[27]</span></a>
+Homer speaks of Sidonian embroideries, &ldquo;Iliad,&rdquo; vi., 287-295.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_28_28" id="Footnote_28_28"></a><a href="#FNanchor_28_28"><span class="label">[28]</span></a>
+See Egyptian fragments in the British Museum, and the specimens of
+Peruvian textiles; and Reiss and St&uuml;bel&rsquo;s &ldquo;Necropolis of Ancon in Peru.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_29_29" id="Footnote_29_29"></a><a href="#FNanchor_29_29"><span class="label">[29]</span></a>
+At Cervetri, Dennis&rsquo; &ldquo;Etruria,&rdquo; ed. 1878, i. p. 268.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_30_30" id="Footnote_30_30"></a><a href="#FNanchor_30_30"><span class="label">[30]</span></a>
+The restless activity of the Ph&oelig;nicians has often helped to confuse
+our &aelig;sthetic knowledge, and has caused the waste of much speculation
+in ascertaining how certain objects of luxury, belonging to distant
+civilizations, can possibly have arrived at the places where we find them.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_31_31" id="Footnote_31_31"></a><a href="#FNanchor_31_31"><span class="label">[31]</span></a>
+&ldquo;The Beautiful Gate of the Temple was covered all over with
+gold. It had also golden vines above it, from which hung clusters of
+grapes as tall as a man&rsquo;s height.... It had golden doors of 55
+cubits altitude, and 16 in breadth: but before these doors there was a
+veil of equal largeness with the doors. It was a Babylonian curtain of
+blue, fine linen, and scarlet and purple; of an admixture that was truly
+wonderful. Nor was the mixture without its mystical interpretation;
+but was a kind of image of the universe. For by the scarlet was to be
+enigmatically signified fire; by the fine flax, the earth; by the blue, the
+air, and by the purple, the sea;&mdash;two of them having their colours for
+the foundation of this resemblance; but the fine flax and the purple
+have their own origin for this foundation, the earth producing the one,
+and the sea the other. This curtain had also embroidered upon it all that
+was mystical in the heavens excepting the twelve signs of the zodiac,
+representing living creatures.&rdquo; Josephus (Trans. by Whiston), p. 895.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_32_32" id="Footnote_32_32"></a><a href="#FNanchor_32_32"><span class="label">[32]</span></a>
+See also M. E. Harkness and Stuart Poole, &ldquo;Assyrian Life and
+History,&rdquo; p. 66.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_33_33" id="Footnote_33_33"></a><a href="#FNanchor_33_33"><span class="label">[33]</span></a>
+The visions of Ezekiel and St. John remind us of the composite
+figures and animals in Ninevite sculptures, and the prophetic poetry
+helps us to interpret their symbolism.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_34_34" id="Footnote_34_34"></a><a href="#FNanchor_34_34"><span class="label">[34]</span></a>
+G. Smith&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ancient History of the Monuments,&rdquo; Babylonia, p. 33.
+Edited by Sayce.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_35_35" id="Footnote_35_35"></a><a href="#FNanchor_35_35"><span class="label">[35]</span></a>
+In the British Museum. See &ldquo;Bronze Ornaments of Palace Gates,
+Balawat,&rdquo; pl. <small>E</small> 5.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_36_36" id="Footnote_36_36"></a><a href="#FNanchor_36_36"><span class="label">[36]</span></a>
+See Auberville&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ornement des Tissus,&rdquo; pl. 1.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_37_37" id="Footnote_37_37"></a><a href="#FNanchor_37_37"><span class="label">[37]</span></a>
+The Egyptian queen in question was mother-in-law to Shishak,
+whose daughter married Solomon. After his son-in-law&rsquo;s death, Shishak
+plundered the &ldquo;King&rsquo;s House,&rdquo; and carried to Egypt the golden shields
+or panels (1 Kings xiv. 26). The golden vessels went to Babylon later,
+and the golden candlesticks to Rome.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_38_38" id="Footnote_38_38"></a><a href="#FNanchor_38_38"><span class="label">[38]</span></a>
+Sir G. Birdwood repeatedly points out that the Vedic was the art
+that worshipped and served nature. The Puranic is the ideal and
+distorted. The Moguls, about 700 <small>B.C.</small>, introduced their ugly Dravidian
+art. Through the Sassanian art of Persia, that of India was influenced.
+Possibly the very forms which in India are copied from Assyrian temples
+and palaces, may have travelled first to Assyria upon Indian stuffs and
+jewellery (Sir G. Birdwood&rsquo;s &ldquo;Industrial Arts of India,&rdquo; i. p. 236).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_39_39" id="Footnote_39_39"></a><a href="#FNanchor_39_39"><span class="label">[39]</span></a>
+Ibid., p. 130 (ed. 1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_40_40" id="Footnote_40_40"></a><a href="#FNanchor_40_40"><span class="label">[40]</span></a>
+Nearchus (Strabo, XV. i. 67) says that the people of India had such
+a genius for imitation that they counterfeited sponges, which they saw used
+by the Macedonians, and produced perfect imitations of the real object.
+See Sir G. Birdwood&rsquo;s &ldquo;Industrial Arts of India,&rdquo; ii. p. 133 (ed. 1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_41_41" id="Footnote_41_41"></a><a href="#FNanchor_41_41"><span class="label">[41]</span></a>
+Ibid., ii. p. 131 (ed. 1884).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_42_42" id="Footnote_42_42"></a><a href="#FNanchor_42_42"><span class="label">[42]</span></a>
+See Sir G. Birdwood, p. 129 (ed. 1884). If Fergusson is right in
+suggesting that the art of Central America was planted there in the
+third or fourth century of our era, it would, perhaps, appear to have
+taken refuge in America when it was driven out of India by the Sassanians,
+and was really Dravidian. He gives to the Turanian races all the mound
+buildings, as well as the fylfot or mystic cross, and he looks in Central
+India for the discovery of some remains that will give us the secret of
+the origin of the Indo-Aryan style. He thinks the Archaic Dravidian
+is allied with the Chinese. See Fergusson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Architecture.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_43_43" id="Footnote_43_43"></a><a href="#FNanchor_43_43"><span class="label">[43]</span></a>
+Etruscan and Indian golden ornaments, including the &ldquo;Bolla&rdquo; and
+the &ldquo;Trichinopoly&rdquo; chains and coral, are to be found throughout Scandinavia
+and in Ireland. See &ldquo;Atlas de l&rsquo;Arch&eacute;ologie du Nord,&rdquo; par la
+Soci&eacute;t&eacute; Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1857.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_44_44" id="Footnote_44_44"></a><a href="#FNanchor_44_44"><span class="label">[44]</span></a>
+Arrian tells us of the Celts, &ldquo;a people near the Great Ionian Bay,&rdquo;
+who sent an embassy to Alexander before the battle of the Granicus&mdash;&ldquo;a
+people strong and of a haughty spirit.&rdquo; Alexander asked them if they
+feared anything. They answered that they feared the &ldquo;sky might fall
+upon their heads.&rdquo; He dismissed them, observing that the Celts were
+an arrogant nation (Arrian, i. 4, 10).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_45_45" id="Footnote_45_45"></a><a href="#FNanchor_45_45"><span class="label">[45]</span></a>
+According to Yates, the merchandise of Eastern Asia passed through
+Slavonia to the north of Europe in the Middle Ages, without the
+intervention of Greece or Italy. This may account for certain terms of
+nomenclature which evidently came with goods transported straight to
+the north. Yates&rsquo; &ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo; vol. i. p. 225-246.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_46_46" id="Footnote_46_46"></a><a href="#FNanchor_46_46"><span class="label">[46]</span></a>
+These northern ideas, spreading over Germany, England, and
+France, flourished especially on German soil; and Oriental-patterned
+embroideries for hangings and dress were worked in every stitch, on
+every material, as may be seen in the museums and printed catalogues
+of Vienna, Berlin, Munich, &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_47_47" id="Footnote_47_47"></a><a href="#FNanchor_47_47"><span class="label">[47]</span></a>
+Except, perhaps, the Serpent and Tree cope in Bock&rsquo;s Kleinodien.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_48_48" id="Footnote_48_48"></a><a href="#FNanchor_48_48"><span class="label">[48]</span></a>
+The different Celtic nationalities are always recognizable. There
+was found in a grave-mound at Hof, in Norway, a brooch, showing at a
+glance that it was Christian and Celtic, though taken from the grave of
+a pagan Viking. Another at Berdal, in Norway, was at once recognized
+by M. Lorange as being undoubtedly Irish. There are many other
+instances of evident Celtic Christian art found on the west coast of
+Norway under similar conditions&mdash;probably spoil from the British
+Islands, which were subject to the descents of the pagan Vikings for
+centuries after the time of St. Columba&rsquo;s preaching of Christianity in
+Scotland. For information on the subject, see G. Stephen&rsquo;s &ldquo;Monuments
+of Runic Art,&rdquo; and F. Anderson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Pagan Art in Scotland.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_49_49" id="Footnote_49_49"></a><a href="#FNanchor_49_49"><span class="label">[49]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Scotland in Pagan Times,&rdquo; by J. Anderson, pp. 3-7.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_50_50" id="Footnote_50_50"></a><a href="#FNanchor_50_50"><span class="label">[50]</span></a>
+On a vase in the British Museum, Minerva appears with her &aelig;gis on
+her breast, and clothed in a petticoat and upper tunic worked in sprays,
+and a border of kneeling lions. On another Panathenaic vase she has a
+gown bordered with fighting men, evidently the sacred peplos. (Fig. <a href="#fig04">4</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_51_51" id="Footnote_51_51"></a><a href="#FNanchor_51_51"><span class="label">[51]</span></a>
+See the account of the veil of Her&egrave; in the Iliad, and that of the
+mantle of Ulysses in the Odyssey.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_52_52" id="Footnote_52_52"></a><a href="#FNanchor_52_52"><span class="label">[52]</span></a>
+See Butcher and Lang&rsquo;s Odyssey.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_53_53" id="Footnote_53_53"></a><a href="#FNanchor_53_53"><span class="label">[53]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Der Stil.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_54_54" id="Footnote_54_54"></a><a href="#FNanchor_54_54"><span class="label">[54]</span></a>
+The Greeks collected into one focus all that they found of beauty
+in art from many distant sources&mdash;Egyptian, Indian, Assyrian&mdash;and
+thus fired their inborn genius, which thenceforth radiated its splendour
+over the whole civilized world.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_55_55" id="Footnote_55_55"></a><a href="#FNanchor_55_55"><span class="label">[55]</span></a>
+Homer&rsquo;s Iliad, xviii. 480-617 (Butcher and Lang).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_56_56" id="Footnote_56_56"></a><a href="#FNanchor_56_56"><span class="label">[56]</span></a>
+See &ldquo;Woltmann and Woermann.&rdquo; Trans. Sidney Colvin, p. 64.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_57_57" id="Footnote_57_57"></a><a href="#FNanchor_57_57"><span class="label">[57]</span></a>
+Except, perhaps, the keystone arch.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_58_58" id="Footnote_58_58"></a><a href="#FNanchor_58_58"><span class="label">[58]</span></a>
+Virg. &AElig;neid iii. Trans. G.L.G.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_59_59" id="Footnote_59_59"></a><a href="#FNanchor_59_59"><span class="label">[59]</span></a>
+The Indian Cush.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_60_60" id="Footnote_60_60"></a><a href="#FNanchor_60_60"><span class="label">[60]</span></a>
+Except in the art of the Celts, whose Indo-Chinese style shows
+evidence of Mongolian importation, and later we find traces of a similar
+influence: for instance, &ldquo;Yarkand rugs are semi-Chinese, semi-Tartar,
+resembling also the works of India and Persia. It is easy to distinguish
+from what source each comes, as one perceives the influence of the
+neighbouring native art&rdquo; (&ldquo;On Japan,&rdquo; by Dresser, p. 322).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_61_61" id="Footnote_61_61"></a><a href="#FNanchor_61_61"><span class="label">[61]</span></a>
+See a paper by M. Terrien de la Couperie in the Journal of the
+Society of Arts, 1881.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_62_62" id="Footnote_62_62"></a><a href="#FNanchor_62_62"><span class="label">[62]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Rome had to be overthrown that the new religion and the new
+civilization might be established. Christianity did its work in winning
+to it those Teutonic conquerors, but how vast was the cost to the world,
+occasioned by the necessity of casting into the boiling cauldron of
+barbarous warfare, that noble civilization and the treasures which Rome
+had gathered in the spoil of a conquered universe! Had any old
+Roman, or Christian father been gifted with Jeremiah&rsquo;s prescience, he
+might have seen the fire blazing amidst the forests of Germany, and the
+cauldron settling down with its mouth turned towards the south, and
+would have uttered his lamentation in plaintive tones, such as Jeremiah&rsquo;s,
+and in the same melancholy key&rdquo; (&ldquo;Holy Bible,&rdquo; with Commentary
+by Canon Cook, Introduction to Jeremiah, vol. i. p. 319).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_63_63" id="Footnote_63_63"></a><a href="#FNanchor_63_63"><span class="label">[63]</span></a>
+Scandinavian art became strongly tinctured with that of Byzantium.
+The Varangian Guards were, probably, answerable for this, by their
+intercourse between Greece and their native land, which lasted so
+many centuries. There have come down to us, as witnesses of this
+intercourse, many coins and much jewellery, in which all that is
+Oriental in its style has been leavened by its passage through Byzantine
+and Romanesque channels. Gibbon, writing of this period, says: &ldquo;The
+habits of pilgrimage and piracy had approximated the countries of the
+earth&rdquo; (see Gibbon&rsquo;s &ldquo;Decline and Fall,&rdquo; chap. lv.).</p>
+
+<p>Greek embroidered patterns and Greek forms of dress still linger in
+Iceland. There was lately brought to England a bride&rsquo;s dress, which
+might have belonged to the Greek wife of a Varangian guardsman.
+It is embroidered with a border in gold of the classical honeysuckle
+pattern; and the bridal wreath of gilt metal flowers might, from its
+style, be supposed to have been taken from a Greek tomb.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_64_64" id="Footnote_64_64"></a><a href="#FNanchor_64_64"><span class="label">[64]</span></a>
+Evidently an imitation of the peplos of Minerva (see fig. <a href="#fig04">4</a>, p. <a href="#Page_32">32</a>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_65_65" id="Footnote_65_65"></a><a href="#FNanchor_65_65"><span class="label">[65]</span></a>
+The descent from the Persian of Arab or Moorish art, as we generally
+call it when speaking of its Spanish development, is to be accounted
+for by the presence of a considerable colony of Persians in Spain in
+the time of the Moors, as attested by numerous documents still in
+existence. See Col. Murdoch Smith&rsquo;s &ldquo;Preface to Persian Art,&rdquo;
+Series of Art Handbooks of the Kensington Museum.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_66_66" id="Footnote_66_66"></a><a href="#FNanchor_66_66"><span class="label">[66]</span></a>
+Ronsard, poet, politician, and diplomatist, compares the Queen of
+Navarre to Pallas Athene:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Elle adonnait son courage<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A mainte bel ouvrage<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Dessus la toile, et encor<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A joindre la soie et l&rsquo;or.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Vous d&rsquo;un pareil exercise<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Mariez par artifice<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Dessus la toile en mainte traits<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">L&rsquo;or et la soie en pourtraict.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_67_67" id="Footnote_67_67"></a><a href="#FNanchor_67_67"><span class="label">[67]</span></a>
+Mary de Medici brought back with her from Italy Federigo Vinciolo
+as her designer for embroideries.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_68_68" id="Footnote_68_68"></a><a href="#FNanchor_68_68"><span class="label">[68]</span></a>
+See &ldquo;Art Needlework,&rdquo; by E. Maxse, and &ldquo;Manuel de la Broderie,&rdquo;
+by Madame E. F. Celnart.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_69_69" id="Footnote_69_69"></a><a href="#FNanchor_69_69"><span class="label">[69]</span></a>
+From the Italian translation by Signor Minghetti.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_70_70" id="Footnote_70_70"></a><a href="#FNanchor_70_70"><span class="label">[70]</span></a>
+Gaston, Duke of Orleans (died 1660), kept hothouses on purpose to
+supply models for floral textile designs. Le Brun often drew the embroideries
+for the hangings in rooms he had himself designed and decorated.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_71_71" id="Footnote_71_71"></a><a href="#FNanchor_71_71"><span class="label">[71]</span></a>
+We have all seen the dining-room wine-coolers modelled in imitation
+of Roman tombs; and there is a drawing-room in a splendid mansion
+still furnished with cinerary urns covering the walls, while curule chairs
+most uncomfortably furnish the seats.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_72_72" id="Footnote_72_72"></a><a href="#FNanchor_72_72"><span class="label">[72]</span></a>
+In his designs for papers and textiles, Mr. Morris&rsquo; poetical and
+artistic feeling&mdash;his admiration and sensitiveness for all that is beautiful
+and graceful (as well as quaint)&mdash;his respect for precedent, added to his
+own fanciful originality,&mdash;have given a colour and seal to the whole
+decorative art of England of to-day. It is a step towards a new school.
+The sobriety and tenderness of his colouring gives a sense of harmony,
+and reconciles us to his repetitions of large vegetable forms, which remind
+us sometimes of a kitchen-garden in a tornado. For domestic decoration
+we should, as far as possible, adhere to reposing forms and colours.
+Our flowers should lie in their allotted spaces, quiet and undisturbed by
+elemental struggles, which have no business in our windowed and
+glass-protected rooms.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>54]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER II.</h2>
+
+<h3>DESIGN.</h3>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i1"><i>Gorgo.</i> Behold these &rsquo;broideries! Finer saw you never.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i1"><i>Praxino&egrave;.</i> Ye gods! What artists work&rsquo;d these pictures in?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">What kind of painter could these clear lines limn?<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">How true they stand! nay, lifelike, moving ever;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Not worked&mdash;<em>created!</em> Woman, thou art clever!<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet">(Scene at a Festival) <i>Theocritus</i>, Idyll xv. line 78.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The word design, as applied to needlework, includes
+the principles and laws of the art: the motives and their
+hereditary outcome; the art creating the principles; the
+laws controlling the art.</p>
+
+<p>Design means intention, motive, and should as such
+be applied to the smallest as to the greatest efforts of art.
+That which results from it, either as picture or pattern,
+is a record of the thoughts which produced it, and by its
+style fixes the date, of its production.</p>
+
+<p>I will first consider the principles of design, and
+afterwards, in another chapter, inquire into the origin of
+<a href="#Page_82">patterns</a>; investigating their motives, and using them as
+examples, and also as warnings.</p>
+
+<p>The individual genius of the artist works first in design,
+though his work is for the use of the craftsman or artisan,
+his collaborator; for the two, head and hands, must work
+together, or else will render each other inoperative or
+ineffective.</p>
+
+<p>The artisan, by right of his title, claims a part
+in the art itself; the craftsman, by his name, points
+out that he, too, has to work out the craft, the mystery,
+the inner meaning, of the design or intention.</p>
+
+<p>The designer himself is subject to the prejudices called
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>55]</a></span>
+the taste of his day. He is necessarily under the influence
+which that taste has imposed upon him, and from which
+no spontaneous efforts of genius can entirely emancipate
+him. Whether he is conceiving a temple for the worship
+of a national faith, or the edging for the robe of a fair
+votaress, or the pattern on the border of a cup of gold or
+brass, he cannot avoid the force of tradition and of
+custom, which comes from afar, weighted with the power
+of long descent, and which crushes individuality, unless
+it is of the most robust nature.</p>
+
+<p>Of very early design we have most curious and
+mysterious glimpses. The cave man was an artist.
+The few scratches on a bone, cleverly showing the forms
+of a dog or a stag, a whale or a seal, nay, the figure of a
+man, have enabled us to ascertain and to classify the
+Pal&aelig;olithic cave man; from whom his less civilized
+successor, the Neolithic man, may be distinguished by
+his absence of all animal design.<a name="FNanchor_73_73" id="FNanchor_73_73"></a><a href="#Footnote_73_73" class="fnanchor">[73]</a></p>
+
+<p>These fragmentary scraps of information, pieced together
+only in these later years, teach us the value of
+very small facts which time and care are now accumulating,
+and which, being the remains of lives and nations
+passed away, still serve as the soil in which history can
+be fertilized.</p>
+
+<p>We have no means of judging whether the cave man
+was an artist on a greater or more advanced scale than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>56]</a></span>
+is actually shown by the bone-scratchings; the only other
+relic of his handiwork is the needle.<a name="FNanchor_74_74" id="FNanchor_74_74"></a><a href="#Footnote_74_74" class="fnanchor">[74]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is evident that a direct imitation of nature, such as
+is seen in these &ldquo;graffiti,&rdquo; and at an immense distance in
+advance of them, in the earliest known Egyptian sculptures,
+preceded all conventional art. Some of the earliest portrait
+statues in the Museum at Boulac exhibit a high
+degree of naturalistic design before it became subservient
+to the expression of the faith of the people. As soon as
+art was found to be the fittest conveyance of symbolism,
+it became the consecrated medium for transmitting language,
+thought, and history, and was reduced to forms
+in which it was contented to remain petrified for many
+centuries, entirely foregoing the study or imitation of
+nature.<a name="FNanchor_75_75" id="FNanchor_75_75"></a><a href="#Footnote_75_75" class="fnanchor">[75]</a> It recorded customs, historical events, and
+religious beliefs; receiving from the last the impress of
+the unchangeable and the absolute, which it gave to the
+other subjects on which it touched. It ceased to be a
+creative art (if it had ever aspired to such a function),
+and was never the embodiment of individual thought.
+This phase prevailed under different manifestations in
+Assyria and China. Pictorial art had, in fact, become
+merely the nursing mother of the alphabet, guiding its
+first steps&mdash;the hieroglyphic delineation or expression of
+thoughts and facts.<a name="FNanchor_76_76" id="FNanchor_76_76"></a><a href="#Footnote_76_76" class="fnanchor">[76]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>57]</a></span>
+In Egypt, the change from the first period of actual
+imitation of nature was succeeded by many centuries of
+the very slowest progress. Renouf speaks,<a name="FNanchor_77_77" id="FNanchor_77_77"></a><a href="#Footnote_77_77" class="fnanchor">[77]</a> however, of
+&ldquo;the astonishing identity that is visible through all the
+periods of Egyptian art&rdquo; (for you could never mistake
+anything Egyptian for the produce of any other country).
+&ldquo;This identity and slow movement,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;are not
+inconsistent with an immense amount of change, which
+must exist if there is any real life.&rdquo; In fact, there were
+periods of relative progress, repose, and decay, and
+every age had its peculiar character. Birch, Lepsius, or
+Marriette could at once tell you the age of a statue,
+inscription, or manuscript, by the characteristic signs
+which actually fix<a name="FNanchor_78_78" id="FNanchor_78_78"></a><a href="#Footnote_78_78" class="fnanchor">[78]</a> the date.</p>
+
+<p>Design, unconsciously has a slowly altering and persistently
+onward movement, which but seldom repeats
+itself. It is one of the most remarkable instances of
+evolution. But it also has its cataclysms (however we
+may account for them), of which the Greek apotheosis
+of all art is a shining example, and the total disappearance
+of classical influence in Europe before the Renaissance
+is another.</p>
+
+<p>I will instance one prevailing habit of Egyptian art.<a name="FNanchor_79_79" id="FNanchor_79_79"></a><a href="#Footnote_79_79" class="fnanchor">[79]</a>
+In the long processional subjects, and in individual
+separate figures, it was usual to draw the head in perfect
+profile, the body facing you, but not completely&mdash;a sort
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>58]</a></span>
+of compromise with a three-quarter view of it&mdash;and the
+feet following each other, on the same line as the profile.
+This mode of representing the human figure was only
+effaced gradually by the introduction of Greek art, and
+continued to be the conventional and decorative method
+even in the latest days of Egyptian art; and it is curious
+to observe, that in the Dark ages European design fell
+into the same habit. We cannot imagine that this
+distorted way of drawing the human figure could have
+any intentional meaning, and therefore may simply believe
+that it had become a custom; and that when art has so
+stiffened and consolidated itself by precedent and long
+tradition, as in Egypt and in India, certain errors as
+well as certain truths become, as it were, ingrained into
+it. Plato remarked of Egyptian art, that &ldquo;the pictures
+and statues they made ten thousand years ago were in
+no particular better than those they make now.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_80_80" id="FNanchor_80_80"></a><a href="#Footnote_80_80" class="fnanchor">[80]</a></p>
+
+<p>One day, however, the Greek broke away from the
+ancient bonds of custom. The body was made to
+accompany the head, and the feet followed suit. But
+the strange fact remains that for several thousand years
+men walked in profile, all out of drawing. Evidently
+originality was not in much estimation among the
+Egyptian patrons of art. Design seemed to have restricted
+itself to effective adaptations in a few permitted
+forms in architecture and painting, and the illumination
+of the papyrus MSS.</p>
+
+<p>Egyptian elasticity of design found some scope in its
+domestic ornamentation, in jewellery and hangings, but
+especially in its embroideries for dress. Here much
+ingenuity was shown, and the patterns on walls and the
+ceilings of tombs give us the designs which Semper
+considers as having been originally intended for textile
+purposes. He strains to a point to which I can hardly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>59]</a></span>
+follow him, the theory that all decorations were originally
+textile (except such as proceeded in China from
+the lattice-work motive); though I willingly accept the
+idea that textile decoration was one of the first and most
+active promoters of design.</p>
+
+<p>It is not possible for us to trace systematically the
+different points at which Egyptian and Asiatic art touch,
+but we can see that they were always acting and reacting
+on each other in the later centuries before our era, and
+that Greece profited by them. The first efforts of both
+to break through this chrysalis stage, resulted in the
+early Greek archaic style. Its strongly marked, muscular
+humanity reminds one of all the conflicting impressions
+struggling in the conception of the great artist who first
+embodied them. They appear to be breaking out from
+the trammels of Egyptian and Assyrian styles, which
+by meeting had engendered life; and Greek art was the
+child of their union. Then art, having shaken off
+symbolism as its only purpose, and seeking to represent
+the forms of men, yet possessed by a guiding spirit,
+first sought to convey the idea of expression. The
+worship of humanity, mingling with that of their gods,
+produced the Heroic ideal; and all the attributes of their
+heroes&mdash;majesty, beauty, grace, and passion&mdash;had to be
+depicted; as well as rage, sorrow, despair, and revenge.
+These were soon to be surrounded with all the splendours
+of the arts of decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Greece had prepared for this outburst of excellence
+and the perfect science of art, by collecting the traditions,
+the symbols, the experience in colouring, and the knowledge
+of beautiful forms, human and ideal. All that was
+needed for the advent of the man who could design and
+create types of beauty for all ages was thus accumulated,
+and the man came, and his name was Pheidias. A crowd
+followed him, all steeped in the same flood of poetry
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>60]</a></span>
+and art; and for several centuries they filled the world
+with the sense and science of beauty. Then the function
+of the designer&mdash;the artist&mdash;was changed and elevated,
+and he became, through the great days of Greek and
+Roman Pagan art, and afterwards through the rise of
+that of Christianity, the exponent of all that was poetical
+and ennobling in the life of man.</p>
+
+<p>But though the Greek artist had broken the chains of
+prescribed form, he still adhered to the &ldquo;motive&rdquo;&mdash;the
+inner symbolical thought&mdash;and strove to express it as it
+had never been expressed before.<a name="FNanchor_81_81" id="FNanchor_81_81"></a><a href="#Footnote_81_81" class="fnanchor">[81]</a> New principles were
+evoked, and the artist, while revelling in the &ldquo;sweetness
+and light&rdquo; of freedom, framed for himself standards of
+taste and refinement, which he left as a heritage to all
+succeeding generations.</p>
+
+<p>I fear that I am repeating a platitude when insisting
+that freedom in all design, but especially that
+employed in decoration, must be kept within certain
+boundaries; otherwise it becomes lawless. Rules, like
+all other controlling circumstances, are of the greatest
+service to the artist, as they suggest what he can do, as
+well as decide what he ought not to attempt. All boundaries
+are highly suggestive; the size of a sheet of
+paper&mdash;the form of a panel&mdash;the colours in the box of
+pigments&mdash;even the touch of the brush which comes to
+hand,&mdash;all these help to shape the idea to our ends,
+and assist us in giving to the original motive the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>61]</a></span>
+form which is most suitable. These restrictions are
+often regarded as impediments by the impatient artist;
+whereas he ought to look on them as hints and suggestions,
+and claim their assistance, instead of struggling
+against them. Let us accept the principle that it is
+good for each of our efforts at decoration that we are
+controlled by the space allotted to its composition.
+The relative size (small, perhaps, for a table-cover, but
+large for that of a book) and the shape to which we are
+limited, alter all the conditions of a design. Whether it
+is square or oblong, or lengthened into a frieze; whether
+it must be divided into parts, including more than one
+motive, or be grouped round one centre; whether it is
+to be repeated more than once within the range of the
+eye, or whether it is to disappear into space upwards or
+horizontally; and whether it is to stand alone, or be
+framed with lines or a border,&mdash;all these restrictions
+must govern the design, or, in its highest phase, the
+composition.</p>
+
+<p>The composition must consist of supporting lines well
+balanced, and &ldquo;values&rdquo; filling up the whole surface of
+the space, which is to contain it, and beyond which it
+must not seek to extend. As we have in embroidery
+no distances&mdash;only a foreground&mdash;the design must be
+placed all on one plane. The title of &ldquo;composition&rdquo;
+cannot be granted to a bouquet or a bird cast on one
+corner of a square of linen, however gracefully it may be
+drawn. It does not cover the space allotted to it.</p>
+
+<p>If we carefully study the great and guiding principles
+that have been distinctly formulated by some of the
+Continental authorities on decorative art, we shall find
+much help in composing our designs. Nothing is more
+interesting than to search for the foundation of the
+structure which centuries have helped to raise, and to
+dig out, as it were, the original plan or thought of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>62]</a></span>
+founder. So it is most instructive to learn the fundamental
+rules by which such results are secured.</p>
+
+<p>M. Blanc<a name="FNanchor_82_82" id="FNanchor_82_82"></a><a href="#Footnote_82_82" class="fnanchor">[82]</a> says of the general laws of ornamentation:
+&ldquo;There can be no nobler satisfaction to the mind, than
+to be able to unravel what is beyond measure complicated,
+to diminish what is apparently immense, and to reduce
+to a few clear points what has been till now involved in
+a haze of obscurity. Just as the twenty-six letters of
+the alphabet have been, and always will be sufficient to
+form the expression of the words necessary for all human
+thought, so certain elements susceptible of combination
+among themselves have sufficed, and will suffice, to
+create ornament, whose variety may be indefinitely
+multiplied.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>He reduces ornamental design to five principles, Repetition,
+Alternation, Symmetry, Progression, and Confusion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig05" id="fig05"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/naaf05.png" width="400" height="96" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5.<br />
+Wave Pattern.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>First, Repetition. &ldquo;You may act on the mind, through
+sight, by the same means as those that will excite
+physical sensations. A single prick of a pin is nothing,
+but a hundred such will be intolerably painful. Repetition
+produces pleasurable sensations, as well as painful
+ones.&rdquo; An insignificant form can become interesting by
+repetition, and by the suggestion which, singly, it could
+not originate. For example,
+the rolling of the
+Greek scroll or wave
+pattern awakens in us
+the idea of one object
+following another. &ldquo;It
+also suggests the waves of the ocean; or the poet may
+see in it a troop of maidens pursuing each other in space,
+not frivolously, but in cadence, as if executing a mystic
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>63]</a></span>
+dance.&rdquo; Change the curves into angular forms, as making
+the key pattern, and it will no
+longer flow, but become as
+severe as the other was graceful.
+No principle gives greater
+pleasure than repetition, and
+next to it, <em>alternation</em>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig06" id="fig06"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/naaf06.png" width="300" height="85" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6.<br />
+Key Pattern.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Variety is here added to the law of repetition. &ldquo;There
+can be repetition without alternation, but no alternation
+without repetition.&rdquo; Alternation is, then, a succession of
+two objects recurring regularly in turn; and the cadence
+of appearance and disappearance gives pleasure to the
+senses, whether it be addressed to taste, hearing, or
+sight. Alternate rhymes, and even short and long lines,
+soothe the ear in verse. In form, the alternations are
+the more agreeable, the more they differ. Such are, in
+architecture, a succession of metopes and triglyphs on a
+Doric frieze, where the circle and the straight lines
+relieve each other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig07" id="fig07"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf07.jpg" width="500" height="134"
+alt="Linear patterns with circular motifs" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 7.<br />
+Metopes and Triglyphs.</p>
+
+<p>Symmetry. The correspondence of two parts opposite
+to each other is symmetrical. &ldquo;A living being,
+man or animal, is composed of two parts, which appear
+to have been united down one central line. Without
+being identical, if you folded them down the line,
+they would overlap and perfectly cover each other.
+Man is born with the sense of symmetry, to match his
+outward form; and he appreciates its existence, and
+instinctively feels the want of it. Symmetry is another
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>64]</a></span>
+word for justness of proportion. The Greeks understood
+by symmetry, the condition of a body of which the
+members have a common measure among themselves.
+We expect the two sides of a living being to correspond,
+and we look for these proportions in the living body
+to balance each other, which we do not expect to find
+in any other natural object. A large leaf at the end of
+a slender stem may be as appropriate, and give as much
+pleasure, as a small leaf in the same position; but a huge
+hand at the end of an arm is not so agreeable to our
+sense of symmetry as one of the size and outline which
+we naturally expect to see.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The mind of man expects to find, outside of himself
+and his own proportions, something which he feels is
+proportionate and symmetrical; in fact, he at once
+detects the want of it. The Japanese, with delicacy and
+taste, often substitute for symmetry its corollary&mdash;balance.
+The Chinese or Japanese vase will often have an
+appreciable affinity and resemblance to a Greek one, each
+preserving a secret balance, even in the extremest
+whimsicality of its composition. Proportion is another
+corollary to symmetry, if it is not another word for some
+of its qualities.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Progression. In this principle are included long
+perspectives, pyramidal forms in architecture, and certain
+processional compositions.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;For pyramidal surfaces, such as pediments, a progressive
+ornament is the fittest. All the buildings in the
+East, and in the ancient cities of Central America, which
+are raised on pyramids of steps, show the tendency to
+this species of effect in giving dignity to the buildings
+placed on such platforms.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Perspectives are highly attractive specimens of progression,
+which, when made use of in the decorations of
+a theatre, produce delightful illusions.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>65]</a></span>
+M. Blanc quotes Bernardin de St. Pierre, who says:
+&ldquo;When the branches of a plant are disposed in a uniform
+plan of diminishing size, as in the pyramidal shape of a
+pine, there is progression; and if these trees be planted
+in long avenues, diminishing in height and colour, as
+each tree does in itself, our pleasure is redoubled, because
+progression here becomes infinite. It is owing to this
+feeling of infinity that we take pleasure in looking at
+anything that presents progression, such as nurseries in
+different stages of growth, the slopes of hills retreating
+to the horizon at different levels&mdash;interminable
+perspectives.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>All floral compositions which give the effect or impression
+of growth may be included in the progressive
+principle. A composition which, beginning as it were
+with a stem, spreads and floreates equally on each side;
+thrusting outwards and upwards, and ending in a topmost
+twig or bud, is governed by this principle.</p>
+
+<p>Confusion. Boileau is quoted by M. Blanc as saying,
+&ldquo;A fine disorder is often the effect of art;&rdquo; and he adds,
+&ldquo;But before he said it, nature had shown it.&rdquo; Here we
+must observe that the confusions or disorders of nature are
+all subject to certain laws; and it is in adopting this idea,
+that an artistic confusion may give us the sense of its
+being ordered by, and subject to definite rules. These
+rules act as the frame affects the picture, circumscribing
+its irregularities, and restricting them to a certain area.
+&ldquo;The artist-painter is, in a small space, permitted to
+employ confusion, because the art of the cabinet-maker
+will keep the geometrical effect in view.&rdquo; When the
+Japanese throw their ornaments, apparently without rule,
+here and there on the japanned box, they reckon on the
+square shape being sufficiently marked to the eye by its
+shining surface and sharp corners.</p>
+
+<p>The confusion in a Japanese landscape is so beautiful
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>66]</a></span>
+that one appreciates the innate sense of balance, which
+modifies the confusion&mdash;rules and orders it.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In the hands of the designer, confusion is only a
+method of rendering order visible in a happy disorder.
+Here contraries meet and touch.... Admit these as
+the principles of all decoration, and you will find that,
+by following and combining them, you may produce
+varieties as numberless as the sands of the sea, and that
+a latent equilibrium will reduce nearly every complication
+and confusion to perfect harmony.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Each of the five principles we have discussed has its
+corollary, which adds to the resources of the decorative
+artist. These are as follows:&mdash;To Repetition belongs
+harmony, or consonance; to Alternation, contrast; to
+Symmetry, radiation; to Progression, gradation; to
+balanced Confusion, deliberate complication.<a name="FNanchor_83_83" id="FNanchor_83_83"></a><a href="#Footnote_83_83" class="fnanchor">[83]</a></p>
+
+<p><em>Harmonies</em> in form and in colour are produced in
+different ways&mdash;sometimes by repetition with variation;
+sometimes by the different parts being rather reflected
+on each than repeated. This explains the harmony that
+may be called consonance, if I rightly understand
+M. Blanc&rsquo;s theory.</p>
+
+<p><em>Contrast</em> is most generally understood as a common
+resource in the hands of the artist for producing strong
+effects; but M. Blanc cleverly expresses the reticence
+needed to ensure contrast being pleasurable, not painful.
+&ldquo;To adorn persons or things,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;is not simply
+for the purpose of causing them to be conspicuous; it is
+that they may be admired. It is not simply to draw
+attention to them, but that they may be regarded with
+feelings of pleasure.... If contrast be needed, let it be
+used as the means of rendering the whole more powerful,
+brilliant, and striking. For instance, if orange is intended
+to predominate in a decoration, let blue be mingled with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>67]</a></span>
+it, but sparingly. Let the complementary colour be
+its auxiliary, and not its rival.&rdquo; Contrasts are always
+unpleasant, if the two forces struggle with each other for
+pre-eminence, whether it be in form or in colour. The
+rule to be observed in all ornamental design is this:
+&ldquo;that contrasting objects, instead of disturbing unity,
+should assist it by giving most effect to that we wish to
+bring forward and display.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><em>Radiation</em> belongs to the principle of symmetry, starting
+from a centre from which all lines diverge, and to which
+all lines point. This is to be found throughout nature,
+from the rays of the sun to the petals of the daisy.
+All decorative art employs and illustrates it.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;<em>Gradation</em> in colour, as in form, is not quite synonymous
+with progression, but expresses a series of
+adroitly managed transitions. The English intermingle
+in their decoration, colours very finely blended; nor do
+they find any transition too delicate. This, as in all
+principles of ornament, has to be employed according to
+the feelings intended to be produced on the mind of the
+spectator&mdash;whether for absolute contrast or for imperceptible
+progression, when the tenderest colours are needed.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><em>Complication</em> is illustrated by M. Blanc, by a quotation
+from &ldquo;Ziegler.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_84_84" id="FNanchor_84_84"></a><a href="#Footnote_84_84" class="fnanchor">[84]</a> &ldquo;Complication is another aspect of the
+art which owns the same sentiment as that expressed by
+D&aelig;dalus in his labyrinth, Solomon in his mysterious
+seal, the Greeks in their interlacing and winding ornaments,
+the Byzantines, the Moors, and the architects of
+our cathedrals in their finest works. Intertwined
+mosaics, and intersection of arches and ribs, all spring
+from complication.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>To follow the interlacing line of an ornament, gives
+the mind the pleasure of untying the Gordian knot, without
+cutting it. It gives the excitement of curiosity,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>68]</a></span>
+pursuit, and discovery. &ldquo;When we see these traceries
+so skilfully plaited, in which straight lines and curves
+intermingle, cross, branch out, disappear and recur, we
+experience a high pleasure in unravelling a puzzle which
+at first, perhaps, appeared to be undecipherable; and in
+acknowledging that a latent arrangement may be recognized
+in what at first, and at a distance, seems an
+inextricable confusion.&rdquo; The Celtic, Moorish, and Gothic
+styles illustrate and are explained by these remarks;
+and they are well worthy the attention of the designer.</p>
+
+<p>Having so freely borrowed from M. Blanc&rsquo;s chapter
+on the general laws of ornamentation, I will finish my
+quotations with the words with which he concludes:
+&ldquo;There is no decoration in the works of nature or the
+inventions of men which does not owe its birth to one of
+the original principles here enumerated, viz. Repetition,
+Alternation, Symmetry, Progression, and Balanced
+Confusion; or else to one of their secondary causes,
+consonance, contrast, radiation, gradation, and complication;
+or lastly, to a combination of these different
+elements, which all finally lose themselves in a primordial
+cause&mdash;the origin of the movements of the universe&mdash;<span class="smcap">Order</span>.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_85_85" id="FNanchor_85_85"></a><a href="#Footnote_85_85" class="fnanchor">[85]</a></p>
+
+<p>The extracts from M. Blanc&rsquo;s works I have carefully
+placed between commas, being most anxious to express
+my obligation to him for his carefully formulated epitome
+of the laws of design. But though I have largely quoted,
+there remains still much most interesting and suggestive
+matter, which I recommend the reader to seek in his
+book.</p>
+
+<p>Though we should call to our aid the general laws of
+design for all art, we must select from them what is
+specially appropriate for the needs of our craft. From
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>69]</a></span>
+the art of needlework we should eliminate as much as
+possible all ideas of <em>roundness</em>, all variety of surface and
+effects of light and shadow and contrasting colours.
+Unity, softness, grace, refinement, brightness, cheerfulness,
+pleasant suggestions,&mdash;these should be the objects
+in view when we design the panels for the drawing-room
+or boudoir, the hangings for the bed, or the cover for
+the table&mdash;harmony which will satisfy the eye, thoughts
+that shall please the mind.</p>
+
+<p>The objects in nature that give us the most unalloyed
+pleasure&mdash;birds and flowers&mdash;are those that from all
+time have served as the materials for decorative design,
+and therefore have been moulded into the traditional
+patterns which have descended to us from the earliest
+times. Design must follow the scientific laws of art,
+and shape the variations of traditional forms from which
+we cannot escape. In our present search after these
+inner truths, I repeat that we have nothing to do with
+the rules of painting, sculpture, and architecture, or
+any other of the secondary arts, such as wood carving,
+metal work, &amp;c.; these having each their own intrinsic
+principles, which must be worked out as corollaries from
+the general laws of composition which govern all Aryan
+art.<a name="FNanchor_86_86" id="FNanchor_86_86"></a><a href="#Footnote_86_86" class="fnanchor">[86]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is curious that in drawing on the flat, in ancient
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>70]</a></span>
+frescoes, there appear to be no acknowledged rules of
+perspective&mdash;hardly more in Pompeii, than on early
+Chinese screens and plates; or than later in the Bayeux
+tapestries. And yet the Greeks, with their unerring
+instinct, actually made use of false architectural perspectives
+to add to the effects of height and depth in their
+colonnaded buildings.<a name="FNanchor_87_87" id="FNanchor_87_87"></a><a href="#Footnote_87_87" class="fnanchor">[87]</a> They sensibly diminished the
+circumference of the columns, and used other means in
+their designs for this purpose. They understood the
+principle, but they did not carry it into flat decorative art.
+They did not attempt, when they painted a landscape on
+the wall, to do more than recall the idea they were
+sketching; and never thought of vying in scientific or
+naturalistic imitation with the real landscape they saw
+through the window; they did not wish to interfere with
+the effect of the statue, or the human figures grouped in
+front of it, to which the wall served as a background.
+Those threw shadows and cast lights; but in the flat
+there were no shadows, no perspective&mdash;all was flat.<a name="FNanchor_88_88" id="FNanchor_88_88"></a><a href="#Footnote_88_88" class="fnanchor">[88]</a>
+We must draw from this the deduction that the Greeks
+held that flatness was an essential quality of wall decoration
+(except in friezes) as well as of all textile ornament;
+and for every reason we must accept this flatness as a
+general law for designs in embroidery.</p>
+
+<p>In hangings and dress materials, flatness is more
+agreeable than a complicated shaded design, especially
+when it is further confused by folds, disturbing and
+interrupting the flow of the lines of the pattern.</p>
+
+<p>The reader will perceive that the laws of composition
+for textiles quoted from M. Blanc, apply perfectly to
+designs on the flat, and to outlined sketches in black and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>71]</a></span>
+white, as well as to the most elaborate compositions for
+pictures, either historical or &ldquo;genre.&rdquo; They are rules
+which should be understood and employed by the man
+who draws for a wall-paper or an area railing; and
+certainly by him who makes patterns for our schools of
+design.</p>
+
+<p>It may therefore be laid down as a general rule, that all
+designs for embroidery should be considered first as outlined
+drawings, covering a flat surface, and then filled in
+with colour. The outlines should as little as possible overlap
+one another, as flatness is one of the first objects to
+be remembered; and this, of course, will be disturbed by
+the parts passing over or under each other. Indian
+designs in flowers have invariably a wonderful flatness,
+in the absence of all light and shadow; joined to a
+naturalistic suggestion of detail, which is accounted for
+by their traditional mode of copying from nature. The
+branch or blossom to be copied, is laid on the ground
+and pegged down with care, to eliminate every variety
+of surface, and every branch and twig so arranged that
+they may not cross or touch each other. This conventional
+composition is then drawn, and every natural
+distinction in the form carefully copied. I would
+suggest that this idea should be accepted as useful
+for imitation among ourselves in certain conventional
+compositions of vegetable forms. Perhaps it is our Aryan
+ancestry that has given us a prevailing taste for such
+decorations; and it is worth while to consider how best
+to manipulate them.<a name="FNanchor_89_89" id="FNanchor_89_89"></a><a href="#Footnote_89_89" class="fnanchor">[89]</a></p>
+
+<p>Clinging as we do to these floral designs, we can see
+that they are the only ones that bear repetition, whether
+covering the surface of the material in the rich irregularity
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>72]</a></span>
+of the flowers in a field, or conventionalized into a form
+or a pattern.</p>
+
+<p>The eye is never shocked or fatigued by such repetitions
+in orderly confusion, or trained by the hand into
+artistic shapes or meanderings of tracery. But when
+embroidery or weaving attempts to represent animals or
+typical human figures, repetition immediately becomes
+tiresome. A Madonna surrounded by angels, comes in
+badly, repeated over and over again as a pattern, broken
+up by folds, cut up by a seam, dislocated in the joining,
+and repeated in tiers. Such a design is figured in
+Auberville&rsquo;s book.<a name="FNanchor_90_90" id="FNanchor_90_90"></a><a href="#Footnote_90_90" class="fnanchor">[90]</a> The drawing is beautiful, but by
+repetition it becomes ridiculous. I therefore deprecate
+this kind of ornament in textile work. For this reason
+embroidery, which can be fitted to each space that is to
+be covered, is preferable to woven designs, however
+richly or perfectly they may be carried out.</p>
+
+<p>Another class of design, which must be considered
+apart, is the conventional-geometrical, of which the
+special distinction appears to be that it consists of
+echoes or fragments of what we have seen elsewhere.
+These conventional patterns are often merely the <em>detritus</em>
+of past styles or motives crushed and placed by time in
+a sort of kaleidoscope. They remind one of the little
+wreaths of broken shells and coloured sea-weeds left on
+the sands by the retiring waves after a storm, and are
+sometimes full of beauty and suggestion. (Pl. <a href="#pl17">17</a>.) We
+trace in these fragmentary patterns forgotten links with
+different civilizations; and we ponder on the historical
+events which have brought them into juxtaposition.
+These kaleidoscope patterns are to be seen in Persian
+and Turkish carpets of the present day, and we find, on
+examination, little bits which can only be the remnants
+of a broken-up motive, probably as much lost now to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>73]</a></span>
+designer who inherits the traditional form, as to us who
+can only see the vague results.</p>
+
+<p>I illustrate this remark by giving the border of a
+modern Persian carpet which has certainly had Egyptian
+ancestry. The boat, the beetle, and the prehistoric cross
+are to be found in it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig08" id="fig08"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf08.jpg" width="600" height="327"
+alt="Decorative linear patterns on a carpet border" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 8.<br />
+Persian Carpet.</p>
+
+<p>Many conventional patterns of to-day are descendants
+of the lattice-work of Chinese art, and of the zigzags,
+lines, and discs of barbarous primitive ornamentation.</p>
+
+<p>The traceries in Indian stone windows show some of
+the most charming geometrical forms, and are akin to
+the Persian and Russian modes of composing conventional
+patterns. They appear on very ancient metal work, and
+are the motives of all the embroideries in the Greek
+islands and the principalities, and of the linen embroideries
+of Russia. Their Byzantine origin gave its
+impress to the European schools of the Middle Ages,
+and the pattern-books of Germany and Venice of the
+sixteenth century are full of them. They are best
+suited for the mosaic stitches, and, kept in their places
+as decoration, they are useful for carpets and borders.</p>
+
+<p>It should be impressed on our young artists, that, in
+composing their designs, they must be influenced by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>74]</a></span>
+materials to be employed, and the purpose for which the
+decoration is intended. Thus in textile design for
+dress and hangings (excepting for tapestries) the fact
+must never be lost sight of that they will be subject
+to disturbance by crossing folds and crumplings, which
+will break up the lines of the pattern. It is therefore
+evident that a design fitted for a rigid material in a
+fixed place, such as an architectural decoration in wood,
+stone, or stucco, must be subject to a treatment different
+from that which befits an embroidered curtain or
+panel.</p>
+
+<p>Stone and wood, being materials of uniform colour,
+require all the help of recessed shadows and projections
+to catch the light; whereas in textiles, form is assisted by
+colour, and smoothness of surface is a primary consideration.
+The strongly accentuated design for wood-carving
+becomes poor and lifeless when deprived of its essential
+conditions and <i>raison d&rsquo;&ecirc;tre</i>, and the pattern which looks
+charming, outlined and filled in with colour, could be
+hardly seen incised on a flat stone surface. This seems a
+truism, but the neglect of these plain axioms causes many
+mistakes in decorative art. Mr. Redgrave says: &ldquo;A
+design must be bad which applies the same treatment to
+different materials.&rdquo; He further says: &ldquo;The position of
+the ornament requires special consideration. The varied
+quantities, bolder relief, and coarser execution are not
+only allowable, but absolutely necessary, at heights considerably
+above the eye. Moreover, each fabric has its
+own peculiar lustre, texture, &amp;c. Thus, in the use of
+hangings, curtains, &amp;c., the design might be suitable in
+silk, and coarse or dull in woollen.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_91_91" id="FNanchor_91_91"></a><a href="#Footnote_91_91" class="fnanchor">[91]</a></p>
+
+<p>Here I venture to differ from Mr. Redgrave. Perspective
+is as much to be respected in decoration as in
+pictures, near to the eye; and the gradation in size and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>75]</a></span>
+colour, as the ornament travels up into height or fades
+into distance, is a phase of pleasure which should not be
+checked by enlargement of form or reinforcement of
+colouring.</p>
+
+<p>It is hardly necessary to warn our artists against a sort
+of design which is conventional, yet had its own meaning
+in the beginning. This is to be found in Indian carvings
+and embroideries of a certain date, or imitating the works
+of that distant period. It proceeded from a hideous
+worship of monstrous Dravidian divinities. Their statues
+are to be found, surrounded by coarsely designed patterns,
+in the temple architecture of the first and second centuries.
+Its characteristics are idols in niches or shrines, distorted
+in form or attitude; foliage of unnatural, twisted plants,
+added to the recurring of the lotus and tree of life; or
+animals destroying each other, or kneeling in worship to
+the idols. These ugly designs are purely conventional.
+Fergusson suggests that they were introduced into
+Mexico in the fourth or fifth centuries <small>A.D.</small> by Buddhism.<a name="FNanchor_92_92" id="FNanchor_92_92"></a><a href="#Footnote_92_92" class="fnanchor">[92]</a></p>
+
+<p>Those many-armed, sometimes many-faced divinities
+drove out the beautiful Aryan types, which, however,
+resumed their sway when the wave of the Renaissance
+flowed back to India, and was remodelled by Oriental
+taste to the lovely designs we find in the Taj Mahal.</p>
+
+<p>In M. Blanc&rsquo;s classification of ornament, he has placed
+Gothic design under the head of deliberate complication.
+The whole of the Gothic decorations, which are a gradual
+growth in one direction, arose from the study of interlacing
+boughs and stems, employed as the enrichment of
+the newly-grown forms of the vaulted roofs. The possibilities
+of great size and height covered these designs and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>76]</a></span>
+inspired all their decoration; and the effect of reiteration
+and long recurring lines in perspective was essentially
+the motive of these avenues in stone.<a name="FNanchor_93_93" id="FNanchor_93_93"></a><a href="#Footnote_93_93" class="fnanchor">[93]</a></p>
+
+<p>Here enter the principles of repetition and progression,
+and you will find how carefully the designers of the
+twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries worked up
+to these ideas. You will see in their embroideries, shining
+figures or pictures in gold, silver, and coloured silks,
+shimmering on dark velvet backgrounds, each design
+terminating a perspective of architectural forms which
+enhances their brilliancy. The most effective, probably,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>77]</a></span>
+were generally employed for the adornment of the high
+altar, so as to be seen from a great distance. The
+smaller and less distinct and more delicate ornaments
+were reserved for the side chapels or for smaller churches,
+where such distant effects were inappropriate. But the
+motives of <a href="#Page_303">ecclesiastical embroidery</a> will be discussed in
+a future chapter.</p>
+
+<p>All attempts at pictorial art are a mistake in textiles. It
+does not enter into such designs; and when by chance
+it is allowed to be so used, it is an error of judgment,
+and only exhibits a laborious and useless ingenuity. It
+is no longer an artistic delineation of a natural object, but
+becomes an imitation of another way of rendering such
+objects.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Redgrave says that pictorial art in our manufactures
+is one of our great mistakes. &ldquo;The picture
+must be independent of the material, the thought alone
+should govern it; whereas in decoration the material
+must be one of the suggestors of the thought, its use
+must govern the design.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps it will appear to my readers that here I
+repeat, in different forms, what has been said in a
+previous chapter on the history of <a href="#Page_14">style</a>. I think that
+it is better to do so, than to omit to show where style and
+design must accompany each other. Style, without any
+reference to design, would be but a barren subject; and
+design, without reference to style, would become lawless,
+and soon be lost in the mazes of bad taste and mannerism.
+Both subjects are of so large and important a nature that
+I do not attempt to do more than point out how, in
+their history and their influence, they belong to the craft
+of embroidery.</p>
+
+<p>Such influences belong to all art; and though I am
+anxious to confine myself to only one section of it, I
+find it difficult to resist the temptation to generalize and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>78]</a></span>
+stray from the prescribed path, when large and important
+views are opened on every side, as I travel on from
+point to point.</p>
+
+<p>In sketching the history of design, as well as I may in
+so short a space, it is only considered in the light in
+which it illustrates our craft.</p>
+
+<p>I repeat that the design should be informed by the motive
+which suggested it, and by the need which has
+called it forth; and it must be moulded to the space it
+has to fill, and the position it will occupy. The design
+must be modified into different outward forms, according
+to whether it is to be fitted to the edge of a building
+against the sky; to a high panelled wall; to be applied
+as a frieze, or round the capital of a pillar; to the embroidered
+cover of an altar, or the silken hangings of a
+bed, or the framed flat spaces on the walls of a saloon.
+In fact, &ldquo;intention,&rdquo; &ldquo;place,&rdquo; and &ldquo;shape&rdquo; are necessary
+motives and limits to a flat design.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving aside all architectural ornamentation, and
+adhering only to my own subject, embroidery, I will
+limit my observations to the three purposes here suggested.
+Firstly, as the central effect of the holiest part
+of a church; secondly, in the domestic and comfortable
+room, to be adorned and made cheerful; and thirdly, as
+decking the refined and gay saloon or banqueting-hall.</p>
+
+<p>To the church we should devote the most splendid and
+effective contrasts, to blaze unframed against dark empty
+backgrounds, or amidst stone and marble decorations;
+something set apart from its surroundings, and asserting
+that separation, is the desirable effect to be attained.</p>
+
+<p>A totally different set of rules come into play when we
+have to select the decorations of a bedroom. Here a
+background does not exist. We are surrounded by four
+walls very near to the eye, so that perspectives are a
+secondary interest, if indeed they can claim any
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>79]</a></span>
+consideration; severe and magnificent ornamentation is out
+of place, except perhaps in that time-honoured institution&mdash;to
+be found in every great house possessing a suite of
+reception-rooms&mdash;the State bedroom, where the display
+of hangings and embroideries was the first motive of
+the decoration of the past, clothing and garnishing the
+bare spaces on the lofty walls. Space and separateness
+are not the object or aim of the bedroom of to-day; but
+lightness, snugness, and cheerful comfort, with which the
+design of the textile ornaments have much to do. This
+will in a later chapter come under the head of <a href="#Page_280">furniture</a>.</p>
+
+<p>For the saloon we may accept any splendour of rich
+and costly design, and the variously shaped panels assist
+in suggesting the form of the decoration. The plain or
+moulded panels, called in Italian &ldquo;targhe,&rdquo; or shields,
+seem to be descended from the actual shields of gold
+which Solomon hung on the walls of the king&rsquo;s house
+in the Forest of Lebanon.<a name="FNanchor_94_94" id="FNanchor_94_94"></a><a href="#Footnote_94_94" class="fnanchor">[94]</a> The motive was apparently
+Tyrian, and traces of it are also to be found in Assyrian
+sculpture.<a name="FNanchor_95_95" id="FNanchor_95_95"></a><a href="#Footnote_95_95" class="fnanchor">[95]</a></p>
+
+<p>The practice of framing the design gives opportunities
+for change of materials, colour, and pattern, permitting
+the employment of different flat surfaces laid on each
+other, and scope for endless enrichment; the framed
+picture being, perhaps, the central culminating attraction,
+crowning, as it were, the textile ornamentation.</p>
+
+<p>I merely give these instances as illustrating the rule
+that we have more than once laid down, that a design
+cannot fitly be employed except in the position for which
+the artist has composed it. I will, however, add that
+though it is right to give due consideration to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>80]</a></span>
+preparation of each work for its intended use, yet we
+often have charming suggestions offered to us, by the
+chance acquisition of a beautiful artistic specimen, which
+finds its own place and accommodates itself to the
+surrounding colours and forms. These are the happy
+accidents of which the cultivated artistic eye takes
+advantage, adding them to the experience which may
+help those who are seeking for the rules of harmony and
+contrast in design.</p>
+
+<p>Research into the mysteries and principles of design
+applies to woven arabesques and patterns, and must
+include machine-made textile ornament, and all decorative
+needlework. It is, in fact, the fabric for the
+million which most especially needs the careful study
+of guiding rules. When a plant sends forth hundreds
+of winged, wind-blown seeds, like the thistle, it spreads
+itself over wide fields, and is more mischievous than
+a more noxious growth, such as the deadly nightshade,
+which only drops an occasional berry into the earth. So
+a common cheap chintz or carpet, with a poor, gaudy,
+motiveless design, carries a bad style into thousands of
+homes wherever our commerce extends; disgracing us,
+while it corrupts the taste of other nations.</p>
+
+<p>In addressing our young designers, I would remind
+them that in art the race is not always to the strong.
+Prudence and educated powers, thoughtfulness and study,
+often carry us where unassisted and uncultivated genius
+has signally failed. Even such facilities as are afforded
+by the acquirement of freehand drawing, as taught in our
+schools of art, are not to be despised. The workman
+should thoroughly master his tools, or they will hamper
+him. The first step towards design is that you should
+learn to draw. After this, appreciation and observation
+are necessary, and due balance in outline and colour
+should be studied; and all this is as much needed in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>81]</a></span>
+drawing a pattern as in composing a picture. The difference
+lies in our art being only decorative, wherein
+beauty and fitness are to be remembered, and nothing
+else; whereas the picture may have to record historical
+facts, or to inspire poetical thoughts&mdash;to awe or to touch
+the beholder. A decorative design is only asked to
+delight him. Intelligent delight, however, can only be
+evoked by intelligent art, and to this, decoration must be
+subjected.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_73_73" id="Footnote_73_73"></a><a href="#FNanchor_73_73"><span class="label">[73]</span></a>
+The earliest art we know (the bone-scratching) is naturalistic and
+imitative. We are unaware of any attempt at a pattern of the prehistoric
+period. The lake cities are of so vague a date that their ornaments on
+pottery are puzzling rather than instructive. The earliest Hellenic pottery
+was scratched or painted. Cuttle-fish, repeated over and over again,
+are among the earliest attempts at a pattern, by repetition of a natural
+object. Naturalism soon fell into symbolism, which appropriated it
+and all art, and the upheaval of a new culture was needed to lift it once
+more into the region of individual creation. See Boyd Dawkins&rsquo;
+&ldquo;Early Man in Britain;&rdquo; also General Pitt Rivers&rsquo;s Museum of Prehistoric
+Art, lately presented to the University of Oxford.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_74_74" id="Footnote_74_74"></a><a href="#FNanchor_74_74"><span class="label">[74]</span></a>
+See Boyd Dawkins&rsquo; &ldquo;Early Man in Britain.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_75_75" id="Footnote_75_75"></a><a href="#FNanchor_75_75"><span class="label">[75]</span></a>
+&ldquo;I hope, indeed, to enable them&rdquo; (the members of his class) &ldquo;to
+read, above all, the minds of semi-barbarous nations in the only
+language by which their feelings were capable of expression; and those
+whose temper inclines them to take a pleasure in mythic symbols, will
+not probably be induced to quit the profound fields of investigation
+which early art will open to them, and which belong to it alone. For
+this is a general law, that supposing the intellect of the workman the
+same, the more imitatively complete his art, the less he will mean by it,
+and the ruder the symbol, the deeper the intention.&rdquo;&mdash;Ruskin&rsquo;s &ldquo;Oxford
+Lectures on Art,&rdquo; 1870, p. 19.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_76_76" id="Footnote_76_76"></a><a href="#FNanchor_76_76"><span class="label">[76]</span></a>
+See Isaac Taylor&rsquo;s &ldquo;History of the Alphabet.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_77_77" id="Footnote_77_77"></a><a href="#FNanchor_77_77"><span class="label">[77]</span></a>
+Renouf&rsquo;s Hibbert Lectures, 1879, p. 67.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_78_78" id="Footnote_78_78"></a><a href="#FNanchor_78_78"><span class="label">[78]</span></a>
+Now there is a point of view in which we may regard the imitative
+art of all races, the most civilized as well as the most barbarous&mdash;in
+reference to the power of correctly representing animal and vegetable
+forms, such as they exist in nature. The perfection of such imitation
+depends not so much on the manual dexterity of the artist as on his
+intelligence and comprehension of the type of the essential qualities of
+the form he desires to represent. See Ch. T. Newton&rsquo;s &ldquo;Essays on Art
+and Arch&aelig;ology,&rdquo; p. 17.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_79_79" id="Footnote_79_79"></a><a href="#FNanchor_79_79"><span class="label">[79]</span></a>
+See Wilkinson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ancient Egyptians.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_80_80" id="Footnote_80_80"></a><a href="#FNanchor_80_80"><span class="label">[80]</span></a>
+Plato&rsquo;s Second Book of Laws, p. 656.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_81_81" id="Footnote_81_81"></a><a href="#FNanchor_81_81"><span class="label">[81]</span></a>
+&ldquo;The religion of the Greeks penetrated into their institutions and
+daily life. The myth was not only embodied in the sculptures of
+Pheidias on the Parthenon, and portrayed in the paintings of Polygnotus
+in the Stoa Poikile; it was repeated in a more compendious and
+abbreviated form on the fictile vase of the Athenian household, on the
+coin circulated in the market-place, on the mirror in which the
+Aspasia of the day beheld her charms. Every domestic implement
+was made the vehicle of figurative language, or fashioned into a symbol.&rdquo;&mdash;Newton&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Essays on Art and Arch&aelig;ology,&rdquo; p. 23.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_82_82" id="Footnote_82_82"></a><a href="#FNanchor_82_82"><span class="label">[82]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Art in Ornament and Dress,&rdquo; by M. Charles Blanc, formerly
+Director of the French Institute. Eng. Trans., Chapman and Hall,
+London.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_83_83" id="Footnote_83_83"></a><a href="#FNanchor_83_83"><span class="label">[83]</span></a>
+See Charles Blanc&rsquo;s &ldquo;Art in Ornament and Dress,&rdquo; p. 31.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_84_84" id="Footnote_84_84"></a><a href="#FNanchor_84_84"><span class="label">[84]</span></a>
+Charles Blanc&rsquo;s &ldquo;Art in Ornament and Dress,&rdquo; p. 43.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_85_85" id="Footnote_85_85"></a><a href="#FNanchor_85_85"><span class="label">[85]</span></a>
+Charles Blanc&rsquo;s &ldquo;Art in Ornament and Dress,&rdquo; pp. 43, 45, 46.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_86_86" id="Footnote_86_86"></a><a href="#FNanchor_86_86"><span class="label">[86]</span></a>
+Chinese design shows naturalistic art arrested and perpetuated on
+totally different principles. Their representations are all equally allied
+to their art of picture-painting, whether on china with the brush, or
+on textiles with the needle. The flatness of the picture is still preserved
+by their ignorance of perspective. When they attempted
+to express different distances, they did so by placing them one above
+another, so that in reading the composition the eye first takes in the
+distant horizon; next below it, the middle distance; and being thus
+prepared, it comes down to the actual living foreground, on which
+rests the dramatic action and interest addressed to the spectator. The
+Chinese understood many of the secrets of art, yet never achieved
+perspective.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_87_87" id="Footnote_87_87"></a><a href="#FNanchor_87_87"><span class="label">[87]</span></a>
+See Mr. Penrose&rsquo;s work on the measurements of the Parthenon at
+Athens. Published by the Society of the Dilettanti.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_88_88" id="Footnote_88_88"></a><a href="#FNanchor_88_88"><span class="label">[88]</span></a>
+Marked outlines in embroidery add to the flatness, and enable us
+to omit cast shadows. In this it differs entirely from pictorial art,
+where one of the great objects is to avoid flatness.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_89_89" id="Footnote_89_89"></a><a href="#FNanchor_89_89"><span class="label">[89]</span></a>
+Semper&rsquo;s theory, already mentioned, is that textile design was certainly
+flat; that it was the first form of decoration, and was followed by
+bas-relief, which could not at once rid itself of the original motive.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_90_90" id="Footnote_90_90"></a><a href="#FNanchor_90_90"><span class="label">[90]</span></a>
+Auberville&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ornamentation des Tissus&rdquo; (eleventh century).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_91_91" id="Footnote_91_91"></a><a href="#FNanchor_91_91"><span class="label">[91]</span></a>
+Redgrave&rsquo;s &ldquo;Manual of Design,&rdquo; pp. 43-45.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_92_92" id="Footnote_92_92"></a><a href="#FNanchor_92_92"><span class="label">[92]</span></a>
+This idolatrous type was introduced into England by the Buccaneers,
+and reflected on our carvings and embroideries of the time of James I.,
+slightly modified by the Italian Renaissance of that period. As this
+sort of vulgar ornamentation has once prevailed, let us protect ourselves
+against its possible recurrence.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_93_93" id="Footnote_93_93"></a><a href="#FNanchor_93_93"><span class="label">[93]</span></a>
+While making this passing allusion to the theory that the origin of
+all Gothic decoration is mainly founded on the motive of interlacing
+stems and foliage, I wish to guard myself against being supposed in any
+way to argue against other beginnings, whenever they can be proved.
+I have said before that most decorations have a mixed ancestry. But
+when I see single or clustered columns starting from the ground&mdash;spreading
+at the base like the gnarled root, and growing till they
+culminate in crowns of foliage, forming symmetrical capitals, like the
+first clusters of leaves on a strong young sapling&mdash;then the branches
+spreading and interlacing, only checked at equal intervals by a lovely
+leaf or burgeon, till they meet in blossoms on the highest point of the
+arch,&mdash;I cannot but adhere to the old idea that rows of trees meeting
+overhead suggested Gothic ornament as well as Gothic Architecture.
+The Spanish or Moresque Gothic was overloaded with leaves and
+flowers, and the German Gothic was enriched with fantastic trees and
+flowers, each according to its national taste and fashion. A Gothic
+tree is a very conventional plant; and generally carries only one leaf
+on each branch. I have given a specimen of archaic trees from the
+Bayeux tapestry. They are typical of the Gothic botanical idea and
+style down to the fourteenth century. (Fig. <a href="#fig13">13</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Nor is this interpretation of Gothic design other than a result of its
+descent from the Egyptian ancestral motive, where the temple columns
+represented the single stem of the lotus with one large blossom for its
+capital, or else a bundle of stems of the lotus, palm, and convolvulus
+flowering together into a beautiful cluster. Even the gigantic columns
+of the great hyp&aelig;thral hall at Karnac are only a stupendous exaggeration
+of the same stalk and flower motive. From these were derived
+the forms of the early Greek column&mdash;soon enriched by substituting
+the Acanthus for the Lotus, but often retaining the convolvulus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_94_94" id="Footnote_94_94"></a><a href="#FNanchor_94_94"><span class="label">[94]</span></a>
+1 Kings x.; Ezek. xxvii. 10, 11. See Stanley&rsquo;s &ldquo;Lectures on the
+Jewish Church.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_95_95" id="Footnote_95_95"></a><a href="#FNanchor_95_95"><span class="label">[95]</span></a>
+Layard&rsquo;s &ldquo;Nineveh and its Remains,&rdquo; vol. ii. p. 388; Rawlinson&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Ancient Monarchies,&rdquo; vol. ii. p. 2.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>82]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER III.</h2>
+
+<h3>PATTERNS.</h3>
+
+
+<p>In the last chapter on <a href="#Page_54">design</a> I have described patterns
+as the examples or illustrations of the art of decoration,
+and as being the records of the motives which produced
+them in different eras. My present object is to class
+and define patterns as decorative art.</p>
+
+<p>It is argued by some arch&aelig;ologists that the recurrence of
+a pattern, for instance the &ldquo;wave,&rdquo; over the whole world,
+proves that it really came from many sources, under the
+same conditions of life and art; showing also that a
+pattern is a thing that, like a flower, must grow, if the
+culture of the race be equal. I do not believe this.
+We can nearly always trace the family history of a
+pattern to its original motive; and in the very few cases
+where we are unable to do so, it is hardly necessary to
+cover our ignorance by stretching the fashionable theory
+of development over the few instances that are as yet
+unaccountable.</p>
+
+<p>I have been repeatedly asked to procure or to invent
+a new pattern. Such is my respect for the decorative
+achievement called a &ldquo;pattern,&rdquo; that I cannot hope for
+the moment of inspiration in which I might create such
+a thing. If any one has in his lifetime invented a
+pattern, he has done something truly remarkable, and as
+rare as is a really original thought on any subject.
+Patterns are commonly, like men, the result of many
+centuries of long descent from ancestors of remote
+antiquity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>83]</a></span>
+Individuals differ from their ancestors through inherited
+and surrounding conditions, and through the
+modifying powers of evolution, climate, and education.
+So also a pattern has, besides its ancestry and descent,
+the unconscious mark or seal of its day; and it is easy to
+trace whence it comes, if we set ourselves to examine the
+style of it seriously.</p>
+
+<p>The patterns of which we can nearly always name at
+once the nationality, are the Assyrian, the Chinese,
+the Egyptian, the Hindu (Aryan and Turanian), the
+Persian, the Archaic and the highly developed Grecian;
+the Roman, the Celtic, the Byzantine, the Arabian, the
+Gothic, the Renaissance, the Spanish Pl&acirc;teresque, the
+Louis Quatorze, and those of the art of Central America.</p>
+
+<p>The pattern cannot exist without design. Design
+means intention and motive. Many of the motives in
+Oriental textile decorations are suggestive of intention,
+as is shown by their names. Among Indian patterns we
+meet with &ldquo;ripples of silver,&rdquo; &ldquo;sunshine and shade,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;pigeon&rsquo;s eye,&rdquo; &ldquo;peacock&rsquo;s neck,&rdquo; &amp;c.<a name="FNanchor_96_96" id="FNanchor_96_96"></a><a href="#Footnote_96_96" class="fnanchor">[96]</a></p>
+
+<p>Patterns must be classed either by their dates, when
+ascertained, or according to their style, which must generally
+be allowed to cover vast areas and periods irregularly
+drifting down, overlapping, or being absorbed or effaced
+by the circumstances they have encountered.</p>
+
+<p>Only when a national style has been obstinately fixed,
+as in China, and bound down by strict laws and religious
+formulas, suited exactly to the people for whom they
+were evolved out of the national life, and imprinted on
+it by their own lawgivers, philosophers, and priests;
+and neither imposed by conquerors, nor swept over by
+the waves of a new civilization;&mdash;only in such cases can
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>84]</a></span>
+we find a continuity of decorative art which leads us far
+back on its traces. Then, on this long track, we learn
+how little, man, the decorating animal, has really advanced
+in his powers of creation. He has gone more than once
+to a certain point, and has then either been petrified by
+law and custom&mdash;turned into a pillar of salt, like Lot&rsquo;s
+wife, because he has looked back instead of striving to
+advance, or else through poverty or satiety has fallen into
+the last stage of the Seven Ages, &ldquo;<i>sans</i> eyes, <i>sans</i> teeth&mdash;<i>sans</i>
+everything.&rdquo; When what is good is neither
+perceived nor desired, then the arts, small and great,
+dwindle and disappear, and nothing remains to show that
+they have been, but a name, and perhaps a pattern.</p>
+
+<p>Chinese design is the most striking example of the
+first of these phases; and the extinction of all classical
+art with the fall of Paganism in Rome is an instance of
+the second.</p>
+
+<p>In the chapter on <a href="#Page_14">style</a> it is said that a pattern is
+as ineffaceable as a word. But one will occasionally
+disappear for a time, till the ruin that covers it is cleared
+away, and the lost design recovered and employed simply
+as a decoration, if it is beautiful; or perhaps fitted with
+a new meaning, and so it makes a fresh start.</p>
+
+<p>The importance of patterns, when traceable to their
+origin, as a means of investigating historical influences
+cannot be too much insisted on, and their history is
+full of suggestion as a guide to the decorator. Much
+has been argued and much ascertained from the evidence
+of these fragments of national civilizations, showing how
+an idea or a myth has been, as it were, engrafted into the
+essence of another national idea, partly altering what it
+finds, and changing to fit itself to its new surroundings.
+Eastern patterns have travelled far, and lasted long; and
+continue still to hold the fancy, and exercise the ingenuity,
+of the artist and decorator. When we find a pattern
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>85]</a></span>
+of which the nationality is strongly marked, it is worth
+our while to ascertain its date and history, which will help
+us to recognize cognate design wherever we may meet it.
+However, this is often not to be done; and then it is
+best to set these puzzling examples aside, and to await
+patiently the elucidation, which may come from some
+source of which we are as yet ignorant.</p>
+
+<p>In very early art we have little remaining but patterns,
+on which we may found theories by tracing them home
+to their original source. The oldest patterns had each
+a meaning and an intention. When a pattern has been
+enduring and far spread, it is because it was originally
+the expression of an idea or a symbol.</p>
+
+<p>In the earliest dawn of civilization, the arts were the
+repositories of the myths and mysteries of national
+faiths. Embroidery was one of these arts, and the border
+which edged the garment of a divinity, the veil which
+covered the grave of a loved one, or the flower-buds and
+fruit which fringed the hangings and curtains in the
+sanctuary, each had a meaning, and therefore a use.
+These symbolical designs and forms were constantly reproduced;
+and all human ingenuity was exercised in
+reforming, remodelling, and adding perfect grace to the
+expression of the same idea.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+
+<p>Patterns may be ranged under four heads&mdash;the
+Primitive, the Naturalistic, the Conventional, and the
+Geometrical.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive are those of which we know not the
+ancestry, and rarely can guess the motive. To us they
+are, in general, simply rude decorations. The naturalistic
+are those which are borrowed from natural forms, and are
+either only imitative, or else convey some hidden meaning.
+The conventional are those which, by long descent, have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>86]</a></span>
+come to be accepted simply as ornamental art, with or
+without reference to an original motive, now lost. The
+geometrical or symmetrical are founded on form only, and
+in so far resemble our experience of the primitive; they
+express no meaning, and only serve to satisfy the eye by
+their balance and their ingenuity.</p>
+
+
+<h4>PRIMITIVE.</h4>
+
+<p>The first patterned forms with which we are acquainted
+are the primitive. They are found in all parts of the
+inhabited world. In our present ignorance as to the
+beginnings of the scattered tribes of men, we cannot
+judge if these are the remains of an earlier art or the first
+germs of a new one. Of one thing there is no doubt:
+this primitive decoration consists entirely of pattern; that
+is to say, of the repetition of certain (to us) inexpressive
+forms, which by reiteration assume importance and in
+some degree express beauty&mdash;the beauty of what Monsieur
+Blanc calls &ldquo;cadence.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>After these first unintelligible forms, which simply by
+repetition become accepted patterns, come those called
+the Prehistoric, of which we know or guess something
+as to their original meaning, and which, having been
+reduced from the hieroglyphic-symbolical to the conventional,
+have thus crystallized themselves, by constant
+use, into a pattern. Such, for instance, is the simplest
+form of the &ldquo;wave&rdquo; pattern, which in very early art was
+a representation of water.</p>
+
+<p>The prehistoric water or wave patterns had other
+forms; for instance, zigzags, upright or horizontal, and
+undulating lines which are intelligible as expressing
+smooth or rough water. In general, however, the primitive
+and prehistoric patterns convey no idea, and consist,
+as we have said elsewhere, of lines, straight or wavy,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>87]</a></span>
+sometimes intersected; of angles, zigzags, groups of
+dots, rings and little discs, and crosses of the Swastika
+shape. (Plate <a href="#pl10">10</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 296px;">
+<a name="pl10" id="pl10"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 10.</p>
+<img src="images/naap10t.png" width="296" height="400"
+alt="Sixteen different wave patterns" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap10.png">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="topcapt smcap">Wave Patterns.</p>
+
+<p class="caphang">1, 4, 9, 12, 13. Greek Wave Patterns. 2. Key or M&aelig;ander, Greek Wave. 3. Greek
+Broken Wave. 5, 6, 7. Egyptian Smooth and Rippling Water Patterns. 8. Medi&aelig;val
+Wave. 10, 11, 14. Assyrian. 15. Persian or Greek (from Glass Bowl, British
+Museum). 16. English Waves (Durham Embroideries.)</p>
+
+<p>Where shall the tartan be placed? It is certainly
+primitive, and apparently had no intention beyond that
+of employing as many coloured threads as there were dyes,
+so as to form the brightest contrasts, or else to be as
+invisible as possible either in the sunshine or in the shade.
+The Gauls brought this kind of weaving with them from
+the East, and probably invented the pattern, if such
+a motiveless design can be so called. It had its classical
+name, &ldquo;Polymita,&rdquo; and was admired in Rome when newly
+imported, as being something original and barbaric.
+The Romans found it in Britain, and Boadicea wore a
+tartan dress on the day of her defeat. Perhaps even then
+fashions came from France, and it may have been her
+best tunic from across the Channel. This fabric may
+have been imported by the Belgic Gauls, and was so
+easily woven on house looms, that it became in time the
+feudal dress of the Scottish tribes and clans, and the
+colours were ingeniously arranged to show the most
+different effects. The tartan has always been a resource
+for the woollen trade, and the fashion constantly recurs
+in France, either from sentiment or the actually inherited
+Gallic taste; but it remains a primitive pattern, and
+nothing can make it artistic. No embroidery can soften
+the constantly recurring angles, and only fringes can be
+employed to decorate a tartan costume. Pliny tells us of
+the ingenuity of Zeuxis, who, to show his wealth, had his
+name embroidered in gold in the squared compartments
+of his outer garment.<a name="FNanchor_97_97" id="FNanchor_97_97"></a><a href="#Footnote_97_97" class="fnanchor">[97]</a></p>
+
+<p>Primitive patterns still linger in many savage nations,
+but especially throughout uncivilized Africa. Curious to
+say, the very ancient fossilized early art of Egypt does
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>88]</a></span>
+not assist us to trace it back to a prehistoric style, though
+it may lead us into prehistoric times.</p>
+
+
+<h4>NATURALISTIC.</h4>
+
+<p>The phases of the naturalistic patterns are constantly
+recurring. Art is always tending to realism, in the
+laudable effort to reach the motive without the shackles
+of rules. Each phase has fallen a prey to symbolism,
+to conventionalism, or to mannerism, which last symptom
+marks the decline and fall of art. We shall find these
+phases everywhere in the design of patterns.</p>
+
+<p>Naturalism has always striven, by simple repetition, to
+reduce to patterns the forms of flowers, fruits, animals,
+birds, insects, reptiles, and other natural objects.</p>
+
+<p>In flower patterns the simplest forms by repetition make
+sometimes the richest patterns, and the most effective.
+(Plate <a href="#pl11">11</a>, Nos. 1 and 2.)</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that one very beautiful class of
+natural objects is rarely employed in ancient decoration<a name="FNanchor_98_98" id="FNanchor_98_98"></a><a href="#Footnote_98_98" class="fnanchor">[98]</a>&mdash;shells
+and corals. The barbarous tribes of the West
+Coast of Africa alone seem to have appreciated their
+forms, and added them to their small repertory of
+naturalistic patterns. They do not appear in any
+European or Asiatic textiles till the seventeenth century,
+when shells were much used in the decorations of the
+reigns of Queen Anne and Louis Quatorze.</p>
+
+<p>The first change from naturalism into the conventional
+was through symbolism, and belonged to the time when
+unwritten thought was first recorded by pictured signs,
+which then ceased to be merely decoration. We find
+that the naturalism of the earliest Egyptians and Asiatics
+was soon entirely absorbed by the effort to express some
+hidden meaning or mystery, and then to fit the representation
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>89]</a></span>
+to a special place and purpose, and to restore it,
+as it were, to decorative art.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 147px;">
+<a name="pl11" id="pl11"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 11.</p>
+<img src="images/naap11t.png" width="147" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap11.png">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caphang">1. Persian Flower Border.
+2. Egyptian Border, composed of Head-dress
+of the god Nile
+(Wilkinson&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Ancient Egyptians&rdquo;).
+3. Assyrian.
+4. Assyrian.</p>
+
+<p>The lotus and the patterns founded on its forms, and
+the many emblematic meanings attached to them, are
+notable examples of these transmutations in style and
+intention, and of the value given to their intention and
+use in Egypt and India, where each development was
+immediately crystallized into a recognized pattern, and
+given its place and language. It received its &ldquo;<i>mot
+d&rsquo;ordre</i>,&rdquo; and continued to act upon it long after the
+meaning was forgotten or out of date.</p>
+
+<p>The rolling pattern which had so long represented
+only the &ldquo;wave,&rdquo; was given to the really straight stem
+of the lotus, and its blossom, substituted for the wave&rsquo;s
+crest, now filled many a frieze in Indian temple architecture;
+whereas the lotus stems in Egypt were still
+bound in sheaves to form columns, and the flowers, buds,
+and leaves spread and blossomed into capitals. Here
+we have symbolism and conventionalized naturalism, all
+combined, showing how their principles, though quite
+distinct, can mix and unite. The conventional form often
+superseded and effaced the naturalistic, and became the
+sign of an idea, or the hieroglyphic picture of a thing;
+immovable and unalterable in Egypt, where every effort
+was made to secure eternity on earth, but continually
+returning to naturalism in India, where the Aryan tendency,
+with the assistance of the &ldquo;Code of Manu,&rdquo; always
+recurred to the restoration of the ancient naturalistic
+motive.</p>
+
+<p>In the India Museum we may see the &ldquo;wave&rdquo; motive
+converted into a lotus pattern by rolling the long stems,
+and filling up the spaces between with the full-faced
+blossom. Sometimes the pattern is started by the figure
+of an elephant, from whose mouth the stem of the flower
+of the sun proceeds. This occurs so often that it must
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>90]</a></span>
+originally have had a meaning. Sometimes the sacred
+convolvulus takes the place of the lotus. (Plate <a href="#pl12">12</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>On an Egyptian mural painting are seen parties of
+men snaring ducks among papyrus and lotus plants.
+These are entirely conventional, and are, in fact, a sort of
+recognized hieroglyphic representing the idea of a lotus.<a name="FNanchor_99_99" id="FNanchor_99_99"></a><a href="#Footnote_99_99" class="fnanchor">[99]</a></p>
+
+<p>The lotus was the accepted emblem of the sun, and
+reduced to a many-leaved radiating pattern may be found
+as an architectural ornament on the outside of the Buddhist
+&ldquo;topes,&rdquo; of which the models are on the staircase of the
+British Museum.<a name="FNanchor_100_100" id="FNanchor_100_100"></a><a href="#Footnote_100_100" class="fnanchor">[100]</a> (Plate <a href="#pl13">13</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>We have Sir G. Birdwood&rsquo;s authority for believing
+that, though the actual lotus was a native of India, and
+carried thence to Egypt, its decorative use as a pattern
+was Egyptian, and so returned to India. Both accepted
+it as their &ldquo;sunflower.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_101_101" id="FNanchor_101_101"></a><a href="#Footnote_101_101" class="fnanchor">[101]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 286px;">
+<a name="pl12" id="pl12"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 12.</p>
+<img src="images/naap12t.jpg" width="286" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap12.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caphang">1. Indian Rolling Lotus Pattern.
+2, 3. Indian Lotus Patterns.
+4, 5. Egyptian Lotus Patterns.
+6. Sacred Convolvulus. Indian (seventeenth century).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 230px;">
+<a name="pl13" id="pl13"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 13.</p>
+<img src="images/naap13t.jpg" width="230" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap13.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caphang">1, 2. Indian Designs of Assyrian Daisy and Egyptian Lotus.
+3. Vitruvian Scroll. Vignola. Architecture.</p>
+
+<p>Can it be our Aryan descent which induces in us the
+earnest adoration, in our art of to-day, of our northern
+prototype of the sun&rsquo;s emblem? I fear that we must
+acknowledge that our &aelig;sthetic worship of our sunflowers
+is somewhat false and affected. &AElig;stheticism is not art.
+Sunflowers, painted or embroidered as decoration, do
+not &ldquo;take&rdquo; if they are ordered and ranged, and reduced
+to a pattern like those of Egypt. They must be
+naturalistic, and, if possible, remind us of a disorderly
+cottage garden; whereas in India they were adapted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>91]</a></span>
+from nature on fixed principles, which immediately reduced
+them to the conventional.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 205px;">
+<a name="pl14" id="pl14"></a>
+<img src="images/naap14t.jpg" width="205" height="400"
+alt="Grouped sunflowers in a garden" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap14.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Sunflower pattern, R. S. A. N.<br />
+XIX. Century</p>
+
+<p>I give an illustration of a Gothic sunflower resembling
+a transfigured rose; and another of an ordered naturalistic
+sunflower pattern, from a design of the Royal School of
+Art Needlework. (Plate <a href="#pl14">14</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig09" id="fig09"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf09.png" width="500" height="268" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 9.<br />
+Gothic Sunflower. From Christ&rsquo;s College Chapel, Cambridge.</p>
+
+<p>I have given this account of the patterns founded
+on the lotus, as we can almost from this distance of time
+take a bird&rsquo;s-eye view of its rise in naturalism, its spread,
+dispersion, and its crystallization into conventional forms;
+also we can trace how the lotus patterns of Indian
+art have resulted, when accepted in Europe, in nothing
+but the rolling wave, carrying flower forms which no
+longer represent a lotus; and how the lotus bud and
+flower pattern has become in time the classical &ldquo;egg
+and tongue;&rdquo; which, however, may have resulted also
+from a combination of other motives.</p>
+
+<p>Representations of animal forms are sometimes very
+remarkable in phases of naturalism. The few remains of
+Celtic art that have survived are entirely animal, or very
+nearly so. In their stone, gold, silver, and bronze work,
+and in illuminated MSS., we meet with only animal
+forms; never a flower or a leaf.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the Indo-Chinese patterns in Celtic art, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>92]</a></span>
+suggest the Chinese lattice-work (so strongly insisted on
+by Semper as a constant motive), we also find in all their
+decorations compartments containing involved patterns
+of cords or strings knitted or plaited, suggesting the
+entrails of animals, which by these hunting people were
+consulted as being mysteriously prophetic of approaching
+events, especially success or failure in the chase, and
+impending warlike raids.<a name="FNanchor_102_102" id="FNanchor_102_102"></a><a href="#Footnote_102_102" class="fnanchor">[102]</a> There is no other way of accounting
+for these designs, which are peculiar to the race,
+unless we believe they always represent snakes. (Pl. <a href="#pl15">15</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>In England much that was characteristic of the style
+was lost as soon as the Saxons drove out the Celts, who
+carried it to Ireland, as may be seen in the Book of Kells,
+and the carving of the Harp of Tara, and the Celtic
+jewels in the Irish museums; but the interlacing patterns
+survived throughout Anglo-Saxon art, and were marvellously
+ingenious and beautiful; witness the Durham Book
+of St. Cuthbert.</p>
+
+<p>We have no Celtic textiles remaining to us, unless
+some embroidery in the Marien-Kirche collection at
+Dantzic may be of that style and time. This is suggested
+by its altogether Indo-Chinese and very barbarous
+character;<a name="FNanchor_103_103" id="FNanchor_103_103"></a><a href="#Footnote_103_103" class="fnanchor">[103]</a> and one of the coronation mantles in Bock&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Kleinodien&rdquo; is Runic in its peculiar serpent design.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl15" id="pl15"></a>
+<img src="images/naap15t.jpg" width="400" height="281" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap15.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Illumination from the
+Lindisfarne Gospels,
+about A.D. 700</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 228px;">
+<a name="pl16" id="pl16"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 16.</p>
+<img src="images/naap16t.png" width="228" height="400"
+alt="Demeter, wearing decorated robes, holds a bunch of wheat" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap16.png">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Demeter. From a Greek Vase in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Judging from their illuminated MSS.,&rdquo; it is said,
+&ldquo;the elements borrowed from textile art by the Celts are
+plaits, bows, zigzags, knots, geometrical figures in various
+symmetrically developed combinations, crosses, whorls,
+and lattice-work; next, those taken from metal work,
+such as spirals and nail-heads let into borders; thirdly,
+simple or composite zoomorphic forms, such as bodies of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>93]</a></span>
+snakes, birds&rsquo; heads on long necks, lizards, dogs, dragons,
+and the like.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_104_104" id="FNanchor_104_104"></a><a href="#Footnote_104_104" class="fnanchor">[104]</a> They well understood how to make a
+pattern by the repetition of objects of any class.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="pl17" id="pl17"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 17.</p>
+<img src="images/naap17t.jpg" width="300" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap17.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">1. Embroidery on a Greek Mantle, third century <small>B.C.</small>, from the Tomb of the Seven
+Brothers, Crimea.<br />
+2. Egyptian Painted and Embroidered Linen. The cone, the bead, the daisy, the
+wave, the lotus under water, are all shown on this fragment.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 277px;">
+<a name="pl18" id="pl18"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 18.</p>
+<img src="images/naap18t.jpg" width="277" height="400"
+alt="Designs include human and animal forms, floral and repeat patterns" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap18.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="topcapt smcap">Egyptian Tapestry.</p>
+
+<p class="caphang">1. Woven and embroidered on a Sleeve. 2. Woven and embroidered. 3. Painted and
+embroidered.</p>
+
+<p>Representations of human figures in embroideries
+probably originated in hangings for the wall; but have
+been treated as decorative forms, both by the Indians
+and the Greeks, for wearing apparel. The peplos of
+Minerva was bordered with fighting gods and giants,
+and the Empress Theodora&rsquo;s dress in the Ravenna mosaic
+repeats exactly the same motive. (See Fig. <a href="#fig04">4</a>, and Pl. <a href="#pl06">6</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>There are two other examples of such Greek patterns.
+The mantle of Demeter on a Greek vase in the British
+Museum, of the best period (Pl. <a href="#pl16">16</a>), is embroidered with
+flying genii and victorious chariots; and the embroidered
+mantle lately found in a Crimean tomb, is of precisely the
+same style of design, and the one illustrates the other.
+These instances are so exceptional, that it is curious that
+here, as in the case of the peplos, in each case there should
+happen to be a duplicate. (Plates <a href="#pl16">16</a> and <a href="#pl17">17</a>, No. 1.)</p>
+
+<p>In Babylonian, Assyrian, and Chaldean art we constantly
+find animal forms in patterns. The lion and the
+hare, birds and insects, are the commonest; and there are
+some instances of human figures reduced to a pattern in
+these sculptured representations of textiles. (Plate <a href="#pl02">2</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>There are curiously woven little human figures finished
+with the needle on the sleeve of an Egyptian dress in the
+British Museum, from Saccarah (Pl. <a href="#pl18">18</a>), and, of course,
+when such a design is small, it ceases to be very objectionable.
+On the whole, however, naturalistic designs
+for embroideries are more safely confined to floral decorations,
+excepting always flat tapestries for walls,
+which, representing pictures, may be as naturalistic as
+their purpose and style will admit.</p>
+
+<p>Animal forms are often reduced to patterns by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>94]</a></span>
+repetition in Indian and Persian embroidery.<a name="FNanchor_105_105" id="FNanchor_105_105"></a><a href="#Footnote_105_105" class="fnanchor">[105]</a> The drawing
+is naturalistic, but the colouring is fanciful. We may
+see any day, on Persian rugs, scarlet lions pursuing and
+capturing blue or yellow hares. The flatness and want
+of all shadows tends to the conventional. Lions, bulls,
+cats, beetles, and serpents abound especially in Egyptian
+design; insects, reptiles, and fish in Asiatic patterns,
+where animals are sometimes made to walk in pairs, with
+their heads and tails twisted into a pattern.</p>
+
+<p>Though landscapes are so rarely worked that the
+subject is, perhaps, hardly worthy of notice, yet such mistaken
+specimens of ingenuity have occurred. An altar
+frontal was exhibited at Zurich, in 1883, containing some
+really exquisitely worked landscapes, which were quite
+out of place, both as art and as decoration, for an ecclesiastical
+purpose. This was of the beginning of the last
+century.<a name="FNanchor_106_106" id="FNanchor_106_106"></a><a href="#Footnote_106_106" class="fnanchor">[106]</a></p>
+
+<p>While we appreciate and should take advantage of our
+national tendency to naturalistic design, we must beware
+of looking on fixed rules as bonds which cramp our
+liberty, and of thinking that nature should be our only
+guide to an otherwise unassisted and unfettered inspiration.
+Without the wholesome checks of experience
+and educated taste, and the knowledge which teaches us
+what to avoid, as well as what to imitate, founded on
+the successes and failures of others, we fall into weak
+imitations of natural objects.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>95]</a></span>
+Mr. Redgrave points out how unpleasant and jarring
+to our sense of what is appropriate, and therefore how
+offensive to good taste and common sense, it is to tread
+on a carpet of water-lilies swimming in blue pools, or
+on fruits and flowers heaped up and casting shadows
+probably towards the light.<a name="FNanchor_107_107" id="FNanchor_107_107"></a><a href="#Footnote_107_107" class="fnanchor">[107]</a> Woollen lions and tigers,
+as large as life, basking before the fire in a wreath of
+roses, are alarming rather than agreeable, and are of the
+nature of a practical joke in art. It is the search for
+novelty in naturalism that leads to such astonishing
+compositions; and these, being successively rejected in
+the heart of our civilization and culture, are drifted away
+to vulgarize our colonies, or to be sold cheap to furnish
+Continental hotels, and make the English traveller blush
+for his home manufactures.</p>
+
+
+<h4>SYMBOLICAL AND CONVENTIONAL.</h4>
+
+<p>Though it is true that the highest art, pictorial and
+sculptural, is always struggling towards naturalism, the
+art of decoration is, by its nature, constantly tending to
+conventionalism. Patterns, if not absolutely geometrical
+or naturalistic, must be classed under this principle. Let
+us examine what is meant by a conventional pattern.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said that the conventional includes every
+form&mdash;the symbolic, the naturalistic, or even the hieroglyphic&mdash;that
+is selected and consecrated to convey a
+certain idea. The lily of Florence, which is something
+between a lily and an iris, but unlike either, is a conventional
+form; likewise the lily of France, which it is said
+was once a conventional frog. The rose of England,
+the shamrock, and the thistle have always been more
+naturalistic than is usual in such heraldic designs; but
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>96]</a></span>
+the parti-coloured rose of York and Lancaster was
+decidedly conventional, and heraldic.</p>
+
+<p>Conventional patterns now are those which, having been
+originally naturalistic in style, but perhaps emblematic
+as to their motive, have been repeated till the meaning
+and form have been lost; or else, as in the case of the
+lotus, the emblem is forgotten, and nothing remains but
+the recognized conventional form.</p>
+
+<p>One conventional pattern which, having commenced
+by being a symbol, has been repeated and varied till it
+has allowed the original essential meaning to escape, is
+the &ldquo;palm-leaf&rdquo; or &ldquo;cone&rdquo; pattern on French or Paisley
+shawls, which, having been a sacred emblem&mdash;the tree of
+life&mdash;in Persia, became in Europe, when the religious
+myth was lost, only a shawl pattern&mdash;merely a leaf, with
+plant painted within its outlines. (Plate <a href="#pl23">23</a>, Nos. 10, 11.)</p>
+
+<p>Decorative designs become conventional in spite of
+the intention of the designer. He is overruled by the
+spaces to be covered and the materials to be employed.
+His design must produce a flat pattern; he must repeat
+it again and again; he must give it a strong outline; he
+must distribute it regularly at certain intervals. Repetition
+at once conventionalizes the most naturalistic
+drawing, and the most sacred and mysterious emblem.
+Alternation is equally a source of conventionalism. There
+is no motive that cannot be conventionalized into a
+pattern by repetition. A Gothic crown and a true lily,
+repeated, will make an ecclesiastical conventional pattern.
+Then come all the Arabian and Moresque forms (which
+are mostly geometric), and also the Gothic (which are
+partly geometric and partly naturalistic, especially those
+in German and debased Spanish and Portuguese Gothic
+design).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 266px;">
+<a name="pl19" id="pl19"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 19.</p>
+<img src="images/naap19t.jpg" width="266" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap19.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caphang">1. Key Pattern.
+2. Broken-up Key.
+3. Beads.
+4. Key and sign of Land.
+5. Wave and Babylonian Daisy.
+6. Key and Fundata.
+7. Wave and Bead.
+8. Wave and Daisy.
+9. Key and Sun Cross.
+These Key Patterns from
+Ceiling of a Tomb at
+Saccarah, in Egypt.
+(Wilkinson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ancient
+Egyptians.&rdquo;)</p>
+
+<p>Then we must accept as conventional all those which
+may be called kaleidoscope patterns, which are broken
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>97]</a></span>
+fragments of old motives, repeated or &ldquo;radiated&rdquo; so as to
+become partly geometrical, wholly conventional. (See Pl.
+<a href="#pl17">17</a>, No. 2.)</p>
+
+<p>Conventional patterns may be reduced into three kinds.</p>
+
+<p>First, the naturalistic, which have by repetition been
+adapted for decorative art.</p>
+
+<p>Secondly, the symbolical&mdash;Pagan or Christian, religious
+or historical, including the Heraldic.</p>
+
+<p>Thirdly, those conventional forms which may never
+have had any inner meaning, or else, having originally
+had one, have lost it.</p>
+
+<p>All these exist, sometimes apart and sometimes
+mingled; so that some thought must be expended in
+seeking the motive which has brought them together,
+and finding in each the internal evidence of its descent.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that patterns, conventionalized and brought
+from distant sources, sometimes meet and amalgamate.
+When the origin of a conventional pattern is disputed,
+it is worth while to examine if it has a double parentage.
+Let me give, as an instance, the key pattern. It may
+have been, as Semper believes, originally Chinese, and
+derived from wicker-work design. It represents also
+the broken or dislocated &ldquo;wave,&rdquo; the symbol of the River
+M&aelig;ander,<a name="FNanchor_108_108" id="FNanchor_108_108"></a><a href="#Footnote_108_108" class="fnanchor">[108]</a> and for water generally. We find it everywhere
+in company with the wave, which never could
+have had any connection with wicker-work, not only
+in China, but in Persia, India, Egypt, Arabia, Greece,
+Rome, and Central America. (Pl. <a href="#pl19">19</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Can any invention of man show a more symbolical
+intention than the wave pattern? The airy leap drawn
+downwards by the force of gravitation; controlled, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>98]</a></span>
+again made to return, but strong to insist on its own
+curve of predilection, rushing back under the same circle;
+strengthened by the downward movement to spring again
+from its original plane; beginning afresh its Sisyphus
+labour, and facing the next effort with the same grace
+and agility. Undying force, and
+eternal flowing unrest&mdash;these are
+the evident intention and symbol
+of the wave pattern. Though I believe
+the key pattern to be a modification of the wave
+form, yet the locking and unlocking movement suggests
+a repetition of the Tau, or key of life.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig10" id="fig10"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/naaf10.png" width="200" height="73"
+alt="Wave pattern" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 10.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>When we admire the friezes of garlands hung between
+the skulls of oxen and goats, we cannot for a moment
+doubt the sacrificial idea on which the design was
+founded. When the wreaths are carried by dancing
+children, we recognize the impersonation of the rejoicing
+of the d&aelig;dal earth.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks, however strongly they exerted themselves
+to throw off the shackles of conventionality in sculpture,
+painting, and architecture, yet yielded to the traditional
+force of the symbolical pattern, and accepted most of
+the Oriental forms, merely remodelling them for their
+own use, and adding to their significance what their culture
+required; at the same time giving infinite variety,
+as their perfect taste dictated.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 235px;">
+<a name="pl20" id="pl20"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 20.</p>
+<img src="images/naap20t.jpg" width="235" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap20.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="topcapt smcap">Trees of Life.</p>
+
+<p class="caphang">1, 2, 3, 5. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian Silk. (Birdwood&rsquo;s &ldquo;Indian Arts,&rdquo; pp. 331, 335,
+336, 337.)</p>
+
+<p>Aristophanes, in &ldquo;The Frogs,&rdquo; laughs at the Persian
+carpet patterns&mdash;their unnatural birds and beasts and
+flowers&mdash;whilst he claims for his own frogs, that they at
+least have the merit of being natural.<a name="FNanchor_109_109" id="FNanchor_109_109"></a><a href="#Footnote_109_109" class="fnanchor">[109]</a> This little touch
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>99]</a></span>
+of art throws a gleam of inner light on the struggle
+towards originality and truth which characterized the
+Greek principles of beauty and fitness in literature and
+art, in direct contrast to that which was always turning
+back to those fossil forms which were only respectable
+on account of their age and their mystery, but of which
+the tradition and intention were already lost.</p>
+
+<p>Roman patterns were merely Greek adaptations with an
+Etruscan flavour, which was a survival of the earliest
+Italian art. Perhaps the indigenous element had been
+already modified by Ph&oelig;nician influence.</p>
+
+<p>In taking stock of Oriental symbolical patterns, we
+find that one of those of the widest ancestry and
+longest continuity is the &ldquo;Sacred Hom.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_110_110" id="FNanchor_110_110"></a><a href="#Footnote_110_110" class="fnanchor">[110]</a> (Pl. <a href="#pl20">20-24</a>.)
+This is to be found in Babylonian, Persian,<a name="FNanchor_111_111" id="FNanchor_111_111"></a><a href="#Footnote_111_111" class="fnanchor">[111]</a> Indian,
+Greek, and Roman art; and consequently it prevails in
+all European decoration (except the Gothic), where it
+was reduced to unrecognizable forms.</p>
+
+<p>Sir George Birdwood says the Hom or Homa was
+the Sanskrit Soma, used as an intoxicating drink by the
+early Brahmins, and was extracted from the plant of
+that name, an almost leafless succulent Asclepiad. It
+appears to have changed its conventional form as other
+plants by fermentation came to the front, containing
+what appeared to be the &ldquo;spirit of life&rdquo;&mdash;the <i>aqua vit&aelig;</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>100]</a></span>
+The palm, with its wonderful fruit, which is convertible
+into intoxicating drinks, and afterwards the vine itself,
+were each of them moulded into analogous conventional
+fruit forms, which keep as much as possible within the
+limits of the original cone shape. (Pl. <a href="#pl21">21</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 194px;">
+<a name="pl21" id="pl21"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 21.</p>
+<img src="images/naap21t.jpg" width="194" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap21.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caphang">1. Tree of Life and Lions. Gate of Mycen&aelig;. 2. Persian or Sicilian Silk.
+Tree of Life and Leopards.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipaadtop" style="width: 238px;">
+<a name="pl22" id="pl22"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 22.</p>
+<img src="images/naap22t.jpg" width="238" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap22.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caphang">1. Split Lotus Fruit on Chinese Bowl. 2. Split Lotus resembling Tree of Life.
+Frieze by Benozzo Gozzoli, Ricardi Palace, Florence. 3. Petal of Flower on
+Glass Bowl from Southern Italy. British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>There is a palm-tree which absolutely carries a cone
+in the heart of its crown of fronds.<a name="FNanchor_112_112" id="FNanchor_112_112"></a><a href="#Footnote_112_112" class="fnanchor">[112]</a> This may have
+helped to preserve the original motive of the sacred tree
+of life. The cone form in classical art was drawn from
+the pine cone and the artichoke; and in medi&aelig;val art
+these were sometimes replaced by the pomegranate, and
+in the late Renaissance by the pine-apple, newly arrived
+from the West Indies.<a name="FNanchor_113_113" id="FNanchor_113_113"></a><a href="#Footnote_113_113" class="fnanchor">[113]</a> It is a good example of the
+blending of one vegetable form into another, making the
+sequence, of which each phase in the East had an
+historical cause or a symbolical meaning,<a name="FNanchor_114_114" id="FNanchor_114_114"></a><a href="#Footnote_114_114" class="fnanchor">[114]</a> but which in
+Europe had gradually lost all motive, and was simply an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>101]</a></span>
+acknowledged decorative form.<a name="FNanchor_115_115" id="FNanchor_115_115"></a><a href="#Footnote_115_115" class="fnanchor">[115]</a> In architectural ornament
+it is called the honeysuckle,<a name="FNanchor_116_116" id="FNanchor_116_116"></a><a href="#Footnote_116_116" class="fnanchor">[116]</a> which it had grown to
+resemble in the days of Greece.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 262px;">
+<a name="pl23" id="pl23"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 23.</p>
+<img src="images/naap23t.jpg" width="262" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap23.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Different forms of Tree of Life, from Sicilian Silks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 463px;">
+<a name="pl24" id="pl24"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 24.</p>
+<img src="images/naap24.png" width="463" height="500" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Modern Embroidery from the Principalities,
+in which the cone-shaped tree grows into a vine,<br />
+and the two animals at the foot have lost their shape and intention.</p>
+
+<p>This sacred tree, the Homa of Zoroaster and of the
+later Persians, has so early a beginning that we find it
+on Assyrian monuments.<a name="FNanchor_117_117" id="FNanchor_117_117"></a><a href="#Footnote_117_117" class="fnanchor">[117]</a> Rock says &ldquo;that, perhaps, it
+stood for the tree of life, which grew in Paradise.&rdquo; It
+is represented as a subject of homage to men and animals,
+and it invariably stands between priests and kings, or
+beasts kneeling to it. It is figured on the small bucket
+for religious rites, carried in the hands, or embroidered
+in the upper sleeve of the monarch&rsquo;s tunic. It always
+represents a shrub, sometimes bearing a series of umbels
+of seven flowers each. (Pl. <a href="#pl02">2</a>, <a href="#pl20">20</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the expression of the symbol is reduced to
+the cone-fruit of the homa alone; or even to a blossom,
+as in the two glass bowls in the Slade collection in the
+British Museum, from a tomb at Chiusi, in Etruria. Here
+the design is a flower, of which each petal contains the
+essential emblem&mdash;a plant within a plant. These bowls,
+pronounced to be Greek of the fourth century <small>B.C.</small>, have
+yet to me a strong Oriental character. (Pl. <a href="#pl22">22</a>, No. 3.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>102]</a></span>
+I have spoken of the lotus as a naturalistic pattern.
+One mode of drawing and embroidering its flower in India,
+is to cut it in two; half the blossom is then carefully
+and almost botanically copied, thus conveying the inner
+meaning of the sacred flower. (Pl. <a href="#pl22">22</a>, No. 3.)</p>
+
+<p>Another conventional pattern, common to all times of
+art and all nations, is that called in architecture the &ldquo;egg
+and tongue&rdquo; pattern. (Pl. <a href="#pl13">13</a>.) This, as I have already
+said, is supposed to be derived directly from the lotus.
+The Egyptians formed it from the bud and blossom; and
+the pattern is found in India, Greece, and Rome, changing
+continually and yet retaining its identity. Vitruvius
+claimed to have given it the last touch and finish, so that
+in Italy it was called the Vitruvian scroll; and it is
+common to all decoration, even in textiles, though it is
+hardly suited for weaving or embroidery. This is one
+of the earliest patterns which, having ceased long ago
+to be a religious emblem or sign, still survives by its
+decorative fitness, and perpetuates the echoes of its
+origin.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 289px;">
+<a name="pl25" id="pl25"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 25.</p>
+<img src="images/naap25t.jpg" width="289" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap25.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="topcapt smcap">Typical Crosses.</p>
+
+<p class="caphang">1. Swastika. 2. From a Greek Vase, 765 <small>B.C.</small> 3. Indian Sectarial Mark of Sakti
+race. 4. Buddhist and Jainis mark. 5. Early Rhodian Pottery. 6. Egyptian
+prehistoric Cross. 7. Tau Cross. 8. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite.
+9. Ditto. 10. Clavus. 11, 12, 13. Scandinavian Sun and Moon Crosses.
+14, 15, 16. Celtic. 17. Chrysoclavus. 18, 19. Stauracin patterns. 20. Scandinavian,
+from Norway. 21. Runic Cross. 22. Cross at Palenque, in Temple
+of the Sun. 23. Scotch Celtic Cross. 24. Cross from Iona. 25, 26. Runic
+Crosses. 27. Cross on the Dalmatic of Charlemagne. 28. From the Mantle
+of Henry II., Emperor of Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Of the conventional symbolical forms of the early
+Christian Church I shall speak more fully in the
+chapter on <a href="#Page_303">ecclesiastical art</a>, and therefore would only
+point out here, while touching on symbolical decoration,
+how that phase of Christian art is a great historical
+instance of the deep ancient meanings it illustrates;
+showing the motive to be often in accordance with the
+inherited pagan symbol, and yet differing from it. Pre-eminent
+among these is the emblem of the Cross, so early
+and universally used, full of mysterious secret allusions
+to the groping faiths of idolatrous nations, before the
+great fundamental idea of the &ldquo;Word&rdquo; was attached to
+it. This was one of the old signs used as a pattern, and
+transfigured into a fresh type, of which the radiance
+reflected back light upon all that preceded it, even as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>103]</a></span>
+Chinese ancestors are ennobled by the deeds of their
+descendants.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 151px;">
+<a name="pl26" id="pl26"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 26.</p>
+<img src="images/naap26t.jpg" width="151" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap26.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caphang">1. Pallas Athene, from a vase in Lord Northampton&rsquo;s Collection.
+2. Ajax in a cloak embroidered with swastika, sun cross, and
+prehistoric water patterns. Etruscan Museum. Vatican.</p>
+
+<p>The cross (Pl. <a href="#pl25">25</a>), was a sign and a pattern in prehistoric
+art. It was the double of the Tau, the Egyptian
+emblem of life; and while the Jews reject the Christian
+cross, they still claim to have warned off the destroying
+angel by this sign in blood over the lintels of their
+doors in the first Passover.</p>
+
+<p>But the most ancient and universal form of the cross
+is that of the Swastika, or Fylfote. This &ldquo;prehistoric
+cross&rdquo; is said to be formed of two fire-sticks, belonging to
+the ancient worship of the sun, laid across each other
+ready for friction; but losing that meaning, from an
+emblem they fell into a pattern, and this you will still
+find, utterly meaningless, on Persian carpets of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Sir G. Birdwood gives the Swastika as the sectarial
+mark of the Sakti sects in India. Fergusson names it
+with the mound buildings, as belonging to all Buddhist
+art; and examples of the Swastika are to be found on
+Rhodian pottery from the Necropolis of Kamiros, where
+we find also the key pattern.</p>
+
+<p>In early Greek art the Swastika and Gammadion are
+everywhere, especially as embroidery on dress. Minerva&rsquo;s
+petticoats are sometimes worked all over with the latter.
+On an early Greek vase in the Museo Gregoriano,
+are painted Ajax and Achilles playing at dice; and the
+mantle of Ajax is squared into an embroidered pattern
+that alternately represents a sun or star and a Gammadion
+(Pl. <a href="#pl26">26</a>, No. 2). But it is unnecessary to multiply
+classical examples, which are endless.</p>
+
+<p>The Christian Cross was often formed by converting
+the Tau into the Gamma, the sacred letter of the Greeks.
+It is said to have been the emblem of the corner-stone,
+and as a pattern, was called, down to the thirteenth
+century, the &ldquo;Gammadion;&rdquo; and though it had lost its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>104]</a></span>
+original motive, it continued to preserve the idea of a
+secret and mystical meaning.</p>
+
+<p>The Gammadion, as well as the Swastika, enters largely
+into the illuminations of the Celtic Book of Kells and
+those of the Lindisfarne MSS.; also it is to be found on
+the Celtic shields in the British Museum, together with
+the Swastika. Both appear in the Persian carpets of
+to-day, and as patterns were, in ecclesiastical decoration,
+employed down to the fifteenth century, both for European
+and British textiles. The Swastika, as well as the wave
+pattern, is of mysterious and universal antiquity, and has
+certainly traversed four thousand years,&mdash;how much more
+we dare not say. It is to be found throughout Egyptian
+and Indian art&mdash;never in
+that of Assyria.</p>
+
+<p>Of the time of Rameses
+the Second we have two
+figures in a mural painting, an
+ally and an enemy, a guest and
+a prisoner, both clothed in embroidered
+garments, <i>parsem&eacute;s</i>
+with the prehistoric cross.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 348px;">
+<a name="fig11" id="fig11"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf11.jpg" width="348" height="350"
+alt="Two men, facing away from each other" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 11.<br />
+Egyptian Enemy and Ally.</p>
+
+<p>In the chapter on <a href="#Page_303">ecclesiastical
+art</a> I shall again refer to
+this immemorial symbolical
+and conventional pattern. I
+much regret that, in the absence of a translation, I am
+prevented from availing myself of the accumulated learning
+on the subject of &ldquo;The Prehistoric Cross,&rdquo; by Baron
+Ernest de Bunsen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="pl27" id="pl27"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 27.</p>
+<img src="images/naap27.jpg" width="500" height="499" alt="" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Imitation of a Carpet carved in stone, from Nineveh, showing the Indian Lotus
+and the Assyrian Daisy. (In the British Museum.)</p>
+
+<p>There was a pattern called the &ldquo;crenelated&rdquo; which apparently
+was derived from the Assyrian battlement, and is
+found throughout classic art, somewhat conventionalized.<a name="FNanchor_118_118" id="FNanchor_118_118"></a><a href="#Footnote_118_118" class="fnanchor">[118]</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>105]</a></span>
+It is named as an embroidered pattern in the inscription
+recording votive offerings of
+dresses in the temple of Athene
+at Athens.<a name="FNanchor_119_119" id="FNanchor_119_119"></a><a href="#Footnote_119_119" class="fnanchor">[119]</a></p>
+
+<p><a name="fig12" id="fig12"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/naaf12.png" width="250" height="87" alt="" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12.<br />
+Crenelated Pattern.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>We know something of the
+conventional and symbolical embroideries
+of Nineveh, which are quite unlike those of
+India, except in the adoption of the lotus for decoration.<a name="FNanchor_120_120" id="FNanchor_120_120"></a><a href="#Footnote_120_120" class="fnanchor">[120]</a>
+These are best understood by illustrations; and, therefore,
+I give one of the beautiful sculptured carpets from
+Nineveh, in the British Museum (Pl. <a href="#pl27">27</a>), showing the
+Assyrian use of the lotus and cone, and the embroidered
+garment of a king from one of the sculptures in low
+relief (Plate <a href="#pl01">1</a>). These are very stately&mdash;perfectly
+conventional and decorative; and we feel that they have
+grown where we find them, and are not borrowed from
+another civilization. What strikes us most, is the constant
+repetition and the little variety of ornament in
+these patterns. The forms are strongly marked&mdash;wheels
+or whorls, or daisies, often repeated. (The daisy
+belongs to Assyria as the lotus to Egypt.) The flowers
+are simply leafless blossoms. Splendid embroideries of
+sacred emblematical designs are, however, occasionally
+found, such as those from Layard&rsquo;s &ldquo;Monuments&rdquo;
+(Plate <a href="#pl02">2</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Much has been written on the early symbolism of
+plants and flowers. The sun-myths have enlisted all
+floral legendary lore, and conventional ornament was
+largely drawn from them.</p>
+
+<p>Many symbols are present to us when we name
+certain plants. The lily is the acknowledged sign of
+purity, the rose of love, the honeysuckle of enduring
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>106]</a></span>
+faith, the laurel of poetry, and the palm of victory;
+the oak of strength, the olive of peace. Some plants
+have accumulated more than one meaning. The vine
+has many attributes. It is an emblem of the mysteries
+of the Christian Church. It symbolizes plenty, joy, the
+family. Ivy means friendship, conviviality, remembrance.</p>
+
+<p>The symbolism of beasts (<i>bestiaria</i>),<a name="FNanchor_121_121" id="FNanchor_121_121"></a><a href="#Footnote_121_121" class="fnanchor">[121]</a> of birds (<i>volucraria</i>),
+and of stones (<i>lapidaria</i>) filled many volumes in the
+medi&aelig;val ages, and are well worthy of the study of the
+decorative artist. The symbolism of animals and birds
+especially, constantly attracts our attention in the Oriental
+and Sicilian textiles of the early Christian times, and to
+the end of the thirteenth century. Later, in European
+textile decoration, most animals were accepted as emblematic
+in Christian art, beginning with the symbols of
+the four Evangelists. All the virtues and all the vices
+found their animal emblems conventionalized, and were
+thus woven, embroidered, and painted.<a name="FNanchor_122_122" id="FNanchor_122_122"></a><a href="#Footnote_122_122" class="fnanchor">[122]</a></p>
+
+<p>Reptiles and insects are included under the head of
+&ldquo;beasts,&rdquo; and perhaps fishes also. Each was dowered
+with a symbolical meaning; and thus admitted into art,
+they were conventionalized by being strongly outlined,
+coloured flat; and by repetition without variation, were
+converted into patterns.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 300px;">
+<a name="pl28" id="pl28"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 28.</p>
+<img src="images/naap28t.jpg" width="300" height="400"
+alt="Four different patterns" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap28.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caphang">1, 2. Gothic Tiles. 3. Gothic Border of a Dress. 4. Gothic Vine. Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>When the use of heraldic illustration was added to the
+already accepted symbolism, animal decoration became
+very common, and soon forgot its symbolical motives,
+which were succeeded by Renaissance fanciful patterns;
+and then the conventionalized beast and its symbolism
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>107]</a></span>
+disappeared from European decoration, except when it
+was a direct copy of an Oriental design.</p>
+
+<p>Certain symbolical forms have, however, survived. The
+eagle has always meant empire, and the double-headed
+eagle, a double royalty.<a name="FNanchor_123_123" id="FNanchor_123_123"></a><a href="#Footnote_123_123" class="fnanchor">[123]</a> Ezekiel represents Babylon
+and Egypt, symbolically, as two eagles.<a name="FNanchor_124_124" id="FNanchor_124_124"></a><a href="#Footnote_124_124" class="fnanchor">[124]</a> But here
+we approach the subject of heraldry, which became a
+science in medi&aelig;val days; and every man and woman
+in any way remarkable, every chivalrous action and
+national event, became a subject for textile art, and was
+woven or worked with the needle on banner, hanging,
+or dress. The altar decorations received a new stimulus
+as historical records, as well as religious symbols, and
+pride and piety were equally enlisted in these gifts to the
+Church.</p>
+
+<p>Byzantine patterns have a barbaric stamp, and yet
+have much of the grandiose about them; but they are
+to the last degree conventional. In the early mosaics,
+both in Constantinople and Rome, every face and head,
+every flower and animal, represents a type and not an
+individual.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig13" id="fig13"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf13.png" width="600" height="202" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 13.<br />
+Gothic Trees, from Bayeux tapestry.</p>
+
+<p>Gothic foliage patterns, in England and elsewhere,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>108]</a></span>
+are a struggle between the naturalistic and the conventional.
+The Norman style and the Romanesque, which
+preceded it, and from which it was modified and elevated,
+show their vegetable forms thick-stemmed and few-leaved,
+whereas the Gothic aspired to a developed gracefulness;
+and the Renaissance, which succeeded it, assumed
+all the freedom of natural flowers and plants, floating in
+the breeze, on their delicate stems. (Pl. <a href="#pl28">28</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>All the Renaissance patterns, which, as their name
+denotes, were born again, like butterflies to frolic for a
+day of gay enjoyment, are purely decorative. Their
+generally charming, graceful forms group together to
+cover empty spaces with every regard to the rules of
+design and composition, but without any inner meaning.
+If we take these arabesques to pieces, we generally find
+the parts come from various sources; and having served
+last in pagan Rome for pagan purposes, had been
+slightly refashioned for Christian decorative art,<a name="FNanchor_125_125" id="FNanchor_125_125"></a><a href="#Footnote_125_125" class="fnanchor">[125]</a> before
+the Byzantine inartistic taste, and barbaric splendour of
+metal-work patterns, had extinguished all the gay fancy
+of the arts of Southern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The medi&aelig;val revival was a return to the light and
+fantastic, and a protest against the solemnity of all Gothic
+art, which had had its great day, had culminated, and died
+out. The patterns of the Renaissance are all guided by
+the principles of repetition and duplication, or that of
+doubling the pattern, which repeats itself to right and left,
+as if folded down the middle.</p>
+
+<p>The principal lines thus echoed one another; but the
+artist was permitted to vary the conventionalism of the
+general forms of figures, flowers, fruit, or butterflies, so
+as to balance and yet differ in every detail.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 292px;">
+<a name="pl29" id="pl29"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 29.</p>
+<img src="images/naap29t.jpg" width="292" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap29.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="topcapt smcap">Cloud Patterns.</p>
+
+<p class="caphang">1, 2, 3, 7. Japanese. 4. Chinese.
+5, 8, 9. Medi&aelig;val. 6. Badge of Richard II.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 255px;">
+<a name="pl30" id="pl30"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 30.</p>
+<img src="images/naap30t.jpg" width="255" height="400"
+alt="Intricate design including foliage, flowers, birds and animals" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap30.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Indo-Chinese Coverlet, supposed to have belonged to Oliver Cromwell. Hatfield House.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the conventional patterns which have descended
+to us, and are in general use without any
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>109]</a></span>
+particular symbolical meaning being attached to them,
+we must instance those derived from the Cloud pattern.
+This is to be found in early Chinese and Indian art, but
+I do not recognize it in Egyptian or Greek decoration.
+It came through Byzantium, and took its place amongst
+early Christian patterns. (Pl. <a href="#pl29">29</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 287px;">
+<a name="pl31" id="pl31"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 31.</p>
+<img src="images/naap31t.jpg" width="287" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap31.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="topcapt smcap">The Fundata or Netted Pattern.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">Portion of a Ph&oelig;nician Bowl from Cyprus.<br />
+Egyptian.<span class="space">&nbsp;</span>Egyptian.<span class="space">&nbsp;</span>Egyptian.</p>
+
+<p>The cloud pattern is also Japanese, and is supposed to
+have been originally derived from Central Asia. It varies
+in shape, and is found as an ornament on the head of
+the sceptre in the collection at Nara, in Japan, which is
+twelve or thirteen hundred years old. There is an
+example of the cloud pattern in Aelfled&rsquo;s embroidery at
+Durham; and it is often found under the feet of saints in
+painted glass and embroideries before the fourteenth
+century. A curious Indian example exists in a coverlet
+belonging to the Marquis of Salisbury, said to have been
+the property of Oliver Cromwell, on which the central
+medallion is filled with white horses careering amidst the
+cloud pattern.<a name="FNanchor_126_126" id="FNanchor_126_126"></a><a href="#Footnote_126_126" class="fnanchor">[126]</a> (Pl. <a href="#pl30">30</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The <em>netted</em> pattern called Fundata is extremely ancient.
+We find it in Egyptian mural paintings, as well as in
+the centre of a Ph&oelig;nician bowl from Cyprus, now in
+the Louvre. The medi&aelig;val Fundata was a silk material,
+covered with what appeared to be a gold network
+covering the stuff. It is supposed to be the same as
+that worn by Constantine,<a name="FNanchor_127_127" id="FNanchor_127_127"></a><a href="#Footnote_127_127" class="fnanchor">[127]</a> and is named in ecclesiastical
+inventories as late as the fifteenth century. (Pl. <a href="#pl31">31</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>110]</a></span>
+All the wheel patterns are very ancient, and appear to
+be simply conventional wheels. In France they were
+called <i>ro&eacute;s</i>. There is a fine instance of this wheel pattern
+in Auberville&rsquo;s &ldquo;Tissus.&rdquo; The wheels sometime enclose
+triumphal cars and other pictorial subjects. (Pl. <a href="#pl34">34</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The patterns which are apparently composed with the
+intention of avoiding all meaning, are the Moorish.
+They are neither animal, vegetable, nor anything else.
+They show no motive in their complicated domes, their
+honeycombing, and their ingenious conventional forms;
+but cover equally textile fabrics or stucco ceilings without
+suggesting any idea, religious or symbolical.</p>
+
+<p>All the splendid Italian brocades and velvet damasks
+were of conventional patterns, and like their Arab and
+Sicilian models, and also like their Spanish contemporaries,
+represented, and sought to represent nothing
+on earth. It was all floreated and meandering design;
+the motive reminding one of the pine-apple and the
+acanthus, or of vine stems meeting or parting, but never
+anything naturalistic for a moment. When animals were
+introduced it was always as a pattern doubled face to
+face, as if folded down a straight line.</p>
+
+<p>We may say the same of the succeeding Louis
+Quatorze and the Louis Quinze styles, which were of
+the culminating period of clever and fantastic conventional
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>Our modern designs have phases of imitation, and the
+patterns of rich brocades which our great-grandmothers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>111]</a></span>
+wore, came into fashion again about the third decade of
+this century. Now we have been trying to find our inspirations
+further back, and some of our copies of the
+simpler Sicilian patterns, with an occasional pair of birds,
+or a conventional plant, imitating the motive of the tree
+of life, have been very pretty. The only defect is the
+poverty which results from the absence of any active
+and informing motive. It is,
+however, easier to criticize than
+to create.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig14" id="fig14"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/naaf14.png" width="300" height="300"
+alt="Floral design" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 14.<br />
+Radiated Pattern.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>I would venture here to find
+fault with a very common method
+of converting a natural object into
+a conventional pattern, by radiation.
+Certain modes of repetition
+are very objectionable. A
+pattern, for instance, repeated
+four times round a centre, or a
+natural flower repeated exactly,
+but lying north, south, east, and
+west, are more or less inartistic,
+we may say vulgar. (Fig. <a href="#fig14">14</a>.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig15" id="fig15"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/naaf15.png" width="300" height="296"
+alt="Leaves radiating out from a central flower" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 15.<br />
+Radiated Sunflower.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>A natural flower may be conventionalized
+and radiated by
+placing it in the centre of the
+composition facing you; and the
+leaves arranged surrounding it,
+so as to formalize the design,
+though there is nothing really
+unnatural in the way in which
+they are made to grow. The illustration of a radiated
+sunflower explains my meaning.</p>
+
+<p>It has been already observed that by repetition almost
+any object may be reduced to a pattern, but taste must
+be exercised in the selection of what is appropriate and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>112]</a></span>
+beautiful. Radiation is also really a useful factor in
+conventional art, but common sense must guide the
+artist here as well as taste. In radiating the forms of a
+flower, nature gives endless hints of beauty; but a radiating
+pattern of human figures would be ridiculous, and
+even the branches of a tree cannot be so treated.</p>
+
+<p>The awning of the classic hyp&aelig;thral hall or court
+was often reproduced in Roman arabesques. Sometimes
+we find it in a classical tomb, painted over
+the ceiling, and recalling its original use. This was
+revived in the Cinque-cento Renaissance; and again in
+Adams&rsquo; &ldquo;Eighteenth Century Decorations,&rdquo; it became an
+accepted pattern, called &ldquo;the shell,&rdquo; losing its original
+motive, and descending to fill up the panels of tea-caddies
+and surround keyholes. When thus reduced
+to the appearance of a little ruff, it needs
+some thought to recognize it, and give it
+credit for its first motive.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig16" id="fig16"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 120px;">
+<img src="images/naaf16.png" width="120" height="91"
+alt="Oval shell pattern" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 16.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is amusing to find how a form which it seems
+impossible to reduce to a pattern, will yet fall into one
+by a judicious arrangement of light and shadow, and by
+repetition. There is a little frieze in one of the Indian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>113]</a></span>
+cases on the staircase in the British Museum, which is
+extremely pretty and effective. It consists of a repetition
+of little balconies with recesses and pillars and figures
+in pairs. I give it as illustrating the way conventional
+patterns grow. This balcony pattern is of the sixth
+century, <small>A.D.</small></p>
+
+<p><a name="fig17" id="fig17"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 600px;">
+<img src="images/naaf17.jpg" width="600" height="259"
+alt="A sectioned balcony, with people in each of the sections" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 17.<br />
+Indian Balcony Pattern, from steps of tope of Jamal-Zartri, Afghanistan.
+British Museum.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The ancient palmated pattern called Chrysoclavus,
+from the beginning of our era to the thirteenth century
+was partly a nail-headed design, and had become a
+Christian symbol. It was, probably, originally the primitive
+spot pattern; afterwards promoted to being an
+ornament of discs in colour or metal: this was Assyrian,
+Etruscan, and Mycen&aelig;an.<a name="FNanchor_128_128" id="FNanchor_128_128"></a><a href="#Footnote_128_128" class="fnanchor">[128]</a> (Pl. <a href="#pl70">70</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Among the conventional patterns which have apparently
+no hidden meaning, but which clearly show
+their descent, are the Chinese and Japanese wicker
+and lattice-work designs. The beauty of these is
+wonderful.</p>
+
+<p>Semper shows that wicker (including bamboo work)
+was the foundation of all Chinese civilized life, for constructing
+houses, bridges, utensils, and for decoration.
+He gives this wicker-work origin to the universal key
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>114]</a></span>
+pattern, which may, however, have a double source&mdash;the
+wave, and the wicker-work.</p>
+
+<p>We find the Key pattern in a tomb at Essiout, in
+Egypt, painted perhaps about 1600 <small>B.C.</small>, in company
+with some other very old friends,<a name="FNanchor_129_129" id="FNanchor_129_129"></a><a href="#Footnote_129_129" class="fnanchor">[129]</a> the Tuscan border,
+the Egg and Tongue, and the Bead, the Daisy, and the
+Wave. (Pl. <a href="#pl17">17</a>, No. 2.) We meet it everywhere in ancient
+and modern decoration. There are several forms of it
+on a large terra-cotta vase in the British Museum from
+Kameiros in Rhodes, and on Chinese fictiles and embroideries.
+It is found also on garments in Iceland,
+whither the Greek patterns must have drifted through
+Norway, and, as they could go no further, there they
+remained.</p>
+
+<p>I have often spoken of the extraordinary survival
+of a pattern. This is easy to account for when fashion,
+&ldquo;the disturber,&rdquo; had not yet existed. Then the ancient
+motive told its own tale, and its great age was its
+claim to perpetual youth; but it is more remarkable
+where we meet with revivals at distant periods, and
+apparently without any connecting link of ancestry or
+style.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, the women of Genoa wore large cotton
+veils, printed with the Indian conventional tree and
+beast pattern, down to thirty years ago, when the fashion
+changed, and winter bonnets and summer muslin veils
+displaced the old costume. These patterns are now being
+printed in England on scores of cotton curtains for beds
+and windows.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>115]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4>GEOMETRICAL.</h4>
+
+<p>Geometrical patterns may be reduced to a very few
+primitive elements.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 403px;">
+<a name="fig18" id="fig18"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf18.png" width="403" height="600"
+alt="Different patterns formed from circles and squares" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 18.<br />
+Varied adjustments of Square and
+Circle.</p>
+
+<p>1. The Line, including straight and wavy lines.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Angular Forms, including squares, oblongs,
+cubes, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>116]</a></span>
+3. The Triangular, including zigzags, diamonds, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>4. The Circular, including all spots, discs, and radiations.</p>
+
+<p>All these can be blended or mixed so as to form endless
+varieties. For instance, the square and the circle can
+intersect each other in different proportions, so as to give
+an entirely new effect to the pattern, each time the
+balance is altered or the phase of the repetition varied.
+The illustration will explain this. (Fig. <a href="#fig18">18</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Right angles may intersect each other so as to produce
+the whole gamut of Chinese lattice-work decoration, and
+all the Celtic and Scandinavian entwined patterns, from
+which so many of the embroideries in the Italian pictures
+of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are probably
+descended.</p>
+
+<p>The Moorish patterns are geometrical, and are created
+on the principle of avoiding in art the representation
+of any created thing. They show much ingenuity in
+keeping clear of any possible meaning. Most of these
+conventional patterns are founded on the ogee-arch and
+a kind of honeycomb pattern, involved and inverted.
+Their tiles, which nearest approach textile design, have,
+indeed, certain vegetable forms added to the others,
+but always geometrically arranged as no vegetables ever
+grew.</p>
+
+<p>Geometrical patterns begin with primitive forms, and
+come down to the floor-cloth designs of to-day. They
+can be extracted in endless variety from the combinations
+of the kaleidoscope. This style is well suited for pavements
+in mosaic&mdash;either secular or ecclesiastical.</p>
+
+<p>The Opus Alexandrinum furnishes us with most
+beautiful examples and adaptations for large or small
+spaces, so as to form the richest or the simplest floor
+decorations. How worthily a church may be thus
+adorned may be seen on the vast area of the floor of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>117]</a></span>
+Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, or that of the Church
+of St. Mark in Venice.</p>
+
+<p>The nearest approach to the Opus Alexandrinum
+in textiles has been in Patchwork, of which a more
+artistic use may yet be made. We might exercise
+ingenuity in this direction, giving really fine and effective
+designs to our workers in patches, whose productions are,
+in general, simply alarming.</p>
+
+<p>The fine quilting patterns of the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries are almost always geometrical, and make
+the best background to more resplendent embroideries
+overlying them, which is partly owing to their being
+only forms, and conveying no idea or inherited meaning.
+These expressionless designs are well fitted for spaces
+and borders in which the centres are elaborated, and
+require enclosing or framing; likewise, they are suited
+for large areas, which must not be perfectly plain, and
+yet not too disturbing to the eye, so as to distract it
+from the more important ornaments on the wall or ceiling.
+They suit carpets in passages or on staircases much
+better than any other kind of design, and form the best
+figured backgrounds for pictures. Both eye and mind
+often need repose, and therefore the simpler the geometrical
+pattern is, the better. Complicated and too
+ingenious combinations are painfully fatiguing. Simplicity
+and flatness are the greatest merits in such forms,
+as in shadowless patterns for textiles, and especially
+for embroideries.</p>
+
+<p>If we turn to nature to assist us with new geometrical
+patterns, we shall find the most exquisite forms in the
+crystals of every newly-fallen snowflake, and in the
+nodal-points on a plate of metal or glass, covered with
+sand, and struck by sound. We shall hardly ever find
+in these a repetition of exactly the same combination,
+and their variety is only equalled by their beauty.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_96_96" id="Footnote_96_96"></a><a href="#FNanchor_96_96"><span class="label">[96]</span></a>
+Sir G. Birdwood tells us of patterns of an Indian brocade called
+&ldquo;Chundtara&rdquo; (moon and stars), figured all over with representations
+of heavenly bodies.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_97_97" id="Footnote_97_97"></a><a href="#FNanchor_97_97"><span class="label">[97]</span></a>
+Pliny, &ldquo;Natural History,&rdquo; lib. xxx. c. 8, &sect; 34.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_98_98" id="Footnote_98_98"></a><a href="#FNanchor_98_98"><span class="label">[98]</span></a>
+There is a shell pattern in gold on a twelfth century fragment of
+a Bishop&rsquo;s garment at Worcester.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_99_99" id="Footnote_99_99"></a><a href="#FNanchor_99_99"><span class="label">[99]</span></a>
+See Wilkinson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; vol. iii. pp. 132, 133, 350, 553.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_100_100" id="Footnote_100_100"></a><a href="#FNanchor_100_100"><span class="label">[100]</span></a>
+B&ouml;tticher, in his &ldquo;Tektonik,&rdquo; will allow of but one origin for the
+&ldquo;egg and tongue&rdquo; pattern. I cannot give up the evident descent from
+the lotus flower and bud; but I have said before that a pattern has
+sometimes a double parentage, and it may be so in this case.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_101_101" id="Footnote_101_101"></a><a href="#FNanchor_101_101"><span class="label">[101]</span></a>
+The lotus is almost entirely lost as a native growth in India, and is
+fast disappearing in Egypt. The lotus blossom in Egypt was not only
+a sacred emblem, but also an <i>objet de luxe</i>. At their feasts, the honoured
+guests were presented with the flowers, and as they faded, slaves carried
+round baskets of fresh blossoms. See Wilkinson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Manners and
+Customs of the Ancient Egyptians.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_102_102" id="Footnote_102_102"></a><a href="#FNanchor_102_102"><span class="label">[102]</span></a>
+See the Book of Lindisfarne, and the two Celtic bronze shields in
+the British Museum. These last are very curious. The long involved
+lines show their origin, and the shields are enriched with enamel and
+corals, in repetitions of the prehistoric cross.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_103_103" id="Footnote_103_103"></a><a href="#FNanchor_103_103"><span class="label">[103]</span></a>
+See &ldquo;Album of Photographs of the Marien-Kirche, Dantzic,&rdquo; Taf. 31.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_104_104" id="Footnote_104_104"></a><a href="#FNanchor_104_104"><span class="label">[104]</span></a>
+Woltmann and Woermann, Eng. Trans., p. 202.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_105_105" id="Footnote_105_105"></a><a href="#FNanchor_105_105"><span class="label">[105]</span></a>
+Charlemagne&rsquo;s dress, in his tomb, was covered with golden elephants.
+This must have been Indian. His mantle was &ldquo;<i>parsem&eacute;</i>&rdquo; with golden
+bees.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_106_106" id="Footnote_106_106"></a><a href="#FNanchor_106_106"><span class="label">[106]</span></a>
+Elsewhere there is a notice of Miss Morritt&rsquo;s really beautifully
+embroidered landscapes at Rokeby; and all who saw them will remember
+the extremely clever and effective pictures in crewels by an accomplished
+American lady, Mrs. Oliver Wendell Holmes, exhibited in London
+a few years ago. These exceptional cases do not, however, disprove
+the objections against employing the most unfit and unmanageable
+materials for producing subjects alien to the art of embroidery.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_107_107" id="Footnote_107_107"></a><a href="#FNanchor_107_107"><span class="label">[107]</span></a>
+See Redgrave&rsquo;s &ldquo;Manual of Design,&rdquo; pp. 50-61.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_108_108" id="Footnote_108_108"></a><a href="#FNanchor_108_108"><span class="label">[108]</span></a>
+See Appendix 21, by Ch. T. Newton, to the first edition of Ruskin&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Stones of Venice.&rdquo; He gives, as instances of this pattern, certain
+coins from Prien&egrave;, where the River M&aelig;ander is symbolized by the
+angular key pattern. Appendix, <a href="#appendix_i">No. 1</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_109_109" id="Footnote_109_109"></a><a href="#FNanchor_109_109"><span class="label">[109]</span></a>
+&ldquo;(Euripides <i>loquitur</i>) Not horse-cocks, nor yet goat-stags, such as
+they depict on Persian carpets&rdquo; (Aristophanes, &ldquo;The Frogs,&rdquo; v. 939-944).
+The Persian carpets, which are the legitimate descendants of Babylonian
+art, are curiously fragmentary. In a modern design are to be seen birds,
+indicated by a head, bill, and eyes; little coffee-pots, and flowers broken
+off at the stalks, and small quadrupeds without any particular form;
+also the prehistoric cross, the Tau, and bits of broken-up wave and key
+patterns. All these, repeated into a pattern, remind us of scraps in a
+kaleidoscope, thrown together accidentally, or else taken up by chance
+where history and art have dropped them.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_110_110" id="Footnote_110_110"></a><a href="#FNanchor_110_110"><span class="label">[110]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Soma&rdquo; or &ldquo;Homa&rdquo; (&ldquo;Sarcostemma Viminale vel Brevistigma&rdquo;),
+from Cashmere and the Hindu Cush, still used by the Brahmins, and
+the juice of which was the first intoxicant of the human race. See
+Birdwood&rsquo;s &ldquo;Indian Art,&rdquo; vol. ii. pp. 336, 337.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_111_111" id="Footnote_111_111"></a><a href="#FNanchor_111_111"><span class="label">[111]</span></a>
+&ldquo;The Hom, the sacred Persian tree, is constantly placed between
+two animals, chained to it.&rdquo; See Pl. <a href="#pl23">23</a>, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_112_112" id="Footnote_112_112"></a><a href="#FNanchor_112_112"><span class="label">[112]</span></a>
+The Hom or Homa, the sacred tree of Assyrian and Persian
+sculpture and textiles, is accounted for as a pattern by Dr. Rock, who
+says: &ldquo;From the earliest antiquity a tradition came down through
+middle Asia, of some holy tree, perhaps the tree of life spoken of as
+growing in Paradise.&rdquo; It is always represented as something like a
+shrub, and is a conventional portrait of a palm; but Rock says it has
+every look of having belonged to the family of the Asclepiade&aelig;. For its
+last transformation into a vine, see Pl. <a href="#pl24">24</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_113_113" id="Footnote_113_113"></a><a href="#FNanchor_113_113"><span class="label">[113]</span></a>
+Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Introduction,&rdquo; p. cxxxi.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_114_114" id="Footnote_114_114"></a><a href="#FNanchor_114_114"><span class="label">[114]</span></a>
+Sir George Birdwood says: &ldquo;The intimate absorption of Hindu
+life in the unseen realities of man&rsquo;s spiritual consciousness is seldom
+sufficiently acknowledged by Europeans, and, indeed, cannot be fully
+comprehended by men whose belief in the supernatural has been
+destroyed by the prevailing material ideas of modern society. Every
+thought, wish, and deed of the Hindu belongs to the world of the
+unseen as well as the seen; and nothing shows this more strikingly
+than the traditionary works of India. Everything that is made has a
+direct religious use, or some religious symbolism. The materials of
+which different articles are fashioned, their weight, and the colours with
+which they are painted, are fixed by religious rule. An obscured
+symbolism of material and colour is to be traced also in the forms
+of things, even for the most domestic uses. Every detail of Indian
+decoration, Aryan or Turanian, has a religious meaning, and the arts
+of India will never be rightly understood until there are brought to
+their study, a familiar acquaintance with the character and subjects of
+the religious poetry, national legends, and mythological scriptures that
+have always been their inspiration, and of which they are the perfected
+imagery.&rdquo; See Sir George Birdwood&rsquo;s &ldquo;Indian Arts,&rdquo; part i. p. 2.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_115_115" id="Footnote_115_115"></a><a href="#FNanchor_115_115"><span class="label">[115]</span></a>
+The Persian tree of life was not alien to the worship of the
+Zoroastrian religion of the Sassanides, and is said to have been the origin
+of the worship of Bacchus. It was introduced by Oriental weavers into
+Sicilian and Spanish stuffs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_116_116" id="Footnote_116_116"></a><a href="#FNanchor_116_116"><span class="label">[116]</span></a>
+Sir G. Birdwood suggests that the honeysuckle pattern is derived
+from the Tree of Life, cone, and palm, refashioned and combined with
+the graceful ingenuity of Greek art, and covering a mixture of sacred
+traditional emblems.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_117_117" id="Footnote_117_117"></a><a href="#FNanchor_117_117"><span class="label">[117]</span></a>
+Haug, in his &ldquo;Essays on the Sacred Writings of the Parsees&rdquo;
+(pp. 132, 239), tells us that these people still hold the homa to be sacred,
+and from it squeeze a juice used by them in their religious ceremonies.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_118_118" id="Footnote_118_118"></a><a href="#FNanchor_118_118"><span class="label">[118]</span></a>
+See Perrot et Chipiez, &ldquo;Histoire de l&rsquo;Art,&rdquo; vol. ii. pp. 260, 267, Pl. xiv.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_119_119" id="Footnote_119_119"></a><a href="#FNanchor_119_119"><span class="label">[119]</span></a>
+See Appendix, <a href="#appendix_i">No. 1</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_120_120" id="Footnote_120_120"></a><a href="#FNanchor_120_120"><span class="label">[120]</span></a>
+India, in return, afterwards influenced Persia, the successor of
+Babylon.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_121_121" id="Footnote_121_121"></a><a href="#FNanchor_121_121"><span class="label">[121]</span></a>
+In India, the elephant is a very common element in a pattern; in
+Egypt, the serpent; in Persia, the lion. In animal patterns, certain
+emblems were grouped together. The lion and the goose represent
+strength and prudence; the lion and eagle, strength and dominion; the
+lion and dove, strength and gentleness. We may see these double
+emblems on Sicilian textiles.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_122_122" id="Footnote_122_122"></a><a href="#FNanchor_122_122"><span class="label">[122]</span></a>
+Chinese art is crowded with symbolisms.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_123_123" id="Footnote_123_123"></a><a href="#FNanchor_123_123"><span class="label">[123]</span></a>
+The double-headed eagle was the badge of Saladin, as well as that
+of the Holy Roman Empire.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_124_124" id="Footnote_124_124"></a><a href="#FNanchor_124_124"><span class="label">[124]</span></a>
+Ezekiel xvii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_125_125" id="Footnote_125_125"></a><a href="#FNanchor_125_125"><span class="label">[125]</span></a>
+In the earliest days of Christianity.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_126_126" id="Footnote_126_126"></a><a href="#FNanchor_126_126"><span class="label">[126]</span></a>
+&ldquo;A cloud pattern from which issue two clasped hands is the device
+of Guizot Marchand or Guido Mercator, printer, in 1498. He lived at
+the College of Navarre.&rdquo;&mdash;Dibdin&rsquo;s &ldquo;Decameron,&rdquo; ii. pp. 33-36.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_127_127" id="Footnote_127_127"></a><a href="#FNanchor_127_127"><span class="label">[127]</span></a>
+See Gori (tom. iii. pp. 20, 84), as cited by Rock, Introduction,
+p. liii. The same netted pattern was found in the grave
+of an Archbishop of York of about the end of the thirteenth
+century. Its name, <i>fundata</i>, is derived from <i>funda</i>, the fisherman&rsquo;s
+net; also, in later times, it was called <i>laqueata</i>. See Rock&rsquo;s Introduction
+(p. liv.). See also M. Ch. Clermont Ganneau&rsquo;s &ldquo;L&rsquo;Imagerie
+Ph&eacute;nicienne,&rdquo; Coupe de Palestrina; and Chald&eacute;e et Assyrie, in Perrot
+and Chipiez, ii. p. 736. Another instance is shown here of the fundata
+occurring in the bronze flat bowl copied from Layard&rsquo;s &ldquo;Monuments,&rdquo;
+2nd series, plate 62. The whole design of the bowl is Babylonian,
+consisting of a rich border of repetitions of the tree of life; each
+has the peculiar ornament of little knobs often seen on their head-dresses.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_128_128" id="Footnote_128_128"></a><a href="#FNanchor_128_128"><span class="label">[128]</span></a>
+See Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;L. Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; p. 129; Gori, &ldquo;Thes. Dipt.&rdquo; ii. pp. 20,
+275; Marquardt, &ldquo;Handbuch R&ouml;m. Alt.&rdquo; vii. pp. 527-31 (Eng. Trans.).
+Authorities differ in describing the Chrysoclavus. Sir G. Birdwood
+calls it a button pattern (&ldquo;Indian Arts,&rdquo; vol. ii. p. 241). The &ldquo;Chrysoclavus&rdquo;
+was the name given to the palmated or triumphal pattern with
+which the consular robes are invariably embroidered in the Roman
+Consular ivories at Zurich, Halberstadt, and in the South Kensington
+Museum. The tenacious life of this pattern is curiously shown in the
+way it appears in the fifteenth century on Italian playing-cards. (See
+&ldquo;Cartes &agrave; Jouer,&rdquo; an anonymous French book in the print-room of the
+British Museum.) The kings and knaves wear the Byzantine humeral,
+and the Chrysoclavus pattern is carved on their chairs. Till lately
+English playing-cards showed the same dress-pattern. I shall discuss
+the Latin Clavus and the Chrysoclavus amongst ecclesiastical embroideries,
+pp. 308, 336 (<i>post</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_129_129" id="Footnote_129_129"></a><a href="#FNanchor_129_129"><span class="label">[129]</span></a>
+See Wilkinson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; i. p. 125. The date of
+these mural paintings may, however, be even as late as the time of
+Alexander the Great.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>118]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IV.</h2>
+
+<h3>MATERIALS.</h3>
+
+
+<h4>1. RAW MATERIALS.</h4>
+
+<p>The history of an art must, more or less, include that of
+its raw material.</p>
+
+<p>This is too true to be disputed, but in the art of
+embroidery it opens out such endless avenues, through
+such vast regions of technical study, that we must acknowledge
+the difficulty, or rather the impossibility, of including
+in one volume even a tithe of the information
+already collected.</p>
+
+<p>I shall, therefore, only dedicate a few pages to the
+history of those fibres which have always been most
+important in the different phases of our civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Among books on textile materials, I must again name
+the &ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo; by Yates. His premature
+death, and the loss that the world of art and manufacture
+has sustained by the chain of his invaluable researches
+being broken, cannot be appreciated but through the
+study of the first and only volume of this already rare
+book, from which I venture to quote largely.</p>
+
+<p>Semper&rsquo;s &ldquo;Der Stil&rdquo; is a work of reference on this
+subject, so valuable that it should, by a good translation,
+be placed within the reach of non-German scholars.</p>
+
+<p>From Colonel Yule&rsquo;s &ldquo;Marco Polo,&rdquo; and his abundant
+notes, we learn much of Asiatic textile art in the thirteenth
+century, and its early traditions in the immutable East,
+and Sir G. Birdwood&rsquo;s books on this Indian art are most
+instructive.</p>
+
+<p>Egyptian textiles are splendidly illustrated by Sir
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>119]</a></span>
+Gardiner Wilkinson. All these modern writers quote
+Pliny and the Periplus;<a name="FNanchor_130_130" id="FNanchor_130_130"></a><a href="#Footnote_130_130" class="fnanchor">[130]</a> and Pliny quotes all the
+classic authors, from Homer to his day. Here is a wide
+field for gathering information regarding the materials
+for embroidery in past ages.</p>
+
+<p>When we use the phrase &ldquo;raw material&rdquo; so glibly,
+with an &aelig;sthetic contempt for that which the art of man
+has neither manipulated nor reorganized, we show our
+own coarse appreciation, if not ignorance, of the wonderful
+inherent beauty and microscopic delicacy of form, colour,
+and substance of those materials which we fashion for
+our own uses.</p>
+
+<p>Few know the structure of the tender filaments of
+wool, flax, cotton, and silk; or that each has its peculiar
+form and attributes, and its individual capabilities for the
+purposes for which they appear to us to have been
+created, i.e. the clothing and adornment of man&rsquo;s dress
+and his home.</p>
+
+<p>I should like to draw attention to these well-attested
+facts.</p>
+
+<p>Seen through a microscope, the forms of these raw
+materials differ greatly.</p>
+
+<p>Flax is difficult to describe, as it varies according to
+the soil and climate it comes from. Its fibre, however,
+has always a shiny outer surface, and is transparent,
+cylindrical, and pipe-like; apparently with breaks or
+joints like those of a cane.</p>
+
+<p>Cotton also varies so much in its own kind, that every
+description is different and somewhat puzzling. Semper
+says that it approaches the ribbon form, with thickened
+edges, and is like a half-cylinder twisted spirally; but
+when wetted with oil, it swells into a complete cylinder.<a name="FNanchor_131_131" id="FNanchor_131_131"></a><a href="#Footnote_131_131" class="fnanchor">[131]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>120]</a></span>
+Wool and hair are hollow pipes without joints. Woollen
+fibres look like cylindrical snakes with a scaly surface.
+This roughness gives wool a clinging power which exceeds
+that of any other material, except the hair of some few
+animals.<a name="FNanchor_132_132" id="FNanchor_132_132"></a><a href="#Footnote_132_132" class="fnanchor">[132]</a></p>
+
+<p>Silk threads consist of twin pipes laid parallel, and held
+together by the varnish with which they are glazed.
+Silk is tough and elastic.</p>
+
+<p>The qualities needed for textile materials may be thus
+enumerated: Pliability, toughness (i.e. tensile strength),
+and intrinsic durability.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, the material must to a certain degree influence
+the style of the fabric, and its selection must be
+according to the effect intended to be produced.<a name="FNanchor_133_133" id="FNanchor_133_133"></a><a href="#Footnote_133_133" class="fnanchor">[133]</a> The
+fashions of the day, and the needs of the special manufacture,
+must greatly modify the choice of materials,
+which fluctuate, often disappear, and sometimes revive
+again.</p>
+
+<p>Certain materials which have been, at one period, much
+admired, have been entirely lost; and indeed we may
+say that the only permanently employed textiles are
+wool, flax, cotton, and silk, which apparently never can
+be superseded. With them, all domestic requirements
+can be satisfied, and all artistic and decorative fabrics
+produced, varied, and perfected; and these, from all time
+recorded in history, have been enriched and glorified
+with gold, either inwoven or embroidered.</p>
+
+<p>The game of &ldquo;animal, vegetable, or mineral&rdquo; might
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>121]</a></span>
+well be played with textiles only. Nothing has been alien
+to the crafts which from time immemorial have spun,
+woven, felted, netted, and embroidered.</p>
+
+<p>The materials now in general use, and which, once
+known, have never been abandoned, I have already
+named, and shall discuss their history separately; they
+are wool, flax, cotton, and silk. To these I must add
+hemp, both wild and cultivated.</p>
+
+<p>Hemp is a kind of nettle. It was grown in Colchis, and
+in those cool regions which did not produce flax. Hemp
+is hardly grown in India, except to extract from it the
+narcotic, Cannabis Indica. It was a northern production
+used throughout Scandinavia. Herodotus (iv. 14) says,
+&ldquo;Hemp grows in the land of the Scythians, in a wild state,
+but it is now cultivated.&rdquo; From its Latin name, <i>cannabis</i>,
+comes our canvas, which has always been much used as a
+ground for counted stitches and backing for embroidery,
+its stiffness being its qualification for such purposes.<a name="FNanchor_134_134" id="FNanchor_134_134"></a><a href="#Footnote_134_134" class="fnanchor">[134]</a></p>
+
+<p>Jute (a rough sort of hemp) has been long an article of
+commercial importance for the manufacture of coarse-figured
+fabrics, dyed and woven, sometimes embroidered.</p>
+
+<p>The fibre of the Aloe has been used in the Riviera for
+laces and &ldquo;macrami&rdquo; (knotted fringes).</p>
+
+<p>The fibres of grasses, such as the &ldquo;Honduras silk
+grass&rdquo; (Rhea or Ramie), valuable for beauty, fineness,
+and toughness, have been worked or woven into stuffs.<a name="FNanchor_135_135" id="FNanchor_135_135"></a><a href="#Footnote_135_135" class="fnanchor">[135]</a>
+This material is now coming into notice.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>122]</a></span>
+Spartum is often named for coarse weaving;<a name="FNanchor_136_136" id="FNanchor_136_136"></a><a href="#Footnote_136_136" class="fnanchor">[136]</a> also the
+fibres of barks, especially those of palm branches.<a name="FNanchor_137_137" id="FNanchor_137_137"></a><a href="#Footnote_137_137" class="fnanchor">[137]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another substance of classic use, and even now employed,
+though rather as a curiosity than as an article of
+commerce, is the silky filament produced by the shell-fish
+pinna; and also the fibres of certain sea-weeds.</p>
+
+<p>Fur and hair, especially that of camels and goats, has
+always been much prized.<a name="FNanchor_138_138" id="FNanchor_138_138"></a><a href="#Footnote_138_138" class="fnanchor">[138]</a> We have seen both African
+and Indian striped or primitively decorated rugs of wool,
+touched here and there with scraps of cotton or silk, or
+some other odd material; and amongst them, tufts of
+human hair. The sentiment that motived the use of
+human hair has been either love or hate&mdash;the votive
+or the triumphal. We know that Delilah was not a
+stranger to this art. She wove into her web Samson&rsquo;s
+seven locks of strength, and &ldquo;fastened them with a pin&rdquo;
+(Judges xvi.).</p>
+
+<p>In the thirteenth century it was the custom for ladies
+to weave their own hair into their gifts to favoured
+knights. King Ris, if he had received any such token
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>123]</a></span>
+from his lady-love, returned it with interest; for he sent
+her a mantle in which were inwoven the beards of nine
+conquered kings, a tenth space being left for that of King
+Arthur, which he promised to add in course of time.<a name="FNanchor_139_139" id="FNanchor_139_139"></a><a href="#Footnote_139_139" class="fnanchor">[139]</a></p>
+
+<p>Leather has been from the remotest antiquity employed
+for the art of embroidery, either for the ground, as in
+the mantle of Boadicea, made of skins with the fur turned
+inwards and the leather outside, dressed, and embroidered
+on the seams;<a name="FNanchor_140_140" id="FNanchor_140_140"></a><a href="#Footnote_140_140" class="fnanchor">[140]</a> or else as fine inlaid and onlaid application,
+as in the &ldquo;funeral tent of an Egyptian queen&rdquo; in the
+museum at Boulac, which is certainly the earliest specimen
+of needlework decoration that exists.<a name="FNanchor_141_141" id="FNanchor_141_141"></a><a href="#Footnote_141_141" class="fnanchor">[141]</a> (Pl. <a href="#pl44">44</a>.) The old
+Indian embroideries in leather are generally applied one
+on another. The North American Indians also embroider
+on leather.<a name="FNanchor_142_142" id="FNanchor_142_142"></a><a href="#Footnote_142_142" class="fnanchor">[142]</a></p>
+
+<p>Feather work will be discussed under the heading of
+&ldquo;Opus Plumarium.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_143_143" id="FNanchor_143_143"></a><a href="#Footnote_143_143" class="fnanchor">[143]</a></p>
+
+<p>On the surface of textiles many substances have been
+fastened down, in order to give brilliancy to the general
+effect&mdash;skins of insects, beetles&rsquo; wings, the claws and
+teeth of various animals.<a name="FNanchor_144_144" id="FNanchor_144_144"></a><a href="#Footnote_144_144" class="fnanchor">[144]</a></p>
+
+<p>Asbestos linen is the only mineral substance, besides
+gold, silver, and tin,<a name="FNanchor_145_145" id="FNanchor_145_145"></a><a href="#Footnote_145_145" class="fnanchor">[145]</a> that has been employed in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>124]</a></span>
+embroidery. It has the remarkable quality of indestructibility
+by fire. Asbestos linen can be cleansed by fire
+instead of water.<a name="FNanchor_146_146" id="FNanchor_146_146"></a><a href="#Footnote_146_146" class="fnanchor">[146]</a> It is a soapy crystal, found in veins
+of serpentine and cipolino in Cyprus, and other Greek
+islands. Pliny says it was woven for the funeral obsequies
+of monarchs, as it preserved the ashes apart, being itself
+unharmed by the fires of cremation. There are several
+fragments existing, found in tombs. One of these is in
+the British Museum.<a name="FNanchor_147_147" id="FNanchor_147_147"></a><a href="#Footnote_147_147" class="fnanchor">[147]</a></p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo speaks of a stone fibre found at Chinchin,
+which answers in description to asbestos. It was spun
+by mixing it with threads of flax soaked in oil; and when
+woven, was passed through the fire to remove the flax
+and the oil.<a name="FNanchor_148_148" id="FNanchor_148_148"></a><a href="#Footnote_148_148" class="fnanchor">[148]</a></p>
+
+<p>A miraculous napkin of asbestos was long kept at
+Monte Casino.</p>
+
+<p>Coral, pearls, and beads of many forms have been
+used for the enrichment of embroideries, and for decorating
+textiles. The whole surface of the original fabric
+has often been entirely covered with them, or the pattern
+itself has been worked in nothing else. Pearls are
+constantly seen worked on dress, coats-of-arms, and
+embroidered portraits. Seed pearls, large coarse pearls,
+and sometimes fine and precious ones, were surrounded
+with gold thread embroidery. Coral was so much used
+in Sicilian embroideries, and so little elsewhere, that
+one gives the name of &ldquo;Sicilian&rdquo; to all such work;
+but occasionally we find coral embroideries in Spain
+and elsewhere (Pl. <a href="#pl32">32</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl32" id="pl32"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 32.</p>
+<img src="images/naap32t.jpg" width="400" height="226"
+alt="Three figures in the center, with a leaf pattern border" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap32.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Portion of Dalmatic embroidered by Blanche, Queen of Charles IV. of Bohemia (fifteenth century).<br />
+The figures in pearls, on a background of beaten gold. Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder.&rdquo; Vol. i. taf. xi.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>125]</a></span>
+Beads of glass were common in Egypt from the
+earliest times, strung together by threads so as to form
+breastplates rather than necklaces. Whence beads
+originally came we cannot tell, but it seems that the
+Ph&oelig;nicians dropped them on all the shores of the
+world. Then, as now, savages had a passion for beads,
+and civilized men and women still admire them as
+trimmings. In the Middle Ages they were sometimes
+worked into pictures.<a name="FNanchor_149_149" id="FNanchor_149_149"></a><a href="#Footnote_149_149" class="fnanchor">[149]</a></p>
+
+<p>In as far as materials are essential to the art of embroidery,
+I must restrict myself to the history of silk,
+wool, flax, cotton, and gold. With these all the finest
+works have been executed for the artistic adornment of
+dress and hangings. All other materials have been
+occasional experiments, or else were resorted to in the
+absence or ignorance of the above five most important
+factors in our domestic civilization. The history of
+wool must take precedence as being that of the original,
+if not the first, of textile materials.</p>
+
+
+<h4>2. WOOL.</h4>
+
+<p>The wool of sheep and the hair of goats were used
+very early in the world&rsquo;s history for clothing, and
+probably also for hangings. The earliest civilizations
+plaited, span,<a name="FNanchor_150_150" id="FNanchor_150_150"></a><a href="#Footnote_150_150" class="fnanchor">[150]</a> wove, and felted them.</p>
+
+<p>There is no reason to suppose that goats and sheep
+preceded the creation of man. No early fossils record
+them. Our sheep are supposed by zoologists to be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>126]</a></span>
+descended from the Argali or Ovis Ammon of Linn&aelig;us,
+inhabiting the central regions of Asia.<a name="FNanchor_151_151" id="FNanchor_151_151"></a><a href="#Footnote_151_151" class="fnanchor">[151]</a></p>
+
+<p>It is possible that plaited grasses may have preceded
+wool. But though certain prehistoric specimens are
+supposed to have been found in Spain, yet of this there
+is but imperfect proof.</p>
+
+<p>The pastoral tribes wandering over those fair regions
+that extend from Khotan to Arabia, following their flocks
+and herds, and studying where best to feed, increase,
+and multiply them, and obtain from them the finest
+texture of wool, are spoken of nowhere more than in the
+collected books of the Old Testament, open to us all;
+and there we learn how important a place these shepherds
+held in the world&rsquo;s civilization. &ldquo;Watching their flocks
+by night,&rdquo; they watched the stars also, and they were
+astronomers; seeking the best pastures and fodder, they
+learned to be botanists, florists, and agriculturalists. They
+became also philosophers, poets, prophets, and kings.<a name="FNanchor_152_152" id="FNanchor_152_152"></a><a href="#Footnote_152_152" class="fnanchor">[152]</a>
+Job and his country were enriched through the breeding
+of sheep. The seven daughters of Jethro, the High-priest,
+tended their father&rsquo;s flocks.</p>
+
+<p>The Arabians were always great breeders of sheep.
+The Greeks and Romans, from Homer to Virgil, sang
+of the herdsman&rsquo;s life. Our Lord Himself did not
+disdain to be called &ldquo;the Good Shepherd.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_153_153" id="FNanchor_153_153"></a><a href="#Footnote_153_153" class="fnanchor">[153]</a></p>
+
+<p>The merchants who traded from the Arabian Gulf to
+Egypt, and across thence to the shores of the Mediterranean,
+and the Ph&oelig;nicians of Sidon who brought overland
+their bales of raw material and manufactured Oriental
+fabrics, knew well where to find the best goods for their
+customers; and we hear frequently whence came this or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>127]</a></span>
+that coloured wool. Chemmis, the city of Pan, retained
+its celebrity in the woollen trade down to the conquest
+of Egypt by the Romans. Nineveh and Babylon encouraged
+the manufactures and commerce in woollen
+tents, wall-hangings, and carpets. Nowhere were they
+so richly embroidered.<a name="FNanchor_154_154" id="FNanchor_154_154"></a><a href="#Footnote_154_154" class="fnanchor">[154]</a></p>
+
+<p>Solomon purchased woollens from Egypt. Damascus
+supplied the Tyrians with wool for their rugs. The stuffs
+and textile fabrics of wool, of the Chinese, Assyrians, and
+Chaldeans, are recorded in the earliest writings of the
+human race. How much their decoration depended on
+weaving, and how much on embroidery, we cannot tell.
+The products of the Babylonian looms are alluded to in
+the Book of Joshua,<a name="FNanchor_155_155" id="FNanchor_155_155"></a><a href="#Footnote_155_155" class="fnanchor">[155]</a> and also by Ezekiel.<a name="FNanchor_156_156" id="FNanchor_156_156"></a><a href="#Footnote_156_156" class="fnanchor">[156]</a></p>
+
+<p>Assyrian stuffs were always celebrated for their splendid
+colours and various designs; among which were hunting
+scenes, battles, and special emblematic adornments.<a name="FNanchor_157_157" id="FNanchor_157_157"></a><a href="#Footnote_157_157" class="fnanchor">[157]</a></p>
+
+<p>From Miletus came the wool valued most highly by
+the Greeks. Spain produced the best black, and the
+north of Italy the best white wool. The Narbonensian
+and Egyptian wools were supposed to be the most
+durable, and when they became shabby, were dipped
+again and served another generation.</p>
+
+<p>From Yates&rsquo; account of the great variety of wools,
+remarkable for their fine texture, their whiteness,<a name="FNanchor_158_158" id="FNanchor_158_158"></a><a href="#Footnote_158_158" class="fnanchor">[158]</a> their
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>128]</a></span>
+blackness,<a name="FNanchor_159_159" id="FNanchor_159_159"></a><a href="#Footnote_159_159" class="fnanchor">[159]</a> or their redness, their cool or their warm
+tints, it is evident that the ancients valued highly these
+different qualities.<a name="FNanchor_160_160" id="FNanchor_160_160"></a><a href="#Footnote_160_160" class="fnanchor">[160]</a> The cloths that were of greatest
+account were of the finest or the warmest kinds. The
+sheep of Miletus, Attica, Megaris, and Tarentum were
+clothed in jackets, in order to preserve the fineness and
+whiteness of their own coats, and to protect them from
+being torn by the thorny bushes in their pastures.
+Columella calls them the &ldquo;covered&rdquo; and the &ldquo;soft,&rdquo; and
+says they were often kept in the house.</p>
+
+<p>We find notices of the peculiarities of the various
+national breeds, caused by the soil on which their pasture
+grew, and the rivers and streams at which they drank,
+and these peculiarities were, if possible, encouraged.
+There is evidence also that some improvement of the
+breeds by crossing was practised in early times.</p>
+
+<p>As in all the life of the Greeks, the religious element
+had much influence in perfecting their flocks of sheep&mdash;only
+the most beautiful animals were considered worthy
+of sacrifice to the gods.</p>
+
+<p>A few of the rare specimens of stuffs which have been
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>129]</a></span>
+rescued from tombs, especially in the Crimea, and in the
+Fayoum, in Egypt, show a wool so fine and shining that
+it might be taken for silk, and the beauty of the weaving
+is marvellous, and much varied in style.</p>
+
+<p>A warrior&rsquo;s tomb in the district of Kuban contained a
+funeral pall, covering the sarcophagus, measuring at least
+three metres and a half each way, woven of brown
+wool, in twelve narrow strips sewn together and afterwards
+painted. The ground is yellowish, the design
+brown. The figures repeat mythical subjects, and alternate
+with patterns, and there is a border. One strip
+contains a scene from the story of Peleus and Thetis.
+Apparently this is Attic design. The coloured dresses
+worn by women of rank, and hung on the statues of the
+gods, were sometimes painted, sometimes stamped, and
+often embroidered, and they were nearly all of woollen
+fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>One of the great advantages of wool is its power of
+absorbing colour, as the pigment sinks into its very fibre,
+instead of clinging to the surface. It can be dyed of
+deeper colours than flax, cotton, or silk.</p>
+
+<p>Pliny tells us that Tanaquil combed, span, and wove
+her wool, and she herself made the royal mantle which
+Servius Tullius used to wear, and it was covered with a
+wavy pattern (undulata). Thence came the custom that
+when a maiden became a bride, her attendants carried
+a distaff trimmed with combed wool, and a spindle with
+yarn upon it. The robes worked by Tanaquil were
+dedicated by Servius Tullius to the statue of Fortune in
+her temple at Rome, and were still hanging there in the
+days of Tiberius.<a name="FNanchor_161_161" id="FNanchor_161_161"></a><a href="#Footnote_161_161" class="fnanchor">[161]</a> Pliny remarks that it was a wonder
+that it neither fell from the image, nor was eaten by the
+moths, during five hundred and sixty years.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>130]</a></span>
+He gives us interesting details of the weaving of
+woollen cloths, and speaks of the thick coarse wool with
+&ldquo;great thick hair,&rdquo; used for carpets from the time of
+Homer. The same passage mentions felt. He tells us
+of the cloths with a curly nap, used in the days of
+Augustus; of the &ldquo;papaverata&rdquo; woven with flowers
+resembling poppies; and we hear from him of the cloth
+of divers colours woven in Babylon, and called thence
+Babylonica; and the Alexandrian webs, with many-coloured
+threads (polymita)<a name="FNanchor_162_162" id="FNanchor_162_162"></a><a href="#Footnote_162_162" class="fnanchor">[162]</a>, comparing them with those
+made in Gaul; and those woven by the Parthians.<a name="FNanchor_163_163" id="FNanchor_163_163"></a><a href="#Footnote_163_163" class="fnanchor">[163]</a></p>
+
+<p>We have already said that the wool of Miletus was a
+proverbial favourite with the Greeks. Eustathius speaks
+of the excellence of the Milesian carpets and hangings.
+Virgil represents the virgins of Cyrene spinning Milesian
+wool dyed of a deep sea-green.<a name="FNanchor_164_164" id="FNanchor_164_164"></a><a href="#Footnote_164_164" class="fnanchor">[164]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the British Museum is a fragment of Egyptian
+woollen or worsted embroidery on white linen, discoloured
+by its use as mummy wrapping; but the stitches of
+worsted remain a perfectly clear bright crimson and
+indigo blue. This shows how wool absorbs the colour
+and retains it. Even when the surface is faded, it can
+be made to emit it again by chemical processes.</p>
+
+<p>In tombs in the Crimea have been found variously
+woven and adorned woollen fabrics. There are fragments
+resembling in their texture a fine rep&mdash;a sort of corded
+stuff; another material resembling a woollen cr&ecirc;pe, or
+fine &ldquo;nun&rsquo;s gauze.&rdquo; This veiled a golden wreath.
+Then there is a stuff like what is now called &ldquo;atlas&rdquo;&mdash;a
+kind of woollen satin. Some woollens are woven
+simply like linen; some are wide, some very narrow,
+sewn together in strips, woven in meandering designs.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>131]</a></span>
+One, like a piece of Gobelin tapestry, has a border of ducks
+with yellow wings and dark green heads and throats,<a name="FNanchor_165_165" id="FNanchor_165_165"></a><a href="#Footnote_165_165" class="fnanchor">[165]</a> and
+then another with a pattern of stags&rsquo; heads. This description
+recalls the specimens on plate <a href="#pl16">16</a> and plate <a href="#pl39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p>From these tombs are collected stuffs of wool, woven
+and embroidered in gold with combinations of many
+colours; and, in fact, through this collection, now placed
+in the Museum at St. Petersburg, we become aware that
+300 <small>B.C.</small> the Greeks had learned all the secrets of the art
+of weaving wool. They, however, lost it, and it is only
+in India that its continuity was never broken. Indian
+looms still weave, of the finest fleeces, such shawls of
+Babylonian design as repeat the texture of the ancient
+Greek garments. But were they Greek? or did those
+beautiful woven fabrics come from Persia or India?<a name="FNanchor_166_166" id="FNanchor_166_166"></a><a href="#Footnote_166_166" class="fnanchor">[166]</a></p>
+
+<p>The first we know of Scandinavian wool for dress, is a
+fragment from a Celtic barrow in Yorkshire&mdash;a woollen
+plaited shroud. This fabric was an advance upon the
+original northern savage costume&mdash;a sheep-skin fashioned
+and sewn with a fish-bone for a needle, sinews for thread,
+and a thorn for a pin. But we must imagine that some
+use was made, besides plaiting, of the spun wool, of which
+the early northern women have left us evidence, in the
+whorls of their spindles, from prehistoric times.</p>
+
+<p>Wool has always appeared to be a natural material for
+dress. It is warm in winter, light in summer, and is
+always beautiful as it hangs in lovely soft draperies,
+heavy enough to draw the fabric into graceful curved
+lines, and yet capable of yielding to each movement in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>132]</a></span>
+little rippling folds, covering, but not concealing the
+forms to which they cling. Classical draperies are
+explained by it. What the Italians call the &ldquo;eyes of
+the folds,&rdquo; are particularly beautiful in woollens, and lend
+themselves to sculpturesque art.</p>
+
+<p>The other natural use of wool is for carpets. We
+have the evidence of the imitations, in mosaic, of carpets
+from the stone floors in Nineveh (now in the British
+Museum), that the art of weaving large and small rugs,
+and the principles of composition for such purposes was
+at that date well understood. The carpet-weaving traditions
+of Babylon appear to have been inherited by the
+occupiers of the soil, as it is supposed that the Saracens
+learned from Persia the art of weaving pile carpets, and
+imported thence craftsmen into Spain. We can trace
+Persian carpet patterns in Indian floor coverings. The
+Greeks called them <i>tapetes</i>; and the Latins adopted the
+name; and hence the Italian <i>tapeti</i>, French <i>tapis</i>, and our
+word tapestry.</p>
+
+<p>As artistic material, to which the world owes much
+beauty and comfort, woollens have always played a
+great part in the decorations of our houses, as of our
+garments. Fabrics have been made of them of every
+description, from the cheapest and commonest to the most
+refined; but if woollen stuffs are to be beautiful, they
+must be <em>fine</em>, and worked or embroidered by hand.</p>
+
+<p>Woollens brocaded or figured are not so effective as
+silken hangings. Woollen velvets are without light, dull
+and heavy. Still, even amongst our English fabrics, there
+have always been varieties of texture<a name="FNanchor_167_167" id="FNanchor_167_167"></a><a href="#Footnote_167_167" class="fnanchor">[167]</a> and adaptations
+to different effects, and some are beautiful.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>133]</a></span>
+Worsted thread, so called from Worsted, in Norfolk,
+where the materials for weaving and embroidering are
+manufactured, has always been very important in embroidery.
+Worsteds after a time gave way to a very
+beautiful material, called &ldquo;German wool,&rdquo; which again has
+yielded the supremacy to &ldquo;crewels&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_168_168" id="FNanchor_168_168"></a><a href="#Footnote_168_168" class="fnanchor">[168]</a> (resembling the old
+worsteds). These crewels are nearly the same in substance
+and in their loose texture as the threads prepared
+from wool for tapestry weaving.</p>
+
+<p>We may claim, in England, the superiority in this
+manufacture, though we are constantly receiving from
+France novelties which give us good hints, and urge us to
+keep pace with the science of the Gobelins in their woollen
+dyes. The French, in return, employ our wools, especially
+those of Lincolnshire, in their tapestry workshops.</p>
+
+<p>The wool and hair of goats should be a study by
+itself. They have from the earliest times been used in
+India for the finest and softest fabrics, such as the lovely
+shawls of Cashmere and the neighbouring provinces.
+Cloth of Tars in the Middle Ages is supposed to be
+what is now called Cashmere.</p>
+
+
+<h4>3. FLAX.</h4>
+
+<p>Boyd Dawkins tells us that &ldquo;The art of spinning and
+the manufacture of linen were introduced into Europe in
+the Neolithic age, and have been preserved with little
+variation from that period to the present day, in certain
+remote parts of Europe, having only been superseded in
+modern times by the complicated machinery so familiar
+to us. The spindle and distaff, or perforated spindle
+whorls, are of stone, pottery, or bone, such as are constantly
+found in Neolithic tombs and habitations. Thread from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>134]</a></span>
+the Swiss lake cities is proved to be of flax, and there is
+evidence of weaving in some sort of loom.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_169_169" id="FNanchor_169_169"></a><a href="#Footnote_169_169" class="fnanchor">[169]</a></p>
+
+<p>The meaning of the word Byssus has been disputed;
+some authorities asserting that it includes both flax and
+cotton fabrics. Without the aid of the microscope, the
+dispute as to whether the material of the Egyptian
+mummy wrappings was cotton or flax, or a mixture of
+the two, would never have been settled; but now that
+the difference of the structure of each has been clearly
+ascertained, we know that cotton was never employed
+in Egypt, except for certain domestic uses. The mummy
+wrappings are entirely linen. Cotton was forbidden for
+the priests&rsquo; dress in the temple, though they might wear
+it when not on duty.<a name="FNanchor_170_170" id="FNanchor_170_170"></a><a href="#Footnote_170_170" class="fnanchor">[170]</a></p>
+
+<p>There are specimens of Egyptian painted or printed
+patterns on fine linen in the British Museum;<a name="FNanchor_171_171" id="FNanchor_171_171"></a><a href="#Footnote_171_171" class="fnanchor">[171]</a> and it is
+curious to see in Egyptian mural paintings the same
+patterned chintzes on furniture that were common a
+hundred years ago in England. Both must have come
+from India, and therefore were certainly cotton fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>Herodotus says the mummy cloths were of &ldquo;byssine
+sindon,&rdquo; which may be translated &ldquo;linen cloth.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_172_172" id="FNanchor_172_172"></a><a href="#Footnote_172_172" class="fnanchor">[172]</a> Cotton
+he calls &ldquo;tree wool.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Yates has carefully argued the whole question, and, we
+think, has proved that byssus was flax, and not cotton.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>135]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_173_173" id="FNanchor_173_173"></a><a href="#Footnote_173_173" class="fnanchor">[173]</a>
+He quotes Philo, who certainly must have believed that
+it was made of flax, from the description he gives of
+its appearance and qualities, which in no way apply to
+cotton or hemp. He says that &ldquo;The Jewish high priests
+wore a linen garment of the purest byssus&mdash;which was a
+symbol of firmness, incorruption, and of the clearest
+splendour, for fine linen is very difficult to tear. It is
+made of nothing mortal, and becomes brighter and more
+resembling light, the more it is cleansed by washing.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_174_174" id="FNanchor_174_174"></a><a href="#Footnote_174_174" class="fnanchor">[174]</a></p>
+
+<p>Here is another quotation: &ldquo;Cloth of byssus symbolizes
+firm faith. Its threads surpass even ropes of
+broom in firmness and strength.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_175_175" id="FNanchor_175_175"></a><a href="#Footnote_175_175" class="fnanchor">[175]</a> Pliny says the flax
+grown in Egypt was superior to any other, and it was
+exported to Arabia and India.<a name="FNanchor_176_176" id="FNanchor_176_176"></a><a href="#Footnote_176_176" class="fnanchor">[176]</a> The first known existing
+fragment of flax linen in Europe was taken from the tomb
+of the Seven Brothers in the Crimea. Its date is 300 <small>B.C.</small></p>
+
+<p>In Solomon&rsquo;s time the Jews evidently depended upon
+Egypt for their fine linen. Herodotus describes the
+corselet of Amasis, the fineness of the linen, and the
+embroidered decorations of men and animals, partly gold
+and partly tree wool (i.e. cotton).<a name="FNanchor_177_177" id="FNanchor_177_177"></a><a href="#Footnote_177_177" class="fnanchor">[177]</a></p>
+
+<p>All the finest linen certainly came then from Egypt,
+and was much finer than any that is now made. That
+we call cambric, was woven there many centuries before
+it was made in Cambray.<a name="FNanchor_178_178" id="FNanchor_178_178"></a><a href="#Footnote_178_178" class="fnanchor">[178]</a></p>
+
+<p>Through the Ph&oelig;nicians the fine linen came to Rome,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>136]</a></span>
+as appears from the following notice of embroidery on
+linen by Flavius Vopiscus, in his &ldquo;Life of the Emperor
+Carinus:&rdquo; &ldquo;Why should I mention the linen cloths
+brought from Tyre and Sidon, which are so thin as to
+be transparent, which glow with purple, or are prized on
+account of their laborious embroideries?&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_179_179" id="FNanchor_179_179"></a><a href="#Footnote_179_179" class="fnanchor">[179]</a></p>
+
+<p>The history of a fine embroidered linen curtain for a
+Roman house might have been this:&mdash;Grown in Egypt;
+carried to Nomenticum (Artois), and there woven; taken
+to India to be embroidered, and thence as merchandise
+to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>While flax was making its way northward, the Celts
+must also have taken it across Europe from their resting-place,
+after emigrating from the East. The word <em>linen</em>&mdash;<i>lin-white</i>&mdash;is
+a Celtic epithet, whereas <em>flax</em> is an
+Anglo-Saxon word.<a name="FNanchor_180_180" id="FNanchor_180_180"></a><a href="#Footnote_180_180" class="fnanchor">[180]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Atrebates wove linen in Artois, 1800 years ago.
+Jerome speaks of their &ldquo;indumenta,&rdquo; or shirts of fine linen;
+and the great weavers of to-day are still the Flemish
+descendants of the Atrebates. Their Celtic descent
+is witnessed in the Irish by their superiority in the crafts
+of the loom.</p>
+
+<p>The fine laces of Venice, France, and Belgium are all
+of linen, i.e. flaxen thread. Clearness and strength in
+these delicate fabrics cannot be obtained with cotton,
+which, especially when it is washed, swells and fluffs, and
+never has the radiant appearance and purity of flax.</p>
+
+<p>Embroidery is always a natural accompaniment of fine
+linen. Those that are still preserved to us from early
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>137]</a></span>
+and Middle-Age times are nearly all on linen, if not on
+silk. The woollen fragments are very few and imperfect.
+They have been invariably &ldquo;fretted&rdquo; by the moth.</p>
+
+<p>White needle embroidery is mostly worked in linen-thread,
+though cotton-thread has been used a great deal,
+and is very fit for the purpose.</p>
+
+
+<h4>4. COTTON.</h4>
+
+<p>Cotton was native to India,<a name="FNanchor_181_181" id="FNanchor_181_181"></a><a href="#Footnote_181_181" class="fnanchor">[181]</a> as flax was to Egypt.
+It not only was grown, woven, and printed there from
+the remotest antiquity, but was cultivated nowhere else.
+The Egyptians do not appear to have grown it till the
+fourteenth century <small>A.D.</small>, though they had long imported
+it as raw material, and as plain and printed webs.<a name="FNanchor_182_182" id="FNanchor_182_182"></a><a href="#Footnote_182_182" class="fnanchor">[182]</a> It
+was called tree-wool.</p>
+
+<p>It was first woven in Italy in the thirteenth century,
+and used for making paper; and in the sixteenth, the
+plant was grown in the south of Europe. From Italy
+it was carried into the Low Countries, and only reached
+England in the seventeenth century,<a name="FNanchor_183_183" id="FNanchor_183_183"></a><a href="#Footnote_183_183" class="fnanchor">[183]</a> so lately has the
+great staple of our manufactures first belonged to us.</p>
+
+<p>The fibre of cotton has neither the strength nor the
+durability of flax or silk, but it is the third in the group
+of the most universally qualified materials for all purposes
+of domestic textile art, ranging from carpets and
+sails, to fine chintzes for dress, and filmy muslins. The
+cloudy effect of these delicate fabrics is their own peculiar
+beauty. Muslins for hangings, printed or embroidered,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>138]</a></span>
+have always been a luxury from India; they were called
+&ldquo;carbasa,&rdquo; and were much esteemed in Rome as a protection
+against the sun.<a name="FNanchor_184_184" id="FNanchor_184_184"></a><a href="#Footnote_184_184" class="fnanchor">[184]</a></p>
+
+<p>But we have much earlier notice of them, as being the
+curtains described in the Book of Esther, hung with
+silver rings to the pillars of marble in the banqueting
+hall at Susa or Shushan: &ldquo;blue and white muslin&rdquo; (i.e.
+carpas,<a name="FNanchor_185_185" id="FNanchor_185_185"></a><a href="#Footnote_185_185" class="fnanchor">[185]</a> mistranslated &ldquo;green&rdquo; in the Authorized Version),
+&ldquo;fastened with cords of fine linen and purple.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;carbasina&rdquo; occurs in a play by Statius, evidently
+translated from a writer of the new Greek comedy
+period. It may be inferred, therefore, that the Greeks
+used cotton 200 <small>B.C.</small><a name="FNanchor_186_186" id="FNanchor_186_186"></a><a href="#Footnote_186_186" class="fnanchor">[186]</a> A century before, Nearchus (one
+of Alexander&rsquo;s admirals) speaks of the cotton-trees in
+India as if they were a new discovery. Yates gives us
+many quotations from Latin classical authors, proving
+the common use of cotton. Its Latin name was <i>bambacinum</i>,
+from <i>bombax</i>, hence the Italian <i>bambagio</i>,
+<i>bambagino</i>, <i>bambasino</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The variety of cotton fabrics in India is very
+numerous, each having its distinctive beauties and
+qualities inherited by tradition from early times. They
+are enumerated and described in Sir G. Birdwood&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Arts of India.&rdquo; Almost all of them have been
+made to carry embroideries&mdash;the transparent muslins,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>139]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_187_187" id="FNanchor_187_187"></a><a href="#Footnote_187_187" class="fnanchor">[187]</a>
+as well as the fine cloths, and the stronger and thicker
+fabrics.<a name="FNanchor_188_188" id="FNanchor_188_188"></a><a href="#Footnote_188_188" class="fnanchor">[188]</a></p>
+
+<p>Most old English houses contain some hangings of
+thickly woven cotton, probably Indian, worked in crewel
+or worsted, of the time of James I., or a little earlier;
+and beautiful patterns wrought in silk or thread, on fine
+cotton linen, reminding one of the arabesques of the
+Taj Mahal, succeeded those of the Jacobean style.</p>
+
+<p>Transparent muslins were often embroidered in gold
+and silver, or spangled and embossed with beetles&rsquo; wings;
+and gold, silver, and silk were lavished on Indian cotton
+grounds, as well as on silken stuffs. Linen was not much
+embroidered in India, but often printed like chintz.</p>
+
+<p>Buckram, or plush of cotton, was certainly imported
+from the East to England, from the thirteenth century to
+the time of Elizabeth. There is at Ashridge, in Hertfordshire,
+a small jacket of very fine cotton-plush amongst
+the baby linen prepared by Elizabeth for the expected
+heir of Philip and Mary, and there are other small
+dresses of this material of the date of James I. A similar
+material called fustian is also named by Marco Polo as a
+cotton fabric; it is supposed to have been made in Egypt
+by the Arabs. This sort of cotton-plush, variously manipulated,
+is repeatedly mentioned by Herr Graf&rsquo;schen in
+his &ldquo;Catalogue of Egyptian Textiles from the Fayoum.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Plano Carpini says the tunics of the Tartars were
+&ldquo;bacramo,&rdquo; or else of baudichin (cloth of gold). Falstaff&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;men in buckram&rdquo; may be thus explained.<a name="FNanchor_189_189" id="FNanchor_189_189"></a><a href="#Footnote_189_189" class="fnanchor">[189]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>140]</a></span>
+I have already said that cotton is inferior in its
+qualities to silk and flax, except in the production of
+transparent muslins. Its peculiarity is its tendency to
+&ldquo;crinkle&rdquo; or crumple in wearing, therefore it does not
+present a smooth flat surface, except by means of dressing,
+which unfits it for clinging effects but suits printed
+patterns. Such stuffs as workhouse sheeting, imitating
+certain fabrics of the sixteenth century, and which it has
+been the fashion of late to cover with embroidery, do
+not repay, by effective beauty, the trouble bestowed
+upon them.</p>
+
+
+<h4>5. GOLD.</h4>
+
+<p>A somewhat profane French writer, giving his ideas
+on the Creation, says that gold, the latest metal, was
+expressly created for the demoralization of mankind. This
+is an ugly version of the fact that it is found on the surface
+of the earth&rsquo;s crust, and that its beauty and worth makes
+it a desirable possession for which men will ever contend.</p>
+
+<p>Gold adorns every work of the artistic animal&mdash;man.
+It is the most becoming setting to all other beautiful
+things, the most gorgeous reflection of light and colour,
+the richest and softest background, the most harmonious
+medium for high lights. In all works of decoration it
+represents sunshine where it is not, and doubles it where
+it is. The word &ldquo;illumination&rdquo; in books belongs to the
+gilded illustrations of immortal thoughts.</p>
+
+<p>In embroideries, as grounding or as pattern, gold gives
+the glory: &ldquo;Her clothing is of wrought gold.&rdquo; The
+raiment of needlework is comparatively ineffective without
+golden lights or background. As colour, it never can
+offend the eye, except when used to accentuate aggressively
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>141]</a></span>
+a vulgar pattern, or when it flashes and dazzles
+from over-polish and too lavish expenditure.</p>
+
+<p>Silver follows gold as a splendid element in decoration,<a name="FNanchor_190_190" id="FNanchor_190_190"></a><a href="#Footnote_190_190" class="fnanchor">[190]</a>
+but it is not of such universal application and use; and when
+employed together, the proportion of gold should preponderate.
+Golden tissues belong to the earliest civilizations.</p>
+
+<p>Sir G. Birdwood says that &ldquo;The art of gold brocades
+is older than the Code of Manu.... The excellence
+of the art passed in the long course of ages, from one
+place to another; and Babylon, Tarsus, Alexandria,
+Baghdad, Damascus, Antioch, Tabriz, Sicily, and Tripoli
+successively became celebrated for their gold and silver-wrought
+tissues, silks, and brocades.... Through
+every disguise (and mingling of style) it is not impossible
+to infer the essential identity of the brocades with
+the fabrics of blue, purple, and scarlet, worked in gold,
+of ancient Babylonian art.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_191_191" id="FNanchor_191_191"></a><a href="#Footnote_191_191" class="fnanchor">[191]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Israelites wove gold with their coloured woollens
+for the use of the sanctuary, and probably brought the art
+from Egypt; though I am not aware of any gold-woven
+stuffs from Egyptian tombs.<a name="FNanchor_192_192" id="FNanchor_192_192"></a><a href="#Footnote_192_192" class="fnanchor">[192]</a></p>
+
+<p>Indian and Chinese stuffs were from time immemorial
+woven with gold.</p>
+
+<p>The historians of Alexander the Great continually
+name gold as a material in dress.<a name="FNanchor_193_193" id="FNanchor_193_193"></a><a href="#Footnote_193_193" class="fnanchor">[193]</a> Arrian, Justin, and
+Quintus Curtius, all speak of golden tissues as part of
+the luxury of the East.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>142]</a></span>
+We hear of Darius&rsquo; dress woven with golden hawks;
+and of the golden spoils of Persepolis; the dresses worn
+by Alexander&rsquo;s generals, and all his attendants clothed
+in purple and gold. Then, perhaps, the Babylonian tradition
+was brought to Europe; and ever after, purple
+and gold became the state apparel for courtiers as well
+as kings.<a name="FNanchor_194_194" id="FNanchor_194_194"></a><a href="#Footnote_194_194" class="fnanchor">[194]</a></p>
+
+<p>The hangings of scarlet, purple, and gold used at the
+nuptials of Alexander, and at his funeral, and his pall of
+the same material, point to the fact that gold was a
+recognized element in splendid textile weaving, as well
+as in the earliest ornamental embroideries.<a name="FNanchor_195_195" id="FNanchor_195_195"></a><a href="#Footnote_195_195" class="fnanchor">[195]</a></p>
+
+<p>Attalus II., king of Pergamus, was credited with being
+the inventor of gold weaving, but this must have been a
+mistake, as it was practised long before his time; but he
+may have devised some splendid golden tissues, which
+were called &ldquo;Attalic,&rdquo; in honour of the king&rsquo;s patronage.<a name="FNanchor_196_196" id="FNanchor_196_196"></a><a href="#Footnote_196_196" class="fnanchor">[196]</a>
+As, however, the gold flat plate or wire was probably
+that woven before his time,<a name="FNanchor_197_197" id="FNanchor_197_197"></a><a href="#Footnote_197_197" class="fnanchor">[197]</a> it is possible that he may
+have invented or patronized the making of thread of
+gold, by twining it round flax or cotton.<a name="FNanchor_198_198" id="FNanchor_198_198"></a><a href="#Footnote_198_198" class="fnanchor">[198]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>143]</a></span>
+Pliny says gold may be woven or spun like wool
+without any admixture of wool or flax,<a name="FNanchor_199_199" id="FNanchor_199_199"></a><a href="#Footnote_199_199" class="fnanchor">[199]</a> and he quotes as
+examples the golden garment of Agrippina, and that worn
+by Tarquinius Priscus, mentioned by Verrius.</p>
+
+<p>It appears that the Egyptians knew the art of drawing
+gold wire, as some pieces have been found in their jewellery;<a name="FNanchor_200_200" id="FNanchor_200_200"></a><a href="#Footnote_200_200" class="fnanchor">[200]</a>
+but we know not by what process it was worked,
+either then, or in the dark ages.</p>
+
+<p>A mechanic of Nuremberg, in the fourteenth century,
+invented a machine for the purpose; and this art of
+drawing wire was introduced into England 200 years
+later, in 1560.</p>
+
+<p>The pure cut gold was in use in Rome to a late date.<a name="FNanchor_201_201" id="FNanchor_201_201"></a><a href="#Footnote_201_201" class="fnanchor">[201]</a>
+St. Cecilia, martyred 230 <small>A.D.</small>, was buried with her golden
+mantle lying at her feet; and in 821, when Pope Pascal
+opened her grave, he found the evidence of her martyrdom
+in that splendid garment, showing that it had been soaked
+in blood.<a name="FNanchor_202_202" id="FNanchor_202_202"></a><a href="#Footnote_202_202" class="fnanchor">[202]</a></p>
+
+<p>There were found under the foundations of the new
+Basilica of St. Peter&rsquo;s, the bodies of Probus Anicius and
+his wife, Proba Faltonia, in a wrapping of gold.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Rock gives us more examples,<a name="FNanchor_203_203" id="FNanchor_203_203"></a><a href="#Footnote_203_203" class="fnanchor">[203]</a> but we will only
+add that of the wife of the Emperor Honorius, who in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>144]</a></span>
+the year 400 <small>A.D.</small> was buried in a golden dress, which in
+1544 was removed from her grave, and being melted,
+weighed 36 lbs.<a name="FNanchor_204_204" id="FNanchor_204_204"></a><a href="#Footnote_204_204" class="fnanchor">[204]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Anglo-Saxon tomb opened at Chessell Down, in
+the Isle of Wight, contained fragments of a garment or
+wrapping woven with flat gold &ldquo;plate.&rdquo; These remains
+are now in the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>Childeric was buried at Tournai, 485 <small>A.D.</small>, and his
+dress of strips of pure gold was discovered and melted
+in 1653. But gold <em>thread</em> also was then very generally
+used in weaving gold tissues.</p>
+
+<p>Claudian describes a Christian lady, Proba, in the
+fourth century, preparing the consular robes for her two
+sons on their being raised to the consulate:<a name="FNanchor_205_205" id="FNanchor_205_205"></a><a href="#Footnote_205_205" class="fnanchor">[205]</a>&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;The joyful mother plies her knowing hands,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And works on all the trabea golden bands;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Draws the thin strips to all the length of gold,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0"><i>To make the metal meaner threads enfold</i>.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pure gold was woven in the dark ages in England.
+St. Cuthbert&rsquo;s maniple at Durham is of pure gold thread.
+John Garland says the ladies wove golden cingul&aelig; in the
+thirteenth century; and Henry I., according to Hoveden,
+was clothed in a robe of state of woven gold and gems
+of almost &ldquo;divine splendour.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_206_206" id="FNanchor_206_206"></a><a href="#Footnote_206_206" class="fnanchor">[206]</a></p>
+
+<p>A wrapping of beautiful gold brocade covered the
+coffin of Henry III. when his tomb was opened in 1871.<a name="FNanchor_207_207" id="FNanchor_207_207"></a><a href="#Footnote_207_207" class="fnanchor">[207]</a></p>
+
+<p>The cope of St. Andrew at Aix, in Switzerland, is
+embroidered in a very simple pattern, with large circles
+containing St. Andrew&rsquo;s crosses.<a name="FNanchor_208_208" id="FNanchor_208_208"></a><a href="#Footnote_208_208" class="fnanchor">[208]</a> This is worked in
+silver wire gilt, and is Byzantine of the twelfth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>145]</a></span>
+In the writings of the Middle Ages we find constant
+reference to different golden fabrics. Among them are
+&ldquo;samit&rdquo; or &ldquo;examitur&rdquo; (a six-thread silk stuff, preciously
+inwoven with gold threads);<a name="FNanchor_209_209" id="FNanchor_209_209"></a><a href="#Footnote_209_209" class="fnanchor">[209]</a> and &ldquo;ciclatoun,&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_210_210" id="FNanchor_210_210"></a><a href="#Footnote_210_210" class="fnanchor">[210]</a> which
+was remarkable for the lightness of its texture, and was
+woven with shining gold threads&mdash;but though light, it
+was stiff enough to carry heavy embroidery. We hear
+also of &ldquo;baudekin,&rdquo; &ldquo;nak,&rdquo; and cloth of pall. &ldquo;Camoca&rdquo;
+is &ldquo;kincob.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>There appears to be a link between embroidery in
+gold and the jewellers&rsquo; work which in the Dark and
+Middle Ages was so often applied to ecclesiastical and
+royal dress and hangings. This link was beaten gold
+work, &ldquo;aurobacutos,&rdquo; &ldquo;beaten work,&rdquo; or &ldquo;batony.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_211_211" id="FNanchor_211_211"></a><a href="#Footnote_211_211" class="fnanchor">[211]</a>
+Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick in the time of Henry
+VI., went over to France, having a &ldquo;coat for my lord&rsquo;s
+body, beat with fine gold (probably heraldic designs).
+For his ship, a streamer forty yards long and eight broad,
+with a great bear and griffin, and 400 &lsquo;pencils&rsquo; with the
+&lsquo;ragged staff&rsquo; in silver.&rdquo; This mode lasted some time;
+for in 1538, Barbara Mason bequeathed to a church a
+&ldquo;vestment of green silk beaten with gold.&rdquo; Probably
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>146]</a></span>
+this beaten gold was really very thick gold-leaf laid on
+the silk or linen ground, as we see still in some Sicilian
+and Arab tissues. The embroidered banners taken from
+Charles le T&eacute;m&eacute;raire, at Grandson, are finished with
+broad borders of gilded inscriptions, such as might be
+called beaten gold work.<a name="FNanchor_212_212" id="FNanchor_212_212"></a><a href="#Footnote_212_212" class="fnanchor">[212]</a></p>
+
+<p>But besides this thick gold-leaf, there was another
+mode of enriching embroideries. Lamin&aelig; of gold were
+cut into shapes, and finished the work by accentuating
+the design in Eastern embroideries; They are found
+also in Greek tombs, and in the Middle Ages they
+varied from the little golden spangle to many other
+forms&mdash;circular rings, stars, crescents, moons, leaves,
+and solid pendant wedges of gold, all which approached
+the art of the goldsmith.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig19" id="fig19"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf19.png" width="500" height="145"
+alt="Includes examples of round, cabochon and moon shaped spangles" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 19.<br />
+Spangles.</p>
+
+<p>Enamel was soon added to the enrichment of these
+golden spangles, plates, or discs, which were enlarged to
+receive a design.<a name="FNanchor_213_213" id="FNanchor_213_213"></a><a href="#Footnote_213_213" class="fnanchor">[213]</a> Of this style of embellishment we
+know none so striking as the saddle in the Museum at
+Munich, said to have been taken from a Turkish general
+in the fifteenth century. This is Italian of the finest
+cinque-cento style: blue velvet, covered with beautiful
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>147]</a></span>
+gold embroidery, and every vacant space filled with
+spangles of endless forms, and of precious goldsmiths&rsquo;
+and enamellers&rsquo; work. The Persian stirrups attached
+to it are of a totally different style of enamelling and
+jewellery, and speak for themselves, and for the school
+they came from.<a name="FNanchor_214_214" id="FNanchor_214_214"></a><a href="#Footnote_214_214" class="fnanchor">[214]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl33" id="pl33"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 33.</p>
+<img src="images/naap33t.jpg" width="400" height="209"
+alt="Curving vine patterns with cabochon jewels and pearls, and a central crown" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap33.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Window Hanging, by Gentil Bellini, from a Portrait of Mahomet II., property of Sir H. Layard.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Rock describes part of a chasuble wrought by
+Isabella of Spain and her maids of honour, in which the
+flowing design is worked out in small moulded spangles
+of gold and silver, set so as to overlap each other and
+give the effect of scales.</p>
+
+<p>To a late period, gold and silver embroideries, enriched
+with spangles, have been lavished on the head-dresses
+and stomachers of the peasantry throughout the north of
+Europe and Switzerland.<a name="FNanchor_215_215" id="FNanchor_215_215"></a><a href="#Footnote_215_215" class="fnanchor">[215]</a></p>
+
+<p>Pearls and gems, either threaded like beads, or in
+golden settings, are to be studied in the early pictures
+of the German and French schools; and the Anglo-Saxons
+excelled in such enrichments.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Henry Layard has a portrait of the fifteenth century,
+of the Sultan Mahomet II., by Gentil Bellini, from which
+has been copied the accompanying beautiful embroidered
+design of a window-hanging.<a name="FNanchor_216_216" id="FNanchor_216_216"></a><a href="#Footnote_216_216" class="fnanchor">[216]</a> The grace of the lines,
+and the delicate taste with which the gems are set in the
+work, are a lesson in art (pl. <a href="#pl33">33</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>148]</a></span>
+India sent to Europe more art in gold thread than has
+ever been produced amongst us from our own workshops.<a name="FNanchor_217_217" id="FNanchor_217_217"></a><a href="#Footnote_217_217" class="fnanchor">[217]</a></p>
+
+<p>The people of Goa, mostly Arabs, embroidered for
+the Portuguese those wonderful fabrics, glittering with
+gold and radiant with colours, which cover the beds and
+hang the rooms throughout Portugal and Spain.<a name="FNanchor_218_218" id="FNanchor_218_218"></a><a href="#Footnote_218_218" class="fnanchor">[218]</a> The
+precious metals (often forming the whole grounding)
+were employed without stint; the patterns being either
+embroidered in coloured silks and gold; or on velvets
+or satins, with gold alone or mixed with silver.</p>
+
+<p>The fine gold threads for embroidery, which have
+preserved their brilliancy for so many centuries, such as
+we find worked in Charlemagne&rsquo;s dalmatic, in Aelfled&rsquo;s
+maniple, and in the mitres of Thomas &agrave; Becket, are
+certainly Oriental. To England they came in the bales
+of the merchants who brought us our silk, and even our
+needles, from India. Later we imported and copied the
+different ways of giving effect to inferior metals, and the
+Spaniard&rsquo;s gilt parchment thread reached us from their
+Moorish manufactories.<a name="FNanchor_219_219" id="FNanchor_219_219"></a><a href="#Footnote_219_219" class="fnanchor">[219]</a></p>
+
+<p>Designs were sometimes, in the sixteenth century,
+worked in gold twisted with coloured silks, sometimes
+only stitched down with them. The badges of the Order
+of the Dragon, instituted by the Emperor Sigismund,
+were thus embroidered, and placed on the cloaks of the
+knights. The work was so perfect that it resembled
+jewels of enamelled gold. Two ancient ones are in the
+Museum at Munich.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>149]</a></span>
+Gold or silver or base metal wire was, in the later
+Middle Ages and down to our own times, much employed
+in the form of what is called &ldquo;purl,&rdquo; i.e. coiled wire cut
+into short lengths, threaded on silk, and sewn down.
+German, Italian, and English embroideries were often
+enriched with this fabric. Sometimes the wire was
+twisted with coloured silks before it was coiled. There
+are beautiful specimens of this work of the days of
+Queen Elizabeth.</p>
+
+<p>Still, throughout Europe the best works were carried
+out with the best materials, and these always came from
+the East. But we sometimes find that the pressure of
+circumstances has for a time caused the employment of
+adulterated metals that have perished; and thus many
+fine works of art have been spoiled.<a name="FNanchor_220_220" id="FNanchor_220_220"></a><a href="#Footnote_220_220" class="fnanchor">[220]</a></p>
+
+<p>The use of bad materials has therefore been as unfortunate
+for art as that of pure gold, which has tempted so
+many ignorant persons to burn golden embroideries and
+tapestries, and melt down the ore they contain. How
+little of all that human skill and invention have carefully
+elaborated is now preserved to us! To gold and silver
+textiles their materials have been often a fatal dower.</p>
+
+<p>It has sometimes puzzled any but the most experienced
+embroiderers to distinguish between the stuffs woven
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>150]</a></span>
+with the golden threads on the surface, and finely
+brocaded or patterned in the loom; and those other
+cloths, embroidered by hand, which have been so
+manipulated that hardly an atom of the gold can be
+detected at the back. This is done by a technical
+mode of treating the surface, which is more easily
+shown than described. The gold is really drawn into
+the spaces between the threads of the canvas or linen
+grounding, but never pulled through. For many reasons
+this is an advantage, and when executed cunningly, as
+it was in England in the twelfth century, it is rich,
+beautiful, lasting, and economical. It is a peculiar mark
+of the &ldquo;opus Anglicanum,&rdquo; and it is to be seen in the
+mitre at Munich, where this stitch is employed on a
+white satin ground;<a name="FNanchor_221_221" id="FNanchor_221_221"></a><a href="#Footnote_221_221" class="fnanchor">[221]</a> also in the working of the two
+pluvials at San Giovanni Laterano at Rome, and at the
+Museum at Bologna, as well as that at Madrid, which
+are all three English of the thirteenth century, by design
+as well as by stitches.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot close this chapter without naming the many
+schools of gold embroidery in Belgium, France, Germany,
+Italy, and Spain. The King of Bavaria has an establishment
+for gold work, and this is very finely carried out,
+highly raised, and richly designed.<a name="FNanchor_222_222" id="FNanchor_222_222"></a><a href="#Footnote_222_222" class="fnanchor">[222]</a> In Spain there is
+also a Royal School, where stately works are executed.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be regretted that the modern designs are motiveless,
+and not so beautiful as the old ones, and it is very
+difficult to have any ancient piece of work copied exactly.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>151]</a></span>
+Little modernisms creep in wherever the pattern has
+to be fitted into a new shape; for the accomplished
+needlewoman is seldom an artist.</p>
+
+<p>All honour is due to certain manufacturers at Lyons
+who are working in the spirit of the old masters, and have
+been seriously considering how best to reproduce the
+beautiful soft surface of the gold thread of which the
+secret was lost in the fifteenth century.<a name="FNanchor_223_223" id="FNanchor_223_223"></a><a href="#Footnote_223_223" class="fnanchor">[223]</a></p>
+
+<p>The old Chinese flat gold was, about the sixteenth
+century, superseded by what was manufactured in Spain,
+and is no longer imported or, perhaps, even made.</p>
+
+
+<h4>6. SILK.</h4>
+
+<p>The origin and history of silk is learnedly and elaborately
+discussed in Yates&rsquo; &ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum.&rdquo;
+He gives us his authorities, and literal translations for
+the benefit of the unlearned, who cannot read the original
+texts. I have availed myself without hesitation of his
+quotations, and of the carefully considered opinions he
+has drawn from them.</p>
+
+<p>It has been already said that wool and flax preceded silk
+in Egyptian, Greek, and Roman manufactures. There is
+no certain mention of silk in the Books of the Old Testament.<a name="FNanchor_224_224" id="FNanchor_224_224"></a><a href="#Footnote_224_224" class="fnanchor">[224]</a>
+Silk is, however, named in the Code of Manu.<a name="FNanchor_225_225" id="FNanchor_225_225"></a><a href="#Footnote_225_225" class="fnanchor">[225]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>152]</a></span>
+No shred of silk has been found in any Egyptian
+tomb, nor till lately, and with one exception only, in
+those of the Greeks.</p>
+
+<p>Auberville says, &ldquo;La soie ne fit son apparition en
+Europe que 300 ans avant notre &egrave;re.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_226_226" id="FNanchor_226_226"></a><a href="#Footnote_226_226" class="fnanchor">[226]</a></p>
+
+<p>Pamphile, daughter of Plates, of Cos, is said by
+Aristotle to have there first woven silk (300 <small>B.C.</small>).
+Probably raw silk was brought to Cos from the interior
+of Asia, and Pamphile is by some supposed to have
+&ldquo;effil&egrave;d&rdquo; the solid manufactured silks, and woven them
+again into gauzy webs. Yates suggests that it is possible
+that Pamphile obtained cocoons and unwound
+them, as the passage in Aristotle may be so interpreted.</p>
+
+<p>The specimen of early silk-weaving which we have
+above alluded to, was taken out of the &ldquo;Tomb of the
+Seven Brothers&rdquo; at Kertch, in the Crimea, and is of the
+third century <small>B.C.</small> It consists of several bits of very
+transparent painted silk. These fragments are an actual
+and yet a contemporary witness to the truth of the tradition
+of Pamphile&rsquo;s Coan webs, which are of the same
+date: possibly they were her handiwork.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 256px;">
+<a name="pl34" id="pl34"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 34.</p>
+<img src="images/naap34t.jpg" width="256" height="400"
+alt="1. Reclining human figures; 2. Human and animal figures" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap34.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caphang">1. Classical Silk. Greek. (Semper&rsquo;s &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; p. 192.) 2. Classical Silk.
+Roman. (Auberville, pl. 4.)</p>
+
+<p>Whether Pamphile&rsquo;s silk gauzes were the only fine
+webs of Cos,<a name="FNanchor_227_227" id="FNanchor_227_227"></a><a href="#Footnote_227_227" class="fnanchor">[227]</a> is a disputed question. She has the credit
+of being the first to clothe victorious generals in triumphal
+garments, and she has been immortalized by her cleverness
+and industry. Both Aristotle and Pliny assert that
+she first invented the Coan webs, and that some of them
+were of silk is undoubted. The question is, How came
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>153]</a></span>
+it there? whence and by what route? and what country
+was its original home and birthplace?</p>
+
+<p>After stating the <i>pros</i> and <i>cons</i> of the question, how
+and where did silk first make its appearance, Sir G.
+Birdwood concludes that both the worm and the cocoon
+were known to the Greeks and Romans, by report and
+rare specimens, from the time of Alexander&rsquo;s return from
+his Indian campaign.<a name="FNanchor_228_228" id="FNanchor_228_228"></a><a href="#Footnote_228_228" class="fnanchor">[228]</a></p>
+
+<p>Of course the remains of these fabrics are extremely
+scarce; and, in fact, only two are at present known to me
+besides the Kertch specimen. The first is given in Semper&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; and is evidently classical Greek or Roman;
+but the silk material might have been effil&egrave;d from an
+Oriental stuff (pl. <a href="#pl34">34</a>, No. 1). The second must have
+been originally a Roman pattern, modified by the Persian
+loom in which it was woven. This may have been a Roman
+triumphal robe of the date of Julius C&aelig;sar (pl. <a href="#pl34">34</a>, No. 2).</p>
+
+<p>It is clear that Chinese silken stuffs were not generally
+known in Southern Europe till the time of Julius
+C&aelig;sar, who displayed a profusion of silks in some of his
+splendid theatrical representations.</p>
+
+<p>How silk first arrived from the East is disputed; some
+say it came by the Red Sea, and other authorities believe
+it was brought from China, <i>vi&acirc;</i> Persia, by land.</p>
+
+<p>But it is not necessary that it should have entered
+our civilization by only one gate. The Periplus Maris
+Erythr&aelig;i makes frequent mention of the trade in silks,
+through India, by the Indus to the coasts of the
+Erythrean Sea. They were also brought through Bactria
+to Barygaza, near Surat, from a city called Thina
+(China?). The author of the Periplus, of course, refers
+to some place in the country vaguely called Serica.<a name="FNanchor_229_229" id="FNanchor_229_229"></a><a href="#Footnote_229_229" class="fnanchor">[229]</a></p>
+
+<p>That the trade which brought it into Europe was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>154]</a></span>
+difficult and limited, is proved by the fact that silk continued,
+even as late as the third century of our era, to be
+an article of luxury, of which the manufacture and use
+continued to be the subject of legal enactments and
+restrictions, for 600 years after Pamphile&rsquo;s first essay in
+silk-weaving in Cos.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The Seres&rdquo; was the name given by the ancients to
+the nation which produced silk; and it was undoubtedly
+that accepted for the distant region now called China,
+including Corea, and later, the kingdom of Khotan.
+The first mention of these people as a distinct nation
+is by Mela (iii. 7), who speaks of them as an &ldquo;honest
+people, who bring what they have to sell, and return for
+their payments.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_230_230" id="FNanchor_230_230"></a><a href="#Footnote_230_230" class="fnanchor">[230]</a></p>
+
+<p>The prevailing idea amongst the Greeks was that silk
+was combed from the trees. Seneca says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Nor with M&aelig;onian needle mark the web,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Gathered by Eastern Seres from the trees.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet">Seneca the Tragedian, &ldquo;Herc. &AElig;t&aelig;us,&rdquo; 644.<a name="FNanchor_231_231" id="FNanchor_231_231"></a><a href="#Footnote_231_231" class="fnanchor">[231]</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This was, till lately, believed to be only a fiction,
+intended to hide the truth and enhance the value of the
+new Coan material. But it is now ascertained that some
+of the wild silk in China is carried by the silkworm round
+the trees, wrapping them up, as it were, in large, untidy
+cocoons; so that, as usual, tradition had truth for its
+foundation.</p>
+
+<p>There was always much mysterious report about the
+new material. Dionysius Periegetes tells of a barbarous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>155]</a></span>
+people called the Seres, who &ldquo;renounce the care of sheep
+and oxen, but who comb the coloured flowers of the desert,
+and with them produce woven precious stuffs, of which
+they make figured garments, resembling the flowers of
+the field in beauty, and in texture the web of the
+spider.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_232_232" id="FNanchor_232_232"></a><a href="#Footnote_232_232" class="fnanchor">[232]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that as Egypt was the first to
+weave linen, and India to produce cotton textiles, so in
+China originated the material of silk and its manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>M. Terrien de la Couperie, who has deciphered the
+Archaic books of the Chinese Records, sees there excellent
+linguistic proofs that the Chinese nation was originally a
+fragment of the first Babylonian civilization. He there
+finds that when these Accadians arrived on the furthest
+eastern coast of Asia, they met with and enslaved an
+aboriginal race, who already cultivated the silkworm, and
+wove and worked its produce, and were called by them
+&ldquo;the Embroiderers.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_233_233" id="FNanchor_233_233"></a><a href="#Footnote_233_233" class="fnanchor">[233]</a></p>
+
+<p>This is supposed to have been an historical event
+contemporary with the life of Abraham, and, therefore,
+5000 years old.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese say that Tekin or Sin, the son of
+Japhet, instructed his children in painting, sculpture, and
+embroidery, and in the art of preparing <em>silk</em> for different
+woven fabrics.<a name="FNanchor_234_234" id="FNanchor_234_234"></a><a href="#Footnote_234_234" class="fnanchor">[234]</a></p>
+
+<p>Whether we are justified or not in believing in so very
+early a date, at any rate we must remember that it is
+now ascertained that silk was used in China 2600 years
+before our era.</p>
+
+<p>Auberville says there is a legend that the Empress
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>156]</a></span>
+Si-ling-chi<a name="FNanchor_235_235" id="FNanchor_235_235"></a><a href="#Footnote_235_235" class="fnanchor">[235]</a> (2600 <small>B.C.</small>) had the happy inspiration to
+invent the unwinding of the cocoon before the insect
+cut the threads; and for this discovery she was placed
+among the divinities.</p>
+
+<p>Before her time, they had certainly for more than
+300 years used the precious material in its mutilated
+condition.<a name="FNanchor_236_236" id="FNanchor_236_236"></a><a href="#Footnote_236_236" class="fnanchor">[236]</a></p>
+
+<p>Some centuries later the Emperor Chan received tribute
+in linens and silken stuffs. Tissues of many colours were
+painted or richly embroidered.<a name="FNanchor_237_237" id="FNanchor_237_237"></a><a href="#Footnote_237_237" class="fnanchor">[237]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the second century <small>A.D.</small>, a prince of Khotan,<a name="FNanchor_238_238" id="FNanchor_238_238"></a><a href="#Footnote_238_238" class="fnanchor">[238]</a> Kiu-sa-tan-na,
+was desirous of obtaining from China the eggs
+of the silkworm, but his request was refused; and it
+was prohibited that either eggs of the silkworm or seed
+of mulberry-trees should cross the border.</p>
+
+<p>Then the King of Khotan asked for a Chinese princess
+in marriage, and this favour being granted, he found
+means to inform the lady privately that in her future
+kingdom she would find no silk to weave or work. The
+dread of such an aimless life roused all her womanly
+instincts. Defiance of the law, love of smuggling, and the
+wish to please her husband and benefit her future people,
+gave her courage to conceal the eggs and seeds in the
+folds of her dress and the meshes of her beautiful hair, and
+so she carried a most precious dower into her adopted
+country.<a name="FNanchor_239_239" id="FNanchor_239_239"></a><a href="#Footnote_239_239" class="fnanchor">[239]</a> Thus was broken the spell which for more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>157]</a></span>
+than 3000 years had confined the secret of China within
+the fence of its wonderful wall; and later on, <small>A.D.</small> 530,
+the eggs were brought to Byzantium.<a name="FNanchor_240_240" id="FNanchor_240_240"></a><a href="#Footnote_240_240" class="fnanchor">[240]</a></p>
+
+<p>From China, therefore, comes our silk.<a name="FNanchor_241_241" id="FNanchor_241_241"></a><a href="#Footnote_241_241" class="fnanchor">[241]</a> We may say
+it is traced to the beginning; but how far back had the
+arch&aelig;ologist to grope before he could find it!</p>
+
+<p>I transcribe a few more quotations from Yates&rsquo; translations
+and authorities.<a name="FNanchor_242_242" id="FNanchor_242_242"></a><a href="#Footnote_242_242" class="fnanchor">[242]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the Hippolytus of Euripides, 383, Ph&aelig;dra <i>loquitur</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Remove, ye maids, the vests whose tissue glares<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With purple and with gold; far be the red<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of Syrian murex; this the shining thread<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which furthest Seres gathers from the boughs.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Lucan describes the transparent material which veiled
+Cleopatra&rsquo;s form:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Her snowy breast shines through Sidonian threads,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">First by the comb of distant Seres struck;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Divided then by Egypt&rsquo;s skilful hand,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And with embroidery transparent made.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pliny&rsquo;s account of silk and its manufacture is mostly
+fanciful, though founded on half-known facts.</p>
+
+<p>The Latin poets of the Augustan age speak of silk
+attire with other luxurious customs from the East.<a name="FNanchor_243_243" id="FNanchor_243_243"></a><a href="#Footnote_243_243" class="fnanchor">[243]</a> The
+Roman senate, in the reign of Tiberius, decreed that
+only women should wear silk, on account of its effeminacy.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>158]</a></span>
+Silk was accumulated for the wardrobes of the empresses
+till <small>A.D.</small> 176, when Marcus Aurelius, &ldquo;the Philosopher,&rdquo;
+sold all the imperial ornaments and the silken
+robes of his empress by auction in the Forum of Trajan.<a name="FNanchor_244_244" id="FNanchor_244_244"></a><a href="#Footnote_244_244" class="fnanchor">[244]</a></p>
+
+<p>We learn that silk was precious and fabulously esteemed
+to the end of the second century <small>A.D.</small>; but it is seldom
+mentioned in the third century.</p>
+
+<p>&AElig;lius Lampridius speaks of a silken cord with which
+to hang himself, as an imperial extravagance on the part
+of Heliogabalus (and of this only one strand was silk);
+and he mentions that Alexander Severus rarely allowed
+himself a dress of silk (holosericum), and only gave away
+robes of partly silken substance.</p>
+
+<p>Flavius Vopiscus says that Aurelian had no dress
+wholly of silk (holosericum).<a name="FNanchor_245_245" id="FNanchor_245_245"></a><a href="#Footnote_245_245" class="fnanchor">[245]</a> His wife begged him to
+allow her a shawl of purple silk, and he replied, &ldquo;Far be
+it from me to permit thread to be reckoned worth its
+weight in gold!&rdquo;&mdash;for a pound of gold was then worth a
+pound of silk.</p>
+
+<p>Flavius Vopiscus further states that the Emperor
+Carinus, however, gave away silken garments, as well
+as dresses of gold and silver, to Greek artificers, players,
+wrestlers, and musicians.<a name="FNanchor_246_246" id="FNanchor_246_246"></a><a href="#Footnote_246_246" class="fnanchor">[246]</a></p>
+
+<p>Yates gives us a translation of an edict of Diocletian,
+giving a maximum of prices for articles in common use
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>159]</a></span>
+in the Roman empire. It reads like a tailor&rsquo;s or a dress-maker&rsquo;s
+bill of to-day:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Diocletian&rsquo;s maximum prices">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="tdr"><small>DENARII.</small></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">To the tailor, for lining a fine vest</td>
+    <td class="tdr">6<span class="space">&nbsp;</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">To the same, for an opening of an edging of silk</td>
+    <td class="tdr">50<span class="space">&nbsp;</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">To the same, for an opening and an edging of a mixed tissue of silk and flax</td>
+    <td class="tdr">30<span class="space">&nbsp;</span></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">For an edging of a coarser vest</td>
+    <td class="tdr">4<a name="FNanchor_247_247" id="FNanchor_247_247"></a><a href="#Footnote_247_247" class="fnanchor">[247]</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>A monument at Tivoli is erected to the memory of
+his estimable wife, Valeria Chrysis, by &ldquo;M. N. Poculus,
+silk manufacturer.&rdquo; This was probably an imperial office
+in the fourth century.<a name="FNanchor_248_248" id="FNanchor_248_248"></a><a href="#Footnote_248_248" class="fnanchor">[248]</a></p>
+
+<p>From the first to the sixth centuries, poets and historians
+continually speak of silk,<a name="FNanchor_249_249" id="FNanchor_249_249"></a><a href="#Footnote_249_249" class="fnanchor">[249]</a> praising its beauty or
+blaming it as extravagance or luxury; but according to
+Yates, all the information we collect from these sources
+requires to be tested as to accuracy, and is often erroneous.</p>
+
+<p>I have spoken of the first silk-weaving in Cos, 300 <small>B.C.</small>
+The first arrival of the silkworm in Europe was in the
+sixth century, 900 years later. Cosmas Indicopleustes
+and another monk brought eggs from China in the
+hollow staves they carried in their hands. This was
+a great event in European commerce. The eggs were
+solemnly presented to the Emperor Justinian, and the
+monopoly of their cultivation is to be found in his
+law-ordaining codex.<a name="FNanchor_250_250" id="FNanchor_250_250"></a><a href="#Footnote_250_250" class="fnanchor">[250]</a></p>
+
+<p>The monopoly of the silk manufactures was confined
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>160]</a></span>
+to the area of the imperial palace of Constantinople, but
+the cultivation of the worm gradually spread over Greece,
+Asia Minor, and India.</p>
+
+<p>The first allusion to the use of silk in the Christian
+Church is by Gregory Nazianzen (<small>A.D.</small> 370), &ldquo;Ad Hellenium
+pro Monarchis Carmen:&rdquo; &ldquo;Silver and gold some
+bring to God, or the fine thread by Seres spun.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_251_251" id="FNanchor_251_251"></a><a href="#Footnote_251_251" class="fnanchor">[251]</a> Basil
+illustrates the idea of the resurrection by the birth of
+the butterfly from the cocoon.<a name="FNanchor_252_252" id="FNanchor_252_252"></a><a href="#Footnote_252_252" class="fnanchor">[252]</a></p>
+
+<p>Paul the Silentiary (<small>A.D.</small> 562) alludes to the frequent
+use of silk in the priests&rsquo; vestments at the Church of
+St. Sophia at Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p>Bede relates that the first Abbot of Wearmouth went
+to Rome for the fifth time in <small>A.D.</small> 685, and brought back
+with him two scarves or palls of incomparable workmanship,
+and entirely of silk, with which he purchased land
+of three families at the mouth of the Wear. Bede&rsquo;s own
+remains were wrapped in silk.</p>
+
+<p>Auberville gives us, in his &ldquo;Tissus,&rdquo; specimens of
+Roman silks between the first and seventh centuries,
+but he cannot fix their exact date.<a name="FNanchor_253_253" id="FNanchor_253_253"></a><a href="#Footnote_253_253" class="fnanchor">[253]</a></p>
+
+<p>The finest webs of Holosericum from the imperial
+looms were generally bestowed upon the Church, and
+thus consecrated, the earliest ascertained specimens that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>161]</a></span>
+have survived have been preserved; and of these, most
+have been found in the tombs of saints, bishops, and
+kings who were buried in priestly as well as in royal
+garments.<a name="FNanchor_254_254" id="FNanchor_254_254"></a><a href="#Footnote_254_254" class="fnanchor">[254]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the silk and satin fabrics, the tissue called
+&ldquo;Imperial&rdquo; is mentioned by several early English authors.
+Roger de Wendover and Matthew Paris describe the
+apparition of King John as clad in &ldquo;royal robes of
+Imperial.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_255_255" id="FNanchor_255_255"></a><a href="#Footnote_255_255" class="fnanchor">[255]</a> William de Magna Villa brought from
+Greece, in 1170, a stuff called Imperial, &ldquo;marbled&rdquo; or
+variegated, and covered with lions woven in gold.</p>
+
+<p>In the Eastern Empire, this industry after a time fell
+into the hands of the Jews; and in 1161, Benjamin of
+Tudela says the city of Thebes contained about 2000
+Jewish silk-weavers.</p>
+
+<p>The breeding of the worm in Europe seems to have
+been confined to Greece from the time of Justinian to
+the twelfth century; but in 1148, Roger, King of Sicily,
+brought as prisoners of war, from Corinth, Thebes, and
+Athens, many silk-weavers, and settled them at Palermo.
+&ldquo;Then might be seen Corinthians and Thebans of both
+sexes, employed in weaving velvet stoles interwoven
+with gold, and serving like the Eretrians of old among
+the Persians.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_256_256" id="FNanchor_256_256"></a><a href="#Footnote_256_256" class="fnanchor">[256]</a></p>
+
+<p>Hugh Falcandus<a name="FNanchor_257_257" id="FNanchor_257_257"></a><a href="#Footnote_257_257" class="fnanchor">[257]</a> has left a description of the Royal
+manufactory at Palermo, and the Hotel de Tiraz which absorbed
+all the smaller Saracenic factories already started.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>162]</a></span>
+The Hotel de Tiraz had four great workshops, in which
+were separately carried on the weaving of plain tissues,
+velvets, examits and satins, and flowered stuffs (damasks),
+and lastly, gold brocades and embroideries. It was from
+the last that proceeded the real works of art, and the
+embroideries with pearls and precious stones.<a name="FNanchor_258_258" id="FNanchor_258_258"></a><a href="#Footnote_258_258" class="fnanchor">[258]</a> The
+highest efforts of the loom were apparently finished with
+the needle,<a name="FNanchor_259_259" id="FNanchor_259_259"></a><a href="#Footnote_259_259" class="fnanchor">[259]</a> as in the figured textiles of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The continuity of Sicilian textile designs from the sixth
+to the sixteenth centuries (a thousand years) is very
+remarkable. Owing to its originally strongly stamped
+Oriental character, great knowledge of the arts of weaving,
+spinning, and dyeing silk is required to enable any one to
+assign an exact date to materials which only remodelled
+their style three times.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Rock&rsquo;s rules for deciphering these three dates
+may, however, be easily learned, as they are broad and
+simple. In his comprehensive &ldquo;Introduction to the
+Textiles in the Kensington Museum&rdquo; (p. lxvii) he says
+that the three defined periods of silk-weaving in Sicily
+are: First, from the time of Justinian to the Hohenstaufen
+(from the sixth to the twelfth century); secondly,
+from the accession of Frederick I. (Barbarossa), 1152,
+to Charles IV., 1347 (twelfth to fourteenth centuries);
+the third period is of one century only, from 1347 to 1456.</p>
+
+<p>The first period especially shows African animals,
+such as the giraffe and the different kinds of antelopes,
+mixed with Arabian mottoes; and the patterns are
+generally woven with gold. This is merely gilt parchment,
+the silk being mingled with cotton.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 293px;">
+<a name="pl35" id="pl35"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 35.</p>
+<img src="images/naap35t.jpg" width="293" height="400"
+alt="Stylised peacock forming an oval motif" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap35.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Peacock Pattern. Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.</p>
+
+<p>The second period, beginning in the twelfth century,
+shows the arrival of Count Roger&rsquo;s Persian and Greek
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>163]</a></span>
+workmen, captives from Thebes, Corinth, and Athens.
+The fresh designs show fragments of Greek taste, such
+as masks and foliage, and give one a slight foretaste of
+the Renaissance.<a name="FNanchor_260_260" id="FNanchor_260_260"></a><a href="#Footnote_260_260" class="fnanchor">[260]</a></p>
+
+<p>These semi-classical echoes are contemporary in the
+Sicilian looms with such Norman motives as a crowned
+sovereign riding with a hawk upon his wrist.</p>
+
+<p>This description singularly applies to the relics removed
+from the tomb of St. Cuthbert, at Durham, in 1827; among
+which are fragments of three wrappings, or garments
+of silk, so suggestive of the artistic traditions of many
+nationalities, and the long descent of patterns, recognizable
+after the lapse of centuries, that a description of them,
+accompanied by illustrations, can hardly fail to be interesting.
+They are all now reduced by time to a rich golden
+brown, though there are indications that blue, green, and
+red have been woven into their fabric, and there are also
+on one of them traces of gilding. The first (plate <a href="#pl35">35</a>)
+shows Oriental conventional peacocks, double-headed and
+collared, framed within circles which slightly intersect
+each other, thus giving the opportunity for varying the
+original motive by breaking up the rolling arabesqued
+pattern, and uniting the stems and flowers contained in
+the border. The spaces between the circles are filled
+in with gryphons in pairs, of the Babylonian stamp, thick
+limbed with strongly-marked muscles. There is a border
+or guimp, Persian in character, in which are small crosses
+surmounting repetitions of the crenelated pattern found
+in Assyrian ornament.</p>
+
+<p>The second piece of silk contains a large rosace.
+Scattered about it are repetitions of the Persian leaf
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>164]</a></span>
+or tree of life, and the border consists of kneeling
+hares or fawns between a Persian arabesque and a corded
+line. The mixture of Egyptian and Assyrian styles is
+remarkable throughout, till we come to the centre of the
+rosace, where we find a most incongruous man in armour
+on horseback with a hawk on his wrist, giving the Norman
+stamp of the reigning house and influence in Sicily.
+The central subject is exactly repeated on an embroidered
+twelfth century chasuble in the treasury of the Cathedral
+of Bamberg, only that a royal crown and robes are worn
+by the horseman (pl. <a href="#pl36">36</a>).<a name="FNanchor_261_261" id="FNanchor_261_261"></a><a href="#Footnote_261_261" class="fnanchor">[261]</a></p>
+
+<p>The third specimen is the most noteworthy (plate
+<a href="#pl37">37</a>). There is nothing of Assyrian here, but it reminds
+one of Egyptian and Greek art, and at once suggests
+Count Roger&rsquo;s Greek slaves at the Sicilian looms, but
+the design is probably of a much earlier date, and the
+subject is puzzling. A piece of drapery resembling an
+Egyptian sail with its fringes<a name="FNanchor_262_262" id="FNanchor_262_262"></a><a href="#Footnote_262_262" class="fnanchor">[262]</a> (pl. <a href="#pl38">38</a>) is looped up on
+each side to the head of a thyrsus, and above it hangs a
+large cluster of fruits. The lower part of the drapery
+rests upon water, and is somewhat like a boat, with ducks
+swimming towards it, and fish disporting themselves in
+the rippling waves. Between the circles the ducks are
+repeated, facing a shield enriched with rows of the crenelated
+pattern surmounted by a vine.</p>
+
+<p>These fragments have belonged each to a very large
+and freely woven silk shawl or mantle. The circles are
+about two feet across. There is a different arrangement
+of the threads in each web, giving different fine diapers,
+and the last described has a raised pattern which might
+have been intended to represent water.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 278px;">
+<a name="pl36" id="pl36"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 36.</p>
+<img src="images/naap36t.jpg" width="278" height="400"
+alt="A rider on horseback, with falcon and a cat(?); a border of rabbits at the bottom " />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap36.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="topcapt smcap">Norman and Persian Type.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">A Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 284px;">
+<a name="pl37" id="pl37"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 37.</p>
+<img src="images/naap37t.jpg" width="284" height="400"
+alt="Ducks and fish in a circular motif bordered with fruit" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap37.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="topcapt smcap">Gr&aelig;co-Egyptian Style.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">A Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="pl38" id="pl38"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 38.</p>
+<img src="images/naap38.png" width="500" height="404" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caphang">Boat with coloured sail, from the tomb of Rameses III. at Thebes. (Wilkinson&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; iii. p. 211.) Explanatory of the design on St. Cuthbert&rsquo;s
+silk shroud, pl. <a href="#pl37">37</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>165]</a></span>
+It is most likely that in the twelfth century, or even a
+little later, the body of St. Cuthbert was wrapped in these
+shawls, and so left when at the Reformation, his shrine
+was destroyed, and the coffer containing his remains
+buried in the same place, and piously concealed till our
+own day. I shall describe the beautiful embroideries in
+which the body had been clothed in the tenth century
+when I come to the subject of English work.</p>
+
+<p>The third period of silk-weaving art is unmistakably
+Sicilian. At the end of the thirteenth century and
+beginning of the fourteenth, Palermo struck out her own
+line. The Greek cross appears in various forms. The
+designs are of a wonderful richness and capricious ingenuity.
+They show alike Asiatic, African, and European
+animals, and every kind of mythological creature&mdash;griffins,
+dragons, dogs, and harts, with large wings;
+swans, pheasants, and eagles, single or double-headed,
+often pecking at the sun&rsquo;s rays; beautifully drawn foliage
+and flowers, and heraldic emblems and coats-of-arms.
+One peculiarity of the third period is the frequent use of
+green patterns on &ldquo;murrey&rdquo;-coloured grounds.</p>
+
+<p>All this splendour of design was commonly lavished
+on poor material. The silks continued to be mixed with
+cotton, and the gold, or rather the gilding, was so base
+that it has almost always become black on the foundation
+strips of parchment or paper.<a name="FNanchor_263_263" id="FNanchor_263_263"></a><a href="#Footnote_263_263" class="fnanchor">[263]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>166]</a></span>
+The heraldic silks are mostly of the time of the Crusades,
+when the distinguished pilgrims and warriors, especially
+the English, made Sicily their half-way house to the Holy
+Land, and brought from thence fabrics woven to suit
+their tastes. In Auberville&rsquo;s book we find, under the
+dates of many centuries, the most remarkable fragments
+now known. On portrait-tombs and in some very ancient
+pictures are figured beautiful silks woven in gold, which
+are recognizable at once by their Arab-Sicilian style.
+Of this type, the remarkable fragment of the dress of
+Richard II., in the Kensington Museum, dates itself,
+by carrying the cognizances of his grandfather and his
+mother, and the portrait of his dog Math.<a name="FNanchor_264_264" id="FNanchor_264_264"></a><a href="#Footnote_264_264" class="fnanchor">[264]</a></p>
+
+<p>The last period of the Sicilian silks is especially marked
+by the inscriptions being mostly nonsense, and only
+woven in as ornament, with the forms of Arab lettering.<a name="FNanchor_265_265" id="FNanchor_265_265"></a><a href="#Footnote_265_265" class="fnanchor">[265]</a></p>
+
+<p>Sir G. Birdwood says that whether the Saracens
+found the manufacture of silk already established in
+India or not, they certainly influenced the decorative
+designs. He adds that kincobs are now woven at
+Ahmedabad and Benares, identical in design with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>167]</a></span>
+old Sicilian brocades; while the Saracenic Sicilian silks
+abound in patterns which prove their origin in Assyrian,
+Sassanian, or Indian art.</p>
+
+<p>We know that the Saracens introduced colonies of
+Persian, and probably Indian workmen into Spain, after
+the beginning of the ninth century, to assist them in their
+architecture and textile manufactures, and in return the
+Mogul emperors of Delhi invited many Italian and
+French designers into India.</p>
+
+<p>The Taj and other buildings in Rajpootana are
+decorated with exquisite mosaics coeval with those of
+Austin of Bordeaux. Their styles of art in textiles, and
+in other materials, have acted and reacted upon each
+other; and nothing throws more light on the affinities
+and the development of the modern decorative arts of
+Europe than the history of the introduction, under
+Justinian, of the silk manufactures from the East into
+the West.<a name="FNanchor_266_266" id="FNanchor_266_266"></a><a href="#Footnote_266_266" class="fnanchor">[266]</a></p>
+
+<p>From Palermo, all the stages of the manufacture of
+silk spread themselves over Italy and into Spain. According
+to Nicolo Tegrini, the flourishing silk-weavers
+of Lucca having been ejected from the city in the early
+part of the fourteenth century, carried their art elsewhere,
+and even to Germany, France, and Britain.<a name="FNanchor_267_267" id="FNanchor_267_267"></a><a href="#Footnote_267_267" class="fnanchor">[267]</a></p>
+
+<p>Italian weavers went to Lyons in 1450, and so started
+the silk industry that it has steadily increased till now.
+It gives employment to about 31,000 looms and 240,000
+workpeople of both sexes.</p>
+
+<p>The Moors, when they overflowed into Iberia, carried
+with them all their Orientalisms, traditions, manufactures,
+and designs; thus disobeying their prophet, who forbade
+the use of silk except to women.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>168]</a></span>
+Senhor F. de Riano tells us that from the ninth to
+the eleventh centuries, Spain was producing fine silk
+tissues. The Moorish Cordovese writer, Ash-Shakandi,
+who lived in the beginning of the thirteenth century,
+says, &ldquo;Malaga is famous for its manufactures of silks of
+all colours and patterns, some of which are so rich that
+a suit made of them will cost many thousands. Such
+are the brocades with beautiful designs and the names
+of the Caliphs, Ameers, and other wealthy people woven
+into them.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_268_268" id="FNanchor_268_268"></a><a href="#Footnote_268_268" class="fnanchor">[268]</a></p>
+
+<p>The same author, speaking of the manufactures of silk
+at Almeria, says that thence came the brightest colours;
+and Al-Makhari adds a list of precious silk tissues,
+naming the &ldquo;Tiraz,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Iscalaton,&rdquo; and the robes called
+each by its own special name.<a name="FNanchor_269_269" id="FNanchor_269_269"></a><a href="#Footnote_269_269" class="fnanchor">[269]</a> Ash-Shakandi also mentions
+the looms of Murcia, and its carpets.<a name="FNanchor_270_270" id="FNanchor_270_270"></a><a href="#Footnote_270_270" class="fnanchor">[270]</a></p>
+
+<p>When the Moors were driven from Spain, the silk
+works of Malaga and Almeria were ruined. But those
+of Valencia became famous, and flourish to this day.
+Talavera della Reina also produces fine ecclesiastical
+fabrics, and at Toledo the ancient traditions are preserved,
+and they still weave sixteenth-century designs.</p>
+
+<p>In Italy, Genoa, Florence, and Milan followed the
+Sicilian silk manufactures, and each has left specimens
+of the craft, of which Rock has pointed out the marked
+individualities.</p>
+
+<p>The rich stuffs with inscriptions inwoven in gold, in
+the Middle Ages, were called &ldquo;literatis.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>169]</a></span>
+The designs of Lucca at first imitated the Moorish
+Sicilian type; and introduced as their speciality, white
+figures, such as angels in white garments, and exchanged
+the Oriental intricate patterns for a bolder and simpler
+style.</p>
+
+<p>Venice, of course, also showed at first the Oriental
+impress; but she soon struck out a line of her own; and
+her especial invention was shown in weaving, from the
+thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, square pieces of
+silken tissue, representing sacred subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Florentine tissues, especially their velvet and gold
+brocades, were particularly splendid, and can be recognized
+by the loops of gold thread drawn to the surface
+and left there. Of these early Florentine gold brocades
+we have still beautiful examples in the palls of our City
+companies and in ancient ecclesiastical vestments. The
+loops of gold have been the custom since the thirteenth
+century, and still prevail in certain traditional fabrics, for
+instance, in the banners woven annually for the prizes
+at the horse races in Florence. The Corsini family, who
+have for many generations and for hundreds of years
+competed in these races, had, in their princely palace
+at Rome, a room entirely hung with the silk of these
+gorgeous banners.</p>
+
+<p>In Hungary, Queen Gisela, in the eleventh century,
+established looms for weaving silk; and many convents
+throughout Europe and in England wove silken tissues
+for the service of the Church, till the great manufactures
+absorbed these partially private enterprises.<a name="FNanchor_271_271" id="FNanchor_271_271"></a><a href="#Footnote_271_271" class="fnanchor">[271]</a></p>
+
+<p>Individual exertion produced copies, or motives that
+are taken from Eastern, Southern, or Northern inspirations;
+but it is only in large national schools of arts
+or crafts that an absolutely recognizable style becomes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>170]</a></span>
+apparent. For example, the early French silks from
+monastic establishments are not remarkable for either
+style or texture till the sixteenth century, when they
+came to the front as a national manufacture, and have held
+the highest place in silk-weaving ever since.</p>
+
+<p>The Flemish towns of Ypres, Ghent, and Mechlin
+were known for their silken webs in the thirteenth century,
+and at that time innumerable small schools of the craft
+seem to have covered Europe. They are constantly
+named in the lists of fine furnishings in Germany. In
+England, France, and Germany, as well as in the Low
+Countries, each convent had, besides its silk-weaving
+looms, its workshops for embroideries on silk, woollens,
+and linens, borrowing from the Byzantine Empire, Sicily,
+and Spain, their designs and patterns.</p>
+
+<p>About this time (the thirteenth century), Marco Polo
+resided and travelled in Asia. He visited the principal
+cities of Syria, Persia, Khotan, and Cathay, and from
+him we have information of the different Asiatic textiles,
+generally bearing the name of the city where they were
+woven. He names, for instance, the medi&aelig;val &ldquo;baudas&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;baudakin&rdquo; (with endless modifications in the spelling),
+from Baghdad. This afterwards gave the word
+baldachino to the awning or canopy over the altar,
+which it retained even when textiles had given place to
+marbles and mosaics.<a name="FNanchor_272_272" id="FNanchor_272_272"></a><a href="#Footnote_272_272" class="fnanchor">[272]</a></p>
+
+<p>Satin is only found named in catalogues about the
+fourteenth century. But the dalmatic of Charlemagne,
+at Rome, is embroidered on a stout blue satin, and has
+never been transferred; and at Constantinople, Baldwin
+II., at his coronation in 1204, was shod and clothed in
+vermilion satin embroidered with jewels; while all the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>171]</a></span>
+Venetian and French barons present were clad in satin.<a name="FNanchor_273_273" id="FNanchor_273_273"></a><a href="#Footnote_273_273" class="fnanchor">[273]</a>
+Semper and Bock believe that it had been a Chinese
+material long before it reached Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Satin was often called &ldquo;blattin,&rdquo; in connection with the
+colour of the cochineal insect (blatta), whose dye was
+invariably used for satin. We cannot tell, however, which
+was certainly named from the other.<a name="FNanchor_274_274" id="FNanchor_274_274"></a><a href="#Footnote_274_274" class="fnanchor">[274]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the poem of &ldquo;The Lady of the Fountain,&rdquo; translated
+by Lady Charlotte Guest from the Welsh ballads of the
+thirteenth century, silk and satin are often named. At
+the opening of the poem, King Arthur is described
+seated on a throne of rushes, covered with a flame-coloured
+satin cloth, and with a red satin cushion under
+his elbow.</p>
+
+<p>Fiery red was the orthodox colour for satin. In
+old German poems we find it described as &ldquo;pfellat,&rdquo;
+always as being fiery. One kind of pfellat was called
+salamander.<a name="FNanchor_275_275" id="FNanchor_275_275"></a><a href="#Footnote_275_275" class="fnanchor">[275]</a> Bruges satins were the most esteemed in
+the Middle Ages. Chaucer speaks of &ldquo;satin riche and
+newe.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_276_276" id="FNanchor_276_276"></a><a href="#Footnote_276_276" class="fnanchor">[276]</a></p>
+
+<p>Satin and velvet are the contrasting silken materials.
+In satin the threads are laid along so that the shining
+surface ripples with every ray of sunshine, and the
+shadows are melted into half-lights by the reflections from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>172]</a></span>
+every fold. It makes a dazzling garment, splendid in its
+radiant sheen; whereas in velvet, where each thread is
+placed upright and shorn smoothly, all light is absorbed and
+there are no reflections, and the whole effects are solemn,
+rich, and deep.<a name="FNanchor_277_277" id="FNanchor_277_277"></a><a href="#Footnote_277_277" class="fnanchor">[277]</a> Some of the oldest velvets resemble
+plush in the length of their pile, and have not the dignity of
+velvet.</p>
+
+<p>Semper, from the different derivations that have been
+suggested, selects the connection of the word &ldquo;velvet&rdquo;
+(German, <i>Felbert</i>) with &ldquo;welf,&rdquo; the skin or fur of an animal.<a name="FNanchor_278_278" id="FNanchor_278_278"></a><a href="#Footnote_278_278" class="fnanchor">[278]</a></p>
+
+<p>Among the gifts to Charlemagne (ninth century) from
+Haroun el Raschid were velvets; and the earliest existing
+specimen we know of is named by Bock as being in the
+Pergament Codex at Le Puy, in Vend&ocirc;me, where,
+amongst other curious interleaved specimens of weaving,
+is a fine piece of shorn silk velvet.<a name="FNanchor_279_279" id="FNanchor_279_279"></a><a href="#Footnote_279_279" class="fnanchor">[279]</a></p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo, in the thirteenth century, frequently speaks
+of velvet as an Asiatic fabric. It is first known as a
+European textile in Lucca, about 1295, and we may
+therefore say that it was imported from the East.<a name="FNanchor_280_280" id="FNanchor_280_280"></a><a href="#Footnote_280_280" class="fnanchor">[280]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the next chapter on <a href="#Page_175">colour</a> I have noticed the
+curious fact that the word purple was sometimes used
+to mean colour, and sometimes to express the texture
+of velvet, thus confounding the two; but I have also
+pointed out that it had other meanings, and had become
+a very comprehensive word for everything that expressed
+richness and warmth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>173]</a></span>
+While examining and judging embroideries, we must
+be careful not to be deceived by the different dates often
+occurring in the grounding and the applied materials.
+Much embroidery was worked on fabrics that were
+already old and even worn out; and others have been
+transferred centuries ago, and perhaps more than once, to
+fresh grounds.<a name="FNanchor_281_281" id="FNanchor_281_281"></a><a href="#Footnote_281_281" class="fnanchor">[281]</a></p>
+
+<p>This sometimes causes a good deal of difficulty in
+dating specimens. One should begin by ascertaining
+whether the needlework was originally intended to be cut
+out (<i>opus consutum</i>), and so laid on a ground of another
+material, and worked down and finished there.</p>
+
+<p>Of course it is always evident and easily ascertained,
+whether the work has been transferred at all. If so&mdash;and
+from each succeeding transference&mdash;small fragments may
+be found showing on the cut edges. You will often see
+remains of two or more of these layers, reminding you
+of the three Trojan cities dug up at different depths under
+each other at Hissarlik.</p>
+
+<p>In judging each specimen the acumen of the expert
+is needed to obtain a correct opinion, and he should
+not only be an arch&aelig;ologist, but a botanist and a herald
+besides;<a name="FNanchor_282_282" id="FNanchor_282_282"></a><a href="#Footnote_282_282" class="fnanchor">[282]</a> and, in fact, no kind of knowledge is useless in
+deciphering the secrets of human art. But even when
+so armed, he is often checked and puzzled by some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>174]</a></span>
+accidental caprice of design or mode of weaving, and
+after wasting trouble and time, has to cast it aside as
+defying classification.</p>
+
+<p>It is, however, as well to note these exceptions, as, when
+compared, they sometimes explain each other.</p>
+
+<p>What I have said regards, of course, the historical and
+arch&aelig;ological side of the study of textiles, and I have
+treated of them as being either the origin or the imitations
+of different styles of embroidery, and so inseparably
+connected with the art which is the subject and motive of
+this book; and not only in this does the connection
+between them exist, but in the fact that as embroideries
+always need a ground, silken and other textiles are an
+absolute necessity to their existence.</p>
+
+<p>For these reasons alone I have given this chapter on
+materials, short and imperfect, but suggesting further
+research into the writings of the authors I have quoted,
+and, I hope, exciting the interest of the reader.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_130_130" id="Footnote_130_130"></a><a href="#FNanchor_130_130"><span class="label">[130]</span></a>
+Periplus of the Erythrean Sea.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_131_131" id="Footnote_131_131"></a><a href="#FNanchor_131_131"><span class="label">[131]</span></a>
+It is described by Yates as having the appearance of a flat ribbon,
+with the edges thickened like a hem.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_132_132" id="Footnote_132_132"></a><a href="#FNanchor_132_132"><span class="label">[132]</span></a>
+This rough bark is probably the reason that it absorbs colour into
+its substance (perhaps under the scales); and it may also account for
+its being capable of felting.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_133_133" id="Footnote_133_133"></a><a href="#FNanchor_133_133"><span class="label">[133]</span></a>
+It may be laid down as a fundamental rule in technical style, that
+the product shall preserve the peculiar characteristics of the raw material.
+Unfortunately, the artist is often ignorant of the qualities of the fabric
+for which he is designing, and the workman who has to carry it out is
+a mechanic, in these days, instead of a craftsman.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_134_134" id="Footnote_134_134"></a><a href="#FNanchor_134_134"><span class="label">[134]</span></a>
+Molochinus, or malva silvestris (wild hemp), Yates, pp. 292-317, is
+sometimes spoken of as a mallow, sometimes as a nettle. In the
+Vocabulary of Papias (<small>A.D.</small> 1050) it is said that the cloth called molocina
+is made from thread of mallow, and used for dress in Egypt. Garments
+of molochinus were brought from India, according to the Periplus (see
+Pliny, 146, 166, 170, 171). It was seldom used by the ancients, but both
+Greeks and Romans made it serve for mats and ropes. The Thracians
+wove of it garments and sheets. It is not named in the Scriptures.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_135_135" id="Footnote_135_135"></a><a href="#FNanchor_135_135"><span class="label">[135]</span></a>
+See Gibbs&rsquo; &ldquo;British Honduras.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_136_136" id="Footnote_136_136"></a><a href="#FNanchor_136_136"><span class="label">[136]</span></a>
+Spartum was a rush. Pliny says it was used for the rigging of ships.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_137_137" id="Footnote_137_137"></a><a href="#FNanchor_137_137"><span class="label">[137]</span></a>
+The bark of trees such as the Hybiscus Tiliaceus, and that of the
+Birch (see Yates, p. 305-6). Birch bark was embroidered, till latterly,
+by the Indian women in North America with porcupines&rsquo; quills.
+Pigafetta says (writing in the sixteenth century) that in the kingdom of
+Congo many different kinds of stuff were manufactured from the palm-tree
+fibre. He instances cloths on which patterns were wrought, and
+likewise a material resembling &ldquo;velvet on both sides.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_138_138" id="Footnote_138_138"></a><a href="#FNanchor_138_138"><span class="label">[138]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Camoca&rdquo; or caman in the Middle Ages is supposed to have been
+of camels&rsquo; hair, mixed with silk. Edward the Black Prince left to
+his confessor his bed of red caman, with his arms embroidered on each
+corner. Rock (p. xliv) gives us information about the tents and garments
+of camels&rsquo; hair found throughout the East, wherever the camel flourishes
+and has a fine hairy winter coat, which it sheds in the heat. The
+coarser parts are used for common purposes, and the finest serve for
+beautiful fabrics, especially shawls. Marco Polo tells of beautiful
+camelots manufactured from the hair of camels; and of the Egyptian
+coarse and very fine fabrics woven of the same materials.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_139_139" id="Footnote_139_139"></a><a href="#FNanchor_139_139"><span class="label">[139]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Le Chevalier &agrave; Deux Ep&eacute;es&rdquo; (quoted by Dr. Rock), and Lady
+Wilton, &ldquo;Art of Needlework,&rdquo; p. 128.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_140_140" id="Footnote_140_140"></a><a href="#FNanchor_140_140"><span class="label">[140]</span></a>
+See p. <a href="#Page_359">359</a>, <i>post</i>, for Boadicea&rsquo;s dress.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_141_141" id="Footnote_141_141"></a><a href="#FNanchor_141_141"><span class="label">[141]</span></a>
+See Mr. Villiers Stuart&rsquo;s &ldquo;Funeral Tent of an Egyptian Queen.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_142_142" id="Footnote_142_142"></a><a href="#FNanchor_142_142"><span class="label">[142]</span></a>
+The Moors in Spain excelled in leather-work and embroidery upon it;
+and Marco Polo describes the beautiful productions of the province of
+Guzerat, of leather inlaid and embroidered with gold and silver wire.
+Yule&rsquo;s &ldquo;Marco Polo,&rdquo; p. 383.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_143_143" id="Footnote_143_143"></a><a href="#FNanchor_143_143"><span class="label">[143]</span></a>
+See chapter on <a href="#Page_194">Stitches</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_144_144" id="Footnote_144_144"></a><a href="#FNanchor_144_144"><span class="label">[144]</span></a>
+See Chardin, vol. i. p. 31.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_145_145" id="Footnote_145_145"></a><a href="#FNanchor_145_145"><span class="label">[145]</span></a>
+Tin, called &ldquo;laton,&rdquo; was used to debase the metal threads in the
+Middle Ages. It is also named as a legitimate material for metal
+embroideries.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_146_146" id="Footnote_146_146"></a><a href="#FNanchor_146_146"><span class="label">[146]</span></a>
+For all information about asbestos, see Yates, pp. 356, 565.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_147_147" id="Footnote_147_147"></a><a href="#FNanchor_147_147"><span class="label">[147]</span></a>
+There is one at the Barberini Palace at Rome. A sheet, woven of
+asbestos, found in a tomb outside the Porta Maggiore, is described by
+Sir J. E. Smith in his &ldquo;Tour on the Continent&rdquo; (vol. ii. p. 201) as being
+coarsely spun, but as soft and pliant as silk. &ldquo;We set fire to it, and
+the same part being repeatedly burnt, was not at all injured.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_148_148" id="Footnote_148_148"></a><a href="#FNanchor_148_148"><span class="label">[148]</span></a>
+See Yule&rsquo;s &ldquo;Marco Polo,&rdquo; vol. i. pp. 215, 218, and Yates, p. 361.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_149_149" id="Footnote_149_149"></a><a href="#FNanchor_149_149"><span class="label">[149]</span></a>
+There are specimens of bead-work pictures at St. Stephen&rsquo;s at
+Coire, in the Marien-Kirche at Dantzic, and elsewhere. See Rock,
+p. cv. This is, in fact, mosaic in textiles, without cement.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_150_150" id="Footnote_150_150"></a><a href="#FNanchor_150_150"><span class="label">[150]</span></a>
+Witness the stone whorls for the spindles in our prehistoric barrows,
+and the &ldquo;heaps&rdquo; of the lake cities.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_151_151" id="Footnote_151_151"></a><a href="#FNanchor_151_151"><span class="label">[151]</span></a>
+Yates, &ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo; p. 129.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_152_152" id="Footnote_152_152"></a><a href="#FNanchor_152_152"><span class="label">[152]</span></a>
+An Egyptian Dynasty called themselves the Shepherd Kings.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_153_153" id="Footnote_153_153"></a><a href="#FNanchor_153_153"><span class="label">[153]</span></a>
+Yates gives endless quotations to show how ancient and how
+honourable an occupation was that of tending sheep.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_154_154" id="Footnote_154_154"></a><a href="#FNanchor_154_154"><span class="label">[154]</span></a>
+Semper, i. p. 139. The cover of the bed on which was laid the
+golden coffin in the tomb of Cyrus was of Babylonian tapestry of wool;
+the carpet beneath it was woven of the finest wrought purple. Plautus
+mentions Babylonian hangings and embroidered tapestries. See Birdwood&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Indian Arts,&rdquo; i. p. 286.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_155_155" id="Footnote_155_155"></a><a href="#FNanchor_155_155"><span class="label">[155]</span></a>
+Joshua vii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_156_156" id="Footnote_156_156"></a><a href="#FNanchor_156_156"><span class="label">[156]</span></a>
+Ezekiel xxvii. 22.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_157_157" id="Footnote_157_157"></a><a href="#FNanchor_157_157"><span class="label">[157]</span></a>
+Semper, &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; i. p. 138.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_158_158" id="Footnote_158_158"></a><a href="#FNanchor_158_158"><span class="label">[158]</span></a>
+Yates, pp. 79, 91, 93, 99, 102, 445. Lan&aelig; Alb&aelig;.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;The first, Apulia&rsquo;s; next is Parma&rsquo;s boast;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And the third fleece Altinum has engrossed.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet">Martial, xiv. Ep. 155.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Martial also speaks of the matchless Tarentine tog&aelig;, a present from
+Parthenius:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;With thee the lily and the privet pale<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Compared, and Tibur&rsquo;s whitest ivory fail;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The Spartan swan, the Paphian doves deplore<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Their hue, and pearls on the Erythrean shore.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet">Martial, viii. Ep. 28.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_159_159" id="Footnote_159_159"></a><a href="#FNanchor_159_159"><span class="label">[159]</span></a>
+The sheep of Tarentum, from the days of the Greek colonists, were
+famed, as they are still, for the warm brown tints on their black wool.
+Pliny says that this is caused by the weed <i>fumio</i>, on which they
+browsed. Swinburne says, in his &ldquo;Travels in the Two Sicilies,&rdquo; that
+there the wool is so tinged by the plant now called <i>fumolo</i>, which
+grows on the coast.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_160_160" id="Footnote_160_160"></a><a href="#FNanchor_160_160"><span class="label">[160]</span></a>
+See Bl&uuml;mner&rsquo;s &ldquo;Technologie,&rdquo; p. 92; also &ldquo;Comptes Rendus de la
+Commission Imp&eacute;riale Arch&eacute;ologique&rdquo; of St. Petersburg, 1881; also
+the Catalogue Raisonn&eacute;e of Herr Graf&rsquo;schen&rsquo;s Egyptian Collection
+of Textiles at Vienna.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_161_161" id="Footnote_161_161"></a><a href="#FNanchor_161_161"><span class="label">[161]</span></a>
+See Pliny&rsquo;s &ldquo;Natural History,&rdquo; viii. 74, &sect; 191. Tanaquil is credited
+with the first invention of the seamless coat or cassock.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_162_162" id="Footnote_162_162"></a><a href="#FNanchor_162_162"><span class="label">[162]</span></a>
+The Gauls in Britain wove plaids or tartans. See Rock, p. xii;
+Bl&uuml;mner, pp. 152-54; Birdwood, p. 286.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_163_163" id="Footnote_163_163"></a><a href="#FNanchor_163_163"><span class="label">[163]</span></a>
+Pliny, &ldquo;Natural History,&rdquo; book viii., 73, 74.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_164_164" id="Footnote_164_164"></a><a href="#FNanchor_164_164"><span class="label">[164]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Georgics,&rdquo; iv. 334; Yates, p. 35.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_165_165" id="Footnote_165_165"></a><a href="#FNanchor_165_165"><span class="label">[165]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Comptes Rendus de la Commission Imp&eacute;riale Arch&eacute;ologique,&rdquo;
+St. Petersburg, 1881. Much of this Gobelin weaving has lately been
+found in Egypt. See &ldquo;Katalog der Teodor Graf&rsquo;schen F&uuml;nde in
+&AElig;gypten,&rdquo; von Dr. J. Karabacek.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_166_166" id="Footnote_166_166"></a><a href="#FNanchor_166_166"><span class="label">[166]</span></a>
+Semper considers that the famous Babylonian and Phrygian stuffs
+were all woollen, and that gold was woven or embroidered on them.
+See &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; i. p. 138.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_167_167" id="Footnote_167_167"></a><a href="#FNanchor_167_167"><span class="label">[167]</span></a>
+Worcester cloth was forbidden to the Benedictines by a Chapter
+of that Order at Westminster Abbey in 1422, as being fine enough for
+soldiers, and therefore too good for monks. See Rock&rsquo;s Introduction,
+p. lxxviii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_168_168" id="Footnote_168_168"></a><a href="#FNanchor_168_168"><span class="label">[168]</span></a>
+Both these fabrics are represented in Egyptian and Greek fragments,
+and are equally well preserved.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_169_169" id="Footnote_169_169"></a><a href="#FNanchor_169_169"><span class="label">[169]</span></a>
+Boyd Dawkins, &ldquo;Early Man in Britain,&rdquo; pp. 268, 275.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_170_170" id="Footnote_170_170"></a><a href="#FNanchor_170_170"><span class="label">[170]</span></a>
+See Wilkinson, &ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; vol. iii. p. 116; Yates, p. 23.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_171_171" id="Footnote_171_171"></a><a href="#FNanchor_171_171"><span class="label">[171]</span></a>
+It appears that the art of printing textiles was known in Egypt in
+the time of Pliny. See Yates, p. 272, quoting Apuleius, Met. l. xi.;
+also see Wilkinson, &ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; vol. ii. p. 196, pl. xii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_172_172" id="Footnote_172_172"></a><a href="#FNanchor_172_172"><span class="label">[172]</span></a>
+See Yates, &ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo; pp. 268, 335; Herodotus, ii.
+86. Herodotus and Strabo speak of Babylonian linen, cited by Yates,
+p. 281.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_173_173" id="Footnote_173_173"></a><a href="#FNanchor_173_173"><span class="label">[173]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo; pp. 267-80. A peculiarity of Egyptian
+linen is that it was often woven with more threads in the warp
+than in the woof. A specimen in the Indian Museum, South Kensington,
+shows in its delicate texture 140 threads in the inch to the warp,
+and 64 to the woof. Another piece of fine linen has 270 to the warp,
+and 110 to the woof. Generally there are twice or three times as many
+threads, but sometimes even four times the number. Wilkinson gives
+a probable reason for this peculiarity. See Wilkinson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ancient
+Egyptians,&rdquo; vol. i. chap. ix. pp. 121-226. See Rock&rsquo;s Introduction, p. xiv.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_174_174" id="Footnote_174_174"></a><a href="#FNanchor_174_174"><span class="label">[174]</span></a>
+De Somniis, vol. i. p. 653. Yates, p. 271.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_175_175" id="Footnote_175_175"></a><a href="#FNanchor_175_175"><span class="label">[175]</span></a>
+Philo, cited by Yates, p. 271.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_176_176" id="Footnote_176_176"></a><a href="#FNanchor_176_176"><span class="label">[176]</span></a>
+Paulinus ad Cytherium, cited by Yates, p. 273.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_177_177" id="Footnote_177_177"></a><a href="#FNanchor_177_177"><span class="label">[177]</span></a>
+Herodotus, l. ii. c. 182, l. iii. c. 47. Rawlinson&rsquo;s Trans.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_178_178" id="Footnote_178_178"></a><a href="#FNanchor_178_178"><span class="label">[178]</span></a>
+Proverbs vii. 16.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_179_179" id="Footnote_179_179"></a><a href="#FNanchor_179_179"><span class="label">[179]</span></a>
+Yates, p. 291. Denon describes a tunic found in a sarcophagus,
+which he examined, and says: &ldquo;The weaving was extremely loose, of
+thread as fine as a hair, of two strands of twisted flax fibre.&rdquo;&mdash;Auberville&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Ornement des Tissus,&rdquo; p. 4. Some marvellously fine specimens of
+such cambric may be seen at the South Kensington Museum and the
+British Museum.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_180_180" id="Footnote_180_180"></a><a href="#FNanchor_180_180"><span class="label">[180]</span></a>
+Not that we have any remains of flax linen from their tombs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_181_181" id="Footnote_181_181"></a><a href="#FNanchor_181_181"><span class="label">[181]</span></a>
+It was carried thence, at a prehistoric date, to Assyria and Egypt.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_182_182" id="Footnote_182_182"></a><a href="#FNanchor_182_182"><span class="label">[182]</span></a>
+There is no proof that it was grown in Egypt till the fourteenth
+century <small>A.D.</small>, when it is mentioned for the first time in a MS. of that date
+of the &ldquo;Codex Antwerpianus.&rdquo; See Yates, Appendix E, p. 470.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_183_183" id="Footnote_183_183"></a><a href="#FNanchor_183_183"><span class="label">[183]</span></a>
+Birdwood, p. 241.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_184_184" id="Footnote_184_184"></a><a href="#FNanchor_184_184"><span class="label">[184]</span></a>
+Puggaree. Yates says that cotton has always been supposed to be
+the best preserver against sunstroke, p. 341.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_185_185" id="Footnote_185_185"></a><a href="#FNanchor_185_185"><span class="label">[185]</span></a>
+<i>Carpas</i>, the proper Oriental name for cotton, is found in the same
+sense in the Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian languages. Yates, p. 341.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_186_186" id="Footnote_186_186"></a><a href="#FNanchor_186_186"><span class="label">[186]</span></a>
+In the &AElig;neid, the garment of Chloreus the Phrygian is thus
+described:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;His saffron chlamys, and each rustling fold<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of muslin (<i>carpas</i>), was confined with glittering gold.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet">&AElig;neid, xi. 775.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_187_187" id="Footnote_187_187"></a><a href="#FNanchor_187_187"><span class="label">[187]</span></a>
+Dakka muslins are the most esteemed. Their poetic names,
+&ldquo;running water,&rdquo; &ldquo;woven air,&rdquo; &ldquo;evening dew,&rdquo; are more descriptive
+than pages of prose. See Birdwood, ii. p. 259.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_188_188" id="Footnote_188_188"></a><a href="#FNanchor_188_188"><span class="label">[188]</span></a>
+Chintzes, calicoes, fine cloths, and strong tent-cloths, cotton
+carpets, &amp;c., &amp;c. Forbes Watson classifies the calicoes as being white,
+bleached and unbleached, striped, &amp;c., printed chintzes, or pintadoes.
+See Birdwood, p. 260.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_189_189" id="Footnote_189_189"></a><a href="#FNanchor_189_189"><span class="label">[189]</span></a>
+For Buckram and Fustian, see Rock, pp. lxxxv, lxxxvi. In Lady
+Burgeweny&rsquo;s (Abergavenny) will, 1434, she leaves as part of the
+furnishings of her bed &ldquo;of gold of swan,&rdquo; two pairs of sheets of Raine
+(Rennes), and a pair of fustian. Anne Boleyn&rsquo;s list of clothes contains
+&ldquo;Bokerams, for lining and taynting,&rdquo; gowns, sleeves, cloaks, and beds.
+Rock, lxxxvi. Renouard, in his &ldquo;Romaunce Dictionary,&rdquo; quotes the
+following: &ldquo;Vest&aelig; de Polpia e de Bisso qui est bacaram.&rdquo; For the
+antiquity of this fabric, see Herr Graf&rsquo;schen&rsquo;s Catalogue of Textiles from
+the Fayoum.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_190_190" id="Footnote_190_190"></a><a href="#FNanchor_190_190"><span class="label">[190]</span></a>
+See Yates, p. 300, citing &ldquo;Herod&rsquo;s silver apparel.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_191_191" id="Footnote_191_191"></a><a href="#FNanchor_191_191"><span class="label">[191]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Indian Arts,&rdquo; ii. p. 237.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_192_192" id="Footnote_192_192"></a><a href="#FNanchor_192_192"><span class="label">[192]</span></a>
+Rock, p. xxv. Yates (p. 3) says they cut their gold for wearing
+apparel into thin plates, and did not draw it into wire, as it is translated
+in the Vulgate (Exodus xxxix.). The ephod made by Bezaleel was of
+fine linen, gold, violet, purple, and scarlet, twice dyed, with embroidered
+work. This tradition must have guided the artist who designed the
+ephod in the National Museum at Munich, in the seventeenth century,
+for a prince boy-bishop.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_193_193" id="Footnote_193_193"></a><a href="#FNanchor_193_193"><span class="label">[193]</span></a>
+Quintus Curtius says that many thousands, clothed in these costly
+materials, crowded out of Damascus to meet Alexander.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_194_194" id="Footnote_194_194"></a><a href="#FNanchor_194_194"><span class="label">[194]</span></a>
+There is a very ancient local tradition at Sh&#365;sh, that <small>A.D.</small> 640, in the
+reign of the Kaliph Omar, the body of the prophet Daniel was found,
+wrapped in cloth of gold, in a stone coffin; and, by order of the
+victorious general, it was placed in one of glass, and moored to the
+bridge which spanned the branch of the Euphrates flowing between
+the two halves of the city, so that the waters flowed over it. See
+&ldquo;Chaldea and Susiana,&rdquo; by Loftus, and Sir G. W. Gore Ouseley&rsquo;s
+translation of a Persian version of &ldquo;The Book of Victories.&rdquo; Alexander
+is said to have been buried in a glass coffin. (See Wilkinson&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; ii. p. 102, note &#8224;.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_195_195" id="Footnote_195_195"></a><a href="#FNanchor_195_195"><span class="label">[195]</span></a>
+Yates, pp. 367-70; Rock, p. xxvi.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_196_196" id="Footnote_196_196"></a><a href="#FNanchor_196_196"><span class="label">[196]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Aura intexere eadem Asi&acirc; invenit Attalus Rex unde nomen
+Attalicis.&rdquo;&mdash;Pliny, viii. c. 48, and Yates, p. 371. The reign of
+Attalus II. was <small>B.C.</small> 159-188.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_197_197" id="Footnote_197_197"></a><a href="#FNanchor_197_197"><span class="label">[197]</span></a>
+&ldquo;And they did beat the gold into plates, and cut it into wires, and
+work it into the blue, and the purple, and the fine linen.&rdquo;&mdash;Exod. xxxix.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_198_198" id="Footnote_198_198"></a><a href="#FNanchor_198_198"><span class="label">[198]</span></a>
+See Yates, p. 371; and Bock, xxxiii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_199_199" id="Footnote_199_199"></a><a href="#FNanchor_199_199"><span class="label">[199]</span></a>
+Pliny, xxxiii. In the Museum at Leyden there is a shred of gold
+cloth found in a tomb at Tarquinia, in Etruria. This is a compactly
+woven covering over bright yellow silk.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_200_200" id="Footnote_200_200"></a><a href="#FNanchor_200_200"><span class="label">[200]</span></a>
+Gold wire is still worked through leather at Guzerat. See Birdwood,
+p. 284, Ed. 1880. Marco Polo mentions this embroidery 600 years
+ago. Bk. iii. chap. xxvi. (Yule). The hunting cuirass of Assurbanipal
+(pl. <a href="#pl01">1</a>) appears to be so worked, and of such materials. Also see
+Wilkinson, &ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; vol. iii. p. 130. This gold for weaving
+was beaten into shape with hammers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_201_201" id="Footnote_201_201"></a><a href="#FNanchor_201_201"><span class="label">[201]</span></a>
+Pope Eutichinus, in the third century, buried many martyrs in
+golden robes.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_202_202" id="Footnote_202_202"></a><a href="#FNanchor_202_202"><span class="label">[202]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Liber Pontificalis,&rdquo; t. ii. p. 332.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_203_203" id="Footnote_203_203"></a><a href="#FNanchor_203_203"><span class="label">[203]</span></a>
+See Rock, pp. xxvii, xxxv; and Parker&rsquo;s &ldquo;Use of the Levitical
+Colours,&rdquo; p. 49.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_204_204" id="Footnote_204_204"></a><a href="#FNanchor_204_204"><span class="label">[204]</span></a>
+See Yates, p. 376.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_205_205" id="Footnote_205_205"></a><a href="#FNanchor_205_205"><span class="label">[205]</span></a>
+Rock, p. xxxv. The toga picta, or trabea, part of the official dress
+of her sons.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_206_206" id="Footnote_206_206"></a><a href="#FNanchor_206_206"><span class="label">[206]</span></a>
+Hoveden&rsquo;s &ldquo;Annal.&rdquo; p. 481, Ed. Savile; Rock, p. xxx.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_207_207" id="Footnote_207_207"></a><a href="#FNanchor_207_207"><span class="label">[207]</span></a>
+See &ldquo;Arch&aelig;ologia,&rdquo; 1880, pp. 317, 322; also Pl. <a href="#pl74">74</a>, No. 20 (<i>post</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_208_208" id="Footnote_208_208"></a><a href="#FNanchor_208_208"><span class="label">[208]</span></a>
+Bock, &ldquo;L. Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; taf. ix. vol. i.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_209_209" id="Footnote_209_209"></a><a href="#FNanchor_209_209"><span class="label">[209]</span></a>
+Rock, p. xxxvii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_210_210" id="Footnote_210_210"></a><a href="#FNanchor_210_210"><span class="label">[210]</span></a>
+Ciclatoun, according to Rock, p. xxxix, is a common Persian
+name for such tissues in the East. This, in common with nasick, nak,
+and many other beautiful tissues, was wrought in gold with figures of
+birds and beasts.&mdash;Yule&rsquo;s &ldquo;Marco Polo,&rdquo; ed. 1875, i. p. 65.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Rock quotes the old ballad,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;In a robe right royall bowne,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of a red ciclatoune,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Be her fader&rsquo;s syde;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A coronall on her hede sett,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Her clothes with byrdes of gold were bette<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">All about for pryde.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_211_211" id="Footnote_211_211"></a><a href="#FNanchor_211_211"><span class="label">[211]</span></a>
+In St. Paul&rsquo;s in London there was formerly an amice adorned with
+the figures of two bishops and a king, hammered out of silver, and gilt.
+Dugdale, ed. 1818, p. 318. See also Rock, pp. xxix-xxxii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_212_212" id="Footnote_212_212"></a><a href="#FNanchor_212_212"><span class="label">[212]</span></a>
+Museum at Berne.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_213_213" id="Footnote_213_213"></a><a href="#FNanchor_213_213"><span class="label">[213]</span></a>
+A piece of Venetian work to be seen at the South Kensington
+Museum is an altar frontal, worked in coral, gold beads, seed pearls,
+and spangles. All jewellers&rsquo; work, including enamel, was much admired
+and introduced into their embroideries. (See Rock&rsquo;s Introduction to
+Catalogue of the Kensington Museum, pp. civ-cviii, ed. 1870.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_214_214" id="Footnote_214_214"></a><a href="#FNanchor_214_214"><span class="label">[214]</span></a>
+On this gorgeous piece of Italian art there are added a number of
+buttons (for we can give them no other name), with crosses and hearts
+under crystal, which seem to have belonged to another period and
+workmanship, or else are to be attributed to a superstitious feeling on
+the part of the maker, who placed these Christian signs, perhaps,
+surreptitiously, and for the good of his own soul.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_215_215" id="Footnote_215_215"></a><a href="#FNanchor_215_215"><span class="label">[215]</span></a>
+The Museum of National Art at Munich has a fine collection of
+gold and silver, spangled, and black bead head-dresses, now mostly
+antiquated, though in peasant dress it yet survives.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_216_216" id="Footnote_216_216"></a><a href="#FNanchor_216_216"><span class="label">[216]</span></a>
+It is embroidered in gold, with red silk and gems; and I have
+elsewhere said that it probably issued from the Hotel de Tiraz at
+Messina.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_217_217" id="Footnote_217_217"></a><a href="#FNanchor_217_217"><span class="label">[217]</span></a>
+Terry, in his &ldquo;Voyage to the East Indies,&rdquo; speaks of the rich
+carpets (p. 128): &ldquo;The ground of some of these is silver or gold,
+about which such arabesques in flowers and figures as I have before
+named are most excellently disposed.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_218_218" id="Footnote_218_218"></a><a href="#FNanchor_218_218"><span class="label">[218]</span></a>
+These of late years have been the most gorgeous objects at exhibitions
+of old needlework, and the ambition and despair of collectors.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_219_219" id="Footnote_219_219"></a><a href="#FNanchor_219_219"><span class="label">[219]</span></a>
+Gold thread was also made of gilt paper, equally by the Moors and
+the Japanese.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_220_220" id="Footnote_220_220"></a><a href="#FNanchor_220_220"><span class="label">[220]</span></a>
+In Aikin&rsquo;s &ldquo;Life of James I.,&rdquo; p. 205, we have a curious account of
+the monopoly of gold thread, that had been granted, with others, to
+George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham. The thread was so scandalously
+debased with copper as to corrode the hands of the artificers, and even
+the flesh of those who wore it. This adulterated article they sold at an
+exorbitant price, and if they detected any one making a cheaper or
+better article, they were empowered to fine or imprison them, while a
+clause in their patent protected themselves. The manufacturers of this
+base metal thread were two Frenchmen, Mompesson and Michel, and
+Edward Villiers, the Marquis&rsquo; brother, was one of the firm. Doubtless
+they drove for a time a roaring trade, as gold embroideries were then
+universally worn, both by men and women; but the House of Commons
+interfered, and the monopoly was abolished.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_221_221" id="Footnote_221_221"></a><a href="#FNanchor_221_221"><span class="label">[221]</span></a>
+Mitre of white satin, with two figure subjects in flat gold&mdash;the
+martyrdom of St. Stephen, and that of St. Thomas of Canterbury.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_222_222" id="Footnote_222_222"></a><a href="#FNanchor_222_222"><span class="label">[222]</span></a>
+The School of Gold Embroidery at Munich produces work of a
+richness and precision which has, perhaps, never been excelled. The
+raised parts of the design are first cast in soft hollow &ldquo;carton,&rdquo; and the
+gold is worked on it and into the recesses with the help of a fine
+stiletto, which pioneers the needle for each stitch. This is embroidery
+&ldquo;on the stamp,&rdquo; but without padding.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_223_223" id="Footnote_223_223"></a><a href="#FNanchor_223_223"><span class="label">[223]</span></a>
+Bock, &ldquo;L. Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; vol. i. p. 48. Prizes are offered at Lyons
+for the best mode of manufacturing gold and silver thread that will not
+tarnish.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_224_224" id="Footnote_224_224"></a><a href="#FNanchor_224_224"><span class="label">[224]</span></a>
+Yates says, pp. 160-162: &ldquo;Whether silk was mentioned in the Old
+Testament cannot, perhaps, be determined. After fully considering the
+subject, Braunius decides against silk being known to the Hebrews in
+ancient times (&lsquo;De Vestitu Heb. Sacerdotum,&rsquo; i. c. viii.).&rdquo; The contrary
+opinion is founded on the passage, &ldquo;I clothed thee with broidered
+work, and shod thee with badger-skins. I girded thee about with fine
+linen, and covered thee with silk&rdquo; (<i>meshi</i>).&mdash;Ezekiel xvi. But the
+translation is disputed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_225_225" id="Footnote_225_225"></a><a href="#FNanchor_225_225"><span class="label">[225]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Code of Manu,&rdquo; xi. 168; xii. 64. Yates, &ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo;
+p. 204.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_226_226" id="Footnote_226_226"></a><a href="#FNanchor_226_226"><span class="label">[226]</span></a>
+Auberville, &ldquo;Ornement des Tissus,&rdquo; p. ii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_227_227" id="Footnote_227_227"></a><a href="#FNanchor_227_227"><span class="label">[227]</span></a>
+Yates (pp. 173, 174) believes that &ldquo;Cos&rdquo; should always be read
+for Cios, about which there seems to be some confusion. Chios has
+also been substituted for the name of &ldquo;Cos,&rdquo; the island.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that the Roman ladies obtained their most splendid
+garments from Cos&mdash;perhaps of wool as well as of silk.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_228_228" id="Footnote_228_228"></a><a href="#FNanchor_228_228"><span class="label">[228]</span></a>
+Birdwood, &ldquo;Textile Arts of India,&rdquo; ii. p. 269.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_229_229" id="Footnote_229_229"></a><a href="#FNanchor_229_229"><span class="label">[229]</span></a>
+Yates, &ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo; p. 204.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_230_230" id="Footnote_230_230"></a><a href="#FNanchor_230_230"><span class="label">[230]</span></a>
+Yates, &ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo; note (*), p. 184. Aristotle (fourth
+century <small>B.C.</small>), however, had already given evidence respecting the use of
+silk, which was adopted and repeated by Pliny, Clemens Alexandrinus,
+and Basil. Aristotle tells the story of Pamphile. One thousand years
+later Procopius (sixth century <small>A.D.</small>) says the raw material was then
+brought from the East, and woven in the Ph&oelig;nician cities of Tyre and
+Berytus. See Yates, pp. 163, 164.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_231_231" id="Footnote_231_231"></a><a href="#FNanchor_231_231"><span class="label">[231]</span></a>
+Ibid., note (*), p. 184.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_232_232" id="Footnote_232_232"></a><a href="#FNanchor_232_232"><span class="label">[232]</span></a>
+Yates, &ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo; p. 181.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_233_233" id="Footnote_233_233"></a><a href="#FNanchor_233_233"><span class="label">[233]</span></a>
+I have mentioned this already, to prove the antiquity of the art
+of embroidery. Here I repeat it in reference to the first mention of
+silk. (See p. <a href="#Page_38">38</a> <i>ante</i>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_234_234" id="Footnote_234_234"></a><a href="#FNanchor_234_234"><span class="label">[234]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Biblioth&egrave;que Orientale de M. Herbelot,&rdquo; ed. 1778, vol. iii. p. 19.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_235_235" id="Footnote_235_235"></a><a href="#FNanchor_235_235"><span class="label">[235]</span></a>
+Auberville, p. 2; Yates (pp. 172, 173) calls her Si-ling, wife of
+Hoang-ti, and quotes the &ldquo;Resum&eacute; des Principaux Tractes Chinois,&rdquo;
+traduits par Stanislas Julien, 1837, pp. 67, 68.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_236_236" id="Footnote_236_236"></a><a href="#FNanchor_236_236"><span class="label">[236]</span></a>
+Auberville, &ldquo;Histoire des Tissus,&rdquo; pp. 2-4; &ldquo;Du Halde,&rdquo; vol. ii.
+pp. 355, 356 (8vo edition, London, 1736).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_237_237" id="Footnote_237_237"></a><a href="#FNanchor_237_237"><span class="label">[237]</span></a>
+Related by Klaproth, the Russian Orientalist.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_238_238" id="Footnote_238_238"></a><a href="#FNanchor_238_238"><span class="label">[238]</span></a>
+Yates, p. 238. &ldquo;History of Khotan,&rdquo; translated by M. Abel
+R&eacute;musat, pp. 55, 56.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_239_239" id="Footnote_239_239"></a><a href="#FNanchor_239_239"><span class="label">[239]</span></a>
+Khotan or Little Bucharia would, in common parlance, be included
+in Serica; and therefore silk exported thence to Europe would have
+been perfectly described as coming from the Seres. Yates, p. 231, 232.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_240_240" id="Footnote_240_240"></a><a href="#FNanchor_240_240"><span class="label">[240]</span></a>
+Yates, p. 231.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_241_241" id="Footnote_241_241"></a><a href="#FNanchor_241_241"><span class="label">[241]</span></a>
+While in Europe the arts of daily use and decoration were struggling
+for life after many interruptions and revolutions, the civilization of
+Japan, which is nearly contemporary with Christianity, spent itself in
+perfecting to the most exquisite finish the arts which had been imported
+from China and Corea. Japan also inherited the power and the
+tradition of concealment, and so Europe remained unconscious, until
+the last century, of the miraculous arts which a semi-barbarous people
+were cultivating&mdash;<em>not</em> for commercial purposes. Auberville, &ldquo;Tissus,&rdquo;
+pp. 2-4.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_242_242" id="Footnote_242_242"></a><a href="#FNanchor_242_242"><span class="label">[242]</span></a>
+Yates, pp. 175-184.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_243_243" id="Footnote_243_243"></a><a href="#FNanchor_243_243"><span class="label">[243]</span></a>
+Yates, p. 176. The silken flags attached to the gilt standards of
+the Parthians inflamed the cupidity of the army of Crassus. The
+conflict between them took place 54 <small>B.C.</small> About thirty years after this
+date, Roman luxury had reached its zenith&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;The insatiate Roman spreads his conquering arm<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">O&rsquo;er land and sea, where&rsquo;er heaven&rsquo;s light extends.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet">&ldquo;Petronius Arbiter,&rdquo; c. cxix.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After these words he says that among the richest productions of
+distant climes, the Seres sent their &ldquo;new fleeces.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_244_244" id="Footnote_244_244"></a><a href="#FNanchor_244_244"><span class="label">[244]</span></a>
+Yates, p. 183.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_245_245" id="Footnote_245_245"></a><a href="#FNanchor_245_245"><span class="label">[245]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Holosericum,&rdquo; whole silk; &ldquo;subsericum,&rdquo; partly cotton, hemp, or
+flax. The longitudinal threads or warp, cotton; the cross threads,
+silk. Rock, &ldquo;Textile Fabrics,&rdquo; p. xxxvii (ed. 1870).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_246_246" id="Footnote_246_246"></a><a href="#FNanchor_246_246"><span class="label">[246]</span></a>
+Yates, p. 195.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_247_247" id="Footnote_247_247"></a><a href="#FNanchor_247_247"><span class="label">[247]</span></a>
+Yates, p. 198. For the value of the denarius, see Waddington,
+&ldquo;Edit. de Diocletien,&rdquo; p. 3.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_248_248" id="Footnote_248_248"></a><a href="#FNanchor_248_248"><span class="label">[248]</span></a>
+Gruter, tom. iii. p. 645; Yates, p. 205.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_249_249" id="Footnote_249_249"></a><a href="#FNanchor_249_249"><span class="label">[249]</span></a>
+Yates, p. 246. The words &ldquo;silk&rdquo; and &ldquo;satin&rdquo; are spoken of by
+Yates as having two derivations&mdash;the one imported to us through
+Greece and Italy, the other from Eastern Asia, through Slavonia, by the
+north of Europe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_250_250" id="Footnote_250_250"></a><a href="#FNanchor_250_250"><span class="label">[250]</span></a>
+Yates, p. 231; who remarks, p. 203, that the laws of Justinian are
+not directed against the use of silk as a luxury, but rather as appropriating
+it as an imperial monopoly and source of revenue.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_251_251" id="Footnote_251_251"></a><a href="#FNanchor_251_251"><span class="label">[251]</span></a>
+Tom. ii. p. 106 (ed. 1630). See Yates, p. 213.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_252_252" id="Footnote_252_252"></a><a href="#FNanchor_252_252"><span class="label">[252]</span></a>
+Yates, p. 214.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_253_253" id="Footnote_253_253"></a><a href="#FNanchor_253_253"><span class="label">[253]</span></a>
+Auberville, Plate 4. Amongst these are what he calls &ldquo;Consular silks.&rdquo;
+These are, or may be, included in the palmated class, as they are
+evidently woven for triumphal occasions. One of the most remarkable
+has every mark of Oriental design. It represents a picture in a circle,
+repeated over and over again, of a warrior in his quadriga. Black or
+coloured slaves drive the horses, either running beside them or standing
+upon them; and other slaves carry beasts on their shoulders, and are
+stooping to give them drink at a trough. The space between the
+circles is filled in with the tree of life, growing out of its two horns.
+The colours are purple and gold. He places this between the first and
+seventh centuries (see pl. <a href="#pl34">34</a>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_254_254" id="Footnote_254_254"></a><a href="#FNanchor_254_254"><span class="label">[254]</span></a>
+There are, however, a few that have not had the security of the
+tomb, and yet have survived, such as the chasuble and maniple at
+Bayeux, of the seventh century, and Charlemagne&rsquo;s dalmatic.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_255_255" id="Footnote_255_255"></a><a href="#FNanchor_255_255"><span class="label">[255]</span></a>
+Roger de Wendover, &ldquo;Chronica,&rdquo; t. iv. p. 127, ed. Coxe.
+Quoted by Rock from Ralph, Dean of St. Paul&rsquo;s. See Rock,
+Introduction, p. lv.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_256_256" id="Footnote_256_256"></a><a href="#FNanchor_256_256"><span class="label">[256]</span></a>
+Roger de Wendover, &ldquo;Chronica,&rdquo; t. iv., ed. Coxe; also Yates,
+&ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo; pp. 243, 244.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_257_257" id="Footnote_257_257"></a><a href="#FNanchor_257_257"><span class="label">[257]</span></a>
+In the twelfth century. Semper, i. p. 38.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_258_258" id="Footnote_258_258"></a><a href="#FNanchor_258_258"><span class="label">[258]</span></a>
+See illustration from the portrait of Sultan Mahomet II., by
+Gentil Bellini. <i>Ante</i>, p. <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, Plate <a href="#pl33">33</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_259_259" id="Footnote_259_259"></a><a href="#FNanchor_259_259"><span class="label">[259]</span></a>
+See Semper, p. 157.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_260_260" id="Footnote_260_260"></a><a href="#FNanchor_260_260"><span class="label">[260]</span></a>
+The Sicilian type of design in silk-weaving was carried into
+Germany about the end of the second period. We are informed by
+Auberville that there existed at that time a manufacture of ecclesiastical
+stuffs at Leipzig, from which he gives us fine examples.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_261_261" id="Footnote_261_261"></a><a href="#FNanchor_261_261"><span class="label">[261]</span></a>
+See Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; vol. ii. Taf. xxxiii. The
+pattern is twelfth century &ldquo;metal work,&rdquo; embroidered in gold.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_262_262" id="Footnote_262_262"></a><a href="#FNanchor_262_262"><span class="label">[262]</span></a>
+See Wilkinson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; iii., pl. xvi.; v., pl. xxxiv.
+In general, a scarf floats from the prow or from the oars.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_263_263" id="Footnote_263_263"></a><a href="#FNanchor_263_263"><span class="label">[263]</span></a>
+The Crusaders carried away splendid booty from the towns they
+took and ransacked. As it was the great gathering-place of all Eastern
+and Western nations, Jerusalem was a mart for rich merchandise from
+Persia, Arabia, Syria, and Ph&oelig;nicia, till the times of the Latin kings.
+Antioch, as well as Jerusalem, yielded the richest plunder. Matthew
+Paris (a contemporary historian), speaking of what was taken at Antioch,
+1098, says, &ldquo;At the division of costly vessels, crosses, weavings, and
+silken stuffs, every beggar in the crusading army was enriched.&rdquo;
+Alexandria, as early as the middle of the sixth century, <small>A.D.</small>, had been
+the dep&ocirc;t for the silken stuffs of Libya and Morocco. Here is a wide
+area opened to us for suggestions as to the origin and traditions of
+patterns in silk textile art. See Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; vol.
+i. pp. 29, 30.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_264_264" id="Footnote_264_264"></a><a href="#FNanchor_264_264"><span class="label">[264]</span></a>
+Rock, Introduction, p. ccxlviii, and p. 268, No. 8710.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_265_265" id="Footnote_265_265"></a><a href="#FNanchor_265_265"><span class="label">[265]</span></a>
+The weaving of inscriptions in textiles is not a Saracenic invention.
+Pliny says it was a custom among the Parthians. See Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Textile
+Fabrics,&rdquo; p. lxi.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In allusion to lettered garments, Ausonius thus celebrates Sabina,
+of whom we otherwise know nothing:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;&lsquo;They who both webs and verses weave,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The first to thee, oh chaste Minerva, leave;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The latter to the Muses they devote.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To me, Sabina, it appears a sin<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To separate two things so near akin;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">So I have writ these verses on my coat.&rsquo;&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>See Lady Wilton on &ldquo;Needlework,&rdquo; p. 53.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_266_266" id="Footnote_266_266"></a><a href="#FNanchor_266_266"><span class="label">[266]</span></a>
+Birdwood, &ldquo;Indian Arts,&rdquo; p. 274.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_267_267" id="Footnote_267_267"></a><a href="#FNanchor_267_267"><span class="label">[267]</span></a>
+Yates, &ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo; p. 244; Tegrini, &ldquo;Vita Castruccii,&rdquo;
+in Muratore, &ldquo;Ital. Script.,&rdquo; t. xi. p. 1320.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_268_268" id="Footnote_268_268"></a><a href="#FNanchor_268_268"><span class="label">[268]</span></a>
+Riano, &ldquo;Cat. of Loan Exhibition of Spanish Art in South Kensington
+Museum,&rdquo; 1882, p. 46.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_269_269" id="Footnote_269_269"></a><a href="#FNanchor_269_269"><span class="label">[269]</span></a>
+In Hoveden&rsquo;s account of the fleet of Richard I. coasting the
+shores of Spain, he speaks of the delicate and valuable textures of the
+silks of Almeria. Rog. Hoveden, Ann., ed. Savile, p. 382. Rock,
+p. xx.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_270_270" id="Footnote_270_270"></a><a href="#FNanchor_270_270"><span class="label">[270]</span></a>
+Bock, pp. 39, 40, quotes from Anastasius and the Abbot of Fontenelle,
+proving that silken rugs were manufactured in Spain by the Moors.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_271_271" id="Footnote_271_271"></a><a href="#FNanchor_271_271"><span class="label">[271]</span></a>
+Auberville, &ldquo;Histoire des Tissus,&rdquo; p. 14.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_272_272" id="Footnote_272_272"></a><a href="#FNanchor_272_272"><span class="label">[272]</span></a>
+Yule&rsquo;s &ldquo;Marco Polo,&rdquo; p. 224. &ldquo;Baudakin&rdquo; from Baghdad,
+&ldquo;damask&rdquo; from Damascus. &ldquo;Baudakin&rdquo; was woven with beasts,
+birds, and flowers in gold.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_273_273" id="Footnote_273_273"></a><a href="#FNanchor_273_273"><span class="label">[273]</span></a>
+&ldquo;R&eacute;cit de Robert Clari.&rdquo; He was one of the companions of Ville
+d&rsquo;Hardouin, and a witness to the coronation of Baldwin II. See
+Auberville&rsquo;s &ldquo;Histoire des Tissus,&rdquo; p. 21.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_274_274" id="Footnote_274_274"></a><a href="#FNanchor_274_274"><span class="label">[274]</span></a>
+Satin is called by Marco Polo &ldquo;zettani,&rdquo; and he says it came from
+Syria. The French called it &ldquo;zatony;&rdquo; the Spaniards named it
+&ldquo;aceytuni,&rdquo; which is probably derived from &ldquo;zaituniah,&rdquo; the product of
+Zaiton. Yates (p. 246) gives the derivations of the words satin
+and silk; the one imported to us through Greece and Italy, the other
+from Eastern Asia, through Slavonia and Northern Europe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_275_275" id="Footnote_275_275"></a><a href="#FNanchor_275_275"><span class="label">[275]</span></a>
+Ibid. In the Wigalois, a story is told of a cavern in Asia full of
+everlasting flames, where costly fellat was made by the Salamanders,
+which was fireproof and indestructible.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_276_276" id="Footnote_276_276"></a><a href="#FNanchor_276_276"><span class="label">[276]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Man of Lawe&rsquo;s Tale: Canterbury Pilgrims.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_277_277" id="Footnote_277_277"></a><a href="#FNanchor_277_277"><span class="label">[277]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Ohitos terciopelos&rdquo; (three-piled-velvet eyes) is a pretty Spanish
+phrase, describing the soft, dark, shadowy eyes of the Spanish girls.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_278_278" id="Footnote_278_278"></a><a href="#FNanchor_278_278"><span class="label">[278]</span></a>
+The Italian word <i>velluto</i> means &ldquo;shaggy.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_279_279" id="Footnote_279_279"></a><a href="#FNanchor_279_279"><span class="label">[279]</span></a>
+Bock, i. pp. 99-101.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_280_280" id="Footnote_280_280"></a><a href="#FNanchor_280_280"><span class="label">[280]</span></a>
+Buckram was sometimes a silken plush, but generally was woven
+with cotton. This was also Asiatic, and named by travellers of the
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries. I have already mentioned it as a
+textile in the chapter on <a href="#Page_137">cotton</a>. When woven of silk it belongs to the
+class of velvets.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_281_281" id="Footnote_281_281"></a><a href="#FNanchor_281_281"><span class="label">[281]</span></a>
+Elsewhere I have spoken of the embroideries of the early Christian
+times found in the Fayoum, in Egypt. These afford notable examples
+of the ancient method in putting in patches on a worn or frayed
+garment. They invariably embroidered them, and so added a grace to
+the old and honoured vestment, and justified the classical appellation,
+&ldquo;Healer of clothes&rdquo; for a darner. The comparatively modern
+additions of the restorer, are in ancient as in later specimens, often a
+puzzle to the arch&aelig;ologist.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_282_282" id="Footnote_282_282"></a><a href="#FNanchor_282_282"><span class="label">[282]</span></a>
+The specimens in the South Kensington Museum, where Dr. Rock
+gives their approximate dates, are most useful to the student of this
+subject.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>175]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER V.</h2>
+
+<h3>COLOUR.</h3>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;My soul, what gracious glorious powers<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To hue and radiance God has given!&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet">Cautley, &ldquo;Emblems,&rdquo; p. 21.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>It is my intention to confine myself to the discussion
+of colour, in as far as it belongs to the dyes of textiles and
+the materials for embroidery. I will adhere as closely
+as I can to this part of what is a great and most interesting
+subject&mdash;one which the science of to-day has opened
+out, and by the test of experiment, cleared of erroneous
+theories; revealing to us all its beauty and fitness for
+the use and delight of man.</p>
+
+<p>As through all ages the eye has been gradually
+educated to appreciate <em>harmony</em> in colour, so <em>dissonance</em>&mdash;that
+is, what errs against harmony&mdash;hurts us, without
+apparently a sufficient reason; and we have to seek the
+causes of our sensations in the scientific works and lectures
+of Professor Tyndall and others.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that the appreciation of colour has
+belonged in different degrees to the eye of every animal,
+but especially to that of man, ever since light first painted
+the flowers of the field. The eye is created to see
+colour, as well as form. But we know that men, being
+accustomed to acquiesce in the powers with which they
+find themselves gifted by nature, enjoy and use them,
+long before they begin to study, classify, and name them.</p>
+
+<p>When we recollect that the circulation of the blood
+was not known within the last three hundred years, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>176]</a></span>
+that Albert D&uuml;rer painted the skeleton Death on the
+bridge of Lucerne, with one bone in the upper and one
+in the lower arm, we shall be surprised to find that the
+ancients had named the colours they saw, with some
+degree of descriptive and scientific precision. The word
+&ldquo;purple,&rdquo; for instance, covered a multitude of tints, which
+had not as yet been differentiated, either in common parlance
+or in poetry,<a name="FNanchor_283_283" id="FNanchor_283_283"></a><a href="#Footnote_283_283" class="fnanchor">[283]</a> though as articles of commerce the
+purple tints had been early distinguished.</p>
+
+<p>What names have we now, in this present advanced
+day, for defining tastes or smells? We say that something
+smells like a violet, or a rose, or a sea breeze, or a
+frosted cabbage. We say a smell is nice or nasty, that
+a taste is delicious or nauseous; but beyond calling it
+sweet or sour, we have no descriptive words for either
+smells or tastes, whereas the nations who traded in
+the materials for dyes exchanged their nomenclatures,
+which we can recognize from the descriptive remarks of
+different authors.</p>
+
+<p>Colour, as an art, was born in those lands which
+cluster round the eastern shores of the Mediterranean&mdash;the
+northern coasts of Syria and Arabia, and the isles
+of Greece. All art grew in that area, and all its
+adjuncts and materials there came to perfection,
+though often imported from more southern and eastern
+sources.<a name="FNanchor_284_284" id="FNanchor_284_284"></a><a href="#Footnote_284_284" class="fnanchor">[284]</a></p>
+
+<p>E. Curtius says that the science of colour came into
+Europe with the Ph&oelig;nicians and accompanied the worship
+of Astarte. This, of course, applies to artistic
+textiles, as the Greeks had already acquired the art of
+dyeing for plain weaving. Numa, in his regulations for
+necessary weaving, refers also to colour. The Italians
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>177]</a></span>
+therefore must at that time have made some advance in
+the art, especially the Etruscans.<a name="FNanchor_285_285" id="FNanchor_285_285"></a><a href="#Footnote_285_285" class="fnanchor">[285]</a></p>
+
+<p>The infinity of variation in colour is difficult to
+imagine. The chemists of the Gobelins have fixed and
+catalogued 4480 tones. Besides, we must not forget that
+it is now all but ascertained that the same colour is
+probably appreciated differently by nearly every eye.<a name="FNanchor_286_286" id="FNanchor_286_286"></a><a href="#Footnote_286_286" class="fnanchor">[286]</a></p>
+
+<p>How the eye accepts colours and conveys them to the
+mind is still a question in dispute, though the theories of
+Tyndall, Helmholz, Hering, Charpentier, and others,
+aided by experiments, are drawing ascertained facts into
+a circle, which will ere long be complete, and the
+mysteries of colour may be ascertained.</p>
+
+<p>Probably the effects of colour on educated minds are
+as various as the tints and shades of tones of the many
+substances which receive them,&mdash;reflected from all surrounding
+objects, blazing in light, or softened by shadow,&mdash;fresh
+and glowing, or permanently faded&mdash;shining
+with modern varnish, or sobered by the dust of ages.</p>
+
+<p>It is the art of the colourist, whether he paints pictures,
+or dyes textiles, or embroiders them, to reduce the tints of
+the prism to an endurable and delightful lowness of tone,
+while preserving as far as possible all their light and purity.</p>
+
+<p>Prismatic colours are so radiantly glorious, that when
+we see the rainbow in the sky it is each time a joyful
+surprise. The most stolid natures are moved by it; we
+have even seen our dog staring at it.</p>
+
+<p>When, in experiments on light, the shafts of colour are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>178]</a></span>
+thrown on the wall, they are greeted with shouts of
+admiration; but these glories are veiled to us by the fact
+that the eye cannot dissect the prismatic ray without the
+assistance of the instrument that has revealed it. This is
+a merciful arrangement; for we are not fitted to live in
+a prismatic display, any more than in a continuity of
+lightning flashes. We should go mad or blind if exposed
+to either.</p>
+
+<p>Science has shown us the perfect beauty of colour
+without form, the soothing pleasures of its harmonies, and
+the delightful surprises of its contrasts. From the
+glimpses we have of its nature and laws, we may hope
+for fresh inspiration for the art of the colourist.</p>
+
+<p>Though it is true that each eye, even when educated,
+retains its own special appreciation of the colours that
+gratify its seeing nerve, yet there are certain standards
+which give almost universal pleasure.<a name="FNanchor_287_287" id="FNanchor_287_287"></a><a href="#Footnote_287_287" class="fnanchor">[287]</a></p>
+
+<p>The blind and the colour-blind must remain exceptions
+for all time; and there are many gradations in colour-blindness,
+till we come to the normal class of seeing eyes;
+and passing them by, reach to those few men, gifted
+beyond all others with that fund of sensitive eye-nerve
+and mental power, which enables them to create new
+thoughts in colour.<a name="FNanchor_288_288" id="FNanchor_288_288"></a><a href="#Footnote_288_288" class="fnanchor">[288]</a> Titian and his school arose from
+the inherited science and tradition, and carefully prepared
+pigments of his immediate predecessors, acting on an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>179]</a></span>
+exceptional eye and mind, imbued with the splendours of
+the early mornings and the sunsets in the glowing
+atmosphere of Venice.</p>
+
+<p>Colour has long been supposed to convey certain
+impressions to the mind. The absence of all colour,
+which we call &ldquo;black,&rdquo; symbolizes in dress, grief, pride,
+or dignity; according as it drapes the mourner, the
+Spanish grandee, or the priest.<a name="FNanchor_289_289" id="FNanchor_289_289"></a><a href="#Footnote_289_289" class="fnanchor">[289]</a> Yellow being the colour
+of the sun and of corn and gold, represents riches,
+generosity, and light. Red stands between the dark and
+the lively colours, and represents warmth and animation,
+dignity, splendour, life, love, and joy.</p>
+
+<p>The expression of blue is that of purity. It recalls the
+distant sky, the calm ocean, and has an immortal and
+celestial character. It ascends to the highest and descends
+to the lowest tones of <i>chiaro-oscuro</i>. Nothing so nearly
+approaches pure white as the palest blue; nothing is
+so nearly black as the darkest.</p>
+
+<p>Green has been assigned by nature the place of the
+universal background. It is the complementary colour
+of red, softening and assimilating it by reflected shadows,
+and setting off the glory of every flower and fruit. The
+expression of green is gaiety and modesty, light and tenderness,
+shadow and repose, to both the eye and the mind.<a name="FNanchor_290_290" id="FNanchor_290_290"></a><a href="#Footnote_290_290" class="fnanchor">[290]</a></p>
+
+<p>It must be allowed that it is by the earliest associations
+of the individual, or by those derived from the family, the
+tribe or the nation, that colours are connected with such
+attributes welded by art and time into traditional meanings,
+which they absolutely possess,<a name="FNanchor_291_291" id="FNanchor_291_291"></a><a href="#Footnote_291_291" class="fnanchor">[291]</a> and from which fashion
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>180]</a></span>
+cannot disconnect them; such, for instance, is the royalty
+of purple.</p>
+
+<p>The word purple is so indiscriminately used as a
+poetic epithet, rather than as a distinctive appellation,
+that much confusion has been caused by it. Historically,
+among the Persians, Greeks, and Romans it appears to
+have been simply the royal colour, varying from the purest
+blue, through every shade of violet, down to the deepest
+crimson. Sometimes, poetically, &ldquo;purple&rdquo; seems to have
+described only a surface. The breezy or stormy sea was
+purple; the sky was purple; the hyacinthine locks of
+Narcissus, the rosy lips of Venus were purple. As a
+textile, velvet was purple, even when it was white.<a name="FNanchor_292_292" id="FNanchor_292_292"></a><a href="#Footnote_292_292" class="fnanchor">[292]</a></p>
+
+<p>The epithets &ldquo;purple&rdquo; and &ldquo;wine-coloured&rdquo; are often
+bestowed on the Mediterranean Sea, and are justified by
+its occasional hue:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;As from the clouds, deep-bosom&rsquo;d, swell&rsquo;d with showers,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A sudden storm the purple ocean sweeps,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Drives the wild waves, and tosses all the deeps.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet">Pope&rsquo;s Homer, &ldquo;Iliad,&rdquo; b. xi. v. 383.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Professor Tyndall suggests that the soft green of the
+sea, shadowed by clouds, assumes a subjective purple hue.
+Homer must have observed this before he became blind.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>181]</a></span>
+Pliny gives us much information about this colour; he
+enumerates the different sea-shores and coasts, Egyptian,
+Asiatic, and European, whence came the shell-fish (the
+murex and pelagia) that produced the so-called Tyrian
+purple dyes.<a name="FNanchor_293_293" id="FNanchor_293_293"></a><a href="#Footnote_293_293" class="fnanchor">[293]</a></p>
+
+<p>He says that Romulus wore the purple, and that
+the dyed garments, all purple, were sacred to the
+gods in those days. After saying that it was still a
+colour of distinction, he continues: &ldquo;Let us be prepared
+to excuse the frantic passion for purple, though we are
+impelled to inquire why such a high value is placed on
+the produce of this fish, seeing that in the dye the smell
+of it is offensive, and the colour, of a greenish hue,
+resembles the sea when tempestuous.&rdquo; He describes
+purples<a name="FNanchor_294_294" id="FNanchor_294_294"></a><a href="#Footnote_294_294" class="fnanchor">[294]</a> as being differently coloured according as to
+whether these &ldquo;conchylia&rdquo; inhabited the sea mud, the
+reefs, or the pebbly shores, the last being the most
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>182]</a></span>
+valuable.<a name="FNanchor_295_295" id="FNanchor_295_295"></a><a href="#Footnote_295_295" class="fnanchor">[295]</a> This purple, said to have been imported
+from the coasts of Tyre, was till lately sold in Rome for its
+weight in gold; it gave the burning rosy red dye of
+the Cardinal&rsquo;s robes, and was called &ldquo;Porpora encarnadina,&rdquo;
+purple incarnadine. It is full of light and
+freshness, and never fades; in fact, it has all the
+qualities ascribed to it by Pliny. It intensifies in the
+light.<a name="FNanchor_296_296" id="FNanchor_296_296"></a><a href="#Footnote_296_296" class="fnanchor">[296]</a></p>
+
+<p>After purple, scarlet was the colour most esteemed by
+the ancients. The Israelites must have carried with
+them the dyes which coloured the hangings, woven or
+embroidered, belonging to the sanctuary in the wilderness,
+of which the outer covering of rams&rsquo; skins was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>183]</a></span>
+dyed scarlet, and was probably of the nature of red
+morocco.<a name="FNanchor_297_297" id="FNanchor_297_297"></a><a href="#Footnote_297_297" class="fnanchor">[297]</a></p>
+
+<p>There was the mineral dye, (cinnabar or red sulphate
+of mercury), and the insect dye; the first was probably
+used in mural painting. It is translated in our Bible as
+vermilion, in the account given by Jeremiah of a &ldquo;house,
+ceiled with cedar, and painted with vermilion.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_298_298" id="FNanchor_298_298"></a><a href="#Footnote_298_298" class="fnanchor">[298]</a> Also
+Ezekiel gives us another instance of house-painting
+in vermilion.<a name="FNanchor_299_299" id="FNanchor_299_299"></a><a href="#Footnote_299_299" class="fnanchor">[299]</a> Homer, who as a rule does not describe
+colouring, says the Greek ships were painted red.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that cinnabar was tempered, by admixture
+of white or other colours, for the monochrome painting of
+the Egyptians and Greeks. It was called by the Greeks
+miltos, by the Romans minium.</p>
+
+<p>The dye of the red portions of the funeral tent of
+Queen Isi-em-Kheb, Shishak&rsquo;s mother-in-law, is found
+by analysis to be composed of hematite (peroxyde of iron)
+tempered with lime. This is a beautiful pink red.<a name="FNanchor_300_300" id="FNanchor_300_300"></a><a href="#Footnote_300_300" class="fnanchor">[300]</a></p>
+
+<p>The mineral red now called vermilion must have
+borrowed its name from the insect dye which the Greeks
+and Romans called &ldquo;kermes.&rdquo; In the Middle Ages the
+dye from the kermes was still called &ldquo;vermiculata,&rdquo; of
+which the word vermilion is a literal translation.</p>
+
+<p>We should be fortunate if we could find how the Greeks
+and Romans prepared the cinnabar for mural painting, of
+which we find remnants in ruins and tombs&mdash;a lovely and
+pure red, with a tender bloom on it like a fragment of the
+rainbow, and not the slightest shade of yellow.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>184]</a></span>
+One of the most beautiful specimens of this scarlet
+that I am acquainted with, is a small drinking-cup (a
+&ldquo;rhyton&rdquo;) at the British Museum, in the form of a sphinx,
+with a white face, gilded hair, and a little cap of pure
+cinnabar, which is so soft in tone that it suggests the
+texture of scarlet velvet.</p>
+
+<p>Cochineal, which was first brought from America in the
+sixteenth century, has now replaced almost every other
+scarlet dye for textiles.</p>
+
+<p>Crimson is once mentioned in Chronicles as karmel,<a name="FNanchor_301_301" id="FNanchor_301_301"></a><a href="#Footnote_301_301" class="fnanchor">[301]</a>
+which may mean the dye of the kermes insect;<a name="FNanchor_302_302" id="FNanchor_302_302"></a><a href="#Footnote_302_302" class="fnanchor">[302]</a>
+and from this the word crimson is legitimately derived.
+Whether the scarlet coupled with it is a vegetable, mineral,
+or insect colour, we have no means of ascertaining.
+&ldquo;Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white
+as snow; though they be red as crimson, they shall be as
+wool.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_303_303" id="FNanchor_303_303"></a><a href="#Footnote_303_303" class="fnanchor">[303]</a></p>
+
+<p>From what Pliny says, it appears that some green dyes
+were produced from a green clay; others from metals.
+Copper furnished the most beautiful shades.</p>
+
+<p>Blue has always been extracted from indigo. Pliny tells
+us that the Ph&oelig;nicians brought it from Barbarike, in
+the Indies, to Egypt; and he quotes the &ldquo;Periplus&rdquo; on
+this subject. He gives an amusing report that indigo is
+a froth collected round the stems of certain reeds; but he
+was aware of its characteristic property, that of emitting
+a beautiful purple vapour when submitted to great heat;
+and he says it smells like the sea. The Egyptians likewise
+extracted blues from copper.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>185]</a></span>
+Yellow was anciently, in Egypt, sometimes a vegetable
+and sometimes a mineral dye. Browns and blacks were
+prepared from several substances, especially pine wood
+and the contents of tombs burned into a kind of
+charcoal.</p>
+
+<p>We find that lime, chalk, white lead, and other mineral
+substances were employed by the ancients for the different
+approaches to dazzling whiteness. That of the lily, the
+emblem of purity, can only be emulated in textile or
+pictorial art by opaque substances reduced as much as
+possible by bleaching to the last expression of the colour
+of the raw material. Nothing that is transparent can be
+really white, as colours are seen through it, as well as the
+reflected lights on the two surfaces.</p>
+
+<p>In painting, we can produce the effect of whiteness in
+different ways, leading by the gradation of tender colours
+and shadows up to a high light. But in textile art,
+which is essentially flat, it is necessary to pursue a different
+method, and that of isolation is the most simple and
+effective, and was well understood in Egypt, Greece, and
+India. The white pattern, or flower, is surrounded with
+a fine dark line (black is the best), which effectually separates
+it from all the surrounding colours, and gives it the
+effect of light, even when the whiteness retains enough of
+the natural colour of the raw material to tone it down very
+perceptibly. The eye accepts it as white, and ignores
+the tint that pervades it, and is hardly to be expelled
+from silk or wool. Linen and cotton are the whitest of
+materials, after passing through the hands of the chemist
+or the bleacher.</p>
+
+<p>It is amusing to observe that Pliny regarded colours,
+whether vegetable or mineral, rather as useful for the
+pharmacopeia of his day, than as dyes or artistic pigments.
+He speaks contemptuously of the art of his time, and yet
+he gives some curious hints that are well worth collecting
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>186]</a></span>
+for experiment. His fragmentary information, though
+often inaccurate, is most valuable to those who are
+seeking once more to find lasting colours, and despair of
+discovering mordants that will fix the aniline tints. From
+him we learn more of the Egyptian colouring materials
+than of any others, as he named their sources, European,
+Asiatic, or African; and there is no doubt of the perfection
+of their mural pigments and textile dyes, which have
+remained unimpaired to the present time.</p>
+
+<p>Renouf says that &ldquo;painting, as it is now understood,
+was totally unknown to the Egyptians; but they understood
+harmony of colour,<a name="FNanchor_304_304" id="FNanchor_304_304"></a><a href="#Footnote_304_304" class="fnanchor">[304]</a> and formulated in it certain
+principles for decorative uses. They made the primary
+colours predominate over the secondary by quantity and
+position. They introduced fillets of white or yellow in their
+embroideries, as well as in their paintings, between reds
+and greens, to isolate them; and they balanced masses of
+yellow with a due proportion of black.&rdquo; They never
+blended their colours, and had no sense of the harmony
+of prismatic gradations, or the melting of one tint into
+another; each was worked up to a hard and fast edge
+line. If in one part of a building, one set of colours predominated,
+they placed a greater proportion of other colours
+elsewhere, within the range of sight, so as to readjust the
+balance. Those they employed were mostly earthy mineral
+colours (used alike for frescoes and for painting cotton
+cloths, though vegetable dyes were needed for woollens
+and linens). These were: for <em>white</em>, pure chalk; for
+<em>black</em>, bone-black mixed with gum; for <em>yellow</em>, yellow
+ochre; for <em>green</em>, a mixture of yellow ochre and powdered
+blue glass; for <em>blue</em>, this same blue glass mixed with white
+chalk; for <em>red</em>, an earthy pigment containing iron and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>187]</a></span>
+aluminium.<a name="FNanchor_305_305" id="FNanchor_305_305"></a><a href="#Footnote_305_305" class="fnanchor">[305]</a> They understood the chemistry of bleaching,
+and the use of mordants in dyeing.<a name="FNanchor_306_306" id="FNanchor_306_306"></a><a href="#Footnote_306_306" class="fnanchor">[306]</a></p>
+
+<p>The statistical records of China of the time of Hias
+(2205 <small>B.C.</small>), according to Semper, mention colours as
+being of five tints, and all the produce of the Chinese
+Empire.<a name="FNanchor_307_307" id="FNanchor_307_307"></a><a href="#Footnote_307_307" class="fnanchor">[307]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the unchanging art of India, the ancient colours
+are used now. Therefore, when we give the following
+list, we must suppose that it embraces all that have been
+known from the beginning.</p>
+
+<p>Indian dyes are mostly vegetable. For <em>yellow</em>, akalbir,
+the root of the Datiscus Canabinus; also yellow is dyed with
+asbarg, the flower of the Cabul larkspur (<i>Delphinium sp.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><em>Orange.</em> Soneri dyed with narsingar, the honey-scented
+flower of nyclanthes (<i>Arbor Tristis</i>).</p>
+
+<p><em>Scarlet</em> is first dyed with cochineal (formerly with
+kermes), which gives a crimson colour; next with
+narsingar, which turns it vermilion.</p>
+
+<p><em>Purple</em> is dyed first with cochineal (formerly kermes),
+afterwards with indigo.</p>
+
+<p><em>Lilac.</em> Ditto, only paler.</p>
+
+<p><em>Blue.</em> All shades of indigo.</p>
+
+<p><em>Green.</em> With indigo first, and next the various yellow
+dyes.</p>
+
+<p><em>Brown.</em> Sandal-wood, called &ldquo;sandali;&rdquo; almond colour
+(Badami).</p>
+
+<p><em>Grey.</em> Sulphate of iron and gold.</p>
+
+<p><em>Black.</em> Deepest shade of indigo.<a name="FNanchor_308_308" id="FNanchor_308_308"></a><a href="#Footnote_308_308" class="fnanchor">[308]</a></p>
+
+<p>Speaking of Indian coloured textiles, Sir G. Birdwood
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>188]</a></span>
+says: &ldquo;All violent contrasts are avoided. The richest
+colours are used, but are so arranged as to produce the
+effect of a neutral bloom, which tones down every detail
+almost to the softness and transparency of the atmosphere.&rdquo;
+He says that in their apparel both the colouring and
+the ornaments are adapted to the effect which the fabrics
+will produce when worn and in motion. &ldquo;It is only
+through generations of patient practice that men attain
+to the mystery of such subtleties.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>An outline, in black or some dark colour that harmonizes
+with the ground, or else worked in gold, is common
+in Indian work, not only for the purpose of isolating
+the colours of the design, but also to give a uniform
+tone to the whole surface of the texture. Their traditional
+arrangements of tints were thoroughly satisfying
+to the eye. But degenerated by European commerce,
+the artistic sense of beauty itself is disappearing throughout
+our Indian Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Persian carpets (the fine old ones of the fourteenth to
+the seventeenth centuries) give us lessons in the art of
+isolating colours. In these, a flower will lie upon a
+surface which contains two or more other tints, and as
+the design passes over them, the outline colour is
+changed, so as to isolate the flower equally on the
+different grounds. This is done with such art that the
+eye ignores the transition till it is called to remark it.
+For instance, as a white, or no-coloured pattern, wanders
+over a green and red ground, the outline changes suddenly
+from green to red, and again to green as it
+leaves the opposite colour on the ground pattern.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Floyer speaks of the brilliancy and lasting qualities
+of the dyes which the Persians, by slow and tedious
+processes, extract from plants; from the &ldquo;runaschk&rdquo;
+(madder), a fine red; from the &ldquo;zarili&rdquo; (the golden), which
+is a yellow flower from Khorasan, and also from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>189]</a></span>
+leaves of the vine, a bright yellow.<a name="FNanchor_309_309" id="FNanchor_309_309"></a><a href="#Footnote_309_309" class="fnanchor">[309]</a> They import indigo
+from Shastra (or from India), by the Khurum river. He
+says these dyes are perfectly fast, leaving no trace on
+a wetted rubber, whereas the European dyes they sometimes
+use come off freely.</p>
+
+<p>Pliny says the Gauls had invented dyes counterfeiting
+the purple of Tyre; also scarlet, violet, and green, all of
+these were dipped in the juices of herbs.<a name="FNanchor_310_310" id="FNanchor_310_310"></a><a href="#Footnote_310_310" class="fnanchor">[310]</a></p>
+
+<p>Vitruvius says the Romans extracted dyes from flowers
+and fruits, but he neither specifies nor describes them.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Highland tartans were dyed with bark of
+alder for black, bark of willow for flesh colour. A lichen
+growing on stones supplied their violets and crimson.<a name="FNanchor_311_311" id="FNanchor_311_311"></a><a href="#Footnote_311_311" class="fnanchor">[311]</a>
+The lichen on the birch-tree gives a good brown; heather
+gives red, purple, and green.<a name="FNanchor_312_312" id="FNanchor_312_312"></a><a href="#Footnote_312_312" class="fnanchor">[312]</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus we see that pure colours for dyeing textiles have
+been extracted from vegetable substances&mdash;herbs, wood,
+seeds, flowers and fruits, mosses and sea-weeds;<a name="FNanchor_313_313" id="FNanchor_313_313"></a><a href="#Footnote_313_313" class="fnanchor">[313]</a> mineral
+substances&mdash;earths, sands, ores, metals, rusts, and stones;
+animal substances&mdash;both of land, water, and air; beasts,
+fishes, shells, birds, and insects.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident, from the derivation of the word, that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>190]</a></span>
+there were chromatic scales in colour before the phrase
+was ever applied to music.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks and Romans are supposed to have understood
+chromatic scales of tints&mdash;animal, vegetable, and
+mineral&mdash;and except with the intention of producing
+startling effects, they did not mix them. They felt that
+each was harmonious as a whole, and, unlike the
+Egyptians, they studied harmony. They arranged
+their scales according to the materials from which they
+were extracted, and kept those from different chemical
+sources apart, as being discordant.<a name="FNanchor_314_314" id="FNanchor_314_314"></a><a href="#Footnote_314_314" class="fnanchor">[314]</a> One scale was that
+of the iodine colours, of and from the sea. Marine products
+are mostly iridescent. To comprehend this, think
+of the harmonious interchange of delicate tints, called
+by the ancients &ldquo;purple,&rdquo; on a string of pearls. Shells
+and shell-fish, sea-weeds and fish, furnished these dyes.
+They were called &ldquo;conchiliata.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The chemistry of the arts of bleaching was not
+unknown to the ancients; but they reserved and regulated
+it for certain purposes, preferring to retain at least a
+part of the original colouring, as shades of grounding
+which served, as a surface glaze does in painting, to
+connect and harmonize the superinduced tints.</p>
+
+<p>Experiments with the object of reviving this mode of
+producing harmonious combinations, have been made
+lately at the Wilton Carpet Works, by dyeing shades of
+colour on unbleached goat&rsquo;s and camel&rsquo;s hair, and sheep&rsquo;s
+wool; and the tones produced are beautifully soft and rich.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>191]</a></span>
+M. Edouard Charton ascribes the great change in the
+modern scales of colours to the discovery by the French,
+in the Gobelins, of a pure scarlet dye, the use of which
+made it necessary to raise the tone of all other colours.
+He says that scarlet was formerly represented by the dye
+called kermes, which indeed was not scarlet, but altered
+from crimson to something approaching it by the
+addition of narsingar, of which the bright yellow gave
+the scarlet effect.</p>
+
+<p>M. Chevreul, director of the dyeing department of the
+Gobelins, has succeeded in composing the chromatic
+prism, to which I have already alluded, containing
+4420 different tones. We may take it for granted, that
+from these may be selected any possible scale of tints
+required for decorative work. This vast area for
+choice of our material will impose on the artist of the
+future fresh responsibilities.</p>
+
+<p>In the typical Oriental colouring, the whole arrangement
+was traditional, and it was irreligious to depart
+from what had been fixed by statute many centuries
+before, and only perfected by the experience of many
+generations of men; and this veneration for traditional
+custom has hitherto been prevalent in European art to a
+certain point. But the old conservative perfection of unadulterated
+colour has already been done away with. The
+freedom of experimental art is chartered, and mercantile
+interests now, as ever, govern the supply of materials.</p>
+
+<p>Our normal bad taste and carelessness has been cast
+back on the lands which were the cradle of art, and we
+receive, to our surprise, gaudy, vulgar, and discordant
+combinations from the East, whence we drew our first
+inspirations. For the future we shall have to study
+ancient specimens, and correct our errors by the help
+of their teaching to the eye and mind.</p>
+
+<p>Gas colours are at present our worst snares. They are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>192]</a></span>
+in general very beautiful; but they are so evanescent, and
+fade into such unexpected and contradictory tones, that
+we cannot reckon upon them. When embroidering with
+the coloured materials of the day, we are in constant
+dread of what disastrous effect may be produced by the
+first shaft of sunshine that may fall from our moderately
+illuminated sky, through the uncurtained window.</p>
+
+<p>The trade in colours can hardly be an honest one, till
+the means of fixing each tint permanently is ascertained.<a name="FNanchor_315_315" id="FNanchor_315_315"></a><a href="#Footnote_315_315" class="fnanchor">[315]</a>
+At any rate, something should be done towards grouping
+them, with respect to their enduring qualities, so
+that when they fade, if fade they must, they may do so
+harmoniously, and in sympathy with each other; and
+while they are in their first glow they should be selected,
+as much as possible, from what Pliny calls natural colours,<a name="FNanchor_316_316" id="FNanchor_316_316"></a><a href="#Footnote_316_316" class="fnanchor">[316]</a>
+which recall the exquisite effects of nature, searched out
+and displayed by every sunny gleam, reflected on each
+other in lovely tones, and subdued and veiled by passing
+shadows. It is said that Mr. Wardle, of Leek, is now
+seeking for dyes of pure unadulterated colours, and
+mordants to fix them. He deserves all success.</p>
+
+<p>The reason I have entered, in even so cursory a
+manner, into the history of colours is my desire to point
+out the great value placed, long ago, on the careful
+preparation of those used in ancient textile art; and to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>193]</a></span>
+show how our forefathers sought them out in many lands
+and waters; how they noted their varieties; how they
+classed and prized them for their endurance as well as for
+their pristine beauty; how they paid their weight in gold
+or silver for certain culminating tints; and how they,
+therefore, produced works which became matters of
+history and landmarks in civilization.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_283_283" id="Footnote_283_283"></a><a href="#FNanchor_283_283"><span class="label">[283]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Seeing, they saw not, neither did they understand.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_284_284" id="Footnote_284_284"></a><a href="#FNanchor_284_284"><span class="label">[284]</span></a>
+See Pliny&rsquo;s &ldquo;Natural History,&rdquo; which gives much information on
+the subject.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_285_285" id="Footnote_285_285"></a><a href="#FNanchor_285_285"><span class="label">[285]</span></a>
+E. Curtius, &ldquo;Greek History;&rdquo; Engl. Trans., i. p. 438; Bl&uuml;mner&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Technologie,&rdquo; p. 216.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_286_286" id="Footnote_286_286"></a><a href="#FNanchor_286_286"><span class="label">[286]</span></a>
+Charpentier &ldquo;differentiates in every normal eye a sensibility for
+light, a sensibility for colour, and a sensibility for form (a visual
+sensibility).&rdquo;&mdash;See &ldquo;Modern Theories of Colour,&rdquo; <i>The Lancet</i>, August
+19th, 1882, p. 276. We can perceive, by studying works of art, how
+variously these gifts are distributed, or, at any rate, how differently
+they are received and acted upon by individual minds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_287_287" id="Footnote_287_287"></a><a href="#FNanchor_287_287"><span class="label">[287]</span></a>
+The effect of colour on the brain is a subject only just now
+beginning to attract attention. Experiments on the insane have been
+made in Italy, especially, I believe, at Venice; and it is said to be
+ascertained that red and green are irritants, whereas windows glazed
+with blue glass alternating with white have sensibly calmed the nerves
+of the patients.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_288_288" id="Footnote_288_288"></a><a href="#FNanchor_288_288"><span class="label">[288]</span></a>
+Let us compare the beautiful creations of the Venetian school
+with the demoralizing brightness of aniline colours, or the opaque,
+earthy tints which some call beautiful, mistaking their dulness for
+softness and sobriety of colouring. But they, too, have their uses.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_289_289" id="Footnote_289_289"></a><a href="#FNanchor_289_289"><span class="label">[289]</span></a>
+Black and red are, in ecclesiastical work, the emblems of mourning.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_290_290" id="Footnote_290_290"></a><a href="#FNanchor_290_290"><span class="label">[290]</span></a>
+The Bardic rules in early Britain enjoined three simple colours:
+sky blue, the emblem of peace, for the bard and poet; green, for the
+master of natural history and woodcraft; spotless white (the symbol of
+holiness), for the priest and Druid.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_291_291" id="Footnote_291_291"></a><a href="#FNanchor_291_291"><span class="label">[291]</span></a>
+The blind man said that red was like the sound of a trumpet,
+which shows what a soul-stirring colour it was in his mind&rsquo;s eye.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_292_292" id="Footnote_292_292"></a><a href="#FNanchor_292_292"><span class="label">[292]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Purpura&rdquo; is supposed to mean crimson velvet. It came, like
+&ldquo;cramoisi,&rdquo; to be a name for a tissue. Fr. Michell quotes velvet of
+Vermeil-cramoisi, &ldquo;violet and blue cramoisi, and pourpre of divers
+colours,&rdquo; but he says he never met with &ldquo;pourpre blanche.&rdquo; Yule, ed.
+1875, i. p. 67. Plano Carpini (p. 755) says the courtiers of Karakorum were
+clad in &ldquo;white purpura;&rdquo; and that on the first day of the great festival
+in honour of the inauguration of Kuyuk Khan, all the Mogul nobles
+were clad in pourpre blanche, the second day in ruby purple, and the
+third in blue purple: on the fourth day they appeared in Baudichin (cloth
+of gold). (Yule, &ldquo;Marco Polo,&rdquo; vol. i. p. 376.) White purple is also
+named in the inventories of Sta. Maria Maggiore at Rome, and those of
+Notre Dame in Paris. &ldquo;Histoire du Tissu Ancien, &agrave; l&rsquo;Exposition de
+l&rsquo;Union G&eacute;n&eacute;rale des Arts D&eacute;coratifs.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_293_293" id="Footnote_293_293"></a><a href="#FNanchor_293_293"><span class="label">[293]</span></a>
+Fran&ccedil;ois Le Normant, in his &ldquo;Grande Gr&egrave;ce,&rdquo; tells of the dye of
+the purple of Tarentum from the murex, found in the Mare Piccolo.
+He says that Tarentine muslins, woven from the filaments of the
+pinna dipped in the dye of the murex, rivalled those of Cos. Le
+Normant laments the total neglect of the murex in these days (could
+its trade be revived?) Plutarch says that Alexander the Great,
+having made himself master of Susa (Shushan), found, amongst other
+riches of marvellous value, &ldquo;purple of Hermione&rdquo; worth forty thousand
+talents (Quintus Curtius says fifty thousand), which, though it had
+been stored 190 years, retained all its freshness and beauty. See
+Plutarch&rsquo;s &ldquo;Lives,&rdquo; edited by J. and W. Langhorne, vol. ii. p. 739;
+Bl&uuml;mner, i. p. 224-240. The reason assigned for their dye being so
+perfect was that the Susanians knew how to comb the wool to be
+dipped, and prepare it with honey. According to Aristotle the dress
+of Alcisthenes, the Sybarite, was dyed with this purple from Shushan
+(Ciampini, Vet. Mon.).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_294_294" id="Footnote_294_294"></a><a href="#FNanchor_294_294"><span class="label">[294]</span></a>
+Semper gives us an account of iodine colours. Some, he says, were
+extracted from sea-weeds, green and yellow; the purples, when finest,
+from the shell-fish. The Ph&oelig;nician coasts gave the best purples; those
+of the Atlantic the best blacks and browns. And thus he completes
+the scale of iodine colours. See Semper, &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; i. p. 206.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_295_295" id="Footnote_295_295"></a><a href="#FNanchor_295_295"><span class="label">[295]</span></a>
+Heaps of the shells of this &ldquo;murex trunculus&rdquo; have been found at
+Pompeii, near the dyers&rsquo; works. Hardouin says that in his time they
+were found at Otranto, and similar remains have been noticed at Sidon.
+Sir James Lacaita informs me that the living shells are still found
+along the shores of the Adriatic, as well as on the wash near Argos.
+No doubt the Ph&oelig;nicians traded first in the produce of the Sidonian
+and Tyrian coasts, though they afterwards went farther afield in collecting
+their dyes. Auberville says that the purple of the Romans
+was a deep violet (double dyed, purpur&aelig; dibaph&aelig;), and that this
+colour was Asiatic. The Ph&oelig;nicians traded in it, and sold it for its
+weight in silver. Instead of fading in the sunshine, its colour intensified.
+The enduring nature of this colour is proved by the purple
+fragments from a Greek tomb in the Crimea of about 300 <small>B.C.</small>, described
+in chapter on <a href="#Page_194">stitches</a>, p. <a href="#Page_217">217</a>. See &ldquo;Histoire du Tissu Ancien, &agrave; l&rsquo;Exposition
+de l&rsquo;Union G&eacute;n&eacute;rale des Arts D&eacute;coratifs.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_296_296" id="Footnote_296_296"></a><a href="#FNanchor_296_296"><span class="label">[296]</span></a>
+Though really red of the purest colour, it doubtless received its
+name of Tyrian purple as being one of the materials of the amethystine
+double dye. The web or fleece was first dipped in the dye of Purpura,
+and then in that of the Buccinum, or they reversed the process to give
+a different tint. This is Pliny&rsquo;s account of the process of dyeing,
+which is very simple, and gives no details. Semper says that the
+ancients called black and white the two extremes of purple&mdash;white
+the thinnest, and black the thickest or most solid layer of colour.
+Both were thus considered as colour. (Semper, i. pp. 205-7.) As long
+as there is light, black always appears to be either blue, or brown, or
+green, till with darkness all colour disappears.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_297_297" id="Footnote_297_297"></a><a href="#FNanchor_297_297"><span class="label">[297]</span></a>
+Exod. xxv. Semper (i. p. 103) suggests that these rams&rsquo; skins were
+dyed with the periploca secamone&mdash;a plant still used for this purpose
+in Egypt.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_298_298" id="Footnote_298_298"></a><a href="#FNanchor_298_298"><span class="label">[298]</span></a>
+Jeremiah xxii. 14.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_299_299" id="Footnote_299_299"></a><a href="#FNanchor_299_299"><span class="label">[299]</span></a>
+Ezekiel xxiii. 14: &ldquo;The images of the Chaldeans.&rdquo; &ldquo;The men
+portrayed in vermilion on the wall.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_300_300" id="Footnote_300_300"></a><a href="#FNanchor_300_300"><span class="label">[300]</span></a>
+Villiers Stuart, &ldquo;Funeral Tent of an Egyptian Queen.&rdquo; See
+Appendix.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_301_301" id="Footnote_301_301"></a><a href="#FNanchor_301_301"><span class="label">[301]</span></a>
+2 Chron. ii. 7.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_302_302" id="Footnote_302_302"></a><a href="#FNanchor_302_302"><span class="label">[302]</span></a>
+The Arabs received the kermis from Armenia, and the name was
+originally &ldquo;Quer-m&eacute;s,&rdquo; &ldquo;oak-apple.&rdquo; Sardis was famed for its kermes
+dye. See Birdwood, &ldquo;Indian Arts,&rdquo; p. 238, ed. 1880, and Yule&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Marco Polo,&rdquo; i. p. 67.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_303_303" id="Footnote_303_303"></a><a href="#FNanchor_303_303"><span class="label">[303]</span></a>
+Isa. ii. 18.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_304_304" id="Footnote_304_304"></a><a href="#FNanchor_304_304"><span class="label">[304]</span></a>
+Renouf&rsquo;s Hibbert Lectures, p. 67-69. It may be called balance,
+rather than harmony.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_305_305" id="Footnote_305_305"></a><a href="#FNanchor_305_305"><span class="label">[305]</span></a>
+Wilkinson, &ldquo;Manners of the Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; vol. iii. pp.
+301-3.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_306_306" id="Footnote_306_306"></a><a href="#FNanchor_306_306"><span class="label">[306]</span></a>
+Bl&uuml;mner, p. 220. See Pliny, &ldquo;Natural History,&rdquo; xxxv. 42.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_307_307" id="Footnote_307_307"></a><a href="#FNanchor_307_307"><span class="label">[307]</span></a>
+Semper, i. p. 248.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_308_308" id="Footnote_308_308"></a><a href="#FNanchor_308_308"><span class="label">[308]</span></a>
+See Birdwood&rsquo;s &ldquo;Indian Arts,&rdquo; p. 272. In the Code of Manu,
+black garments are sacred to the Indian Saturn, yellow to Venus, and
+red to Mars. See Birdwood, p. 235.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_309_309" id="Footnote_309_309"></a><a href="#FNanchor_309_309"><span class="label">[309]</span></a>
+See Floyer&rsquo;s &ldquo;Unexplored Baluchistan,&rdquo; pp. 278, 373, 406. The
+Persians produce their deep yellow from the skin of the pomegranate,
+by boiling it in alum. Major Murdoch Smith describes
+the Persian processes for dyeing patterns red and black in textiles.
+The Italian women dye their own dresses in the pomegranate yellow;
+also in turmeric yellow, and other vegetable dyes.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_310_310" id="Footnote_310_310"></a><a href="#FNanchor_310_310"><span class="label">[310]</span></a>
+Pliny, &ldquo;Natural History,&rdquo; xxii. 3. Unfortunately, Pliny seldom
+condescends to give us the recipes for dyeing processes.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_311_311" id="Footnote_311_311"></a><a href="#FNanchor_311_311"><span class="label">[311]</span></a>
+Logan&rsquo;s &ldquo;Scottish Garb.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_312_312" id="Footnote_312_312"></a><a href="#FNanchor_312_312"><span class="label">[312]</span></a>
+See Elton&rsquo;s &ldquo;Origins of English History.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_313_313" id="Footnote_313_313"></a><a href="#FNanchor_313_313"><span class="label">[313]</span></a>
+The Cretan tincture was extracted from a plant which Theophrastus,
+Dioscorides, and Pliny respectively name. The last calls it the <i>Phycos
+thalassion</i>. This was not a sea-weed, but a lichen&mdash;probably the same
+from which the orchid purple of modern art is prepared. See Birdwood,
+&ldquo;Indian Arts,&rdquo; i. p. 238.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_314_314" id="Footnote_314_314"></a><a href="#FNanchor_314_314"><span class="label">[314]</span></a>
+The same scale of colour varies as much on the different textiles
+employed, as it does from the colours extracted from other chemicals.
+Silk, wool, cotton, flax, give very different results. The colouring
+matter may be identical, yet you cannot place them side by side without
+being aware that they may be repellant, instead of harmonious in tone.
+The scale is sometimes removed to another pitch, and they will no
+more harmonize than instruments that have not been attuned to the
+same diapason. See Redgrave&rsquo;s Report on Textile Fabrics.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_315_315" id="Footnote_315_315"></a><a href="#FNanchor_315_315"><span class="label">[315]</span></a>
+With the changes in colouring materials has arisen the necessity
+for discovering new mordants. The gas colour of madder is exactly
+the same chemically as that extracted from the vegetable, but the old
+mordant does not fix it, and it changes very soon to a dull blackish-purple
+hue.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_316_316" id="Footnote_316_316"></a><a href="#FNanchor_316_316"><span class="label">[316]</span></a>
+Pliny, &ldquo;Natural History,&rdquo; ix. 12. The most unnatural, and
+the most disagreeable dyes, are the magentas. Sir G. Birdwood tells
+us that the Maharajah of Cashmere has adopted a most efficient plan
+for the suppression of magenta dyes within his dominions&mdash;first, a duty
+of 45 per cent. on entering the country, and at a certain distance
+within the frontier, they are confiscated and destroyed.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>194]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VI.</h2>
+
+
+<h3><i>Part 1.</i></h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Stitches.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Stitches in needlework correspond to the touches of the
+pencil or brush in drawing or painting, or to the strokes of
+the chisel in sculpture. The needle is the one implement
+of the craft by which endless forms of surface-work are
+executed. With a thread through its one eye, it blindly
+follows each effort of its pointed foot, urged by the
+intelligent or mechanical hand grouping the stitches,
+which, being long or short, single or mixed, slanting,
+upright, or crossed, are selected as the best fitted for the
+design and purpose in hand. The word &ldquo;stitches&rdquo; does
+not, however, in this chapter represent merely the plural of
+one particular process of needle insertion, but the produce
+and effect of each different kind of stitch by grouping
+and repetition, according to its most ancient nomenclature.
+That which is astonishing is the endless variety of surface,
+of design, of hints and suggestions, of startling effects, and
+of lovely combinations, resulting from the direction of the
+needle and manipulation of the materials, and differing
+from each other according to the power or the caprice
+of the worker. But the machine is always the same&mdash;the
+threaded needle strikes the same interval, forming
+the &ldquo;stitch.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>This venerable implement, <em>the needle</em>, has, through the
+ages, varied but little in form. The attenuated body,
+the sharp foot, the rounded head, and the eye to hold
+the thread, are the same in principle, whether it is found
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>195]</a></span>
+in the cave-man&rsquo;s grave, formed of a fish&rsquo;s bone or
+shaped from that of a larger animal; hammered of
+the finest bronze, as from Egypt, or of gold, like those
+found in Scandinavia. A bronze needle was lately discovered
+in the tomb of a woman of the Vikings in
+Scotland, and its value is shown by its being placed in a
+silver case. Steel needles were first made in England
+in 1545, by a native of India. His successor, Christopher
+Greening, established a workshop in 1560 at Long
+Crendon, in Bucks, which existed there as a needle
+factory till quite lately. The rustic poetic drama, entitled
+&ldquo;Gammer Gurton&rsquo;s Needle,&rdquo; performed at Ch. Coll.,
+Cambridge, in 1566, was a regular comedy, of which a
+lost needle was the hero. In those days the village
+needle was evidently still a rare and precious possession.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig20" id="fig20"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf20.jpg" width="600" height="394" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 20.<br />
+1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Bronze needles from Egyptian tombs now in British Museum.<br />
+6. Cave-man&rsquo;s needle from the Pinhole, Churchfield, Ereswell Crag.<br />
+7. Bone needle from La Madeleine, Dordogne.</p>
+
+<p>The art of embroidery consists of a design, which
+includes the pattern, and the handicraft or stitches&mdash;the
+&ldquo;motive&rdquo; and the &ldquo;needlework.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In painting, as in sculpture, the first idea, as well as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>196]</a></span>
+the last touch, must come from the same head and hand.
+But in needlework it is not so. The pattern is the result
+of tradition. It is almost always simply a variation of
+old forms, altered and renewed by surrounding circumstances
+and sudden or gradual periods of change.</p>
+
+<p>However much the design may alter, rising often to
+the highest point of decorative art, and as often falling
+back to the lowest and most meaningless repetitions and
+imitations, the <em>stitches</em> themselves vary but little. The
+same are to be found in Egyptian and Greek specimens,
+and the classical names are those used by medi&aelig;val
+writers, and have come down to us, &ldquo;floating like bubbles
+on the waves of time.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Sir George Birdwood<a name="FNanchor_317_317" id="FNanchor_317_317"></a><a href="#Footnote_317_317" class="fnanchor">[317]</a> thinks that every kind of
+stitch is found in traditional Indian work. I confess
+that I have not been able hitherto to trace any of the
+&ldquo;mosaic&rdquo; stitches to India, nor do we ever see them in
+Chinese or Japanese embroidery, which shows every
+other variety. They are, however, occasionally found in
+Egyptian work.</p>
+
+<p>The following is a list of stitches, under the nomenclature
+of classical, Roman and medi&aelig;val authors:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Name and description of stitches">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Opus Phrygionium or Phrygium.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Passing or metal thread work.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Opus Pulvinarium.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Shrine or cushion work.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Opus Plumarium.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Plumage or feather work.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Opus Consutum.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Cut work.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Opus Araneum or Filatorium.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Net or lace work.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdl">Opus Pectineum.</td>
+    <td class="tdl">Tapestry or combed work.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Here are two English lists of stitches; their quaintness
+must be my excuse for copying them. The first is
+from Taylor, the water-poet&rsquo;s &ldquo;Praise of the Needle&rdquo;
+(sixteenth century):&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Tent work, raised work, laid work, prest work,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Net work, most curious pearl or rare Italian cut work,<br /></span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>197]</a></span>
+<span class="i0">Fine fern stitch, finny stitch, new stitch, and chain stitch,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Brave bred stitch, fisher stitch, Irish stitch, and queen&rsquo;s stitch,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The Spanish stitch, rosemary stitch, and maw stitch,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The smarting whip stitch, back stitch, and the cross stitch.&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">All these are good, and these we must allow,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And these are everywhere in practice now.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second list is from Rees&rsquo; &ldquo;Cyclop&aelig;dia&rdquo;
+(Stitches), 1819:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>&ldquo;Spanish stitch,<br />
+Tent stitch on the finger,<br />
+Tent stitch in the tent or frame,<br />
+Irish stitch,<br />
+Fore stitch,<br />
+Gold stitch,<br />
+Twist stitch,<br />
+Fern stitch,<br />
+Broad stitch,<br />
+Rosemary stitch,<br />
+Chip stitch,<br />
+Raised work,<br />
+Geneva work,<br />
+Cut work,<br />
+Laid work,<br />
+Back stitch,<br />
+Queen&rsquo;s stitch,<br />
+Satin stitch,<br />
+Finny stitch,<br />
+Chain stitch,<br />
+Fisher&rsquo;s stitch,<br />
+Bow stitch,<br />
+Cross stitch,<br />
+Needlework purl,<br />
+Virgin&rsquo;s device,<br />
+Open cut work,<br />
+Stitch work,<br />
+Through stitch,<br />
+Rock work,<br />
+Net work, and<br />
+Lent work.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;All which are swete manners of work wroughte by the needle with
+silke of all natures, purls, wyres, and weft or foreign bread (&lsquo;braid&rsquo;),
+etc., etc.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3><i>Part 2.</i></h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Plain Work and White Work.</span></h4>
+
+<p>We are told that the primal man and woman sewed in
+Paradise.</p>
+
+<p>To &ldquo;sew,&rdquo; in contradistinction to the word to
+&ldquo;embroider,&rdquo; is derived from the Sanskrit <i>su</i>, <i>suchi</i>, and
+thence imported into Latin, <i>suo</i>.<a name="FNanchor_318_318" id="FNanchor_318_318"></a><a href="#Footnote_318_318" class="fnanchor">[318]</a> To prove how highly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>198]</a></span>
+esteemed needlework was among the Romans, I may
+mention that the equivalent of the phrase &ldquo;to hit the
+right nail on the head&rdquo; was <i>rem acu tangere</i>, &ldquo;to
+touch the question with the point of the needle.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Plain work&rdquo; is that which is necessary. As soon
+as textiles are needed for covering and clothing, the
+means are invented for drawing the cut edges together,
+and for preventing the fraying where the material
+is lacerated by the shaping process. Hence the
+&ldquo;seam,&rdquo; the &ldquo;hem,&rdquo; and all the forms of stitches that
+bind and plait. These necessary stitches constitute
+plain needlework, and are closely followed by decorative
+stitches, which in gradation cover the space between
+plain needlework and embroidery.</p>
+
+<p>Semper has given us his arch&aelig;ological theories for the
+origin of needlework and its stitches.</p>
+
+<p>These are his arguments, if not always his words. He
+says: &ldquo;The seam is one of the first human successful
+efforts to conquer difficulties.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_319_319" id="FNanchor_319_319"></a><a href="#Footnote_319_319" class="fnanchor">[319]</a></p>
+
+<p>A string, a ribbon, a band, may serve to keep together
+several loose things; but by means of the seam, small things
+actually become large ones. For example: a full-grown
+man can, by its help, cover himself with a garment made
+of the skins of many small animals. When Eve sewed
+fig-leaves together, she made of these small pieces a
+garment of patchwork.</p>
+
+<p>Acting on the principle of making a virtue of necessity,
+accepting and adorning the severe facts of life, seams
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>199]</a></span>
+came to be an important vehicle of ornament. The
+Gauls and Britons embroidered the seams of their
+fur garments. &ldquo;We may judge of the antiquity of the
+seam by its universal and mythological meaning. The
+seam, the tie, the knot, the plait, and the mesh are the
+earliest symbols of fate uniting events.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_320_320" id="FNanchor_320_320"></a><a href="#Footnote_320_320" class="fnanchor">[320]</a></p>
+
+<p>We find but little mention of plain work in medi&aelig;val
+writings. When linen was worked for some honourable
+purpose, such as a gift to a friend or a royal personage,
+it was generally embroidered or stitched in some fancy
+fashion. Queen Elizabeth presented Edward VI., on his
+second birthday, with a smock made by herself. Fine
+linen was about this time constantly edged with bone laces.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Floyer has written so well, and given us so
+much practical information on plain needlework, that I
+feel it unnecessary to enter at any length into the
+principles of plain sewing, as my theme is needlework as
+decorative art.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Floyer has, as it were, unpicked and unravelled
+every stitch in plain work, till she has discovered and
+laid bare its intention, its construction, and effect. She,
+has also given us rules made clear to the dullest understanding,
+instructing us how to teach the young and
+ignorant. She shows us the quickest and most perfect
+way of working different materials for different purposes,
+and tells us how to select them. I will, therefore, refer
+my readers to her most useful and instructive books,<a name="FNanchor_321_321" id="FNanchor_321_321"></a><a href="#Footnote_321_321" class="fnanchor">[321]</a> and
+pass on at once from the craft of plain needlework, to
+stitches as the art of embroidery.</p>
+
+<p>The link between plain and decorative work deserves
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>200]</a></span>
+attention. This link is &ldquo;white embroidery.&rdquo; I imagine
+it was not a very ancient form of the art, and was practised
+first in medi&aelig;val days; when we begin to have constant
+notices of it. The first white laces appear to have
+followed close upon the first white embroideries.</p>
+
+<p>There is a tomb of the fourteenth century in the Church
+of the Ara C&oelig;li at Rome, where the effigy of a knight lies
+on his bed, draped with a sheet and a coverlet, both
+embroidered. These are evidently of linen worked in
+white.<a name="FNanchor_322_322" id="FNanchor_322_322"></a><a href="#Footnote_322_322" class="fnanchor">[322]</a> I give a drawing of them in illustration (pl. <a href="#pl39">39</a>).</p>
+
+<p>From that date we find continually mention of such
+work by nuns and ladies.<a name="FNanchor_323_323" id="FNanchor_323_323"></a><a href="#Footnote_323_323" class="fnanchor">[323]</a> In England it was especially
+called &ldquo;nuns&rsquo; work&rdquo; (plate <a href="#pl42">42</a>). There is a great survival
+of this stitchery in Italy amongst the peasantry. They
+have always adorned their smocks and aprons, and their
+linen head-coverings, and the borders of sheets for great
+occasions, with patterns in &ldquo;flat stitches,&rdquo; &ldquo;cut stitches,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;drawn work.&rdquo; The Greek peasants do the same.
+In Germany will be found much curious white embroidery,
+of designs which show their antiquity; and from Spain
+we get &ldquo;Spanish work&rdquo; in black, on white linen, which
+is nearly allied to the stitches of white work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 306px;">
+<a name="pl39" id="pl39"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 39.</p>
+<img src="images/naap39t.jpg" width="306" height="400"
+alt="Circular designs arranged in diagonal rows, with decorative border and fringe" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap39.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Embroidery imitated in marble on the tomb of a knight, in the Church of the
+Ara C&oelig;li, Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Arundel of Wardour possesses a linen cover for
+a tabernacle (or else it is a processional cloak) which is
+of the purest Hispano-Moorish design, and unrivalled in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>201]</a></span>
+beauty. It is embroidered in Spanish stitches in white
+thread, on the finest linen, and is intersected with fine lace
+insertion (pl. <a href="#pl40">40</a>). It is said to have been found in the
+time of Elizabeth with some other articles in a dry well;
+among them a little satin shoe, of which the shape
+proves its date to be of the end of Henry VIII.&rsquo;s
+reign. Russian embroidery, consisting of geometrical
+patterns in red, blue, and black thread, is of this class.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 234px;">
+<a name="pl40" id="pl40"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 40.</p>
+<img src="images/naap40t.jpg" width="234" height="400"
+alt="Ornately embroidered cloak including circular and knotwork patterns" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap40.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Processional Cloak, time of Henry VIII., belonging to Lord Arundel of Wardour.</p>
+
+<p>In England alone, the peasantry do no white work for
+home use, and we must suppose it has never been a
+domestic occupation. Indeed, the love of the needle is
+by no means an English national tendency, in the lower
+classes. Nothing but the plainest work is taught in our
+schools. Anything approaching to decorative art, with
+us, has been the accomplishment of educated women, and
+not the employment of leisure moments in the houses of
+the poor.</p>
+
+<p>Semper, in &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_324_324" id="FNanchor_324_324"></a><a href="#Footnote_324_324" class="fnanchor">[324]</a> gives rules for white embroidery,
+and the reasons from which he deduces them
+are good. He says, that allowing it as a maxim that
+each textile has its own uses and its own beauties, we
+should place nothing on linen which would militate against
+its inherent qualities and merits; and that, as the great
+beauty of flax is its smoothness and purity, all projections
+and roughnesses should be avoided which would catch
+dust or throw a shadow. Carrying out this idea, it would
+appear that satin, and not lace stitches are therefore, the
+most suitable for this kind of decoration. The accepted
+rule for selecting the stitch for each piece of work is
+this: on stout grounds the thread should be round and
+rich, whereas delicate materials carry best the most
+refined and shining thread work; and in embroidering the
+smooth surface of linen fabrics, the flattest stitches are the
+most appropriate.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>202]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><i>Part 3.</i></h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Opus Phrygium</span> (<i>or gold work</i>).</h4>
+
+<p>Gold embroideries were by the Romans attributed to
+the Phrygians. All gold work was vaguely supposed to
+be theirs, as all other embroidery was included in the
+craft of the Plumarii in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>It has been disputed whether needlework in gold
+preceded the weaving of flat gold or thread into
+stuffs, or whether it was an after-thought, and an enrichment
+of such textiles. I imagine that the embroidery
+was the first, and that the after-thought was the art of
+weaving gold. Babylonian embroideries appear to be
+of gold wire, as we see them in the Ninevite marbles.</p>
+
+<p>An instance of the way golden embroideries were
+displayed among the Greeks is that of the Athenian
+peplos, which, as I have already said (p. 32), was worked
+by embroideresses under the superintendence of two
+Arrhephor&aelig; of noble birth. It was either scarlet or
+saffron colour, and blazed with golden representations of
+the battles of the giants, or local myths and events in the
+history of Athens.<a name="FNanchor_325_325" id="FNanchor_325_325"></a><a href="#Footnote_325_325" class="fnanchor">[325]</a></p>
+
+<p>The art of the Phrygians, who gave their name in
+Rome to all golden thread-work, has come down to us
+through the classic &ldquo;auriphrygium&rdquo; and the &ldquo;orphreys&rdquo;
+of the Middle Ages. Semper thinks that the flat gold
+embroidery was the first invented.<a name="FNanchor_326_326" id="FNanchor_326_326"></a><a href="#Footnote_326_326" class="fnanchor">[326]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Phrygians had attained to the utmost perfection
+in tissue ornament when the Romans conquered them,
+and finding their art congenial to the growing luxury of
+Rome, they imported and domesticated it; both the
+people and their work retaining their national designation.
+Pliny, ignorant of the claims of the Chinese, gave to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>203]</a></span>
+the Phrygians the credit of being the inventors of all embroidery.<a name="FNanchor_327_327" id="FNanchor_327_327"></a><a href="#Footnote_327_327" class="fnanchor">[327]</a>
+The garments they thus decorated were called
+&ldquo;phrygion&aelig;,&rdquo; and the work itself &ldquo;opus Phrygium.&rdquo;
+The term &ldquo;auriphrygium,&rdquo; at first given to work in
+gold only, was in time applied to all embroidery that
+admitted gold into its composition; and hence the
+English medi&aelig;val term, &ldquo;orphreys.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>All the gold stitches now called &ldquo;passing&rdquo; came
+from Phrygia; Semper attributes all the &ldquo;mosaic
+stitches&rdquo; to the Phrygians, calling them &ldquo;opus Phrygionium.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_328_328" id="FNanchor_328_328"></a><a href="#Footnote_328_328" class="fnanchor">[328]</a>
+Gold stitches are splendidly exemplified in the
+embroidered mantle of St. Stephen, of the ninth century.
+The only somewhat earlier piece of medi&aelig;val gold
+embroidery with which I am acquainted is the dalmatic
+of Charlemagne in the Vatican, richly embroidered in fine
+gold thread; and the mantle of the Emperor Henry II.
+in the Museum at Munich, worked by his Empress
+Kunigunda, who appears to have been somewhat parsimonious
+in her use of the precious material.</p>
+
+<p>Almost all ecclesiastical and royal ancient embroideries
+were illuminated with golden grounds&mdash;golden outlines or
+golden flat embroideries. Later still, raised gold thread
+work has imitated gilt carvings or goldsmiths&rsquo; jewellery;
+and we feel that it was at once removed from its place as
+embroidery, and became an elaborate imitation of what
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>204]</a></span>
+should belong to another craft.<a name="FNanchor_329_329" id="FNanchor_329_329"></a><a href="#Footnote_329_329" class="fnanchor">[329]</a> Such deviations from
+the proper office and motive of needlework are so
+dangerously near to bad style and bad taste, that they
+always and inevitably have fallen into disrepute.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Part 4.</i></h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Opus Pulvinarium</span> (<i>or cushion work</i>).</h4>
+
+<p>This &ldquo;opus pulvinarium&rdquo; is not only to be found in
+Oriental work, but it has also survived in a very few
+fragments from Egypt.<a name="FNanchor_330_330" id="FNanchor_330_330"></a><a href="#Footnote_330_330" class="fnanchor">[330]</a> One of these, in the British
+Museum, is worked on canvas, in wool and flax; another
+in a white shining thread, resembling asbestos, on linen
+or fine canvas. They are regular &ldquo;canvas&rdquo; or &ldquo;cross&rdquo;
+stitches, and therefore, under medi&aelig;val nomenclature,
+would be classed as &ldquo;opus pulvinarium.&rdquo; This name
+must include all stitches in gold, silk, and wool, whether
+Phrygian, Egyptian, or Babylonian in their origin,
+excepting the flat and lace stitches (plate <a href="#pl41">41</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 237px;">
+<a name="pl41" id="pl41"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 41.</p>
+<img src="images/naap41t.jpg" width="237" height="400"
+alt="1. Leaf patterns; 2. Knotwork patterns; 3. Floral patterns" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap41.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="topcapt smcap">Mosaic Stitches.</p>
+
+<p class="caphang">1. Italian Pattern, sixteenth century. From Frida Lipperheide&rsquo;s Musterbuch. 2. Scandinavian.
+Bock, i. taf. xi. 3. Egyptian. From Auberville&rsquo;s &ldquo;Tissus,&rdquo; p. 1.</p>
+
+<p>Semper&rsquo;s term, &ldquo;mosaic&rdquo; stitches, is a good one, as it
+covers all that are relegated into patterns in small square
+spaces, counted by the threads of the textile on which
+they are laid.<a name="FNanchor_331_331" id="FNanchor_331_331"></a><a href="#Footnote_331_331" class="fnanchor">[331]</a> He believes that the mosaic patterns and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>205]</a></span>
+cross stitches in needlework preceded the tesselated
+pavements, and formed their first motive, though the
+stitch now refers itself back to the mosaic, at least in
+name.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable that in Chaldea and Assyria there
+still exist some ruined walls, which are adorned with
+pilasters, panels, and other architectural forms, covered
+with some sort of encaustic, imitating textile patterns.<a name="FNanchor_332_332" id="FNanchor_332_332"></a><a href="#Footnote_332_332" class="fnanchor">[332]</a>
+The effect is produced by means of a kind of mosaic
+work of small nails or wedges of baked clay, with china
+or glazed coloured heads. These are inlaid into the
+unbaked clay or earth, of which the walls are constructed,
+and while binding it together, give the effect of the
+surface being hung with a material which has a pattern
+worked all over in cross stitch.</p>
+
+<p>The Chinese, the Chaldeans, and the Assyrians long
+continued to show in their buildings the tradition of this
+style of decoration. In Egypt there has been found
+some unfinished mural painting where the plaster has
+been previously prepared by dividing it into small
+rectangular spaces, apparently on the principle of the
+canvas ground for cross stitches.</p>
+
+<p>The name &ldquo;mosaic&rdquo; stitch does not interfere with,
+or militate against the classical appellation of <i>opus
+pulvinarium</i>, which means &ldquo;shrine work&rdquo; or &ldquo;cushion
+stitches.&rdquo; These appear to have been from the first
+considered as the best suited for adorning cushions,
+chairs, footstools, and the beds on which men reclined at
+their feasts, as they are firmly-set stitches which will
+stand friction.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>206]</a></span>
+Most of the work now done in Syria, Turkey, Greece,
+and the Principalities, shows different forms of the mosaic
+stitches; so also does the national Russian work, which
+is Byzantine. All these designs are conventional and
+mostly geometrical.</p>
+
+<p>This work, in the East, is generally the same on both
+sides. We may infer that the spoil anticipated by Sisera&rsquo;s
+mother, &ldquo;the garments embroidered on both sides, fit
+for the necks of those who divide the spoil,&rdquo; was of this
+kind.</p>
+
+<p>Thus we see that the &ldquo;opus pulvinarium&rdquo; has a very
+respectable ancestry; and though it had somewhat
+degenerated in the early part of our century, and had
+languished and almost died out under the name of Berlin
+wool work, yet it has done good service through the days
+of medi&aelig;val art down to the present time, both in England
+and throughout Europe (pl. <a href="#pl42">42</a>); and it will probably
+revive and continue to be generally used.</p>
+
+<p>Though the least available for historical or pictorial
+work, and not by any means the best for flower-pieces (as
+the squareness of the stitches refuses to lend itself to
+flowing lines or gradations of colour, unless the stitches
+are extremely fine, and the work, in consequence, very
+laborious), yet it finds its especial fitness in all geometrical
+designs. It is also particularly well suited to heraldic
+subjects.</p>
+
+<p>A remarkable example of the use of cross stitches
+exists in the borders of the Syon cope, in which the
+coats-of-arms are so executed. This is of the thirteenth
+century; and besides these cushion stitches, it exhibits all
+those which are grouped in the style called opus Anglicum
+or Anglicanum.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl42" id="pl42"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 42.</p>
+<img src="images/naap42t.jpg" width="400" height="275"
+alt="Wide and narrow strip design, edged with floral pattern" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap42.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Italian &ldquo;Nun&rsquo;s Work,&rdquo; from a pyx cloth, sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Many charming designs for this kind of stitch may be
+found in the old German pattern-books of the Renaissance
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>207]</a></span>
+(Spitzen Musterb&uuml;cher), and also in those Venetian
+&ldquo;Corone di Vertuose Donne&rdquo; lately reprinted by the
+Venetian publisher Organia. These are worthy of a
+place in every library of art.</p>
+
+<p>It would seem best to place the chain stitch named
+&ldquo;tambour&rdquo; in this class, as it naturally assimilates with
+the plaited and cross stitches. It is so called from the
+drum-shaped frame of the last century in which it was
+usually worked.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Part 5.</i></h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Opus Plumarium</span> (<i>or plumage work</i>).</h4>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;Opus Plumarium&rdquo; is one of the most ancient
+groups, and includes all flat stitches, of which the distinguishing
+mark is, that they <em>pass</em> each other, overlap,
+and blend together. &ldquo;Stem,&rdquo; &ldquo;twist,&rdquo; &ldquo;Japanese stitch,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;long and short&rdquo; or &ldquo;embroidery stitch,&rdquo; belong to
+this class, to which I propose to restore its original title
+of plumage work.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of the name is much disputed, but it is
+supposed to have pointed to a decoration of plumage
+work, and we find that feathers have been an element in
+artistic design from the earliest times. There were
+patterns in Egyptian painting which certainly had feathers
+for their motive (fig. <a href="#fig21">21</a>, p. <a href="#Page_208">208</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Semper, finding that birds&rsquo;-skins were a recognized
+article for trade in China, 2205 <small>B.C.</small>,<a name="FNanchor_333_333" id="FNanchor_333_333"></a><a href="#Footnote_333_333" class="fnanchor">[333]</a> believes that they
+were used as onlaid application for architectural decoration;
+and this is possible, for we still obtain from thence
+specimens of work in different materials partly onlaid in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>208]</a></span>
+whole feathers, whereas sometimes the longer threads of
+the feathers are woven
+by the needle into the
+ground web. In Her
+Majesty&rsquo;s collection there
+are some specimens from
+Burmah&mdash;creatures resembling
+sphinxes or
+deformed cherubim, executed
+in feathers, applied
+on silk and outlined in
+gold. We have likewise
+from Burmah, in the Indian
+Museum, two peacocks<a name="FNanchor_334_334" id="FNanchor_334_334"></a><a href="#Footnote_334_334" class="fnanchor">[334]</a>
+similarly worked;
+the legs and beaks are
+solidly raised in gold
+thread; and the outlines also are raised in gold, giving
+the appearance of enamelling. The <i>cloisonn&eacute;</i> effect of
+brilliant colours, contrasted and enhanced by the separation
+of the gold outlines, can be seen to perfection in
+specimens of the beautiful Pekin jewellers&rsquo; work, where
+the feathers are inlaid in gold ornaments for the head
+and in the handles of fans. Nothing but gems can be
+more resplendent.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig21" id="fig21"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 313px;">
+<img src="images/naaf21.jpg" width="313" height="400"
+alt="Three different patterns based on feathers" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 21.<br />
+Feather patterns, Egyptian.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>These survivals help us to understand the casual
+mention we find in classical authors, of the works of the
+Plumarii, which appellation was given at last to all
+embroiderers who were not Phrygians.<a name="FNanchor_335_335" id="FNanchor_335_335"></a><a href="#Footnote_335_335" class="fnanchor">[335]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>209]</a></span>
+We have other glimpses of Oriental feather-work in
+different parts of India.<a name="FNanchor_336_336" id="FNanchor_336_336"></a><a href="#Footnote_336_336" class="fnanchor">[336]</a></p>
+
+<p>The use of feathers is common in the islands of the
+Pacific. It is native to the Sandwich islanders; and
+M. Jules Remy describes the Hawaiian royal mantle,
+which was being constructed of yellow birds&rsquo; feathers
+through seven consecutive reigns, and was valued in
+Hawaii at 5,000,000 francs. A mantle of this description
+is the property of Lady Brassey.</p>
+
+<p>In Africa, ancient Egyptian art furnishes us with traditional
+feather patterns and head-dresses; and Pigafetta
+tells us of costumes of birds&rsquo; skins, worn in the
+kingdom of Congo in the sixteenth century for their
+warmth; sea-birds&rsquo; feathers being highly esteemed.<a name="FNanchor_337_337" id="FNanchor_337_337"></a><a href="#Footnote_337_337" class="fnanchor">[337]</a></p>
+
+<p>In America, where birds are most splendid, the art of
+the feather worker was carried to the greatest perfection.
+It was found there by the Spaniards, and recorded in all
+their writings for its beauty of design and execution, and
+for its great value, equal to that of gold and precious
+stones.</p>
+
+<p>Though now looked down upon, as being a semi-barbarous
+style of decoration, because it exists no longer
+except in semi-barbarous countries, we must consider
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>210]</a></span>
+feather work as a relic of a past higher civilization which
+has died out, rather than simply as the effort of the
+savage to deck himself in the brightest colours attainable.</p>
+
+<p>Feather-work is a lost art, but the name of &ldquo;opus
+plumarium&rdquo; remains, and proves that it was still recognized
+as such in the days of Roman luxury. The name
+survived when the practice was all but forgotten in
+Europe,<a name="FNanchor_338_338" id="FNanchor_338_338"></a><a href="#Footnote_338_338" class="fnanchor">[338]</a> and the art itself disused, probably, because
+the birds of our continent rarely have any lovely plumage
+to tempt the eye.</p>
+
+<p>But the glory of feather-work was found again in
+Mexico and Peru, and the surrounding nations, in the sixteenth
+century&mdash;praised, exalted, demoralized, and crushed
+out by the cruelties of conquest. The Spaniards at first
+brought home beautiful garments and hangings, representing
+gods and heroes, all worked in feathers.<a name="FNanchor_339_339" id="FNanchor_339_339"></a><a href="#Footnote_339_339" class="fnanchor">[339]</a> Under their
+rule the natives produced pictures agreeable to the taste
+of their masters. Pope Sixtus V. accepted a head of St.
+Francis, which had been executed by one of the ablest
+of the &ldquo;amantecas&rdquo; (the name for an artist in feathers).
+Sixtus was struck with surprise and admiration at the
+beauty and artistic cleverness of the work, and, until he
+had touched and examined it closely, would not believe
+that plumage was the only material used.</p>
+
+<p>There are beautiful hangings and bed furniture at
+Moritzburg, near Dresden, said to have belonged to
+Montezuma. They were given to Augustus the Strong,
+King of Poland, by a king of Spain.</p>
+
+<p>In the seventeenth century, and later, feather work
+was still an art in Mexico, the convents continuing to
+preserve its traditions. Bustamente says that this industry
+was still in operation in the beginning of our
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>211]</a></span>
+century. The Mexican Museum preserves specimens of
+the last three hundred years, from the time of the conquest
+of Mexico.</p>
+
+<p>There is in the Cluny Museum, in Paris, a beautiful
+triptych, evidently of the sixteenth century. It is worked
+in feathers, with delicate outlines in fine gold thread.
+Nothing can exceed the tenderness and harmony of the
+colouring in shades of blue, and warm and cool brown tints.
+This is probably a survival of that lost art of Mexico
+which was carried on in their convents, and may have
+been a copy of a treasured relic of European art.</p>
+
+<p>Among the few noteworthy specimens that have
+survived, is the mitre of St. Carlo Borromeo at Milan,
+described by M. F. Denis as being both artistic and
+beautiful. He tells us in his Appendix that even now,
+a tissue of feathers is woven in France, as soft and
+flexible as a silk damask; and rivalling the Mexican
+scarlet feather fabric, which the Spaniards admired so
+greatly. He also speaks of the inlaid feather work, invented
+by M. Le Normant of Rouen, in the last century,
+and afterwards continued in Paris by his English pupil,
+Mr. Levet, who sold two of his works to the then Duke
+of Leeds, in 1735. The first is a vase of flowers, the
+second a peacock, designed by M. Oudry (peintre du
+Roi). Both of these, framed as screens, are now at
+Hornby Castle.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately feathers are, by their nature, most
+attractive to that greatest destroyer, next to Attila&mdash;the
+moth. Ghirlandajo called mosaic in marble and glass,
+&ldquo;painting for eternity;&rdquo; we may call feather work,
+&ldquo;painting for a day.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>From the essays of M. Ferdinand Denis,<a name="FNanchor_340_340" id="FNanchor_340_340"></a><a href="#Footnote_340_340" class="fnanchor">[340]</a> much may
+be learned of the <i>arte plumaria</i> of the Mexicans and
+their neighbours of Brazil, Guatemala, Peru, and Yucatan,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>212]</a></span>
+and the land of the Zapotecas, &amp;c., where it was also
+cultivated. He says that their civilization is so mysterious
+that we have as yet no means of judging whence
+came their art.</p>
+
+<p>Fergusson suggests the similarity between Central
+Asian and Central American art, both in architectural
+forms and plastic and sculptured remains. He thinks that
+its tradition was transmitted from Asia to America in the
+third and fourth centuries of our era. If so, it was an
+unlucky moment for the recipients, as the art of Asia, as
+well as that of Europe, was then at its lowest and most
+debased phase; perhaps, however, the more fit for the
+fertilization of that of a perfectly barbarous people. There
+is something fascinating in the suggestions on this subject
+in Mr. Donelly&rsquo;s &ldquo;Atlantis;&rdquo; but when conjecture is
+only founded on tradition, and without proof, we must
+not take it into serious consideration.</p>
+
+<p>Having proved the universal use of feathers, it is not
+difficult to appreciate the causes which suggested everywhere
+the transfer of this decorative art to another
+craft, employing less perishable materials. Embroidery
+probably followed it closely and absorbed it throughout
+Asia and in Egypt; and the survivals now are only an
+accidental specimen, a tradition, and a name.<a name="FNanchor_341_341" id="FNanchor_341_341"></a><a href="#Footnote_341_341" class="fnanchor">[341]</a></p>
+
+<p>The name &ldquo;Plumarii,&rdquo; for the embroideries, is thus fully
+accounted for, and we need seek no further elucidation.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>213]</a></span>
+It was commonly used in classical Roman times. &ldquo;Opus
+plumarium&rdquo; seems to have become the legitimate term
+for all needlework. The Plumarii were the embroiderers,
+whether their work was in wool, or thread, or in silk (at
+a later period),<a name="FNanchor_342_342" id="FNanchor_342_342"></a><a href="#Footnote_342_342" class="fnanchor">[342]</a> with or without admixture of gold or
+silver (as the Argentarii were the jewellers).</p>
+
+<p>The article on the word &ldquo;plumarius&rdquo; in Hoffman&rsquo;s
+Lexicon,<a name="FNanchor_343_343" id="FNanchor_343_343"></a><a href="#Footnote_343_343" class="fnanchor">[343]</a> after describing two kinds of Plumarii,
+Phrygians and Babylonians, proceeds to say, &ldquo;These
+latter, who wove garments and hangings of various
+colours, were called &lsquo;Plumarii;&rsquo; but though this name
+was at first confined to craftsmen who wove patterns
+in the shape of feathers, in course of time the name
+was extended to those artists who, with the needle or by
+painting, embellished robes.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_344_344" id="FNanchor_344_344"></a><a href="#Footnote_344_344" class="fnanchor">[344]</a></p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;opus plumarium&rdquo; included, as I before said, all
+flat stitches; and I repeat that &ldquo;feather application&rdquo; was
+certainly its first motive; and next came the stitches
+that conveyed the same desired effect, though a new
+material was employed, fitted for the needle, which,
+having served its apprenticeship in &ldquo;plain work,&rdquo; now
+came to the front as a decorative agent.</p>
+
+<p>Painting with the needle began with an attempt to
+model with it; the lay of stitches being so arranged as to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>214]</a></span>
+give the whole effect of light and shadow, so as to
+delineate the forms without changing the shades of the
+material used. I give on the opposite page some
+Japanese birds, which will explain what I mean. The
+stitches are so intelligently placed as absolutely to give
+the forms of the birds imitated. They represent plumage,
+and a more artistic representation cannot be imagined.
+(Pl. <a href="#pl43">43</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The same stitch which we find prevailing in China
+and Japan as plumage work, is employed in embroidering
+flowers. Here satin, stem, and plumage stitches are
+blended together, and excellent decorative effects are produced;
+but the texture of flowers is not to be imitated, as
+is that of the plumage of birds. &ldquo;Satin&rdquo; stitch is a more
+restricted form of plumage stitch; and &ldquo;stem&rdquo; is another
+variety of these flat stitches, very useful in its place. I
+therefore have assigned the name of &ldquo;plumage stitch&rdquo; to
+that hitherto called &ldquo;embroidery&rdquo; or &ldquo;long and short&rdquo;
+stitches; and I give the term &ldquo;plumage work&rdquo; to include
+all the &ldquo;flat&rdquo; stitches.</p>
+
+<p>Practically, it is allowed that these flat stitches,
+especially the plumage stitch, give most scope for freedom
+in needlework, as they are laid on at once, and according
+to the inspiration of the worker, and may cover the outline
+and efface it. The stitches are not counted, and have
+more of the nature of touch than any others, as their
+length, thickness, and closeness may be varied at will.
+The artist&rsquo;s design thus admits of interpretation according
+to the taste and feeling of the needlewoman.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 217px;">
+<a name="pl43" id="pl43"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 43.</p>
+<img src="images/naap43t.jpg" width="217" height="400"
+alt="Two hexagonal pieces, each with a crane with its wings spread" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap43.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Japanese Opus Plumarium.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Part 6.</i></h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Opus Consutum</span> (<i>or cut work</i>).</h4>
+
+<p>This is &ldquo;Patchwork,&rdquo; or &ldquo;Appliqu&eacute;&rdquo; (&ldquo;inlaid&rdquo; and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>215]</a></span>
+&ldquo;onlaid&rdquo;). Vasari calls it &ldquo;Di commesso,&rdquo; and says that
+Botticelli invented it for the use of Church banners, as
+being much more effective than any other style of
+work, or even than painting, as the outlines remained
+firm (non si stinguano), and were not affected by the
+weather (as in painted cloths) and were visible on both
+sides of the banner. Botticelli drew with his own hand
+the baldachino of Or San Michele, and the embroideries
+on a frieze carried in procession by the monks of Santa
+Maria Novella; he died 1515. Perhaps he may have
+revived the art of application in his own day.</p>
+
+<p>There are, however, much earlier examples of patchwork,
+of which the first and most remarkable is the Egyptian
+funeral tent of Queen Isi-em-Kheb, mother-in-law of Shishak,
+who besieged and took Jerusalem three or four years
+after the death of Solomon, <small>B.C.</small> 980. It may be described
+as a mosaic, or patchwork of prodigious size, made of
+thousands of pieces of gazelles&rsquo; skins, dyed, and neatly
+sewn together with threads of colour to match, resembling
+the stitching of a glove, the outer edges bound with a cord
+of twisted pink leather, sewn on with stout pink thread
+(pl. <a href="#pl44">44</a>). The colours are described as being wonderfully
+preserved, when it is remembered that they are nearly as
+old as the Trojan War; though perhaps their preservation
+is less surprising than that the flowers wreathed about
+several royal mummies of the same period should have
+shown their colours and forms when the cases were first
+opened, so as to be recognized as blue larkspur, yellow
+mimosa, and a red Abyssinian flower, massed closely together
+on the foundation of a strong leaf cut in zigzags.
+Among the flowers lay a dead wasp, whose worthless
+little form and identity were as perfectly preserved
+as those of the mighty monarch on whose bosom
+it had completed its short existence. The tent itself
+consists of a centre or flat top, divided down the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>216]</a></span>
+middle, and covered over one half with pink and yellow
+rosettes on a blue ground; on the other half are six
+large vultures, each surrounded with a hieroglyphic text
+which is really an epitaph. The side flaps are adorned
+first with some narrow bands of colour; then with a
+fringe pattern; then with a row of broad panels, red,
+green, and yellow, with a device or picture and inscription
+in the two other colours; on this border there are
+kneeling gazelles, each with a pink Abyssinian lotus
+blossom hanging to its collar. The rest of the side flaps
+and the whole of the front and back flaps are composed
+of large squares, alternately pink and green. This, for
+its antiquity, its style, its stitchery, materials, and colours,
+is a most interesting work of early art, and an example
+of the perfection to which it had attained. It is remarkable
+how much variety of effect has been produced with only
+four colours, by the artistic manner of placing and contrasting
+them. To our more advanced taste, however, the
+whole effect of the contrasting colours is inharmonious
+and gaudy, though certainly striking and typical.<a name="FNanchor_345_345" id="FNanchor_345_345"></a><a href="#Footnote_345_345" class="fnanchor">[345]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another piece of Egyptian application, from the
+Museum at Turin, is a pretty leaf pattern cut out in red
+stuff, laid on a white ground, and worked down with a
+darker outline of the same colour.<a name="FNanchor_346_346" id="FNanchor_346_346"></a><a href="#Footnote_346_346" class="fnanchor">[346]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 550px;">
+<a name="fig22" id="fig22"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf22.jpg" width="550" height="170"
+alt="A simple leaf pattern" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 22.<br />
+Piece of appliqu&eacute; in red stuff and red outlines from Egypt.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 285px;">
+<a name="pl44" id="pl44"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 44.</p>
+<img src="images/naap44t.jpg" width="285" height="400"
+alt="Differently decorated joined panels, designs including flowers and winged scarabs" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap44.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Funeral Tent of Isi-em-Kheb. From Villiers Stuart&rsquo;s &ldquo;Funeral Tent of an
+Egyptian Queen.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We have an instance of ancient &ldquo;application&rdquo; of about
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>217]</a></span>
+600 years later, Greek in its beauty of design and execution.
+Alas! we can only ascertain, from tattered fragments
+taken out of a tomb in the Crimea, that it was parsem&eacute;
+with figures on horseback or in chariots. The border
+is very beautiful. Compare the fragments of which we
+have obtained a copy with the mantle of Demeter, from a
+Greek vase, and you will perceive how the styles correspond
+(Pl. <a href="#pl16">16</a>, Fig. <a href="#fig23">23</a>). The ground material is of
+the finest woven wool, of a deep violet or purple colour,
+enriched with application of another fine woollen fabric
+of a most brilliant green, worked down, outlined and
+embroidered in white, black, and gold-coloured wool,
+apparently in stem stitches.<a name="FNanchor_347_347" id="FNanchor_347_347"></a><a href="#Footnote_347_347" class="fnanchor">[347]</a> The accompanying illustration
+gives the effect and general design of the outer
+border only, in which the applied leaf is worked down
+in red, gold, and white.</p>
+
+<p>It is much to be regretted that the centre of the
+mantle is so tattered and discoloured that it is impossible
+to do more than ascertain that the design that is
+embroidered on it consists of figures on horseback or in
+chariots, in spirited attitudes. The second and broader
+border is to be found (pl. <a href="#pl17">17</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="fig23" id="fig23"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf23.jpg" width="500" height="147"
+alt="A curving leaf design" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 23.<br />
+Narrow border of a Greek mantle.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Opus consutum&rdquo; cannot in any sense perhaps be the
+name of a stitch or stitches. But it applies to a peculiar
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>218]</a></span>
+style of embroidery employing certain stitches. It is the
+term given to all work cut out of plain or embroidered
+materials, and applied by &ldquo;working down&rdquo; to another
+material as grounding. It includes all raised and stuffed
+application in silk, woollen, and metal thread work. It
+has been given to all work in which the scissors are active
+agents, whether in cutting out the outlines or in incising
+the pattern, as in much of the linen and muslin embroideries
+of our day, now called &ldquo;Madeira work,&rdquo; of
+which a great deal was made in the first part of the
+century by English ladies who designed and collected
+patterns from each other, and gave the produce of their
+industry as gifts to their friends for collars, cuffs, and
+trimmings.<a name="FNanchor_348_348" id="FNanchor_348_348"></a><a href="#Footnote_348_348" class="fnanchor">[348]</a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Cut work&rdquo; is named by Chaucer, and is constantly to
+be found in inventories from his time to the beginning of
+the last century. At Coire, in the Grisons, is a very
+beautiful chasuble, of which the orphrey is of the school
+of the elder Holbein or Lucas Cranach, applied and
+raised so as to form a high relief. The figures are
+covered with satin and embroidered. The chasuble
+itself is of fine Saracenic silk, woven with golden inscriptions
+in broad stripes. The colours are brown, crimson,
+and gold.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 281px;">
+<a name="pl45" id="pl45"></a>
+<img src="images/naap45t.jpg" width="281" height="400"
+alt="Two linear foliage designs" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap45.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Wall Pilasters<br />
+Appliqu&eacute; Cut-work, Italian XVI. Cent<sup>ry</sup><br />
+Property of Countess Somers</p>
+
+<p>In the later Middle Ages, a good deal of this work was
+executed in Germany for wall hangings; figures were cut
+out in different materials, and embroidered down and
+finished by putting in the details in various stitches.
+As art they are generally a failure, being more gaudy than
+beautiful. This, however, is not necessarily the case, for
+there is at the Hotel Cluny a complete suite of hangings
+of the time of Francis the First, partly applied
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>219]</a></span>
+and partly embroidered, which are beautiful in design
+and colouring, especially the fruit and trophies in the
+borders.</p>
+
+<p>In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries cut work
+was much employed in Italy for large flowered arabesque
+designs, commonly in velvet or silk, making columnar
+wall hangings, which are often very effective; giving
+the rooms an architectural decoration, without interfering
+with the arrangement of works of art, pictures,
+statues and cabinets, placed in front of them. Besides,
+it was supposed that the utmost effect of richness was
+thus accomplished with the least labour, and very large
+spaces and very high walls covered, without losing
+anything of beauty by distance, as must be the case
+when the work&rsquo;s highest merit is in the delicacy of the
+stitches and the details of form. (Pl. <a href="#pl45">45</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The Earl of Beauchamp has inherited a most beautiful
+suite of hangings of &ldquo;appliqu&eacute; work;&rdquo; silks of many
+kinds are laid on a white brocade ground with every
+possible variety of stitch, forming richly and gracefully designed
+patterns; and showing to what cut work can aspire.</p>
+
+<p>A great deal of &ldquo;opus consutum&rdquo; has been done in the
+School of Art Needlework, in the way of restoration of old
+embroideries. Here may be seen copies of different
+models of many periods; amongst other British specimens,
+part of a bed at Drumlanrig, in which James I. slept.
+In this work the application is cut out, raised and stuffed,
+and &ldquo;couched&rdquo; with cords, and the whole thing is as stiff,
+strong, conventional, and enduring as if it were a piece
+of upholstery that was carpentered yesterday, instead of
+being needlework of at least 250 years ago.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most remarkable large works of this style
+that exists was shown in 1881, at the South Kensington
+Museum, during the Spanish Exhibition.<a name="FNanchor_349_349" id="FNanchor_349_349"></a><a href="#Footnote_349_349" class="fnanchor">[349]</a> It was of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>220]</a></span>
+kind called &ldquo;on the stamp.&rdquo; This was a landscape
+seen between columns wreathed with flowers and creepers.
+In the foreground couched a stag, the size of life&mdash;a
+wonderful reproduction of the hide of the creature in
+stitches. The relief is so high that the columns appear
+to be circular by the shadows they throw; and the stag
+is stuffed so as to be raised about six inches. The work
+is superb, and causes pleasure as well as wonder; and
+yet, in spite of the beauty of the design, and the
+richness of the materials&mdash;gold, silver, silk, and wool
+profusely used&mdash;it is a divergence from the legitimate
+art of embroidery, and is simply the attempt of the
+needlewoman to combine again the arts of sculpture and
+painting with the help of so inadequate an implement as
+the needle. Therefore, except as being a marvellous and
+beautiful curiosity, it is a failure; it is not art.<a name="FNanchor_350_350" id="FNanchor_350_350"></a><a href="#Footnote_350_350" class="fnanchor">[350]</a></p>
+
+<p>Practically, cut work is the best mode of arriving at
+splendid effects by uniting rich and varied tissues.<a name="FNanchor_351_351" id="FNanchor_351_351"></a><a href="#Footnote_351_351" class="fnanchor">[351]</a> The
+Italian curiosity vendors know this well, and often cut up
+the remnants and rags of rich stuffs, old faded silks, and
+scraps of gold and silver tissues, and with them copy fine
+old designs, and sell them as authentic specimens of such
+and such a date.</p>
+
+<p>I was once requested to give an opinion as to the
+date of a curtain border bought in Italy, and on
+consideration I gave the following verdict: &ldquo;The design
+is of the sixteenth century; the applied velvet and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>221]</a></span>
+gold cord, of the seventeenth century; the brocaded silk
+ground, eighteenth century; the thread with which the
+whole was worked&mdash;machine-made silk thread (English)&mdash;middle
+of nineteenth century.&rdquo; The whole effect was
+excellent, and very antique.</p>
+
+<p>This art of &ldquo;application&rdquo; is the distinctive part of the
+&ldquo;opus consutum,&rdquo; and it is the best and most economical
+method for restoration of old embroideries, of which the
+grounding material is generally worn out long before the
+stitches laid upon it. Much beautiful work has thus been
+rescued from annihilation, and restored to use from its
+long imprisonment in the boxes and drawers of the garret
+and store-room. But it is cruel to transfer historical or
+typical works, and so puzzle the artist and the historian.</p>
+
+<p>It is so troublesome to embroider on velvet or plush,
+or gold tissues, that application is the easiest and most
+effective mode of dealing with these fabrics.<a name="FNanchor_352_352" id="FNanchor_352_352"></a><a href="#Footnote_352_352" class="fnanchor">[352]</a> The
+outlines laid down in cord have the best effect, while
+binding the edges and securing them from fraying, and
+it is almost certain that the eye receives most pleasure, in
+flat art, from a defined outline, which satisfies it; where
+there are no cast shadows, it lifts the work from the
+background, and separating the colours, it enhances
+their beauty. It would appear, however, as a rule, that
+either black or gold metal should invariably be employed,
+because they do not interfere with any colour they
+approach. White is distracting and aggressive. The
+Greeks sometimes used gold colour instead of gold, as we
+see in the mantle from the Crimea already referred to;
+but this is not nearly so agreeable to the eye as pure
+gold.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>222]</a></span>
+A great deal of modern &ldquo;opus consutum,&rdquo; or application
+cut work, has been done in Constantinople of late
+years. The designs in general, are not artistic; nor
+are the colouring and materials very commendable.
+The onlaid material is, in general, sewn down with
+chain stitches, and cut out afterwards.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Part 7.</i></h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Lace.&mdash;Opus Filatorium or Araneum.</span></h4>
+
+<p>Mrs. Palliser says that from the earliest times the
+art of lace-making has been so mixed up with that of
+needlework, that it is impossible to enter upon the one
+without naming the other. This is, in fact, what she has
+done, showing the intimate connection between the two
+in her charming work on lace, where much information
+about embroideries in general, may be found in the
+introduction.<a name="FNanchor_353_353" id="FNanchor_353_353"></a><a href="#Footnote_353_353" class="fnanchor">[353]</a></p>
+
+<p>M. Blanc also considers that there is but a slight
+transition between embroidery and guipure, which he
+says was the first lace.<a name="FNanchor_354_354" id="FNanchor_354_354"></a><a href="#Footnote_354_354" class="fnanchor">[354]</a> As all the earliest specimens
+and designs for guipure were Venetian, the art was,
+therefore, probably an Italian invention, though an
+Oriental origin has sometimes been attributed to it. The
+objection to this last theory is that we find no ancient
+specimens, and no modern continuation of such work in
+the East.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;guipure&rdquo; is a stumbling-block. It has
+been applied to many forms in the varying art of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>223]</a></span>
+lace-making; which same variableness has caused its
+nomenclature to assume the terms belonging to other
+textile arts where they approach or touch each other,
+(as in netting, fringes, or embroideries). The nearest
+approach to laces before the thirteenth century was more
+in the nature of what we now call guimp.<a name="FNanchor_355_355" id="FNanchor_355_355"></a><a href="#Footnote_355_355" class="fnanchor">[355]</a></p>
+
+<p>Embroidery differs from lace, in that it is worked on
+already woven tissues; whereas lace is manufactured at
+once, both ground and design.<a name="FNanchor_356_356" id="FNanchor_356_356"></a><a href="#Footnote_356_356" class="fnanchor">[356]</a> But the link between
+the two is not missing.</p>
+
+<p>In the twelfth century they worked &ldquo;opus filatorium,&rdquo;
+which consisted of embroidery with the needle on linen,
+of which half the threads had been drawn out, and the
+remainder were worked into a net by knotting them
+into groups, then dividing, and knotting them again.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>224]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_357_357" id="FNanchor_357_357"></a><a href="#Footnote_357_357" class="fnanchor">[357]</a>
+There is a piece of work described in an old catalogue
+quoted by Rock. &ldquo;St. Paul&rsquo;s, London, had a cushion
+covered with knotted thread: Pulvinar copertum de
+albo filo nodato.&rdquo; Here lace and embroidery touch
+each other.<a name="FNanchor_358_358" id="FNanchor_358_358"></a><a href="#Footnote_358_358" class="fnanchor">[358]</a> Sir Gardiner Wilkinson notices some
+early Egyptian work in the Louvre as &ldquo;a piece
+of white network pattern, each mesh containing an
+irregular cubic figure.&rdquo; This sounds much like lace-work.</p>
+
+<p>It may be fairly asserted that the term &ldquo;embroidery&rdquo;
+embraces the craft of lace-making, as almost all ancient
+and much modern lace is simple embroidery, and formed
+entirely by the needle.</p>
+
+<p>Some kinds of lace, however, are made by plaiting and
+twisting the threads attached to bobbins round pins
+which are previously arranged in the holes of a pattern,
+pricked on parchment or glazed paper.<a name="FNanchor_359_359" id="FNanchor_359_359"></a><a href="#Footnote_359_359" class="fnanchor">[359]</a> The original
+motive and idea of lace is a net. The patterns called by
+the ancients &ldquo;de fundata,&rdquo; are netted designs meshed.
+You will see them constantly in Egyptian and Greek art,
+both in wall painting and textile decoration. Homer
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>225]</a></span>
+speaks of golden cauls, and so does Isaiah,<a name="FNanchor_360_360" id="FNanchor_360_360"></a><a href="#Footnote_360_360" class="fnanchor">[360]</a> as adorning
+women&rsquo;s heads. They also mention nets of flax.</p>
+
+<p>The capitals of the brazen columns adorned with
+&ldquo;nets of chequer work&rdquo; in Solomon&rsquo;s Temple are
+very curious.<a name="FNanchor_361_361" id="FNanchor_361_361"></a><a href="#Footnote_361_361" class="fnanchor">[361]</a> And the author of &ldquo;Letters from Italy,
+1776,&rdquo; tells of the garment of a statue at Portici,
+edged with a border resembling fine netting. Egyptian
+robes of state appear to have been sometimes
+trimmed with an edging of a texture between lace and
+fringe.<a name="FNanchor_362_362" id="FNanchor_362_362"></a><a href="#Footnote_362_362" class="fnanchor">[362]</a></p>
+
+<p>Lace has been made of many materials in many ways.
+We may instance &ldquo;passementerie,&rdquo; made with bobbins
+(bone lace), with or without pins, or with the needle only,
+by hand. The materials have been gold, silver, silk,
+thread (these two last white or coloured), the fibres of
+plants, and human hair.<a name="FNanchor_363_363" id="FNanchor_363_363"></a><a href="#Footnote_363_363" class="fnanchor">[363]</a> A lace called &ldquo;yak&rdquo; is made
+of wool or hair.</p>
+
+<p>Bone laces in gold and silver, or the two mixed and
+interchanged, are continually mentioned in the inventories
+of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries.
+Bed hangings, chair and cushion covers, and table cloths
+were constantly trimmed with gold and silver bone lace,
+and fringes of the same.<a name="FNanchor_364_364" id="FNanchor_364_364"></a><a href="#Footnote_364_364" class="fnanchor">[364]</a> Laces in coloured silks were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>226]</a></span>
+made in Spain and the Balearic Isles late in the last
+century.<a name="FNanchor_365_365" id="FNanchor_365_365"></a><a href="#Footnote_365_365" class="fnanchor">[365]</a></p>
+
+<p>In 1542, a sumptuary law was passed in Venice, forbidding
+the metal laces embroidered in silk to be wider
+than &ldquo;due dita,&rdquo; i.e. about two inches. This paternal
+interference in the details of life is truly Venetian. It
+was intended to &ldquo;protect the nobles and citizens from
+injuring themselves and setting a bad example.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps this strict rule was relaxed in favour of
+crowned heads and royal personages; for there is at
+Ashridge, among the relics of Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s enforced
+visit, a toilet-cover of red and gold striped silk, with a
+trimming of lace, four inches broad, of Venice gold and
+silver lace embroidered in coloured silk. Specimens of
+these laces are rare, owing to the intrinsic value of the
+metal. We must suppose the origin of these golden
+trimmings to belong to a very early period. A piece of
+gold wire lace guimp was lately found in a tomb
+near Wareham, and is supposed, with reason, to be
+Scandinavian.<a name="FNanchor_366_366" id="FNanchor_366_366"></a><a href="#Footnote_366_366" class="fnanchor">[366]</a></p>
+
+<p>M. Blanc describes lace as a &ldquo;treillage&rdquo; or network,
+and says it is made in three ways. You may complete
+the ground first, and then work the pattern with the
+needle. This he calls lace &ldquo;pure et simple;&rdquo; and he
+considers that it differs from guipure in that the latter
+consists of flowers and arabesques worked separately, and
+then connected with bars, lines, or meshes. This guipure
+is the second mode of lace-making.<a name="FNanchor_367_367" id="FNanchor_367_367"></a><a href="#Footnote_367_367" class="fnanchor">[367]</a> The third is by
+machinery; but this has the inherent defect of all machine-made
+fabrics, to a practised eye; i.e. a certain rigidity
+and coldness in the exactly repeated forms, in which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>227]</a></span>
+the human touch is wanting. It is curious how in art,
+even a &ldquo;pentimento&rdquo; is valuable, recalling the hand that
+erred as well as created; the attention that strayed, or
+reconsidered the design.<a name="FNanchor_368_368" id="FNanchor_368_368"></a><a href="#Footnote_368_368" class="fnanchor">[368]</a></p>
+
+<p>M. Blanc, speaking of the beauty of point d&rsquo;Alen&ccedil;on,
+praises it especially as being entirely needlework. He
+names the different modes of lace-making, and judges
+their merits. Of needle-made lace he says: &ldquo;And the
+value of this lace not only arises from its representing a
+considerable amount of labour, but also because nothing
+can replace in human estimation the fabrics produced by
+a man&rsquo;s, and still less by a woman&rsquo;s handicraft. However
+the hand may have been restrained by the necessity of
+faithfully following, on green parchment, the designs
+imagined and traced by another person, there is always,
+even in copying an outline, an individuality, an imperceptible
+deviation to the right or to the left, above or
+below the tracing, which impresses on the design the
+accent of strength or weakness, of indecision or determination.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_369_369" id="FNanchor_369_369"></a><a href="#Footnote_369_369" class="fnanchor">[369]</a>
+I would add, of intelligence or stupidity; of
+knowledge or ignorance.</p>
+
+<p>This is not the first time, and will certainly not be the last,
+that I shall have sought to impress on the needlewoman
+the fact that her individuality cannot fail to be strongly
+marked in her work; and I would urge her to carry out
+the suggestions that her experience and her taste afford
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>228]</a></span>
+her, while seeking to render faithfully the original motive
+of the designer. In lace-making, as in all art, the interest
+and the life, as it were, is imparted to each specimen by
+the attention and thought bestowed upon it.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Palliser shows us, by her beautiful illustrations,
+how much variety may be given to designs for lace-making,
+which have changed with each period of contemporary
+art, and are markedly distinctive of their nationalities.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. A. Cole&rsquo;s lectures on lace, his volume of photographs,
+and M. Seguin&rsquo;s valuable work, are full of
+information.</p>
+
+<p>M. Urbani de Gheltof&rsquo;s &ldquo;Technical History of Venetian
+Laces,&rdquo; translated into English by Lady Layard, is a
+beautiful little book and a worthy imitation of the ancient
+lace-books of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.<a name="FNanchor_370_370" id="FNanchor_370_370"></a><a href="#Footnote_370_370" class="fnanchor">[370]</a></p>
+
+<p>The subject has been so thoroughly discussed by adepts
+in connection with its revival as a local industry in its
+original cradle, that I will confine myself to a few
+observations on its history and its place in decorative
+art.</p>
+
+<p>Fringes, Knotting, Netting, Knitting, Crochet, Tatting,
+and Lace-making, are all parts of the same branch of
+ornamental needlework. They are all &ldquo;trimmings,&rdquo; in
+the sense of being decorative edges to more solid
+materials. They are not available as coverings for
+warmth or decency; but they serve to give the grace of
+mystery to the object they drape or veil. They soften
+the outlines and the colours beneath them, while they
+permit them to peep through their meshes. They are
+hardly to be included in what is called high art, having
+more affinity with grace, refinement and coquetry, than
+with &aelig;sthetic culture or noble thought.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>229]</a></span>
+This tendency in lace work may be the reason that the
+masculine mind does not, in general, appreciate these
+lovely textures, but rather despises them (even when the
+designs are beautiful and ingenious), as being flimsy and
+deficient in honest intention; whereas women have always
+greatly prized them for their delicacy and refinement,
+and their great value, on account of the time, trouble,
+and eyesight expended upon them. Their knowledge of
+stitches also enables them to appreciate their variety, and
+the taste shown in their selection and arrangement for
+carrying out each design.</p>
+
+<p>Lace stitches are almost innumerable.<a name="FNanchor_371_371" id="FNanchor_371_371"></a><a href="#Footnote_371_371" class="fnanchor">[371]</a> Upwards of a
+hundred are named, and their variations are endless.
+But a volume would not suffice us for entering into the
+details of the craft; many of its stitches have been imported
+into embroideries in gold, silk, and crewels; and such
+adaptations are always allowable, provided the effect is
+good.</p>
+
+<p>We have every reason to believe that the claims of
+Venice as the first and original school of lace-making
+have been satisfactorily proved.<a name="FNanchor_372_372" id="FNanchor_372_372"></a><a href="#Footnote_372_372" class="fnanchor">[372]</a> Genoa, Florence, Milan,
+especially the last,<a name="FNanchor_373_373" id="FNanchor_373_373"></a><a href="#Footnote_373_373" class="fnanchor">[373]</a> followed suit. Germany, France,<a name="FNanchor_374_374" id="FNanchor_374_374"></a><a href="#Footnote_374_374" class="fnanchor">[374]</a>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>230]</a></span>
+and Spain soon started their schools; but Lady Layard
+believes that Spain received all her inspiration and the
+greater part of her laces from Venice, which likewise sent
+teachers to France and to Brussels&mdash;or rather, we may
+say, had many first-class workwomen decoyed from her
+manufactories to assist in starting rival industries in other
+countries.<a name="FNanchor_375_375" id="FNanchor_375_375"></a><a href="#Footnote_375_375" class="fnanchor">[375]</a></p>
+
+<p>The first pattern-books were printed in Venice in the
+sixteenth century; and these &ldquo;Corone di belle e virtuose
+donne,&rdquo; as they are sometimes entitled,<a name="FNanchor_376_376" id="FNanchor_376_376"></a><a href="#Footnote_376_376" class="fnanchor">[376]</a> were imitated in
+France and Germany.</p>
+
+<p>Venice was proud of her industry, and of the noble
+ladies who fostered it. It is recorded in the &ldquo;Virt&ugrave; in
+Giocco of Giovanna Palazzi&rdquo; that Giovanna Dandolo,
+or &ldquo;la Dandola,&rdquo; (wife of the Doge Malapiero,) was the
+first patroness of Venice laces. She also fostered the art
+of printing in Venice, and is spoken of as a &ldquo;principessa
+di gran&rsquo; spirito, ne di private fortune,&rdquo; and her memory is
+cherished in connection with these proofs of her patriotism.
+We hear also that Morosin or Marosin, wife of the Doge
+Marin Grimani, patronized Venetian lace-making. Her
+forewoman, or <i>maestra</i>, was a certain Cattina Gardin, and
+through her the art was settled at Burano, where it has
+been so lately revived.</p>
+
+<p>At the Cathedral of Burano, is kept in the sacristy,
+perhaps the finest existing piece of artistic lace of
+the sixteenth century. It contains many groups of
+figures from the history of our Lord, beautiful both in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>231]</a></span>
+design and execution, worked in &ldquo;Punti Fogliami,&rdquo; and
+filled in with exquisite tracery. This was the border of
+an antipendium.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Palliser laments the extinction of the art in
+Venice, and says that but one woman of the old craft
+had survived; but her elegy was premature, as that old
+woman, by name Cencia Scarpariola, has lived to see
+hundreds of girls at Burano reviving all the old traditions,
+having learnt from her the secrets of the &ldquo;mestiere,&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;mystery.&rdquo; Under the patronage of the Princess Margherita,
+now Queen of Italy, and with the active help
+and superintendence of Countess Adriana Marcello and
+Princess Giovanelli, most beautiful laces are now made
+in every old point, French and Flemish, as well as
+Venetian. Pezzi, merli, and merletti are executed in
+the different styles which include all lace-making, and of
+which we here give a list from M. de Gheltof&rsquo;s book:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>Net lace.<br />
+Cut lace.<br />
+Open lace.<br />
+Flowered lace.<br />
+Knotted lace.<br />
+Darning or square netting.<br />
+Venice point.<br />
+Burano point.<br />
+Drawn lace.<a name="FNanchor_377_377" id="FNanchor_377_377"></a><a href="#Footnote_377_377" class="fnanchor">[377]</a><br />
+Embroidered linen.<a name="FNanchor_378_378" id="FNanchor_378_378"></a><a href="#Footnote_378_378" class="fnanchor">[378]</a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The price of these laces is very high, but not beyond
+their value when we consider the vast amount of skilled
+labour bestowed on them. We are often told that old
+lace is cheaper than new, as an absurd fact, because the
+antiquity of lace is supposed to add to its value. Yes, but
+principally as an object of arch&aelig;ological interest; whereas
+that which is being made now is supporting by its daily
+wage the needlewoman and her family, and perhaps
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>232]</a></span>
+providing for her old age; and as the strain on the eye is
+very heavy, many lace-workers early in life lose their sight,
+at least for all the purposes of their craft.<a name="FNanchor_379_379" id="FNanchor_379_379"></a><a href="#Footnote_379_379" class="fnanchor">[379]</a> For these
+reasons we cannot say that the prices required for such
+luxurious trimmings are unreasonable. Zanon da Udine
+gives us an idea of how costly they were in old times.
+He says that Giuseppe Berardi, a lace merchant in Venice,
+made a profit of 75,000 francs on a commission for a set
+of lace bed-hangings for the wedding of Joseph II.,
+Emperor of Germany, which proves the high prices paid
+for the new laces of their day.</p>
+
+<p>Blond laces, which take their turn occasionally as
+fashionable trimmings, veils, and Spanish mantillas, are
+so called from their original Venetian name, &ldquo;merletti
+biondi,&rdquo; pale laces. De Gheltof derives this appellation
+from the celebrated collar of Louis Quatorze,
+and fancies it was made of the fair hair of the workers;
+but this is only vague conjecture. The term was applied
+in the seventeenth century to laces in silk, gold, and
+silver&mdash;never to thread laces. I confess I do not find
+the reason for the name, but accept De Gheltof&rsquo;s information
+that it was given by the authority of the magistrates
+of Mercanzia in 1759.</p>
+
+<p>This is but a very slight sketch of the history of lace.
+Venice being its birthplace, and likewise the busy scene
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>233]</a></span>
+of its rehabilitation, I have lingered over its school, and
+left but little space for the discussion of those of Spain,
+Flanders, Belgium, and France. But these have been
+thoroughly investigated, and their individual merits are
+well appreciated, both as antique and modern dress
+decoration.</p>
+
+<p>I have already said that the lace schools in France
+were instituted by Colbert, who placed one at Auxerre,
+under the especial care of his brother, the bishop of
+that city. Louis Quatorze made it one of his splendid
+caprices, and not only set the example, but forced the
+fashion into this luxurious and extravagant channel.</p>
+
+<p>In Spain, lace was made to look its best by being worn
+stretched over the great hoops of the &ldquo;Guard-Infante;&rdquo;
+and the fashion spread all over Europe. The white
+laces, resembling carved ivory or those in gold and
+silver, which remind one of solid jewellers&rsquo; work, when
+spread over the surface of these fortified outworks,
+guarding from all approach the persons of the Infantas
+of Spain, assume in the portraits by Velasquez, a dignity
+which is in keeping with their value. The splendid
+designs show brilliantly on a background of scarlet, rose
+colour, or black silk; and that which, hanging loosely,
+looks only tawdry and ragged, had a magnificent effect
+when thus displayed.</p>
+
+<p>For ecclesiastical purposes, these grand solid laces seem
+most appropriate, being effective in large spaces, and
+easily seen at a distance, hanging over the edge of
+the altar, as a border to the linen cloths, or finishing
+the white alb of the officiating priest.</p>
+
+<p>One cannot but agree with M. Blanc, who points
+out that each piece of lace had its intention, and
+that a fashionable ball-dress trimmed with the edging
+of an antique altar-cloth in loops, is in false taste, to
+say no worse of the misappropriation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>234]</a></span>
+Though we have had no schools of lace in England
+(unless we can call our imitative industries schools),
+we have samplers of the time of Queen Elizabeth, and
+down to the middle of the last century, showing that
+drawn lace and cut lace were regularly taught, probably
+as an accomplishment, by Italians. The laces of Devonshire
+and the Isle of Wight (called Honiton) form a
+group totally distinct from those of Northamptonshire,
+Bedfordshire, and Oxfordshire, which last are very simple
+cushion bobbin-laces.</p>
+
+<p>From the sixteenth century English ladies have, for
+their amusement, made cut laces. Still, we must confess
+we have no national style of lace, and the only
+enduring ones have been those of France and Belgium,
+which have always kept the lead since their establishment,
+though fluctuating in design with the varying
+fashions of each epoch. Perhaps the reason of their
+longevity is that they have followed always the taste of
+their day. That of our time being decidedly arch&aelig;ological,
+ancient patterns are now the most successful.</p>
+
+<p>There is a kind of embroidery darned-work, called
+&ldquo;Limerick lace,&rdquo; which is said to be only made in
+Ireland, and being partly machine-made, is not pure lace,
+and therefore little esteemed. Very fine thread laces
+have been produced at Irish work schools; but no
+commercial result has followed. Clever imitations of
+Venice point have come from Ireland lately, called &ldquo;raised
+crochet.&rdquo; This is a novelty, and it is extremely fine
+and beautiful work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 191px;">
+<a name="pl46" id="pl46"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 46.</p>
+<img src="images/naap46t.jpg" width="191" height="400"
+alt="Two different repeating strip designs" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap46.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Egyptian &ldquo;Gobelins,&rdquo; Woven and Embroidered.</p>
+
+<p>The Exhibition of Irish Lace in London (June, 1883),
+shows how widespread have been the efforts of Irish
+ladies to employ the peculiar genius of the sister island
+for delicate work with the needle, which has always been
+shown in their beautiful embroideries on muslin and
+cambric. It appears that every kind of lace, except,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>235]</a></span>
+perhaps, Brussels point, has been made in Ireland within
+the last 180 years; but as in each case the effort was
+always that of one individual woman, the school fell away
+when she died.</p>
+
+<p>The names of these ladies are now worthily recorded
+in the official catalogue of the exhibition, with photographs
+of the specimens produced under their superintendence
+and care. Perhaps a permanent industry may
+crown, however late, their exertions to help the women
+of Ireland.</p>
+
+
+<h3><i>Part 8.</i></h3>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Tapestry&mdash;Opus Pectineum.</span></h4>
+
+<p>It is necessary to define precisely what is meant by the
+word &ldquo;tapestry.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_380_380" id="FNanchor_380_380"></a><a href="#Footnote_380_380" class="fnanchor">[380]</a> The term has been applied to all
+hangings, and so caused confusion between those that are
+embroidered with a design, on a plain or brocaded woven
+material, and those which are inwoven with the design
+from the first.<a name="FNanchor_381_381" id="FNanchor_381_381"></a><a href="#Footnote_381_381" class="fnanchor">[381]</a> This latter was called in classical language,
+&ldquo;opus pectineum,&rdquo; because it was woven with the help of
+a comb (the &ldquo;slay&rdquo;),<a name="FNanchor_382_382" id="FNanchor_382_382"></a><a href="#Footnote_382_382" class="fnanchor">[382]</a> to push the threads tight between
+each row of stitches; and the individual stitches were put
+in with a sort of a needle, or by the fingers only, and laid
+on the warp. It was thus practised by the Egyptians,
+by the Persians, Indians, and Peruvians; and in Egypt
+was often finished by embroidery. (Pl. <a href="#pl46">46</a>.) In Egyptian
+tombs we have evidence of their tapestry, from the mural
+paintings representing men and women weaving pictures
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>236]</a></span>
+in upright looms. The comb which served to push the
+threads together after the stitches were laid in is sometimes
+found in the weaver&rsquo;s tomb.</p>
+
+<p>We have, in the British Museum, pieces of &ldquo;opus
+pectineum&rdquo; from Saccarah, in Egypt; and also fragments
+from a Peruvian tomb, of barbarous design, but the
+weaving is equal to the Egyptian; and both resemble
+the Gobelins weaving of to-day. Whence came the craft
+of the Peruvians?</p>
+
+<p>Tapestry is woven in two ways, by a high or by a
+low-warp loom (<i>haute-lisse</i> or <i>basse-lisse</i>), vertical or
+horizontal. The &ldquo;slay&rdquo; is the implement which is
+peculiar to the craft. I shall not enter into any description
+of the mode of working the looms, as this has been
+thoroughly well done by masters of the art.<a name="FNanchor_383_383" id="FNanchor_383_383"></a><a href="#Footnote_383_383" class="fnanchor">[383]</a> But I
+would call attention to the Frontispiece, copied from a
+Greek vase, where Penelope is portrayed sitting by her
+<i>haute-lisse</i> frame. I also refer the reader to the illustration
+from the Rheims tapestries, in which a medi&aelig;val
+artist shows the Blessed Virgin weaving at one that is
+horizontal or &ldquo;basse-lisse.&rdquo; (Pl. <a href="#pl47">47</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 254px;">
+<a name="pl47" id="pl47"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 47.</p>
+<img src="images/naap47t.jpg" width="254" height="400"
+alt="Mary works at her weaving, surrounded by angels" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap47.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Portion of a Tapestry Hanging. Cathedral. Rheims. The Virgin weaves and embroiders
+at a <i>basse-lisse</i> frame.</p>
+
+<p>For the best information I have been able to obtain
+regarding tapestry weaving, I must acknowledge my
+indebtedness to M. Albert Castel&rsquo;s &ldquo;Biblioth&egrave;que des
+Merveilles.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_384_384" id="FNanchor_384_384"></a><a href="#Footnote_384_384" class="fnanchor">[384]</a> He has given great care to the consideration
+of this subject, and has collected good evidences
+to prove his conclusions, which I willingly accept <i>en
+bloc</i>. Of course he has chiefly dealt with the French
+branch of the art, and with the Flemish, from which it
+immediately descends. He begins, however, by quoting
+Pliny, to prove the antiquity of weaving, and gives a verse
+of Martial&rsquo;s to this effect: &ldquo;Thou owest this work to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>237]</a></span>
+land of Memphis, where the slay of the Nile has vanquished
+the needle of Babylon.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_385_385" id="FNanchor_385_385"></a><a href="#Footnote_385_385" class="fnanchor">[385]</a></p>
+
+<p>Homer makes Helen weave the story of the siege of
+Troy; this may have been partly embroidered; and
+there are some pieces of woven tapestry introduced most
+ingeniously into the web of a linen shirt or garment, of
+which the sleeve is in the Egyptian department of the
+British Museum, proving that figures were pictured
+by weaving quite as early as the date of Troy, and
+unmistakably finished with the needle (Plate <a href="#pl18">18</a>); at
+any rate, as early as the days of Homer. Arachne&rsquo;s web
+was interwoven with figures. She and Minerva rivalled
+each other in ingenious design and perfect execution.
+The description of the beautiful hangings they wove, the
+glorious colours with their tenderly graduated tints, and
+the graceful borders, appear to be almost prophetic of the
+highest efforts of the looms of the Gobelins.<a name="FNanchor_386_386" id="FNanchor_386_386"></a><a href="#Footnote_386_386" class="fnanchor">[386]</a><a name="FNanchor_387_387" id="FNanchor_387_387"></a><a href="#Footnote_387_387" class="fnanchor">[387]</a> Arachne&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>238]</a></span>
+name is derived from the Hebrew word for weaving,
+&ldquo;Arag.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It appears that the town now called Arras, but anciently
+Nomenticum, was always a centre of the trade of
+the weavers;<a name="FNanchor_388_388" id="FNanchor_388_388"></a><a href="#Footnote_388_388" class="fnanchor">[388]</a> for Flavius Vopiscus, writing in <small>A.D.</small> 282,
+says that thence came the Byrri&mdash;woven cloaks with hoods,
+which were much in vogue amongst all classes in the later
+Roman Empire. The craft of weaving, which flourished
+in the Flemish and other adjacent countries, seems to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>239]</a></span>
+have become native to that soil, and to have clung to it,
+surviving many historical cataclysms.<a name="FNanchor_389_389" id="FNanchor_389_389"></a><a href="#Footnote_389_389" class="fnanchor">[389]</a></p>
+
+<p>Though in the fifth century the inhabitants of that
+country were transported wholesale to Germany by the
+Vandals, and among them those of the town of Arras,
+yet, thanks to the monasteries, there was a survival and a
+revival; the craftsmen grouping themselves round the
+religious houses. Specimens as models were brought
+from the East. Aster, Bishop of Amasis (a town in Asiatic
+Turkey), describes these Oriental hangings in one of his
+homilies. He says that animals and scenes from the
+Bible were woven on white grounds.<a name="FNanchor_390_390" id="FNanchor_390_390"></a><a href="#Footnote_390_390" class="fnanchor">[390]</a></p>
+
+<p>Sidonius Apollinaris, Bishop of Clermont Ferrand,<a name="FNanchor_391_391" id="FNanchor_391_391"></a><a href="#Footnote_391_391" class="fnanchor">[391]</a> says
+that some foreign tapestries are &ldquo;pictured&rdquo; with the
+summits of Ctesiphon and Nephates, &ldquo;wild beasts running
+rapidly across void canvas, and also by a miracle
+of art, the Parthian of wild aspect with his head turned
+backwards.&rdquo; This might be a description of a Chinese
+composition, and probably it is so.<a name="FNanchor_392_392" id="FNanchor_392_392"></a><a href="#Footnote_392_392" class="fnanchor">[392]</a></p>
+
+<p>Woven tapestry is also called &ldquo;Arras,&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_393_393" id="FNanchor_393_393"></a><a href="#Footnote_393_393" class="fnanchor">[393]</a> because that
+town in the Netherlands was the home and school of
+the art of picture weaving in the Middle Ages. It has
+been hitherto excluded from the domain of needlework,
+because of the different use of the needle employed in it.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>240]</a></span>
+It has always been woven on a loom, and is, in fact,
+embroidery combined with the weaving; for the
+shuttle, or slay, or comb completes each row of stitches.
+It belongs as much to our art as does tambour work,
+which is done with a hook instead of a needle. Tapestry
+weaving is the intelligent craft of a practised hand
+guided by artistic skill. The forms of the painted design
+must be copied by a person who can draw; and the
+colours require as much care in selection, as in painting
+with oils or water-colours. Such a thing as a purely
+mechanical exact copy is impossible in any art; and the
+difficulties are increased a hundredfold when it is a
+translation into another material, and another form of
+art. Besides, in this case, the copies are worked from the
+back, and the picture is reversed. The question is this:
+Can it be claimed as belonging to the same craft as embroidery?
+I answer in the affirmative, and I claim it.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;When the Saracens began to weave tapestry we
+cannot tell; but the workers in woven pictures were
+called Sarassins, and their craft, the &lsquo;opus Saracenicum.&rsquo;&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_394_394" id="FNanchor_394_394"></a><a href="#Footnote_394_394" class="fnanchor">[394]</a>
+The French and Flemish artisans who
+continued to weave in the old upright frames (<i>haute-lisse</i>)
+were, whether Christians or not, called &ldquo;Sarassins.&rdquo; Probably
+they came through Spain, possibly from Sicily to
+Flanders and to France, or else from Byzantium. Viollet-le-Duc
+says that the &ldquo;Saracinois&rdquo; was a term applied to
+the makers of velvety carpets (<i>tapis velout&eacute;s</i>).<a name="FNanchor_395_395" id="FNanchor_395_395"></a><a href="#Footnote_395_395" class="fnanchor">[395]</a> This is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>241]</a></span>
+possible.<a name="FNanchor_396_396" id="FNanchor_396_396"></a><a href="#Footnote_396_396" class="fnanchor">[396]</a> Woven carpets of Oriental type were
+spreading themselves as articles of luxury through
+Europe early in the Middle Ages; and the Persian style
+of design was much the same then, when the first models
+were brought to Spain, and thence to Arras, as it is now
+in the carpets we buy just woven in Persia.<a name="FNanchor_397_397" id="FNanchor_397_397"></a><a href="#Footnote_397_397" class="fnanchor">[397]</a> The oldest
+specimens known here have been exhibited in the Indian
+Museum, and may be of the thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries. The perishable nature of the material makes
+us dependent on the sculptured records of all artistic
+design for our knowledge of carpets and hangings of
+more than a thousand years ago; and we must confess
+that we find nothing really resembling a Persian pattern
+in any classical tomb or sculpture of the Dark Ages.<a name="FNanchor_398_398" id="FNanchor_398_398"></a><a href="#Footnote_398_398" class="fnanchor">[398]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>242]</a></span>
+I have allowed myself to touch upon carpet weaving,
+as it is germane to tapestry; though it is a branch that
+soon loses itself and leaves artistic work in the distance.
+Except the first design, it has become purely mechanical.</p>
+
+<p>After what has been quoted from Ovid&rsquo;s &ldquo;Metamorphoses,&rdquo;
+and bearing in mind the pictured webs described
+by Homer, and likewise the evidence of the
+frescoes in Egypt, and the woman weaving on the Greek
+fictile vase found at Chiusi, we may be justified in
+concluding that, like all other arts, that of tapestry existed
+in very early days, died out, and had to begin afresh,
+and gradually return to life, during the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p>Bishop Gaudry, about 925, possessing a piece
+of tapestry with an inscription in Greek letters surrounded
+by lions &ldquo;parsem&eacute;,&rdquo; was much put about till he
+obtained something to match it, to hang on the opposite
+side of his choir at Auxerre.<a name="FNanchor_399_399" id="FNanchor_399_399"></a><a href="#Footnote_399_399" class="fnanchor">[399]</a> And it is known that the
+monks of St. Florent, at Saumur, wove tapestries about
+985, and continued to do so for two centuries. St.
+Angelme of Norway,<a name="FNanchor_400_400" id="FNanchor_400_400"></a><a href="#Footnote_400_400" class="fnanchor">[400]</a> Bishop of Auxerre, who died in
+840, caused many tapestries to be executed for his
+church. At Poitiers this manufactory was so famous in
+the eleventh century, that foreign kings, princes, and
+prelates sought to obtain them, &ldquo;even for Italy.&rdquo; The
+rules of their order of the monks of the Abbey of Cluny,
+dated 1009, were followed by those of St. Wast and of
+the Abbey of Fleury, and others in France, who all
+wove wool and silk for tapestries. Le P&egrave;re Labb&eacute;, from
+whom much of this information is drawn and acknowledged
+by M. Charton (my authority), says that in
+876, at Ponthi&egrave;vre, in presence of the Emperor Charles
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>243]</a></span>
+the Bold, the hall of the council-chamber was hung with
+pictured tapestries, and the seats were covered with
+them.<a name="FNanchor_401_401" id="FNanchor_401_401"></a><a href="#Footnote_401_401" class="fnanchor">[401]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl48" id="pl48"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 48.</p>
+<img src="images/naap48t.jpg" width="400" height="249"
+alt="A flat topped, double spiral base object, with radiating 'rays' over a floral background" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap48.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Order of the Golden Fleece. Tapestry at Berne, taken from Charles the Bold at the Battle of Grandson, 1476.</p>
+
+<p>Sufficient has been said to show that during the dark
+ages hangings were woven in France, Germany, and
+Belgium,<a name="FNanchor_402_402" id="FNanchor_402_402"></a><a href="#Footnote_402_402" class="fnanchor">[402]</a> and that England was not behind the rest of
+the civilized world in this craft. I think, also, that we
+have indicated its Oriental origin.<a name="FNanchor_403_403" id="FNanchor_403_403"></a><a href="#Footnote_403_403" class="fnanchor">[403]</a></p>
+
+<p>Arras continued to lead as the great tapestry factory
+till the end of the fifteenth century, when the commercial
+failure of the city began, at the death of Charles le
+T&eacute;m&eacute;raire, Duke of Burgundy.<a name="FNanchor_404_404" id="FNanchor_404_404"></a><a href="#Footnote_404_404" class="fnanchor">[404]</a> Plate <a href="#pl48">48</a> shows a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>244]</a></span>
+portion of his tent hangings woven with the order of
+the golden fleece taken at the battle of Grandson&mdash;now
+in the museum at Berne. Till then Arras had supplied
+most of the splendid decorations of which we
+find such marvellous lists. Every possible subject&mdash;religious,
+romantic, historical, and allegorical&mdash;was pressed
+into the service, and pictured hangings were supposed
+to instruct, amuse, and edify the beholders. The dark
+ages were illuminated, and their barbarity softened, by
+these constant appeals to men&rsquo;s highest instincts, and to
+the memories of their noblest antecedents and aspirations,
+which clothed their walls, and so became a part of
+their daily lives. The great Flemish and French workshops
+became the illustrators of the history of the world,
+as it was then read or being enacted. It is a record of
+faiths, religious and political; and of national and family
+lives and their changes. The Exhibition at Brussels in
+1880 showed, by its &ldquo;Catalogue Raisonn&eacute;,&rdquo; how much
+could be extracted from its storied tapestries of both
+arch&aelig;ological and artistic information.<a name="FNanchor_405_405" id="FNanchor_405_405"></a><a href="#Footnote_405_405" class="fnanchor">[405]</a></p>
+
+<p>Though the art continued to be the servant of refined
+luxury in the fifteenth century, Arras itself had done its
+work,<a name="FNanchor_406_406" id="FNanchor_406_406"></a><a href="#Footnote_406_406" class="fnanchor">[406]</a> and was superseded as the greatest weaver of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>245]</a></span>
+artistic tapestry by a neighbour and rival. Brussels,
+which had been gradually asserting itself as a weaving
+community, from that date absorbed most of the trade of
+Arras, and thence forwards, till Henri IV. established
+the works of the Savonnerie, Brussels led European
+taste, and employed the best artists. Brussels employed
+Leonardo da Vinci and Mantegna, Giovanni da Udine,
+Raphael, and later, Rubens and the great Dutch painters,
+to design cartoons for tapestry works. Raphael&rsquo;s pupil,
+Michael Coxsius, of Mechlin, superintended the copying
+of his master&rsquo;s cartoons. Shortly afterwards, Antwerp,
+Oudenarde, Lille, Tournai, Valenciennes, Beauvais,
+Aubusson, and Bruges all had their schools;<a name="FNanchor_407_407" id="FNanchor_407_407"></a><a href="#Footnote_407_407" class="fnanchor">[407]</a> and
+the adept can trace their differences and peculiarities,
+and name their birthplace, without referring to their
+trade-mark, or to that of the manufacturer, which is
+usually to be found in the outer border. Poitiers,
+Troyes, Beauvais, Rheims, and St. Quentin likewise
+had their schools, and became famous.</p>
+
+<p>Want of space prevents my entering more fully into
+this subject of the northern tapestries, and I must refer
+my readers to the authorities I have quoted from so
+largely.</p>
+
+
+<h5>ITALIAN TAPESTRY.</h5>
+
+<p>The word Arrazzi shows us whence the Italians drew
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>246]</a></span>
+their art. Doubtless there were looms in the Italian
+cities, and especially under ecclesiastical patronage,
+through the dark ages. Rome was in communication
+with the Atrebates in the third century, by whom she
+was supplied with the Byrri, or hooded cloaks then
+worn; and as it had been a centre for weaving commerce,
+it is probable that Rome received from Arras the craftsmen
+as well as the produce of their looms. At the
+Renaissance we find factories for pictured webs in
+Florence, Rome, Milan, Mantua, and elsewhere. The
+best artists of the Italian schools&mdash;Mantegna, Leonardo,
+Raphael and his scholars, &amp;c., &amp;c.&mdash;gave their finest
+designs to be executed in Italy, before they were sold to
+Arras, Brussels, France, or England, and they are accumulated
+in the treasure-room of every palace in Italy.
+But the finest collections are those of the Vatican, and of
+the Pitti in Florence. A splendid volume might be
+edited of these grand artistic works; such a record
+would be invaluable. Vasari<a name="FNanchor_408_408" id="FNanchor_408_408"></a><a href="#Footnote_408_408" class="fnanchor">[408]</a> and Passevant give us
+occasional glimpses of local factories for tapestry, but,
+as we have before said, this subject has still to be investigated.</p>
+
+
+<h5>FRENCH TAPESTRY.</h5>
+
+<p>In France, as elsewhere, tapestry was probably woven
+in private looms and in the religious houses from early
+days. M. Jubinal believes that it was made at Poitiers,
+Troyes, Beauvais, Rheims, and St. Quentin as early as
+1025.<a name="FNanchor_409_409" id="FNanchor_409_409"></a><a href="#Footnote_409_409" class="fnanchor">[409]</a> Froissart describes the entry of Isabel of Bavaria
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>247]</a></span>
+as a bride into Paris, when the houses were covered
+with hangings and tapestries representing historical
+scenes.<a name="FNanchor_410_410" id="FNanchor_410_410"></a><a href="#Footnote_410_410" class="fnanchor">[410]</a> The Cluny Museum possesses a most curious
+medi&aelig;val suite of hangings from the Chateau de
+Boussac, of the early part of the fifteenth century. They
+tell the story of the &ldquo;Dame au Lion,&rdquo; and are brilliantly
+coloured and charmingly quaint and gay in design.
+Hangings designed by Primaticcio were woven at
+Fontainebleau, where Francis I. started the manufacture
+in 1539. However, the first national school of
+tapestry weaving was that at Chaillot, under the experienced
+teaching of workmen from Arras; afterwards
+transferred to the town of Gobelins, 1603, by Henri
+Quatre.<a name="FNanchor_411_411" id="FNanchor_411_411"></a><a href="#Footnote_411_411" class="fnanchor">[411]</a> Louis Quatorze and his minister Colbert
+splendidly protected this manufacture by law, privilege,
+and employment; so did Louis Quinze. Before
+the Revolution, other considerable tapestry works were
+flourishing at Aubusson in Auvergne, at Felletin in the
+upper Marches, and at Beauvais. These two last were
+especially famed for velvety tapestries (<i>velout&eacute;s</i>).</p>
+
+<p>As usual, the French have surpassed all other nations
+in this textile art. The pictorial tapestries of the Gobelins
+have carried the beauty of wall hangings to the utmost
+perfection. Nothing can be more festive than a brilliantly
+lighted hall, glowing with these woven pictures or
+arabesques, framed in gilded carvings or stuccoes. Still
+we must acknowledge that, in choice of worthy subjects,
+the Flemish ideal, which had been left far behind, was
+the highest. The weavers of the time of Louis Quatorze
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>248]</a></span>
+aspired only to teach the glories of France, not the
+moralities of society and civilization, in their historical
+compositions, which were then superseded by classical
+mythology, or else by scenes from rustic life, of the
+Watteau School. La Fontaine&rsquo;s fables gave some of
+the prettiest and gayest designs, and were generally
+the centres of splendid arabesques. The drawing and
+execution were perfect.</p>
+
+<p>It is to be feared that in the future, great works of textile
+decoration will be few and far between. It is only when the
+State, or the monarch that represents the dignity of the
+State, protects and fosters these artistic factories, that they
+can continue to thrive. Without such powerful encouragement,
+fashion, commercial depression, or a war will stop
+for a time the orders without which funds fail, discouragement
+sets in, and ruin quickly follows; and the best
+workman when unemployed, or forced for some years to
+wield the sword, loses his practised skill never to be
+restored. In France, whatever has been the form of
+government, the old traditions of protection for the
+Gobelins have been acted up to and maintained. The
+consequence is that science and art still contribute their
+efforts in the machinery, the colouring, and the designing
+of hangings of which the materials<a name="FNanchor_412_412" id="FNanchor_412_412"></a><a href="#Footnote_412_412" class="fnanchor">[412]</a> and the execution
+are unrivalled. Probably there will never again be a
+Tuileries or a Versailles to adorn, but an H&ocirc;tel de
+Ville, especially if it is occasionally destroyed, may give
+from time to time opportunity for such decorations.</p>
+
+
+<h5>ENGLISH TAPESTRY.</h5>
+
+<p>When we consider the antiquity and the excellence of
+the art of tapestry on the Continent, we cannot pretend
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>249]</a></span>
+that there can be the same general interest in that of
+our English looms. But to ourselves it naturally assumes
+the greatest importance; and I have tried to trace the
+efforts of our ancestors in this direction, by noting every
+certain sign of English production, in what must have
+been an imitation of Flemish or Oriental weaving. The
+few facts here collected may be of service to the future
+writer of the history of English tapestries.</p>
+
+<p>Comnenus, Prince of Arras, fled before the Romans
+from Nomenticum to England; and he and his Atrebates
+settled themselves between Silchester and Sarum, and
+the Belg&aelig; and Parisi did the same. The Romans
+found them here when they invaded England. Wherever
+the Belgic tribes spread themselves, the art of
+weaving was established. Comnenus probably brought
+over, and left to his descendants, the inheritance of this
+craft.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Rock thinks that pictured tapestry was woven at
+an early period in the Middle Ages by the monks in
+England. The earliest proof of this that we possess,
+is the notice by Matthew Paris (thirteenth century)
+describing the three reredos for St. Alban&rsquo;s Abbey;
+the first, a large one, depicting the finding of the body
+of the Protomartyr; the others, &ldquo;The Prodigal Son&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;The Man who fell among Thieves.&rdquo; All these were
+executed by the orders of Abbot Geoffrey.<a name="FNanchor_413_413" id="FNanchor_413_413"></a><a href="#Footnote_413_413" class="fnanchor">[413]</a></p>
+
+<p>While in London in 1316, Simon, Abbot of Ramsay,
+bought for the use of his monks, looms, shuttles, and a
+slay. &ldquo;Pro weblomes emptes xx<sup>d</sup>. Et pro staves ad
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>250]</a></span>
+eadem vj<sup>d</sup>. Item pro iiij Shittles, pro eadem opere vj<sup>d</sup>.
+Item j sloy pro textoribus viii<sup>d</sup>.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_414_414" id="FNanchor_414_414"></a><a href="#Footnote_414_414" class="fnanchor">[414]</a></p>
+
+<p>In Edward II.&rsquo;s time there were hangings woven in
+England which appear to have been absolutely tapestries.
+They were much valued abroad, and were called &ldquo;Salles
+d&rsquo;Angleterre.&rdquo; Charles V. of France (1364) possessed
+among his articles of costly furniture, &ldquo;Une salle d&rsquo;Angleterre
+vermeille brod&eacute;e d&rsquo;azur, et est la bordure a vignettes,
+et le dedans de Lyons, d&rsquo;Aigles, et de Lyopars.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_415_415" id="FNanchor_415_415"></a><a href="#Footnote_415_415" class="fnanchor">[415]</a></p>
+
+<p>Our trade with Arras must have improved our tapestries.
+We are told of Edward III. selling his wools to that
+town, and being therefore called by Philip de Valois, his
+&ldquo;Marchant de Laine.&rdquo; Horace Walpole refers to an
+act, &ldquo;De Myster&acirc; Tapiciarorum,&rdquo; of the time of Edward
+III., 1327, &ldquo;regarding certain malpractices of the craft,&rdquo;
+which proves its existence in England at that period.<a name="FNanchor_416_416" id="FNanchor_416_416"></a><a href="#Footnote_416_416" class="fnanchor">[416]</a></p>
+
+<p>Mr. French, in his catalogue of the Exhibition in
+London, 1851, quotes the tapestries of St. Mary&rsquo;s Hall
+at Coventry, to prove that there was a manufactory
+in England, <i>temp.</i> Henry VI. There were certainly
+individual looms, though we doubt whether it had yet
+become a national industry, as we have so few specimens
+remaining. The St. Mary&rsquo;s tapestries contain portraits of
+Henry VI., Cardinal Beaufort, &amp;c., and are probably
+contemporary works. The subject is the marriage of
+Henry VI.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a piece of tapestry at Bude, in Cornwall,
+the property of Mr. Maskell, which came from a royal
+sale. Here the marriage of Henry VII. is depicted, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>251]</a></span>
+the style resembles that of the Coventry hangings. The
+costumes are certainly English, and the original pictures
+must have been English, though they might have been
+wrought at Arras, reminding one of the groups of figures
+and the dresses on the Dunstable Pall (see Plate <a href="#pl78">78</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Rock also quotes the reredos belonging to the
+Vintners&rsquo; Company, representing St. Martin sharing his
+cloak with a beggar. He thinks this is executed by
+the monks of St. Alban&rsquo;s, and attributes to those of
+Canterbury the fine tapestries of the legends of the
+Virgin at Aix, in Provence, of which we have the
+history. They were originally given to Canterbury
+Cathedral by Prior Godstone, and were called Arras
+work. There is no doubt that there were looms and
+artists in the convents and monasteries before there
+was any recognized school of such work in England.
+Probably till the Reformation such hangings were being
+woven all over Europe, and only then ceased in Germany
+and England. One cannot but regret that the
+weight of the evil which preponderated over the good
+in the Houses of the Church, should have caused so
+much that was beautiful in art to be crushed by their
+ruin.</p>
+
+<p>Chaucer speaks of &ldquo;tapestry of verd.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_417_417" id="FNanchor_417_417"></a><a href="#Footnote_417_417" class="fnanchor">[417]</a> This green
+tapestry seems to have been intended to give a bowery
+effect to the room it hung; and one can imagine that it
+pleased the taste of the poet of the &ldquo;Flower and the
+Leaf.&rdquo; It seems to have been much the fashion in
+England and elsewhere about that period, and generally
+represented landscapes and woody foregrounds only; but
+sometimes figures and animals were portrayed, and
+always in the same tints of bluish-green.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Rock gives us an extract from the wardrobe
+accounts of Edward II., containing the following items:
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>252]</a></span>
+&ldquo;To a mercer of London for a green hanging of wool,
+woven with figures of kings and earls upon it; for the
+king&rsquo;s service upon solemn feast days in London;&rdquo; therefore
+the &ldquo;tapestry of verd&rdquo; was not a novelty even in the
+time of Chaucer.<a name="FNanchor_418_418" id="FNanchor_418_418"></a><a href="#Footnote_418_418" class="fnanchor">[418]</a></p>
+
+<p>Oudenarde was famous for these &ldquo;hallings&rdquo; or &ldquo;salles.&rdquo;
+All the specimens mentioned in the catalogue of tapestries
+exhibited at Brussels in 1880, are said to be from thence.
+But we see no reason why it should not have been
+an English style of weaving also. The first establishment
+of a permanent manufactory in England, did not,
+however, take place until the latter end of the reign
+of Henry VIII., when Robert Sheldon &ldquo;allowed&rdquo; his
+manor-house at Barcheston, in Warwickshire, to &ldquo;one
+Hicks,&rdquo; whom he signalizes in his will as &ldquo;the author
+and beginner of all tapestry of Arras in England.&rdquo; This
+will is dated 1576.<a name="FNanchor_419_419" id="FNanchor_419_419"></a><a href="#Footnote_419_419" class="fnanchor">[419]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl49" id="pl49"></a>
+<img src="images/naap49t.jpg" width="400" height="307"
+alt="A woman reclines under a tree" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap49.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">SUMMER<br />
+English Tapestry, Temp. Henry VIII.
+at Hatfield</p>
+
+<p>There are four pieces of tapestry representing the
+Seasons, removed from an old family house and placed
+by Lord Salisbury at Hatfield House, where they hang
+in the great corridor. These were probably woven in
+Barcheston. (Plate <a href="#pl49">49</a>.) The style is English Renaissance,
+and the design full of intention; in fact, they
+have the seal of the time of Henry VIII. Only one
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>253]</a></span>
+characteristic reminds one of Flemish art, and that is the
+mode of drawing the plants and flowers, which might
+have been taken out of an old German herbal. The
+landscapes and peasantry are unmistakably English.
+The pictures are worked with strong black outlines
+which emphasize every detail and give the effect
+of a highly coloured outlined engraving; reminding one
+of the children&rsquo;s books by Marcus Ward or by Walter
+Crane.<a name="FNanchor_420_420" id="FNanchor_420_420"></a><a href="#Footnote_420_420" class="fnanchor">[420]</a></p>
+
+<p>The tapestries called the &ldquo;Spanish Armada hangings&rdquo;
+were probably woven here late in Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign. In
+her time we find in catalogues of household goods,
+descriptions of splendid hangings, furnishings of palaces
+and private houses. The MS. inventory of the Earl
+of Leicester&rsquo;s belongings, in the library at Longleat,
+astonishes us with the abundance of suites of hangings
+of tapestry that it enumerates, as well as those embroidered
+by hand, and others of stamped and painted
+leather.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the reign of James I. that the manufacture
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>254]</a></span>
+was set up at Mortlake, in Surrey. Aubrey, in his
+&ldquo;History of Surrey, i. p. 82,&rdquo; however, dates the institution
+in the subsequent reign; but Lloyd<a name="FNanchor_421_421" id="FNanchor_421_421"></a><a href="#Footnote_421_421" class="fnanchor">[421]</a> is not only
+positive for the former date, but affirms it was &ldquo;of the
+motion of King James himself,&rdquo; who gave &pound;2000 towards
+the undertaking; and we have further proofs extant that
+he spent largely, and encouraged it in every way. He
+gave to Sir Francis Crane, who erected the house at
+Mortlake, &ldquo;the making of three Baronets&rdquo; towards his
+project for manufacture of tapestry.<a name="FNanchor_422_422" id="FNanchor_422_422"></a><a href="#Footnote_422_422" class="fnanchor">[422]</a></p>
+
+<p>Another curious item which we quote, shows that the
+funds for the enterprise were not easily forthcoming. It
+is a warrant &ldquo;to Sir Francis Crane: &pound;2000 to be employed
+in buying &pound;1000 per ann. of pensions or other
+gifts made of the king, and not yet payable, for ease of His
+Majesty&rsquo;s charge of &pound;1000 a year towards the maintenance
+of Sir Francis Crane&rsquo;s tapestry manufacture.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_423_423" id="FNanchor_423_423"></a><a href="#Footnote_423_423" class="fnanchor">[423]</a></p>
+
+<p>Apparently this little arrangement did not succeed, for
+there is an acknowledgment by Charles I., in the first
+year of his reign,<a name="FNanchor_424_424" id="FNanchor_424_424"></a><a href="#Footnote_424_424" class="fnanchor">[424]</a> that he is in debt to Sir F. Crane:
+&ldquo;For three suits of gold tapestry we stand indebted
+to Sir Francis Crane &pound;6000. Also Sir F. Crane is
+allowed &pound;1000 annually for the better maintenance of
+said works for ten years to come.&rdquo; The king also
+granted the estate of Stoke Bruere, near Stamford,
+in Northamptonshire, as part payment of &pound;16,400
+due to him on the tapestry works at Mortlake.<a name="FNanchor_425_425" id="FNanchor_425_425"></a><a href="#Footnote_425_425" class="fnanchor">[425]</a> The
+great value of these tapestries is shown by the prices
+named in the Domestic Papers of the State Paper Office,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>255]</a></span>
+and in private inventories; they were woven in silk, wool,
+and gold, which last item accounts both for their price
+and for their disappearance.</p>
+
+<p>William, Archbishop of York and Lord Keeper, gave
+&pound;2500 for four pieces of Arras representing the four
+Seasons.<a name="FNanchor_426_426" id="FNanchor_426_426"></a><a href="#Footnote_426_426" class="fnanchor">[426]</a> Their value, however, fell during the civil
+wars, for the tapestries of the five Senses from the
+Palace of Oatlands, which were from the Mortlake looms,
+were sold in 1649 for &pound;270. The beautiful tapestries at
+Houghton were woven at Mortlake: these are all silk,
+and contain whole length portraits of James I. and
+Charles I., and their Queens, with heads of the royal
+children in the borders. A similar hanging is at Knowle,
+wrought in silk, containing portraits of Vandyke and Sir
+Francis Crane.<a name="FNanchor_427_427" id="FNanchor_427_427"></a><a href="#Footnote_427_427" class="fnanchor">[427]</a></p>
+
+<p>Francis Cleyne was a decorator and painter employed
+in the works at Mortlake by Charles I., who,
+while he was still Prince of Wales, brought him over to
+England from Rostock, in Mecklenburg (his native place),
+while the Prince was in Spain wooing the Infanta.
+Cleyne was great in grotesques, and also undertook in
+historical designs.<a name="FNanchor_428_428" id="FNanchor_428_428"></a><a href="#Footnote_428_428" class="fnanchor">[428]</a></p>
+
+<p>Three of the Raphael cartoons were sent to be copied
+at Mortlake.<a name="FNanchor_429_429" id="FNanchor_429_429"></a><a href="#Footnote_429_429" class="fnanchor">[429]</a> The purchase of these cartoons by the
+king, showed how high was the standard to which he tried
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>256]</a></span>
+to raise the art in England. The &ldquo;Triumph of C&aelig;sar,&rdquo;
+by Mantegna, was obtained for the same purpose in
+1653; and certain Dutch prisoners were forwarded to
+the manufactory to be employed on the work.<a name="FNanchor_430_430" id="FNanchor_430_430"></a><a href="#Footnote_430_430" class="fnanchor">[430]</a> It was
+entrusted to the care of Sir Gilbert Pickering, who was
+either an artist or the superintendent of the works.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of Sir Francis, his brother, Sir Richard
+Crane, sold the premises to Charles I. During the
+civil wars, the property was seized upon and confiscated
+as having belonged to the Crown. It occupied the site
+of what is now Queen&rsquo;s Head Court. The old house
+opposite was built by the king for the residence of Cleyne
+the artist. Gibson, the dwarf, and portrait painter, who
+had been page to a lady at Mortlake, was one of his
+pupils.<a name="FNanchor_431_431" id="FNanchor_431_431"></a><a href="#Footnote_431_431" class="fnanchor">[431]</a></p>
+
+<p>The value of the king&rsquo;s collection of tapestries was well
+understood during the Protectorate. The tapestry house
+remained in the occupation of John Holliburie, the &ldquo;master-workman.&rdquo;
+After the Restoration, Charles II. appointed
+Verrio as designer, intending to revive the manufactory.
+This was not, however, carried out; but the work
+still lingered on, and must have been in some repute, for
+Evelyn names some of these hangings as a fit present
+among those offered by a gallant to his mistress.<a name="FNanchor_432_432" id="FNanchor_432_432"></a><a href="#Footnote_432_432" class="fnanchor">[432]</a></p>
+
+<p>Arras is said to have been woven at Stamford, but we
+have no data of its establishment or its suppression.
+Burleigh House contains much of it; and there is a suite
+of hangings at Belton House, near Grantham, of which
+there are duplicates at Wroxton House, in Oxfordshire,
+all having the same traditional origin at Stamford.
+Possibly Sir Francis and Sir Richard Crane may have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>257]</a></span>
+received orders at their house at Stoke Bruere, which
+lay near enough to Stamford to account for the magnates
+of the town and neighbourhood obtaining furnishings of
+their tapestries, and, perhaps, vying with each other in
+decorating their apartments with them.<a name="FNanchor_433_433" id="FNanchor_433_433"></a><a href="#Footnote_433_433" class="fnanchor">[433]</a></p>
+
+<p>In Northumberland House there was a fine suite of
+tapestry, woven in Lambeth, 1758.<a name="FNanchor_434_434" id="FNanchor_434_434"></a><a href="#Footnote_434_434" class="fnanchor">[434]</a> This is the only
+sample of that loom of which we ever find any mention.
+There were also works at Fulham, where furniture
+tapestry in the style of Beauvais was made. This
+manufactory was closed in 1755.<a name="FNanchor_435_435" id="FNanchor_435_435"></a><a href="#Footnote_435_435" class="fnanchor">[435]</a> It may be hoped that
+the revival of tapestry weaving at Windsor in our own
+day may be a success, but without the royal and noble
+encouragement it receives, it would probably very soon
+fall into disuse.</p>
+
+<p>Unless it is supported by the State, such an exceptionally
+expensive machinery cannot possibly be kept at
+work. It requires the superintendence of the best artists,
+and the weavers themselves must needs have the highest
+technical education to enable them to copy really fine
+designs. These artistic requirements, besides the
+extreme tediousness of the work, make it the most
+expensive of all luxurious decorations&mdash;even more costly
+than embroideries by the hand, covering the same
+spaces. However, the two styles of hangings never can
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>258]</a></span>
+enter into competition, except in a financial point of view.
+Tapestries are the best fitted for wall coverings, and
+embroideries for curtains of all kinds&mdash;for beds, for
+windows, and for porti&egrave;res.</p>
+
+<p>The old hangings are now again having their day,
+and we are striving to save and restore all that remain
+to us. We must continue to guard these treasures from
+the moths, their worst enemies; and science should be
+invoked to assist us in the preservation of these precious
+works of art, of which the value is now again understood
+and appreciated, and which increases with every decade
+that is added to their antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>Tapestry, as art, has its own peculiar beauties, and
+one of them is the softening, yet brilliant effect of the
+alternate lights and shadows of the ridge-like surface;
+the separation of each stitch and thread also casting
+minute shadows in the opposite direction, and giving an
+iridescent effect. It is a mistake to struggle against this
+inherent quality, instead of seeking to utilize it. The
+coarser and simpler tapestries of our ancestors are really
+more beautiful and effective in large spaces&mdash;flat in the
+arrangement of colours, and sharply outlined&mdash;than the
+imitations of paintings of the last two centuries, in which
+every detail of form and colour is sought to be expressed.<a name="FNanchor_436_436" id="FNanchor_436_436"></a><a href="#Footnote_436_436" class="fnanchor">[436]</a></p>
+
+<p>M. Blanc says that tapestries were intended to cover
+the bare walls, but not to make us forget their existence.
+The wall being intended for comfort and defence, the
+mind is solaced with the idea it conveys. It is a mistake,
+therefore, to substitute a surface picture, so real that it at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>259]</a></span>
+once does away with this impression of security, while a
+certain conventional art should amuse the mind with
+shadowy representations and suggestions.</p>
+
+<p>It is, perhaps, fortunate that the possibilities of tapestry
+weaving are restricted, and thus its very imperfections
+become the sources of its best qualities as decoration and
+comfort. One element of textile weaving, the use of
+gold, both in the backgrounds and in the draperies, takes
+it at once out of the region of naturalism, while giving it
+light and splendour.</p>
+
+<p>The designer for tapestry need not be a great genius.
+Harmony, repose, grace, and tender colouring are the
+qualities most valuable to such an artist. Battle-pieces,
+and other exciting and awful subjects, are only bearable
+in apartments that are used for state occasions, or for
+hanging corridors and anterooms. They are painful to
+live with.</p>
+
+<p>All tapestries are liable to suffer by the double nature
+of their materials&mdash;their woollen surface and linen threads
+which are affected by both damp and heat crinkling the
+forms and puckering the faces, and bringing out unexpected
+expressions and deformities. For this reason the
+design should be as flat and as simple in its outline and
+shading as is consistent with beauty.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_317_317" id="Footnote_317_317"></a><a href="#FNanchor_317_317"><span class="label">[317]</span></a>
+Birdwood, &ldquo;Indian Arts,&rdquo; p. 283.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_318_318" id="Footnote_318_318"></a><a href="#FNanchor_318_318"><span class="label">[318]</span></a>
+&ldquo;The word in Sanskrit for a needle is <i>suchi</i>, from <i>such</i>, to sew or
+pierce. This is the same word as the Latin <i>suo</i>, to sew; so probably
+the common word used by the Aryans in their primeval habitations
+was <i>su</i>, and they clearly knew how to sew at that remote period. Eve
+sewed fig-leaves together. Adam sewed also. The Hebrew word is
+<i>tafar</i>, and clearly meant <em>sewing</em>, not <em>pinning</em> together with thorns.
+Sewing is the first recorded art of our forefathers.&rdquo;&mdash;Letter from Mr.
+Robert Cust.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_319_319" id="Footnote_319_319"></a><a href="#FNanchor_319_319"><span class="label">[319]</span></a>
+Semper, &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; Textile Kunst, i. pp. 77-90.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_320_320" id="Footnote_320_320"></a><a href="#FNanchor_320_320"><span class="label">[320]</span></a>
+Semper, Textile Kunst, &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; i. p. 77. The German word
+&ldquo;naht,&rdquo; here literally translated, would be, uniting, weaving, bringing
+together.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_321_321" id="Footnote_321_321"></a><a href="#FNanchor_321_321"><span class="label">[321]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Handbook of Plain Needlework,&rdquo; by Mrs. Floyer. See also her
+&ldquo;Plain Hints for Examiners,&rdquo; &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_322_322" id="Footnote_322_322"></a><a href="#FNanchor_322_322"><span class="label">[322]</span></a>
+Dr. Rock, &ldquo;Introduction,&rdquo; pp. cix, cx, calls it &ldquo;thread embroidery,&rdquo;
+and names some specimens in the South Kensington Museum.
+He says it was sometimes done in darning stitches for ecclesiastical
+purposes, for instance, for coverings for the pyx. It is mentioned in
+the Exeter inventory of the fourteenth century. There is notice of
+white knotted thread-work belonging to St. Paul&rsquo;s, London, in 1295,
+by Dugdale (p. 316).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_323_323" id="Footnote_323_323"></a><a href="#FNanchor_323_323"><span class="label">[323]</span></a>
+St. Catherine of Sienna&rsquo;s winding-sheet is described as being cut
+work (punto tagliato) on linen. This sounds like embroidery of the
+type now sold as &ldquo;Madeira work,&rdquo; the pattern being cut out and the
+edges overcast.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_324_324" id="Footnote_324_324"></a><a href="#FNanchor_324_324"><span class="label">[324]</span></a>
+Semper, &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; i. pp. 132, 203.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_325_325" id="Footnote_325_325"></a><a href="#FNanchor_325_325"><span class="label">[325]</span></a>
+See Semper, &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; i. p. 289.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_326_326" id="Footnote_326_326"></a><a href="#FNanchor_326_326"><span class="label">[326]</span></a>
+Ibid. He cites Athen&aelig;us, iv. 64.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_327_327" id="Footnote_327_327"></a><a href="#FNanchor_327_327"><span class="label">[327]</span></a>
+Phrygia in general, and especially Babylon, were famed for their
+embroideries. &ldquo;Colores diversos pictur&aelig; intexere Babylon maxime
+celebravit et nomen imposuit.&rdquo;&mdash;Pliny, lib. viii. 74. See D&rsquo;Auberville,
+&ldquo;Ornement des Tissus,&rdquo; p. 7.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_328_328" id="Footnote_328_328"></a><a href="#FNanchor_328_328"><span class="label">[328]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; i. p. 196. &ldquo;Opus Phrygium,&rdquo; in the Middle Ages, included
+all gold work in flat stitches. The cloak worked by Queen
+Gisela in the ninth century, for her husband, St. Stephen, King of
+Hungary, the imperial mantle at Bamberg, of the date of 1024,
+and the robes of Bishop William de Blois (thirteenth century), in
+the library at Worcester Cathedral, are all &ldquo;opus Phrygium,&rdquo; and
+resemble each other in style.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_329_329" id="Footnote_329_329"></a><a href="#FNanchor_329_329"><span class="label">[329]</span></a>
+In the Museum at Munich are two remarkable examples of these
+imitations. There is an embroidered badge of the Order of the Dragon,
+worked in gold and woven over with coloured silks, so as to present the
+appearance of enamel (sixteenth century). The second is a dress for a
+herald of the Order of St. Hubertus, which is richly embroidered in
+gold and silver, and the badge and collar are imitated in the most
+extraordinary manner, and laid on entirely in gold needlework. This is
+of the seventeenth century.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_330_330" id="Footnote_330_330"></a><a href="#FNanchor_330_330"><span class="label">[330]</span></a>
+In Salt&rsquo;s collection from Saccarah (British Museum); also at Turin,
+in the Egyptian Museum; and in the collections in the Louvre, figured
+by Auberville in the &ldquo;Ornamentation des Tissus.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_331_331" id="Footnote_331_331"></a><a href="#FNanchor_331_331"><span class="label">[331]</span></a>
+Hence the French name, <i>pointes compt&eacute;es</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_332_332" id="Footnote_332_332"></a><a href="#FNanchor_332_332"><span class="label">[332]</span></a>
+See Semper, ii. p. 213, for wood-work at Panticap&aelig;um, Kertch, in the
+Crimea, which evidently has descended in style from panelled needlework
+hangings. Chaldean wall decoration at Khorsabad and Warka, near
+Nimroud, recalls the effect of &ldquo;opus pulvinarium&rdquo; according to Loftus.
+See Semper, i. p. 327.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_333_333" id="Footnote_333_333"></a><a href="#FNanchor_333_333"><span class="label">[333]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; i. pp. 196, 248. This is known from the archaic books
+of imperial commerce.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_334_334" id="Footnote_334_334"></a><a href="#FNanchor_334_334"><span class="label">[334]</span></a>
+Peacocks&rsquo; feathers, either woven or onlaid, are those most commonly
+used in China and Japan. &ldquo;Ka Moolelo Hawaii,&rdquo; by M. Jules Remy,
+Paris, 1861. See Ferdinand Denis, &ldquo;Arte Plumaria,&rdquo; p. 66.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_335_335" id="Footnote_335_335"></a><a href="#FNanchor_335_335"><span class="label">[335]</span></a>
+Yates, &ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo; p. 373, translates from Publius
+Syrus the word <i>plumata</i>, &ldquo;feathered.&rdquo; The word &ldquo;embroidered&rdquo;
+would have here improved the sense, even though it is a peacock that
+is described.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Thy food the peacock, which displays his spotted train,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As shines a Babylonian shawl with feather&rsquo;d gold.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>He also quotes Lucan, who is praising the furnishings of Cleopatra&rsquo;s
+palace: &ldquo;Part shines with feathered gold; part sheds a blaze of scarlet.&rdquo;&mdash;Yates,
+p. 373.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_336_336" id="Footnote_336_336"></a><a href="#FNanchor_336_336"><span class="label">[336]</span></a>
+Sir G. Birdwood, with all his enthusiasm for Indian art and its
+forms, yet cannot resist a touch of humour when he describes a state
+umbrella, of which the handle and ribs are pure gold, tipped with rubies
+and diamonds, the silken covering bordered with thirty-two fringed
+loops of pearls, and &ldquo;also appropriately decorated with the feathers of
+the peacock, heron, parrot, and goose.&rdquo;&mdash;Birdwood, &ldquo;Indian Arts,&rdquo; ii.
+p. 182.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_337_337" id="Footnote_337_337"></a><a href="#FNanchor_337_337"><span class="label">[337]</span></a>
+&ldquo;History of the Kingdom of Congo,&rdquo; c. viii. p. 55, by Filippo
+Pigafetta (translated by Mrs. M. Hutchinson).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_338_338" id="Footnote_338_338"></a><a href="#FNanchor_338_338"><span class="label">[338]</span></a>
+In the Tyrol certain embroideries are called &ldquo;Federstickerei.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_339_339" id="Footnote_339_339"></a><a href="#FNanchor_339_339"><span class="label">[339]</span></a>
+For the feather hangings at Moritzburg, see <a href="#appendix_ii">Appendix 2</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_340_340" id="Footnote_340_340"></a><a href="#FNanchor_340_340"><span class="label">[340]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Arte Plumaria,&rdquo; by M. Ferdinand Denis. Paris, 1875.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_341_341" id="Footnote_341_341"></a><a href="#FNanchor_341_341"><span class="label">[341]</span></a>
+The Plumarii mentioned by Pliny were craftsmen in the art of
+<i>acu pingere</i>, or painting with the needle. Though Seneca speaks of
+the &ldquo;opus plumarium&rdquo; as if it were absolutely feather-work, yet it may
+have been at that time undergoing its transition into embroidery,
+suggested by feathers, and imitating them in gold, silver, wool, or
+thread. When Lucan describes the extraordinary change introduced
+into Roman habits and luxury by Cleopatra&rsquo;s splendours, his use of the
+words, &ldquo;pars auro plumata nitet,&rdquo; probably means their imitation or
+mixture with gold embroidery, and would, therefore, come under the
+head of &ldquo;opus Phrygium.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_342_342" id="Footnote_342_342"></a><a href="#FNanchor_342_342"><span class="label">[342]</span></a>
+It is said that the work, named &ldquo;Plumarium,&rdquo; was made by the
+needle; and the Greeks, from the variety of the threads, called it
+&ldquo;Polymitum.&rdquo; &ldquo;Plumarium dicitur opus acu factum quod Gr&aelig;ci
+a licionum varietate multiplici polymitarium appellant.&rdquo;&mdash;Robert
+Stephan. &ldquo;Thesaurus Lingu&aelig; Latin&aelig;,&rdquo; s.v. Plumarius.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_343_343" id="Footnote_343_343"></a><a href="#FNanchor_343_343"><span class="label">[343]</span></a>
+Bl&uuml;mner, i. p. 209. &ldquo;The Plumarii were a class of persons mentioned
+by Vitruvius, and found likewise in inscriptions. It cannot be decided
+with certainty what was their occupation; their name would lead us
+to suppose that it has something to do with feathers.&rdquo;&mdash;Becker&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Gallus,&rdquo; ii. p. 288. But see Marquardt, &ldquo;Handbuch d. R&ouml;m. Altert.&rdquo; vii.
+pt. 2, p. 523.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_344_344" id="Footnote_344_344"></a><a href="#FNanchor_344_344"><span class="label">[344]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Plumarium qui acu aliquod depingit super culcitris plumeis.&rdquo;&mdash;R.
+Steph., &ldquo;Thesaur. Lat.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_345_345" id="Footnote_345_345"></a><a href="#FNanchor_345_345"><span class="label">[345]</span></a>
+See &ldquo;The Funeral Tent of an Egyptian Queen,&rdquo; by Villiers Stuart.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_346_346" id="Footnote_346_346"></a><a href="#FNanchor_346_346"><span class="label">[346]</span></a>
+See Auberville&rsquo;s &ldquo;Tissus,&rdquo; Plate i.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_347_347" id="Footnote_347_347"></a><a href="#FNanchor_347_347"><span class="label">[347]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Compte Rendu de la Commission Arch&eacute;ologique, St. Petersburg,
+1881.&rdquo; Pl. iii. pp. 112,119.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_348_348" id="Footnote_348_348"></a><a href="#FNanchor_348_348"><span class="label">[348]</span></a>
+In the British Museum is the lining of a shield which shows the
+arms of Redvers, third Earl of Albemarle (who died 1260), applied in
+different coloured silks.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_349_349" id="Footnote_349_349"></a><a href="#FNanchor_349_349"><span class="label">[349]</span></a>
+Lent by the Arch&aelig;ological Museum at Madrid.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_350_350" id="Footnote_350_350"></a><a href="#FNanchor_350_350"><span class="label">[350]</span></a>
+Rees&rsquo; Cyclop&aelig;dia speaks of embroideries &ldquo;on the stamp or
+stump,&rdquo; as being so named &ldquo;when the figures are high and prominent,
+supported by cotton, wool, or hair;&rdquo; also in &ldquo;low and plain embroideries,
+without enrichment between.&rdquo; He speaks of work &ldquo;cut and laid
+on the cloth, laid down with gold, enriched with tinsel and spangles.&rdquo;
+Rees&rsquo; Cyclop&aelig;dia, &ldquo;Embroidery,&rdquo; 1819.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_351_351" id="Footnote_351_351"></a><a href="#FNanchor_351_351"><span class="label">[351]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Opus consutum.&rdquo; The way in which this applied work is used in
+India, for the special adornment of horse-cloths, saddles, and girths, is
+very interesting.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_352_352" id="Footnote_352_352"></a><a href="#FNanchor_352_352"><span class="label">[352]</span></a>
+The chapter on &ldquo;application,&rdquo; in the Handbook of Embroidery of
+the Royal School of Art Needlework, will be useful to those who need
+instruction in the most practical, and therefore the quickest way of doing
+cut work.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_353_353" id="Footnote_353_353"></a><a href="#FNanchor_353_353"><span class="label">[353]</span></a>
+Mrs. Palliser&rsquo;s &ldquo;History of Lace.&rdquo; The origin of needle-made lace-work
+is attributed by M. de Gheltof to the necessity for disposing of the
+frayed edges of worn-out garments. This I think somewhat fanciful.
+<em>Fringes</em> may have been so suggested.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_354_354" id="Footnote_354_354"></a><a href="#FNanchor_354_354"><span class="label">[354]</span></a>
+See M. Blanc&rsquo;s &ldquo;Art in Ornament and Dress&rdquo; (p. 200).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_355_355" id="Footnote_355_355"></a><a href="#FNanchor_355_355"><span class="label">[355]</span></a>
+Mrs. Bayman (late Superintendent in the School of Art Needlework)
+writes thus: &ldquo;I see no reason to doubt that the word guipure is
+derived from &lsquo;guipa&rsquo; or &lsquo;guiper,&rsquo; a ribbon-weaver&rsquo;s term for spinning
+one thread round another; and that guipure was originally more like
+what we now call &lsquo;guimp,&rsquo; or like &lsquo;point de Raguse,&rsquo; first being made
+of thread, of more or less thickness and commoner material, wound
+round with a finer flax, silk, or metal; then they cut shapes, bold
+scrolls, and leaves out of cartisane, vellum, or parchment, winding
+and covering them over with the more precious thread. These figures
+were then connected by brides, only as close as was required to hold
+them together, and leaving large open spaces, thus forming the large scroll
+patterns seen in so many old pictures.&rdquo; No doubt the heavy &ldquo;Fogliami&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Rose point&rdquo; laces developed themselves from these still older kinds
+of point. As the cord and card lace disappeared, the name slid on to
+all laces with large, bold patterns and open brides, though the special
+method which first created it had been effaced. Latterly, embroidered
+netting or laces have been called &ldquo;guipure d&rsquo;art.&rdquo; Littr&eacute; gives the
+derivation of the word; he says it is from the Gothic <i>Vaipa</i>, or German
+<i>Weban</i> or <i>Weben</i> (<i>g</i> and <i>p</i> replacing the <i>w</i> and <i>b</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_356_356" id="Footnote_356_356"></a><a href="#FNanchor_356_356"><span class="label">[356]</span></a>
+The word lace came from France, where it was called <i>lacis</i> or <i>lassis</i>,
+derived from the Latin <i>laqueus</i> (a noose). These words originally
+applied to narrow ribbons&mdash;their use being to lace or tie.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_357_357" id="Footnote_357_357"></a><a href="#FNanchor_357_357"><span class="label">[357]</span></a>
+The Venetians early made much lace for furniture or ecclesiastical
+linen adornment, of what they called &ldquo;maglia quadrata,&rdquo; which was
+usually squared netting, afterwards filled in with patterns in darned
+needlework. This somewhat primitive style of lace trimming was
+popular on account of its simplicity, and descended to the peasantry
+for their domestic decorations in Spain, Germany, France, and Italy.
+There are specimens of this work believed to be of the thirteenth
+century. At the time of the Renaissance the simple geometrical designs
+developed into animals, fruits, flowers, and human figures.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_358_358" id="Footnote_358_358"></a><a href="#FNanchor_358_358"><span class="label">[358]</span></a>
+See Rock, p. cix, cx. He says that a sort of embroidery was called
+network, and certain drawn work he calls &ldquo;opus filatorium.&rdquo; See
+Catalogue of Textiles in the South Kensington Museum, by D. Rock,
+p. cxxvii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_359_359" id="Footnote_359_359"></a><a href="#FNanchor_359_359"><span class="label">[359]</span></a>
+Reminding us of the description of a net&mdash;&ldquo;holes tied together by
+a string.&rdquo; As a contrast in descriptive style, we would quote Dr.
+Johnson on network: &ldquo;Anything reticulated or decussated at equal
+distances, with interstices between the intersections.&rdquo;&mdash;Johnson&rsquo;s
+Dictionary.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_360_360" id="Footnote_360_360"></a><a href="#FNanchor_360_360"><span class="label">[360]</span></a>
+Isaiah iii. 18, xix. 9.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_361_361" id="Footnote_361_361"></a><a href="#FNanchor_361_361"><span class="label">[361]</span></a>
+The nets of chequer work which hung round the capitals, with the
+wreaths of chain work, were designed by Hiram of Tyre, at Solomon&rsquo;s
+desire (1 Kings vii. 17).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_362_362" id="Footnote_362_362"></a><a href="#FNanchor_362_362"><span class="label">[362]</span></a>
+A fringe lace is made on the Riviera, of the fibres of the aloe,
+and is called &ldquo;macram&egrave;,&rdquo; which is an Arabic word. Mrs. Palliser&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;History of Lace,&rdquo; p. 64.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_363_363" id="Footnote_363_363"></a><a href="#FNanchor_363_363"><span class="label">[363]</span></a>
+A collar of fine white human hair was made in point lace stitches at
+Venice, and worn at his coronation by Louis Quatorze. It cost 250
+pieces of gold. &ldquo;Scritti di V. Zanon da Udine&rdquo; (1829). Cited by
+Urbani de Gheltof, &ldquo;Merletti di Venezia,&rdquo; pp. 22, 23.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_364_364" id="Footnote_364_364"></a><a href="#FNanchor_364_364"><span class="label">[364]</span></a>
+See, for example, the inventory of the household goods of the great
+Earl of Leicester at Longleat; also the lists of the possessions of
+Ippolito and Angela Sforza (sixteenth century).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_365_365" id="Footnote_365_365"></a><a href="#FNanchor_365_365"><span class="label">[365]</span></a>
+Coloured thread and silk laces are still made in Venice.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_366_366" id="Footnote_366_366"></a><a href="#FNanchor_366_366"><span class="label">[366]</span></a>
+In the British Museum.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_367_367" id="Footnote_367_367"></a><a href="#FNanchor_367_367"><span class="label">[367]</span></a>
+M. Blanc&rsquo;s use of the word &ldquo;guipure&rdquo; is different from that found
+in the notices of the art by other authorities.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_368_368" id="Footnote_368_368"></a><a href="#FNanchor_368_368"><span class="label">[368]</span></a>
+The first lace-making machine was contemporary, or nearly so, with
+the stocking-making frame. About the year 1768 it was altered, and
+adapted for making open-work patterns. In 1808, the Heathcot machine
+was started for bobbin net. In 1813, John Leaver improved on this
+idea, with machine-woven patterns. The Jacquard apparatus achieved
+the flat patterns, and the new &ldquo;Dentelli&egrave;re&rdquo; has perfected the art.
+Lace-making by machinery employed by the latest official returns in
+1871, 29,370 women in England, and 24,000 in France. See Encyclop&aelig;dia
+Britannica, 9th edition, p. 183-5.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_369_369" id="Footnote_369_369"></a><a href="#FNanchor_369_369"><span class="label">[369]</span></a>
+M. Charles Blanc, &ldquo;Art in Ornament and Dress,&rdquo; p. 211.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_370_370" id="Footnote_370_370"></a><a href="#FNanchor_370_370"><span class="label">[370]</span></a>
+The information contained in these volumes is most valuable, for the
+lace-worker as well as the collector.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_371_371" id="Footnote_371_371"></a><a href="#FNanchor_371_371"><span class="label">[371]</span></a>
+Lady Layard suggests that the cut lace work, which was the earliest
+made in Venice (&ldquo;punto tagliato,&rdquo; &ldquo;point coup&eacute;&rdquo;), simply consists
+of button-hole stitch with purl ornaments. These are varied with
+geometrical stitches and needle-weaving in those solid laces called
+&ldquo;punti tagliati Fogliami,&rdquo; and &ldquo;Rose point de Venise,&rdquo; of the finest
+kinds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_372_372" id="Footnote_372_372"></a><a href="#FNanchor_372_372"><span class="label">[372]</span></a>
+Urbani de Gheltof, in his book, &ldquo;Merletti di Venezia,&rdquo; p. 9, says that
+Venetian laces and fringes were furnished thence for the coronation of
+Richard III. (1483). I fancy that gold guimps or braid, rather than
+netted laces, must be here intended, as we have no other notice of lace
+so early. See <i>Ibid.</i> pp. 10-20.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_373_373" id="Footnote_373_373"></a><a href="#FNanchor_373_373"><span class="label">[373]</span></a>
+Henry VIII. had a pair of hose of purple silk, edged and trimmed
+with a lace of purple silk and gold, of Milanese manufacture. Harl.
+MSS., 1519.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_374_374" id="Footnote_374_374"></a><a href="#FNanchor_374_374"><span class="label">[374]</span></a>
+The manufacture of point d&rsquo;Alen&ccedil;on was created under the special
+orders of Louis Quatorze, by Colbert, in 1673. Now more than
+200,000 women, besides the machinists, are employed in lace-making
+in France. Colbert imported the teachers from Venice.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_375_375" id="Footnote_375_375"></a><a href="#FNanchor_375_375"><span class="label">[375]</span></a>
+Yriarte says that Alen&ccedil;on, Argenton, Sedan, Mercourt, Honiton,
+Bedford, Buckinghamshire, Oxfordshire, Mechlin, Bruges, Brussels, all
+followed in imitation of Venice. Yriarte&rsquo;s &ldquo;Venise,&rdquo; p. 250.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_376_376" id="Footnote_376_376"></a><a href="#FNanchor_376_376"><span class="label">[376]</span></a>
+Titian drew the designs for one of these books for &ldquo;punti tagliati.&rdquo;
+The laces made in the Greek islands probably owe their origin to
+Venice, showing the same &ldquo;punti in aria.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_377_377" id="Footnote_377_377"></a><a href="#FNanchor_377_377"><span class="label">[377]</span></a>
+I have already spoken of &ldquo;lacis&rdquo; as either darned netting or
+drawn work. Of this there is an English specimen at Prague, said by
+tradition to be the gift of Queen Anne of Bohemia, wife of Richard II.
+It originally trimmed or bordered an ecclesiastical garment.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_378_378" id="Footnote_378_378"></a><a href="#FNanchor_378_378"><span class="label">[378]</span></a>
+For further information, we refer the reader to M. Urbani de
+Gheltof&rsquo;s book on Venice laces already cited (Organia, Venice, 1876),
+and Lady Layard&rsquo;s translation (1882).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_379_379" id="Footnote_379_379"></a><a href="#FNanchor_379_379"><span class="label">[379]</span></a>
+I am assured on the best authority that this is unknown as yet at
+Burano; but the workers, as well as the revived industry, are very
+young. The modern school of Burano has only been established
+eleven years. It is certainly delightful to see the 320 happy faces,
+singing, chattering, and smiling over their graceful occupation; and the
+beauty of the Buranese women, which is celebrated, has not suffered
+from their occupation. There is a charming little article of the <i>Revista di
+Torino</i>, 1883, which describes the improvement in the social condition
+of Burano, morally and physically, and the way it is recognized by the
+inhabitants. Instead of signs of miserable poverty, the promoters of
+the lace school are greeted by the women leaning from the windows
+with, &ldquo;Siestu benedetta!&rdquo; (&ldquo;Be thou blessed!&rdquo;).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_380_380" id="Footnote_380_380"></a><a href="#FNanchor_380_380"><span class="label">[380]</span></a>
+The word &ldquo;tapestry&rdquo; comes from the Greek <i>tapes</i>, which is used
+equally for hangings or carpets. The Italians call carpets &ldquo;tapeti&rdquo; to
+this day. It is believed to have been originally an Egyptian word for
+such fabrics.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_381_381" id="Footnote_381_381"></a><a href="#FNanchor_381_381"><span class="label">[381]</span></a>
+For instance, the embroidered hangings of the eighth century at
+Gerona, in Spain, have been more than once quoted as proofs of
+tapestries having been manufactured there at that period.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_382_382" id="Footnote_382_382"></a><a href="#FNanchor_382_382"><span class="label">[382]</span></a>
+The &ldquo;slay&rdquo; means the &ldquo;strike.&rdquo; The word had the same meaning
+originally: to slay a man was to strike him.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_383_383" id="Footnote_383_383"></a><a href="#FNanchor_383_383"><span class="label">[383]</span></a>
+See De Champeaux, South Kensington Museum Art Handbook, 1878.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_384_384" id="Footnote_384_384"></a><a href="#FNanchor_384_384"><span class="label">[384]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Biblioth&egrave;que des Merveilles&rdquo; (sur les Tapisseries), publi&eacute; sous la
+direction de M. Edouard Charton, &agrave; Paris, 1876.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_385_385" id="Footnote_385_385"></a><a href="#FNanchor_385_385"><span class="label">[385]</span></a>
+Martial, xiv. 150.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_386_386" id="Footnote_386_386"></a><a href="#FNanchor_386_386"><span class="label">[386]</span></a>
+Minerva accepts the challenge of the M&aelig;onian Arachne, who will
+not yield to her in the praises of being first in weaving wool. The girls
+desert the vineyards round the little town of Hyp&aelig;pa, to look at her
+admirable workmanship. She boasts that hers is finer than that of
+Pallas, and, desiring a vain victory, rushes upon her own destruction.
+&ldquo;... They stretch out two webs on the loom, with a fine warp. The web
+is tied to the beam; the slay separates the warp; the woof is inserted in
+the middle with sharp shuttles, while the fingers hurry along, and being
+drawn with the warp, the teeth (notched in the moving slay) strike it.
+Both hasten on their labour, and girding up their garments to their
+bosoms, they move their skilful arms, their eagerness beguiling their
+fatigue. There are being woven both the purples, which are subjected to
+the Tyrian brazen (dyeing) vessel with fine shades of minute difference;
+as in the rainbow with its mighty rays reflected by the shower, where,
+though a thousand colours are shining, yet the very transition eludes
+the eyes that look upon it; to such a degree is that which is adjacent
+the same, and yet the extremes are different. The pliant gold is mingled
+with the threads, and ancient subjects are represented on the webs.&rdquo;
+Then follows the list of the subjects. The web of Pallas had a large
+central design, and a smaller one on each corner, surrounded with a
+border of olive leaves. Arachne&rsquo;s contained nineteen pictures, of two
+or more figures each, and was surrounded by a border of flowers, interwoven
+with the twining ivy. Ovid&rsquo;s &ldquo;Metamorphoses,&rdquo; book vi.</p>
+
+<p>Through the kindness of my friend, Lord Houghton, I am enabled
+to give the sequel of the story&mdash;Arachne&rsquo;s transformation into the
+Spider, as&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p><span class="smcap">A Paraphrase and a Parable.</span></p>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Lo! how Minerva, recklessly defied,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Struck down the maiden of artistic pride,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Who, all distraught with terror and despair,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Suspended her lithe body in mid-air;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Deeming, if thus she innocently died,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The sacred vengeance would be pacified.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Not so: implacable the goddess cried&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Live on! hang on! and from this hour begin<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Out of thy loathsome self new threads to spin;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">No splendid tapestries for royal rooms,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">But sordid webs to clothe the caves and tombs.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nor blame the Poet&rsquo;s Metamorphoses:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Man&rsquo;s Life has Transformations hard as these;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Thou shall become, as Ages hand thee down,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The drear day-worker of the crowded town,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Who, envying the rough tiller of the soil,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Plies her monotonous unhealthy toil,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Passing through joyless day to sleepless night<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With mind enfeebled and decaying sight,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Till some good genius,<a name="FNanchor_437_437" id="FNanchor_437_437"></a><a href="#Footnote_437_437" class="fnanchor">[437]</a> kindred though apart,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Resolves to raise thee from the vulgar mart,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And once more links thee to the World of Art.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_387_387" id="Footnote_387_387"></a><a href="#FNanchor_387_387"><span class="label">[387]</span></a>
+<a href="#appendix_iii">Appendix 3</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_388_388" id="Footnote_388_388"></a><a href="#FNanchor_388_388"><span class="label">[388]</span></a>
+Guicciardini ascribes the invention of woven tapestry to Arras,
+giving no dates; so we do not know whether he attributes it to the
+Belgic Atrebates or to their successors, the Franks. In either case the
+craft was probably imported from the East.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_389_389" id="Footnote_389_389"></a><a href="#FNanchor_389_389"><span class="label">[389]</span></a>
+The Atrebates were the inhabitants of that Belgic region till the fifth
+century; now it is the province of Artois, probably a corruption of the
+name &ldquo;Atrebates.&rdquo; Taylor, &ldquo;Words and Places&rdquo; (1865), pp. 229-385.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_390_390" id="Footnote_390_390"></a><a href="#FNanchor_390_390"><span class="label">[390]</span></a>
+Castel, &ldquo;Des Tapisseries,&rdquo; p. 30.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_391_391" id="Footnote_391_391"></a><a href="#FNanchor_391_391"><span class="label">[391]</span></a>
+Sidonius Apollinaris, Epist. ix., 13. Cited in Yule&rsquo;s &ldquo;Marco Polo,&rdquo;
+p. 68.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_392_392" id="Footnote_392_392"></a><a href="#FNanchor_392_392"><span class="label">[392]</span></a>
+Castel, &ldquo;Des Tapisseries,&rdquo; p. 31.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_393_393" id="Footnote_393_393"></a><a href="#FNanchor_393_393"><span class="label">[393]</span></a>
+The commentators of Vasari, MM. Lechanch&eacute; and Jenron, believe
+that this art was coeval in the Low Countries with Roman civilization
+and Christianity; but it would appear that the weavers had fled to
+Britain to escape from the Romans. Ibid. p. 52. Traces of the name
+Arras have been found by Bochart and Frahn in Ar-ras, the Arabian
+name for the river Araxes and the people who inhabit its shores; but
+this may be accidental, and is at best an uncertain derivation.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_394_394" id="Footnote_394_394"></a><a href="#FNanchor_394_394"><span class="label">[394]</span></a>
+Rock, Introduction, p. cxii. This &ldquo;Saracenic work&rdquo; is really so like
+what is called by the Germans &ldquo;Gobelins&rdquo; when found in Egyptian
+tombs that one can hardly doubt whence the Moors brought their art.
+There are several Egyptian specimens in the British Museum. See
+also the catalogue of Herr Graf&rsquo;schen&rsquo;s collection of Egyptian textiles,
+from the first to the eighth century. &ldquo;Katalog der Teodor Graf&rsquo;schen
+F&uuml;nde in &AElig;gypten, von Dr. Karabacek. Wien, 1883.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_395_395" id="Footnote_395_395"></a><a href="#FNanchor_395_395"><span class="label">[395]</span></a>
+Viollet-le-Duc, &ldquo;Dictionnaire du Mobilier Fran&ccedil;ais, Tapis,&rdquo; p. cxii;
+also M. Jubinal, &ldquo;Tapisserie Historique.&rdquo; It is difficult absolutely to
+assign to any known specimens a date anterior to the fifteenth century;
+although M. de Champeaux thinks that the &ldquo;Sarazinois&rdquo; were mostly or
+entirely carpet-weavers about the eleventh century. He says there is documentary
+authority to prove that these were woven with flowers and
+animals. There is a very deep-piled velvety carpet at Gorhambury
+(the Earl of Verulam&rsquo;s place). Here Queen Elizabeth&rsquo;s arms and cypher
+appear on a Persian or Moresque ground pattern surrounded with a
+wreath of oak leaves. It may have been a gift from Spain,&mdash;left
+after one of her visits to her Chancellor.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_396_396" id="Footnote_396_396"></a><a href="#FNanchor_396_396"><span class="label">[396]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Tapisseries des Gobelins,&rdquo; A. L. Lacordaire, p. 10 (1853). He
+considers that the Sarazinois were embroiderers as well as weavers&mdash;and
+this theory is supported by extracts from an inventory of Charles VI.&rsquo;s
+hangings of 1421.</p>
+
+<p>Every detail of the art and its materials was carefully regulated by the
+French statutes of 1625-27, containing many laws for the perfecting of
+the manufacture of new as well as the restoration of old tapestries&mdash;and
+fines were imposed for not using materials as nearly as possible matching
+the original ones; and likewise for any other dereliction from the
+rules of the craft. Ibid. pp. 9, 10, 14.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_397_397" id="Footnote_397_397"></a><a href="#FNanchor_397_397"><span class="label">[397]</span></a>
+At the Poldi Bezzoli Museum in Milan there are some very fine
+carpets; one especially, a Persian, is supposed to be of the fifteenth
+century. This is very finely woven of pure, tender colours, and the
+whole composition, flowers and animals (most beautifully drawn lions,
+&amp;c.), is delicately outlined in black on a white ground. The colouring
+is rich and harmonious, and has the iridescent effect of mother of pearl.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_398_398" id="Footnote_398_398"></a><a href="#FNanchor_398_398"><span class="label">[398]</span></a>
+In the San Clemente frescoes at Rome there are hangings which
+show a semi-Asiatic style.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_399_399" id="Footnote_399_399"></a><a href="#FNanchor_399_399"><span class="label">[399]</span></a>
+&ldquo;M&eacute;moires Historiques et Ecclesiastiques d&rsquo;Auxerre,&rdquo; par M.
+l&rsquo;Abb&eacute; Leb&oelig;uf, i. pp. 178, 231.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_400_400" id="Footnote_400_400"></a><a href="#FNanchor_400_400"><span class="label">[400]</span></a>
+There are very interesting Norwegian tapestries of the sixteenth
+century, which show distinctly an Eastern origin.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_401_401" id="Footnote_401_401"></a><a href="#FNanchor_401_401"><span class="label">[401]</span></a>
+Jubinal, &ldquo;Tapisseries,&rdquo; pp. 25, 26; Viollet-le-Duc, &ldquo;Dic. de
+Mobilier Fran&ccedil;ais,&rdquo; p. 269.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_402_402" id="Footnote_402_402"></a><a href="#FNanchor_402_402"><span class="label">[402]</span></a>
+There is much splendid tapestry&mdash;German, and especially Bavarian,&mdash;to
+be seen at Munich; and, indeed, the more one seeks, the more
+one finds that private looms were constantly at work in the Middle
+Ages for votive offerings. There is a tapestry altar-piece at Coire,
+in the Grisons, of the Crucifixion, which is evidently of the fourteenth
+century. The colours are still brilliant, and the whole background
+is beautifully composed of growing flowers. No sky is seen.
+There is at Munich an altar frontal of tapestry, Gothic of the fifteenth
+century, exquisitely beautiful. The weaver has introduced a little portrait
+of herself at her loom, under the folds of the virgin&rsquo;s cloak at her feet.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_403_403" id="Footnote_403_403"></a><a href="#FNanchor_403_403"><span class="label">[403]</span></a>
+M. Albert Castel (&ldquo;Tapisserie,&rdquo; p. 53) believes that the taking of Constantinople,
+when Earl Baldwin was elected to the throne of Byzantium,
+had a great effect on Flemish art, which then received a strong impulse
+from Oriental designs and traditions. See M. Jubinal&rsquo;s very interesting
+account of the tapisserie de Nancy which lined the tents of Charles the
+Bold at the siege of Nancy (p. 439). These tapestries are an allegory
+against gluttony. &ldquo;Tapisseries Hist.,&rdquo; pp. 1-5.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_404_404" id="Footnote_404_404"></a><a href="#FNanchor_404_404"><span class="label">[404]</span></a>
+Charles the Bold has left us records of his taste in tent hangings of
+Arras at Berne, as well as at Nancy. These are the plunder from his
+camp equipage after the battle of Grandson. The whole suite, of
+many pieces, represents battles and sieges, and sacred subjects also,
+such as the adoration of the Magi. They are finely drawn and splendidly
+executed with gold lights, and are of the most perfect style of the
+fifteenth century. The National Museum at Munich contains most
+valuable specimens of very early and very fine tapestries; amongst
+others, a Virgin, which was certainly designed in the school of D&uuml;rer,
+and is of the greatest perfection of its art, both as to colour and
+drawing and the general effect, which has a soft, dreamy beauty, only
+to be seen in fine woollen tapestries, and differing from pictorial design
+and intention.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_405_405" id="Footnote_405_405"></a><a href="#FNanchor_405_405"><span class="label">[405]</span></a>
+See Rock, cxii: Among the remarkable suites of tapestry of which we
+find historical mention are the following: In 1334, John de Croisette, a
+&ldquo;Tapissier Sarazinois, demeurant &agrave; Arras vendit au Duc de Touraine un
+tapis Sarazinois &agrave; or: de l&rsquo;histoire de Charlemagne&rdquo; (Voisin, p. 6).
+Of the many recorded as belonging to Philip, Duke of Burgundy and
+Brabant, one piece, &ldquo;Haulte lice sanz or: de l&rsquo;histoire du Duc de
+Normandie, comment il conquit Engleterre.&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;Les Ducs de Bourgogne,&rdquo;
+par le Comte de Laborde, ii. p. 270, No. 4277.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_406_406" id="Footnote_406_406"></a><a href="#FNanchor_406_406"><span class="label">[406]</span></a>
+M. de Champeaux, the author of the &ldquo;Handbook of Art Tapestry&rdquo;
+belonging to the series of the Kensington Museum, 1878, says that the
+history of Arras has yet to be written. He, however, gives a great deal
+of interesting information, especially about the French tapestries,
+on which subject we fancy there is little more to tell. Their art does
+not come from such a distant time as that of the Belgian manufactures.
+After Louis IX. had decimated the inhabitants, and dispersed the
+remainder, Arras yet made a gallant struggle to revive her industry and
+compete with the rising prosperity of Brussels; but France had decreed
+against her.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_407_407" id="Footnote_407_407"></a><a href="#FNanchor_407_407"><span class="label">[407]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica&rdquo; (&ldquo;Art Tapestry&rdquo;), pp. 17, 97.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_408_408" id="Footnote_408_408"></a><a href="#FNanchor_408_408"><span class="label">[408]</span></a>
+Vasari vividly describes the design for a tapestry for the King of
+Portugal&mdash;the history of Adam&mdash;on which Leonardo da Vinci, then
+aged twenty, was engaged. He lingers tenderly over the picture of the
+flowery field and the careful study of the bay-trees. Vasari, tom. vii.
+p. 15; ed. Firenze, 1851.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_409_409" id="Footnote_409_409"></a><a href="#FNanchor_409_409"><span class="label">[409]</span></a>
+See M. Jubinal&rsquo;s &ldquo;Tapisseries Histori&eacute;es,&rdquo; p. 26; Viollet-le-Duc,
+&ldquo;Mobilier Fran&ccedil;ais,&rdquo; i. p. 269.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_410_410" id="Footnote_410_410"></a><a href="#FNanchor_410_410"><span class="label">[410]</span></a>
+Froissart&rsquo;s &ldquo;Chronicles,&rdquo; iv., chap. 23; Johnes ed. 1815.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_411_411" id="Footnote_411_411"></a><a href="#FNanchor_411_411"><span class="label">[411]</span></a>
+M. de Champeaux, &ldquo;Handbook of Art Tapestry,&rdquo; p. 24; also Rock,
+&ldquo;Textiles,&rdquo; p. 122. M. Lacordaire, &ldquo;Tapisserie des Gobelins,&rdquo; p. 15, tells
+us that under Louis XIII. the statutes of 1625-27 contain many regulations
+for the perfection of the materials employed in weaving new as well as
+in restoring old tapestries. Fines were imposed for not matching the
+colours carefully.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_412_412" id="Footnote_412_412"></a><a href="#FNanchor_412_412"><span class="label">[412]</span></a>
+English wool is still used for the finest tapestries at the Gobelins.
+The wool from Kent is considered the best.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_413_413" id="Footnote_413_413"></a><a href="#FNanchor_413_413"><span class="label">[413]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Vit&aelig; St. Alban. Abbatum,&rdquo; p. 40; Rock, p. cxi. That the
+walls were covered with tapestry in the thirteenth century is supposed
+to be proved by the description of Hrothgar&rsquo;s house in the Romance
+of Beowulf. We are told that the hangings were rich with gold, and
+a wondrous sight to behold. &ldquo;History of Domestic Manners, &amp;c., in
+England during the Middle Ages,&rdquo; by Thomas Wright, p. 2.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_414_414" id="Footnote_414_414"></a><a href="#FNanchor_414_414"><span class="label">[414]</span></a>
+Matthew Paris, in Dugdale Monast., ed. 1819, ii. p. 185.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_415_415" id="Footnote_415_415"></a><a href="#FNanchor_415_415"><span class="label">[415]</span></a>
+Quoted by Michel from MSS. in the Imperial Library, Paris.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_416_416" id="Footnote_416_416"></a><a href="#FNanchor_416_416"><span class="label">[416]</span></a>
+This was a writ to the Aldermen and Sheriffs of the City of London,
+principally levelled against the dealings of &ldquo;certain Frenchmen which
+were against the well-being of the trade of the Tapissiarii ... by petition
+of Parliament at Westminster.&rdquo; Calend. Rot. Pat. Edward III., p. 148,
+&ldquo;De Myster&acirc; Tapiciarorum,&rdquo; Lond. M. 41.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_417_417" id="Footnote_417_417"></a><a href="#FNanchor_417_417"><span class="label">[417]</span></a>
+Called &ldquo;verdures&rdquo; in French inventories.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_418_418" id="Footnote_418_418"></a><a href="#FNanchor_418_418"><span class="label">[418]</span></a>
+Rock&rsquo;s Introduction, p. lxxix.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_419_419" id="Footnote_419_419"></a><a href="#FNanchor_419_419"><span class="label">[419]</span></a>
+&ldquo;The art of weaving tapestry was brought to England by William
+Sheldon, Esq., about the end of the reign of Henry VIII.&rdquo;&mdash;See
+Dugdale&rsquo;s &ldquo;Warwickshire&rdquo; (&ldquo;Stemmata:&rdquo; Sheldon), 2nd edition, folio,
+vol. i. p. 584; also Lloyd&rsquo;s &ldquo;State Worthies,&rdquo; p. 953, quoted by
+Manning and Bray, &ldquo;Hist. of Surrey,&rdquo; vol. iii. p. 82. But we have an
+earlier notice of a spirited attempt to make fine tapestries at Kilkenny.
+Piers, Earl of Ormonde, married the daughter of Fitzgerald, Earl of
+Kildare, &ldquo;a person of great wisdom and courage.&rdquo; They brought from
+Flanders and the neighbouring provinces artificers and manufacturers,
+whom they employed at Kilkenny in working tapestries, diaper, Turkey
+carpets, cushions, &amp;c. Piers died 1539. Carte&rsquo;s Introduction to the
+&ldquo;Life of James, Duke of Ormonde,&rdquo; vol. i. p. 93 (Oxford, 1851).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_420_420" id="Footnote_420_420"></a><a href="#FNanchor_420_420"><span class="label">[420]</span></a>
+William Sheldon at his own expense brought workmen from
+Flanders, and employed them in weaving maps of the different
+counties of England. Of these, three large maps, the earliest
+specimens, were purchased by the Earl of Orford (Horace Walpole), by
+whom they were given to Earl Harcourt. He had them repaired and
+cleaned, and made as fresh as when out of the loom, and eventually
+gave them to Gough, the antiquary, who bequeathed them to the
+University of Oxford. The Armada tapestry, which is stated to have
+been designed by Henry Cornelius Vroom, the Dutch marine painter,
+and woven by Francis Spiering, appears to have been, in 1602, in the
+possession of Lord Howard, Lord High Admiral and the hero of the
+Armada. Fuller particulars are given in Walpole&rsquo;s &ldquo;Anecdotes,&rdquo; i. p.
+246, under the name of Vroom, Sandart being the principal authority.
+Part of them were in the House of Lords till 1834, when they perished
+in the fire. These had been engraved in 1739 by John Pine, but it
+appears that at that time there were in the royal wardrobe other pieces,
+now lost.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_421_421" id="Footnote_421_421"></a><a href="#FNanchor_421_421"><span class="label">[421]</span></a>
+Lloyd&rsquo;s &ldquo;Worthies.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_422_422" id="Footnote_422_422"></a><a href="#FNanchor_422_422"><span class="label">[422]</span></a>
+Calendar of State Papers, cx. No. 26, James I., 1619-23.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_423_423" id="Footnote_423_423"></a><a href="#FNanchor_423_423"><span class="label">[423]</span></a>
+Calendar of State Papers, vol. clxxxi. No. 48.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_424_424" id="Footnote_424_424"></a><a href="#FNanchor_424_424"><span class="label">[424]</span></a>
+Rymer, &ldquo;F&oelig;dera,&rdquo; vol. viii. p. 66, ed. 1743.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_425_425" id="Footnote_425_425"></a><a href="#FNanchor_425_425"><span class="label">[425]</span></a>
+Brydges, &ldquo;Northamptonshire,&rdquo; i. p. 323, under the head of &ldquo;Stoke
+Bruere,&rdquo; pt. 1, p. 48.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_426_426" id="Footnote_426_426"></a><a href="#FNanchor_426_426"><span class="label">[426]</span></a>
+Manning and Bray&rsquo;s &ldquo;History of Surrey,&rdquo; vol. iii. p. 302.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_427_427" id="Footnote_427_427"></a><a href="#FNanchor_427_427"><span class="label">[427]</span></a>
+Horace Walpole, &ldquo;Anecdotes of Painting in England,&rdquo; vol. ii.
+p. 22.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_428_428" id="Footnote_428_428"></a><a href="#FNanchor_428_428"><span class="label">[428]</span></a>
+Macpherson, &ldquo;Annals of Commerce.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_429_429" id="Footnote_429_429"></a><a href="#FNanchor_429_429"><span class="label">[429]</span></a>
+There is in Brydges&rsquo; &ldquo;Northamptonshire,&rdquo; under the head of
+&ldquo;Stoke Bruere&rdquo; (the estate which King James gave to Sir F. Crane as
+part payment of the deficit of &pound;16,400 in his tapestry business), mention
+of the cartoons of &ldquo;Raphael of Urbin, ... had from Genoa,&rdquo; and their
+cost, &pound;300, besides the transport. M. Blanc says, with great justness,
+that Raphael, when he prepared these cartoons for tapestry, made
+designs for weaving, and <em>did not paint pictures</em>. If they had been intended
+for oil pictures, they would have been very differently treated.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_430_430" id="Footnote_430_430"></a><a href="#FNanchor_430_430"><span class="label">[430]</span></a>
+Calendar State Papers, Domestic, Sept. 28th, 1653.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_431_431" id="Footnote_431_431"></a><a href="#FNanchor_431_431"><span class="label">[431]</span></a>
+Horace Walpole&rsquo;s &ldquo;Anecdotes of Painting,&rdquo; vol. iii. p. 64.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_432_432" id="Footnote_432_432"></a><a href="#FNanchor_432_432"><span class="label">[432]</span></a>
+See Evelyn&rsquo;s very scarce tract, entitled &ldquo;Mundus Muliebris,&rdquo;
+printed 1690, p. 8.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_433_433" id="Footnote_433_433"></a><a href="#FNanchor_433_433"><span class="label">[433]</span></a>
+Lord Tyrconnell, Lord Exeter, and Lord Guildford had married
+three of the Brownlow heiresses of Belton, who had a winter residence
+at Stamford.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_434_434" id="Footnote_434_434"></a><a href="#FNanchor_434_434"><span class="label">[434]</span></a>
+Designed by Francesco Zuccharelli. Rock, Introduction, p. cxiv.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_435_435" id="Footnote_435_435"></a><a href="#FNanchor_435_435"><span class="label">[435]</span></a>
+It has been at different periods the crowning glory of the craft of
+the weaver to place different patterns or pictures on the two sides of the
+web. This would almost appear to be impossible, but that it has been
+done in late years, according to Rock, who tells us that he saw a banner
+so woven, with the Austrian eagle on one side and the Virgin of the
+Immaculate Conception on the other. He says that the same manufacturer
+was then being employed in producing ecclesiastical garments
+with the colours and patterns so varied.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_436_436" id="Footnote_436_436"></a><a href="#FNanchor_436_436"><span class="label">[436]</span></a>
+In old tapestries three tints only were employed for the complexions
+of men, women, and children&mdash;the man&rsquo;s reddish, the woman&rsquo;s yellow,
+and the child&rsquo;s whiter than either. It is an agreeable economy of
+colours, simple and effective, and avoids the pictorial imitation that one
+deprecates. See M. Charles Blanc&rsquo;s &ldquo;Grammaire des Arts D&eacute;coratifs:
+Tapisserie,&rdquo; p. 112.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_437_437" id="Footnote_437_437"></a><a href="#FNanchor_437_437"><span class="label">[437]</span></a>
+The poet here refers to H.R.H. the Princess Christian.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>260]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VII.</h2>
+
+<h3>HANGINGS.</h3>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;... Her bedchamber was hang&rsquo;d<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With tapestry of silk and silver....&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet">&ldquo;Cymbeline,&rdquo; Act II., Scene IV.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The most important works that have been executed
+in embroidery, have been hangings or carpets. We may
+look upon these as belonging to the history of the past.
+Never again will such works be undertaken. Their
+<i>raison d&rsquo;&ecirc;tre</i>, as well as the means for their production,
+have ceased to exist. We have very ancient historical
+evidence of the use of hangings (or tapestries), either as
+curtains to exclude prying eyes, or as coverings to what
+was sacred or else unseemly, or as ornamental backgrounds
+in public and private buildings.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt that in pillared spaces the enclosures
+and subdivisions were completed by hangings from
+pillar to pillar, from the earliest times of Asiatic civilization.
+In Assyria, and afterwards in Greece and Rome,
+the open courts and rooms were shaded from the sun and
+rain by umbrella-like erections with hangings stretched
+over them. From the Coliseum&rsquo;s vast area to that of the
+smallest atrium in the Pompeian house, the covering
+principle was the same.</p>
+
+<p>Palace-halls and temples alike were furnished in this
+way, and the cold splendour of the polished marbles
+was enhanced by contrast with the shadowing folds of soft
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>261]</a></span>
+textures richly embroidered in bright colours and gold.
+The statues, the gold and silver vessels, the shrines
+heaped with votive offerings, were all brought into higher
+relief and effect by the screens, the curtains, and the veils
+which classical perfect taste would plan so as to carry
+out the decorator&rsquo;s intention. Babylonians, Persians,
+Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Jews, each adorned
+their sacred places in similar fashions.<a name="FNanchor_438_438" id="FNanchor_438_438"></a><a href="#Footnote_438_438" class="fnanchor">[438]</a> Clemens
+Alexandrinus says that behind the hangings of the
+Egyptian temples were hidden their &ldquo;foolish images.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_439_439" id="FNanchor_439_439"></a><a href="#Footnote_439_439" class="fnanchor">[439]</a></p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;hangings&rdquo; was applied to all large curtains
+and tapestries, tent coverings, screens dividing empty
+spaces, or pendant between pillars; also sails,<a name="FNanchor_440_440" id="FNanchor_440_440"></a><a href="#Footnote_440_440" class="fnanchor">[440]</a> banners, and
+decorations for processional purposes covering walls or
+hanging from windows; all these have been embroidered
+or woven with pictures and patterns. Carpets, from
+having originally the same name, &ldquo;tapete,&rdquo; are to be
+added to this list, and, in fact, their uses are often
+interchanged. Kosroes&rsquo; famous hangings were used as a
+carpet, and Persian and Babylonian carpets have been
+hung on the walls. A Babylonian hanging must have
+resembled, in its style (of which we have descriptions),
+the Persian carpet of to-day.</p>
+
+<p>Semper gives excellent reasons for his theory that,
+next to dress, hangings (the clothing of architecture)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>262]</a></span>
+were the earliest phase of art.<a name="FNanchor_441_441" id="FNanchor_441_441"></a><a href="#Footnote_441_441" class="fnanchor">[441]</a> He looks upon the most
+ancient paintings on architecture as absolutely representing
+textile coverings. Some of the earliest Babylonian
+decorations show men supporting draperies, which he
+believes to be the tradition of the time when the tallest
+slaves held up the hangings to their own height; and
+above them, in tiers, were men, dwarfs, and even
+children fastened on brackets, carrying the hangings up
+to the roofs. This was an Assyrian custom, and was
+adopted by the Romans as a mode of disposing of their
+prisoners of war. Woltmann and Woermann appear to
+lean to the suggestion that permanent imitations of
+hangings were carried out in painted or encaustic tiles
+covering the masonry of Chaldean buildings at Nimroud
+and Khorsabad. The pale ones associated with low reliefs,
+and really resembling them, as they were partly raised,
+and the reliefs in alabaster and stone, which were partly
+coloured, were in harmony, and yet in contrast, with the
+brilliant tiles of Babylon.<a name="FNanchor_442_442" id="FNanchor_442_442"></a><a href="#Footnote_442_442" class="fnanchor">[442]</a></p>
+
+<p>We know exactly what were the purple, scarlet, and
+white hangings of the Sanctuary in the wilderness,
+designed by Bezaleel, and that the veil of the Temple
+was blue, purple, crimson or scarlet, and white, i.e.
+worked on white linen; and we know from Josephus,
+that &ldquo;the veil of the Temple, which was rent in twain&rdquo;
+sixteen centuries later, was that dedicated by Herod,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>263]</a></span>
+and was Babylonian work, representing heaven and
+earth<a name="FNanchor_443_443" id="FNanchor_443_443"></a><a href="#Footnote_443_443" class="fnanchor">[443]</a> (see p. <a href="#Page_23">23</a> <i>ante</i>). Its colouring was scarlet, white,
+and blue. Scarlet and white hangings seem indeed to
+have been an Oriental fashion; and fashion then was
+not ephemeral, but lasted hundreds of years. The
+embroidered curtains of the Tabernacle are repeated in
+the hangings of Alexander&rsquo;s wedding tent, after 1500
+years; and a thousand years later still they reappear in
+the seventh century, when Pope Sergius gave curtains
+to the high altar (baldachino) in the basilica of St. Peter&rsquo;s
+at Rome of this same scarlet and white embroidery.</p>
+
+<p>In early Oriental art, the enormous expenditure of
+work is appalling to think of. Abulfeda describes the
+palace of the Caliph Moctader, on the banks of the Tigris,
+as being adorned with 38,000 pieces of tapestry, and of
+these 12,000 were of silk worked in gold. What a wealth
+of women had to be wasted in creating such a wealth
+of embroideries!<a name="FNanchor_444_444" id="FNanchor_444_444"></a><a href="#Footnote_444_444" class="fnanchor">[444]</a></p>
+
+<p>There is a Bedouin romance which describes the tent
+of Antar, and shows the taste for large works. Five
+thousand horsemen could skirmish under its embroidered
+shade; and Akbar&rsquo;s largest tent held 10,000 persons.</p>
+
+<p>Nadir Shah&rsquo;s gorgeous tent, which was of the end of
+the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth
+century, was of scarlet cloth on the outside, lined with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>264]</a></span>
+violet satin embroidered with gold and precious stones.
+The peacock throne was placed within it, and was kept
+there during the remainder of Nadir Shah&rsquo;s reign.</p>
+
+<p>Sir John Chardin says that &ldquo;The Khan of Persia
+caused a tent to be made which cost two millions:
+they called it the house of gold;&rdquo; and it was resplendent
+with embroideries.<a name="FNanchor_445_445" id="FNanchor_445_445"></a><a href="#Footnote_445_445" class="fnanchor">[445]</a> These are comparatively modern
+works, and sound commonplace and vulgar compared to
+those of Greece and Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The Greeks imitated the tents and temporary buildings
+of the Eastern monarchs. This phase of Oriental luxury
+was imported by Alexander the Great, and we have the
+description of two of his gorgeous creations at Alexandria,
+where he outrivalled the ancient traditional glories of
+Assyria and Persia. His own tent was supported by
+fifty golden pillars, carrying a roof of woven gold, embroidered
+in shimmering colours, and divided from the
+surrounding court, filled with guards and retainers, by
+scarlet and white curtains of splendid material and
+design.</p>
+
+<p>But more gorgeous is the account of the tent in which
+he entertained ninety-one of his companions-in-arms on
+the occasion of his marriage. This tent was supported
+by columns twenty cubits high, plated with silver and
+gold, and inlaid with precious stones. The walls of the
+court were formed by curtains adorned with figures
+worked in gold, and were hung from beams plated with
+the precious metals, to match the columns. The outer
+court was half a mile in circumference.<a name="FNanchor_446_446" id="FNanchor_446_446"></a><a href="#Footnote_446_446" class="fnanchor">[446]</a></p>
+
+<p>Yet Alexander&rsquo;s wedding-tent was exceeded in splendour
+by that erected by Ptolemy Philadelphus for his great
+pomp at Alexandria, described by Kallixenos, as cited by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>265]</a></span>
+Athen&aelig;us.<a name="FNanchor_447_447" id="FNanchor_447_447"></a><a href="#Footnote_447_447" class="fnanchor">[447]</a> This tent, crowned with golden eagles, was
+supported by pillars fifty cubits high. They upheld an
+architrave with cross-beams covered with linen, on which
+were painted coffers, to imitate the structure of a solid
+roof. From the centre was suspended a veil of scarlet
+bordered with white. The pillars in the four angles represented
+palm-trees of gold, and the intermediate columns
+were fashioned as thursi, and were probably wreathed
+with golden vines and bunches of grapes made of
+amethysts, as we know of a Persian tent so adorned,
+and the whole idea of the erection was evidently fresh
+from the East.<a name="FNanchor_448_448" id="FNanchor_448_448"></a><a href="#Footnote_448_448" class="fnanchor">[448]</a> A frieze eight cubits high was composed
+of niches containing groups of tragic, comic, and
+Satyric figures &ldquo;in their natural garb;&rdquo; and nymphs and
+golden tripods from Delphi. The tent was separated
+from the outer peristyle by scarlet hangings, covered
+with choice skins of wild beasts. Upon these were hung
+the celebrated Sikyonian pictures, the heritage of the
+Ptolemaic dynasty, alternating with portraits and rich
+hangings, on which were embroidered the likenesses of
+kings, and likewise mythological subjects. Between
+these and the frieze hung gold and silver shields.
+Opposite the entrance, vessels of the most costly materials
+and workmanship, valued at 10,000 talents of silver, were
+ranged, so as to strike the eye of all who entered there.
+Golden couches supported by Sphinxes were placed
+along the sides of the tent, furnished with soft purple
+woollen mattresses, and coverings gaily and exquisitely
+embroidered. The floor was strewn with fresh blossoms,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>266]</a></span>
+except where a most costly Persian carpet covered the
+centre. In the doorways and against the pillars stood a
+hundred precious statues by the greatest artists.</p>
+
+<p>This description dazzles the imagination! To be an
+upholsterer (a vestiarius) in those days was to be an
+engineer, architect, and artist! Semper, from whose
+translation we are quoting, remarks that the luxurious
+&ldquo;motive&rdquo; of such an erection naturally arose from the
+desire to make use of the mass of artistic materials
+acquired by conquest, and the effort to reduce them to
+certain architectural principles already accepted.<a name="FNanchor_449_449" id="FNanchor_449_449"></a><a href="#Footnote_449_449" class="fnanchor">[449]</a></p>
+
+<p>That Alexander did not purposely destroy the Persian
+embroideries is evident from the fact that Lucullus
+speaks of them 200 years later.</p>
+
+<p>Rome accepted and adopted all the Oriental uses of
+hangings, in the Temple and the house for temporary
+festive occasions.</p>
+
+<p>By both Greeks and Romans hangings were used in
+triumphal processions, covering immense moving cars
+or draping the temporary buildings which lined the
+avenues of their progress. Also the funeral pyres which
+Greece and Rome copied from Assyria were hung with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>267]</a></span>
+splendid materials and embroideries. Without describing
+one of these awful erections, it is impossible to give
+any idea of how much artistic treasure was thrown
+into the flames which consumed the remains of a great
+man. The funeral pyre dedicated by Alexander to his
+friend Heph&aelig;stion recalls that erected by Sardanapalus
+in one of the courts of his own palace, on which he
+perished, surrounded by his wives and his treasures.
+Heph&aelig;stion&rsquo;s catafalque was built of inflammable materials,
+250 feet high, raised in many stories, and hung
+with pictorial tapestries, painted and embroidered. Each
+story was adorned with images of ivory and gold. In
+the upper story were enormous hollow figures of Sirens,
+filled with singers, who chanted the funeral odes.<a name="FNanchor_450_450" id="FNanchor_450_450"></a><a href="#Footnote_450_450" class="fnanchor">[450]</a> It
+is to be hoped that they were released before the
+conflagration.</p>
+
+<p>The records of such extravagant funeral ceremonies
+teach us how much of human thought, how much of
+art and beauty which had helped to civilize the world,
+were torn from the places they were intelligently designed
+to decorate, heaped up by the conquerors, and
+as ruthlessly spent and destroyed for the boast of a day.<a name="FNanchor_451_451" id="FNanchor_451_451"></a><a href="#Footnote_451_451" class="fnanchor">[451]</a></p>
+
+<p>Christian Rome adopted the traditions of Pagan
+decoration, and introduced them in her worship, processions,
+and shows. A great religious procession like
+that of the &ldquo;Corpus Domini&rdquo; in our own times, has
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>268]</a></span>
+reminded us of a Roman triumph. The baldachini
+and the banners; the torches; the streets, festooned
+with draperies; even the Pagan emblems, which have
+been converted into Christian symbolism&mdash;all these
+were the echoes of classical days; but they are fast disappearing.
+Two thousand years will have worn out
+and effaced these customs, and our children will not see
+them.</p>
+
+<p>I have not space to linger over the many descriptions of
+Oriental, Grecian, and Roman work to be gathered from
+classical authors, but from them this lesson is to be learned
+that the first principle which guided those great decorators
+was the individuality and appropriateness of each design
+to the purpose for which it was intended and the place
+it was to fill. But even their peculiar excellences did
+not save them from the universal law of destruction.
+When the hangings were worn, or became for any reason
+distasteful, they were replaced by others, often by gifts
+or spoils from friendly allies or conquered kings. The
+quantity of gold laid upon these great religious or
+national works was the cause of their destruction as soon
+as they were withdrawn and superseded by something of
+a newer fashion. The intrinsic value in precious metals
+of such works is proved by Pliny&rsquo;s statement that Nero
+gave four millions of sesterces for covers of couches
+in a banqueting-hall.<a name="FNanchor_452_452" id="FNanchor_452_452"></a><a href="#Footnote_452_452" class="fnanchor">[452]</a> The hangings or carpets
+taken by the Caliph Omar from Kosroes&rsquo; white palace
+(<small>A.D.</small> 651) must have been some of the finest and most
+valuable embroideries ever known. They formed a
+tapestry carpet or hanging, representing all the flowers
+of spring, worked in coloured silks, gold, and precious
+stones. Kosroes entreated Omar to keep it intact for
+himself, but he was so virtuous that he cut it up into
+little bits and divided it amongst his generals. Gibbon
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>269]</a></span>
+describes this wonderful piece of work.<a name="FNanchor_453_453" id="FNanchor_453_453"></a><a href="#Footnote_453_453" class="fnanchor">[453]</a> We have heard
+much of a marvellous carpet, given lately by the Guicowar
+of Baroda to the tomb of Mahomet at Medina, which,
+from its description, recalls the style of Kosroes&rsquo; hangings;
+and their history gives us a notable instance of
+how works of art in the time of war and conquest come
+to be considered only for the value of their materials.
+War, the enemy of culture, all but effaces whole phases
+of art when a country is overrun and plundered. But
+there is almost always a residuum, which has influence
+whenever there is a revival, beginning with the smaller
+arts of luxury in more peaceful and prosperous days.<a name="FNanchor_454_454" id="FNanchor_454_454"></a><a href="#Footnote_454_454" class="fnanchor">[454]</a></p>
+
+<p>To return to the classical veils and hangings. You
+may see them on Babylonian bas-reliefs, on Greek fictile
+vases, or painted in frescoes on the walls of Egyptian
+tombs and temples; in the houses in Pompeii and Herculaneum,
+and in the remains of Roman villas and tombs
+everywhere. From all of these we may learn something.</p>
+
+<p>The obvious intention of hangings in household decoration
+is to cover bare walls, so as to adorn at once that
+which was rough or common, without delay or trouble.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>270]</a></span>
+They were also used as curtains to shut out the cold or
+the heat, and to give privacy to rooms without doors or
+windows. Hangings on bare walls have always been
+meant to hang straight down, undisturbed by folds,
+whereas curtains and porti&egrave;res would probably have to
+be looped up or continually drawn aside. The designs
+to be worked upon them should necessarily be regulated
+by their shape and use.</p>
+
+<p>Semper considers that a square is an expressionless form,
+and that it should be avoided.<a name="FNanchor_455_455" id="FNanchor_455_455"></a><a href="#Footnote_455_455" class="fnanchor">[455]</a> If you wish to give dignity
+to a room, its hanging decorations should be divided into
+panels of greater height than breadth, so as to elevate the
+spaces they cover. Horizontal stripes bring down the
+ceiling, and even in furniture, look ill except as borders.
+Nothing can be more ugly or inartistic than the curtains
+one finds in old illuminations, covered with bands of the
+same pattern throughout the surface, but even this is less
+unpleasant on the walls than lines crossing each other
+at right angles. The Romans looked on chequers as
+barbarous national characteristics, and left them to the
+Gauls and Britons. Chequers should be avoided unless
+they express a meaning, as in Scotch tartans. Semper
+observes that the striped stuffs, especially those of
+Oriental fabrics, were never intended to be spread out
+flat, but to be draped in folds and loops, and the lines
+only seen broken up. He continues:&mdash;&ldquo;One rule,
+which cannot be neglected with impunity, is this: that
+whether the hanging or screen is supposed to stand
+or to hang, there must be an above and a below to
+every pattern, and it must, moreover, be upright.&rdquo; All
+foliage designs, and those containing animals, must start
+from below, and grow upwards. Another of his laws is
+that the heaviest colours should be placed below, and the
+palest and brightest above. This may be disputed. It
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>271]</a></span>
+must be first determined where contrast is needed. If the
+darkest part of the pattern is below, it may be necessary
+to give it the lightest background, on the principle of
+balancing quantities in colour. The dado, or lowest
+border, will often give the necessary weight to the design.
+Semper goes on to say, &ldquo;A surface may be made to
+appear to stand, or to hang down, according to its
+decoration. For instance, a triangle will hang or stand,
+according as its apex points downwards or upwards.
+But in draped curtains all symmetry of design is lost,
+and the rich forms and fulness of folds rather tend to
+destroy the effect of elaborate patterns, and to take their
+place.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another important difference between standing and
+hanging tapestries is their finish or edge, the upper one
+being an upright continuous border, and the lower one a
+fringe. In both cases it is a continuation of the main
+threads of the material, and these belong exclusively to the
+hanging tapestries and curtains. The fringe is so essential
+a part of hanging decoration, that we must pause and give
+it our best consideration. In Babylonian art it is most
+important. The extreme solidity of the knotted fringes
+in their dress and hangings show either the thickness of
+the woven substance, or that the fringes were made by
+enriching the warp and adding to it. They are almost
+always, on the Assyrian sculptures, simply knotted
+fringes; but the little portable Chaldean temple on the
+bronze gates from Balawat (near Nimroud), in the British
+Museum, shows fringes of bells or fruit like those of the
+Jewish tabernacle in the wilderness (fig. <a href="#fig02">2</a>). On Egyptian
+linen we sometimes see, woven or worked, a reticulated
+pattern which imitates a fringe.</p>
+
+<p>The carpets of the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Persians
+were evidently used sometimes as hangings, though
+many of their designs would not have served both
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>272]</a></span>
+purposes equally well. That the Babylonian weavers,
+however, understood that a carpet lying on the ground
+should be covered with an even pattern, and be finished
+with a border all round, is evident from the exquisitely
+chiselled designs, imitating carpets, on two portions of pavements
+in the British Museum (pl. <a href="#pl27">27</a>); and we may compare
+these with the different treatment of designs for the veils
+of the temples, both in Babylon and Egypt, on which
+were represented the signs of the zodiac and all the
+heavenly bodies, and other symbolical and unconventional
+forms. The Atrium of the Greek and Pompeian houses,
+which was modelled on the same idea, was separated
+from the Court by curtains, hung on rods or nails. On
+festive occasions these may have been garlanded with
+natural flowers. If so, we may be sure that the little wreaths
+worked on them, as we learn from frescoes, would combine
+with the gala day&rsquo;s decorations, and would be designed with
+that view. The Greek artist would never have approved
+of natural flowers or trees, embroidered as if growing
+out of a dado, simulating a garden worked in wool. This
+would have been considered a bad attempt at pictorial art.</p>
+
+<p>M. Louis de Ronchaud, in his &ldquo;Tapisseries des
+Anciens,&rdquo; speaks of the hangings which he supposes to
+have decked the recess that contained the chryselephantine
+statue of Athen&egrave; Parthenos in her temple at Athens.
+He says these votive hangings dressed the pillars that
+surrounded the Hecatompedon, and formed a tent over
+the head of the goddess. M. de Ronchaud believes
+that among the subjects of the Delphic embroideries,
+described by Euripides in the tragedy of Ion, may be
+recognized some derived from the designs on saffron-coloured
+hangings, spoken of by the poet as &ldquo;the wings
+of the peplos.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_456_456" id="FNanchor_456_456"></a><a href="#Footnote_456_456" class="fnanchor">[456]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>273]</a></span>
+The downfall of decorative art, domestic as well as
+national, kept pace with the downfall of the Roman
+Empire. During the Dark Ages, of such art there seems
+to have been very little; and of that the best was Celtic
+or Anglo-Saxon. But the darkness shrouds from our
+view the artistic life of the world, and the dawn was
+very long in breaking. We must therefore return to the
+subject of hangings, after a gap of nearly a thousand
+years, when the first stirrings of the European revival
+came, in the twelfth century.<a name="FNanchor_457_457" id="FNanchor_457_457"></a><a href="#Footnote_457_457" class="fnanchor">[457]</a> Symonds says: &ldquo;The arts
+and the inventions, the knowledge and the books, which
+suddenly became vital at the time of the Renaissance,
+had long lain neglected on the shores of that Dead Sea
+which we call &lsquo;The Middle Ages.&rsquo;&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_458_458" id="FNanchor_458_458"></a><a href="#Footnote_458_458" class="fnanchor">[458]</a></p>
+
+<p>There can be no doubt that, during the Dark Ages,
+hangings woven and embroidered continued to be the
+custom throughout Europe. Our own Anglo-Saxon
+records prove that such furnishings were employed to
+mitigate the cold bareness of our northern homes from
+the earliest times. Sir G. Dasent informs me that in
+Icelandic Sagas, as early as the eleventh century, there
+are frequent notices of hangings both in churches and
+in the halls of houses; such, for instance, as the Saga
+of Charlemagne, i.e. scenes out of Charlemagne&rsquo;s life,
+worked on hangings 20 ells long. In Scaldic poetry, a
+periphrasis for a &ldquo;lady&rdquo; is &ldquo;the ground of hangings,&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;the bridge of hangings,&rdquo; all pointing to embroidery.</p>
+
+<p>From illuminated MSS. engraved in Strutt&rsquo;s &ldquo;Antiquities
+of the English,&rdquo; and contemporary European
+work of the tenth to the thirteenth centuries, we find that
+the favourite style of embroidery, when not representing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>274]</a></span>
+historical or sacred subjects, was a <i>parsem&eacute;</i> pattern.
+Armorial bearings were generally reserved for cushions,
+chair-backs, and the baldachinos of altars, beds, and
+thrones.<a name="FNanchor_459_459" id="FNanchor_459_459"></a><a href="#Footnote_459_459" class="fnanchor">[459]</a> Richer and more flowing designs were later
+introduced.</p>
+
+<p>In the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries,
+splendid tapestries of Arras, and hangings even of cloth
+of gold, were common as palatial decorations. Sometimes
+we have a glimpse of less ambitious hangings; for
+instance, in the London house of Sir Andrew Larkynge,
+Knight, in the fifteenth century, the hall was hung
+with sage-green panels, bordered with gold &ldquo;darned
+work,&rdquo; and the &ldquo;parler&rdquo; with sage-green, bordered with
+crimson.</p>
+
+<p>French embroidered hangings were very fine in the
+sixteenth century. Jeanne d&rsquo;Albret, the mother of Henri
+IV., was a great patroness of such works. Miss Freer
+tells us that&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;When Jeanne and Antoine took possession of the
+Castle of Pau, they found their new abode rich in
+works of art and splendid decorations. The refined taste
+of Marguerite d&rsquo;Angoul&ecirc;me was visible everywhere.
+Jeanne&rsquo;s presence-chamber was adorned with hangings
+of crimson satin, embroidered by the hand of Marguerite
+herself. The embroidery represented a passage from
+the history of the Queen&rsquo;s own life.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;During the hours which the Queen allowed herself
+for relaxation, she worked tapestry, and discoursed with
+some one of the learned men whom she protected.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The Queen daily attended the afternoon sermon,
+preached by her chaplains in rotation. Often, however,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>275]</a></span>
+weary with the excess of her mental labours, and lulled
+by the drowsy intonation of some of these ministers,
+the Queen slept during part of the discourse. Jeanne
+always felt severe reproach of conscience when she
+had thus involuntarily yielded to fatigue; and finding the
+inclination grow upon her, she demanded permission
+from the Synod to work tapestry during the sermon.
+This request was granted; and from thenceforth, Queen
+Jeanne, bending decorously over her tapestry-frame, and
+busy with her needle, gave due attention to the rambling
+addresses of her preachers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Comme elle (Jeanne d&rsquo;Albret) estoit grandement
+adonn&eacute;e aux devises, elle fit de sa main de belles et
+grandes tapisseries, entre lesquelles il y a une tente de
+douze ou quinze pi&egrave;ces excellente qui s&rsquo;appelle <i>les Prisons
+bris&eacute;es</i>, par lesquelles elle donnoit &agrave; conn&ocirc;istre qu&rsquo;elle avoit
+bris&eacute; les liens et secou&eacute; le joug de la captivit&eacute; du Pape.
+Au milieu de chaque pi&egrave;ce, il y a une histoire du Vieu
+Testament qui resent la libert&eacute;, comme la d&eacute;livrance de
+Suzanne, la sortie du peuple de la captivit&eacute; d&rsquo;Egypte,
+l&rsquo;&eacute;largissement de Joseph. Et &agrave; tous les coins il y a des
+chaisnes rompues, des menottes bris&eacute;es, des strapades et
+des gibbets en pi&egrave;ces, et par-dessus en grosses lettres ce
+sont ces paroles de la deuxi&egrave;me aux Corinthiens, ch. iii.:
+<i>Ubi spiritus, ibi libertas.</i>&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_460_460" id="FNanchor_460_460"></a><a href="#Footnote_460_460" class="fnanchor">[460]</a></p>
+
+<p>Cluny boasts a most curious suite of hangings from the
+Chateau de Boussac, of the early part of the fifteenth
+century, which are charming, quaint, and gay, and
+historically and arch&aelig;ologically interesting. They tell
+the story of the &ldquo;Dame au Lion.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Modern French tapestries, from the manufactories of
+the Savonnerie, the Gobelins, and elsewhere, are decorative
+to the highest degree. Nothing can be more festive than
+these works of the time of Louis XIII., XIV., and XV.,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>276]</a></span>
+framed in white and gold, carved wood, or stucco, reflected
+in mirrors, and lighted by crystal or glass chandeliers
+and girandoles. Such hangings have nothing in
+common with those of early times; they are not temporary
+coverings of bare spaces, but panels in decorated walls,
+where they form an integral part of the architectural
+composition and design. They do not merely serve
+to give warmth, comfort, and colour to desolate halls,
+as did those ancient tapestries belonging to the furniture
+of the great man who sent them on before
+him from palace to palace, carrying them away with
+his baggage lest some one else should do so in his
+absence. These were probably merely attached by loops
+and nails, as one sees in country villas or castles in Italy
+to this day.</p>
+
+<p>We find that the Italians in the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries often hung their walls with upright
+strips of work, in the guise of pilasters. The walls
+were thus divided into panelled spaces, which separated
+pictures, statues, and cabinets, of which the style did not
+agree in juxtaposition. These pilasters were generally of
+&ldquo;opus consutum,&rdquo; or &ldquo;appliqu&eacute;&rdquo; in its different forms.
+Above, next to the cornice, and below, next to the dado,
+or even touching the floor, they were connected by
+borders of similar work. The spaces between were
+mostly filled in with rich brocades or velvets of one
+colour, so as to make the best backgrounds for the artistic
+treasures grouped against them. Sometimes fine tapestries
+filled the intervening spaces, and sometimes splendid
+embroideries. There is a beautiful example of this sort of
+decoration at Holland House, where the dining-room is
+adorned with pilasters worked on velvet in gold and
+coloured silks, with tapestries between them. This is
+Florentine work, of the sixteenth or beginning of the
+seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>277]</a></span>
+Hangings entirely in needlework, to cover large spaces,
+are rare, but a few are to be found all over Europe in
+museums, palaces, and private houses, which are interesting
+as objects of art. The genealogical tree of the
+Counts of Kyburg, designed in the sixteenth century,
+and carried to France as plunder, and now restored to
+its home near Zurich, is a remarkable instance of a piece
+of needlework that deserved the value placed on it.
+Many splendid pieces of embroidered tapestries are at
+the Cluny Museum. The beatitudes of St. Catherine,
+from the castle at Tarrascon, and the hangings worked
+in appliqu&eacute; and flat stitches with portraits of Henri IV.,
+Jeanne d&rsquo;Albret, &amp;c., are monuments of industry, and
+design; and are very beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>There, is a large room at Castle Ashby hung with
+tapestry in cross stitches, worked by the ladies of the
+family, and finished 150 years ago. The industry shown
+here is indubitable, but the designs are barbarously bad
+and funny. In the Palazzo Giustini at Florence there is
+a suite of hangings worked also in cross stitches of the
+same period, of which the design is very clever and
+graceful, and the effect beautiful and artistic. An irregular
+bank of brown earth is crowded with grasses and small
+flowers about a foot above the dado, and from this grow
+rose-bushes, covered with blossoms of different shades,
+held back to a treillage of delicate &ldquo;cane colours.&rdquo; The
+leafage is brown, against a sky that is not blue, but
+which rather reminds one of blue than of grey. It is
+conventionally treated, and the effect is singularly rich
+and harmonious. Had it been a little more naturalistic,
+it would have looked too much like a painted picture;
+but as it is, the decoration is charming, and so universally
+admired that we cannot but wonder it has never been
+imitated. In the Borghese Palace at Rome there is a
+ball-room hung with white satin embroidered with wreaths
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>278]</a></span>
+of flowers, and a similar one in the Caetani Palace, on
+crimson satin. These are about 150 years old, and are
+so far above being mere objects of fashion, that they must
+be placed by their beauty of design and execution amongst
+objects of art, and so will probably survive more centuries
+of change, holding their own, and increasing in value and
+esteem.</p>
+
+<p>For hangings in church decoration, the reader is
+referred to the chapters on ecclesiastical art and on
+tapestry.</p>
+
+<p>Having discussed the origin and reason for hangings,
+and having tried to draw from what has been accepted as
+beautiful and perfect in taste, some guidance in hanging
+our modern rooms, supposing always that the spaces are
+fitted for really fine decorations, I yet would add a
+few more words on this subject. There are in general
+some previous conditions which will help us to choose the
+style and design of such furnishings. In the first place,
+we should study what is appropriate to the persons who
+will first inhabit the rooms. The bride&rsquo;s apartment may be
+white and gold, garlanded with roses, and gay with groups
+of Cupids; but such prettinesses would not be suitable to
+the home of a mourning Queen. Tender or subdued
+colouring equally sets off groups of young and lovely
+faces, and the bent form robed in black. Embroideries
+are always agreeable on such backgrounds, and it is as
+a vehicle for needlework that I now allude to the
+design of the artist in hangings. We are somewhat
+restricted, or we ought to be, when there are treasures
+of art already in the house, by the desire to exhibit
+them to the best advantage. The hangings should be
+of a colour which suits all pictures, and if the walls are
+either embroidered or tapestried with woven designs,
+they should be very much subdued, both in form and
+colour, so as not to prevent the eye from perceiving at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>279]</a></span>
+once the precious objects hung against them. A fine
+brocade or velvet of one colour suits pictures best; but
+if our object is to show off our cabinets, which are
+generally black, and our statues, which are mostly white,
+then richly embroidered backgrounds in brilliant colours
+are the best, compensating the eye in variety and
+splendour.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_438_438" id="Footnote_438_438"></a><a href="#FNanchor_438_438"><span class="label">[438]</span></a>
+The &ldquo;women who wove the hangings for the grove&rdquo; were probably
+priestesses of the worship of Astarte (2 Kings xxiii. 7).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_439_439" id="Footnote_439_439"></a><a href="#FNanchor_439_439"><span class="label">[439]</span></a>
+He says that within the sacred shrine was revealed their god&mdash;a
+beast rolling on a purple couch&mdash;veiled with gold embroidered hangings;
+and he describes the magnificent temples, gleaming with gold, silver,
+and electrum. Quoted from Clemens Alexandrinus, in Renouf&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Hibbert Lectures,&rdquo; p. 2.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_440_440" id="Footnote_440_440"></a><a href="#FNanchor_440_440"><span class="label">[440]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Fine linen with broidered work from Egypt was that which thou
+spreadest forth to be thy sail.&rdquo;&mdash;Ezekiel xxvii. 7. Egyptian sails were
+woven and painted; sometimes they were blazoned with embroidered
+patterns. The Ph&oelig;nix was set there to indicate the traveller&rsquo;s return.
+See Wilkinson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; vol. iii., ed. 1837, p. 211.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_441_441" id="Footnote_441_441"></a><a href="#FNanchor_441_441"><span class="label">[441]</span></a>
+See Semper, &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; vol. i. p. 273.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_442_442" id="Footnote_442_442"></a><a href="#FNanchor_442_442"><span class="label">[442]</span></a>
+The figure-painting of the nations we have spoken of, successful
+so far as it concerns its special purpose of exhibiting a clear and
+comprehensive chronicle of events, is at the same time no more, so
+far as it concerns its artistic effect, than a piece of tapestry or embroidery
+done into stone, and can only be estimated ... as a piece of
+coloured wall decoration. Woltmann and Woermann, &ldquo;History of
+Painting,&rdquo; Eng. Trans., pp. 23-30. See also Perrot and Chipiez,
+&ldquo;Histoire de l&rsquo;Art dans l&rsquo;Antiquit&eacute;,&rdquo; for tile decorations at Nimroud;
+vol. ii. p. 704.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_443_443" id="Footnote_443_443"></a><a href="#FNanchor_443_443"><span class="label">[443]</span></a>
+Compare this record with Solomon&rsquo;s veil for the Temple, of blue, and
+purple, and crimson, and fine linen (2 Chron. iii. 14), and the hangings
+designed by Bezaleel, of scarlet, blue, purple, and embroidered with
+gold (Exod. xxxix. 2, 3, 5; see also Josephus, &ldquo;Wars of the Jews,&rdquo;
+Whiston&rsquo;s trans., p. 895).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_444_444" id="Footnote_444_444"></a><a href="#FNanchor_444_444"><span class="label">[444]</span></a>
+As cited from Abulfeda by Gibbon, chap. lii. ix. p. 37, ed. 1797.
+When one is moved to pity, thinking of the enforced labour of thousands
+of captive women, fallen, perhaps, from high estate, and only valued for
+the toil of their hands, it comforts one to believe that they would hardly
+have produced beautiful works without enjoying some happiness in the
+creation of that beauty.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_445_445" id="Footnote_445_445"></a><a href="#FNanchor_445_445"><span class="label">[445]</span></a>
+Yule&rsquo;s &ldquo;Marco Polo,&rdquo; vol. i. p. 394, note 7.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_446_446" id="Footnote_446_446"></a><a href="#FNanchor_446_446"><span class="label">[446]</span></a>
+See Semper, &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; i. pp. 310, 311; Chares, ap. Athen. xii. 54,
+p. 538.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_447_447" id="Footnote_447_447"></a><a href="#FNanchor_447_447"><span class="label">[447]</span></a>
+Semper&rsquo;s &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; i. p. 311; Athen. v. 25, p. 196.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_448_448" id="Footnote_448_448"></a><a href="#FNanchor_448_448"><span class="label">[448]</span></a>
+Phylarchus, ap. Athen. xii. 55, describes a Persian tent in which were
+golden palm-trees, and vines fruited with precious stones, under which
+the Persian kings held their state. On an Assyrian sculpture at the
+British Museum is seen Assurbanipal on a couch, the queen opposite
+to him, under an arbour of jewelled vines; unless it represents a rural
+entertainment, which is unlikely.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_449_449" id="Footnote_449_449"></a><a href="#FNanchor_449_449"><span class="label">[449]</span></a>
+The art of the &ldquo;tapezziere,&rdquo; &ldquo;tapissier,&rdquo; &ldquo;tapestry-hanger,&rdquo; is
+not a recognized one with us, though it is in Italy and France, where
+the hangings for special occasions in churches and houses are stored
+away, treasured for hundreds of years, cleaned and mended, and hung
+and placed to the best advantage by men educated for the purpose.
+In poor churches which possess no fine materials for decoration, one
+has often wondered at and admired the picturesque effects extracted
+from yards of muslin, gold tinsel, and box wreaths, artistically combined.
+Our house carpenter is the only representative we have of the vestiarius,
+and he is but a feeble descendant from the ancestors of his craft, who
+were expected to study and evolve the adornments of the building for
+its completion, the materials of decoration for special occasions, and
+lastly, the mechanical means for hanging and stretching the draperies.
+These were sometimes movable frames or posts&mdash;&ldquo;scabella&rdquo; (whence
+&ldquo;escabeau,&rdquo; &eacute;chafaudage, scaffolding).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_450_450" id="Footnote_450_450"></a><a href="#FNanchor_450_450"><span class="label">[450]</span></a>
+Semper, &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; i. pp. 314, 315.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_451_451" id="Footnote_451_451"></a><a href="#FNanchor_451_451"><span class="label">[451]</span></a>
+Never again will such great works be executed with the needle.
+In civilized countries, sovereign splendours are at a discount. The
+East occasionally produces something fine, because there they still
+have harems and slaves; but even these ancient institutions are losing
+their stability and in the interest of humanity, if not in that of
+needlework, we may soon hope there will be neither the one nor the
+other. We must allow, however, that the purple and gold embroideries
+now being executed for the King of Bavaria in his school at Munich
+are royally splendid, and, by their execution, worthy of past days.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_452_452" id="Footnote_452_452"></a><a href="#FNanchor_452_452"><span class="label">[452]</span></a>
+Pliny, viii. 44, 196.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_453_453" id="Footnote_453_453"></a><a href="#FNanchor_453_453"><span class="label">[453]</span></a>
+Gibbon&rsquo;s &ldquo;Roman History,&rdquo; ix. c. 51, p. 370, ed. 1797; also see
+Crichton&rsquo;s &ldquo;History of Arabia,&rdquo; i. p. 383.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_454_454" id="Footnote_454_454"></a><a href="#FNanchor_454_454"><span class="label">[454]</span></a>
+The utter dispersal of accumulated family and household
+treasures has had a sad illustration in the loads of Turkish and Slav
+embroideries which have flooded the markets of Europe since the Russo-Turkish
+war. Work, treasured for generations, sold for a piece of bread,
+robbed from the deserted home or the bazaar, stolen from the dying or the
+dead. These are so suggestive of the horrors of war, and touch us so nearly
+in connection with the rights and wrongs of the Eastern question, that
+they cause us more pain than pleasure when we study these beautiful
+specimens of well-blended colours and designs, that show their Aryan
+(Persian or Indian) origin. Lady Layard&rsquo;s residence in Constantinople
+was, perhaps, the &ldquo;happy accident&rdquo; which will have preserved the secrets
+and practice of this work for future generations, by her active and
+generous institution of a working organization for the poor exiled and
+starving women, and for the sale of their work in England.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_455_455" id="Footnote_455_455"></a><a href="#FNanchor_455_455"><span class="label">[455]</span></a>
+Semper, &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; i. p. 30, &sect; 10.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_456_456" id="Footnote_456_456"></a><a href="#FNanchor_456_456"><span class="label">[456]</span></a>
+This subject has been ably treated in the Introduction to &ldquo;La
+Tapisserie,&rdquo; by Eug. M&uuml;ntz; Paris, 1885.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_457_457" id="Footnote_457_457"></a><a href="#FNanchor_457_457"><span class="label">[457]</span></a>
+I refer to the chapter on &ldquo;<a href="#Page_356">English Embroideries</a>&rdquo; for the <i>parsem&eacute;</i>
+patterns of our medi&aelig;val hangings, and to the section on <a href="#Page_235">tapestry</a> in
+the chapter on &ldquo;<a href="#Page_194">Stitches</a>.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_458_458" id="Footnote_458_458"></a><a href="#FNanchor_458_458"><span class="label">[458]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Renaissance in Italy,&rdquo; J. A. Symonds, p. 4.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_459_459" id="Footnote_459_459"></a><a href="#FNanchor_459_459"><span class="label">[459]</span></a>
+But to this rule there are notable exceptions, of which Charles the
+Bold&rsquo;s hangings for his tent (now at Berne) furnish a brilliant example.
+Here the Order of the Golden Fleece is repeated on a field of flowers,
+exquisitely designed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_460_460" id="Footnote_460_460"></a><a href="#FNanchor_460_460"><span class="label">[460]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Life of Jeanne d&rsquo;Albret,&rdquo; by Miss Freer, pp. 68, 123, 330.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>280]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER VIII.</h2>
+
+<h3>FURNITURE.</h3>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Jane, I hate &aelig;sthetic carpets;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">High-art curtains make me swear.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Pray cease hunting for the latest<br /></span>
+<span class="i7">Queen Anne chair.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I care nothing for improvements,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">On the simple style of Snell,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which will suit both you and me ex-<br /></span>
+<span class="i7">tremely well.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet"><span class="smcap">Robert Cust</span>, &ldquo;Parody of the Last Ode of the
+First Book of Horace.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;First, as you know, my house within the city<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Is richly furnish&rsquo;d with plate and gold;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Basons and ewers, to lave her dainty hands;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">My hangings all of Tyrian tapestry;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In ivory coffers I have stuff&rsquo;d my crowns;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In cyprus chests my arras, counterpoints,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Fine linen, Turkey cushions boss&rsquo;d with pearl,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Costly apparel, tents and canopies,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Valance of Venice gold, in needlework;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Pewter and brass, and all things that belong<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To house, or housekeeping.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet"><span class="smcap">Shakespeare</span>, &ldquo;Taming of the Shrew,&rdquo; Act II., Scene I.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The last chapter on <a href="#Page_260">hangings</a>, their history and uses, and
+the preceding account of <a href="#Page_235">tapestries</a>, naturally lead to the
+consideration of the furniture which may accompany
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Homer&rsquo;s description of Penelope&rsquo;s bridal couch is very
+curious. The central idea is the bedpost, fashioned out
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>281]</a></span>
+of the stem of an olive-tree growing in the court, and
+inlaid by Ulysses himself with gold, silver, and ivory, and
+bands of dyed purple ox-hide. The stone walls and roof
+were built over to cover it in, as it stood yet rooted in
+the ground.<a name="FNanchor_461_461" id="FNanchor_461_461"></a><a href="#Footnote_461_461" class="fnanchor">[461]</a></p>
+
+<p>The illustration is a very quaint delineation of a Chaldean
+four-roomed house, where the rooted tree with its stem
+and branches is suggestive of the state of the domestic
+art of the architect and the upholsterer in those Archaic
+days.<a name="FNanchor_462_462" id="FNanchor_462_462"></a><a href="#Footnote_462_462" class="fnanchor">[462]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig24" id="fig24"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf24.png" width="600" height="265"
+alt="Exterior and interior views, the latter showing 4 rooms" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 24.<br />
+Assyrian delineation of Chaldean House.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture has been the excuse and the vehicle for
+embroideries, from the footstool and the cushion to the
+window curtain and the bed-hangings.<a name="FNanchor_463_463" id="FNanchor_463_463"></a><a href="#Footnote_463_463" class="fnanchor">[463]</a></p>
+
+<p>Such curtains are the most permanently important
+features in the economy, or rather the luxury of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>282]</a></span>
+house. Let us begin with the decorations of the state
+bedroom.</p>
+
+<p>Now the shape of the bed must regulate the design.
+If there is only a canopy&mdash;like that over a throne&mdash;one
+may have fine work for the head of the bed
+inside the canopy, and a rich border round its valance;
+this should contrast with the walls; and the curtains
+should marry the two together, by the embroidered
+borders belonging to the fashion of the bed, and
+accompanying the window curtains; while the plain
+surface should match with the wall hangings. Another
+method is to have the bed and curtains hung with plain
+materials, to contrast with embroidered or tapestried
+hangings on the walls.</p>
+
+<p>This style of bed canopy absolutely belongs to the
+decoration of the wall to which it is attached. But when
+we have to deal with a large four-post bed&mdash;&ldquo;a room
+within a room,&rdquo; as poor Prince Lee Boo said&mdash;the bed
+may, in its own decoration, be totally independent of the
+wall hangings; and care must be taken that we do not
+injure the effect of both by too much contrast or too much
+similarity. Every room has its own individuality, and the
+first beginning of its decoration must be the key-note
+to guide the rest of the furnishing and adornment. I
+am anxious to point out that the bed and its belongings
+are a most important element in the beauty and
+dignity of style of the room and the house that contains it.
+It is a splendid opportunity for displaying the embroideries
+of the women of the family, and for exercising their
+taste. &ldquo;The chamber of Dais,&rdquo; as it was called in old
+times, was always carefully adorned for the welcome of
+the honoured guest. The bed-hangings, and even the
+linen, were embroidered,<a name="FNanchor_464_464" id="FNanchor_464_464"></a><a href="#Footnote_464_464" class="fnanchor">[464]</a> and the greatest care and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>283]</a></span>
+most artistic work were lavished on the coverlet in
+firm stitches and twisted threads, while on the curtains
+the frailest materials and most delicate stitches were
+freely bestowed, as they were safe from friction. We
+may employ floss-silk and satin-stitch for such works
+with safety.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule we should avoid too great a variety of design
+in the decoration of a bedroom, and at the same time
+beware of its becoming monotonous.</p>
+
+<p>I should say that a change in the design, though not
+in the style, of the different parts of the bed is admissible,
+and gives opportunities for rich and graceful work. For
+instance, a parsem&eacute; pattern may be varied judiciously on
+the curtains, the valance, and the heading; provided
+there is a connecting link (say a cypher) found throughout.
+If the back of the Baldachino is embroidered, it
+admits of totally different treatment, and the valance
+must include a border according to its outline.</p>
+
+<p>The ingenuity and magnificence of the Elizabethan
+bedroom furnishings are proved by the inventories to
+be found in old houses. Those describing the property
+of the Earl of Leicester, in the Library at Longleat,
+are so characteristic of a time when each room contained
+artistic furniture, that I cannot help making here some
+extracts, and pointing out that embroidery was usually
+employed to individualize each decoration.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;At Killingworth (Kenilworth) Lord Leicester&rsquo;s Bedsteads.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;A fayre, rich, standing Square Bedstead of
+carved walnut-tree wood: painted with silver hearts,
+ragged staves and roses. The furniture and teste
+crimson velvet embroidered with silver roses, and lined
+throughout with Buckram.&rdquo; There was apparently a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>284]</a></span>
+second set of curtains inside of striped white satin,
+trimmed and fringed with silver, and the velvet curtains
+were also fringed with silver with long &ldquo;buttons and
+loops.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another bedstead is described, with the pillars painted
+red, and varnished. The teste and curtains of red silk
+edged with gold and silver bone lace, and embroidered
+&ldquo;in a border of hops, roses, and pomegranates.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another &ldquo;Bedstead painted red and gold, and
+varnished; with crimson velvet, gold and silver in
+breadths, embroidered over with red, gold, and silver,&mdash;lined
+with Milion (Milan) fustian,&rdquo; &amp;c., &amp;c. The
+catalogue of the tapestries and embroidered hangings
+include fifteen suites at Kenilworth only; and three
+other houses are equally well provided. The ground of
+one of these suites of five pieces of embroidery, of
+animals and flowers, is described as being &ldquo;Stannel cloth
+lined with cannevois&rdquo; (canvas). Each room has chairs,
+cushions, carpets (which appear to have covered the
+floor and the tables), and &ldquo;Cabinutts&rdquo; (cabinets)
+covered with embroideries.</p>
+
+<p>In a Florentine Palace (the Alessandri), there is a
+state apartment,<a name="FNanchor_465_465" id="FNanchor_465_465"></a><a href="#Footnote_465_465" class="fnanchor">[465]</a> where the bed, the walls, the curtains,
+and the furniture are entirely decorated with the same
+splendid materials, i.e. gold brocaded with crimson
+velvet. The eye longs for some repose amidst the
+gorgeous reiterated forms and colours. If the bed and
+curtains had been either plain crimson velvet or embroidery,
+it would have been much more beautiful. This
+sort of example is a lesson and a warning, which is
+valuable even under less splendid conditions.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst our fine Indian embroideries, those of Lucknow,
+Gulbargah, Aurungabad, and Hyderabad are well
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>285]</a></span>
+fitted for beds and furniture. These we can study in the
+Indian Museum, and it seems a pity not to profit by, and
+encourage the resources of our own Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Carpets and rugs were sometimes embroidered as well
+as woven in patterns. They were anciently spread on
+thrones, couches and sofas, at entertainments;<a name="FNanchor_466_466" id="FNanchor_466_466"></a><a href="#Footnote_466_466" class="fnanchor">[466]</a> and used
+for covering the catafalques at funeral ceremonies, or
+for laying over tombs, as is still the custom in the East.
+We who restrict their use to domestic purposes, are
+beginning to understand that these decorations look best
+when the patterns are geometrical, and that natural
+objects, such as rabbits and roses, even when conventionalized,
+are unpleasant to tread upon.</p>
+
+<p>The sofa and chairs are so often the vehicles for
+embroidery that we must give them a separate share of
+our attention. The square shapes of the chair-backs repeated
+several times give us an opportunity for balancing
+colours and introducing forms of decoration which may
+be made to contrast with everything else in the room, and
+so enhance the general effect. Say that the carpet is red,
+and the furniture and hangings are of tender broken tints,
+it will be a pleasure to the eye if the cushions on the sofa
+and the chairs and seats are panelled with a deeper or
+lighter colour than the carpet, but always reposing the
+eye by contrasting plain surfaces with richness of design.
+Then the footstool or cushion should break away entirely
+from the carpet on which it lies, that the poor thing may
+be spared the kick it invariably receives, when the master
+of the house has tripped over its invisible presence.</p>
+
+<p>For furniture, the cushion stitches, i.e. canvas and cross
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>286]</a></span>
+stitches, are certainly the best. They are the most
+enduring, as they bear friction without fraying; and are
+therefore, in this case, preferable to satin stitches, which
+are liable to be spoilt by contact, and give the lady
+of the house, who is probably the artist, a pang each
+time an honoured guest occupies the comfortable chair
+embroidered in floss silk, unaware that it is an &aelig;sthetic
+investment, and that a percentage of its beauty is disappearing
+every time it is brought into collision with broadcloth.<a name="FNanchor_467_467" id="FNanchor_467_467"></a><a href="#Footnote_467_467" class="fnanchor">[467]</a>
+This brings us to the subject of the covers called
+&ldquo;housses&rdquo; by French upholsterers, and which may come
+under the head of small decorations, or rather, of petty
+disfigurements. The things which went by the horrid
+name of &ldquo;antimacassars&rdquo; have, however, given way to
+&ldquo;chair-backs,&rdquo; and crochet has been displaced by linen
+veils worked in crewels. This is a step in the right direction.
+No well-regulated eye could do otherwise than
+suffer from the glaring white patterns of crochet-work,
+mounted aggressively on the back of every chair in the
+room, as a buffer between it and the human head and
+shoulders. The suggestion was disagreeable, and the
+present chair-back still recalls it. To reconcile us to
+its use, it must be sparingly used, and artistically disposed.
+The &ldquo;antimacassar&rdquo; is a remaining sign of
+the overlap of dress and manners. Our great-grandmothers
+embroidered the chairs, and valued
+them exceedingly, and never would have contemplated
+that they should be soiled by a male or female head
+lying back upon them. True, they wore powder and
+pomatum then&mdash;but they never leant back; such a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>287]</a></span>
+solace, and solecism in manners, was reserved for the
+privacy of the bedroom and the arm-chair covered with
+cotton piqu&eacute; or washing chintz. Under the new manners,
+and since the introduction of the graceful lounge, the
+antimacassar doubtless has saved many ancestral works,
+but nowadays we wear neither powder nor pomatum.
+On the contrary, we dye, dry, and frizzle our hair till it
+might serve as a brush to remove any dust it encountered,
+and it spoils nothing.</p>
+
+<p>The table-cover is a source of endless variety;<a name="FNanchor_468_468" id="FNanchor_468_468"></a><a href="#Footnote_468_468" class="fnanchor">[468]</a> on the
+whole I should recommend here plain surfaces and deep
+borders. The articles thrown on the table are best set
+off by plain grounds. The colour of the table-cover may
+be a test of artistic taste, and may make or mar the
+whole effect of the furnishings of the room, especially
+if it is newly acquired, in order to enliven the fading
+glories of ancestral taste.</p>
+
+<p>The Screen.&mdash;This evidently began its existence as a
+curtain hung on a movable frame for the purpose of
+dividing large chambers for separate uses.<a name="FNanchor_469_469" id="FNanchor_469_469"></a><a href="#Footnote_469_469" class="fnanchor">[469]</a> The Chinese
+seem to have been the first to stretch the curtain tight
+over the frame, making it a fixture, and often an actual
+partition, painted with pictures by brush or needle.</p>
+
+<p>To our modern home, the screen in a large room,
+gives a sense of snugness, and is an actual necessity for
+keeping off the draughts drifting in through ill-fitting
+window-frames and doors; and at the same time serving
+&aelig;sthetically as a background to high chairs and tables
+heaped with objects of art, and tall vases of flowers.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>288]</a></span>
+The high screen groups and unites the pictures of active
+and still life around it; and meanwhile the little fire-screens
+are performing the merciful service of saving the
+complexions of our daughters from being sacrificed to
+Moloch in front of our scorching coal fires. I need not
+recommend these as fit surfaces for embroidery&mdash;they
+offer themselves to it; and the School of Art Needlework
+is a living witness to how much they are appreciated
+and how largely employed. On the screen, decorative
+ambition is permitted to rise to pictorial art. Nothing in
+furniture is prettier than the screen covered with refined
+needle painting, either arabesqued or naturalistic. You
+may vary the designs to any extent, either as large pictures
+covering many folds, or in small pictures repeated or
+varied on each. Here design to individualize the living-room
+comes into play, and is most conspicuous for good
+or for evil effect.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the occasional furnishings of the home, we
+would instance embroidered curtains to veil pictures,
+which are perhaps too sacred to expose to the general eye.
+We know how often in churches and sacristies on the
+Continent, one, or even two veils have to be withdrawn
+before the holy and precious picture is displayed. We
+have seen these little curtains beautifully worked so as
+to form by their design a picture in the space they cover.
+Crimson silk is perhaps worked in gold and colours for a
+gilt frame, and white and silver within ebony or walnut
+settings. I would recommend this style of work to the
+consideration of our decorators. It is interesting to find
+in an old catalogue at Hampton Court, how pictures of
+sacred subjects were thus decently veiled, in the profaner
+moments of court gaieties.<a name="FNanchor_470_470" id="FNanchor_470_470"></a><a href="#Footnote_470_470" class="fnanchor">[470]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>289]</a></span>
+Embroidered book coverings were often very beautiful,
+either as simply clothing the boards, or when finished
+with metal-work corners, backs, and clasps.</p>
+
+<p>I quote the following lines, said to have been written
+by Tasso on a case for a book, embroidered for him by
+Leonora d&rsquo;Este:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Questo prezioso dono,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Ch&rsquo; ornar coll&rsquo; ago ad Eleanora piacque,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Lo vidde Aracne, e tacque.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or se la mano, che la piaga f&egrave; al core,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Si bello f&egrave; d&rsquo; amore il dolce laberinto,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Come uscirne potro, se non estinto?&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the catalogue of Charles V.&rsquo;s library, the materials
+used for bindings are thus named: Soie veluyau, satin
+damas, taffetas, camelot, cendal, and drap d&rsquo;or; and many
+were embroidered.</p>
+
+<p>Tact, discretion, and knowledge are required when we
+undertake to adorn the home to be lived in; and while
+employing the art of embroidery to embellish it, we must
+never forget that harmony, and the absence of anything
+startling, tends to the grandiose as well as the comfortable.
+Bright bits of colouring should be reserved for pictorial art,
+or for small objects, such as cushions and stools. If for
+the general tint blue be chosen, let it be either pure pale
+colour, like the &aelig;ther, or a soft one, pale or dark, such as
+indigo; but the startling aniline blues should be avoided
+as being offensive to the nerves of the eye. If red be the
+foundation colour, let it be Venetian red, part scarlet, part
+crimson; or pure crimson (Tyrian purple), or pure scarlet
+(cochineal). Never employ scarlet with a yellow tinge; it
+may not affect yourself, but it is blinding to many eyes.
+Avoid brickdust, which is simply a dirty mixture of earthy
+colours. Of green there are few shades that are not beautiful,
+soothing, and more or less fitted for a background to
+needlework. Olive-green, sea-green, pea-green, emerald-green,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>290]</a></span>
+and sage-green,&mdash;Nature teaches us how these
+harmonize together and with all other colours. Only
+arsenical green is impracticable and repulsive. Yellow,
+pale as a primrose, glowing as gold, or tender as butter,
+is always beautiful; but one tint we would exclude
+from our list, called &ldquo;buff,&rdquo; which never can assimilate
+with any other colour, and is often the refuge of the weak-minded
+man that cannot face the responsibility of choosing
+an atmosphere in which he will have to spend many hours
+of his existence, when the walls, the ceiling, and the
+hangings will inevitably obtain a subtle, but real influence
+on his nerves; which, in the case of buff, will be that of
+a yellow fog, while pale primrose will have the effect of
+early sunrise, and pure gold that of sunset.</p>
+
+<p>A rule to be respected is that decoration should be
+reposing instead of exciting. The unexpected, which is
+an element in the enjoyment of what is new, should be
+such as to become the more agreeable the longer we are
+accustomed to it. Mr. Morris&rsquo;s golden rule is this:
+&ldquo;Have nothing in your houses that you do not know to
+be useful or believe to be beautiful.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_471_471" id="FNanchor_471_471"></a><a href="#Footnote_471_471" class="fnanchor">[471]</a> In decorative art,
+and therefore in embroidery, the first object to consider
+is beauty&mdash;beauty in conception, proportion, drawing, and
+colour. I would not have it thought that I am placing
+our secondary art too high, and giving it too much importance,
+when I apply to it the first essential rules of art;
+but one of these furnishes my excuse. It is that &ldquo;the
+simplest and smallest creation should be as faultless as
+the greatest and grandest.&rdquo; Now beauty cannot be
+obtained, even in little works, without proportion in
+size, harmony and balance in colour, and correctness
+in form, and these require the careful study of first
+principles.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>291]</a></span>
+Proportion in size is most important, both as regards
+ourselves and our surroundings&mdash;objectively and subjectively.
+When our masters, the Greeks, wished to
+express force and majesty, they sculptured their gods of
+unearthly size, larger than their heroes, who yet exceeded
+in stature their human models. The statue of the god
+placed in the temple was the largest object seen, and
+the delicacy and refinement of the details in dress, throne,
+and base only enhanced the effect of majestic proportion.</p>
+
+<p>In the temple men were to be reminded of their own
+nothingness. In the gymnasium, and on the racecourse,
+and at the public games, the surrounding pictures and
+statues were all intended to excite ambition by showing
+men the heroic size to be attained by the awards of fame.
+But at home, in the house, man is already supreme, and
+needs no incentive to assert himself, and no tall standard
+by which he may be measured. The Lares and Penates
+themselves were very small objects to look at, whatever
+may have been the thoughts they suggested. Nothing
+is so alarming or unpleasant as gigantic figures worked
+in tapestry or embroidery.</p>
+
+<p>And if even the guardian gods of the house were kept
+in due subjection as to size, why not all decorations, and
+especially those representing the flowers of the field?
+Certainly in worked decorations flowers should be no
+larger than in nature&mdash;perhaps on the whole they are
+best rather smaller. Botanical monstrosities on the wall
+dwarf the flowers in a bow-pot near them, and
+nature has her own lovely proportions, which should
+be studied and respected. These remarks, of course,
+apply exclusively to domestic decoration, which is the
+special object of our art, and for the guidance of
+which the suggestions contained in this chapter are
+intended.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>292]</a></span>
+I would strongly advocate the return to the old system
+for the production of large embroideries. If ladies
+would design, or have designed for them, curtains or
+tapestries, and let the work-frame be the permanent
+occupier of the morning sitting-room, they might at least
+commence works that members of the family or friends
+might continue and complete at their leisure; and should
+they at any time hang fire, a needlewoman or clever professional
+worker might be called in to help to finish it.
+Thus ladies might assist the art of needlework by their
+own original ideas, and give individual beauty to their
+homes, and an impetus to the occupation which helps to
+support so many of our struggling sisters. The frame or
+m&eacute;tier is always a pretty object in the drawing-room or
+boudoir. The French understand this well; and make it
+one of their most useful &ldquo;properties&rdquo; in their scenic
+representations of refined home life.</p>
+
+<p>I will conclude this chapter with two quotations. The
+first is part of Sir Digby Wyatt&rsquo;s advice in a Cambridge
+Lecture. &ldquo;You can never hope (he says) to have
+the means of supplying yourself with what is beautiful
+unless you take pains to add to the production of that
+beauty. The colour which the decorative painter&rdquo; (and
+the embroiderer also) &ldquo;may cast around you is neither
+more nor less than an atmosphere in which your eye will
+be either strengthened or debilitated. If you accustom
+your eye only or mainly to contemplate what is satisfactory
+in colour and form to the highest tastes, it will
+gradually become allured to such delicacy of organization
+as to reject unintentionally all that is repugnant to perfect
+taste.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Morris, in a lecture to the &ldquo;Birmingham Society
+of Arts and School of Design,&rdquo; says of ugly furnishings:
+&ldquo;Herein the rich people have defrauded themselves as
+well as the poor. You will see a refined and highly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>293]</a></span>
+educated man nowadays, who has been to Italy and Egypt
+and where not, who can talk learnedly enough (and fantastically
+enough sometimes) about art and literature of past
+days, sitting down without signs of discomfort in a house
+that, with all its surroundings, is just brutally vulgar and
+hideous. All his education has done for him no more
+than that.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;You cannot civilize man unless you give him a share
+in art.&rdquo; But the man must be civilized by education to
+accept that share of art that his life offers to him. It must
+be admitted that though a man may be educated enough to
+enable him to theorize, he may yet be too poor to furnish
+with taste. If he is able to act up to his theories, and to
+surround himself with what is refined, and fail to do so,
+and is contented not to stir in this matter, he is not truly
+educated.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Now that which breeds art is art. Any piece of
+work that is well done is so much help to the cause.&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The cause is the Democracy of Art, the ennobling of
+daily and common work.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_461_461" id="Footnote_461_461"></a><a href="#FNanchor_461_461"><span class="label">[461]</span></a>
+Odyssey, xxiii., l. 190.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_462_462" id="Footnote_462_462"></a><a href="#FNanchor_462_462"><span class="label">[462]</span></a>
+Layard&rsquo;s &ldquo;Monuments,&rdquo; 1st series, pl. 77; see &ldquo;Histoire de l&rsquo;Art,&rdquo;
+ii., Perrot and Chipiez.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_463_463" id="Footnote_463_463"></a><a href="#FNanchor_463_463"><span class="label">[463]</span></a>
+A bed may be absolutely without any hangings or tester, and yet
+carry embroidery, as in the curious funeral couch of a sepulchral
+monument in painted terra-cotta in the Campana Museum of the
+Louvre. Here the mattress is worked to resemble ticking, striped,
+and the cushions have embroidered ends; and are made in the form
+of bolsters. There is a similar sepulchral monument in the British
+Museum. Both of them were found at Cervetri, and are quaint
+examples of early Etruscan art. See Dennis&rsquo; &ldquo;Etruria,&rdquo; 2nd ed., p. 227.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_464_464" id="Footnote_464_464"></a><a href="#FNanchor_464_464"><span class="label">[464]</span></a>
+The thread embroideries in counted stitches were worked in an
+endless variety of beautiful designs, of which the collection in Franz
+and Frida Lipperheide&rsquo;s &ldquo;Musterb&uuml;cher f&uuml;r Weibliche Handarbeit&rdquo; is
+most interesting and exhaustive; including Italian and German &ldquo;Lienenstickerei,&rdquo;
+Berlin, 1883.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_465_465" id="Footnote_465_465"></a><a href="#FNanchor_465_465"><span class="label">[465]</span></a>
+Of the seventeenth century.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_466_466" id="Footnote_466_466"></a><a href="#FNanchor_466_466"><span class="label">[466]</span></a>
+The carpets used by the Romans were called Triclinaria Babylonica,
+for the use of the triclinium, and Polymata cubicularia, for the
+cubiculum. These were dyed crimson, scarlet, and purple. See
+Horace&rsquo;s Satires, ii. 6; also Smith&rsquo;s &ldquo;Dictionary of Greek and
+Roman Antiquities,&rdquo; s.v. Tapes., p. 102-106, Triclinium.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_467_467" id="Footnote_467_467"></a><a href="#FNanchor_467_467"><span class="label">[467]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Marco Polo,&rdquo; p. 92, ed. Yule, speaking of the ladies of Caramania
+in the thirteenth century, says they produced exquisite needlework on
+silk stuffs of divers colours, with figures of birds, beasts, trees, and
+flowers. They worked hangings for the noblemen&rsquo;s use, as well as
+cushions, pillows, quilts, and all sorts of things.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_468_468" id="Footnote_468_468"></a><a href="#FNanchor_468_468"><span class="label">[468]</span></a>
+Lampridius (&ldquo;Antonin. Heliogab.&rdquo; cap. xxvi. see Bock, p. 129)
+says, in the life of Heliogabalus, that table-covers were embroidered
+for the emperor, representing the dishes which were to be placed upon
+them at the festal table of this epicure.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_469_469" id="Footnote_469_469"></a><a href="#FNanchor_469_469"><span class="label">[469]</span></a>
+See the screen on the Assyrian bas-relief in the British Museum,
+placed round the back of the throne on which the king is seated.
+This is apparently a frame on which hangings are fixed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_470_470" id="Footnote_470_470"></a><a href="#FNanchor_470_470"><span class="label">[470]</span></a>
+See inventory Of Henry VIII.&rsquo;s goods, &amp;c., I. Ed. VI. (Bib.) Harl.
+1419, quoted by Felix Summerley in his &ldquo;Handbook of Hampton
+Court.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_471_471" id="Footnote_471_471"></a><a href="#FNanchor_471_471"><span class="label">[471]</span></a>
+I would add, &ldquo;except that which is consecrated by time or
+sentiment.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>294]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER IX.</h2>
+
+<h3>DRESS.</h3>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Whatever clothing she displays,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">From Tyre or Cos, that clothing praise;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">If gold show forth the artist&rsquo;s skill,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Call her than gold more precious still;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Or if she choose a coarse attire,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">E&rsquo;en coarseness, worn by her, admire.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet"><span class="smcap">Ovid</span>, &ldquo;Ars Amat.&rdquo; ii. 297, 300 (Yates, p. 180).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>Having glanced at the decoration of the house, I must
+now proceed to say a few words on Dress. Semper,
+Labarte, and Sir Digby Wyatt all take it for granted that
+the Art of Dress preceded all other arts.</p>
+
+<p>Every ancient record shows how early decoration of
+dress by needlework began, and how far it had gone;
+and when we read of festal hospitalities and marriage
+gifts, embroidered garments are invariably named. Solomon
+in all his glory, though he praised the lily, yet shone
+in splendid apparel. The Greeks refined the gold, and
+painted the lily.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 194px;">
+<a name="pl50" id="pl50"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 50.</p>
+<img src="images/naap50t.jpg" width="194" height="400"
+alt="The knight wears richly embroidered clothing" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap50.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Italian Knight dressed for conquest, by Gentile da Fabriano.
+Academia at Florence.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as dress became an art, and not merely an
+acknowledged necessity for warmth and decency, I see
+no reason to deny that the same decorative genius that
+embroidered the garment might at the same time have
+imagined the carving of the chair and the inlaying of the
+sword and bow; but as regards the precedence of the
+arts, we can only guess at what is probable. Beauty in
+dress is certainly a universal instinctive passion. Perhaps
+the birds (which Mr. Darwin and others credit with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>295]</a></span>
+preening their plumage, conscious that their spots are
+the brightest, and their feathers the glossiest, and that
+they are therefore adored by the hens, and the envy of
+the shabbier cocks) suggested to men the same method
+for securing the preference of the other sex, who in return
+willingly helped to adorn the idols of their hearts and
+homes. (Plate <a href="#pl50">50</a>.) This natural state of things still
+prevails in Central Africa, where Schweinf&uuml;rth describes
+a king dancing before his 100 wives costumed in the tails
+of lions and peacocks, and crowned with the proboscis
+of an elephant. It appears, however, that, unlike Cleopatra,
+&ldquo;custom had staled his infinite variety,&rdquo; and the
+100 ladies looked on the splendid display with blank
+indifference.</p>
+
+<p>This is only a barbarous illustration of the fact that in
+the earliest civilizations magnificent garments were worn
+by men to dazzle and awe the beholders by the splendour
+which represented wealth and conquest. How glorious a
+man could appear apparelled to represent majesty and
+dominion, may be learned by studying Canon Rock&rsquo;s
+book on the coronation dresses of the Emperors of Germany&mdash;a
+book great in every sense of the word. The
+portrait of Charles V. robed and crowned is a dazzling
+example of the arts of dress, embroidery, and jeweller&rsquo;s
+work. These garments have for ages been treasured at
+Vienna, Aix-la-Chapelle, and in the Vatican at Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The coronation garments of the Emperors of Russia
+are said to be gorgeously beautiful.</p>
+
+<p>It seems hardly necessary to assert that embroidery
+has always been especially applicable to dress. Each
+garment, being individualized by the design depicted on
+it, was fitted for individual uses and occasions. The
+conqueror&rsquo;s palmated mantle, the coronation robe, the
+bridal garment, the costume of the peasant for festival
+days, and the officiating vestments of the priests for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>296]</a></span>
+special services of prayer and praise&mdash;these were loyally
+or piously worked; they descended from generation to
+generation as family treasures or as historical memorials,
+and sometimes as holy relics,<a name="FNanchor_472_472" id="FNanchor_472_472"></a><a href="#Footnote_472_472" class="fnanchor">[472]</a> till they and the call for
+them, were swept away at once by social changes; yet
+some still remain and hold their place. Priestly garments,
+together with Church decorations, never laid aside in the
+Roman and Greek Churches, are being partially revived
+in our own; and for secular adornment the embroiderer
+is often called upon to work a garland, to enwreathe the
+form of a pretty woman, to lie on her shoulders and
+encircle her waist.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest loss to the art is that men as a rule have
+ceased to individualize themselves, or their position or
+office by dress,<a name="FNanchor_473_473" id="FNanchor_473_473"></a><a href="#Footnote_473_473" class="fnanchor">[473]</a> and have left entirely to the women the
+pleasure and duty of making themselves as lovely and
+conspicuous as their circumstances will permit. The
+same linen and broadcloth are cut in the same shapes, of
+which the only merit is that they are said to be comfortable,
+and whose highest aim is to be spotless and unwrinkled;
+these show the altered conditions of the highly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>297]</a></span>
+civilized man, and woman too, for he has long left behind
+him the idea of dazzling the female eye or heart by the
+attraction of colour. This applies only to European
+costume at home or in the colonies. The East still
+retains its pleasure in gorgeous combinations, in which
+man enfolds his person, and shows how beautiful he can
+make himself when thus clothed, in accordance with
+the classical axioms, as to how much of the human form
+should be revealed, and how much concealed.</p>
+
+<p>The principle on which the ancients embroidered their
+garments was like that of the Indians, the large surfaces
+plain, or covered with quiet diapers or spots, the rich
+ornaments being reserved for the borders, the girdles and
+the scarves. Their garments hung loose from the
+shoulders or girdle; whether long or short they clung to
+the figure or fluttered in the wind. The long flowing
+robes to the feet veiled the form completely, and were
+only thrown off for the battle or the chase, or in the
+struggles for victory in the races and games. Dress,
+in the supreme reign of beauty, was intended to flow
+around, or to conceal, but never to <em>disguise</em>, the human
+frame it enclosed.</p>
+
+<p>Homer thus describes Juno&rsquo;s toilet before calling on
+Jupiter:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Around her next a heavenly mantle flow&rsquo;d,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That rich with Pallas&rsquo; labour&rsquo;d colours glow&rsquo;d;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Large clasps of gold the foldings gather&rsquo;d round;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A golden zone her swelling bosom bound.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet">Iliad, xiv. v. 207.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>The Greeks certainly wore delicate and tasteful embroidery
+on their garments, frequently finished with
+splendid borders, while the large space between was
+dotted with stars or some simple pattern. We learn
+this from the paintings on Greek fictile vases. In the
+British Museum there is a little bronze statuette of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>298]</a></span>
+Minerva (with twinkling diamond eyes). She has a
+broad band of embroidered silver foliage from her throat
+to her feet.</p>
+
+<p>As the beauty of Greek forms acted and reacted on
+the beauty of their &ldquo;Art of Dress,&rdquo; so we may be certain
+that all deformity of dress has been produced by deformity
+of race in mind or body, and that climate is an important
+factor in both. The cold of the farthest north has produced
+people short, fat, and hairy; which natural gifts have been
+supplemented by their warm clothes or coverings, in
+the same way that a &ldquo;cosy&rdquo; covers a teapot. Flowing
+garments there would be utterly out of place, petticoats
+are unknown, and the Lapp hangs out nothing that can
+be the vehicle for carrying an icicle. Their dresses, or
+cases, are planned to keep out the cold, and to place
+another atmosphere between the heart of the breathing
+mass, and the cruel, cutting, outer wind. Hence, the
+materials used are not only woven hair, but the furry skins
+themselves. In the south, under the sunshine, dress is
+for the greater part of the year only needed for decency
+and beauty. The flowing and delicate cottons and silks
+and fine woollens, are shaped to cover and adorn the
+beautiful forms, which for entire isolation take refuge in
+the never-failing mantle. The mantle was the great
+opportunity for the embroiderer&rsquo;s craft. Alkisthenes,
+the Sybarite, had a garment of such magnificence that
+when it was exhibited in the Temple of Juno at Lacinium,
+where all Italy was congregated, it attracted such
+universal admiration that it was sold to the Carthaginians
+by Dionysius the Elder for 120 talents. The ground
+was purple, wrought all over with animals, except the
+centre, where were seen Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Minerva,
+Venus, and Themis. On one border was the figure of
+Alkisthenes himself, on the other was depicted the emblematic
+figure of his native city, Sybaris. The size of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>299]</a></span>
+the garment was Homeric&mdash;it was fifteen cubits, or
+twenty-two feet in breadth.<a name="FNanchor_474_474" id="FNanchor_474_474"></a><a href="#Footnote_474_474" class="fnanchor">[474]</a></p>
+
+<p>That the ladies of Greece in the fourth century carried
+down the historical and Homeric traditions of the
+embroidery frame, and made it part of their daily lives,
+while the Persian women of rank left such work to
+their slaves, is evident from the pretty legend told of
+Alexander the Great, who desiring to beguile the weariness
+of his prisoners, the wife and family of Darius, sent them
+some of his garments to embroider. When it was
+reported to him that these princesses were much mortified,
+believing it was a suggestion of their fallen fortunes,
+Alexander hastened to reassure them&mdash;saying that his
+own mother and sisters occupied themselves in embroidering
+dresses.</p>
+
+<p>The Persians and Babylonians seem to have preferred
+subjects for their embroidered dresses somewhat in the
+style of the mantle of Alkisthenes, which was probably
+Oriental, and suggests the Babylonian mantle in Jericho,
+&ldquo;which tempted Achan to sin.&rdquo; The Egyptian frescoes
+on the other hand, sometimes give us women and goddesses
+dressed in small flowery patterns that remind
+one of Indian chintzes. These were probably woven,
+painted, and embroidered, and filled in with threads
+of gold. The Romans varied their fashions, but
+they preferred for a time striped borders on their garments,<a name="FNanchor_475_475" id="FNanchor_475_475"></a><a href="#Footnote_475_475" class="fnanchor">[475]</a>
+and called them &ldquo;molores,&rdquo; &ldquo;dilores,&rdquo; &ldquo;trilores,&rdquo;
+up to seven. The Greeks but seldom departed from
+the rule of plain or quietly patterned surfaces with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>300]</a></span>
+rich borders in their delineations of dress, though there
+are examples of large designs covering the whole garment.</p>
+
+<p>The embroidered dresses of early Christian times are
+to be judged of by mosaics and frescoes&mdash;mostly Italian.
+Those of the dark ages were till lately only names and
+guesses. But a hiatus in our knowledge has been filled up
+lately by the store of entombed textiles discovered in
+the Fayoum in Egypt, and now at Vienna, in Herr
+Graf&rsquo;schen&rsquo;s Collection. Here we have a variety of
+shapes, designs, and stitches, and every kind of subject,
+sacred and profane, Christian and Pagan, and the missing
+links between Indian and Byzantine fabrics are revealed.
+They cover nearly 400 years, from the third to the seventh
+century, and many of them may be looked upon as apart
+from any ecclesiastical or even Christian suggestions.
+I have spoken of them in the chapter on <a href="#Page_125">Woollen Materials</a>.<a name="FNanchor_476_476" id="FNanchor_476_476"></a><a href="#Footnote_476_476" class="fnanchor">[476]</a></p>
+
+<p>After the seventh century, we again come into the
+dawning light of history&mdash;and find here and there an
+illustrative fragment, nearly always ecclesiastical, taken
+from the graves of priests and monarchs. Charlemagne&rsquo;s
+mantle and robe embroidered with elephants
+and with bees, preserved at Aix-la-Chapelle&mdash;his
+dalmatic in the Vatican&mdash;the Durham embroideries, are
+rare and precious examples of that early period.</p>
+
+<p>Semper describes the difference between &ldquo;the
+covering&rdquo; and the &ldquo;binding.&rdquo; This seems to be little
+considered in modern costume, but it is so essential that
+I would impress it on my readers. He says that
+&ldquo;the covering seeks to isolate, to enclose, to shelter, to
+spread around, over a certain space, and is a collective
+unit,&rdquo; whereas binding implies ligature, and represents a
+&ldquo;united plurality,&rdquo;&mdash;for example, a bundle of sticks, the
+<i>fasces</i> of the lictors, &amp;c. &ldquo;Binding is linear, in dress it
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>301]</a></span>
+is either horizontal or spiral.&rdquo; What can the united
+plurality be that justifies the binding often bestowed on
+the figure in fashionable costumes? more fitted for
+binding together the bones of the dead, than for
+permitting the agility of the muscles of the living.
+Semper continues,&mdash;&ldquo;Anything that goes against this
+important axiom is wrong.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_477_477" id="FNanchor_477_477"></a><a href="#Footnote_477_477" class="fnanchor">[477]</a></p>
+
+<p>I think we must all agree that the objects of dress are
+decency, isolation, warmth, grace, and beauty. As long
+as fashion takes the place of taste, and extravagant <i>chic</i>
+supersedes grace and beauty, we must not hope that fine
+designs to individualize dress will be called for. The
+French machine-made embroideries are so beautiful, and
+comparatively cheap, that we cannot compete with them.
+The best artists design them, and the only fault to be
+found is this, that as they are made by thousands of
+yards, and can only be varied by interchange of colours,
+they become common the day they are produced. It has
+been said that &ldquo;fashion is made for a class, but taste
+for mankind.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_478_478" id="FNanchor_478_478"></a><a href="#Footnote_478_478" class="fnanchor">[478]</a> Fashion is the enemy of taste, though
+she makes use of her services. The gown, of which the
+fashion is in every sense imported from France, will
+probably never again be the vehicle for home embroideries.
+But there are other articles of personal adornment which
+will always be available for the fancies of decorative taste&mdash;the
+fan, the purse or satchel, the apron, the fichu, the
+point of the shoe, and the muff&mdash;all these are objects on
+which thought and ingenuity may well be expended, and
+which will remain as records of personal feeling when the
+workers and givers of such graceful mementoes are far
+away. Carriage-rugs and foot-muffs, and embroidered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>302]</a></span>
+letter-cases, and book-covers, must be placed somewhere
+between furniture and personal ornament. In all these
+the &ldquo;<i>impr&eacute;vu</i>,&rdquo; or &ldquo;unexpected,&rdquo; is what is valuable,
+including all that is original and quaint.</p>
+
+<p>Embroidery will, however, probably continue occasionally
+to be employed in the adornment of dress&mdash;and
+will leave of each phase and period of art some fine
+examples on which the arch&aelig;ologist of the future may
+pause and reason.</p>
+
+<p>There are in most old houses some specimens of old
+secular work&mdash;few earlier than the date of Henry VIII.
+Gothic dress is very rare, except the ecclesiastical. But
+from the fifteenth century till now, there remains enough
+to exercise our curiosity, our artistic tastes, and our power
+of selection and comparison; and hints for beauty and
+grace may often be found and adapted to the style of
+our own day.</p>
+
+<p>Planch&eacute;&rsquo;s &ldquo;Dictionary of Dress,&rdquo; and Ferrario&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Costumi antichi e moderni di tutti i Popoli,&rdquo; are great
+works on dress and costume, and both are splendidly
+illustrated and worthy of study.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_472_472" id="Footnote_472_472"></a><a href="#FNanchor_472_472"><span class="label">[472]</span></a>
+Elsewhere I have spoken of dress being continually offered to the
+images of the pagan gods in the temples. Herodotus (ii. p. 159) tells
+us that Pharaoh Necho offered to the Apollo of Branchid&aelig; the
+dress he happened to have worn at both his great successes (the victory
+of Magdalus and the taking of Cadytis). In the procession of Ptolemy
+Philadelphus the colossal statue of Bacchus and his nurse Nysa were
+draped, the former in a shawl, the latter in a tunic variegated with
+gold. See Yates, &ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo; p. 369. Old clothes were
+sent as votive offerings to temples, and inscriptions recording lists
+of such decorations are still extant. See <a href="#appendix_i">Appendix 1</a>. The Greeks
+honoured the menders and darners, and called them &ldquo;healers of clothes.&rdquo;
+Bl&uuml;mner, p. 202.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_473_473" id="Footnote_473_473"></a><a href="#FNanchor_473_473"><span class="label">[473]</span></a>
+Men in former days preferred to show by their dress their station
+and the company they belonged to. Guilds had their ceremonial dresses,
+and their &ldquo;liveries,&rdquo; and their cognizances, and considered it an honour
+to wear them. See Rock, &ldquo;Church of our Fathers,&rdquo; ii. p. 115.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_474_474" id="Footnote_474_474"></a><a href="#FNanchor_474_474"><span class="label">[474]</span></a>
+Aristotle, De Mirab. Auscult., xcvi.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_475_475" id="Footnote_475_475"></a><a href="#FNanchor_475_475"><span class="label">[475]</span></a>
+Asterius, Bishop of Amasis, in the fourth century, describes both
+hangings and dress embroidered with lions, panthers, huntsmen,
+woods, and rocks; while the Church adopted pictorial representations
+of Christian subjects. Sidonius alludes to furniture of like character.
+See Yule, &ldquo;Marco Polo,&rdquo; p. 68.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_476_476" id="Footnote_476_476"></a><a href="#FNanchor_476_476"><span class="label">[476]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Katalog der Theodor Graf&rsquo;schen F&uuml;nde in &AElig;gypten,&rdquo; von Dr. J.
+Karabacek, Wien, 1883.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_477_477" id="Footnote_477_477"></a><a href="#FNanchor_477_477"><span class="label">[477]</span></a>
+Semper, &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; p. 28.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_478_478" id="Footnote_478_478"></a><a href="#FNanchor_478_478"><span class="label">[478]</span></a>
+Unfortunately this axiom may be reversed. Taste only belongs to
+a small class, and mankind follows it, whether good or bad, if it only
+be the fashion.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>303]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER X.</h2>
+
+<h3>ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERY.</h3>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;And now as I turn these volumes over,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And see what lies between cover and cover,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">What treasures of art these pages hold,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">All ablaze with crimson and gold....<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Yes, I might almost say to the Lord,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Here is a copy of Thy Word<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Written out with much toil and pain;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Take it, O Lord, and let it be<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">As something I have done for Thee!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">How sweet the air is! how fair the scene!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I wish I had as lovely a green<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To paint my landscapes and my leaves!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">How the swallows twitter under the eaves!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">There, now, there is one in her nest;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">I can just catch a glimpse of her head and breast,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And will sketch her thus, in her quiet nook,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For the margin of my Gospel-book.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet"><span class="smcap">Longfellow</span>, &ldquo;The Golden Legend&rdquo; (&ldquo;The
+Scriptorium&rdquo;), p. 176.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p>&ldquo;Upon Thy right hand did stand the queen in a vesture of gold,
+wrought about with divers colours.... The king&rsquo;s daughter is all
+glorious within: her clothing is of wrought gold. She shall be brought
+unto the king in raiment of needlework.&rdquo;&mdash;Psalm xlv. 10, 14, 15.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<p>If the Bride is the type of the Church, how truly has
+she been, for eighteen centuries, throughout Christendom,
+adorned with gold, and arrayed in raiment of needlework.</p>
+
+<p>By ecclesiastical embroideries, we mean, of course,
+Christian work for Christian churches. The first
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>304]</a></span>
+pictured decorations of our era, in early frescoes, mosaics,
+and illuminated MSS., and the first specimens that
+have come down to us of needlework and textiles, testify
+by their <i>na&iuml;vet&eacute;</i> to their date.<a name="FNanchor_479_479" id="FNanchor_479_479"></a><a href="#Footnote_479_479" class="fnanchor">[479]</a></p>
+
+<p>The prosperity of the Church&rsquo;s hierarchy was founded
+on the ruins of the Empire, over which Attila had boasted
+that where his horse trod no grass grew; and truly the
+cultivated art of those splendid days had lapsed at once
+to a poverty of design and barrenness of ideas which
+would soon have dwindled into mere primitive forms, had
+not a fresh Oriental impulse arrived from Syria, Egypt,
+and Byzantium,&mdash;and then the arts were born anew.<a name="FNanchor_480_480" id="FNanchor_480_480"></a><a href="#Footnote_480_480" class="fnanchor">[480]</a>
+The continuity was broken; yet, being devoted to the
+service of the Church, the new arts were by it moulded
+and fostered. Little lamps twinkled here and there in
+monastic houses. Hangings for the churches, coverings
+for the altars, robes for the priests, occupied the artist
+and the embroiderer.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>305]</a></span>
+The forms, the colours, the uses, were adapting themselves
+to become the symbols of orthodoxies and heresies,
+and thus became a part of the history of the Church.
+The links are many between them and the history of the
+State; and here ecclesiastical embroideries come in as
+landmarks.</p>
+
+<p>Royal and princely garments, which had served for
+state occasions, were constantly dedicated as votive
+offerings, and converted into vestments for the officiating
+priest, and so were recorded and preserved.<a name="FNanchor_481_481" id="FNanchor_481_481"></a><a href="#Footnote_481_481" class="fnanchor">[481]</a></p>
+
+<p>Royal and noble ladies employed their leisure hours in
+work for the adornment of the Minster or the home
+church or chapel. Gifts of the best were exchanged
+between convents, or forwarded to the holy father at
+Rome, and were often enriched with jewels. The images
+of the Virgin and saints received from wealthy penitents
+many costly garments,<a name="FNanchor_482_482" id="FNanchor_482_482"></a><a href="#Footnote_482_482" class="fnanchor">[482]</a> besides money and lands.</p>
+
+<p>This dedicatory needlework has preserved to us the
+records of classical, Byzantine, and Arab-Gothic design,
+which otherwise must have been lost.</p>
+
+<p>The Church records and illuminated MSS. give us
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>306]</a></span>
+most trustworthy information of the way in which the
+altars, the priests, and even the kings were arrayed; and
+the catalogues of royal wardrobes are also very instructive,
+as we find how often princely gauds became, as gifts to
+the Church, commemorative of historical events, such as
+a victory or an accession, a marriage or a coronation.</p>
+
+<p>Woltmann and Woermann say that the efforts of the
+Christians in the time of Constantine tended to delay the
+extinction of classical design in Rome. Of the fourth
+century they give as examples the mosaics of &ldquo;S<sup>ta.</sup> Pudenziana,&rdquo;
+where we can still find antique beauty of design.
+We may also mention the church of &ldquo;St. Agnese fuori
+le mura,&rdquo; which once contained the sarcophagi of
+Constantine and his mother Helena, and of which the
+decorations in the ceilings are entirely classical, though
+the motives had been transferred to Christian
+symbolism.<a name="FNanchor_483_483" id="FNanchor_483_483"></a><a href="#Footnote_483_483" class="fnanchor">[483]</a></p>
+
+<p>The total disappearance of Greek art did not occur
+till the eighth century, when the new blood infused from
+foreign sources began to assert itself.<a name="FNanchor_484_484" id="FNanchor_484_484"></a><a href="#Footnote_484_484" class="fnanchor">[484]</a></p>
+
+<p>Rome had succeeded to Greece as being the centre of
+Christian art, which assumed the phase commonly
+called the Romanesque. This was a conglomerate of
+Oriental, Byzantine, and Gr&aelig;co-Roman, varied in
+different countries. Then there were the Scandinavian,
+and Runic, and Celtic styles drifting from the North;
+the Lombardic, of Central Italy; the Ostro-Gothic, of
+Ravenna; the Byzantine, of Venice, all acting and reacting
+upon each other.</p>
+
+<p>All these rough and inchoate attempts at the beautiful,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>307]</a></span>
+prepared the world for the acceptance of the Arabic
+influence, which is said to have been imported at the end
+of the eleventh century by the Crusaders, to whose
+pious enterprise some attribute the whole of the splendid
+Gothic art of the three succeeding centuries. But the
+marking characteristic of the Arabic arch is wanting;
+the ogee shape is seldom to be found in Christian architecture;<a name="FNanchor_485_485" id="FNanchor_485_485"></a><a href="#Footnote_485_485" class="fnanchor">[485]</a>
+and the pointed arch so naturally results from
+the intersection of the round arches, that we cannot but
+look upon these causes as co-incident.</p>
+
+<p>I have elsewhere remarked how often in art different
+causes co-operate to form a style. The father and
+mother are of different nationalities, and the result shows
+the characteristics of its double parentage. The learned
+antiquaries, who draw their arguments mainly from the
+form of the arch, must settle whence and how Gothic art
+in stone came into Europe. It was doubtless the effect
+or result of more than one cause.</p>
+
+<p>But in as far as it influenced textile art, we have come
+to the period when it must be studied in Sicily, the half-way
+house and resting-place of the Crusaders on their
+highroad to the Holy Land.</p>
+
+<p>Sicily, which had succeeded to Constantinople as being
+the great manufacturing mart during the Middle Ages,
+was, in the hands of the Moors, the origin and source
+of all European Gothic textile art. Yet even at Palermo
+and Messina they were controlled by the traditions of
+the schools of Greece, ancient and modern, and by
+Babylonian, Indian, and African forms and symbolisms.</p>
+
+<p>Byzantium furnished many of their designs, which were
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>308]</a></span>
+sometimes of very remote date, though pressed into the
+service of the new style and the Church.</p>
+
+<p>These and all the streams of ecclesiastical decoration
+throughout Europe flowed towards Rome, and were
+re-issued with the fiat and seal of the Central Church,
+which also afterwards presided over the art of the
+Renaissance.<a name="FNanchor_486_486" id="FNanchor_486_486"></a><a href="#Footnote_486_486" class="fnanchor">[486]</a></p>
+
+<p>By studying what remains to us of fragments and
+records we know all the materials which clothed the
+primitive and medi&aelig;val Church, and we find that there
+was but little originality in textile decoration or in the
+forms of dress, which either resembled those of the priests
+in the Jewish synagogue or those of the heathen temples;
+and were adapted from traditional patterns.</p>
+
+<p>The constant repetition of the cross and the signs of
+the Passion, with the emblems of saints and martyrs,
+were interwoven with the ancient classical forms, mixed
+up with the old symbolisms partially altered to suit their
+new service of Christian art. Of course such changes
+were inevitable, while the old motives were being translated
+to the new uses.</p>
+
+<p>The corselet of Amasis (the Egyptian corselet, p. 20,
+<i>ante</i>) closely resembles the Jewish ephod, which probably
+was borrowed from Egypt.<a name="FNanchor_487_487" id="FNanchor_487_487"></a><a href="#Footnote_487_487" class="fnanchor">[487]</a></p>
+
+<p>In Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Church of Our Fathers,&rdquo; vol. i. p. 409, we
+find mention of the consular trabea, profusely worked in
+gold, as being the origin of the cope.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 257px;">
+<a name="pl51" id="pl51"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 51.</p>
+<img src="images/naap51t.png" width="257" height="400"
+alt="St. Mark sits with a stylus in hand, looking at a document" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap51.png">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">St. Mark. Anglo-Saxon Book of the Four Gospels in the Cathedral Library at York.</p>
+
+<p>It has been suggested and disputed that the stole was
+an adaptation of the latus clavus; indeed, if we compare
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>309]</a></span>
+the examples given by Bock<a name="FNanchor_488_488" id="FNanchor_488_488"></a><a href="#Footnote_488_488" class="fnanchor">[488]</a> we can hardly doubt that
+the consular trabea and the latus clavus either served as
+the models for the Christian Bishop&rsquo;s dress, or were
+derived from the same traditional sources. Such is the
+intimate chain of design from century to century, from age
+to age; from Egypt to the Holy Land, and thence to Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Bock gives his authorities for saying that the clavus
+was sometimes an applied border, sometimes a loose
+stripe hanging down in front, as may be seen in two
+consular diptychs given in plate <a href="#pl70">70</a>. Much has been
+written on this latus clavus, its origin and meaning, and
+I shall return to it in reference to the chrysoclavus
+pattern, p. 337, <i>post</i>, and I refer the reader, who may
+wish to enter more fully into the questions raised by conflicting
+opinions regarding the clavus, to Marquardt&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Handbuch R&ouml;m. Alterth&uuml;mer,&rdquo; vii. p. 2, pp. 528-533,
+where great learning and ingenuity have been expended,
+without arriving at any satisfactory conclusions.<a name="FNanchor_489_489" id="FNanchor_489_489"></a><a href="#Footnote_489_489" class="fnanchor">[489]</a></p>
+
+<p>This keeping to the old lines and outward appearance
+as much as possible was mainly due to a regard for
+safety during the persecutions, and also to the Christian
+spirit of adoption and conversion, rather than that of antagonism,
+which influenced all their early manifestations.</p>
+
+<p>This unchanging character of art was also partly
+owing to the absolute sterility of the ashes of Roman
+Imperialism.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that through the Dark Ages individual genius
+occasionally flashed and left a mark here and there;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>310]</a></span>
+but such phenomena are so rare, that when they occur
+we hesitate before we assign them to that age.</p>
+
+<p>The Anglo-Saxon art of illumination shows these inspired
+moments; I would point to their drawings in the
+books in the Bodleian at Oxford, and the &ldquo;Book of the
+Four Gospels&rdquo; (of the tenth century) in the Minster
+Library at York, which are original and graceful, and have
+a reflection from the classical traditions. To an artistic
+eye they are beautiful. (Plate <a href="#pl51">51</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The conscientious colouring of the Anglo-Saxon
+MSS. is liturgical. Mr. Clapton Rolfe<a name="FNanchor_490_490" id="FNanchor_490_490"></a><a href="#Footnote_490_490" class="fnanchor">[490]</a> says that the
+Levitical traditions in the earlier system of decoration in
+the Christian Church had a far stronger hold on the
+popular mind than we are willing now to admit; and that
+the five Levitical colours, gold, blue, purple, red, and white,
+were retained in the Christian ritual. Whenever we come
+across figures of Anglo-Saxon bishops, the liturgical vesture
+entirely agrees with the Biblical description.</p>
+
+<p>Embroideries before the twelfth century generally
+preserve a semi-Roman, semi-Oriental character, which
+is nearly related to the art which is called Lombardic.
+This differs from what we know of Scandinavian and
+Celtic design through illuminated books,<a name="FNanchor_491_491" id="FNanchor_491_491"></a><a href="#Footnote_491_491" class="fnanchor">[491]</a> carving on stone
+crosses throughout the north of Europe, Great Britain,
+and Ireland, and the remains we possess of their metal
+work. I am not aware of any ecclesiastical embroideries
+which show a Celtic origin,<a name="FNanchor_492_492" id="FNanchor_492_492"></a><a href="#Footnote_492_492" class="fnanchor">[492]</a> unless the intertwined
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>311]</a></span>
+patterns on Italian dresses in paintings of the thirteenth
+and fourteenth centuries may be supposed to be derived
+from that source. (See p. <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <i>ante</i>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 600px;">
+<a name="fig25" id="fig25"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf25.png" width="600" height="229"
+alt="Delicate knotwork patterns in squares" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 25.</p>
+
+<p>In accounting for the instances of evident Oriental
+influence on Christian art, which came through Byzantium,
+we must not restrict ourselves to searching out the
+Arabian traditions, but we must remember also how much
+Babylon and Persia, as well as India, had given to the
+Empire of the East, and these influences were in full
+force at the time that Christian art was being organized.</p>
+
+<p>We know, for example, that the great veil of the
+temple at Jerusalem, given by Herod, was Babylonian.</p>
+
+<p>The materials&mdash;linen, silk, and woollen&mdash;on which
+ecclesiastical embroideries were worked at Rome and
+Constantinople were accepted all over the Christian
+world. The fabrics were plain, striped, and figured;
+and came from Persia and India, Greece, Alexandria, and
+Egypt. Even Chinese and Thibetian stuffs are often
+named. Cloths of gold and silver also came from the
+East, as in the days of Attalus. All these furnished the
+grounds on which needlework was lavishly spent.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>312]</a></span>
+The great veils which divided the pagan and Jewish
+temples were at first adopted in the Christian churches,
+but they gradually disappeared from common use, in spite
+of occasional survivals and revivals during the Dark
+Ages.</p>
+
+<p>Records exist of the hangings of the ancient basilica of
+St. Peter at Rome, spread between the pillars supporting
+the baldachino over the high altar and those of the choir;
+and at the Ostro-Gothic imperial court of Ravenna, in the
+fifth century, Maximianus ordered a set of similar splendid
+curtains (tetravela) to be worked for the altar. Anastasius
+Bibliothecarius (ninth century), in his biographies
+of the popes, mentions curtains and embroidered altar-pieces
+worked in the sixth and seventh centuries.<a name="FNanchor_493_493" id="FNanchor_493_493"></a><a href="#Footnote_493_493" class="fnanchor">[493]</a></p>
+
+<p>Sergius (<small>A.D.</small> 687) ordered four white and four scarlet
+curtains, and Pope John (701) hung white ones between
+the pillars on either side of the altar at St. Paul&rsquo;s.
+St. Zacharias<a name="FNanchor_494_494" id="FNanchor_494_494"></a><a href="#Footnote_494_494" class="fnanchor">[494]</a> gave similar hangings to the churches of
+St. Peter and St. Paul. Stephen IV. placed immense
+silver curtains at the entrance of the basilica of St.
+Peter&rsquo;s, and in 768 gave to it sixty-five curtains of
+figured Syrian stuffs.<a name="FNanchor_495_495" id="FNanchor_495_495"></a><a href="#Footnote_495_495" class="fnanchor">[495]</a> The same hangings prevailed at
+intervals in England, France, and Germany, till the
+twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when the new Gothic
+style of high, pointed arches altered the decorative
+customs.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 302px;">
+<a name="pl52" id="pl52"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 52.</p>
+<img src="images/naap52t.jpg" width="302" height="400"
+alt="A repeating pattern of men with lions, separated horizontally by a decorative pattern" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap52.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fragments of Silk to be seen at Coire in Switzerland, also in the South Kensington Museum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>313]</a></span>
+From Anastasius&rsquo;s mode of speaking of ecclesiastical
+garments, it appears that they were named in the
+treasury catalogues after the animals represented on
+them&mdash;&ldquo;the peacock garment,&rdquo; &ldquo;the elephant casula,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;the lion cope.&rdquo; Evidently these were Oriental gold
+brocades, Indian or Persian, or else reproductions of
+their designs, and from Auberville&rsquo;s and Bock&rsquo;s books of
+engravings we can judge how they repeated and varied
+their motives. One woven subject, which evidently
+started its textile career as one of the labours of Hercules,
+was gradually transferred to Samson, or to Daniel
+in the lions&rsquo; den. (Plate 4, Auberville&rsquo;s &ldquo;L&rsquo;Ornement
+des Tissus.&rdquo;) (Plate <a href="#pl52">52</a>.)<a name="FNanchor_496_496" id="FNanchor_496_496"></a><a href="#Footnote_496_496" class="fnanchor">[496]</a></p>
+
+<p>However, in Russia and throughout the Greek Church
+the ancient Byzantine use of hangings still remains in
+force.</p>
+
+<p>The art of embroidery has always given its best efforts
+to these church draperies.</p>
+
+<p>Rome was so laden with splendid embroideries by her
+eastern conquests, that probably the Christian decorators
+would have availed themselves of some of the accumulated
+stores; but we have no record of such adaptations,
+unless the splendid curtains and the silver hangings of
+Pope Stephen IV. were taken out of some imperial
+treasure-house.</p>
+
+<p>The contrast between early ecclesiastical art and that
+which immediately preceded it in the palaces of the
+C&aelig;sars (at Rome, Tivoli, and wherever we find their
+ruined glories) is most remarkable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_314" id="Page_314">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>314]</a></span>
+The lovely and the lively had been suddenly abandoned
+for the heavy earnest solemnity and inartistic drawing
+of the frescoes of the underground church of St.
+Clemente in Rome, and that of the early Christian
+mosaics.</p>
+
+<p>It is as if the arts which had lent, nay, given themselves
+to the glorification of idols, had suddenly died
+out, leaving behind them neither an artist, nor a skilled
+artisan, scarcely a tradition.</p>
+
+<p>The new Christian ideas had to be painfully recorded
+on sacred buildings and their furnishings for more than
+a thousand years; with all the patient acquiescence of
+untaught ignorance, and the struggling uncertainty of
+genius pursuing a distant glimmering light, apparently
+unconscious of all that had preceded it in Egyptian and
+classic art. The great political and religious revolutions
+in Europe had crushed and buried the arts under the
+ruins of the Empire over which Time himself seemed
+to have broken his hour-glass, so little was there to show
+any memory of their past, or hope for their future. The
+alternate progress and destruction of the arts in European
+civilization strike the student, in vivid contrast
+with the immutability of those of the East, especially in
+India and China, where the old forms were still being
+maintained by the swaddling bands of codified custom<a name="FNanchor_497_497" id="FNanchor_497_497"></a><a href="#Footnote_497_497" class="fnanchor">[497]</a>
+that had restricted their development, but prolonged
+their existence, and so they had survived, while Greece
+conquered and robbed the East and Egypt, and Rome
+crushed Greece and was in her turn despoiled by the
+Goths and Huns.<a name="FNanchor_498_498" id="FNanchor_498_498"></a><a href="#Footnote_498_498" class="fnanchor">[498]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>315]</a></span>
+Christian art had to begin at the very beginning, and
+collect its own traditions, and organize its own forms.
+These gradually accumulated, availing themselves of
+accepted symbols, and adding to them hidden meanings.
+The Reformation checked this development in the north
+of Europe, but after 300 years we are now witnessing its
+revival, which is not merely owing to a religious impulse,
+but also to the arch&aelig;ological tendency of our day and
+to the historical interest we attach to the ceremonials of
+the East.</p>
+
+<p>As the Reformation in Germany was less sweeping and
+iconoclastic than our own, we find there many more
+remains of ecclesiastical art collected in the churches to
+which they have always belonged, or in museums into
+which they have drifted;<a name="FNanchor_499_499" id="FNanchor_499_499"></a><a href="#Footnote_499_499" class="fnanchor">[499]</a> and the Germans have thus been
+enabled to do more than even the French, in training
+the different schools of work throughout the Continent.</p>
+
+<p>They have proved the Oriental character of the fabrics
+employed through the Dark and Middle Ages, i.e. for
+about 1400 years, whether they were Syrian, Indo-Chinese,
+Indian, Alexandrian, Greek, Sicilian, or Spanish,
+or whether they had come from Asia by the north or the
+south of Europe. The same traditional forms governed
+them all. But an adept is able generally to class and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>316]</a></span>
+name each specimen by the texture of the webs, by the
+way gold or gilt thread is inwoven in them, whether the
+metal is pure or alloyed, round or flat; also by the mode
+of twisting and dyeing the wool, flax, or silk, and its
+quality and colouring matter.</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest historical church embroiderers the
+foremost figure is that of the Empress Helena, the
+mother of Constantine, claimed in Wales and in the
+Welsh ballad of &ldquo;The Dream of Maxen Wledig&rdquo; as
+being a Welsh princess married to the Emperor Constans.
+She is said to have embroidered an image of the Virgin,
+which Muratori speaks of as existing in the Church of
+Vercelli in the seventeenth century. Bock says it is
+still there, and he quotes an ancient inventory of the
+treasures of Phillip the Good, of Burgundy, which names
+a &ldquo;Riche et ancienne table d&rsquo;autel de brodeure que on
+dit que la premi&egrave;re Emperriez Christienne Fist.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_500_500" id="FNanchor_500_500"></a><a href="#Footnote_500_500" class="fnanchor">[500]</a> The
+Empress Helena died in the fourth century.<a name="FNanchor_501_501" id="FNanchor_501_501"></a><a href="#Footnote_501_501" class="fnanchor">[501]</a></p>
+
+<p>Then after a long interval comes &ldquo;Berthe aux grands
+pieds&rdquo; the mother of Charlemagne, who in the eighth
+century was famed for her needlework, which is celebrated
+in a poem by Adhelm in the eighth century, quoted by
+Mrs. Palliser,<a name="FNanchor_502_502" id="FNanchor_502_502"></a><a href="#Footnote_502_502" class="fnanchor">[502]</a> &ldquo;a ouvrir si com je vous dirai n&rsquo;avoit
+meillior ouvriere de Tours jusqu&rsquo;a Cambrai,&rdquo; and her
+grand-daughter Gisela followed in her footsteps. Nearly
+contemporary, is Aelfled&rsquo;s Durham embroidery,<a name="FNanchor_503_503" id="FNanchor_503_503"></a><a href="#Footnote_503_503" class="fnanchor">[503]</a> described
+in the chapter on <a href="#Page_356">English work</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>317]</a></span>
+Christian art before the twelfth century is very often
+rich, usually picturesque, from its fulness of intention;
+sometimes beautiful, when it recalls some echo from the
+East, or some tradition of Greek art;<a name="FNanchor_504_504" id="FNanchor_504_504"></a><a href="#Footnote_504_504" class="fnanchor">[504]</a> but the embroideries
+of those centuries are almost always quaint; this is
+invariably the archaic phase of all early art. Born in the
+catacombs of Rome&mdash;roused by impulses from the
+north, by education in the south, and everywhere encouraged
+by the fostering hand of the Church, and the
+patronage of papal and of royal and imperial houses,&mdash;it
+evolved its forms, and emancipated itself at last from its
+poor and sordid condition; and the Gothic phase of each
+nation attained to its own peculiar growth and characteristics;
+and among them the foremost in the world&rsquo;s
+estimation was the <a href="#Page_356">English school of embroidery</a>, to
+which the next chapter is devoted.</p>
+
+<p>There has been much controversy as to the date of
+the dalmatic of Charlemagne in the Vatican treasury.
+Like every good early piece of Gothic work in Italy, it is
+allotted to the days of Pope Boniface VIII. (thirteenth
+century). But when we examine this splendid relic we
+cannot doubt that it is of a much earlier time, as there
+is nothing Gothic to be found in it. It is full of the
+lingering traces of Greek art (not Byzantine). It
+reminds us most of the mosaics of Santa Pudenziana,
+which are always quoted to prove that Greek art still
+survived in Rome in the eighth century.<a name="FNanchor_505_505" id="FNanchor_505_505"></a><a href="#Footnote_505_505" class="fnanchor">[505]</a> The dalmatic
+has been much restored, but, I believe, most carefully
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>318]</a></span>
+kept to the old lines. It is worked on a thick, dark-blue,
+or purple, satiny silk, which had entirely fallen into little
+stripes, but has been skilfully mended, and the embroidery
+has never been transferred. On the front is
+our Lord in glory, saints below, and angels above, with a
+border of children playing, which is truly Greek. The
+motive of this is the &ldquo;Ibi et Ubi.&rdquo; On the back is the
+Transfiguration, and on the humerals are the sacraments
+of bread and wine. The whole, as art, is beautiful; and
+it is historically most interesting. Lord Lindsay tells
+us that in the dalmatic of Charlemagne, (called that
+of Leo III.) Cola di Rienzi robed himself over his
+armour, and ascended to the Palace of the Popes after
+the manner of the C&aelig;sars, with sounding trumpets before
+him, and followed by his horsemen&mdash;his crown on his head
+and his truncheon in his hand&mdash;&ldquo;Terribile e fantastico.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_506_506" id="FNanchor_506_506"></a><a href="#Footnote_506_506" class="fnanchor">[506]</a></p>
+
+<p>This dalmatic must be ranked first and highest among
+ecclesiastical embroideries. (Plates <a href="#pl53">53</a>, <a href="#pl54">54</a>,
+<a href="#pl55">55</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>Some of the details are curious. The whole of the
+blue satin ground is worked with crosses &ldquo;parsem&eacute;.&rdquo;
+Parts of the design are so adorned with larger and smaller
+Greek crosses&mdash;and others with the starry cross. On
+the shoulder is once embroidered the mystic swastika.<a name="FNanchor_507_507" id="FNanchor_507_507"></a><a href="#Footnote_507_507" class="fnanchor">[507]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 377px;">
+<a name="pl53" id="pl53"></a>
+<img src="images/naap53t.jpg" width="377" height="400"
+alt="Featuring repeated crosses and twisting vines, with numerous human figures" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap53.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Charlemagne&rsquo;s Dalmatic<br />
+The Vatican, Rome</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 362px;">
+<a name="pl54" id="pl54"></a>
+<img src="images/naap54t.jpg" width="362" height="400"
+alt="Crosses and vines, with a circle of figures around a larger, central figure" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap54.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Charlemagne&rsquo;s Dalmatic<br />
+The Vatican, Rome</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 266px;">
+<a name="pl55" id="pl55"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 55.</p>
+<img src="images/naap55t.jpg" width="266" height="400"
+alt="1. Courtly figures in a group; 2. Boys walking near stylised trees" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap55.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Details of Charlemagne&rsquo;s Dalmatic. Vatican Treasury.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl56" id="pl56"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 56.</p>
+<img src="images/naap56t.jpg" width="400" height="203"
+alt="Decorated with images from the life of Christ" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap56.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Cope called &ldquo;of St. Silvester.&rdquo; Treasury of St. John Lateran, Rome. English Embroidery, thirteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Rock says, &ldquo;Those who have seen, in the sacristy of
+St. Peter&rsquo;s at Rome, that beautiful light-blue dalmatic
+said to have been worn by Charlemagne when he sang
+the gospel at High Mass, at the altar vested as a deacon,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>319]</a></span>
+the day he was crowned Emperor in that church by
+Pope Leo III., will remember how plentifully it is
+sprinkled with crosses between its exquisite embroideries,
+so as to make the vestment a real &lsquo;stauracin.&rsquo;&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_508_508" id="FNanchor_508_508"></a><a href="#Footnote_508_508" class="fnanchor">[508]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 246px;">
+<a name="pl57" id="pl57"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 57.</p>
+<img src="images/naap57t.jpg" width="246" height="400"
+alt="Shows various figures. The condition is very good" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap57.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Portion of the Cope at St. John Lateran, showing its condition.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl58" id="pl58"></a>
+<img src="images/naap58t.jpg" width="400" height="186"
+alt="Curving arches, each containing a person or people in medieval garb" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap58.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Pluvial, English, XIII. Century<br />
+Museum at Bologna</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl59" id="pl59"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 59.</p>
+<img src="images/naap59t.jpg" width="400" height="200"
+alt="Featuring Biblical characters and angels, with underlying combined circle and square pattern" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap59.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">The Daroca Cope. Museum at Madrid. Opus Anglicanum, fourteenth century.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 306px;">
+<a name="pl60" id="pl60"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 60.</p>
+<img src="images/naap60t.jpg" width="306" height="400"
+alt="Features extensive metal thread embroidery" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap60.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Portion of the Cope of Boniface VIII., twelfth century. From Anagni. Now in the Vatican
+Collection.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl61" id="pl61"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 61.</p>
+<img src="images/naap61t.jpg" width="400" height="288"
+alt="Madonna and child with an angel on each side of them" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap61.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Altar Frontal from Anagni, Italy.</p>
+
+<p>Signor Galletti, Professor of Embroidery to the Pope,
+says it is undoubtedly of the eighth century. It has
+been suggested that the design is of the date of the
+Exarchate. It is, however, something of infinitely finer
+style; it is noble, simple Greek.</p>
+
+<p>Charlemagne&rsquo;s dalmatic is embroidered mostly in
+gold&mdash;the draperies in basket-work and laid stitches;
+the faces in white silk split-stitch, flat, with finely-drawn
+outlines in black silk. The hair, the shadowy part of the
+draperies, and the clouds are worked in fine gold and
+silver thread with dark outlines. The hands, feet, and
+draperies have a fine bas-relief effect. (Plate <a href="#pl53">53</a>,
+<a href="#pl54">54</a>, <a href="#pl55">55</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;pluvial of St. Silvester,&rdquo; in the church of St.
+John Lateran at Rome, is probably, from its Gothic style,
+of the time of Boniface VIII. (thirteenth century).<a name="FNanchor_509_509" id="FNanchor_509_509"></a><a href="#Footnote_509_509" class="fnanchor">[509]</a> It
+never served St. Silvester, except as being perhaps
+dedicated to him. On seeing it, one is convinced that
+it is English. It has one peculiarity of English Gothic
+design in the canopies being supported by twisted pillars
+of vine-stems, in this case intersected by green shoots,
+and carrying leaves. The angels, the two cherubim
+clothed in peacocks&rsquo; feathers, the fine split-stitch, the gold
+grounding, and the drawing are also distinctly English.</p>
+
+<p>I give an outline of the pluvial from photographs,<a name="FNanchor_510_510" id="FNanchor_510_510"></a><a href="#Footnote_510_510" class="fnanchor">[510]</a> and
+a finished woodcut of the centre to show the style and
+condition of the work. The design is most beautiful, and
+we can only regret the loss of the border, which has
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>320]</a></span>
+been entirely cut off. This shows how elaborate is
+the design, yet how artistically arranged as a whole
+composition. (Plate <a href="#pl56">56</a>, <a href="#pl57">57</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult to settle the precedence between this
+splendid piece of church decoration and the rival pluvial
+of Bologna in the Museo Civico, said to have come from
+the church of San Giacomo. It resembles in style and
+execution that of St. Silvester, but its architectural
+arrangement contains six circles of subjects, worked like
+the other in silk and gold, with gold groundings; and
+both are embroidered on linen. On careful examination
+of this splendid work of art, I have come to the conclusion
+that it is English. (Plate <a href="#pl58">58</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The Daroca cope (lately belonging to the Arch&aelig;ological
+Museum at Madrid) is undoubtedly English.
+We can claim it by its peculiar shrine-work, and the
+twined columns on the orphreys; by the cherubim, by
+the peacock-feathered angels, and by the form of the
+panels enclosing the different subjects, from the &ldquo;Life
+of Our Lord.&rdquo; (Plate <a href="#pl59">59</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>The cope of Boniface VIII. in the Vatican came from
+the church of his native place, Anagni (plate <a href="#pl60">60</a>), where
+are still very curious old embroideries (see Hon. and
+Rev. I. Clifford&rsquo;s list of embroideries in <a href="#appendix_v">Appendix 5</a>).
+Some appear extremely ancient, but there is no sign by
+which they may be dated. Some are probably of the
+thirteenth century, and are very coarse Italian work, though
+finely designed (plate <a href="#pl61">61</a>). There are doubtless many interesting
+specimens still to be found in the sacristies of
+Italian churches. But they have generally been transferred
+to museums.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 226px;">
+<a name="pl62" id="pl62"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 62.</p>
+<img src="images/naap62t.jpg" width="226" height="400"
+alt="Each featuring two figures, each beneath an arch" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap62.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">1. From Tomb in Worcester Cathedral, of Bishop Walter de Cantilupe, consecrated 1236.<br />
+2. Embroidered Cope at Aix in Switzerland.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 377px;">
+<a name="pl63" id="pl63"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 63.</p>
+<img src="images/naap63t.jpg" width="377" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap63.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Mitre of Thomas &agrave; Becket at Sens, showing the Scandinavian Fylfot Cross
+(thirteenth century).<br />
+Jewelled Cross on Rose-coloured Cope at Rheims (twelfth century).</p>
+
+<p>In the tomb of Walter de Cantilupe (eighteenth century)
+at Worcester, were found the remains of a dress which is
+decidedly of an earlier date&mdash;evidently of Oriental material,
+but Anglo-Saxon work&mdash;so exactly resembling in style that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>321]</a></span>
+at Aix given by Bock,<a name="FNanchor_511_511" id="FNanchor_511_511"></a><a href="#Footnote_511_511" class="fnanchor">[511]</a> that we can hardly doubt that
+they proceeded from the same workshop, or at least are of
+coeval design. Both are worked with a dark red outline
+on a red silk ground. The faces and hands are in white
+silk&mdash;all the rest between the outlines is gold thread, flat
+stitch. Bock places its date as antecedent to the tenth
+century, and indeed there is no reason to doubt that this is
+correct, though the Worcester fragment was taken out of a
+tomb of two centuries later. As these garments were
+stored in the church treasuries; and as antiquity (without
+an historical interest) was then of no value, these old
+clothes, holy by their use and office, yet by their shabbiness
+unfit for public show, may have been reverently
+disposed of in clothing the bodies of departed priests,
+who probably had worn those very vestments, when
+officiating at the altar near which they were laid to
+rest. When the date of the wearer of the garment is
+ascertained, the dress cannot be of a later period, but it
+may have belonged to a much earlier one. The architectural
+part of these two embroideries, i.e. the canopy
+work, resembles that of the Bayeux tapestry. Both
+appear to be English. (Plate <a href="#pl62">62</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 500px;">
+<a name="pl64" id="pl64"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 64.</p>
+<img src="images/naap64.png" width="500" height="438"
+alt="Figures surrounded with curving vines, and a vine border" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">From Tomb of Bishop William of Blois, died 1236. Worcester Cathedral Library.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 257px;">
+<a name="pl65" id="pl65"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 65.</p>
+<img src="images/naap65t.jpg" width="257" height="400"
+alt="Showing human figures, some surrounded with an oval border" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap65.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">A portion of the Mantle embroidered by Gisela for her husband, St. Stephen of
+Hungary. From Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Kleinodien.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the eleventh century, and for some part of the twelfth,
+needlework design in England, France, and Germany
+first assumed a phase, which may be called the metal-work
+style. It is to be found on the robes and mitres of
+St. Thomas of Canterbury (Thomas &agrave; Becket) at Sens<a name="FNanchor_512_512" id="FNanchor_512_512"></a><a href="#Footnote_512_512" class="fnanchor">[512]</a>&mdash;on
+the famous rose-red cope of satin embroidered with
+gold and pearls at Rheims (which we should incline to
+believe is English)<a name="FNanchor_513_513" id="FNanchor_513_513"></a><a href="#Footnote_513_513" class="fnanchor">[513]</a> (plate <a href="#pl63">63</a>). The fragment of the cope
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>322]</a></span>
+of William of Blois, found in his tomb, is in this style.
+(He died in 1236.) The fragments of this curious garment,
+worked in gold on a purple silk material, evidently
+Oriental, are also preserved under glass in the Cathedral
+Library at Worcester (plate <a href="#pl64">64</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the finest instances of ecclesiastical needlework,
+and, indeed, we may say, of ecclesiastical art of the
+twelfth century, is the coronation robe of St. Stephen of
+Hungary, decorated by his queen, Gisela,<a name="FNanchor_514_514" id="FNanchor_514_514"></a><a href="#Footnote_514_514" class="fnanchor">[514]</a> which is preserved
+in the Imperial Treasury at Ofen (plate <a href="#pl65">65</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Of this authentic historical work we have the whole
+story. The original design,<a name="FNanchor_515_515" id="FNanchor_515_515"></a><a href="#Footnote_515_515" class="fnanchor">[515]</a> drawn on linen, carefully
+coloured, is to be seen at the Benedictine convent abbey
+of Martinsburg, near Raab in Hungary. The care with
+which the work was carried out shows the value then
+placed on such undertakings considered as art, and it
+has been justified by its survival of 800 years; time
+having spared it owing to its perfect materials and
+manipulation, till it received cruel injuries by being
+carried off and thrown into the bog of Orsava during the
+revolution under Kossuth. It was, however, recovered
+and restored, and was worn by the present emperor at
+the splendid and picturesque ceremonial of his coronation
+at Pesth. The design reminds us of the mosaics in the
+apse of Santa Maria Maggiore and other churches at
+Rome, and it is extremely beautiful. It consists of an
+arrangement of medallions and inscriptions, with &ldquo;metal-work&rdquo;
+ornaments in bands alternated with smaller medallions.
+Yet the figures are not so finely drawn as those
+of the Durham relics of the beginning of the tenth century.
+The drawing of the figures of the Gisela mantle resembles
+those on the garments of Walter de Cantilupe (plate <a href="#pl62">62</a>),
+which, from their design and stitches, seem to be of this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_323" id="Page_323">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>323]</a></span>
+period. The architectural parts are very like in design
+to those of the Bayeux tapestry, though they are infinitely
+better, and they have Lombardic characteristics.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 245px;">
+<a name="pl66" id="pl66"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 66.</p>
+<img src="images/naap66t.jpg" width="245" height="400"
+alt="Figures within circular knotwork motifs, with a central grouping of oval and surrounding circles" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap66.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Portion of the Coronation Mantle of Henry II. of Germany, embroidered by the
+Empress Kunigunda. From Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Kleinodien.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It appears that Queen Gisela had personally embroidered
+this many-figured, richly-embroidered representation
+of the &ldquo;Ibi et Ubi&rdquo;&mdash;The Saviour in His glory as
+Victor over death and hell, seated on the bow of heaven,
+surrounded by choirs of angels and saints, and prophets
+of the Old Testament; below on thrones, are the twelve
+Apostles. The figures are worked in Oriental gold thread
+on Byzantine crimson silk.</p>
+
+<p>In contrast to the Ubi, the heavenly hereafter, the
+queen, in the lowest broad hem (border) has represented
+the Present, the then &ldquo;Ibi,&rdquo; by the leaders of the Hungarian
+magnates and the half-figures of the royal givers
+in large gold-embroidered medallions.</p>
+
+<p>The next finest specimen of eleventh century needlework
+was the gift of Henry II., Emperor of Germany,
+and his wife Kunigunda, to the cathedral of Bamberg,
+where it still exists<a name="FNanchor_516_516" id="FNanchor_516_516"></a><a href="#Footnote_516_516" class="fnanchor">[516]</a> (plate <a href="#pl66">66</a>).</p>
+
+<p>This, again, consists of medallions great and small, of
+which the borders, gracefully intertwined, form a large
+composition<a name="FNanchor_517_517" id="FNanchor_517_517"></a><a href="#Footnote_517_517" class="fnanchor">[517]</a> covering the whole surface of the imperial
+pallium it once adorned. But in the fifteenth century it
+was transferred from its original purple silk ground to
+one of dark-blue damask, and altered to the form of a
+chasuble, as we see it now. The general design resembles
+that of the mantle of Gisela.</p>
+
+<p>Bock calls the style of these works Romanesque;
+and he thinks that they show a Saracenic influence.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_324" id="Page_324">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>324]</a></span>
+They appear, however, as I said before, to be rather
+Lombardic than anything else. The reader is referred to
+Dr. Bock&rsquo;s preface for further lists of Continental works
+and workers.</p>
+
+<p>Abb&eacute; Martin considers that in the thirteenth century
+the opening out of Gothic art was extended to the laity,
+and was really the sign of a great social revolution.
+Gothic art had till then only served the Church, and had
+been by circumstances closed to the people, who were
+yet unfitted, by their want of education, for artistic
+life.<a name="FNanchor_518_518" id="FNanchor_518_518"></a><a href="#Footnote_518_518" class="fnanchor">[518]</a></p>
+
+<p>Art was till then almost exclusively produced by the
+monastic orders, into which all talent had drifted. But
+about this time it fell into the hands of architects and
+other originators of design, who presently banded themselves
+together into brotherhoods and guilds.<a name="FNanchor_519_519" id="FNanchor_519_519"></a><a href="#Footnote_519_519" class="fnanchor">[519]</a></p>
+
+<p>Embroidery till the thirteenth century had been entirely
+in the hands of cloistered women, and the ladies
+who practised it learned their craft with the rest of their
+education in convents, and their work was simply
+ecclesiastical and dedicatory. At that period social
+burgher life in the towns had first begun to develope its
+love of luxury,<a name="FNanchor_520_520" id="FNanchor_520_520"></a><a href="#Footnote_520_520" class="fnanchor">[520]</a> and to follow the fashions of other
+countries, and the changes of forms in dress and
+furnishing which came from foreign parts, though frequently
+checked by sumptuary laws. This social movement
+preceded everywhere political and religious revolutions.
+Embroidery then became customary in lay dress,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_325" id="Page_325">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>325]</a></span>
+and lost its religious character, or rather its religious
+monopoly.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl67" id="pl67"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 67.</p>
+<img src="images/naap67t.jpg" width="400" height="221"
+alt="Human and angelic figures in combined circle and square motifs, with heraldic motifs forming the border" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap67.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">The Syon Cope, South Kensington Museum (thirteenth century).</p>
+
+<p>We find that about this time throughout the Church
+the forms of ecclesiastical garments were considerably
+modified, and made more comfortable for the officiating
+priest; and the old traditional trabea was cut down to
+the medi&aelig;val chasuble.</p>
+
+<p>English needlework of the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries had its own peculiar style of metal-work
+pattern, resembling the hinges and spreading central
+ornament branching across the wood-work on our church
+doors.<a name="FNanchor_521_521" id="FNanchor_521_521"></a><a href="#Footnote_521_521" class="fnanchor">[521]</a></p>
+
+<p>When we meet with this kind of design on foreign
+church vestments, we feel inclined always to claim the
+merit of them for the English school. The foreign metal-work
+patterns are much lighter and more geometrical,
+and have not the firmness and at the same time the
+fancy that we find in our own of the twelfth century;
+and they remind us rather of the goldsmiths&rsquo; than of the
+blacksmiths&rsquo; craft. The English embroidery of this style
+has the character of &ldquo;appliqu&eacute;,&rdquo; i.e. one material laid
+upon another and fastened down.</p>
+
+<p>There are differences of opinion as to the accepted
+characteristics of the &ldquo;opus Anglicanum,&rdquo; which in the
+twelfth century began to be celebrated.<a name="FNanchor_522_522" id="FNanchor_522_522"></a><a href="#Footnote_522_522" class="fnanchor">[522]</a> Some say that
+it was principally remarkable for its admixture of jewellers&rsquo;
+work in the borders, or the imitation of it in gold thread.
+Some give the attempt to reproduce the effect of bas-reliefs
+in the embroidered groups of figures; others, again,
+point out the peculiarities of the &ldquo;laid stitches&rdquo; in gold,
+which so permeated the linen grounding, as to give the
+look of a material woven with gold thread. We may
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_326" id="Page_326">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>326]</a></span>
+fairly say that <em>all</em> these, which were then ingenious
+novelties, combined to give this opus Anglicanum its
+value, as well for its beauty as for its ingenuity.<a name="FNanchor_523_523" id="FNanchor_523_523"></a><a href="#Footnote_523_523" class="fnanchor">[523]</a></p>
+
+<p>The Syon cope, (now one of the treasures of art
+in the Kensington Museum), is a perfect example of
+this work; and is also, according to Bock, &ldquo;one of the
+most beautiful among the liturgical vestments of the
+olden period anywhere to be found in Christendom.&rdquo;
+Dr. Rock&rsquo;s study of this piece of thirteenth century work
+in his &ldquo;Catalogue of the Embroideries in the South Kensington
+Museum&rdquo; is most interesting, as exemplifying
+all the characteristics of the Gothic art of the period,
+in its historical, &aelig;sthetic, heraldic, liturgical, emblematical,
+and textile aspects. I have ventured to transcribe
+the whole of this notice in the <a href="#appendix_vi">Appendix</a>.<a name="FNanchor_524_524" id="FNanchor_524_524"></a><a href="#Footnote_524_524" class="fnanchor">[524]</a> I will
+only add here that the one error into which I think he
+has fallen, is in naming the stitches. The &ldquo;diapers&rdquo; are
+not opus plumarium, but opus pulvinarium, of the class
+of &ldquo;laid stitches.&rdquo; This was ascertained by examining
+the back of the material under the ancient lining by a
+most competent judge<a name="FNanchor_525_525" id="FNanchor_525_525"></a><a href="#Footnote_525_525" class="fnanchor">[525]</a> in my presence, and so a long-disputed
+point is set at rest (plate <a href="#pl67">67</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Ciampini says that in the twelfth century, the arts went
+hand in hand, each lending something to the design of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_327" id="Page_327">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>327]</a></span>
+the others. This, however, has always been the
+case.<a name="FNanchor_526_526" id="FNanchor_526_526"></a><a href="#Footnote_526_526" class="fnanchor">[526]</a> (Whether they greatly profited by such exchanges
+is another question.) I cannot but agree with Semper&rsquo;s
+often-reiterated theory, that textile art was a leading
+influence and constant suggestion to <em>all</em> art from the
+beginning. And the way that ecclesiastical decoration
+was so led in the twelfth century is very apparent. In
+the new art of stained mosaic glass in church windows
+we see the reflex of the flat illuminations and embroideries
+of that period; and while these were being influenced
+by metal-work, painting was being transferred again to
+textile art, pictures being woven as well as embroidered,<a name="FNanchor_527_527" id="FNanchor_527_527"></a><a href="#Footnote_527_527" class="fnanchor">[527]</a>
+while textiles were seeking to emulate reliefs in a forced
+and unnatural manner, more ingenious than artistic.</p>
+
+<p>While England in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries
+was exciting the admiration of all European artists by
+the imitation of bas-reliefs in needlework, by the arrangement
+of the light and shadows in the &ldquo;lay&rdquo; of the stitches,
+and by a little help from the pressure of hot irons, to
+accentuate its apparent indentations, a similar inroad
+into the sister art of sculpture, or, perhaps, we should say
+a similar adaptation from the sister art, was going on
+in Switzerland and Germany, especially in Bavaria.</p>
+
+<p>There was a clever and artistic mode of stuffing and
+raising of the important parts of the embroidered design,
+such as the figures, the coats-of-arms, or the emblems
+of the Passion, &amp;c., in sacred subjects in imitation of
+high-relief. There are some beautiful specimens that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_328" id="Page_328">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>328]</a></span>
+have been evidently designed in the School of Cranach.
+I will only mention the orphrey, of which the subject is
+the &ldquo;Tree of Jesse,&rdquo; exhibited at Zurich, 1883, the
+chasuble at Coire in the Grisons, and the little triptych
+in the museum of the Wasser-Kirche in Zurich. This
+last is exquisitely pretty. The finest, however, is the
+altar-piece belonging to Prince Borghese at Rome, which
+is certainly German in its design.<a name="FNanchor_528_528" id="FNanchor_528_528"></a><a href="#Footnote_528_528" class="fnanchor">[528]</a></p>
+
+<p>Beautiful as these few examples are, they yet show the
+mistake of mixing different forms of art. The designs
+are reduced to a compromise between painting, sculpture,
+and needlework, which excites interest and perhaps
+amusement rather than admiration.</p>
+
+<p>Glass painting, of which we have no notice till the
+tenth century, shares many of the rules which hitherto
+had applied only to embroideries. It was intended to
+give colour and interest to those parts of a building
+which otherwise were cold and lifeless. <em>Flatness</em> in the
+composition, and the avoidance of pictorial effects
+(especially any perspectives) show that it was intended
+for conventional decoration, rather than as a rival to
+mural painting. There is no doubt that it generally
+superseded textile hangings, because it supplied the want
+of colour for the large traceried windows just coming into
+architectural design, toning down the crudeness of the
+masses of light, and tinting the walls and pavements on
+which it was cast.</p>
+
+<p>When coloured glass came into general use, embroidered
+hangings mostly disappeared. Whatever may have
+been the cause, there is no doubt of the coincidence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 273px;">
+<a name="pl68" id="pl68"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 68.</p>
+<img src="images/naap68t.jpg" width="273" height="400"
+alt="Depicting a woman and child with other people. Shows visible signs of wear and tear" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap68.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">An embroidered Panel, designed by Pollaiolo, and worked by Paulo da Verona.<br />
+In the Church of St. Giovanni at Florence (fifteenth century).</p>
+
+<p>The applied embroideries of the north of Germany
+were evidently inspired by the newly-discovered art of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_329" id="Page_329">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>329]</a></span>
+glass-painting, and resemble its designs, both in the
+compositions of figures and heraldic subjects. Of
+this we may remember examples in the Scandinavian
+Exhibition at South Kensington in 1881.<a name="FNanchor_529_529" id="FNanchor_529_529"></a><a href="#Footnote_529_529" class="fnanchor">[529]</a></p>
+
+<p>All the most beautiful and picturesque needlework that
+we possess of the true ecclesiastical Gothic type, and
+which belongs to the perfect flowering of the art, is of
+the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, just before the
+spirit of the Renaissance crept northward over Europe,
+preceding the Reformation and its iconoclastic effacements.
+This remark especially applies to England.<a name="FNanchor_530_530" id="FNanchor_530_530"></a><a href="#Footnote_530_530" class="fnanchor">[530]</a>
+The art of representing Scriptural subjects in flat stitches,
+as medallions accompanied by beautiful foliage, and
+heraldic designs, is illustrated to us by the palls belonging
+to several London companies&mdash;and by those belonging to
+churches, especially that of the church at Dunstable, in
+which court ladies, knights, and saints form a most
+artistic border&mdash;the costumes being of the date of Henry
+VII. (see p. <a href="#Page_378">378</a>, <i>post</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The perfection of the embroideries of Flanders of that
+period has never been exceeded, and it continues still to
+produce the most splendidly executed compositions in
+gold and silken needlework, of every variety of stitches.
+The Flemish work and its peculiar mode of laying golden
+grounds with flat-laid thread stitched down in patterns
+was carried into Italy, where great artists did not disdain
+to design for textiles. I give, as an instance, Vasari&rsquo;s
+account of the embroidered set of vestments designed by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_330" id="Page_330">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>330]</a></span>
+Antonio Pollaiolo for the church of San Giovanni at
+Florence. These were carried out by Paolo da Verona,
+and took twenty-six years for their completion; and
+they were only one set of vestments, &ldquo;embroidered by
+the most subtle master of the art, Paolo da Verona, a
+man most eminent in his calling, and of incomparable
+ingenuity (<i>ingenio</i>). The figures are no less admirably
+executed with the needle than drawn by Pollaiolo with
+the pencil,&mdash;and thus we are largely indebted to one
+master for his design, and to the other for his patience&rdquo;
+(plate <a href="#pl68">68</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of the fifteenth century the Gothic
+styles were replaced by the Renaissance, but the technical
+part of the art of embroidery for the churches lost none
+of its value. All the talent of the artist and the ingenuity
+of the craft continued to be lavished on altar decoration
+and priestly garments, in Flanders, Spain, France, and
+Italy. But the solemnity of these works was certainly
+impaired by their being emancipated from the traditional
+ecclesiastical forms and their accompanying symbolism,
+to which the old designers had so faithfully adhered.
+Ecclesiastical decorative art became, so to speak,
+unorthodox.</p>
+
+<p>As a proof of this secular, I might almost say irreverent
+spirit, I quote Bock&rsquo;s accusation against Queen Mary of
+Hungary, who in her embroideries, preserved at Aix-la-Chapelle,
+is said to have represented herself as the Queen
+of Heaven, surrounded by her adorers on their knees.</p>
+
+<p>There is no doubt, however, that needlework aspired
+in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries to the highest
+place in art, and was enthusiastically cultivated by women
+of rank and position, of artistic taste, who still gave
+themselves to the productions of beautiful decorations,
+though they no longer confined themselves to ecclesiastical
+motives.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl69" id="pl69"></a>
+<img src="images/naap69t.jpg" width="400" height="255"
+alt="A central castle motif and a figure above, with stumpwork vines and a fringe" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap69.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Spanish Altar Frontal, Gold Embroidery XVII. Cen<sup>y</sup></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_331" id="Page_331">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>331]</a></span>
+Gabrielle of Bourbon and Isabella, sister of Louis
+XI., spent their lives in preparing and overlooking fine
+works in their own apartments, and assembled around
+them noble damsels for this purpose. Anne of Brittany,
+who lived in an artistic atmosphere, had her own
+workshop of embroidery. Pictorial design now asserted
+its dominion over needlework, which accepted it, just
+as it had been influenced in the eleventh and twelfth
+centuries by metal-work motives, and, before then, by
+the art of mosaic.</p>
+
+<p>In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the Spanish
+pl&acirc;teresque embroideries (adopted and modified in
+Flanders and in France), consisting of heavy gold and
+silver arabesques of mutilated vegetable forms, superseded
+the graceful Renaissance of the classical taste.<a name="FNanchor_531_531" id="FNanchor_531_531"></a><a href="#Footnote_531_531" class="fnanchor">[531]</a>
+These Spanish embroideries forced their way by their
+gorgeousness, in spite of their want of real beauty.
+They varied their effects with pearls, corals, and precious
+stones<a name="FNanchor_532_532" id="FNanchor_532_532"></a><a href="#Footnote_532_532" class="fnanchor">[532]</a> (plate <a href="#pl69">69</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Spain, though she was much despoiled during the
+Peninsular War by her French invaders, yet still possesses
+some of the finest ecclesiastical work in the sacristies of
+Seville, Granada, Burgos, Toledo, Segovia, and Barcelona.
+Don Juan F. Riano<a name="FNanchor_533_533" id="FNanchor_533_533"></a><a href="#Footnote_533_533" class="fnanchor">[533]</a> says that Toledo is a perfect
+museum of the work of the sixteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Sicilian and Neapolitan ecclesiastical needlework
+showed the Spanish taste of their masters, but not its
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_332" id="Page_332">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>332]</a></span>
+perfection. The use of pearls, coral, and beads<a name="FNanchor_534_534" id="FNanchor_534_534"></a><a href="#Footnote_534_534" class="fnanchor">[534]</a> prevailed,
+and we may in general affix its date and its origin
+to each specimen by the silver largely used in the two
+kingdoms of Sicily and rarely elsewhere; also by the
+extreme brilliancy or rather the gaudiness of its
+colouring.</p>
+
+<p>English ecclesiastical work came suddenly to an end at
+the Reformation. What was not destroyed is to be found
+in the possession of the old Roman Catholic families who
+have religiously collected the residue, preserved by
+concealment or by being overlooked; and in the wardrobes
+of Continental sacristies.<a name="FNanchor_535_535" id="FNanchor_535_535"></a><a href="#Footnote_535_535" class="fnanchor">[535]</a></p>
+
+<p>But the church decorations of France, Germany,
+Flanders, Spain, and Italy have meantime, for the last
+300 years, gone through all the variations of lay styles,
+emanating from anything but ecclesiastical motives. First,
+the Renaissance&rsquo;s semi-pagan (so-called) arabesques;
+then the Spanish pl&acirc;teresque, which was a revolt against
+their own bastard Moorish-Gothic; next, the &ldquo;Louis
+Quatorze,&rdquo; followed by the &ldquo;Louis Quinze&rdquo; and the
+&ldquo;Louis Seize,&rdquo; light, frivolous, and elegant, essentially
+social, and not serious.<a name="FNanchor_536_536" id="FNanchor_536_536"></a><a href="#Footnote_536_536" class="fnanchor">[536]</a> Then a return to the classical
+of the Empire; and finally, since the beginning of this
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_333" id="Page_333">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>333]</a></span>
+century, to a conglomerate, lawless imitation of forms and
+styles, utterly meaningless and uninteresting, as well as
+wanting in ecclesiastical dignity and decorum. We are
+glad to believe that we are ourselves striving to reconstruct
+some sort of style that shall be able to express poetical and
+religious ideas, especially in our church decorations. At
+any rate, it must be of some use to understand the hidden
+springs which once raised ecclesiastical embroideries,
+and especially those of England, so high as objects of
+beauty, worthy to adorn the house of God, and to be for
+centuries valued as monuments of pious industry and
+thoughtful art.</p>
+
+<p>One of these hidden springs and ancient underlying
+motives was the symbolism which gave a religious
+intention to the smallest design for the humblest use,
+provided that its purpose was the service of the
+Church.</p>
+
+<p>Sacred symbolism is a subject to which I have alluded
+more than once; and it has played such an important
+part in the construction and growth of ecclesiastical art,
+that I cannot but give a short notice to the subject under
+this aspect.</p>
+
+<p>Symbolism in art is what metaphor is in speech. It
+is the representation to the eye of an object which
+suggests something else besides itself.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Rock tells us that the symbolism of Scripture texts
+was given to the world in a book by St. Melito, Bishop
+of Sardis, <small>A.D.</small> 170. Its title is &ldquo;The Key.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_537_537" id="FNanchor_537_537"></a><a href="#Footnote_537_537" class="fnanchor">[537]</a> In the
+fourth century were produced two great works on Scriptural
+symbols, that of St. Basil in his homilies on the six
+days of the creation, and that by St. Ambrose; both
+entitled Hexameron.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_334" id="Page_334">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>334]</a></span>
+We meet this subject at every turn in the succeeding
+centuries, till in the twelfth we find it formulated and
+divided into branches&mdash;Bestiaria, Volucraria, and Lapidaria&mdash;and
+each type had frequently more than one
+meaning. Thus a lion represented power, sovereignty,
+dominion; also the &ldquo;House of Judah;&rdquo; a hare the
+emblem of man&rsquo;s soul; a peacock that of wisdom
+(many-eyed). The ruby represents love. The pearl,
+innocence. The twelve stones in a breastplate, the
+twelve tribes of Israel.<a name="FNanchor_538_538" id="FNanchor_538_538"></a><a href="#Footnote_538_538" class="fnanchor">[538]</a> Trees and flowers had also their
+symbolical meanings, though we are not aware of their
+being recorded in any medi&aelig;val book. We know that the
+vine is the tree of life; the stem of Jesse, the sacramental
+emblem; that the lily stands for purity, the woodbine for
+chastity, and the rose for religious ecstasy. The crowned
+lily was always the special emblem of the Virgin.</p>
+
+<p>These symbols had many of them a distant source,
+and had been, as I have already indicated, emblematic
+of other inner meanings in the expression of pagan faiths.
+The tree of life was Babylonian; the horn, Persian; the
+fire-sticks of the prehistoric cross, Egyptian or Indian;
+and the composite animals representing many qualities,
+Ninevite (probably Accadian).<a name="FNanchor_539_539" id="FNanchor_539_539"></a><a href="#Footnote_539_539" class="fnanchor">[539]</a></p>
+
+<p>All these were utilized, so that their already accepted
+uses should be helps and adjuncts, instead of impediments
+to the appreciation of divine truths; in the same
+way that &ldquo;all that was lovely and of good repute&rdquo; in
+the belief and morals of the ancient peoples, reasserted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_335" id="Page_335">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>335]</a></span>
+and purified, was claimed by the new teachers as types
+and antitypes. The symbolism of colours has been
+always considered very important in liturgical decoration,<a name="FNanchor_540_540" id="FNanchor_540_540"></a><a href="#Footnote_540_540" class="fnanchor">[540]</a>
+and their meanings are discussed in the chapter on
+<a href="#Page_175">colour</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The mystical colours, as has been already stated, are
+five&mdash;red, blue, purple, white, and gold. These the
+Christian Church inherited from the Levitical law, and
+continued faithful to them till the modern Roman use
+introduced green and black. The Church of England
+before the Reformation never allowed any but the original
+five mystic colours.</p>
+
+<p>The symbolism of ecclesiastical embroideries, as well
+as that of all Christian art, being intended to illustrate
+the truths of Christianity by the teaching of the eye, the
+great symbol of our faith, the <em>Cross</em>, naturally drew to
+itself all its prehistoric forms as being the prophetic types
+of the &ldquo;true cross.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The earliest form of the prehistoric cross, <img src="images/naa02.png" width="70" height="69" alt="Prehistoric cross" />, is
+supposed to refer to the worship of the sun, and is said
+to be formed of two fire-sticks (for producing fire by
+friction) laid across each other. This is almost universal
+in prehistoric, archaic, classical, and Christian art to the
+thirteenth century. The next most ancient form is a
+broken cross, thus, <img src="images/naa03.png" width="70" height="61" alt="Broken cross" />, said to be the double of the
+Tau, or Egyptian sign of life, and claimed by the Rabbins
+as having been the sign in blood, which stopped the hand
+of the angel of death, over the doors of the Israelites at
+the first Passover. This afterwards was called the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_336" id="Page_336">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>336]</a></span>
+&ldquo;Gammadion,&rdquo; from its likeness to a doubled Greek gamma,
+and it was also said to symbolize the &ldquo;corner-stone.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_541_541" id="FNanchor_541_541"></a><a href="#Footnote_541_541" class="fnanchor">[541]</a>
+The third commonest form, apparently a modification of
+that of the fire-sticks, <img src="images/naa04.png" width="70" height="70" alt="Fylfote cross" />, is to be found throughout
+Celtic and Scandinavian art, and was called in
+England &ldquo;the fylfote&rdquo; (from its likeness to the arms
+of the Isle of Man), and likewise &ldquo;the Gammadion,&rdquo;
+though it shows another source than the Greek letter.</p>
+
+<p>From these three forms already in use, added to that
+of the Crucifixion, endless varieties were composed to
+suit the ecclesiastical taste and requirements of different
+national styles of symbolical decoration. I refer my
+readers to plate <a href="#pl26">26</a> in the chapter on <a href="#Page_82">patterns</a> for a few
+of these from different sources. They are extremely suggestive.
+I have there entered more fully into the subject,
+regarding it as a fertile pattern motive in textile art.<a name="FNanchor_542_542" id="FNanchor_542_542"></a><a href="#Footnote_542_542" class="fnanchor">[542]</a></p>
+
+<p>The cross &ldquo;bearing twelve fruits for the saving of the
+nations&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_543_543" id="FNanchor_543_543"></a><a href="#Footnote_543_543" class="fnanchor">[543]</a> is so like some of the representations of the
+Persian or Indian Tree of Life, that the transmission and
+adoption of the symbolic form is evident. The cross
+(plate <a href="#pl63">63</a>) is a good medi&aelig;val example, and is taken
+from the celebrated rose-coloured cope at Rheims,
+embroidered with gold and pearls on a rose-coloured
+satin ground.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 296px;">
+<a name="pl70" id="pl70"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 70.</p>
+<img src="images/naap70t.png" width="296" height="400"
+alt="Featuring people in Roman style" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap70.png">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="topcapt smcap">Ivory Consular Diptych.</p>
+
+<p class="caption">1. In the Wasser-Kirche Museum, Zurich. Sixth century.<br />
+2. Of an earlier period, and finer workmanship, at Halberstadt. No date given.</p>
+
+<p>The Ro&euml;s is an ecclesiastical pattern of wide use and
+of very long descent, often named in ancient Church
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_337" id="Page_337">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>337]</a></span>
+inventories. It is sometimes called the &ldquo;Wheel and
+Plate.&rdquo; Its origin is probably Oriental, but it certainly
+was adopted by the Romans as the motive of their
+triumphal garments, the <i>tog&aelig; pict&aelig;</i>, worn in the processional
+return of a conqueror, whether he were a general
+or a sovereign. The first motive was a surface covered
+with circles, closely touching each other, and containing
+figures which had a reference to their purpose. In
+Christian times the heads of saints were sometimes inserted,
+especially in that form of the Ro&euml;s called the
+chrysoclavus, from the intersticial ornament between the
+circles.</p>
+
+<p>I have written (p. <a href="#Page_308">308-9</a>) about the Trabea, which on
+the Roman consular ivory diptychs of several centuries
+is so invariably embroidered with this same clavus
+pattern (plate <a href="#pl70">70</a>) that we must conclude that it had a
+meaning and a tradition.</p>
+
+<p>The very ancient superstition that driving in a nail is a
+fortunate rite, may have been connected with the pattern
+called the clavus; and the chrysoclavus, from being
+merely a nail pattern, became consecrated in Christian
+art as representing the heads of the nails of the
+Crucifixion, and hence its early Christian name.<a name="FNanchor_544_544" id="FNanchor_544_544"></a><a href="#Footnote_544_544" class="fnanchor">[544]</a> It was
+originally filled in with a radiated ornament like the
+sun; (probably the first motive of this pattern, which
+seems to be the same as the Egyptian sun-cross,) and
+its peculiar decoration remained in possession of the
+descriptive name &ldquo;palmated,&rdquo; though it is difficult to
+discover in it any likeness to the palm branch or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_338" id="Page_338">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>338]</a></span>
+tree, unless it is supposed to resemble it as seen from
+above.</p>
+
+<p>The toga triumphalis was also called the toga picta,
+because its precious purple fabric was covered with
+gorgeous embroideries. After it had been worn at the
+triumph or festival, by the victorious general, the distinguished
+noble, or the Emperor, it was laid by and
+dedicated in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Thus
+these palmated triumphal patterns, and their traditional
+decorations, having by their dedication to the gods
+assumed a religious character, were woven for Christian
+ecclesiastical use during the dark ages, and were repeated
+in Sicily and Spain down to the beginning of the fifteenth
+century.<a name="FNanchor_545_545" id="FNanchor_545_545"></a><a href="#Footnote_545_545" class="fnanchor">[545]</a></p>
+
+<p>I have elsewhere spoken of the &ldquo;cloud pattern,&rdquo; which
+is very ancient, Chinese, Indian, and medi&aelig;val. Its use
+has always been for celestial subjects in embroidery, either
+isolating or supporting spiritual figures. This was appropriated
+by ecclesiastical art, and we find it nowhere else
+in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>This sketch of the history of ecclesiastical needlework,
+(necessarily incomplete from want of space), is founded
+on the works of Semper, Bock, Rock, and the comparison
+of many specimens in collections and exhibitions
+in London and elsewhere. Auberville absolutely places
+before us the materials as well as the patterns of the
+weaving of the Christian era, as well as fragments of
+Egyptian textiles, in his beautiful book on Tissues.</p>
+
+<p>For forms and patterns we cannot do better than study
+Bock&rsquo;s liturgical chapters and their illustrations, as well
+as Dr. Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Church of our Fathers.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The stitchery of Christian art has been discussed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_339" id="Page_339">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>339]</a></span>
+in the chapter on <a href="#Page_194">stitches</a>, and I repeat that there is
+nothing new in the treatment of solid embroideries, (lace
+stitches having been the only innovation of the last 400
+years), though many of the ancient stitches have lost
+their distinctiveness, and fallen into a pitiful style by
+gradual descent which reached its lowest point in the
+early part of this century, as is shown by the robes
+embroidered for the coronation of Charles X. in the
+museum of the Louvre.</p>
+
+<p>In the commencement of this our nineteenth century,
+there was a total cessation of embroidery, which had, for
+nearly 2000 years held its own as an art, apart from
+all others; perhaps a secondary one&mdash;yet mixed up with
+every refinement and luxury of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>Its revival in England, especially, is owing to many
+causes. As ecclesiastical decoration I have already
+attributed it to the arch&aelig;ological tendencies of our day,
+as well as to the &aelig;sthetic sentiment which protests, after
+so long a period of abstention, against the puritanical
+bareness and coldness of our national forms of worship.
+The obliteration of embroidery from the list of the arts
+was more complete in England than elsewhere; as the
+church of Rome still continued to be adorned with
+beautiful work on altar-cloths and frontals, and priest&rsquo;s
+dresses, which, though too much regulated in design by
+the lay tastes and fashions of the time, have combined
+to keep up a traditional school of needlework throughout
+the Continent.</p>
+
+<p>Exhibitions abroad and at home have shown us what
+a latent power in art embroidery still preserves, and
+architects have employed the women&rsquo;s needles to give
+colour and beauty to the decaying churches, which have
+been restored to their original architectural effects by
+careful copies of what remained in wood, stone, and
+glass.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_340" id="Page_340">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>340]</a></span>
+The number of new churches has also given rise to the
+production, in more than one semi-conventual establishment,
+of beautiful and effective works, such as the altar-cloth
+at Durham, and those at Canterbury and Worcester.
+Such works have revived the impulse of artistic and
+ecclesiastical taste, and in many small churches we have
+seen beautifully embroidered altar decorations.<a name="FNanchor_546_546" id="FNanchor_546_546"></a><a href="#Footnote_546_546" class="fnanchor">[546]</a></p>
+
+<p>There are, however, many amateurs who are perhaps
+mistresses of the craft of needlework, and who are yet
+not educated sufficiently to design a really thoughtful and
+beautiful work of art, and to these a few remarks may be
+addressed, which may help the struggling aspirants, and
+show them how they fail, and where to seek for assistance.</p>
+
+<p>I shall begin by pleading for more careful design, and
+less parsimony in expenditure upon the usual church
+adornments. It is once more a received dogma in
+ecclesiastical art, one in which all religious opinions
+agree, that the building in the parish which is set apart
+for the first public duty, that of worship, should show as
+much beauty as the means and taste of the community
+can command.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the little church has just been restored, or
+completely rebuilt from the foundations; the consecration
+is imminent. The white stone, carved or plain, shines
+fresh and cold, and the whole space looks poor and bare.</p>
+
+<p>The rich woman of the neighbourhood sees and feels
+that colour is wanting (for the windows must wait till
+their use as pious memorials fills them with glowing
+tints). The central point of the whole edifice, the altar,
+calls for the first key-note in colour to be struck, and a
+splendid altar-cloth is the fitting instrument.</p>
+
+<p>She consults the architect, who probably is also an
+artist, and the design is agreed upon, and hurriedly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_341" id="Page_341">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>341]</a></span>
+drawn and carried out; for there is not a moment to lose
+if it is to be ready for the opening day. It may be
+beautiful, and it sometimes is so, but the mere want of
+time for due consideration often results in the commonplace
+ornamentation, which neither satisfies the eye nor
+the mind. It is often only a mere bit of colour and a
+medi&aelig;val pattern, and has no apparent motive or meaning
+to give it value.</p>
+
+<p>One sometimes finds that a conventional form has
+been selected, of which the emblematic intention it
+originally expressed has been forgotten or overlooked.
+Therefore, while to the unlearned it conveys no meaning,
+it is read as absolute nonsense by the ecclesiastical
+arch&aelig;ologist, simply because it is worked in a language
+of undeciphered hieroglyphics&mdash;unknown to the worker&mdash;meaningless,
+reminding us of the Gr&aelig;co-Egyptian
+inscriptions, of which the pictured words seem to have
+been copied at random for their prettiness, or the Arabian
+lettering on some of the ancient Sicilian textiles, which is
+nonsense. The sense and the emblematic meaning are
+forgotten, and the conventional form&mdash;an empty shell&mdash;is
+alone retained, conveying no idea, and reduced to
+the low purpose of being a pretty pattern, vague and
+unintelligent.</p>
+
+<p>I have so often said that a pattern always originally
+possessed, and should always retain a meaning, that I
+fear to become tiresome; but I repeat it here, as in
+ecclesiastical design it is more important than elsewhere;
+the meanings are deeper, and convey more essentially
+solemn traditions and allusions. If the motive of the
+designer is evident, and is conscientiously worked out,
+its value receives an enduring quality, and its present
+interest is enhanced.</p>
+
+<p>Embroidery is not less eloquent than her sister-arts in
+the teaching of divine lessons, and appealing through the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_342" id="Page_342">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>342]</a></span>
+beauty of form and colour to the poetical instincts of the
+congregation, of which the least educated members
+almost unconsciously feel the influence; and besides, the
+people are always alive to the charms of symbolism, when
+it is placed within their reach. As a proof of this, among
+our own peasantry and mechanics, I would point to their
+universal enjoyment of the &ldquo;Pilgrim&rsquo;s Progress.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the symbolism of art, the thoughts which are
+individual to the artist can only be expressed by known
+forms and colours, even as the poet must employ the
+words and the metres already accepted by the literature
+of his language.</p>
+
+<p>Hurry is fatal to art. But another and very serious
+cause of its deterioration is its costliness.</p>
+
+<p>In the dark and medi&aelig;val ages, time was of no
+account. Skilled labour, such as was needed for carving,
+illuminations, and embroideries, was freely given as the
+duty of a life, for one particular object, the good of a
+man&rsquo;s soul. The cloistered men and women worked for
+no wages; neither to benefit themselves nor their descendants;
+hardly for fame,&mdash;that was given to the convent
+which had the credit of patronizing and producing art,<a name="FNanchor_547_547" id="FNanchor_547_547"></a><a href="#Footnote_547_547" class="fnanchor">[547]</a>
+while the very name of the artist was forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>It was from pure love of the art as a craft, and the
+belief that it was a good work in which they were engaged,
+and from their abundant leisure, that they were enabled
+to evolve the lovely creations which delight and astonish
+us when shown in the sacristies and treasuries of foreign
+religious houses and churches, where they have been
+cherished for centuries. Like the silkworm they spent
+themselves; and by their industrious lives were surrounded
+in their living graves by the elaborated essence
+of their own natures, a joy and consolation to themselves,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_343" id="Page_343">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>343]</a></span>
+and a legacy to all time. To them, also, art appeared as
+the consoler.</p>
+
+<p>But to return to the grievances of to-day&mdash;cheapness
+and hurry, economy of pence and hours&mdash;these often
+are the bane of the work which we give to the Church,
+sometimes as a memorial, sometimes as a thank-offering.
+The colours are bad, because cheap dyes fade, and
+none others can be had without much trouble, and we
+have only time to select among those that are for sale.
+The work is poor because it must be done quickly, and
+we cannot afford to delay and pay for the extra hours
+necessary to make the stitches worthy and capable of
+lasting. Possibly we cannot give the time ourselves, nor
+can find any one effectually to organize and overlook the
+work.</p>
+
+<p>Though the design, the motive, the colours and
+materials, as well as the stitches, need to be each carefully
+studied, yet we perhaps accept an ancient drawing
+intended for a different place and use; and thus we fail
+to produce any effect, with uncongenial surroundings.
+Sometimes we feel obliged to take the design forced upon
+us by a shopwoman as ignorant as ourselves, with the
+submissive hope &ldquo;that it will do.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Now to a truly artistic mind it would appear that each
+little church, however simple and devoid of ornament,
+requires its own special colours and design, besides the
+individual motive of the giver; and people forget that
+the whole effect in any such compositions must be comprehensive,
+and that one careless mistake spoils all.</p>
+
+<p>The High Church, in its love of ritualistic vestments,
+has sometimes been prejudicial to the general adoption
+of properly studied altar decorations; as there is a
+common suspicion that a clergyman&rsquo;s personal wish for
+ornament, akin to a woman&rsquo;s addiction to fine clothes,
+governs all his attempts to adorn the altar; whereas
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_344" id="Page_344">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>344]</a></span>
+there should be, and there often is, a real artistic feeling
+for the fitness of things, in the furnishings of the
+most beautiful building set aside by the community for
+the glory of God. But it is not necessary for beautiful
+effects that there should be any coloured vestments.
+When the clergy are duly robed in the orthodox surplice
+and scarves, there is, perhaps, something funereal in the
+white linens and black Geneva silk, but yet the traditional
+white and black have their own value against a background
+of altar-cloth and reredos splendidly coloured.</p>
+
+<p>Now that, in spite of prejudice, church decoration is so
+much the custom of our day, it is worth our while to
+consider seriously how best to carry it out, and search
+into the principles which may apply to all ecclesiastical
+embroideries, whether they are to be dedicated in the
+Minster, the village Church, or the home Chapel.</p>
+
+<p>We must begin by remembering that in these days, if
+we cannot do the work ourselves, it must be highly paid
+for. The skilled artisan who is no artist, receives enough
+to feed his family, according to the higher wages of the
+time. The woman&rsquo;s slow stitchery has to support probably
+as many claims, and yet it is always grudged as
+being too costly. The sculptor or the painter who succeeds
+in obtaining employment, is highly paid, but the
+designer for metal-work or embroideries occupies an
+unrecognized place in art, and barely earns enough to
+live by. The illuminator has ceased to exist; he would
+starve&mdash;probably has been starved out long ago.</p>
+
+<p>The decorative designer, having, therefore, no status,
+has no education; and it is almost impossible to find
+in England an artist to accept orders for thoughtful
+ecclesiastical designs. Hundreds of boys and girls are
+taught &ldquo;freehand drawing,&rdquo; and having copied some
+casts and lithographs and drawn some flower-pieces,
+without any particular aim, find a precarious living by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_345" id="Page_345">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>345]</a></span>
+designing frightful wall-papers for the million. These
+poor creatures, from whose lives all ambition and originality
+have been effaced, are our decorative artists.</p>
+
+<p>Still a beautiful original design can sometimes be
+obtained, and if that is beyond our reach, we may
+courageously copy from ancient models, selecting judiciously
+what is most suitable for our purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The ecclesiastical artist should be well informed in the
+modes of working a design. The stitch if selected
+without experience may mar the effect of the whole
+composition, as some stitches of themselves convey the
+meaning of shadow, and others that of light.</p>
+
+<p>In ecclesiastical work which is intended to be effective
+in the distance, as well as perfect in detail, it is worth
+while to weigh the claims of the architectural low-relief
+motive, i.e. a flat raised surface, with an edge sufficiently
+accentuated to catch a light on one side, and cast a sharp
+shadow on the other. All flat <em>raised</em> stitches conduce
+also to this effect, especially if edged with a cord, and it
+is much more striking than in stuffed work (on the
+stamp), which has not the incisive effect that is given
+by the tool to the sharp edge of stone or wood carvings.</p>
+
+<p>If we can afford to give to our church without stint,
+let us seek for the most beautiful textiles, such as are
+again woven in imitation of the old fabrics; gratefully
+acknowledging all that Pugin, Ruskin, and the foreign
+manufacturers, especially those at Lyons, have done in
+the revival of woven designs. Let us avoid those
+materials which are easily spoiled by sunshine, dust, and
+smoke, and all those that fray easily. Woollens are not
+long lived. Crewels, beautiful as they are, are not
+salient in their effect. Silks, satins and velvet, and gold
+brocades,<a name="FNanchor_548_548" id="FNanchor_548_548"></a><a href="#Footnote_548_548" class="fnanchor">[548]</a> or groundings worked in with gold thread, are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_346" id="Page_346">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>346]</a></span>
+the only materials worthy of bearing fine embroidery, fit
+to receive them, and capable of keeping them for
+centuries. Plushes and worsted velvets are unworthy,
+indeed they are worthless.</p>
+
+<p>The gold we employ must be either pure &ldquo;passing,&rdquo;
+or else the Chinese or Japanese gold threads which differ
+in colour, but have each their own value, and never
+tarnish, even in the coal smoke of London. Pure silver,
+too, is beautiful, and if it is really pure, can be kept bright
+with bread crumbs.</p>
+
+<p>In composing the altar decoration for the cathedral or
+the village church, we ought to take into consideration
+what is suitable for the surrounding architecture. In
+great spaces, the majestic altar-cloth or frontal, shining
+with gold and silver, and glowing with silken embroideries,
+recalls the splendid altar &ldquo;palli&rdquo; encrusted with
+gems in St. Mark&rsquo;s, St. Peter&rsquo;s, and other ancient
+churches; and is in perfect keeping with the high and
+gorgeous reredos, the rich screen, the fretted roof and
+clustered ornaments of a great cathedral choir. Such
+glories are unattainable in the modest village church.</p>
+
+<p>But though we may subdue the brilliancy of our
+decoration, we should try to make it yet a work of art.
+The design may have as much intention, the work be as
+refined and individual, and the gold as pure, as in larger
+works. The precious metals may be confined to small
+spaces in the parts we desire to accentuate, such as the
+cross in the centre, or the edges of the orphreys, or they
+may be entirely replaced with fine silk work.</p>
+
+<p>The altar-cloth we desire to present, may be simply a
+gift, so that we may choose any design that will agree
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_347" id="Page_347">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>347]</a></span>
+with the date of the building. We may prefer any subsequent
+style, but not one anterior to that of the architecture.
+It would be a mistake to imitate Anglo-Saxon
+ornaments in a church of the flamboyant style.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the altar-cloth we are discussing may be intended
+as a sort of votive offering, a memorial of a
+baptism, a wedding, or a funeral.</p>
+
+<p>For the first, white silk worked in gold and silver, or
+gold-coloured silk, or parsem&eacute; with conventional spring
+flowers would be appropriate. For a marriage, crimson,
+rose-colour, blue and gold, or a mixture of all these, to
+produce a festive and gorgeous effect. For a funeral,
+purple or violet silk or velvet, with palms and the crown
+of thorns in gold or silver.<a name="FNanchor_549_549" id="FNanchor_549_549"></a><a href="#Footnote_549_549" class="fnanchor">[549]</a> These would serve at the
+festivals of the Church: the purple for Good Friday,<a name="FNanchor_550_550" id="FNanchor_550_550"></a><a href="#Footnote_550_550" class="fnanchor">[550]</a>
+the crimson for Saints&rsquo; days, the white for Christmas and
+Easter Sunday.</p>
+
+<p>The reredos, or the screen curtain behind the altar,
+should be made available for enhancing its effect, as
+well as for enlarging the area of textile coloured decoration.</p>
+
+<p>As this is intended for a background, it should be
+either subdued or else contrasting, in juxtaposition with
+that which it is intended to supplement. Woollen embroideries
+or tapestries are the most usually selected for
+this purpose. The softness of fine crewels is well
+shown near the more glowing tints of silk, velvet, and
+gold of the altar frontal. If this is white, or light
+coloured, the reredos hanging should be of dark or richly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_348" id="Page_348">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>348]</a></span>
+worked material; if the frontal is dark, the contrast should
+be preserved by hangings of tender shades.</p>
+
+<p>The pulpit and reading-desk, with their small cushions
+and veils, and beautiful worked covers for the books,
+give opportunities for repetition of colour which is often
+required for picturesque effect.</p>
+
+<p>I should recommend the young ecclesiastical designer
+to study the principles which guided the authors
+of some of the fine Gothic examples remaining to us,
+such as the great Stoneyhurst cope, and the palls of the
+different London companies, as well as the very few fine
+altar-cloths still existing. All these have their brilliant
+and effective treatment; they are intended to be glorious,
+and either represent massive jewellers&rsquo; work or tissues
+of wrought gold.</p>
+
+<p>Anciently, the ornaments for the different church
+services, which we timidly reduce to floral decorations
+(often, however, very beautifully planned and executed),
+gave the opportunity for displaying costly embroidered
+hangings.</p>
+
+<p>The paschal of the choir of Durham, for example, was
+a marvellous construction of wood and gilding, metal-work,
+and (probably) hangings. It was as wide as the
+&ldquo;lateral&rdquo; of the choir, and as high as the building, so
+that the central and seventh candlestick (that from
+which the new fire for the year was kindled) was so near
+the roof that there was a &ldquo;fine convenience through the
+said roof of the church for the help of lighting it.&rdquo; I
+quote from a rare book printed by G. S. Ross for
+Mrs. Waghorn, 1733.</p>
+
+<p>This little book is full of interesting matter regarding
+Durham Cathedral, though the author is most concerned
+in relating the vandalisms committed by the dean&rsquo;s wife,
+Mrs. Whittinghame, who evidently had &ldquo;no culture,&rdquo; and
+a strong turn for appropriating odds and ends, such as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_349" id="Page_349">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>349]</a></span>
+tombstones, embroidered silk, and other curiosities which
+she deemed valueless except for her own purposes,&mdash;such
+a woman is a real arch&aelig;ological misfortune!</p>
+
+<p>The corporax used in celebrating the mass by St.
+Cuthbert in the seventh century (he died and was buried
+at Holy Isle in 657) was supposed to be endowed with
+miraculous powers and was carried into battle on many
+occasions as a banner.</p>
+
+<p>This banner was of crimson velvet on both sides,
+wrought with flowers in green silk and gold, and fringed
+with red silk and gold. The corporax cloth was inserted
+in the centre, and covered with a square of white velvet,
+having on it a cross of red velvet, &ldquo;most artificially worked
+and fringed, with little silver bells in the fringe.&rdquo; This
+was carried into battle, till Dame Whittinghame &ldquo;did most
+injuriously destroy the same in her fire.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>One feels as if this woman were spiteful, as well as
+stupid. But for her punishment, her memory is kept
+quite the contrary to green by Mrs. Waghorn&rsquo;s careful
+record of her iniquities; which has at the same time
+fortunately preserved to us the description of the banner
+of St. Cuthbert, and gives also an idea of &ldquo;the good and
+sumptuous furniture of changeable suits,&rdquo; and of &ldquo;the
+divers vestments wrought and set round about with pearls,
+both stoles and flannels, &amp;c.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Looking at it from a distance, it appears that the &ldquo;fair
+white linen&rdquo; for the communion service always requires
+the softening of the edges by fringes, by cut work
+embroidery, or by thick lace edgings. If a white ground
+for embroidery is required, nothing is more beautiful than
+linen, especially if it is not over-bleached. White, in art,
+should be represented by the nearest approach to no
+colour; but it is more agreeable to the eye by its being
+tempered with a suggestion of the natural tint, of which
+all textile substances possess something (excepting cotton)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_350" id="Page_350">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>350]</a></span>
+before they have passed through the hands of the fuller
+or the chemist.</p>
+
+<p>Corporals and veils for the pyx used to be of white
+linen, embroidered with white silk or linen thread; the
+silk gives a beautiful, varied, shining brightness.</p>
+
+<p>I think a few words should be said about the fringe.<a name="FNanchor_551_551" id="FNanchor_551_551"></a><a href="#Footnote_551_551" class="fnanchor">[551]</a>
+Its motive and <i>raison d&rsquo;&ecirc;tre</i> is the disposal of the threads
+of the warp when it is cut out of the frame; these being
+tied and knotted symmetrically, become an artistic
+decoration instead of an untidy tangle of threads and
+thrums. Edging the material and finishing it with its
+own loose ends is a very ancient custom; and we can
+see from the sculptures of Nineveh that they were great
+in that city in the art of fringe-making, and the Israelites,
+when they made their hangings for the sanctuary,
+trimmed them with fringes. It stands to reason that an
+added fringe should be arranged with reference to the
+origin of the decoration, and the moment we think of it,
+the eye is annoyed by seeing a deep fringe of one or two
+colours traversing the whole widths of the frontal and
+super-frontal, quite irrelevantly, and without any reference
+to the masses of colours, woven or embroidered, above
+them; and the consequence of this carelessness is, that
+it makes it look as if this part of the decoration, came
+from another source, independent of the composition which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_351" id="Page_351">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>351]</a></span>
+it ought to supplement. The fringe should belong to the
+whole design, and be carefully fitted to the spaces occupied
+by the colours above it, each of its compartments or
+divisions being filled in with those tints which are most
+conspicuous in the general design and would show
+effectively in the warp. It is not necessary to account
+for all the colours, as the threads employed to form the
+woof would naturally disappear at the sides of the web.
+The sections of the fringe should be skilfully arranged so
+as to reappear at equal distances, or at least they should be
+so balanced as to produce that effect. If this is impossible,
+the fringe should be all of one shade, matching exactly
+the ground of the textile. It may be relieved by
+clustered knobs, or hanging beads or cups of different
+colours and gold. The celebrated pluvial at Aix-la-Chapelle
+has a fringe of gold bells hanging to a gold
+cord, which amalgamates with the pattern.<a name="FNanchor_552_552" id="FNanchor_552_552"></a><a href="#Footnote_552_552" class="fnanchor">[552]</a> The veils of
+the Sanctuary in the wilderness were fringed with
+attached ornaments, bells, blossoms, knops, flowers, and
+fruit, which sounds extremely pretty.</p>
+
+<p>To resume, let me once more urge that in church
+work neither time nor trouble be spared; nor yet
+money grudged, if possible. The design should be
+full of intention, the stitching perfect, and the materials
+most carefully chosen for tints, for endurance and
+smoothness. Remember that no inferior substitute will
+serve to give present effect, nor will it last into the future.</p>
+
+<p>Design, as I have elsewhere said, is all the better for
+being to a certain degree circumscribed, relegated, and
+regulated by the laws of traditional usage, as well as
+those of good taste, and this applies especially to ecclesiastical
+design.</p>
+
+<p>These laws serve as the frame which encloses the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_352" id="Page_352">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>352]</a></span>
+motive thought, and makes it a complete whole, that can
+admit of no amplifications.</p>
+
+<p>New symbols should not be adopted except for the
+expression of new facts or altered circumstances, and
+these can but seldom enter into liturgical art.</p>
+
+<p>There is so much already formulated and admitted,
+and the area in which we may gather our materials is so
+large, that we need not seek for more than we find under
+our hand, ready for use.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the symbolism of dogma, we have all the
+heraldry of the Saints; and can repeat and vary the emblems
+of those to whom the church we are working for is
+dedicated. The keys of St. Peter, the sword of St. Paul,
+the lilies of the Virgin, the cross of St. Andrew, the eagle
+of St. John,&mdash;I need hardly enumerate all these legitimate
+sources of decoration. Then there is the lay heraldry
+which belongs to the history of each church, and which
+memorializes the reign of the monarch when it was begun,
+finished, or restored, and the pious work and care of the
+founder and benefactor, the architect, and sometimes
+that of the sculptor.</p>
+
+<p>Now as our forefathers accepted all this material for
+ecclesiastical design, remodelling it to their own uses in
+different centuries, so we cannot ourselves do better than
+imitate them, and profit by their experience; never
+missing an opportunity of studying ancient embroideries;
+and while we admire in them all that is admirable, and
+appreciate their historical and arch&aelig;ological value, we may
+yet extract greater benefit for ourselves, by criticizing
+what is imperfect, as well as what is possibly a descent
+and failure from a higher type.</p>
+
+<p>We must make a judicious selection of what to imitate
+and what to avoid.</p>
+
+<p>As a general rule, I should warn the young artist
+against the imitation of &ldquo;na&iuml;vet&eacute;&rdquo; and so-called &ldquo;quaintness;&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_353" id="Page_353">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>353]</a></span>
+especially in our designs for Church embroidery
+as it is hardly a noble quality in art, though we look on
+it with a tender pity, half-way between admiration and
+contempt, when we find it inevitably in medi&aelig;val work;
+struggling to overcome the expression of something
+difficult, and expressing a difficulty only partly overcome.
+We find ourselves putting our minds into the attitude of
+the artist who conceived those figures with arms conventionally
+growing out of the encasing garment; conventionally
+holding a book, and giving a blessing with
+a conventional twist, not entirely ungraceful, nor devoid
+of a certain dignity, rather felt than perceived. Yet we
+contemplate them with a smile of conscious superiority,
+appreciating our own refined sense of their merits and
+infantine progress towards something good, that time&mdash;a
+long time&mdash;would, and did evolve. But those efforts
+at last culminated in a Christian art, such as is seen
+in the splendid forms and adornments in stone, gold,
+silver, glass, and embroideries of the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries. Such splendours as the windows
+of Bourges, the Sainte-Chapelle at Paris, or those of the
+Cathedral of Toledo, or King&rsquo;s College Chapel at Cambridge.
+Such sculptures and traceries as those of the
+Puits de Moise at Dijon, and the Chapter House at
+Southwell in Nottinghamshire. Such embroideries as
+the Syon cope, and the Borghese triptych. These are
+types worthy of all praise, and they are full of instruction
+to the student of ecclesiastical art.</p>
+
+<p>The Kensington Museum offers us endless help and
+suggestions in its very interesting collection of liturgical
+vestments of every date and school; and its textiles,
+illustrated by the inventory of their learned collector, Dr.
+Rock, are most instructive.<a name="FNanchor_553_553" id="FNanchor_553_553"></a><a href="#Footnote_553_553" class="fnanchor">[553]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_354" id="Page_354">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>354]</a></span>
+In the library of that museum are to be found many
+of the learned works on these subjects by French and
+German <i>savants</i>. The exhibitions in the English counties
+are never without a case or a room full of embroideries,
+collected from the treasure-chests of the neighbouring
+churches and country houses, and especially from those
+of the ancient Roman Catholic families. The colleges
+of Oscott and Stoneyhurst have collected, by purchase
+or by gift, many fine relics of the craft, which are most
+liberally granted for exhibition.</p>
+
+<p>For those who can go further afield there is instruction
+in almost every Continental town. Rome, Florence, Milan,
+Toledo, Sens, Rheims, Aix-la-Chapelle, Berne, Vienna,
+Halberstadt, Berlin, and Munich&mdash;each and all have stores
+of beautiful liturgical objects carefully preserved; of many
+dates, and many styles, and showing endless varieties of
+design, which can be employed on new works by careful
+selection and adaptation. Most of these belong to the
+eleventh and succeeding centuries; any earlier examples
+are fragmentary, and have generally been taken from the
+tombs of kings and bishops.</p>
+
+<p>It seems to savour of desecration, this opening of
+shrines and disturbing the ashes of the illustrious dead, if
+only for the satisfaction of arch&aelig;ological curiosity. But
+except where it has hitherto been protected by the
+sanctity of the tomb, there is so little that remains to us,&mdash;so
+few textiles have survived the friction of use, or even
+that of the air, through as many as a thousand years or
+more, that we may plead the hunger for truth, and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_355" id="Page_355">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>355]</a></span>
+eager desire for proofs of identity and verification of historical
+legends, which are to be extracted from the
+shape of a garment, from the pattern on the border, or
+the lettering on the web of which it is composed; whence
+we reverently cut a fragment, and preserve it under
+glass.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;If studious, copie fair what time hath blurr&rsquo;d,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Redeem truth from his jawes.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_554_554" id="FNanchor_554_554"></a><a href="#Footnote_554_554" class="fnanchor">[554]</a><br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Before closing this chapter, I would wish to observe
+that I have entered into the subject of church decoration
+in no ritualistic spirit; I do not treat it theologically, but
+as art; and if these decorations are to be carried out at
+all, I feel that I am rendering a service to those whose
+duty or pleasure it is to provide them, by pointing out
+where they may find the principles which have been the
+spring and life of medi&aelig;val art, and the survivals which
+are now the best exponents of those principles to guide
+us in the works of our day.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_479_479" id="Footnote_479_479"></a><a href="#FNanchor_479_479"><span class="label">[479]</span></a>
+Figure-drawing in early Christian art was for nearly a thousand years
+primitively barbarous, with occasional exceptions. The rapid decline in
+Europe, through the art of the Catacombs and St. Clemente at Rome,
+and the frescoes and mosaics of Ravenna, down to the Bayeux tapestries,
+is very remarkable. In those inartistic compositions during the early
+Middle Ages, the figures were drawn facing the spectator, the head and feet
+in profile, differing in nothing from the Egyptian and Assyrian modes of
+representation. We can hardly account for this return to childish ways,
+from which Greece and Rome had so long been emancipated, except
+by supposing that they came from the imitations of Oriental textiles,
+which still retained very ancient forms; for instance, the motive of the
+sculptured lions over the gate of Mycen&aelig;. We cannot say that Greek
+art in Rome was quite extinct till the eighth century. About that time
+there was a remarkable revival in England.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_480_480" id="Footnote_480_480"></a><a href="#FNanchor_480_480"><span class="label">[480]</span></a>
+Till very lately we have been entirely dependent on the frescoes in
+the Catacombs and in the underground Church of St. Clemente at Rome,
+and on monumental art and illuminations, for our knowledge of the
+textiles of the earliest days of Christianity. But Herr Graf&rsquo;schen&rsquo;s
+discoveries in Egypt will, when published, add greatly to our information
+on this subject.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_481_481" id="Footnote_481_481"></a><a href="#FNanchor_481_481"><span class="label">[481]</span></a>
+The book by Parker on the &ldquo;Liturgical Use&rdquo; says that only the
+five liturgical colours were permitted in the use of the Church of
+England. Before the Reformation the Norman and English liturgical
+colours were different. (Rock, &ldquo;Church of our Fathers,&rdquo; ii. p. 268.)
+Perhaps nothing was originally worked departing from this rule, but
+votive offerings are inventoried as being of all colours, having been
+accepted and used as decoration and for vestments.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_482_482" id="Footnote_482_482"></a><a href="#FNanchor_482_482"><span class="label">[482]</span></a>
+I have already spoken of the custom of clothing the images of the
+gods as a classical tradition. The Greeks draped their statues in
+precious garments, often the spoils of subjugated nations, offerings
+from the conquerors, or obsequious tribute from the conquered. Newton
+(<a href="#appendix_i">Appendix 1</a>) tells us of inscriptions containing inventories of old clothes
+offered in the Greek Temples. Ezekiel (xvi.) speaks of silk and linen
+embroideries given for covering the idols. The images of the saints in
+Roman Catholic churches are, we know, constantly draped in splendid
+embroideries, and hung with jewels.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_483_483" id="Footnote_483_483"></a><a href="#FNanchor_483_483"><span class="label">[483]</span></a>
+There is here an overlap of several centuries.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_484_484" id="Footnote_484_484"></a><a href="#FNanchor_484_484"><span class="label">[484]</span></a>
+Charlemagne&rsquo;s dalmatic, described hereafter, of which the pedigree
+is well ascertained, justifies Woltmann and Woermann&rsquo;s theory; as this
+eighth-century embroidery shows, by its design, that Greek art was still
+a living power.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_485_485" id="Footnote_485_485"></a><a href="#FNanchor_485_485"><span class="label">[485]</span></a>
+Of which we have yet examples on the Continent, here and there; for
+instance, in the Cathedral at Coire in the Grisons, and in the Romanesque
+church at Clermont in Auvergne (not the cathedral). I do not include
+in this statement of the rare occurrence of the ogee, the European
+countries which were subject to Moorish rule, i.e. Spain and Portugal.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_486_486" id="Footnote_486_486"></a><a href="#FNanchor_486_486"><span class="label">[486]</span></a>
+This, slightly modified, continued to prevail till the time of
+Louis XIV., when France took the lead, and gave a style to the world
+which entirely broke away from all medi&aelig;val tradition.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_487_487" id="Footnote_487_487"></a><a href="#FNanchor_487_487"><span class="label">[487]</span></a>
+Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Church of our Fathers,&rdquo; i. p. 409. Compare Wilkinson&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Ancient Egyptians,&rdquo; i. p. 332 (see fig. <a href="#fig01">1</a>); and Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische
+Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; taf. i., i. p. 130, fig. 6. Bock does not give his authority
+for the pattern on the ephod.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_488_488" id="Footnote_488_488"></a><a href="#FNanchor_488_488"><span class="label">[488]</span></a>
+Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; i. taf. i., iii., vi.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_489_489" id="Footnote_489_489"></a><a href="#FNanchor_489_489"><span class="label">[489]</span></a>
+Yates&rsquo; &ldquo;Textrinum Antiquorum,&rdquo; pp. 203, 376, &sect; 103. He quotes
+from Claudian the description of a trabea, said to have been woven by the
+goddess Roma herself, for the consul Stilicho. I give this as showing
+how forms and patterns become sacred by their being attributed to
+the inspiration of the gods. The name of Stilicho marks his tomb in
+Sant&rsquo; Ambrogio&rsquo;s Church at Milan, on which is a curious moulding,
+carved with alternate roses and mystic crosses.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_490_490" id="Footnote_490_490"></a><a href="#FNanchor_490_490"><span class="label">[490]</span></a>
+Clapton Rolfe, &ldquo;Ancient Use of Liturgical Colours.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_491_491" id="Footnote_491_491"></a><a href="#FNanchor_491_491"><span class="label">[491]</span></a>
+See the Book of Kells, Library, Dublin; also St. Cuthbert&rsquo;s
+Durham Book, British Museum, and the Celtic MSS. in the Lambeth
+Palace Library.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_492_492" id="Footnote_492_492"></a><a href="#FNanchor_492_492"><span class="label">[492]</span></a>
+Celtic and Scandinavian designs are characterized by meandering,
+interlaced, and knotted lines, which are described and discussed in
+the chapter on <a href="#Page_82">patterns</a>. The forms of the Celtic stone crosses are
+very beautiful. See &ldquo;L&rsquo;Atlas de l&rsquo;Arch&eacute;ologie du Nord, par la Soci&eacute;t&eacute;
+Royale des Antiquaires du Nord&rdquo; (Copenhagen, 1857), where the metal remains
+are shown by careful engravings; also George Stephen&rsquo;s &ldquo;Old Northern
+Runic Monuments.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_493_493" id="Footnote_493_493"></a><a href="#FNanchor_493_493"><span class="label">[493]</span></a>
+See Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; i. p. 126, quoting Anastasius
+Bibliothecarius, pp. 153, 156, 189.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_494_494" id="Footnote_494_494"></a><a href="#FNanchor_494_494"><span class="label">[494]</span></a>
+Ibid. p. 189.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_495_495" id="Footnote_495_495"></a><a href="#FNanchor_495_495"><span class="label">[495]</span></a>
+The information here collected proves that these sovereign gifts
+to the great basilicas were by no means of costly materials, especially
+as compared with the preceding splendours of Rome, or the still more
+astounding luxury of Alexandria through the Greek conquests of the
+Eastern nations. To these rules of economical decoration, however,
+we find occasionally exceptions. We gather also from later lists that
+the embroideries of the Papal See were culled, in the thirteenth
+century, from France, Spain, Germany, and England.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_496_496" id="Footnote_496_496"></a><a href="#FNanchor_496_496"><span class="label">[496]</span></a>
+See also Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; vol. i. pp. 9, 18, 56, 86,
+plate 2. At a later period the lion motive is supposed to have represented
+a Christian in the arena, and it certainly in time was symbolical of
+man struggling with the dominion of sin. However, Bock considers
+the design to have been originally classical Greek, and it survived to
+the seventh and eighth centuries, and was reproduced as late as the
+sixteenth.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_497_497" id="Footnote_497_497"></a><a href="#FNanchor_497_497"><span class="label">[497]</span></a>
+The Code of Manu in India, which 2500 years ago regulated all
+the crafts and ruled their decorations, is still in full force, and Chinese
+art was crystallized in the reigns of the first emperors of the Hia
+dynasty, 2197 <small>B.C.</small></p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_498_498" id="Footnote_498_498"></a><a href="#FNanchor_498_498"><span class="label">[498]</span></a>
+We cannot but respect the memory of Attila, who checked the
+spoliation of Rome by his troops.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_499_499" id="Footnote_499_499"></a><a href="#FNanchor_499_499"><span class="label">[499]</span></a>
+The collections of needlework in Germany are very rich. The
+treasury of the cathedral at Halberstadt, the Markt-Kirche of Brunswick,
+the sacristy of the Marien-Kirche of Dantzic, and that of the
+Kaland Brethren at Strahlsund are especially quoted by Bock. At
+Quedlinburg are the tapestries of its famous abbess; at the Pilgrim
+Church of Marie at Zell are fine remains of stuffs and embroideries by
+the ladies of the imperial house of Hapsburg, of the thirteenth century;
+at the Abbey of G&ouml;ss (near Lieben, Steiermark) is to be seen the
+remarkable needlework of the Abbess Kunigunda, and in the cathedral
+treasury of Heidelberg the antipendium of the fourteenth century,
+made for the church at Tirna. The museums of Berlin, Munich, and
+Vienna are very rich in textiles.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_500_500" id="Footnote_500_500"></a><a href="#FNanchor_500_500"><span class="label">[500]</span></a>
+See Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; p. 133.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_501_501" id="Footnote_501_501"></a><a href="#FNanchor_501_501"><span class="label">[501]</span></a>
+Helen Lwyddawc. See &ldquo;Mabinogion,&rdquo; by Lady C. Guest, pp. 279-284.
+This beautiful story is told in the language of the romance period,
+and yet has a certain Celtic colouring in it, which shows its origin. The
+ballad opens with a description of Helen watching a game of chess,
+clothed in white and gold, seated on a chair of gold, when Maxentius
+finds her in her father&rsquo;s palace.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_502_502" id="Footnote_502_502"></a><a href="#FNanchor_502_502"><span class="label">[502]</span></a>
+See Mrs. Palliser&rsquo;s &ldquo;Lace,&rdquo; p. 4.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_503_503" id="Footnote_503_503"></a><a href="#FNanchor_503_503"><span class="label">[503]</span></a>
+See chapter on <a href="#Page_356">English embroidery</a>, <i>post</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_504_504" id="Footnote_504_504"></a><a href="#FNanchor_504_504"><span class="label">[504]</span></a>
+Early decorations of ecclesiastical dress are so thoroughly illustrated
+by the ancient frescoes and mosaics in Italy, that we can form an idea
+of the embroidered vestments of each period by studying them, and the
+early illuminated books that are scattered over Europe. Dr. Bock gives
+authentic illustrations as well as information about the finest Continental
+specimens.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_505_505" id="Footnote_505_505"></a><a href="#FNanchor_505_505"><span class="label">[505]</span></a>
+For the mosaics of Santa Pudenziana, see Woltmann and Woermann,
+i. p. 167, &ldquo;History of Painting.&rdquo; Translated by Sidney Colvin.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_506_506" id="Footnote_506_506"></a><a href="#FNanchor_506_506"><span class="label">[506]</span></a>
+<a href="#appendix_iv">Appendix 4</a>. Lord Lindsay&rsquo;s &ldquo;History of Ecclesiastical Art,&rdquo; i. p.
+136. These gorgeous vestments are engraved by Sulpiz Boisser&eacute;e in
+his &ldquo;Kaiser Dalmatika in der St. Peterskirche,&rdquo; and far better by Dr.
+Rock, in his splendid work on the &ldquo;Coronation Robes of the German
+Emperors.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_507_507" id="Footnote_507_507"></a><a href="#FNanchor_507_507"><span class="label">[507]</span></a>
+It is singular that we find the starry cross and the swastika filling
+alternate square spaces on the mantle of Achilles&mdash;playing at dice with
+Ajax&mdash;on a celebrated Greek vase in the Etruscan Museum at the
+Vatican. I have referred to this design elsewhere. (Plate <a href="#pl26">26</a>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_508_508" id="Footnote_508_508"></a><a href="#FNanchor_508_508"><span class="label">[508]</span></a>
+Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Introduction,&rdquo; p. liii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_509_509" id="Footnote_509_509"></a><a href="#FNanchor_509_509"><span class="label">[509]</span></a>
+This date is assigned to it by Monsignor Clifford.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_510_510" id="Footnote_510_510"></a><a href="#FNanchor_510_510"><span class="label">[510]</span></a>
+Kindly supplied to me by the Father Superior of San Clemente in
+Rome.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_511_511" id="Footnote_511_511"></a><a href="#FNanchor_511_511"><span class="label">[511]</span></a>
+In the cathedral of Aix, Switzerland. Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische
+Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; i. taf. ii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_512_512" id="Footnote_512_512"></a><a href="#FNanchor_512_512"><span class="label">[512]</span></a>
+One of these mitres has, it is said, been brought to England.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_513_513" id="Footnote_513_513"></a><a href="#FNanchor_513_513"><span class="label">[513]</span></a>
+Bock, &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; ii. taf. xii. This is dyed in Tyrian
+purple (rosy red), and is simply the cross, representing the tree with
+twelve leaves, &ldquo;for the healing of the nations.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_514_514" id="Footnote_514_514"></a><a href="#FNanchor_514_514"><span class="label">[514]</span></a>
+Bock, &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; i. taf. iii. pp. 157-160.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_515_515" id="Footnote_515_515"></a><a href="#FNanchor_515_515"><span class="label">[515]</span></a>
+Bock, <i>ibid.</i>, p. 158, quotes the Jesuit Erasmus Fr&ouml;hlich, (1754).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_516_516" id="Footnote_516_516"></a><a href="#FNanchor_516_516"><span class="label">[516]</span></a>
+See Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; i. taf. iv. pp. 165, 166. &ldquo;One
+of three costly garments.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_517_517" id="Footnote_517_517"></a><a href="#FNanchor_517_517"><span class="label">[517]</span></a>
+Modifications of the &ldquo;wheel pattern&rdquo; (&ldquo;wheel and plate&rdquo;). Of
+these works of the tenth and eleventh centuries the fine Roman lettering
+in the borders is a marking characteristic.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_518_518" id="Footnote_518_518"></a><a href="#FNanchor_518_518"><span class="label">[518]</span></a>
+See Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; i. p. 214.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_519_519" id="Footnote_519_519"></a><a href="#FNanchor_519_519"><span class="label">[519]</span></a>
+There was no guild of embroiderers in England that we know of till
+that incorporated in the reign of Elizabeth. See chapter on <a href="#Page_356">English
+embroidery</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_520_520" id="Footnote_520_520"></a><a href="#FNanchor_520_520"><span class="label">[520]</span></a>
+Bock, i. 214, says that the splendid stuffs and embroideries were
+entirely consecrated to the use of the Church, till the luxurious arts
+invaded European domestic life from the seventh to the twelfth
+century.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_521_521" id="Footnote_521_521"></a><a href="#FNanchor_521_521"><span class="label">[521]</span></a>
+See the cross on the Rheims cope (plate <a href="#pl63">63</a>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_522_522" id="Footnote_522_522"></a><a href="#FNanchor_522_522"><span class="label">[522]</span></a>
+There is no doubt it was only used for church work.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_523_523" id="Footnote_523_523"></a><a href="#FNanchor_523_523"><span class="label">[523]</span></a>
+At Aachen, in Switzerland, there is a very remarkable pluvial of
+one kind of opus Anglicanum, which has been already alluded to. The
+border, of splendid gold embroidery, has the pattern completed in
+fine flowers of jewellers&rsquo; work. (See Bock, &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo;
+ii. p. 297, taf. xli.-xliv.) Rock, &ldquo;Textile Fabrics,&rdquo; Introduction,
+p. xxxi, cites from Mon. Angl. (ii. 222), the vestments given to St.
+Alban&rsquo;s Abbey by Margaret, Duchess of Clarence, <small>A.D.</small> 1429, as being
+remarkable for pure gold in its texture and the splendour of the
+jewels and precious stones set into it, as well as for the exquisite
+beauty of its embroideries. These are some of the characteristics of the
+opus Anglicanum.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_524_524" id="Footnote_524_524"></a><a href="#FNanchor_524_524"><span class="label">[524]</span></a>
+<a href="#appendix_vi">Appendix 6</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_525_525" id="Footnote_525_525"></a><a href="#FNanchor_525_525"><span class="label">[525]</span></a>
+Mrs. Bayman, of the Royal School of Art Needlework.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_526_526" id="Footnote_526_526"></a><a href="#FNanchor_526_526"><span class="label">[526]</span></a>
+If it is true that in the days of the Greeks and Romans the art of
+acupictura or needle-painting copied pictorial art, so likewise in the
+Egyptian early times, painted linens imitated embroideries. This we
+learn by specimens from the tombs. Painted hangings and embroideries
+appear to have been equally used for processional decorations. In the
+Middle Ages painted hangings imitated embroideries and woven
+hangings, and were considered as legitimate art.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_527_527" id="Footnote_527_527"></a><a href="#FNanchor_527_527"><span class="label">[527]</span></a>
+See Bock, vol. i. p. 10.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_528_528" id="Footnote_528_528"></a><a href="#FNanchor_528_528"><span class="label">[528]</span></a>
+Exhibited in the &ldquo;Esposizione Romana&rdquo; in 1869, in the cloisters
+of Santa Maria degli Angeli.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_529_529" id="Footnote_529_529"></a><a href="#FNanchor_529_529"><span class="label">[529]</span></a>
+See Woltmann and Woermann, who quote evidence as to works
+in painted glass as early as the ninth and tenth centuries in France and
+Germany (&ldquo;History of Painting,&rdquo; vol. i. pp. 316-339). They remark
+that the character of painted glass is nearly akin to textile decoration,
+that it is essentially flat and unpictorial. And doubtless there is an
+analogy between the two, but rather suggesting patchwork or cut work
+than legitimate embroidery.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_530_530" id="Footnote_530_530"></a><a href="#FNanchor_530_530"><span class="label">[530]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Vasari,&rdquo; ed. Monce, taf. v. p. 101.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_531_531" id="Footnote_531_531"></a><a href="#FNanchor_531_531"><span class="label">[531]</span></a>
+See plate <a href="#pl69">69</a>, which is a fine altar-frontal of the pl&acirc;teresque Spanish.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_532_532" id="Footnote_532_532"></a><a href="#FNanchor_532_532"><span class="label">[532]</span></a>
+The dress of the &ldquo;Virgin del Sagrario&rdquo; at Toledo, embroidered
+with pearls, and the chasuble of Valencia, worked with corals, show
+how profusely these costly materials were employed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_533_533" id="Footnote_533_533"></a><a href="#FNanchor_533_533"><span class="label">[533]</span></a>
+See &ldquo;The Industrial Arts of Spain,&rdquo; pp. 250-264, by Don Juan F.
+Riano, and catalogues of Loan Exhibition by him for the South Kensington
+Museum series, 1881. The works of Spanish Queens and
+Infantas are to be seen at the Atocha, the church of the Virgin del Pilar
+at Madrid.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_534_534" id="Footnote_534_534"></a><a href="#FNanchor_534_534"><span class="label">[534]</span></a>
+There are most interesting examples of Scriptural subjects in Bock&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; i. taf. x. pp. 207, 208; taf. xi. pp. 239-278.
+These are of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; and we have
+some good fifteenth century bead-work in the South Kensington
+Museum.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_535_535" id="Footnote_535_535"></a><a href="#FNanchor_535_535"><span class="label">[535]</span></a>
+The splendid embroideries from Westminster Abbey, sold to
+Spanish merchants at the Reformation, now at Valencia, and the
+cope in the Museum at Madrid, are instances of these exportations.
+The Syon cope also was returned to England, after its long wanderings,
+about sixty years ago. I give its history by Dr. Rock in the
+<a href="#appendix_vi">Appendix 6</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_536_536" id="Footnote_536_536"></a><a href="#FNanchor_536_536"><span class="label">[536]</span></a>
+For examples of this ornate and graceful, but frivolous style, we
+may remember the mosaic altar frontals throughout the basilica of
+St. Peter&rsquo;s at Rome.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_537_537" id="Footnote_537_537"></a><a href="#FNanchor_537_537"><span class="label">[537]</span></a>
+See Dr. Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Catalogue of Textile Fabrics,&rdquo; South Kensington
+Museum, Introduction, p. cxxxvi.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_538_538" id="Footnote_538_538"></a><a href="#FNanchor_538_538"><span class="label">[538]</span></a>
+Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; i. taf. vi., vii., pp. 385-392. The
+emblematic meanings of stones is constantly alluded to in the Old
+Testament. Their symbolism has, therefore, a high authority and
+most ancient descent. In the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford is an
+illuminated copy of Philip de Than&rsquo;s Bestiarium, composed for Adelais,
+second wife of Henry I.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_539_539" id="Footnote_539_539"></a><a href="#FNanchor_539_539"><span class="label">[539]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Cyclop&aelig;dia of Bible Literature,&rdquo; vol. vii. p. 477.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_540_540" id="Footnote_540_540"></a><a href="#FNanchor_540_540"><span class="label">[540]</span></a>
+See Clapton Rolfe, &ldquo;The Ancient Use of Liturgical Colours.&rdquo;
+(Parker, 1879.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_541_541" id="Footnote_541_541"></a><a href="#FNanchor_541_541"><span class="label">[541]</span></a>
+See &ldquo;Indian Arts,&rdquo; by Sir G. Birdwood, i. p. 97. He says this
+<img src="images/naa05.png" width="69" height="70" alt="Buddhist or Jaini cross" /> form is
+the sign of the Buddhist or Jainis, and that the <img src="images/naa06.png" width="70" height="70" alt="Sakti fire-stick cross" />
+fire-stick form was that of the Sakti race in India.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_542_542" id="Footnote_542_542"></a><a href="#FNanchor_542_542"><span class="label">[542]</span></a>
+See chapter on <a href="#Page_82">patterns</a>, p. <a href="#Page_103">103-4</a>, <i>ante</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_543_543" id="Footnote_543_543"></a><a href="#FNanchor_543_543"><span class="label">[543]</span></a>
+Revelations chap. xxii. v. 2.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_544_544" id="Footnote_544_544"></a><a href="#FNanchor_544_544"><span class="label">[544]</span></a>
+In medi&aelig;val times the cross in a circle was sometimes called the
+&ldquo;clavus&rdquo; <img src="images/naa07.png" width="60" height="60" alt="Clavus" />. It was the same as an Egyptian sign, meaning
+&ldquo;land&rdquo; (plate <a href="#pl25">25</a>). Donelly fancifully claims the sign as being that
+of the garden of Eden, and of the four rivers flowing from it (see
+&ldquo;Atlantis&rdquo;).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_545_545" id="Footnote_545_545"></a><a href="#FNanchor_545_545"><span class="label">[545]</span></a>
+See plate <a href="#pl70">70</a>, No. 1. In the upper part of the Halberstadt diptych,
+No. 1, the &ldquo;gens togata&rdquo; are sitting on Olympus, clothed in such purple
+garments embroidered with the chrysoclavus.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_546_546" id="Footnote_546_546"></a><a href="#FNanchor_546_546"><span class="label">[546]</span></a>
+I would instance the little church of St. Mary, built and adorned by
+the late W. E. Street, at Feldy, in Surrey.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_547_547" id="Footnote_547_547"></a><a href="#FNanchor_547_547"><span class="label">[547]</span></a>
+The art of illumination had in general kept a little in front of that
+of the painter, and illumination and embroidery went hand in hand.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_548_548" id="Footnote_548_548"></a><a href="#FNanchor_548_548"><span class="label">[548]</span></a>
+The fine brocades of velvet and gold, of which we find examples in
+the centres of palls, and a notable one in the celebrated Stoneyhurst
+cope, are still reproduced to order at Lyons, Genoa, Florence, and in
+Spain. The Florentine is distinguished by the little loops of gold
+thread which pervade it.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_549_549" id="Footnote_549_549"></a><a href="#FNanchor_549_549"><span class="label">[549]</span></a>
+In the English ritual gold was permitted wherever white was
+enjoined. This shows a true appreciation of the effect of the metal,
+separating and isolating all colours, and being of none.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_550_550" id="Footnote_550_550"></a><a href="#FNanchor_550_550"><span class="label">[550]</span></a>
+The purple is not one of the five mystic colours named; it is
+included in blue, and therefore the most ritualistic critic need not object
+to it.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_551_551" id="Footnote_551_551"></a><a href="#FNanchor_551_551"><span class="label">[551]</span></a>
+Under the Carlovingians, priestly garments were often enriched
+with splendid fringes, trimmed with bells. A Bishop of Elne, who died
+in 915, left to his church a stole embroidered with gold and garnished
+with bells. So rich were the fringes at that epoch, that King Robert,
+praying one day in the church, became aware that while he was lost in
+meditation a thief had ripped off part of the fringes of his mantle. He
+interrupted his proceedings by saying, &ldquo;My friend, suppose you content
+yourself with what you have taken, and leave the rest for some other
+member of your guild.&rdquo; See &ldquo;Histoire du Tissu Ancien,&rdquo; Union
+Central des Arts D&eacute;coratifs. For a fringe with bells, see the beautiful
+example in Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder&rdquo; (plates xli. xlii. xliii. vol. ii.
+p. 297), already quoted.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_552_552" id="Footnote_552_552"></a><a href="#FNanchor_552_552"><span class="label">[552]</span></a>
+Resembling the fringe of St. Cuthbert&rsquo;s corporax, with its silver
+bells.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_553_553" id="Footnote_553_553"></a><a href="#FNanchor_553_553"><span class="label">[553]</span></a>
+This valuable collection of textiles is so ancient and therefore so
+frail, that it seems a pity to send portions of it continually travelling
+about the country for loan exhibitions. Change of climate&mdash;cold, heat,
+and damp&mdash;carelessness in packing and unpacking&mdash;above all, the
+reckless exposure to floods of sunshine even when they are protected
+from dust by glass,&mdash;all these endanger the preservation of what can
+never be replaced, and has only survived till now because of the
+quiet and darkness in which it has lain for centuries.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_554_554" id="Footnote_554_554"></a><a href="#FNanchor_554_554"><span class="label">[554]</span></a>
+George Herbert, &ldquo;The Churchyard Porch,&rdquo; v. 15.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_356" id="Page_356">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>356]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>CHAPTER XI.</h2>
+
+<h3>ENGLISH EMBROIDERY.</h3>
+
+
+<p>Through the preceding chapters I have tried to
+moderate my predominant interest in our national school
+of needlework, seeking to place it in its just position alongside
+of the coeval Continental schools. However, the
+more I have seen of specimens at home and abroad, the
+more I have become convinced of the great superiority
+of our needlework in the Middle Ages. As information
+about our own art must be valuable to us, I give a short
+account of English embroidery.</p>
+
+<p>In England our art, like our language, is mixed. Our
+early history is one of repeated conquest, and we can
+only observe where style has flowed in from outside, or
+has formed itself by grafting upon the stem full of
+vitality already planted and growing. It is interesting
+to seek its root.</p>
+
+<p>There is every reason to believe, from the evidence of
+the animal remains of the Neolithic Age (including those
+of sheep), that they came with their masters from the
+central plateau of Asia.</p>
+
+<p>The overlap of the Asiatic civilizations over the barbarism
+of Northern Europe shows that Assyria<a name="FNanchor_555_555" id="FNanchor_555_555"></a><a href="#Footnote_555_555" class="fnanchor">[555]</a> as well
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_357" id="Page_357">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>357]</a></span>
+as Egypt was a highly organized empire, and the Mediterranean
+peoples far advanced in the arts of life, while
+the Neolithic man survived and lingered in Britain,
+France, and Scandinavia. Yet, even at that early period,
+the craft of spinning and the use of the needle were
+practised by the women of Britain.<a name="FNanchor_556_556" id="FNanchor_556_556"></a><a href="#Footnote_556_556" class="fnanchor">[556]</a></p>
+
+<p>Our first glimpses of art may have come to us by
+Ph&oelig;nician traders, touching at the Scilly Islands and
+thence sailing to the coasts of Cornwall and Ireland.
+From Ireland we have curious relics as witnesses of their
+presence&mdash;amongst others, jewellery connected by, or
+pendant from, &ldquo;Trichinopoly&rdquo; chains, similar to those
+dug out of Etruscan tombs, and which were probably
+imported into Ireland as early as the sixth century <small>B.C.</small><a name="FNanchor_557_557" id="FNanchor_557_557"></a><a href="#Footnote_557_557" class="fnanchor">[557]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_358" id="Page_358">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>358]</a></span>
+In the Bronze Age the chiefs and the rich men wore
+linen or woollen homespun. Fragments of these have
+been found in the Scale House barrow at Rylston, in
+Yorkshire. Dr. Rock says that an ancient Celtic barrow
+was opened not long ago in Yorkshire, in which the body
+was wrapped in plaited (not woven) woollen material.<a name="FNanchor_558_558" id="FNanchor_558_558"></a><a href="#Footnote_558_558" class="fnanchor">[558]</a>
+Before this time the Cymri in Britain probably wore
+plaited grass garments; they also sewed together the
+skins of animals with bone needles.</p>
+
+<p>Dyeing and weaving were well understood in Britain
+before the advent of the Romans. Hemp and flax,
+however, though native to the soil, were not employed by
+the early Britons. Linen perhaps came to us first through
+the Ph&oelig;nicians, and afterwards through the Celts, and
+was naturalized here by the Romans.</p>
+
+<p>Anderson (&ldquo;Scotland in Early Christian Times&rdquo;) gives
+a high place to the forms of pagan art which prevailed in
+the British Isles, before the Roman civilization; and
+differing from and influencing that which came from
+Scandinavia. We must certainly allow that it was art,
+and that it contained no Greek or other classical element.
+His illustrations explain and give great weight to his
+theories.</p>
+
+<p>C&aelig;sar invaded England forty-five years <small>B.C.</small><a name="FNanchor_559_559" id="FNanchor_559_559"></a><a href="#Footnote_559_559" class="fnanchor">[559]</a> The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_359" id="Page_359">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>359]</a></span>
+Romans gave us Christianity and the rudiments of civilization,
+but their attempts to Romanize us met with little
+success. Probably they imported their luxuries, and
+removed all they valued at the time of their exodus.
+From them we know what they found and what they left in
+Britain. Boadicea, Queen of the Iceni, the day of her
+defeat wore a tartan dress (polymita) and an &ldquo;embroidered&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;fur&rdquo; mantle; probably the fur was inside,
+and the skins embroidered outside. Dion Cassius,<a name="FNanchor_560_560" id="FNanchor_560_560"></a><a href="#Footnote_560_560" class="fnanchor">[560]</a> who
+describes Boadicea&rsquo;s motley tunic, says that the bulk of
+the people wore what was apparently a chequered tartan.
+Semper says that the early tribes of Northern Europe,
+like the North American Indians of the present time,
+embroidered their fur wraps. The Emperor Honorius,
+in the fourth century, made it illegal for Roman nobles
+to wear extravagantly-worked fur robes; perhaps the
+report of Boadicea&rsquo;s dress had set the fashion in
+Rome.</p>
+
+<p>During the first four centuries of our era, all art in
+Britain must have come from our Roman masters; and
+owing to their neglect of the people they conquered, we
+benefited little by their civilization.</p>
+
+<p>All that we know of their decorative art in Britain,
+is that it was, with few exceptions, chiefly of small bronze
+statues, somewhat crude and colonial, as appears from
+the remains of their architecture, sculpture, mosaics, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_360" id="Page_360">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>360]</a></span>
+tombs.<a name="FNanchor_561_561" id="FNanchor_561_561"></a><a href="#Footnote_561_561" class="fnanchor">[561]</a> Of their textiles we have no relics, and hardly
+know of any recorded, if we except the works of the
+Empress Helena. See p. <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <i>ante</i>. We must remember
+that, as she was a British princess, it is likely
+that she had learnt her art at home, and therefore that
+the women of England were already embroiderers as early
+as the beginning of the fourth century.<a name="FNanchor_562_562" id="FNanchor_562_562"></a><a href="#Footnote_562_562" class="fnanchor">[562]</a></p>
+
+<p>On the departure of the Romans, chaos ensued, till the
+Britons, who had called in the Saxons to help them, were
+by them driven into Wales, Brittany, and Ireland, which
+last they Christianized; and mingled the art of the Germans
+and Celts with that of the Danes and Norsemen<a name="FNanchor_563_563" id="FNanchor_563_563"></a><a href="#Footnote_563_563" class="fnanchor">[563]</a>; all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_361" id="Page_361">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>361]</a></span>
+which may be traced in the Irish remains to be seen in the
+College Museum at Dublin and elsewhere. From the
+time that England became Anglo-Saxon, literature, law,
+and art began to crystallize; and when, under Egbert,
+one kingdom was formed out of the heptarchy, order and
+a sense of beauty were in the course of development.
+Then came the invasion of the Danes (ninth century),
+who robbed, destroyed, and arrested all artistic improvement,
+till Alfred got rid of them for a time. Early in the
+seventh century the women of England had attained great
+perfection in needlework. This appears from a passage
+in a poem by Adhelme, Bishop of Sherborne. He speaks
+of their shuttles, &ldquo;filled not with purple only, but with
+various colours, moved here and there among the thick
+spreading threads.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_564_564" id="FNanchor_564_564"></a><a href="#Footnote_564_564" class="fnanchor">[564]</a> He had himself a robe &ldquo;of a most
+delicate thread of purple, adorned with black circles and
+peacocks.&rdquo; This may or may not have been woven in
+England, but at that time weaving, as well as needlework,
+was the delight and occupation of the ladies of the court
+and of the cloistered nuns.<a name="FNanchor_565_565" id="FNanchor_565_565"></a><a href="#Footnote_565_565" class="fnanchor">[565]</a> The thralls (slaves or serfs)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_362" id="Page_362">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>362]</a></span>
+were employed in weaving in the houses of the nobles,
+probably they embroidered also.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs. Lawrence sees reason to believe that in the
+seventh century, silk and fine linen were the materials
+for altar decorations, vestments, and dress; whereas the
+hangings of the house were of coarse canvas adorned
+with embroidery in thick worsted.<a name="FNanchor_566_566" id="FNanchor_566_566"></a><a href="#Footnote_566_566" class="fnanchor">[566]</a> She says the term
+&ldquo;broiderie&rdquo; was reserved for the delicate works on fine
+grounds, in silk and gold and silver thread, and enrichments
+in metal work. Precious stones and pearls had
+already been introduced into the Byzantine and Romanesque
+designs imported from Greece and Rome.</p>
+
+<p>The English Dominican Friar, Th. Stubbs, writing in
+the thirteenth century, describes in his notice of St.
+Oswald a chasuble of Anglo-Saxon work, which exactly
+resembles that of Aix.<a name="FNanchor_567_567" id="FNanchor_567_567"></a><a href="#Footnote_567_567" class="fnanchor">[567]</a> This is splendidly engraved in
+Von Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Kleinodien&rdquo; amongst the coronation
+robes of the Emperors of Germany, and is adorned with
+the richest golden orphreys, imitating jewellers&rsquo; work,
+enriched with pearls and silver bells.</p>
+
+<p>There is an Icelandic Saga of the thirteenth century
+which relates the history of Thorgunna, a woman from
+the Hebrides, who was taken to Iceland on the first
+settlement of the country by Norway, <small>A.D.</small> 1000. She
+employed witchery in her needlework, and her embroidered
+hangings were coveted by, and proved fatal to,
+many persons after her death, till one of her inheritors
+burned them.<a name="FNanchor_568_568" id="FNanchor_568_568"></a><a href="#Footnote_568_568" class="fnanchor">[568]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 332px;">
+<a name="pl71" id="pl71"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 71.</p>
+<img src="images/naap71.jpg" width="332" height="500"
+alt="Showing 'Aelfled fieri precepit' embroidered around a central plant motif" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">One of the ends of the Stole of St. Cuthbert at Durham, which together bear the inscription,<br />
+&ldquo;Aelfled fieri precepit pio Episcopo Fridestano.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>English ecclesiastical art did not necessarily keep to
+Christian subjects; for it is recorded that King Wiglaf,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_363" id="Page_363">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>363]</a></span>
+of Mercia, gave to Croyland Abbey his splendid coronation
+mantle and &ldquo;velum;&rdquo; and that the latter was embroidered
+with scenes from the siege of Troy.<a name="FNanchor_569_569" id="FNanchor_569_569"></a><a href="#Footnote_569_569" class="fnanchor">[569]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 258px;">
+<a name="pl72" id="pl72"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 72.</p>
+<img src="images/naap72t.jpg" width="258" height="400"
+alt="Separate panels, one showing St. John, the other St. Roger" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap72.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Durham Embroideries, tenth century.</p>
+
+<p>It was probably on account of such derelictions from
+orthodox subjects of design that in the eighth century
+the Council of Cloveshoe admonished the convents for
+their frivolous embroideries.<a name="FNanchor_570_570" id="FNanchor_570_570"></a><a href="#Footnote_570_570" class="fnanchor">[570]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the eighth century our English work in illuminations
+and embroideries was finer than that of any Continental
+school; and therefore, in view of the great advance of
+these secondary arts, we may claim that we were then no
+longer outer barbarians, though our only acknowledged
+superiority over Continental artists was in the workrooms
+of our women and the cells of our religious houses.</p>
+
+<p>During the terrible incursions of the Danes, and the
+many troubles that accrued from these barbarous and
+idolatrous invaders, the convents and monasteries,
+especially those of the order of St. Benedict, kept the
+sacred flame of art burning.<a name="FNanchor_571_571" id="FNanchor_571_571"></a><a href="#Footnote_571_571" class="fnanchor">[571]</a> Both monks and nuns
+wrote, illuminated, painted, and embroidered. They
+evidently continued their relations with foreign art, for it
+is difficult to say at what period the Norman style began
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_364" id="Page_364">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>364]</a></span>
+to be introduced into England. It was the outcome of
+the Romanesque, and of this, different phases must
+have come to us through the Danes and the Saxons.</p>
+
+<p>I cannot but dwell on the early life and springtide of
+our Anglican Christian art, which in many points preceded
+and surpassed that of other northern nations, as we arose
+from that period commonly called the Dark Ages. Ours
+was a gradual development, adding to itself from outer
+sources new strength and grace. The better perfection
+of details and patterns was succeeded by Anglo-Saxon
+ingenuity and refinement in drawing the human figure.
+The art, which was native to England, may be judged
+by the rare examples that we possess, and of which we
+may well be proud; though we must remember with shame
+how much was destroyed at the Reformation. Enough
+however, remains to prove that our English art of illumination
+of the ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries was very
+beautiful, and we are not surprised therefore to find in
+the embroideries of that period grace and artistic feeling.</p>
+
+<p>The stole and maniple of the Durham cathedral
+library, which bear the inscription &ldquo;Aelfled fieri precepit
+pio Episcopo Fridestano,&rdquo; are of the most perfect style
+of Anglo-Saxon design; and the stitching of the silk
+embroidery and of the gold grounding are of the utmost
+perfection of needlework art (plates <a href="#pl71">71</a>, <a href="#pl72">72</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The history of this embroidery is carefully elucidated
+by Dr. Raine in his &ldquo;Saint Cuthbert.&rdquo; He says that
+Frithestan was consecrated bishop in 905, by command
+of Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the Great. Aelfled
+was Edward the Second&rsquo;s queen. She ordered and gave
+an embroidered stole and maniple to Frithestan. After her
+death, and that of Edward, and of the Bishop of Winchester,
+Athelstan, then king, made a progress to the north, and
+visiting the shrine of St. Cuthbert, at Chester-le-Street, he
+bestowed on it many rich gifts, which are solemnly enumerated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_365" id="Page_365">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>365]</a></span>
+in the MSS. Cott. Brit. Mus. Claud. D. iv. fol. 21-6.
+Among these are &ldquo;one stole, with a maniple; one girdle,
+and two bracelets of gold.&rdquo; That the stole and maniple
+are those worked for Frithestan by the command of his
+mother-in-law, Aelfled, may fairly be said to be proved.
+These embroideries, worked with her name and the
+record of her act, were taken from the body of St.
+Cuthbert in 1827.<a name="FNanchor_572_572" id="FNanchor_572_572"></a><a href="#Footnote_572_572" class="fnanchor">[572]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 306px;">
+<a name="pl73" id="pl73"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 73.</p>
+<img src="images/naap73t.jpg" width="306" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap73.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">St. Dunstan&rsquo;s Portrait of himself in adoration. From his Missal in the
+Bodleian Library, Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>Another and earlier Aelfled was the widow of Brithnod,
+a famous Northumbrian chieftain. She gave to the
+cathedral of Ely, where his headless body lay buried, a
+large cloth, or hanging, on which she had embroidered
+the heroic deeds of her husband. She was the ancestress
+of a race of embroiderers, and their pedigree will be found
+in the <a href="#appendix_x">Appendix</a>.<a name="FNanchor_573_573" id="FNanchor_573_573"></a><a href="#Footnote_573_573" class="fnanchor">[573]</a> At this time a lady of the Queen of
+Scotland was famed for her perfect skill in needlework,
+and the four daughters of Edward the Elder were likewise
+celebrated embroiderers.</p>
+
+<p>St. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, is said to have
+designed needlework for a noble and pious lady, Aedelwyrme,
+to execute in gold thread, <small>A.D.</small> 924.<a name="FNanchor_574_574" id="FNanchor_574_574"></a><a href="#Footnote_574_574" class="fnanchor">[574]</a> He prepared
+and painted a drawing, and directed her work.<a name="FNanchor_575_575" id="FNanchor_575_575"></a><a href="#Footnote_575_575" class="fnanchor">[575]</a> I
+here give the portrait of our celebrated early designer
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_366" id="Page_366">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>366]</a></span>
+from the MS. in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, said to
+be by his own hand, and which represents him kneeling
+at the feet of the Saviour (plate <a href="#pl73">73</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Shortly before the Norman conquest, in the beginning
+of the eleventh century, we have notices of sundry other
+very remarkable pieces of work.</p>
+
+<p>The Danish Queen Emma, daughter of Richard, Duke
+of Normandy, when she was wife to Ethelred the Unready,
+and again during her second marriage to Canute,
+gave the finest embroideries to various abbeys and
+monasteries. Canute, being then a Christian, joined her
+in these splendid votive offerings. To Romsey and Croyland
+they gave altar-cloths which had been embroidered
+by his first queen, Aelgitha,<a name="FNanchor_576_576" id="FNanchor_576_576"></a><a href="#Footnote_576_576" class="fnanchor">[576]</a> and vestments covered
+with golden eagles. She worked one altar-cloth on
+shot blood-red and green silk,<a name="FNanchor_577_577" id="FNanchor_577_577"></a><a href="#Footnote_577_577" class="fnanchor">[577]</a> with golden orphreys at
+the side and across the top. When one considers what
+the life of poor Queen Emma was, one hopes that &ldquo;Art
+the Consoler&rdquo; came to her in the form of her favourite
+craft, and that she did find consolation in it.</p>
+
+<p>Croyland Abbey seems to have been most splendidly
+endowed by the Anglo-Saxon monarchs. There is continual
+mention in the records of those times of offerings
+of embroideries and other Church apparels. Queen
+Editha, the wife of the Confessor, dispensed beautiful
+works from her own workrooms, and herself embroidered
+King Edward&rsquo;s coronation mantle.</p>
+
+<p>When in the eleventh century the Normans became
+our masters, they found cathedrals, churches, and
+palaces which almost vied with their own; likewise
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_367" id="Page_367">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>367]</a></span>
+sculptures, illuminated books, embroidered hangings, and
+vestments of surpassing beauty.</p>
+
+<p>William of Poitou, Chaplain to William the Conqueror,<a name="FNanchor_578_578" id="FNanchor_578_578"></a><a href="#Footnote_578_578" class="fnanchor">[578]</a>
+relates that the Normans were as much struck on the Conqueror&rsquo;s
+return into Normandy with the splendid embroidered
+garments of the Saxon nobles, as with the beauty of
+the Saxon youth. Queen Matilda, who evidently appreciated
+Anglo-Saxon work, left in her will, to the Abbey of
+the Holy Trinity, &ldquo;My tunic worked by Alderet&rsquo;s wife, and
+the mantle which is in my chamber, to make a cope. Of
+my two golden girdles, I give the one which is adorned
+with emblems to suspend the lamp before the great altar.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>I come now to the earliest large work remaining to
+us of the period&mdash;the Bayeux tapestry. We must claim
+it as English, both on account of the reputed worker, and
+the history it commemorates, though the childish style
+of which it is a type is indeed inferior in every way to the
+beautiful specimens which have been rescued from tombs
+in Durham, Worcester, and elsewhere. They seem
+hardly to belong to the same period, so weak are the
+designs and the composition of the groups. Though
+Mr. Rede Fowke gives the Abb&eacute; de la Rue&rsquo;s doubts as
+to the accepted period of the Bayeux tapestry, which he
+assigns to the Empress Matilda, he yet leans to other
+equally good authorities who consider the work as being
+coeval with the events it records.<a name="FNanchor_579_579" id="FNanchor_579_579"></a><a href="#Footnote_579_579" class="fnanchor">[579]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_368" id="Page_368">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>368]</a></span>
+Mr. Collingwood Bruce is of the same opinion, and for
+this reason&mdash;the furniture, buildings, &amp;c., are all of the
+eleventh century, and our ancestors were no arch&aelig;ologists,
+and always drew what they saw around them. Mr.
+Bruce fancies the design to be Italian, &ldquo;because of the
+energetic action of the figures;&rdquo; this seems hardly justified
+when we look at the simple poverty of the style.
+Miss A. Strickland suggests that the artist was perhaps
+Turold the Dwarf, who has cunningly introduced his effigy
+and name. That the tapestry is not found in any catalogue
+before 1369, is only a piece of presumptive evidence
+against the earlier date, and cannot compete with the
+internal evidence in its favour. On 227 feet of canvas-linen,
+twenty inches wide, are delineated the events of
+English history from the time of Edward the Confessor
+to the landing of the Conqueror at Hastings. The
+Bayeux tapestry is worked in worsted on linen; the design
+is perfectly flat and shadowless. The outlines
+are firmly drawn with cords on thickly set stem-stitches.
+The surfaces are laid in flat stitch. Though coarsely
+worked, there is a certain &ldquo;maestria&rdquo; in the execution.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;orphrey&rdquo; (English for auriphrigium or
+Phrygian gold embroidery) is first found in Domesday
+Book, where &ldquo;Alvide the maiden&rdquo; receives from Godric
+the Sheriff, for her life, half a hide of land, &ldquo;If she might
+teach his daughters to make orphreys.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_580_580" id="FNanchor_580_580"></a><a href="#Footnote_580_580" class="fnanchor">[580]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the end of the eleventh century, Christina, Abbess of
+Markgate, worked a pair of sandals and three mitres of
+surpassing beauty, sent through the Abbot of St. Alban&rsquo;s
+to Pope Adrian IV., who doubtless valued them the more
+because they came from his native England.<a name="FNanchor_581_581" id="FNanchor_581_581"></a><a href="#Footnote_581_581" class="fnanchor">[581]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 265px;">
+<a name="pl74" id="pl74"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 74.</p>
+<img src="images/naap74t.jpg" width="265" height="400" alt="" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap74.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="topcapt">English Patterns, chiefly from Strutt&rsquo;s &ldquo;Royal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="caphang">1. 1066. 2. 1092. 3. 1100. 4. 1171. 5. 1171. 6. 1189.
+7. 1189. 8. 1361. 9, 10. 1377. 11. 1399. 12. 1422.
+13. 1426. 14. 1440. 15. 1445. 16. 1416. 17. 1445.
+18. 1477. 19. 1530. 20. 1272.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 220px;">
+<a name="pl75" id="pl75"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 75.</p>
+<img src="images/naap75t.png" width="220" height="400"
+alt="1. Birds and foliage pattern; 2. Animals and floral pattern; 3. Crown and plant border pattern" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap75.png">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">1. Panel of a Screen
+in Hornby Church.
+Painted fifteenth
+century.<br />
+
+2. Dress
+pattern from painted
+glass. St. Michael&rsquo;s
+Church, York.
+Fourteenth century.<br />
+
+3. A portion of the
+material of the
+Towneley Copes.
+Fifteenth century.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_369" id="Page_369">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>369]</a></span>
+Of the twelfth century (1170) we have the robes and
+mitres of Thomas &agrave; Becket at Sens; and another mitre
+of the period, white and gold, is in the museum at
+Munich, with his martyrdom embroidered on one side,
+and that of St. Stephen on the other. The gold needlework
+is so perfect that it resembles weaving. It is
+recorded that a splendid dress was embroidered in
+London for Elinor of Aquitaine, which cost &pound;80, equal
+to &pound;1400 of the value of to-day.<a name="FNanchor_582_582" id="FNanchor_582_582"></a><a href="#Footnote_582_582" class="fnanchor">[582]</a></p>
+
+<p>Rock (&ldquo;Church of our Fathers,&rdquo; t. ii. p. 279) truly
+says that it is shown by plentiful records and written
+documents, from the days of St. Osmond to the time of
+Henry VIII., that the materials employed in English
+ecclesiastical embroideries were the best that could be
+found in our own country or in far-off lands, and the art
+bestowed on them was the best we could learn and give.
+Various fabrics came from Byzantine or Saracenic looms,
+which are described as damasked, rayed, marbled, &amp;c.
+The few surviving specimens fully justify the admiration
+bestowed on them throughout Christendom.</p>
+
+<p>Matthew Paris, in the reign of Henry III., says that
+Innocent III. (1246), seeing certain copes and inful&aelig;
+with desirable orphreys, was informed they were English
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_370" id="Page_370">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>370]</a></span>
+work. He exclaimed, &ldquo;Surely England is a garden of
+delight! In sooth this is a well inexhaustible! And
+where there is so much abundance, from thence much
+may be extracted!&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_583_583" id="FNanchor_583_583"></a><a href="#Footnote_583_583" class="fnanchor">[583]</a></p>
+
+<p>From the Conquest to the Reformation the catalogues
+of Church vestments which are to be found in the
+libraries of York, Lincoln, and Peterborough, show the
+luxury of ecclesiastical decoration. In Lincoln alone
+there were upwards of 600 vestments wrought with divers
+kinds of needlework, jewellery, and gold, upon &ldquo;Indian
+baudichyn,&rdquo; samite, tartarin, velvet, and silk. Even in
+reading the dry descriptions of a common inventory, we
+are amazed by the lists of &ldquo;orphreys of goodly needlework,&rdquo;
+copes embroidered with armorial bearings, and
+knights jousting, lions fighting, and amices &ldquo;barred
+with amethysts and pearls, &amp;c. &amp;c.&rdquo; The few I
+have named will give an idea of the accumulation of
+riches in the churches, and the gorgeousness of English
+embroideries.<a name="FNanchor_584_584" id="FNanchor_584_584"></a><a href="#Footnote_584_584" class="fnanchor">[584]</a></p>
+
+<p>I have collected from Strutt&rsquo;s &ldquo;Illustrations&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_585_585" id="FNanchor_585_585"></a><a href="#Footnote_585_585" class="fnanchor">[585]</a> and
+other sources a number of patterns for domestic hangings,
+copied from MSS. of contemporary dates, covering
+about 400 years, from the time of Harold to Edward
+IV. The hangings may have been more effective than
+appears at first sight, if the materials were rich and
+enlivened with gold. I give two textile designs
+which in their style are peculiarly English (plates
+<a href="#pl74">74</a>, <a href="#pl75">75</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Now we enter on the age of romance and chivalry,
+when all domestic decorations began to assume greater
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_371" id="Page_371">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>371]</a></span>
+refinement. Carpets from the East covered the rushes
+strewn on the floors, and splendid tents were brought
+home by crusading knights; and the decorative arts of
+northern Europe were once more permeated with Oriental
+taste and design.</p>
+
+<p>We know that in the so-called &ldquo;days of chivalry,&rdquo; i.e.
+from the Conquest till the beginning of Henry VIII.&rsquo;s
+reign, needlework was the occupation of the women left
+in their castles, while the men were away fighting for the
+cross, for the king, for their liberties, or for booty.</p>
+
+<p>This period included the Crusades, the Wars of the
+Roses, wars with France, and rebellions at home; and
+yet there was a taste for art, luxury, and show spreading
+everywhere.<a name="FNanchor_586_586" id="FNanchor_586_586"></a><a href="#Footnote_586_586" class="fnanchor">[586]</a></p>
+
+<p>The women were expected to provide, with their looms
+and their needles, the heraldic surcoats, the scarves and
+banners, and the mantles for state occasions.<a name="FNanchor_587_587" id="FNanchor_587_587"></a><a href="#Footnote_587_587" class="fnanchor">[587]</a> They
+also worked the hangings for the hall and chapel, and
+adorned the altars and the priests&rsquo; vestments. Alas!
+time, taste, and the moth have shared in the destruction
+of these gauds. The taste for the &ldquo;baroc&rdquo; is a new
+acquisition; no one cared for what was old, merely because
+it was old. The rich replaced their hangings and
+their clothes when they became shabby; the poor let
+them go to pieces, and probably burned the old stuff and
+the embroideries for the sake of the gold thread, which
+was of intrinsic value. But both in prose and poetry we
+read descriptions of beautiful works in the loom, or on the
+frame, executed by fair ladies for the gallant knights
+whose lives and prowess these poems have preserved to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_372" id="Page_372">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>372]</a></span>
+us. I will give one quotation from that of Emare, in
+Ritson&rsquo;s collection: &ldquo;Her mantle was wroughte by a
+faire Paynim, the Amarayle&rsquo;s daughter.&rdquo; This occupied
+her seven long years. In each corner is depicted a pair
+of lovers, &ldquo;Sir Tristram and Iseult&mdash;Sir Amadis and
+Ydoine, &amp;c., &amp;c. These pictures were adorned with
+precious stones.&rdquo; The figures were portrayed&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;With ston&egrave;s bright and pure,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With carbuncle and sapphire,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Kals&egrave;donys and onyx clere,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sette in golde newe;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Diamondes and rubies,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And other stones of mychel pryse.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>The lady who owns this mantle is herself great in
+&ldquo;workes of broderie.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>From the Conquest to the Wars of the Roses, England
+may claim to have gradually acquired a higher place in
+art. Our architecture, sculpture, manuscripts, and paintings
+were not surpassed on the Continent: witness Queen
+Eleanor&rsquo;s crosses, and her tomb in Westminster Abbey;
+and the portrait of Richard II., surrounded by saints
+and angels, at Wilton House,<a name="FNanchor_588_588" id="FNanchor_588_588"></a><a href="#Footnote_588_588" class="fnanchor">[588]</a> a picture which, preceding
+Fra Beato Angelico&rsquo;s works by at least a quarter of a
+century, yet suggests his style, refined drawing, and tender
+colouring. All who saw the frescoes found in the Chapel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_373" id="Page_373">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>373]</a></span>
+at Eton College when it was restored, will remember
+their extreme beauty, and regret that they were effaced,
+instead of being preserved and restored. They were a
+lesson in what English art was in the end of the thirteenth,
+during the fourteenth, and into the beginning of
+the fifteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>During the Wars of the Roses, when a duke of the
+blood-royal is said to have begged his bread in the streets
+of the rich Flemish towns, ladies of rank, more fortunate,
+were able to earn theirs by the work of their
+needle.<a name="FNanchor_589_589" id="FNanchor_589_589"></a><a href="#Footnote_589_589" class="fnanchor">[589]</a></p>
+
+<p>The monuments of the eleventh and twelfth, thirteenth
+and fourteenth centuries, are our best authorities for the
+embroideries then worn. The surcoat of the Black Prince
+in Canterbury Cathedral is a noteworthy example. The
+sculptured effigy on the tomb over which it is suspended
+is absolutely clothed in the same surcoat, with the
+same accidents of embroidery, as if it had been modelled
+from it.</p>
+
+<p>In Worcester, when the arch&aelig;ologists opened King
+John&rsquo;s tomb in 1797, they found him in the same dress
+and attitude as that portrayed on the recumbent statue.<a name="FNanchor_590_590" id="FNanchor_590_590"></a><a href="#Footnote_590_590" class="fnanchor">[590]</a>
+Dress was then extravagantly expensive, and embroidered
+dresses were worn with borders richly set with precious
+stones and pearls.</p>
+
+<p>The Librate Roll of Henry III. gives us a list of embroiderers&rsquo;
+names: Alain de Basinge, Adam de Bakeryne,
+John de Colonia, &amp;c.; and in the wardrobe accompts of
+Richard II., William Sanstoune and Robert de Ashmede
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_374" id="Page_374">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>374]</a></span>
+are called the &ldquo;Broudatores Domini Regis.&rdquo; These may
+have been the artists to whom the orders were delivered,
+for in the Librate Roll of Henry III. we find Adam de
+Baskeryne receiving 6<i>s.</i> 8<i>d.</i> for a &ldquo;cloth of silk, and fringe,
+purchased by our commands to embroider a certain chasuble
+which Mabilia of St. Edmunds made for us.&rdquo; There
+were certainly then purveyors and masters of the craft.
+Stephen Vigner, in the fourteenth century, is so warmly
+commended by the Duke of Berri and Auvergne to
+Edward III., that Richard II. appointed him his chief
+embroiderer, and Henry IV. pensioned him for his skilful
+services.</p>
+
+<p>John Garland, in the beginning of the thirteenth
+century, is a good authority for the use by our women of
+small hand-looms. In these they wove, in flax or silk
+(often mixed with gold), the &ldquo;cingul&aelig;&rdquo; or &ldquo;blode-bendes&rdquo;
+so often mentioned, supposed to be gifts between friends
+for binding the arm, when blood-letting was so much in
+fashion that the operation was allowed to assume a
+certain air of coquetry. But the idea suggests itself
+that this was oftener the gift of the fair weaver to
+her favoured lover, to fold round his arm as a scarf in
+battle or tourney, to be ready in case it was needed for
+binding up a wound, and had possibly served as a snood
+to bind her own fair hair. There is an account of a
+specimen of this kind of weaving by M. L&eacute;opold Delisle.<a name="FNanchor_591_591" id="FNanchor_591_591"></a><a href="#Footnote_591_591" class="fnanchor">[591]</a>
+He describes the attachment of a seal to a grant from
+Richard C&oelig;ur de Lion to Richard Hommet and Gille
+his wife, preserved in the archives of the Abbey of
+Aunai, in the department of Calvados. He considers it
+to be either French or English, and says it was a &ldquo;lac
+d&rsquo;amour,&rdquo; or &ldquo;tie of love,&rdquo; cut up to serve its present
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_375" id="Page_375">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>375]</a></span>
+purpose. It is woven with an inscription in white on a
+ground of green, backed with pale blue, and the material
+is silk. The woven legend is thus translated from the
+old French&mdash;&ldquo;Let him perish who would part us.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl76" id="pl76"></a>
+<img src="images/naap76t.jpg" width="400" height="334"
+alt="Grouped figures under arches" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap76.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Opus Anglicanum, XIII. Century<br />
+British Museum</p>
+
+<p>The term &ldquo;opus Anglicanum&rdquo; is first recorded in the
+thirteenth century, and is supposed simply to mean
+&ldquo;English work.&rdquo; But there is also good authority for its
+having been applied, on the Continent especially, to a
+particular style of stitchery, of which the Syon cope in the
+Kensington Museum is the best preserved great example
+known. Its peculiarity consists in its fine split-stitch
+being moulded so as to give the effect of a bas-relief; and
+this appears to have been generally reserved for the
+medallions representing sacred subjects, and especially
+employed in modelling the faces and the nude parts of the
+figures delineated. The effect of this work has often been
+destroyed, as time has frayed and discoloured the parts
+that are raised, exhibiting the canvas ground, reversing
+the high lights, and causing dark spots in their stead.
+This reversal of the intended effect is an additional
+practical argument for the flatness of embroidery.<a name="FNanchor_592_592" id="FNanchor_592_592"></a><a href="#Footnote_592_592" class="fnanchor">[592]</a></p>
+
+<p>From the Librate Roll of Henry III. one can form an
+estimate of the value of the &ldquo;opus Anglicanum&rdquo; in its
+day.<a name="FNanchor_593_593" id="FNanchor_593_593"></a><a href="#Footnote_593_593" class="fnanchor">[593]</a> In 1241 the king gave Peter de Agua Blanca a
+mitre so worked, costing &pound;82. This would be, according
+to the present value, &pound;230.</p>
+
+<p>The finest specimens of this English work are to be
+found on the Continent, or have been returned from it.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_376" id="Page_376">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>376]</a></span><a name="FNanchor_594_594" id="FNanchor_594_594"></a><a href="#Footnote_594_594" class="fnanchor">[594]</a>
+They had either been gifts to popes or bishops before the
+Reformation, or they had been sold at that time of general
+persecution and pillage. Among the most remarkable
+are the pluvial (called) of St. Silvester at Rome, the
+Daroca pluvial at Madrid, the great pluvial at Bologna,
+and the Syon cope, of which I have already spoken.
+The general idea and prevailing design of these three
+great works are so singular, and yet so alike, that they
+must have issued from the same workshop, and that was
+certainly English.</p>
+
+<p>In the Daroca cope the cherubim, with their feet on
+wheels, which are peculiar to English design, and the
+angels (in the vacant spaces between the framed subjects
+from the life of our Lord) have their wings carefully done
+in chain split-stitch representing peacocks&rsquo; feathers, of
+which the silken eyes are stitched in circles, and then
+raised with an iron by pressure, so as to catch a light
+and throw a shadow. The ground is entirely English
+gold-laid work. This cope, so markedly national in
+design and stitches, probably drifted to the Continent at
+the time of the Reformation.<a name="FNanchor_595_595" id="FNanchor_595_595"></a><a href="#Footnote_595_595" class="fnanchor">[595]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 274px;">
+<a name="pl77" id="pl77"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 77.</p>
+<img src="images/naap77t.png" width="274" height="400"
+alt="Angel, floral and foliage designs" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap77.png">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Characteristic English Parsem&eacute; Patterns for Ecclesiastical Embroideries.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 224px;">
+<a name="pl78" id="pl78"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 78.</p>
+<img src="images/naap78t.jpg" width="224" height="400"
+alt="Plant designs in the centre panel, figures in the border panels, and deep fringe around the edges" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap78.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Dunstable Pall. Property of the Vicar of Dunstable <i>ex officio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A wonderfully preserved specimen of the &ldquo;opus Anglicanum,&rdquo;
+of which a photogravure is here given, was
+lately presented by Mr. Franks to the Medi&aelig;val Department
+of the British Museum (plate <a href="#pl76">76</a>). In this may be
+seen most of the characteristics of this work in the
+thirteenth century; such as the angels with peacock
+feather wings, moulded by hot irons; the features of all the
+figures similarly manipulated; the beautiful gold groundwork,
+which in this instance is covered with double-headed
+eagles; and lastly, the fashion of the beard on the face of
+our Lord and of all the men delineated&mdash;the upper lip
+and round the mouth being invariably shaven; whereas,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_377" id="Page_377">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>377]</a></span>
+in Continental work, the beard is allowed to grow into
+the moustache, closely surrounding the mouth. There
+are other peculiarities belonging to English design&mdash;such
+as the angels rising between the shrine-work
+on the pillars out of a flame or cloud pattern, and the
+pillars very often formed of twined stems bearing vine-leaves
+or else oak-leaves and acorns. The compartments
+which frame the groups, when they are not
+placed in niches, are usually variations of the
+intersected circle and square. Plate <a href="#pl77">77</a>
+shows the cherubim which from the thirteenth
+to the sixteenth centuries are found on
+English ecclesiastical embroideries&mdash;also the
+vase of lilies (emblematic of the Virgin),
+and the Gothic flowers which are so commonly <i>parsem&eacute;</i>
+over our medi&aelig;val altar frontals and vestments.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig26" id="fig26"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 120px;">
+<img src="images/naaf26.png" width="120" height="120"
+alt="Pattern formed from intersected square and circle" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 26.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>It appears that in the reign of Edward III. the people
+ingeniously evaded the penalties against the excess of
+luxury in dress, by wearing something that looked as gay,
+but was less expensive than the forbidden materials; and
+which did not come under the letter of the law. They
+invented a spurious kind of embroidery which was,
+perhaps, partly painted (such examples are recorded).
+In the 2nd Henry VI. (1422) it was enacted that all
+such work should be forfeited to the king. The accusation
+was that &ldquo;divers persons belonging to the craft of
+Brouderie make divers works of Brouderie of insufficient
+stuffe and unduly wroughte with gold and silver of
+Cyprus, and gold of Lucca, and Spanish laton (or tin); and
+that they sell these at the fairs of Stereberg, Oxford, and
+Salisbury, to the great deceit of our Sovereign Lord and
+all his people.&rdquo; In those days any dishonest work or
+material was illegal and punishable.<a name="FNanchor_596_596" id="FNanchor_596_596"></a><a href="#Footnote_596_596" class="fnanchor">[596]</a></p>
+
+<p>This was, in fact, a protectionist measure in favour of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_378" id="Page_378">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>378]</a></span>
+the chartered embroiderers, and gave them a slight taste of
+the advantages of protection. For a time it was doubtless
+useful in keeping up the standard of national work.
+Then followed further measures for the benefit of the
+established monopolies. First, a statute in 1453 (Henry
+VI.), forbidding the importation of foreign embroideries for
+five years. This is re-enacted under Edward IV., Richard
+III., and Henry VII.; and was partially repealed in the 3rd
+and 5th George III. While we are on this subject, we
+may remark that in 1707, the importation of embroidery
+was forbidden to the East India Company, and we closed
+our ports to all manufactured Indian goods. The only
+artistic trade <em>now</em> protected is that of the silversmith;
+no plate from foreign workshops being permitted to enter
+England&mdash;not even do we allow Indian plate to come in,
+except under certain conditions. This may be the reason
+that our own plate is so very bad in design and execution,
+for want of competition and example.</p>
+
+<p>Protection is always more or less fatal to art. The
+Wars of the Roses had injured our own best schools, and
+we needed refined imported ideas to raise our standard
+once again. Perhaps, since embroidery had become a
+regular industry, our markets were overstocked by home
+productions which were outrivalled by the works from
+the Continent, and it was distress that caused the plea for
+protection.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 191px;">
+<a name="pl79" id="pl79"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 79.</p>
+<img src="images/naap79t.jpg" width="191" height="400"
+alt="Plant patterns on the centre panel, figures and heraldic shields on the side panels, and a fringe around the edges" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap79.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Pall of the Vintners&rsquo; Company (sixteenth century).</p>
+
+<p>It is fair to say that some of the English works of
+that time, of which we have specimens, are as good as
+possible. In the Dunstable pall, for instance, the figures
+of which are perfectly drawn and beautifully executed, the
+style is excellent and pure English (plate <a href="#pl78">78</a>). The pall
+itself is of Florentine crimson velvet and gold brocade,
+with the little loops of gold drawn through the velvet,
+showing the loom from whence it came. The white satin
+border carries the embroidery. It is a more perfect
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_379" id="Page_379">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>379]</a></span>
+specimen of the later fourteenth century work than the
+famous pall of the Fishmongers&rsquo; Company, which shows the
+impress of the Flemish taste, which was at its perfection
+in the fifteenth. The style reminds us of that of the fine
+tapestries from the St. Mary&rsquo;s Hall, Coventry, of which
+the subject is King Henry VI. and Cardinal Beaufort
+praying. The Vintners&rsquo; Company&rsquo;s pall is also very fine
+(plate <a href="#pl79">79</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl80" id="pl80"></a>
+<img src="images/naap80t.jpg" width="400" height="193"
+alt="Featuring rose and crowned portcullis motifs" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap80.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Henry VII.&rsquo;s Cope from Stoneyhurst</p>
+
+<p>Of the time of Henry VII. we have the celebrated
+cope of Stoneyhurst, woven in Florence, of a gold tissue,
+the design raised in crimson velvet. It is without seam,
+and the composition which covers the whole surface
+is the crown of England lying on the portcullis; and
+the Tudor rose fills up the space with a magnificent
+scroll. The design is evidently English, as well as
+the embroidery, which is, however, much restored<a name="FNanchor_597_597" id="FNanchor_597_597"></a><a href="#Footnote_597_597" class="fnanchor">[597]</a>
+(plate <a href="#pl80">80</a>).</p>
+
+<p>This is one of the &ldquo;whole suite of vestments
+and copes of cloth of gold tissue wrought with our
+badges of red roses and portcullises, the which we of
+late caused to be made at Florence in Italy ... which
+our king, Henry VII., in his will bequeathed to God
+and St. Peter, and to the Abbot and Prior of our
+Monastery at Westminster,&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_598_598" id="FNanchor_598_598"></a><a href="#Footnote_598_598" class="fnanchor">[598]</a> which were designed for
+him by Torrigiano.</p>
+
+<p>From the portraits of the fourteenth and fifteenth
+centuries we can judge of the prevailing taste in dress
+embroideries of that period, which consisted mostly of
+delicate patterns of gold or silver on the borders of
+dresses, and the linen collars and sleeves. Of this style
+I give a small sampler, from Lord Middleton&rsquo;s collection.
+We have a good many specimens of the work
+of these centuries, both ecclesiastical and secular.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_380" id="Page_380">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>380]</a></span>
+They had still a Gothic stamp, which totally disappeared
+in the beginning of the
+sixteenth century in the
+new style of the Renaissance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="fig27" id="fig27"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf27.png" width="400" height="380" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 27.<br />
+Sampler, from Lord Middleton&rsquo;s collection.<br />
+Time, Henry VIII.</p>
+
+<p>The next great change
+throughout northern
+Europe affecting all the
+conditions of life, most
+especially in England,
+was caused by the Reformation,
+which swept
+away both the art and
+the artist of the Gothic
+era. The monasteries
+which had fostered painting, illumination, and embroidery,
+and the arts which had been so passionately devoted
+to the Church, were doomed. George Gifford, writing
+to Cromwell of the suppression of a religious house
+at Woolstrope, in Lincolnshire, after praising that establishment
+says, &ldquo;There is not one religious person
+there, but what <em>can</em> and <em>doth</em> use either embrotheryng,
+wryting bookes with a fayre hand, making garments,
+karvynge, &amp;c.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_599_599" id="FNanchor_599_599"></a><a href="#Footnote_599_599" class="fnanchor">[599]</a></p>
+
+<p>In the general clearance the churches and shrines were
+swept, though never again garnished, and the survivals
+have to be painfully sought for, and are so few that a
+short catalogue will tell them all.</p>
+
+<p>The greater part of the fine embroideries which escaped
+the &ldquo;iconoclastic rage&rdquo; of the Reformation, and the final
+sweep of the Puritans, are to be seen now in the houses
+and chapels of the old Roman Catholic families, who
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_381" id="Page_381">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>381]</a></span>
+have either preserved or collected them; also in the
+museums of our cathedrals, and spread about the
+Continent. For instance, at Sens are the vestments of
+Thomas &agrave; Becket, and at Valencia, in Spain, there are
+yet in the chapter-house a chasuble and two dalmatics,
+brought from London by two merchants of Valencia,
+whose names are preserved&mdash;Andrew and Pedro de
+Medina. They purchased them at the sale of the Roman
+Catholic ornaments of Westminster Abbey in the time
+of Henry VIII. They are embroidered in gold, and
+represent scenes from the life of our Lord. The background
+of one is a representation of the Tower of
+London.</p>
+
+<p>In 1520 was held the famous tournament of the Field
+of the Cloth of Gold.<a name="FNanchor_600_600" id="FNanchor_600_600"></a><a href="#Footnote_600_600" class="fnanchor">[600]</a> Here came all England&rsquo;s chivalry
+surrounding their splendid young king; followed by squires
+and men-at-arms, and carrying with them tents, banners,
+and hangings covered with devices and mottoes. Their
+own dresses, of rich materials and adorned with embroidery
+(as well as the housings of their horses), vied in ingenuity
+and splendour with those of the still more luxurious court
+and following of Francis I., the French king. The tradesmen
+and workmen and workwomen in England were driven
+crazy in their efforts to carry out the ideas and commands
+of their employers. It is recorded that several committed
+suicide in their despair. It was worse than the
+miseries caused by a Court Drawing-Room now. Ingenuity
+in devices was the order of the day. Francis
+and his &ldquo;Partners of Challenge&rdquo; illustrated one
+sentimental motto throughout the three days&rsquo; tourney.
+The first day they were apparelled in purple satin,
+&ldquo;broched&rdquo; with gold, and covered with black-ravens&rsquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_382" id="Page_382">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>382]</a></span>
+feathers, buckled into a circle. The first syllable of
+&ldquo;corbyn&rdquo; (a raven) is <i>cor</i>, a &ldquo;hart&rdquo; (heart). A feather
+in French is <i>pennac</i>. &ldquo;And so it stode.&rdquo; The feather
+in a circle was endless, and &ldquo;betokened sothe fastnesse.&rdquo;
+Then was the device &ldquo;Hart fastened in pain
+endlesse.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The next day the &ldquo;Hardy Kings&rdquo; met armed at all
+points. The French king and his followers were arrayed
+in purple satin, broched with gold and purple velvet,
+embroidered with little rolls of white satin, on which was
+written &ldquo;Quando;&rdquo; all the rest was powdered with the
+letter L&mdash;&ldquo;Quando Elle&rdquo; (when she). The third day
+the motto was laboriously brought to a conclusion.
+Francis appeared dressed in purple velvet embroidered
+with little white open books; &ldquo;Liber&rdquo; being a book, the
+motto on it was, &ldquo;A me.&rdquo; These books were connected
+with worked blue chains; thus we have the whole motto:
+&ldquo;Hart, fastened in pain endlesse, when she delivereth me
+not of bondes.&rdquo; Could painful ingenuity go further? On
+the English side we have similar devices. Brandon,
+Duke of Suffolk, the bridegroom of the Dowager Queen of
+France, Henry&rsquo;s sister, was clothed on one side in cloth
+of frise (grey woollen), on which appeared embroidered in
+gold the motto,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Cloth of frise, be not too bold<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That thou be match&rsquo;d with cloth of gold.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>This parti-coloured garment was on the other side of
+gold, with the motto,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Cloth of gold, do not despise<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That thou be match&rsquo;d with cloth of frise.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides mottoes, cyphers and monograms were the
+fashion, embroidered with heraldic devices. These particulars
+we find in Hall&rsquo;s account of the tournament, with a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_383" id="Page_383">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>383]</a></span>
+detailed description of the golden tent in which the
+monarchs met, and which gave its name ever after to the
+plain near Guisnes, where the jousts were held. What we
+read of its construction recalls the Alexandrian erections,
+of which I have spoken already, as well as their hangings
+and embroideries.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 236px;">
+<a name="pl81" id="pl81"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 81.</p>
+<img src="images/naap81t.jpg" width="236" height="400"
+alt="Designs including insects, flowers, fruit, vegetables and plants" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap81.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">English Specimens of Spanish Work. Time of Henry VIII. Lord Middleton&rsquo;s
+Collection.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 489px;">
+<a name="pl82" id="pl82"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 82.</p>
+<img src="images/naap82.jpg" width="489" height="500"
+alt="Criss-cross patterns form diamonds, in the centre of each is a bird or plant motif" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">English Specimen. Spanish Work. Henry VIII. Louisa, Lady Waterford&rsquo;s
+Collection.</p>
+
+<p>Incrustations of pearls and precious stones gave a
+dazzling brilliancy to the tent, divided into many rooms,
+and adapted to the climate of the north. It covered
+a space of 328 feet. Hall describes the tent, the
+jousts, and the splendid apparel belonging to this last
+chapter of the magnificence of chivalry. Brewer remarks
+that magnificence was, in those days, often supposed to
+be synonymous with magnanimity (at any rate, it was
+erected into a royal virtue). &ldquo;The Medi&aelig;val Age,&rdquo; he
+says, &ldquo;had gathered up its departing energies for this last
+display of its favourite pastime, henceforth to be consigned
+without regret to the mouldering lodges of the past.&rdquo;<a name="FNanchor_601_601" id="FNanchor_601_601"></a><a href="#Footnote_601_601" class="fnanchor">[601]</a></p>
+
+<p>We cannot say how much of French taste was
+imported from this meeting of French and English
+luxury. The spirit of the Renaissance, fresh from Italy,
+was reigning in France, but we had also in Italy our own
+emissaries. John of Padua was probably only one of
+many Englishmen who travelled to learn and improve
+themselves in their special crafts.</p>
+
+<p>Catherine of Aragon introduced the Spanish taste in embroidery,
+which was then white or black silk and gold &ldquo;lace
+stitches&rdquo; on fine linen (plate <a href="#pl81">81</a>). This went by the name
+of &ldquo;Spanish work,&rdquo; and continued to be the fashion down
+to and through the reign of Mary Tudor, who remained
+faithful to the traditions of her mother&rsquo;s and her grandmother&rsquo;s
+work<a name="FNanchor_602_602" id="FNanchor_602_602"></a><a href="#Footnote_602_602" class="fnanchor">[602]</a> (plate <a href="#pl82">82</a>). Catherine of Aragon had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_384" id="Page_384">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>384]</a></span>
+learned her craft from her mother, Queen Isabella, who
+always made her husband&rsquo;s shirts. To make and adorn a
+shirt was then an artistic feat, not unworthy of a queen.
+Isabella instituted trials of needlework amongst her ladies.
+In the days of her disgrace and solitude, Catherine turned
+to her embroidery for solace and occupation. She came
+forth to meet the Cardinals Wolsey and Campeggio with
+a skein of red silk round her neck.<a name="FNanchor_603_603" id="FNanchor_603_603"></a><a href="#Footnote_603_603" class="fnanchor">[603]</a> Taylor, the water
+poet, says,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i7">&ldquo;Virtuously,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Although a queen, her days did pass<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In working with her needle curiously.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>At Silbergh Castle, in Westmoreland, was a counterpane
+and toilet embroidered by Queen Catherine.</p>
+
+<p>Anne of Cleves brought with her the taste for Flemish
+and German Renaissance designs; and all the cushion
+stitches were in vogue. The Renaissance borders for
+dress were mostly worked in gold on coloured silk on the
+linen collars and cuffs. Holbein&rsquo;s and other contemporary
+portraits illustrate this peculiarity of the costumes of the
+time. The women&rsquo;s head-dresses also carried much
+fine, beautifully designed, and delicate work.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Henry VIII. fine hangings were worked
+and woven in England; the royal inventories give us
+an idea to what extent. Cardinal Wolsey&rsquo;s walls were
+covered with splendid embroideries, besides the suites of
+tapestries still adorning the hall at Hampton Court. One
+room was hung with embroidered cloth of gold.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_385" id="Page_385">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>385]</a></span>
+Mary Tudor, as I have said, was Spanish in all her
+tastes, and we have lists of her &ldquo;smocks&rdquo; all worked in
+Spanish stitches, black and gold, or black silk only.<a name="FNanchor_604_604" id="FNanchor_604_604"></a><a href="#Footnote_604_604" class="fnanchor">[604]</a>
+This taste, following the political tendencies of the time,
+entirely disappeared under Elizabeth. It survives, however,
+in peasant dress in the Low Countries.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Elizabeth spent much of her time in needlework.
+She herself had received the education of a
+man, as well as her cousin, Lady Jane Grey; and doubtless
+many women were taught at that time Greek and
+Latin, and to study philosophy, mathematics, and the
+science of music, as a training for serious life. Elizabeth
+studied and embroidered too; at any rate, she stood
+godmother to many pieces of embroidery, which
+are to be seen still in the houses she visited or
+occupied.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_386" id="Page_386">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>386]</a></span>
+While at Ashridge, and afterwards as a prisoner at
+Hatfield, she so employed herself; and among the specimens
+of work of the sixteenth century exhibited at South
+Kensington in 1873, were her shoes and cap, worked in
+purl, a semaini&egrave;re in the same stitch, also cushion-covers
+in divers cushion stitches, and a portmonnaie in exquisitely
+fine satin-stitch; all of which articles, and many
+more, were left by her at Ashridge when she was hurried
+away in the dead of night to Hatfield.<a name="FNanchor_605_605" id="FNanchor_605_605"></a><a href="#Footnote_605_605" class="fnanchor">[605]</a></p>
+
+<p>The character of the Renaissance of the sixteenth
+century, just released from the trammels of Gothic
+traditions, was somewhat lawless in England, being
+unchastened by the classical element which entirely
+controlled the movement in Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The queen&rsquo;s dress soon departed from the severe
+simplicity which she at first affected, and every part of
+her costume was covered with flowers, fruit, and
+symbolical designs; while serpents, crowns, chains, roses,
+eyes and ears crowded the surfaces of the fine materials
+of her dresses. These symbolical designs were rich
+without grace, and ingenious rather than artistic,
+although their workmanship was perfect. In Louisa,
+Lady Waterford&rsquo;s collection we find a jacket for a
+slight girl&rsquo;s figure, of white linen, covered with flowers,
+fruit, and berries, all carried out in satin and lace stitches.
+There are butterflies with their wings disengaged from
+the ground; pods bursting open and showing the round
+seeds or peas; caterpillars stuffed and raised; all these
+astonish us by their quaint perfection, and shock us by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_387" id="Page_387">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>387]</a></span>
+their naturalistic crudeness of design, and the utter want
+of beauty or taste in the whole effect. The impression
+left on the mind is, how dear it must have cost the pocket
+of the purchaser and the eyes of the workers. There
+are, however, exceptions to these defective poor designs;
+and in the same collection is a cushion-cover worked in
+gold and silver plate, purl and silk, on a red satin ground,
+which is as good as possible in every respect, and is
+purely English in style. The stitches and materials are
+most refined and varied. Purl, which was a newly made
+material imported from Italy and Germany, was then in
+much vogue, and we have seen a few fine specimens of
+it, that have been imitated from the Italian cinque-cento
+raised and stuffed needlework, which are very curious and
+almost very beautiful,&mdash;only one feels that the same effect
+could have been produced by simpler means. This work
+is characteristic of the reigns of Henry VIII., Elizabeth,
+and James I. We have needlework of another most
+unhappy queen of this date. Poor Mary, Queen of Scots,
+tried to soften Elizabeth&rsquo;s heart towards her prisoner by
+little gifts of her own embroideries.<a name="FNanchor_606_606" id="FNanchor_606_606"></a><a href="#Footnote_606_606" class="fnanchor">[606]</a></p>
+
+<p>We have no account of the cause of the incorporation
+of the Embroiderers&rsquo; Company by Queen Elizabeth,<a name="FNanchor_607_607" id="FNanchor_607_607"></a><a href="#Footnote_607_607" class="fnanchor">[607]</a> in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_388" id="Page_388">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>388]</a></span>
+the third year of her reign, Oct. 25th, 1561, confirmed
+by James II., April 12th, 1686, which is still a London
+guild. It received the lions of England as a special favour.
+The arms are thus blazoned: &ldquo;Pal&eacute;e of six argent and
+azure on a fess gules, between three lions of England
+pass. gardant or. Three broches in saltire between
+as many trundles (i.e. quills of gold thread), or. Crest:
+on a wreath a heart; the holy dove displayed argent,
+radiated or. Supporters: two lions or (gutt&eacute;e de sang).
+Motto: &lsquo;Omnia Desuper.&rsquo; Hall, 20, Gutter Lane.&rdquo;
+There were branches, incorporated and bearing the arms,
+at Bristol and Chester, in 1780. (See <a href="#appendix_vi">Appendix</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 250px;">
+<a name="fig28" id="fig28"></a>
+<img src="images/naaf28.png" width="250" height="300" alt="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Fig. 28.<br />
+Arms of Embroiderers&rsquo; Guild.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of James I. it was
+the fashion to do portraits in
+needlework, stitched flat or raised.
+Some are artistic in design and
+execution, but they are mostly
+ridiculously bad.</p>
+
+<p>The East India Company was
+founded in 1560, under Elizabeth,
+and obtained the monopoly of the
+Anglo-Indian trade, under Cromwell,
+in 1634. This would have
+been the moment for encouraging a fresh importation of
+Oriental taste into our degenerate art. Cromwell&rsquo;s own
+service of plate was scratched over (&ldquo;graffito&rdquo;) with a
+childish and weak semi-Indian, semi-Chinese design;
+and we must accept this as typical of the artistic
+Oriental knowledge of that day. Grafted on the style
+of James I., it shows, however, that Indian ideas were
+creeping in and sought for, if not understood in high
+places, under the auspices of the East India Company.
+Needlework alone was excluded from all benefit. From
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_389" id="Page_389">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>389]</a></span>
+that date, for 150 years, Indian manufactures were imported,
+<em>with the exception of embroidery</em>, which was contraband
+by the ancient statutes. This accounts for our
+faint and ignorant imitations of Indian work, and the
+extreme rarity of the true specimens to be met with in
+England, unless of a later period.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 400px;">
+<a name="pl83" id="pl83"></a>
+<img src="images/naap83t.jpg" width="400" height="228"
+alt="Features disproportionately sized trees, plants, birds, fruit and human figures" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap83.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Cushion cover Temp. Queen Elizabeth<br />
+XVI. Century</p>
+
+<p>But our Aryan instincts have always led our English
+tastes towards conventional naturalism. Although we
+have lost the rules and traditions which converted natural
+objects into patterns, we are continually, in our style,
+leaning and groping in their direction, and twining
+flowers, those of the field by preference, into semi-conventional
+garlands and posies.</p>
+
+<p>In the seventeenth century, when James I. was king,
+protection had done its worst. The style of work called
+&ldquo;embroidery on the stamp&rdquo; was then the fashion. This
+sort of work in Italy continued to be artistic, but the
+English specimens that have survived from this reign are
+mostly very ugly. Continental art had ceased to influence
+us, and bad taste reigned supreme, except in our architecture,
+which had crystallized into a picturesque style of
+our own called &ldquo;James I.,&rdquo; and was the outcome of the
+last Gothic of Henry VIII. and the Italian style of Edward
+VI. and Elizabeth. But the carvings of that phase of
+architecture were semi-barbarous. Nothing could have
+been poorer than their composition, or coarser than their
+execution, and the needlework of the day followed suit.
+Infinite trouble and ingenuity were wasted on looking-glass
+frames, picture frames, and caskets worked in
+purl, gold, and silver. The subjects were ambitious
+Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, and James and Anne
+of Denmark,<a name="FNanchor_608_608" id="FNanchor_608_608"></a><a href="#Footnote_608_608" class="fnanchor">[608]</a> and other historical figures were stuffed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_390" id="Page_390">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>390]</a></span>
+with cotton or wool, and raised into high relief; and then
+dressed and &ldquo;garnished&rdquo; with pearls; the faces either in
+painted satin or fine satin stitch; the hair and wigs
+in purl or complicated knotting. Windsor Castle as a
+background for King James and King Solomon alike,
+pointed the clumsy allegory, and the lion of England
+gambolling in the foreground, amid flowers and coats-of-arms,
+filled up the composition.</p>
+
+<p>The drawing and design were childish, and show us
+how high art can in a century or less slip back into no
+art at all. Any one comparing the Dunstable or the
+Fishmongers&rsquo; pall with one of the best caskets of this
+period would say that the latter should have preceded
+the former by centuries. In James I.&rsquo;s time, ignorance of
+all rules of composition was added to the absence of any
+sort of style.<a name="FNanchor_609_609" id="FNanchor_609_609"></a><a href="#Footnote_609_609" class="fnanchor">[609]</a> I give the illustrations of the time of
+James I. Plate <a href="#pl83">83</a> is a cushion from Hatfield House,
+rich and rather foolish, with tiny men filling in the corners
+left vacant by large flowers, caterpillars, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Charles I. gave a raised embroidered cope to the
+Chapter of Durham, of this description of work.<a name="FNanchor_610_610" id="FNanchor_610_610"></a><a href="#Footnote_610_610" class="fnanchor">[610]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 197px;">
+<a name="pl84" id="pl84"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 84.</p>
+<img src="images/naap84t.jpg" width="197" height="400"
+alt="Large intertwined foliage and floral design" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap84.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">English embroidered curtain (James I.), at Cockayne Hatley, Beds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter ipadtop" style="width: 252px;">
+<a name="pl85" id="pl85"></a>
+<p class="plno">Pl. 85.</p>
+<img src="images/naap85t.jpg" width="252" height="400"
+alt="Large leaf and fruit pattern" />
+<span class="link"><a href="images/naap85.jpg">See larger image</a></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="caption">Embroidered Hangings. Crewels on Linen. Hardwicke Hall.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_391" id="Page_391">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>391]</a></span>
+The other fashionable work of that day had its merits. It
+was the custom to embroider hangings or linen in crewels.
+Considering how often in this book and my preceding
+lectures I have said that this style of work was common
+(even in the early days of Egypt and Assyria), it may
+well be said, when was it <em>not</em> the fashion? and I must
+answer, &ldquo;only since the days of Queen Anne.&rdquo; It seems
+as if before that time our designs for work were partially
+influenced by the fine Indian specimens which had
+surreptitiously crept into England. Some of these are
+very cleverly executed. Huge conventional trees grow
+from a green strip of earth carrying every variety of leaf
+and flower done in many stitches. The individual leaf
+or flower is often very beautiful. On the bank below,
+small deer and lions disport themselves, and birds twice
+their size perch on the branches (plate <a href="#pl84">84</a>).<a name="FNanchor_611_611" id="FNanchor_611_611"></a><a href="#Footnote_611_611" class="fnanchor">[611]</a> But even
+where the work is finest, the incongruities are too annoying.
+The modern excuse for it, &ldquo;that it is quaint,&rdquo;
+does not reconcile us to its extravagant effect. To be
+quaint in art is, as I have said before, to be funny
+without intending it; and these curtains are funny by their
+absence of all intention or perspective, and when hung
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_392" id="Page_392">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>392]</a></span>
+they make everything in the room look disproportionate to
+the unnatural size of the foliage. (Plate <a href="#pl85">85</a>.) Specimens of
+this work are to be found in most English country houses.
+It has lasted till now, partly because the crewels first
+manufactured in the sixteenth century were of an excellent
+quality, and secondly, because there was no gold
+to make it worth any one&rsquo;s while to destroy them; so the
+old hangings went up into the attics in all the disgrace
+of shabbiness, and have come down again as family
+relics. Even the moths have been deprived of their
+prey, by these curtains having served for the beds of the
+household, so that they have been kept for their nearly
+300 years of existence, aired and dusted. Much of this
+work has been recovered from farmhouses and cottages
+in tolerable preservation. In many cases the flowers
+have survived the stout linen grounds on which they were
+worked. The Royal School of Needlework has often
+been commissioned to restore and transfer the crewel
+trees on to a new backing. The hangings and the
+curtains I have described, prevailed from the end of
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign to that of Queen Anne, and gradually
+deteriorated. The stitches, of which the variety at first
+was infinite, had given place to a coarse uniform stem
+stitch&mdash;&ldquo;gobble stitch.&rdquo; The materials also were of
+inferior quality, and less durable, so that the latest
+specimens are in general in the worst condition.</p>
+
+<p>It is remarkable how little the beautiful Continental
+work influenced our English school. We were enjoying
+perfect protection, and were clumsily taking advantage
+of our security from all competition. In the Italian
+palaces this was the moment of the finest secular embroideries
+in satin stitches, gold and silver, and &ldquo;inlaid&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;onlaid&rdquo; appliqu&eacute;s. Likewise in Spain and Portugal
+the Oriental work, especially that executed at
+Goa, filled the palaces and the convents with gorgeous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_393" id="Page_393">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>393]</a></span>
+hangings, carpets, table-covers, and bed furniture. We
+feel it painful to contrast with these our own shortcomings
+in art, and our faded glories.</p>
+
+<p>The fact is, that, owing to our art-killing protectionist
+laws, embroidery had the misfortune to be treated
+at that time as textile manufacture, and not as art at all.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of William and Mary, Dutch taste had
+naturally been brought to the front.<a name="FNanchor_612_612" id="FNanchor_612_612"></a><a href="#Footnote_612_612" class="fnanchor">[612]</a> This included
+Japanese art, or imitations of it, and also had something of
+late Spanish. The Georges brought into England, and
+naturalized a rather heavy work, in gold and silver&mdash;the
+design being decidedly a German &ldquo;Louis Quatorze&rdquo;&mdash;richly
+stitched and heavily fringed, and much employed
+on court dresses and on state furniture. We have seen
+royal beds and court suits which show very little difference
+in style. It does not appear that this was worked
+by ladies. It has, somehow, a professional look.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig29" id="fig29"></a></p>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 400px;">
+<img src="images/naaf29.png" width="400" height="310"
+alt="Twisting vines with crowns, roses and a bird" />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 29.<br />
+Part of James II.&rsquo;s Coronation Dress.<br />
+From an old Print.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Occasionally, however, we meet with pieces of exceptionally
+beautiful
+work of the end of
+the seventeenth
+and early part of
+the eighteenth centuries.
+The style is
+the most refined
+Louis Quatorze, but
+the work is actually
+English. The white
+satin coverlets belonging
+to the Marquis
+of Bath and
+the Duke of Leeds
+are not to be exceeded in delicacy and splendour. The
+embroidered dresses of the Duke and Duchess of Buckingham,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_394" id="Page_394">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>394]</a></span>
+in Westminster Abbey (early eighteenth century)
+are of this description.</p>
+
+<p>From Queen Anne to George III., a great deal of furniture
+was covered with the different cushion stitches,
+either in geometrical or kaleidoscope patterns, or else
+displaying groups of flowers or figures, quaint and
+sometimes pretty. These designs are generally, however,
+wanting in grace, and their German feeling shows them
+to be the precursors of the Berlin wool patterns.</p>
+
+<p>When the crewel-work hangings ceased to be the
+fashion, home work took another direction. All the
+ladies imitated Indian dimity patterns, on muslin, in
+coloured silks or thread, with the tambour-frame and
+needle;<a name="FNanchor_613_613" id="FNanchor_613_613"></a><a href="#Footnote_613_613" class="fnanchor">[613]</a> but in 1707 the &ldquo;Broiderers&rsquo; Company,&rdquo; we presume,
+found that the Indian manufactures were engrossing
+the market, and a fresh statute was obtained, forbidding
+the importation from India of any wrought
+material. This cruel prohibition carried its own punishment.
+The Indian trade was ours, and we might have
+adapted and assimilated the Indian taste for design.
+We might have brought over men and women great in
+their most ancient craft, and so produced the most
+splendid Indo-English School. The Portuguese at least
+sent out their own silks and satins to be worked at Goa;
+<em>we</em> threw away our chance, and signed the death-warrant
+of our art.</p>
+
+<p>About the middle of the last century, several ladies,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_395" id="Page_395">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>395]</a></span>
+notably Miss Linwood, Miss Moritt, of Rokeby, and
+Mrs. Delany, copied pictures in worsteds. Some of these
+are wonderfully clever and even very pretty, but they are
+rather a painful effort of pictorial art under difficulties,
+than legitimate embroideries. These pictures would have
+served the purpose of decoration better as medallions in
+the centres of arabesque panels, than framed and glazed
+in imitation of oil paintings. Some of the followers of this
+school produced works that are shocking to all artistic sense,
+especially as seen now, when the moths have spoiled
+them. They can only be classed with such abortive
+attempts at decoration as glass cases filled with decayed
+stuffed birds, and vases of faded and broken wax flowers.</p>
+
+<p>I may record with praise the efforts of Mrs.
+Pawsey,<a name="FNanchor_614_614" id="FNanchor_614_614"></a><a href="#Footnote_614_614" class="fnanchor">[614]</a> a lady who started a school of needlework
+at Aylesbury. She was patronized by Queen Charlotte;
+and for her she worked the beautiful bed at Hampton
+Court, of purple satin, with wreaths of flowers in crewels
+touched up with silk, which look as if they might have
+been copied from the flower-pieces of a Dutch master.
+The execution is very fine, and reminds one of the best
+French work of the same period. Mrs. Pawsey taught
+and helped ladies to embroider in silk and chenille, as
+well as crewels, and in many country houses we can
+recognize specimens of her style; usually on screens
+worked in silk and chenille, with bunches of flowers in
+vases or baskets, artistically designed.</p>
+
+<p>This was our last attempt at excellence, immediately
+followed by the total collapse of our decorative needlework,
+and the advent of the Berlin wool patterns.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_396" id="Page_396">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>396]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>POSTSCRIPT.</h3>
+
+<p>A postscript to this chapter will perhaps be acceptable
+to those who have taken an interest in the &ldquo;History of
+English Embroidery,&rdquo; and who will therefore care to know
+about the revival which has filled so many workshops
+with what is now called &ldquo;Art Needlework.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>There was a public demand for something better than
+the worsted patterns in the trade, and the Royal School
+of Art Needlework rose and tried to respond to that call
+by stimulating original ideas and designs, and imitating
+old ones in conformity with modern requirements. The
+difficulties to be overcome were at first very great. The
+old stitches had all to be learned and then taught, and
+the best methods to be selected; the proper materials had
+to be studied and obtained&mdash;sometimes they had to be
+manufactured. Lastly, beautiful tints had to be dyed;
+avoiding, as much as possible, the gaudy and the
+evanescent.</p>
+
+<p>The project of such a school was first conceived in
+the autumn of 1872.</p>
+
+<p>Lady Welby, herself an accomplished embroideress,
+had the courage to face all the difficulties of such an
+undertaking. A small apartment was hired in Sloane
+Street, and Mrs. Dolby, who was already an authority on
+ecclesiastical work, gave her help. Twenty young ladies
+were selected, and several friends joined heartily in
+fostering the movement.</p>
+
+<p>H.R.H. the Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein
+gave her name as President, and her active co-operation.<a name="FNanchor_615_615" id="FNanchor_615_615"></a><a href="#Footnote_615_615" class="fnanchor">[615]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_397" id="Page_397">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>397]</a></span>
+The school grew so fast, that for want of space for the
+work-frames, it had to remove into a larger house, No. 31,
+Sloane Street, and finally in the year 1875 it found its
+present home in Exhibition Road, when the Queen became
+its Patron. In 1878 the Association was incorporated
+under the Board of Trade, with a Managing and a
+Finance Committee, and a salaried manager to overlook
+the whole concern.</p>
+
+<p>From 100 to 150 ladies at a time have there received
+employment. Their claims were poverty, gentle birth, and
+sufficient capacity to enable them to support themselves
+and be educated to teach others.</p>
+
+<p>Branch schools have been started throughout the
+United Kingdom and in America.<a name="FNanchor_616_616" id="FNanchor_616_616"></a><a href="#Footnote_616_616" class="fnanchor">[616]</a></p>
+
+<p>The education of the school has been much assisted
+by the easy access to the fine collections of ancient
+embroideries in the Kensington Museum, and by the loan
+exhibition of old artistic work, which was there organized
+in 1875, at the suggestion of H.R.H. the President; and
+since then there have been three very interesting loan
+exhibitions in the rooms of the Royal School.</p>
+
+<p>It was, indeed, necessary that the acting members
+should avail themselves of every means of instruction, in
+order to fit themselves for the task they had undertaken.
+They were expected at once to be competent to judge
+all old work, to name its style and date, and even sometimes
+its market value. They were to be able to repair
+and add to all old work; to know and teach every
+stitch, ancient and modern; and produce designs for any
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_398" id="Page_398">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>398]</a></span>
+period, Gothic, Renaissance, Elizabethan, James I., or
+Queen Anne; besides contemporary European work,&mdash;all
+different, and each requiring separate study.</p>
+
+<p>Some important works have been produced which will
+illustrate what has been said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="hang">
+<p>1. A suite of window curtains for her Majesty, at
+Windsor (style, nineteenth century; sunflowers).</p>
+
+<p>2. Curtains for a drawing-room for the Duchess of
+Buccleuch: crimson velvet and gold appliqu&eacute;
+(Louis Quatorze).</p>
+
+<p>3. Curtain for Louisa, Lady Ashburton: coloured silk
+embroidery on white satin (Venetian, sixteenth
+century).</p>
+
+<p>4. Curtain, also for Louisa, Lady Ashburton: brown
+velvet and gold appliqu&eacute; (<i>Italian</i>).</p>
+
+<p>5. Dado for the Hon. Mrs. Percy Wyndham: linen
+and crewels. Peacocks and vines (<i>Medi&aelig;val</i>).</p>
+
+<p>6. Furnishings and hangings for state bedroom for
+Countess Cowper, Panshanger: crimson satin,
+embroidered and coloured silks (<i>Chinese</i>).</p>
+
+<p>7. Curtains for music gallery for Mr. Arthur Balfour:
+blue silk, appliqu&eacute;, velvet, and gold (<i>Italian</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The earnest attempt to produce an artistic school of
+embroidery met with recognition and help from the
+highest authorities. Sir F. Leighton granted permission
+for appeals to his judgment. Mr. Burne Jones, Mr.
+Morris, Mr. Walter Crane, and Mr. Wade gave original
+designs.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot guess whether the taste which has sprung
+up again so suddenly will last. Perhaps its catholicity
+may prolong its popularity, and something absolutely new
+in style may be evolved, which shall revive the credit of
+the &ldquo;opus Anglicanum.&rdquo; Of one thing we may be sure&mdash;that
+it is inherent in the nature of Englishwomen to employ
+their fingers. And the busy as well as the ignorant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_399" id="Page_399">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>399]</a></span>
+need a guide to the principles of design, as well as the
+technical details of the art of embroidery. This should be
+supplied by the Royal School of Art Needlework, which
+by inculcating careful drawing, by reviving old traditions
+and criticizing fresh ideas, becomes a guarantee for the
+improvement of domestic decorative design.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center padtop padbase">FINIS.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_555_555" id="Footnote_555_555"></a><a href="#FNanchor_555_555"><span class="label">[555]</span></a>
+&ldquo;The people of Babylon, the Accadians, had a written literature
+and a civilization superior to that of the conquering Assyrians, who
+borrowed their art of writing, and probably their culture, which may
+have been the centre and starting-point of the western civilization of
+Asia, and therefore the origin of our own. Accadian civilization was
+anterior to that of the Ph&oelig;nicians and the Greeks, and is now received
+in these later years as the original form, and become again the heritage
+of mankind. It has been said that Assyrian art was destitute of
+originality, and to that of the Accadians, which they adopted, we ourselves
+owe our first customs and ideas. Four thousand years ago
+these people possessed a culture which in many of its details resembles
+that of our country and time.&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;Assyrian Life and History,&rdquo; p. 66,
+by M. Harkness and Stuart Poole.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_556_556" id="Footnote_556_556"></a><a href="#FNanchor_556_556"><span class="label">[556]</span></a>
+&ldquo;The arts of spinning and the manufacture of linen were introduced
+into Europe and drifted into Britain in the Neolithic Age. They
+have been preserved with but little variation from that period down to
+the present day in certain remote parts of Europe, and have only been
+superseded in modern times by the complicated machinery so familiar
+to us.... The spindle and distaff are proved by the perforated spindle-whorls,
+made of stone, pottery, or bone, commonly met with in Neolithic
+habitations or tombs. The thread is proved, by discoveries in the
+Swiss lakes, to have been made of flax; and the combs that have been
+found for pushing the threads of the warp on the weft show that it was
+woven into linen on some sort of loom.&rdquo;&mdash;Boyd Dawkins&rsquo; &ldquo;Early Man
+in Britain,&rdquo; p. 275.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_557_557" id="Footnote_557_557"></a><a href="#FNanchor_557_557"><span class="label">[557]</span></a>
+I am aware that the presence of the Ph&oelig;nicians (or Carthaginians)
+on our coasts has been disputed; but I think that the evidence of the
+Etruscan ornaments I have mentioned gives more than probability to
+the truth of Pliny&rsquo;s account of the expedition of Himilco from Gades,
+500 <small>B.C.</small> By some he is supposed to have been a contemporary of
+Hanno, and of the third century <small>B.C.</small> There is some confusion in the
+imperfect record of the voyage; but it is difficult to interpret it otherwise
+than that he touched at several points north of Gaul. (See Boyd
+Dawkins&rsquo; &ldquo;Early Man in Britain,&rdquo; pp. 457-461; see also Perrot and
+Chipiez, &ldquo;L&rsquo;Histoire de l&rsquo;Art dans l&rsquo;Antiquit&eacute;,&rdquo; t. iii.; &ldquo;Ph&eacute;nicie et
+Cypre,&rdquo; p. 48.) For a contrary opinion, see Elton&rsquo;s &ldquo;Origins of English
+History.&rdquo; Elton ascribes the first knowledge of the British islands to
+the voyage of Pytheas in the fourth century <small>B.C.</small>; he acknowledges that
+the geography of Britain was well known to the Greeks in the time of
+Alexander the Great. We owe to Pliny and Strabo the few fragments
+from Pytheas that have been rescued from oblivion, and to Pliny the
+notices of Himilco. (See Bouillet&rsquo;s &ldquo;Dictionnaire d&rsquo;Histoire et de
+G&eacute;ographie.&rdquo;)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_558_558" id="Footnote_558_558"></a><a href="#FNanchor_558_558"><span class="label">[558]</span></a>
+See Rock&rsquo;s Introduction to &ldquo;Textile Fabrics,&rdquo; p. xii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_559_559" id="Footnote_559_559"></a><a href="#FNanchor_559_559"><span class="label">[559]</span></a>
+I give the following amusing tradition, which was probably founded
+on the celebrity of the English pearl embroidery of the Anglo-Saxon
+times, of which much went to Rome:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Then C&aelig;sar, like a conqueror, with a great number of prisoners
+sailed into France, and so to Rome, where after his return out of
+Brytaine, hee consecrated to Venus a surcote of Brytaine pearles, the
+desire whereof partly moved him to invade this country.&rdquo;&mdash;(Stow&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Annales,&rdquo; p. 14, ed. 1634.) Tacitus, in the Agricola 12, says that
+British pearls are grey and livid.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_560_560" id="Footnote_560_560"></a><a href="#FNanchor_560_560"><span class="label">[560]</span></a>
+See Rock&rsquo;s Introduction to &ldquo;Textile Fabrics,&rdquo; p. xii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_561_561" id="Footnote_561_561"></a><a href="#FNanchor_561_561"><span class="label">[561]</span></a>
+These are the poor results of the Roman invasion and neglect of
+Britain during their occupation. The second invasion of Britain by
+the Romans, under Claudius, was caused by the squabbles between the
+chiefs of the different tribes. Comnenus, the prince of the Atrebates,
+was at war with the sons of Cunobelinus (Cymbeline). He took his
+grievances to Rome, and the Roman legions were despatched to settle
+the matter, and to dazzle the world by the echoes rather than the facts
+of the triumphant victories in the land of the &ldquo;wintry pole.&rdquo; Claudius
+marched with elephants clad in mail, and bearing turrets filled with
+slingers and bowmen, accompanied by Belgic pikemen and Batavians
+from the islands in the Rhine, <small>A.D.</small> 44. The dress of Claudius on his
+return from Britain was purple, with an ivory sceptre and crown of
+gold oak leaves. One officer alone was entitled to wear a tunic embroidered
+with golden palms, in token of a former victory. The Celts,
+the Gauls, the Gaels, the Picts, the Scots, and the Saxons,&mdash;all
+crowded and settled in Britain when the Romans left it in 410, after
+nearly four hundred years of misgovernment. (See Elton&rsquo;s &ldquo;Origins
+of English History,&rdquo; pp. 306-308.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_562_562" id="Footnote_562_562"></a><a href="#FNanchor_562_562"><span class="label">[562]</span></a>
+Semper, &ldquo;Der Stil,&rdquo; pp. 133, 134. See Louis Viardot, &ldquo;Des Origines
+Traditionnelles de la Peinture en Italie&rdquo; (Paris, 1840), p. 53, note.
+Also see &ldquo;Les Ducs de Bourgogne,&rdquo; part ii. vol. ii. p. 243, No. 4092.
+Muratori was born in 1672; and he says the Empress Helena&rsquo;s work
+was in existence in the beginning of the eighteenth century. (See p. <a href="#Page_316">316</a>,
+<i>ante</i>.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_563_563" id="Footnote_563_563"></a><a href="#FNanchor_563_563"><span class="label">[563]</span></a>
+When St. Augustine (546) came to preach to the Anglo-Saxons, he
+had a banner, fastened to a cross, carried before him, on which was
+embroidered the image of our Lord. (See Mrs. Lawrence&rsquo;s &ldquo;Woman
+in England,&rdquo; pp. 296, 297.) Probably this was Roman work.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_564_564" id="Footnote_564_564"></a><a href="#FNanchor_564_564"><span class="label">[564]</span></a>
+Quoted by Mrs. Lawrence, &ldquo;Woman in England,&rdquo; p. 49, from
+one of Adhelme&rsquo;s Latin poems. Adhelme, Bishop of Sherborne, died
+in 709, having been thirty years a bishop. He wrote Latin poems, of
+which the most important, in praise of virginity, is in the Lambeth
+Library, No. 200. The MS. contains his portrait. See Strutt&rsquo;s &ldquo;English
+Dresses,&rdquo; ed. Planch&eacute;.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_565_565" id="Footnote_565_565"></a><a href="#FNanchor_565_565"><span class="label">[565]</span></a>
+An Anglo-Saxon lady named Aedelswitha, living near Whitby, in the
+sixth century, collected a number of girls and taught them to produce admirable
+embroideries for the benefit of the monastery. (See Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Church
+of our Fathers,&rdquo; p. 273; also his Introduction to &ldquo;Textiles,&rdquo; p. xxvii.)
+Bock speaks of Hrothgar&rsquo;s tapestries, embroidered with gold, of the
+thirteenth century. See <a href="#appendix_viii">Appendix 8</a>. But the earliest English tapestry
+I have seen is that in York Minster, in which are inwoven the arms
+of Scrope, 1390. Wright says of the Anglo-Saxon women, &ldquo;In their
+chamber, besides spinning and weaving, the ladies were employed in
+needlework and embroidery, and the Saxon ladies were so skilful in this
+art, that their works were celebrated on the Continent.&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;History of
+Manners in England during the Middle Ages,&rdquo; by Thomas Wright, p. 52.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_566_566" id="Footnote_566_566"></a><a href="#FNanchor_566_566"><span class="label">[566]</span></a>
+See Mrs. Lawrence&rsquo;s &ldquo;Woman in England,&rdquo; i. p. 296-7.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_567_567" id="Footnote_567_567"></a><a href="#FNanchor_567_567"><span class="label">[567]</span></a>
+See Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Church of our Fathers,&rdquo; ii. p. 272, quoting Th. Stubbs.
+&ldquo;Acta Pontif. Th. ed. Twysden,&rdquo; 1. ii. p. 1699; also Bock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Liturgische
+Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; i. p. 212, and p. 325 <i>ante</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_568_568" id="Footnote_568_568"></a><a href="#FNanchor_568_568"><span class="label">[568]</span></a>
+<a href="#appendix_ix">Appendix 9</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_569_569" id="Footnote_569_569"></a><a href="#FNanchor_569_569"><span class="label">[569]</span></a>
+This could hardly have been intended originally for an ecclesiastical
+purpose. It sounds as if it were a stray fragment from Gr&aelig;co-Roman
+art, rather than a survival of the classical legend employed as a pretty
+motive for decoration. Wiglaf&rsquo;s veil is named by Ingulphus. See
+Strutt&rsquo;s &ldquo;English Dresses,&rdquo; pp. 3, 7. See also &ldquo;Historia Eliensis,&rdquo;
+l. 2, ed. Stewart, p. 183.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_570_570" id="Footnote_570_570"></a><a href="#FNanchor_570_570"><span class="label">[570]</span></a>
+See Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Textile Fabrics,&rdquo; p. xxi.; also for Council of Cloveshoe,
+see his &ldquo;Church of Our Fathers,&rdquo; p. 14.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_571_571" id="Footnote_571_571"></a><a href="#FNanchor_571_571"><span class="label">[571]</span></a>
+The Benedictines drained the marshes of Lincolnshire and Somersetshire
+to employ the poor in the eighth century. St. Bennet travelled
+to France and Italy, and brought back from his seven journeys cunning
+artificers in <em>glass</em> and stone, besides costly books and copies of the
+Scriptures, in order (as is expressly said by Bede) that the ignorant
+might learn from them, as others learned from books. See Mrs.
+Jameson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Legends of the Monastic Orders,&rdquo; pp. 56, 57.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_572_572" id="Footnote_572_572"></a><a href="#FNanchor_572_572"><span class="label">[572]</span></a>
+See Raine&rsquo;s &ldquo;St. Cuthbert,&rdquo; pp. 50-209. Mr. Raine describes it
+as being &ldquo;of woven gold, with spaces left vacant for needlework embroidery.&rdquo;
+Beautifully drawn majestic figures stand in niches on rainbow-coloured
+clouds, and the effect is that of an illumination of the
+ninth century. The style is rather Greek or Byzantine than Anglo-Saxon.
+For further notices of St. Cuthbert&rsquo;s relics, see chapter on
+<a href="#Page_118">Materials</a>, <i>ante</i>; also see Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Introduction,&rdquo; p. cxvii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_573_573" id="Footnote_573_573"></a><a href="#FNanchor_573_573"><span class="label">[573]</span></a>
+<a href="#appendix_x">Appendix 10</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_574_574" id="Footnote_574_574"></a><a href="#FNanchor_574_574"><span class="label">[574]</span></a>
+See &ldquo;Calendar of the Anglican Church,&rdquo; by J. H. Parker (1851):
+&ldquo;St. Dunstan was not only a patron of the useful and fine arts, but also a
+great proficient in them himself; and his almost contemporary biographers
+speak of him as a poet, painter, and musician, and so skilled a worker in
+metals that he made many of the church vessels in use at Glastonbury.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_575_575" id="Footnote_575_575"></a><a href="#FNanchor_575_575"><span class="label">[575]</span></a>
+See Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Church of our Fathers,&rdquo; p. 270.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_576_576" id="Footnote_576_576"></a><a href="#FNanchor_576_576"><span class="label">[576]</span></a>
+Strutt&rsquo;s &ldquo;English Dresses,&rdquo; p. 70, quoted from Ingulphus&rsquo; &ldquo;History
+of Croyland Abbey.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_577_577" id="Footnote_577_577"></a><a href="#FNanchor_577_577"><span class="label">[577]</span></a>
+Shot, or iridescent materials, were then and had been some
+time manufactured at Tinnis in Egypt, a city now effaced. It was
+called &ldquo;bouqualemoun,&rdquo; and employed for dresses and hangings for
+the Khalifs. See Schefer&rsquo;s &ldquo;Relations du Voyage de Nassiri Khosrau,&rdquo;
+p. cxi. The original was written in the middle of the eleventh century.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_578_578" id="Footnote_578_578"></a><a href="#FNanchor_578_578"><span class="label">[578]</span></a>
+See Duch&ecirc;sne&rsquo;s &ldquo;Histori&aelig; Normanorum.&rdquo; Fol. Paris, 1519.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_579_579" id="Footnote_579_579"></a><a href="#FNanchor_579_579"><span class="label">[579]</span></a>
+Queen Matilda was not the originator of the idea that a hero&rsquo;s deeds
+might be recorded by his wife&rsquo;s needle. Penelope wove the deeds of
+Ulysses on her loom, and it is suggested by Aristarchus that her peplos
+served as an historical document for Homer&rsquo;s &ldquo;Iliad.&rdquo; See Rossignol&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;Les Artistes Hom&eacute;riques,&rdquo; pp. 72, 73, cited by Louis de Ronchaud in
+his &ldquo;La Tapisserie,&rdquo; p. 32. Gudrun, like the Homeric woman, embroidered
+the history of Siegfried and his ancestors, and Aelfled that
+of the achievements of her husband, Duke Brithnod. The Saga of
+Charlemagne is said to have been embroidered on twenty-six ells of
+linen, and hung in a church in Iceland.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_580_580" id="Footnote_580_580"></a><a href="#FNanchor_580_580"><span class="label">[580]</span></a>
+Domesday ed. Record Commission, under head of Roberte de
+Oilgi, in co. Buckingham. See also another entry under Wilts, where
+&ldquo;Leivede&rdquo; is spoken of as working auriphrigium for King Edward and
+his Queen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_581_581" id="Footnote_581_581"></a><a href="#FNanchor_581_581"><span class="label">[581]</span></a>
+Canon Jackson, writing of embroidery, says: &ldquo;That this was cared
+for in the great monasteries at this early date appears from a MS.
+register of Glastonbury Abbey in the possession of the Marquis of Bath.
+It is called the Liber Henrici de Soliaco, and gives an account of the
+affairs of that abbey in <small>A.D.</small> 1189 (Richard I.).&rdquo; There was a special
+official whose business it was to provide the monastery with church
+ornaments generally, and specially with &ldquo;aurifrigium,&rdquo; or gold embroidery,
+on vestments. For this a house and land, with an annual
+allowance of food, was set apart. Another tenant also held some land,
+to which was attached the obligation to find a &ldquo;worker in gold.&rdquo;&mdash;Letter
+from Canon Jackson to the Author.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_582_582" id="Footnote_582_582"></a><a href="#FNanchor_582_582"><span class="label">[582]</span></a>
+See Mrs. Lawrence&rsquo;s &ldquo;Woman in England,&rdquo; vol. i. p. 360. She
+quotes an entry from Madox, a sum of &pound;80 (equal to &pound;1400 of to-day)
+for an embroidered robe for the Queen, paid by the Sheriffs of
+London.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_583_583" id="Footnote_583_583"></a><a href="#FNanchor_583_583"><span class="label">[583]</span></a>
+Matthew Paris, &ldquo;Vit. Abb. St. Albani.&rdquo; p. 46; Rock, &ldquo;Church of
+our Fathers,&rdquo; vol ii. p. 278.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_584_584" id="Footnote_584_584"></a><a href="#FNanchor_584_584"><span class="label">[584]</span></a>
+See Mrs. Dolby&rsquo;s Introduction to &ldquo;Church Vestments.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_585_585" id="Footnote_585_585"></a><a href="#FNanchor_585_585"><span class="label">[585]</span></a>
+Strutt&rsquo;s &ldquo;Royal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of England,&rdquo; ed.
+mdcclxxiii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_586_586" id="Footnote_586_586"></a><a href="#FNanchor_586_586"><span class="label">[586]</span></a>
+Though the work was domestic, the materials came from the East
+and the South; and while the woven gold of Sicily and Spain was
+merely base metal on gilded parchment, our laws were directed to the
+preservation of pure metals for textile purposes.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_587_587" id="Footnote_587_587"></a><a href="#FNanchor_587_587"><span class="label">[587]</span></a>
+Matthew Paris, &ldquo;Hist. Angl.,&rdquo; p. 473, ed. Paris, 1644. See
+Hartshorne&rsquo;s &ldquo;Medi&aelig;val Embroideries,&rdquo; pp. 23, 24.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_588_588" id="Footnote_588_588"></a><a href="#FNanchor_588_588"><span class="label">[588]</span></a>
+The reproduction by the Arundel Society of this picture will familiarize
+those who care for English art with what is, perhaps, its finest example,
+next to the crosses of Queen Eleanor. It has been erroneously attributed
+to Van Eyk, but it is undoubtedly English. That its art is contemporary
+with the time of Richard II., is shown by the design and motives of
+the woven materials and embroidery in which the king and his attendant
+saints are clothed. They remind us of the piece of silk in the Kensington
+Museum, into which are woven (probably in Sicilian looms) the cognizance
+of the King&rsquo;s grandfather, the sun with rays; that of his mother Joan, the
+white hart; and his own, his dog Math. This is a good example of the
+value of an individual pattern. It helps us to affix dates to other
+specimens of similar style.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_589_589" id="Footnote_589_589"></a><a href="#FNanchor_589_589"><span class="label">[589]</span></a>
+See Miss Strickland&rsquo;s mention of the Countess of Oxford in her
+&ldquo;Life of Queen Elizabeth of York,&rdquo; p. 46.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_590_590" id="Footnote_590_590"></a><a href="#FNanchor_590_590"><span class="label">[590]</span></a>
+From the fragments found, it appeared that King John&rsquo;s mantle was
+of a strong red silk. Till lately, when it was effaced by being completely
+gilt, the mantle on the recumbent effigy was of a bright red,
+bordered with gold and gems. See Greene&rsquo;s &ldquo;Worcester,&rdquo; p. 3, quoted
+in the &ldquo;Report of the Arch&aelig;ological Association of Worcester,&rdquo; p. 53.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_591_591" id="Footnote_591_591"></a><a href="#FNanchor_591_591"><span class="label">[591]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Notice sur les Attaches d&rsquo;un Sceau,&rdquo; par M. L&eacute;opold Delisle
+(Paris, 1854); and also Rock&rsquo;s Introduction to &ldquo;Textile Fabrics,&rdquo;
+p. xxii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_592_592" id="Footnote_592_592"></a><a href="#FNanchor_592_592"><span class="label">[592]</span></a>
+The opus Anglicanum often included borders and orphreys set
+with jewellers&rsquo; work (or its imitation, worked in gold thread), gems, and
+pearls.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_593_593" id="Footnote_593_593"></a><a href="#FNanchor_593_593"><span class="label">[593]</span></a>
+Edward III. had from William de Courtenay an embroidered garment,
+&ldquo;inwrought with pelicans, images, and tabernacles of gold. The
+tabernacles were like niches, with pinnacles and roofs.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_594_594" id="Footnote_594_594"></a><a href="#FNanchor_594_594"><span class="label">[594]</span></a>
+Bock, &ldquo;Liturgische Gew&auml;nder,&rdquo; i. p. 211, says there is a piece of opus
+Anglicanum in the treasury of Aix-la-Chapelle, called the Cope of Leo III.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_595_595" id="Footnote_595_595"></a><a href="#FNanchor_595_595"><span class="label">[595]</span></a>
+For further notice of the &ldquo;opus Anglicanum,&rdquo; see chapter (<i>ante</i>) on
+<a href="#Page_303">ecclesiastical embroideries</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_596_596" id="Footnote_596_596"></a><a href="#FNanchor_596_596"><span class="label">[596]</span></a>
+<a href="#appendix_xi">Appendix 11</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_597_597" id="Footnote_597_597"></a><a href="#FNanchor_597_597"><span class="label">[597]</span></a>
+The orphreys are probably not the original work.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_598_598" id="Footnote_598_598"></a><a href="#FNanchor_598_598"><span class="label">[598]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Testamenta Vetusta,&rdquo; ed. Nicholas, t. i. p. 33.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_599_599" id="Footnote_599_599"></a><a href="#FNanchor_599_599"><span class="label">[599]</span></a>
+Woolstrope, Lincolnshire. Collier&rsquo;s &ldquo;Ecclesiastical History of
+Great Britain,&rdquo; v. p. 3 (ed. Lothbury). This proves that the monks
+sometimes plied the needle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_600_600" id="Footnote_600_600"></a><a href="#FNanchor_600_600"><span class="label">[600]</span></a>
+See Hall&rsquo;s &ldquo;Union of the Houses of York and Lancaster,&rdquo;
+pp. lxxv-lxxxiii.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_601_601" id="Footnote_601_601"></a><a href="#FNanchor_601_601"><span class="label">[601]</span></a>
+See Brewer&rsquo;s &ldquo;Reign of Henry VIII.,&rdquo; vol. i. pp. 347-376.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_602_602" id="Footnote_602_602"></a><a href="#FNanchor_602_602"><span class="label">[602]</span></a>
+In the Public Record Office is an inventory of Lord Monteagle&rsquo;s
+property, 1523 <small>A.D.</small>; amongst other things, is named a piece of
+Spanish work, &ldquo;eight partletts garnished with gold and black silk
+work.&rdquo; This Spanish work is rare, but the description reminds us of
+a specimen belonging to Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford (Plate <a href="#pl82">82</a>)&mdash;a
+square of linen, worked with ostriches, turkeys, and eagles in gold and
+black silk stitches. See Mrs. Palliser&rsquo;s &ldquo;History of Lace,&rdquo; pp. 6, 12.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_603_603" id="Footnote_603_603"></a><a href="#FNanchor_603_603"><span class="label">[603]</span></a>
+Quoted from Cavendish by Miss Strickland, &ldquo;Queens of England,&rdquo;
+iv. p. 132.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_604_604" id="Footnote_604_604"></a><a href="#FNanchor_604_604"><span class="label">[604]</span></a>
+&ldquo;The invalid queen, in her moments of convalescence, soothed
+her cares and miseries at the embroidery frame. Many specimens of
+her needlework were extant in the reign of James I., and are thus
+celebrated by Taylor, the poet of the needle:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;&lsquo;Mary here the sceptre sway&rsquo;d;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And though she were no queen of mighty power,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Her memory will never be decay&rsquo;d,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Nor yet her works forgotten. In the Tower,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In Windsor Castle, and in Hampton Court,&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">In that most pompous room called Paradise,&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Whoever pleases thither to resort,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">May see some works of hers of wondrous price.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Her greatness held it no disreputation<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">To hold the needle in her royal hand,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Which was a good example to our nation<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">To banish idleness throughout the land.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And thus this queen in wisdom thought it fit;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The needle&rsquo;s work pleased her, and she graced it.&rsquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>&ldquo;According to Taylor, Mary finished the splendid and elaborate
+tapestry begun by her mother.&rdquo;&mdash;Miss Strickland&rsquo;s &ldquo;Life of Mary
+Tudor,&rdquo; v. p. 417.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_605_605" id="Footnote_605_605"></a><a href="#FNanchor_605_605"><span class="label">[605]</span></a>
+&ldquo;After the action at D&rsquo;Arbre de Guise, Elizabeth (of England)
+sent to Henri IV. a scarf embroidered by her own hand. &lsquo;Monsieur
+mon bon fr&egrave;re,&rsquo; wrote the queen, &lsquo;its value is naught in comparison to
+the dignity of the personage for whom it is destined; but I supplicate
+you to hide its defects under the wings of your good charity, and to
+accept my little present in remembrance of me.&rsquo;&rdquo;&mdash;&ldquo;Henri IV.,&rdquo; by
+Miss Freer, p. 311.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_606_606" id="Footnote_606_606"></a><a href="#FNanchor_606_606"><span class="label">[606]</span></a>
+In the year 1683 the Marchese Luca Casimiero degl&rsquo; Albizzi visited
+England, and his travels were recorded in manuscript by Dr. A. Forzoni.
+At Windsor he observed over a chimney-piece a finely wrought piece of
+embroidery&mdash;&ldquo;un educazione di fanciulli&rdquo;&mdash;by the hands of Mary
+Queen of Scots.&mdash;Loftie&rsquo;s &ldquo;History of Old London;&rdquo; also article on
+&ldquo;Royal Picture Galleries,&rdquo; by George Scharf, p. 361 (1867).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_607_607" id="Footnote_607_607"></a><a href="#FNanchor_607_607"><span class="label">[607]</span></a>
+&ldquo;The Company of the Embroiderers can make appear by their
+worthy and famous pieces of art that they have been of ancient use
+and eminence, as is to be seen in divers places at this day; but in the
+matter of their incorporation, it hath relation to the fourth year of
+Queen Elizabeth.&rdquo;&mdash;Stow&rsquo;s &ldquo;Survey of London and Westminster,&rdquo;
+part ii. p. 216; also see Edmonson&rsquo;s &ldquo;Heraldry,&rdquo; vol. i. (1780). &ldquo;The
+Keepers, Wardens, and Company of the Broiderie of London....
+2 keepers and 40 assistants, and the livery consists of 115 members.
+They have a small but convenient hall in Gutter Lane.&rdquo;&mdash;Maitland&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;History of London,&rdquo; book iii. p. 602.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_608_608" id="Footnote_608_608"></a><a href="#FNanchor_608_608"><span class="label">[608]</span></a>
+The fashion of this work began much earlier, for we find in the
+inventory of &ldquo;St. James&rsquo;s House, nigh Westminster,&rdquo; 1549: &ldquo;42 Item.
+A table wherein is a man holding a sword in his one hand and a
+sceptre in his other hand of needlework, partly garnished with seed
+pearl&rdquo; (p. 307).</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_609_609" id="Footnote_609_609"></a><a href="#FNanchor_609_609"><span class="label">[609]</span></a>
+The merit or blame of this rounded padded work (a caricature of
+the raised embroidery of the opus Anglicanum) is often erroneously
+awarded to the &ldquo;nuns of Little Gidding.&rdquo; The earliest specimens we
+know of this &ldquo;embroidery on the stamp&rdquo; are German. At Coire in the
+Grisons, at Zurich (see chapter on <a href="#Page_303">ecclesiastical art</a>), and in the National
+Museum at Munich are some very beautiful examples. The Italians also
+executed elaborate little pictures in this manner; but I cannot praise it
+however refined in execution or beautiful the design. I have seen no
+English specimens that are not beneath criticism; they are only funny.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_610_610" id="Footnote_610_610"></a><a href="#FNanchor_610_610"><span class="label">[610]</span></a>
+In the Calendar of the State Papers Office (Domestic, Charles I.,
+vol. clxix. p. 12), Mrs. H. Senior sues the Earl of Thomond for &pound;200
+per annum, her pay for teaching his daughter needlework. Mrs. Hutchinson,
+in her Memoir, says she had eight tutors when she was seven
+years old, and one of them taught her needlework. This shows how
+highly this accomplishment was still considered in the days of Charles I.
+and the Commonwealth. Later, Evelyn speaks of the &ldquo;new bed of
+Charles II.&rsquo;s queen, the embroidery of which cost &pound;3000&rdquo; (Evelyn&rsquo;s
+Memoirs, January 24, 1687). Evelyn says of his own daughter Susanna,
+who married William Draper: &ldquo;She had a peculiar talent in designe, as
+painting in oil and miniature, and an extraordinary genius for whatever
+hands can do with a needle.&rdquo; See Evelyn&rsquo;s &ldquo;Memoirs,&rdquo; April 27, 1693;
+also see Mrs. Palliser&rsquo;s &ldquo;History of Lace,&rdquo; pp. 7, 8.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_611_611" id="Footnote_611_611"></a><a href="#FNanchor_611_611"><span class="label">[611]</span></a>
+The tree-pattern, already common in the latter days of Elizabeth,
+reappeared on a dress worn by the Duchess of Queensberry, and
+described by Mrs. Delany; she says, &ldquo;A white satin embroidered
+at the bottom with brown hills, covered with all sorts of weeds, and
+with a brown stump, broken and worked in chenille, and garlanded
+nasturtiums, honeysuckles, periwinkles, convolvuluses, and weeds,
+many of the leaves finished with gold.&rdquo; Mrs. Delany does not
+appreciate this ancient pattern.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_612_612" id="Footnote_612_612"></a><a href="#FNanchor_612_612"><span class="label">[612]</span></a>
+Queen Mary only knotted fringes. Bishop Burnett says: &ldquo;It was
+strange to see a queen work so many hours a day.&rdquo; Sir E. Sedley, in
+his epigram on the &ldquo;Royal Knotter,&rdquo; says,&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Who, when she rides in coach abroad,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Is always knotting threads.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Probably it was the fashion, as Madame de Maintenon always worked
+during her drives with the king, which doubtless prevented her dying
+of <i>ennui</i>!</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_613_613" id="Footnote_613_613"></a><a href="#FNanchor_613_613"><span class="label">[613]</span></a>
+I quote from the <i>Spectator</i>, No. 606: &ldquo;Let no virgin receive her
+lover, except in a suit of her own embroidery.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_614_614" id="Footnote_614_614"></a><a href="#FNanchor_614_614"><span class="label">[614]</span></a>
+Her style was really legitimate to the art. It was flower-painting
+with the needle. Miss Moritt copied both figures and landscapes, with
+wonderful taste and knowledge of drawing. Miss Linwood&rsquo;s and Mrs.
+Delany&rsquo;s productions are justly celebrated as <i>tours de force</i>, but they
+caused the downfall of the art by leading it on the wrong track.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_615_615" id="Footnote_615_615"></a><a href="#FNanchor_615_615"><span class="label">[615]</span></a>
+Lord Houghton alludes to H.R.H.&rsquo;s patronage of the revival of
+embroidery in his paraphrase of the &ldquo;Story of Arachne,&rdquo; p. 238, <i>ante</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_616_616" id="Footnote_616_616"></a><a href="#FNanchor_616_616"><span class="label">[616]</span></a>
+&ldquo;Opposed to the &lsquo;utility stitches&rsquo; are the art needlework schools
+that have branched out in many directions from New York.... The
+impulse that led to their formation was derived from South Kensington
+(England), and affords a striking instance of the ramifications of an
+organization.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Atlantic Monthly</i> (&ldquo;Women in Organization&rdquo;), Sept.,
+1880.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_400" id="Page_400">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>400]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>APPENDICES.</h2>
+
+
+<h3 class="smcap"><a name="appendix_i" id="appendix_i"></a>Appendix I., to Page <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</h3>
+
+<p class="center"><i>By Ch. T. Newton.</i></p>
+
+<p>Though the embroidered and richly decorated textile fabrics of the ancients
+have perished, all but a few scraps, we may form some idea of the richness
+and variety of Greek female attire from the evidence of the inventories of
+dedicated articles of dress which have been preserved for us in Greek
+inscriptions.</p>
+
+<p>In the Acropolis at Athens have been found a number of fragments of
+marble on which are inscribed lists of various female garments dedicated,
+for the most part, in the Temple of Artemis Brauronia, in the Archonship of
+Lykurgos, <small>B.C.</small> 338-35. These articles were thus carefully registered because
+they formed part of the treasures dedicated to the gods of the Acropolis,
+which it was the duty of the state to guard, and to commit to the custody of
+officers specially selected for that duty. One of these fragments is in the
+Elgin Collection at the British Museum, and has been published by Mr.
+Hicks in the &ldquo;Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British
+Museum,&rdquo; Part 1, No 34; and the entire series has since been given to the
+world in the &ldquo;Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum&rdquo; of the Academy of Berlin,
+ii., Part 2., Nos. 751-65.</p>
+
+<p>The material of these garments seems to have been either linen or fine
+woollen; the colours white, purple, or some shade of red, mostly used as
+a border or in stripes; or a shade of green, the tint of which is described
+as &ldquo;frog colour,&rdquo; saffron, or sea-green.</p>
+
+<p>The borders and patterns noted remind us of those represented on
+the garments of figures in vase pictures, such as the embattled border, the
+wave pattern, and certain patterns in rectangular compartments. A group
+of Dionysos pouring out a libation while a female serves him with wine,
+and a row of animals, are also noted among the ornaments.</p>
+
+<p>The inscription, &ldquo;Sacred to Artemis,&rdquo; woven into the fabric of the
+garment, occurs twice. Gold, as an ornament fixed on the dress, is mentioned
+in these entries. It is noted that some of these dresses served to deck
+the statue of the goddess herself. Most of the garments are the <i>chiton</i> or
+tunic, flowing to the feet; the <i>chitoniskos</i>, a shorter and more ornamental
+garment worn over it; and the mantle, <i>himation</i>. Pieces of cloth or rags are
+also mentioned among the entries; these were probably the remnants of cast-off
+garments dedicated by their wearers. Some of the dresses are described
+as embroidered with the needle.</p>
+
+<p>In the worship of the Artemis Brauronia, certain Athenian girls between
+the ages of five and ten were solemnly dedicated to the goddess every five
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_401" id="Page_401">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>401]</a></span>
+years. In publishing the inventory in the British Museum already referred
+to, Mr. Hicks remarks, &ldquo;It may have been the custom sometimes to dedicate
+to the goddess the garments worn by children at their presentation, just as
+we know that the garments in which persons had been initiated at the
+Greater Eleusinia were worn by them until threadbare, and then dedicated to
+some god. If so, the number of children&rsquo;s clothes mentioned in our inventory
+is easily explained. Or were these the clothes of children cut off by Artemis
+in infancy, such as bereaved mothers nowadays often treasure for years,
+having no temple wherein to dedicate them?&rdquo; Mr. Hicks further remarks
+that it was usual for the bride before marriage to dedicate her girdle to
+Artemis; and at Athens the garments of women who died in childbirth were
+likewise in like manner so dedicated. It is probably on account of such
+dedications that Artemis was styled Chiton&egrave;&mdash;the goddess of the <i>chiton</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Another list of vestments is preserved in an inscription found at Samos,
+and published by Carl Curtius in his &ldquo;Inschriften u. Studien zur Geschichte
+von Samos,&rdquo; pp. 17-21. The garments in this list were dedicated to the
+goddess Her&egrave; (Juno) in her celebrated temple at Samos. The entries relate
+chiefly to articles of female attire, but some few are dedicated to the god
+Hermes. Some of these articles were doubtless worn by the deities themselves
+on festive occasions, when their statues were decked out. The toilet,
+<i>kosmos</i>, of goddesses was superintended by a priestess specially chosen for
+that purpose. She was called <i>kosmeteira</i>, or &ldquo;Mistress of the Robes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In the Samian list of garments, those which are embroidered or ornamented
+with gold are specially noted. Some of the tunics are described as Lydian.
+Curtains or hangings are also mentioned in this list. These must have been
+used to ornament the interior of the temple, or to screen off the statue of the
+goddess on the days when she was withdrawn from the gaze of the profane.
+Such hangings were, probably, a main cause of the conflagrations by which
+Greek temples were from time to time destroyed in spite of the solidity of
+their walls.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="smcap"><a name="appendix_ii" id="appendix_ii"></a>Appendix II., to Page <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</h3>
+
+<p>In the Castle of Moritzburg, built by Augustus the Strong, Elector of
+Saxony and King of Poland, is a quaint apartment, on the walls of which
+are hung rugs of feather-work, of which the borders are adorned with set
+patterns of fruit and flowers, and the colouring is as soft as a Gobelins
+tapestry. The feathers are woven tightly into the warp, in the same manner
+as the tufts are set in a velvety carpet; forming a surface as delicate as silk
+to the touch. There are four high-backed chairs covered with the same
+work in smaller patterns. But what is especially remarkable is an immense
+canopy, like that of a state bed, with urn-shaped ornaments of stiff feathers
+at the corners; and a pretty bell-shaped fringe of scarlet feathers. The
+same ornament edged a large rug like those on the wall, thrown over what
+at first appeared to be a bed; but on examination it was found to be a rough
+wooden platform, said to be the throne of Montezuma. The story is that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_402" id="Page_402">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>402]</a></span>
+Augustus the Strong went to Spain incognito at the age of eighteen, in search
+of adventures, and distinguished himself at a bull-fight. When the king
+(Charles II.) heard the name of the young hero, he gave him a hospitable
+reception, and afterwards sent these Mexican treasures to him as a token of
+friendship.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="smcap"><a name="appendix_iii" id="appendix_iii"></a>Appendix III., to Page <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</h3>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Story of Arachne, abridged by Earl Cowper from Ovid&rsquo;s Metamorphoses.</i></p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Arachne&rsquo;s tale of grief is full:<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Her father was of low degree;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">No thought beyond his crimson&rsquo;d wool,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">His daughter and his wife had he.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The wife had fill&rsquo;d an early tomb,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The daughter lived&mdash;and all the land<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Of Lydia boasted of her loom,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Her needle, and her dexterous hand.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">To watch her task the nymphs repair<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">From fair Timolus&rsquo; vine-clad hill;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">They deem the work divinely fair,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The maid when working fairer still.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The softness of the fleecy ball,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">By skilful fingers taught to flow<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In lengthening lines&mdash;they watch&rsquo;d it all&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And round and round the spindle go.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Wondering, they view the rich design:<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Ah, luckless gift! ah, foolish pride!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&rsquo;Twas Pallas taught the art divine,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">But this the haughty maid denied.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Me taught,&rdquo; she cried, &ldquo;by Pallas! Me<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">By Pallas! Let the goddess first<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Accept my challenge. Then, should she<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Surpass me, let her do her worst.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Vain, impious words! The goddess came<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">In likeness of an ancient crone,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With grizzled locks and tottering frame,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And spoke with warning in her tone.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Though matchless in thine art,&rdquo; she cried,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">&ldquo;Though first of mortals, tempt not fate.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Age makes me wise. Thou hast defied<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">A goddess. It is not too late.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_403" id="Page_403">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>403]</a></span>
+<span class="i0">The unhappy maid, with madness blind,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Replied, and scarce restrain&rsquo;d the blow.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;&rsquo;Tis plain, old woman, that your mind<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Is drivelling to address me so.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">&ldquo;Some daughter or some slave may want<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Your counsel. Let her but appear,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">This mighty Pallas whom you vaunt!&rdquo;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The goddess answer&rsquo;d, &ldquo;She is here.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">She spoke, and lo! that ancient crone<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Was young and fair, and tall and proud:<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">&mdash;The nymphs fell prostrate. She alone&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Arachne&mdash;neither shrank nor bow&rsquo;d.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">One blush quick came and pass&rsquo;d away,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Hovering as clouds, when night is done,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Grow rosy at the dawn of day,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Then whiten with the rising sun.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">She did not shrink&mdash;she did not pause&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">But headlong to destruction ran;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And thus the strife ordain&rsquo;d to cause<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Such dark calamity began.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Each for the contest takes her stand&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The goddess here, the mortal there&mdash;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And each proceeds with skilful hand<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The means of victory to prepare.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The beam each loom supports full well,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And to the loom the warp is tied;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Nor will I now forget to tell<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The reed that doth the warp divide.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The woof the shuttle in doth bring,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The nimble fingers guide its way;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And still from either work-frame ring<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The blows inflicted by the slay.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Each to her bosom binds her vest:<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The arms of each, quick moving, feel<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">No sense of toil, no need of rest,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">For weariness is quench&rsquo;d by zeal.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And all the gorgeous tints of Tyre<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">In varying shades are mingled there;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And every hue the sun&rsquo;s bright fire<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Can kindle in the showery air,&mdash;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_404" id="Page_404">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>404]</a></span>
+<span class="i0">When the wide rainbow spans the sky;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The bow whose colours, in the end<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">So different, yet so like when nigh,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">In harmony&rsquo;s own concord blend,&mdash;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And precious threads of glittering gold<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Enrich the growing web. But say!<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">What ancient tale by each was told?<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">What legend of an earlier day?<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Pallas her well-known triumph drew;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The gods assembled in their force,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And Neptune with his trident, too,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Exulting in the fiery horse,&mdash;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Which from the rock he made to bound:<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">But she herself, more deeply wise,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A greater blessing from the ground<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The olive brought, and gain&rsquo;d the prize.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The border of this main design<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">With Rhodope&rsquo;s sad tale was set;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And all who dared the gods divine<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">To rival&mdash;and the fate they met.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Meanwhile Arachne wove the wool:<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The web with many a picture shone.<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">She drew Europa with her bull,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And Leda with her snow-white swan.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Deois with her snake display&rsquo;d,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And Dan&auml;e with her shower of gold;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">And many a tale besides the maid,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Had fate permitted, would have told.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">But the dread goddess now no more<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">To check her rising envy strove;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">The half-completed task she tore,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And all the pictured crimes of Jove.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The shuttle thrice the air did rend,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Thrice did the heaven-directed blow<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Full on Arachne&rsquo;s head descend,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And made her purple blood to flow.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Arachne&rsquo;s soul was proud and high:<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">She drew a cruel cord around<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Her tender neck&mdash;and, driven to die,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Was from a beam suspended found.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_405" id="Page_405">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>405]</a></span>
+<span class="i0">Her death the unpitying goddess stay&rsquo;d;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">&ldquo;Henceforth, vain fool! for such a crime<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">For ever shall thou hang,&rdquo; she said;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">&ldquo;A warning to the end of time.&rdquo;<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">In scorn she spoke, and over all<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Her rival&rsquo;s face and form she smear&rsquo;d<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">A deadly drug. The head grew small,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">And each fair feature disappear&rsquo;d.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">And off the beauteous tresses fell;<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">The tender waist that was so slim,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">In loathly sort was seen to swell,<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">Shrivell&rsquo;d and shrank each comely limb.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">The spider&rsquo;s fingers still remain<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">To spin for ever.&mdash;We may vie<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">With fellow mortals, but &rsquo;tis vain<br /></span>
+<span class="i1">To struggle with the gods on high.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>January, 1885.</i><span class="space"> &nbsp; </span><span class="smcap">Cowper.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3 class="smcap"><a name="appendix_iv" id="appendix_iv"></a>Appendix IV., to Page <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</h3>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Extract from &ldquo;History of Christian Art.&rdquo; By Lord Lindsay.<br />
+Vol. i. pp. 136-139.</i></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;But perhaps the noblest testimony to the revival under the Comneni is
+afforded by the designs on the Dalmatic or sacerdotal robe, commonly
+styled &lsquo;Di Papa San Leone,&rsquo; preserved in the sacristy of St. Peter&rsquo;s&mdash;said
+to have been embroidered at Constantinople for the coronation of Charlemagne
+as Emperor of the West, but fixed by German criticism as a production
+of the twelfth, or the early part of the thirteenth century. The Emperors
+wore it ever after, when serving as deacons at the Pope&rsquo;s altar during
+their coronation-mass. You will think little of it at first sight, and lay it
+aside as a piece of darned and faded tapestry, yet I would stake on it, alone,
+the reputation of Byzantine art. And you must recollect, too, that embroidery
+is but a poor substitute for the informing hand and the lightning stroke of
+genius.</p>
+
+<p>It is a large robe of stiff brocade, falling in broad and unbroken folds in
+front and behind,&mdash;broad and deep enough for the Goliath-like stature and
+the Herculean chest of Charlemagne himself. On the breast, the Saviour is
+represented in glory, on the back the Transfiguration, and on the two
+shoulders Christ administering the Eucharist to the Apostles.</p>
+
+<p>The composition on the breast is an amplification of No. V. (as above
+enumerated) of the Personal traditional compositions.&mdash;In the centre of a
+golden circle of glory, &lsquo;Jesus Christ, the Resurrection and the Life,&rsquo; robed
+in white, with the youthful and beardless face, his eyes directly looking into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_406" id="Page_406">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>406]</a></span>
+yours, sits upon the rainbow, his feet resting on the winged wheels<a name="FNanchor_617_617" id="FNanchor_617_617"></a><a href="#Footnote_617_617" class="fnanchor">[617]</a> of
+Ezekiel, his left hand holding an open book, inscribed with the invitation,
+&lsquo;Come, ye blessed of My Father,&rsquo;&mdash;his right raised in benediction. At the
+four corners of the circular glory, resting on them, half within it, half without,
+float the emblems of the four Evangelists; the Virgin and the Baptist stand
+to the right and left of our Saviour, the Baptist without, the Virgin entirely
+within the glory, the only figure that is so placed; she is sweet in feature
+and graceful in attitude, in her long white robe.</p>
+
+<p>Above Our Saviour&rsquo;s head, and from the top of the golden circle, rises the
+Cross, with the crown of thorns suspended upon it, the spear resting on one
+side, the reed with the sponge on the other, and the sun and moon looking
+down upon it from the sky.</p>
+
+<p>The heavenly host and the company of the blessed form a circle of
+adoration around this central glory; angels occupying the upper part,
+emperors, patriarchs, monks and nuns the lower; at the extremity, on the
+left side, appears Mary Magdalen, in her penitence&mdash;a thin emaciated
+figure, imperfectly clothed, and with dishevelled hair.</p>
+
+<p>In the corners, below this grand composition, appear, to the right, St. John the
+Baptist, holding the cross, and pointing upwards to Our Saviour; to the left,
+Abraham seated, a child on his lap, and resting his hand on another by his side.</p>
+
+<p>The background and scene of the whole composition is of blue, to
+represent heaven,&mdash;studded with stars, shaped like the Greek cross.</p>
+
+<p>The Transfiguration, which corresponds to this subject on the back of the
+robe, is the traditional composition, only varied by the unusual shape of the
+vesica piscis which encloses Our Saviour. The two compositions representing
+the Institution of the Eucharist, on the shoulders, are better executed and
+more original. In each of them, Our Saviour, a stiff but majestic figure,
+stands behind the altar, on which are deposited a chalice and a paten or
+basket containing crossed wafers. He gives, in the one case, the cup to
+St. Paul, in the other the bread to St. Peter,&mdash;they do not kneel, but bend
+reverently to receive it; five other disciples await their turn in each
+instance,&mdash;all are standing.</p>
+
+<p>I do not apprehend your being disappointed with the &lsquo;Dalmatica di San
+Leone,&rsquo; or your dissenting from my conclusion, that a master, a Michael
+Angelo I might almost say, then flourished at Byzantium.</p>
+
+<p>It was in this Dalmatic&mdash;then <i>sem&eacute;e</i> all over with pearls and glittering in
+freshness&mdash;that Cola di Rienzi robed himself over his armour in the sacristy
+of St. Peter&rsquo;s, and thence ascended to the Palace of the Popes, after the
+manner of the C&aelig;sars, with sounding trumpets and his horsemen following
+him&mdash;his truncheon in his hand and his crown on his head&mdash;&lsquo;terribile e
+fantastico,&rsquo; as his biographer describes him&mdash;to wait upon the legate.<a name="FNanchor_618_618" id="FNanchor_618_618"></a><a href="#Footnote_618_618" class="fnanchor">[618]</a>&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_617_617" id="Footnote_617_617"></a><a href="#FNanchor_617_617"><span class="label">[617]</span></a>
+In the &lsquo;Manual of Dionysius,&rsquo; recently published by M. Didron (p. 71, &amp;c.), these
+winged wheels are interpreted as signifying the order of angels commonly distinguished
+as Thrones. Their interpretation as the Covenants of the Law and Gospel, sanctioned
+by St. Gregory the Great in his Homilies, is certainly more sublime and instructive.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_618_618" id="Footnote_618_618"></a><a href="#FNanchor_618_618"><span class="label">[618]</span></a>
+Cited from the original life, printed in Muratori&rsquo;s &lsquo;Antiquit. Ital. Medii &AElig;vi,&rsquo;
+tom. viii., by M. Sulpice Boisser&eacute;e, in his essay, &lsquo;Ueber die Kaiser-Dalmatica,&rsquo; &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_407" id="Page_407">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>407]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="smcap"><a name="appendix_v" id="appendix_v"></a>Appendix V., to Page <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</h3>
+
+<p>The Hon. and Rev. Ignatius Clifford has permitted me to make
+extracts from his &ldquo;Memoranda of some remarkable Specimens of Ancient
+Church Embroidery.&rdquo; First on his list is the Cope now in the possession
+of Colonel Butler Bowden, of Pleasington, near Blackburn, Lancashire.
+I give his account of the mutilated condition, from which he has made his
+beautifully drawn restoration. &ldquo;Formerly,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;portions of this cope,
+some made up into chasuble, stole, maniple, and some scraps detached, were
+at Mount St. Mary&rsquo;s College, Spink Hill, near Chesterfield, Derbyshire.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The well-known architect, the late Augustus Welby Pugin, having seen
+them (or at least the chasuble), wrote on the 20th April, 1849, to the Rector
+of the College, &ldquo;I found it to be of English work of the time of Edward I.,
+and have no hesitation in pronouncing it to be the most interesting and
+beautiful specimen of church embroidery I have ever seen.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Other portions of the cope had been made up into an altar-frontal, and
+were in the possession of Henry Bowden, Esq., of Southgate House, Derbyshire,
+some four or five miles from the college.</p>
+
+<p>The ground is crimson velvet. The designs are wrought in gold, silver,
+silk, and seed pearls. The silks are worked in chain, or rather in split
+stitch. It contains between seventy and eighty figures.</p>
+
+<p>Only two small fragments remain of the quasi-hood.</p>
+
+<p>In the orphrey are kings, queens, archbishops, and bishops. In the body
+of the cope are the Annunciation&mdash;Adoration of the Magi&mdash;Our Lady
+enthroned at the right of her Divine Son. <i>Lowest row</i> of single figures&mdash;St.
+Simon, St. Jude, St. James, St. Thomas, St. Andrew, St. Peter, St. Paul,
+St. Barnabas, St. Matthew, St. Philip, St. James, St. Bartholomew. <i>Middle
+row</i>&mdash;St. Edward the Confessor&mdash;a Bishop&mdash;St. Margaret, St. John the
+Evangelist, St. John the Baptist, St. Catherine, an Archbishop, St. Edmund
+king and martyr. <i>Top row</i>&mdash;St. Lawrence, St. Mary Magdalene, St. Martha
+(or St. Helen?), St. Stephen. In the intervals, angels seated on faldstool
+thrones, and bearing stars; also two popinjays.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Clifford describes the Steeple Aston Cope. The ground is of a richly
+ribbed faded silk. The design worked in gold and silks is enclosed in
+quatrefoils of oak and ivy. The Syon Cope he refers to Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Textile
+Fabrics.&rdquo; See <a href="#appendix_vi">Appendix</a>.</p>
+
+<p>The Dalmatic from Anagni, exhibited at Rome in 1870, he thinks is
+probably English.</p>
+
+<p>The Pluvial in the Basilica of St. John Lateran at Rome, he speaks of as
+&ldquo;having much the appearance of the celebrated Opus Anglicanum.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>He describes the subjects embroidered on it thus: &ldquo;No border round the
+curved edge. The orphrey is divided into tabernacles containing an archbishop,
+two bishops, and three kings and queens. Between the tabernacles
+are four angels, each accompanied by one of the evangelistic symbols. The
+body of the cope is cut into a most elaborate system of tabernacles, with a
+centre compartment of a different form for the group of the Crucifixion.
+The subjects are chiefly from the life of our Lord and the Blessed Virgin.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_408" id="Page_408">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>408]</a></span>
+The small quasi-hood is embroidered with two wyverns or griffin-like
+creatures. The pelican and the ph&oelig;nix are introduced over the top central
+group of the enthronement of our Lady.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Clifford gives the history of the Cope of Pius II. (Bartolomeo
+Piccolomini, &ldquo;&AElig;neas Silvius&rdquo;) fifteenth century. It is a masterpiece of
+Italian embroidery of the early Renaissance. The material was gold brocade,
+covered with wonderful designs carried out in needlework, representing
+saints and angels, trees and birds, and arabesques. The whole was adorned
+with pearls and precious stones valued at &pound;80,000. At his death the pope
+bequeathed this vestment to the cathedral of his native town. The cope
+was stolen in March, 1884, from the treasury at Pienza; and shortly afterwards
+discovered in the shop of a dealer in antiquities at Florence, but
+completely stripped of its precious stones and of some of its more valuable
+embroidery. After magisterial investigation, the cope was restored to
+Pienza.</p>
+
+<p>The cope at Bologna is thus described: &ldquo;Subjects from the New
+Testament contained in two rows of tabernacle compartments, twelve in
+lower, seven in upper row. Spandrils occupied by angels playing on various
+musical instruments. After each row, a border containing medallions with
+heads (of angels, prophets, &amp;c.), twenty-three in lower, nine in upper row.
+No orphrey; no border or outside curve; quasi-hood very small.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="smcap"><a name="appendix_vi" id="appendix_vi"></a>Appendix VI., to Page <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</h3>
+
+<p class="center"><i>From Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Textiles,&rdquo; p. 275.</i></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The Syon Monastery Cope; ground green, with crimson interlacing
+barbed quatrefoils, enclosing figure of our Lord, the Blessed Virgin Mary,
+the Apostles, with winged cherubim standing on wheels in the intervening
+spaces, and the orphreys, morse, and hem wrought with armorial bearings;
+the whole done in gold, silver, and various coloured silks. English needlework,
+thirteenth century; 9 feet 7 inches by 4 feet 8 inches.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;This handsome cope, so very remarkable on account of its comparatively
+perfect preservation, is one of the most beautiful among the several liturgical
+vestments of the olden period anywhere to be now found in Christendom.
+If by all lovers of medi&aelig;val antiquity it will be looked upon as so valuable a
+specimen of art of its kind and time, for every Englishman it ought to have
+a double interest, showing, as it does, such a splendid and instructive
+example of the opus &lsquo;Anglicum,&rsquo; or English work, which won itself so wide
+a fame, and was so eagerly sought after throughout the whole of Europe
+during the Middle Ages.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Rock gives a list of the subjects. St. Michael overcoming Satan (from
+Rev. xii. 7, 9). The next quatrefoil above this is filled with the Crucifixion.
+Here the Blessed Virgin is arrayed in a green tunic, and a golden mantle
+lined with vair; her head is kerchiefed, and her uplifted hands sorrowfully
+clasped. St. John&mdash;whose dress is all of gold&mdash;is on the left, at the foot of
+the cross, upon which the Saviour, wrought all in silver&mdash;a most unusual
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_409" id="Page_409">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>409]</a></span>
+thing&mdash;with a cloth of gold wrapped about His loins, is fastened by three
+(not four) nails.... In the highest quatrefoil is figured the Redeemer in
+glory, crowned as a king, and seated on a cushioned throne. Resting upon
+His knee and steadied by His hand is the Mund, or ball representing the
+earth.... This is divided into three parts, of which the largest, an upper
+horizontal hemicycle, is coloured crimson (now faded to a brownish tint),
+but the lower hemicycle is divided vertically in two, of which one portion is
+coloured green, and the other white or silvered....</p>
+
+<p>The next two subjects to be described are&mdash;one on the right hand, the
+death of the Blessed Virgin Mary; the other, on the left, her burial....</p>
+
+<p>Below the burial we have our Lord in the garden, signified by two trees;
+still wearing the crown of thorns; our Lord in His left hand holds the
+banner of the Resurrection, and with His right bestows His benediction on
+the kneeling Magdalene, who is wimpled, and wears a mantle of green, shot
+yellow, over a light purple tunic.</p>
+
+<p>Below, but outside the quatrefoil, is a layman clad in gold, upon his knees,
+and holding a long, narrow scroll bearing words which cannot now be
+satisfactorily read.</p>
+
+<p>Lowermost of all we see the Apostle St. Philip, with a book in one hand, in
+the other the flaying knife.</p>
+
+<p>A little above him St. Peter, with his two keys, one gold, the other
+silver; and somewhat under him is St. Andrew with his cross. On the
+other side of St. Michael and the Dragon is St. James the Greater&mdash;sometimes
+called of Compostella, because he lies buried in that Spanish city&mdash;with
+a book in one hand and in the other a staff, and slung from his wrist a
+wallet, both emblems of pilgrimage to his shrine in Galicia.... In the next
+quatrefoil above is St. Paul with his sword, and over to the right St. Thomas;
+still further to the right St. James the Less. Just above is our Saviour, clad
+in a golden tunic, and carrying a staff, overcoming the unbelief of St.
+Thomas. Upon his knees that Apostle feels, with his right hand held by
+the Redeemer, the spear wound in His side.</p>
+
+<p>As at the left side, so here, quite outside the sacred history on the cope,
+we have the figure of an individual probably living at the time the vestment
+was wrought. The dress of the other shows him to be a layman; by the
+shaven crown of his head, this person must have been a cleric of some sort;
+but we cannot tell ... for the canvas is worn quite bare, so that we see
+nothing now but the lines drawn in black to guide the embroiderer.... This
+Churchman holds up another scroll bearing words which can no longer be
+read.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;When this cope was new, it showed, written in tall gold letters more
+than an inch high, an inscription now cut up and lost ... the word <i>ne</i>, and
+a V on some of the shreds are all that remains of it.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;In its original state it could give us the whole of the twelve Apostles.
+Portions can still be seen.... The lower part of the vestment has been
+sadly cut away, and reshaped with the fragments; perhaps at that time were
+added the present heraldic orphrey, morse, and border, probably fifty years
+later than the other portions of this matchless specimen of the far-famed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_410" id="Page_410">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>410]</a></span>
+&lsquo;Opus Anglicum.&rsquo;&rdquo; &ldquo;Of angels,&rdquo; the &ldquo;nine choirs,&rdquo; and the three great
+hierarchies, Cherubim, Seraphim, and Thrones, are figured here. Led a good
+way by Ezekiel, but not following that prophet step by step, our medi&aelig;val
+draughtsmen found out for themselves a certain angel form. To this they
+gave a human shape, that of a comely youth; clothing him with six wings,
+with human feet; instead of the body being full of eyes, the wings are often
+composed of the bright-eyed feathers of the peacock. On this cope the
+eight angels standing upon wheels are so placed that they are everywhere
+nearest to those quatrefoils wherein our Lord&rsquo;s Person comes, and may
+therefore be taken as representing the upper hierarchy of the angelic host.
+The other angels, not upon wheels, no doubt belong to the second hierarchy;
+while those that have but one pair of wings (not three) represent the lowest
+hierarchy. &ldquo;All, like our Lord, are barefoot. All of them have their hands
+lifted in prayer.... For every lover of English heraldry this cope, so
+plentifully blazoned with armorial bearings, will have a special value, equal
+to that belonging to many an ancient roll of arms.&rdquo; The orphrey, morse
+and hem contain the arms of Warwick, Castile and Leon, Ferrars, Geneville
+Everard, the badge of the Knights Templars, Clifford, Spencer, Lemisi or
+Lindsey, Le Botiler, Sheldon, Monteney of Essex, Champernoun, England,
+Tyddeswall, Grandeson, FitzAlan, Hampden, Percy, Chambowe, Ribbesford,
+Bygod, Roger de Mortimer, Golbare or Grove, De Bassingburn, with many
+others not recognized, and frequent repetitions.... &ldquo;Besides their heraldry,
+squares at each corner are wrought with swans and peacocks of curious
+interest for every lover of medi&aelig;val symbolism....&rdquo; These coats of arms,
+being mostly blazoned on lozenge-shaped shields, suggest that possibly they
+record those of the noble ladies who worked the border; while those on
+circles may be the arms of religious houses or donors.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A word or two upon the needlework; how it was done; and the now
+unused mechanical appliance to it after it was wrought, so observable on
+this vestment, lending its figures more effect.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;We find that for the human face, all over this cope, the first stitches
+were begun in the centre of the cheek, and worked in circular lines, into
+which, after the first start, they fell, and were so carried on through the rest
+of the flesh tints.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Then with a little iron rod, ending in a small bulb slightly heated, were
+pressed down those parts of the faces worked in circles, as well as the wide
+dimple in the throat. By the hollows thus sunk a play of light and shadow
+is brought out that lends to the parts so treated a look of being done in low
+relief. Upon the lightly clothed figure of our Lord the same process is
+followed, and shows a noteworthy example of the medi&aelig;val knowledge of
+external anatomy.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;We must not, however, hide from ourselves that the unequal surfaces,
+given by such a use of the hot iron to parts of the work, expose it to the
+danger of being worn by friction more than other parts, and soon betray the
+damage by their threadbare, dingy look, as is the case in the example just
+cited. The method for grounding the quatrefoils is remarkable for being
+done in a long zigzag diaper pattern (laid stitch)....</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_411" id="Page_411">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>411]</a></span>
+&ldquo;The stitching on the armorial bearings is the same as that now followed
+in many trifling things worked in wool (cross stitch).</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The canvas (or linen) for every part of this cope is of the finest sort, but
+its crimson canvas lining is thick and coarse....</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;A word or two about the history of this fine cope....&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Rock now enters into the history of the guilds, which included noble
+laymen and women, and members of the clergy; and tells us that the rolls of
+these associations sometimes grew to be exceedingly wealthy. He says that
+each of these guilds had usually in its parish church a chapel or altar of its
+own, splendidly provided for, to which offerings were spontaneously given
+by individuals, or by members clubbing together that their joint gift might be
+the more worthy.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the cleric and the layman worked on the cope may have been the
+donors. Dr. Rock suggests that possibly Coventry may have been the place
+of its origin, &ldquo;where the famous Corpus Christi plays&rdquo; (which this cope so
+well illustrates) &ldquo;drew crowds every year to see them, as is testified by the
+Paston letters. Taking this old city as a centre, with a radius of no great
+length, we may draw a circle on the map enclosing Tamworth, tower and
+town, Chartley castle, Warwick, Charlcote, and Althorp. The lords of these
+broad lands would, in accordance with the religious feelings of those times,
+become brothers of the famous Guild of Coventry, and on account of their
+high rank find their arms embroidered on the vestments belonging to their
+fraternity. That such a pious queen as the gentle Eleanor, wife of Edward
+the First, who died 1290, should have in her lifetime become a sister is very
+likely, so that we may easily account for the shield&mdash;Castile and Leon.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The other noble shields may possibly record munificent benefactions.
+&ldquo;The whole must have taken very long in the working, and the probability
+is that it was embroidered by the nuns of some convent which stood in or
+near Coventry....</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Upon the banks of the Thames at Isleworth, near London, Henry V.
+built and munificently endowed a monastery, to be called &lsquo;Syon,&rsquo; for the
+nuns of St. Bridget&rsquo;s order. Among the earliest friends of this new house
+was a Master Thomas Graunt, an official in one of the Ecclesiastical Courts
+of the kingdom. In the Syon Nun&rsquo;s Martyrologium&mdash;a valuable MS. lately
+bought by the British Museum&mdash;this Churchman is gratefully recorded as the
+giver to their convent of several precious ornaments, of which this very cope
+seemingly is one. It was the custom for a guild or religious body to bestow
+some rich church vestment upon an ecclesiastical advocate who had
+befriended it by his pleadings before the tribunal, and thus to convey their
+thanks to him with his fee. After such a fashion this cope might easily
+have found its way, through Dr. Graunt, from Warwickshire to Middlesex.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;At the beginning of Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign it went with the nuns, as they
+wandered in an unbroken body through Flanders, France, and Portugal,
+where they halted. About sixty years ago it came back again from Lisbon
+to England, and has found a home in the South Kensington Museum.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>For want of space I have been obliged to omit a great deal of Dr. Rock&rsquo;s
+interesting account of the Syon Cope. The reader is referred for further
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_412" id="Page_412">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>412]</a></span>
+details, especially regarding the heraldry and the subjects in the quatrefoils,
+to Rock&rsquo;s &ldquo;Textile Fabrics,&rdquo; pp. 275-291, in the South Kensington Museum
+(No. 9182).</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="smcap"><a name="appendix_vii" id="appendix_vii"></a>Appendix VII., to Page <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</h3>
+
+<p>The Assyrians were great in fringes. Of this we can judge from their
+sculptures, in which the rich deep and broad fringe forms the ornament and
+accentuates the shaping of the garments of kings and priests and nobles.
+Loftus, in his &ldquo;Babylon and Susiana,&rdquo; tells of the only actually existing
+remnant of their textile art of which I can find any record. Some terra-cotta
+coffins were opened at Warka (the ancient Erech), and in one of them
+was a cushion, on which the head, gone to dust, had reposed. It was
+covered with linen&mdash;fringed. Nothing else had survived the ages except a
+huge wig of false hair. Such fragmentary echoes from a life, a civilization,
+and an art dead for thousands of years, are curiously pathetic, and touch
+and startle the thinking mind.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="smcap"><a name="appendix_viii" id="appendix_viii"></a>Appendix VIII., to Page <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</h3>
+
+<p>The following poem from the Anglo-Saxon poem of Beowulf shows that
+the hospitable hall of the Saxon earl was hung with tapestry embroidered
+with gold.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i5">F&oelig;la p&oelig;ra was<br /></span>
+<span class="i5">Much people were<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Wera and Wifa pe pat win rued<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Men and women who that wine house<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Gest sele gyredon gold fag scinon<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">That guest-hall garnished. Cloths embroidered with gold<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Web-after wagum. Wundersi&ograve;na feld<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Those along the walls many wonderful sights<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Sioga gustryleum para pe on swyle stara &#9792;<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">To every person of those that gaze on such.<br /></span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="poet">Translation by Thomas Arnold.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The poem of Beowulf is supposed to have been written in the early part of
+the twelfth century.</p>
+
+<p>The lines which follow are from a poem, recomposed from earlier sagas, in
+the beginning of the twelfth century. It serves to show that arras was used
+in bedrooms thus early in Germany.</p>
+
+<p>From the &ldquo;Niebelungen Lied,&rdquo; &uuml;bersetzt von Karl Simrock, p. 294.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<span class="i0">Manche schmucke Decke von Arras da lag<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Aus lichthellem Zeuge und manches Ueberdach<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Aus arabischer Seides so gut sie mochte sein,<br /></span>
+<span class="i0">Dar&uuml;ber lagen leisten du gaben herrlicher Schein.<br /></span>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_413" id="Page_413">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>413]</a></span>
+I owe these notices to the kindness of the Rev. A. O. Winnington
+Ingram.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="smcap"><a name="appendix_ix" id="appendix_ix"></a>Appendix IX., to Page <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</h3>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Abridged from Trans. by Sir G. Dasent.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center"><small>(<i>From the Ezrbyggja Saga.</i>)</small></p>
+
+<p>In that summer in which Christianity was established by law in Iceland
+(<small>A.D.</small> 1000), there came a ship from off the sea out to Snowfellsness, in
+Iceland. It was a Dublin ship, and on board it were Irishmen and men
+from Sodor and the Hebrides, but few Norsemen.... On board the ship was
+a woman from the Hebrides, whose name was Thorgunna. Her shipmates
+said that they were sure she had such treasures with her as would be hard
+to get in Iceland.</p>
+
+<p>Thurida, the housewife at Frida, was envious and covetous of these
+precious goods, and received Thorgunna into her home in hopes, by some
+means, to possess herself of them, especially the embroidered hangings of a
+bed; but Thorgunna refused to part with them. &ldquo;I will not lie in the
+straw for thee, though thou art a fine lady, and thinkest great things of
+thyself.&rdquo; Thorgunna made her own terms with Thurida and Master Harold,
+and set up her bed at the inner end of their hall. Her richly worked bed-clothes,
+her English sheets and silken quilt, and her bed-hangings and
+canopy were such &ldquo;that men thought nothing at all like them had ever been
+seen.&rdquo; An air of truth is given to the whole story by the details.
+Thorgunna is described as &ldquo;tall and strong and very stout. She was
+swarthy brown, with eyes set close together; her hair was brown and very
+thick. She was well-behaved in daily life, and went to church every
+morning before she went to her work.&rdquo; Then comes an account of a storm,
+and a rain of blood; and how Thorgunna sickened and died, and at her own
+desire was carried to be buried to Skilholt, which she prophesied would one
+day be considered holy, and that priests might there sing dirges over her.</p>
+
+<p>There is a curious and picturesque account of the two days&rsquo; journey to
+Skilholt, and the adventures that befell the funeral cort&eacute;ge; including the
+incident of the corpse cooking the supper of the convoy at an inhospitable
+farmhouse where they had sought refuge and received no entertainment.</p>
+
+<p>On Harold&rsquo;s return home after the funeral, he proceeded to carry out the
+wishes of Thorgunna, who had warned him that the ownership of her
+embroidered hangings would cause trouble, and therefore she had desired
+they should be burned. Thurida, however, could not bear to lose them,
+and persuaded Harold to spare them. &ldquo;After this followed many signs
+and portents, and deaths of men and women, and apparitions of ghosts,
+until Kjartan (Thurida&rsquo;s son) brought out all Thorgunna&rsquo;s bed-hangings and
+furniture, and burned them in the fire.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_414" id="Page_414">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>414]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="smcap"><a name="appendix_x" id="appendix_x"></a>Appendix X., to Page <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</h3>
+
+<p>Aelfled or Athelfleda was the founder of a race of embroiderers. Their
+pedigree is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Family tree">
+  <tr>
+    <td style="width: 25%;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="width: 12%;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="width: 1%;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="width: 12%;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="width: 12%;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="width: 1%;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="width: 12%;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="width: 12%;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="width: 1%;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="width: 12%;">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ftc">BRITHNOD,</td>
+    <td class="ftc" colspan="3">&nbsp;&nbsp;===</td>
+    <td class="ftc" colspan="3">ATHELFLEDA.</td>
+    <td class="ftc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ftc">a Northumberland Chief or Alderman.</td>
+    <td class="ftc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="border-right: 1pt black solid; width: 1%;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ftc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ftc" colspan="3">She embroidered the daring deeds of her husband.</td>
+    <td class="ftc" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ftc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ftc smcap" colspan="3">Leofleda.</td>
+    <td class="ftc" colspan="3">&nbsp;&nbsp;===</td>
+    <td class="ftc smcap" colspan="3">King Oswic.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ftc" colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ftc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="border-right: 1pt black solid;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ftc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ftl" colspan="3">Oswic&rsquo;s sister Aedelfleda was adopted by Hilda, Abbess of Whitby. She succeeded Hilda, and died 713. She was a great embroiderer.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ftc" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="border-top: 1pt black solid; border-left: 1pt black solid;" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="border-top: 1pt black solid; border-right: 1pt black solid;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="border-top: 1pt black solid;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="border-top: 1pt black solid; border-right: 1pt black solid;" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ftc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ftc">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ftc smcap" colspan="3">Aelfwin.</td>
+    <td class="ftc smcap" colspan="3">Aelswith.</td>
+    <td class="ftc smcap" colspan="3">Leofwed.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ftc" colspan="8">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td style="border-right: 1pt black solid;">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ftc">&nbsp;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="ftc" colspan="7">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="ftc smcap" colspan="3">Aelswith.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Leofwed made her will in the time of King Cnut; dividing her revenue
+between her daughter Aelswith and the Abbey of Ely. Aelswith accepted
+the residence of Coveney, a small property belonging to the convent, and
+there she embroidered with her maidens. See Liber Eliensis, ed. D. J.
+Stewart, &ldquo;Anglia Christiana,&rdquo; vol. i., 1848.</p>
+
+
+<h3 class="smcap"><a name="appendix_xi" id="appendix_xi"></a>Appendix XI., to Page <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</h3>
+
+<p>In the Statutes at Large there is the following in vol. i. p. 526 (in old
+French):&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>2 Henry VI.</p>
+
+<p>A penalty on deceitful workers of gold and silver embroidery.</p>
+
+<p>Item. pur ceo que diverses defautes sont trovez en loveraigne de diverses
+persons occupiantz le mestier de brouderie. Ordonnez est &amp; assentiez, que
+tout loveraigne &amp; stuff de brouderie d&rsquo;or ou d&rsquo;argent de Cipre ou d&rsquo;or de
+Luke melle avec laton de Spayne &amp; mys a vent en deceit des lieges du Roi
+sont forfait au Roi ou as Seigneurs et autres accenz franchises d&rsquo;autielx forfaitures
+ein quy franchise autiel overaigne soit trouv&eacute;e et durera c&rsquo;est ordinance
+longue parlement prochainement avenir.</p>
+
+<p>33 Henry VI.</p>
+
+<p>That if any Lombard or any other person, Stranger or Denizen, bring or
+cause to be brought by way of merchandize any wrought silk thrown,
+Ribbands, Laces, Corses of Silk, or any other thing wrought, touching or
+concerning the mystery of Silk women, the corses which come from Genoa
+only excepted, into any part or place of the Realm from beyond the Sea, that
+the same ... be forfeit.</p>
+
+<p>3 Edward IV.</p>
+
+<p>Whereby the importation of any wrought silk thrown, Ribbands, Laces,
+Corses of Silk, or other things wrought, concerning the craft of Silk women
+is prohibited or restrained.</p>
+
+<p>22 Edward IV.</p>
+
+<p>That no Marchant, Stranger, nor other person shall bring into the Realm
+to be sold, any Corses, Girdles, Ribbands, Laces, Coll. Silk or Colein Silk,
+thrown or wrought, upon pain of forfeiture of the same.</p>
+
+<p>Also Richard III. &ldquo;An Act touching the bringing in of Silk Laces,
+Ribbands, &amp;c.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Also 19 Henry VII. &ldquo;An Act for Silk Women.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>These acts appear to have been partially repealed, 3 and 5 George III.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_415" id="Page_415">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>415]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2>INDEX.</h2>
+
+<p class="center">
+<a href="#A">A</a> <a href="#B">B</a> <a href="#C">C</a>
+<a href="#D">D</a> <a href="#E">E</a> <a href="#F">F</a>
+<a href="#G">G</a> <a href="#H">H</a> <a href="#I">I</a>
+<a href="#J">J</a> <a href="#K">K</a> <a href="#L">L</a>
+<a href="#M">M</a> <a href="#N">N</a> <a href="#O">O</a>
+<a href="#P">P</a> <a href="#Q">Q</a> <a href="#R">R</a>
+<a href="#S">S</a> <a href="#T">T</a> <a href="#U">U</a>
+<a href="#V">V</a> <a href="#W">W</a> <a href="#Y">Y</a>
+<a href="#Z">Z</a>
+</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="A" id="A"></a>
+Achilles, shield of, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Aelgitha, wife of Canute, embroideries by, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&AElig;sthetic, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>,
+<a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Agrippina, golden garment of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Alessandri Palace, Florence, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Alexander the Great, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">wedding tent of, <a href="#Page_263">263-4</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">pall of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Alkisthenes, mantle of, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Altar, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">altar-piece, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">altar-cloths, <a href="#Page_340">340</a>, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">by Queen Emma, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</span><br /></p>
+
+<p>Amasis, corselet of, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">Bishop of, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Anne of Brittany, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Apollo of Branchid&aelig;, <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Arabesque, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Arachne, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Aragon, Catherine of, embroideries by, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Aristophanes, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Arras, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
+<a href="#Page_255">255-6</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Arrazzi, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">Prince of, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">trade with, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Art of dress, <a href="#Page_298">298</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of needlework, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Art, Greek, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
+<a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">Egyptian, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
+<a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56-7</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Scandinavian, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Roman, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>,
+<a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Romanesque, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Christian, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>,
+<a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>,
+<a href="#Page_315">315</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Chinese, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
+<a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Japanese, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>,
+<a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Gothic, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>,
+<a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_324">324</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Italian, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">French, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Ecclesiastical, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>,
+<a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Aryan, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Celtic, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">decorative, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Lombardic, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Pagan, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Asbestos linen, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Atrebates, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Attalus II., <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Auxerre, Bishop of, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="B" id="B"></a>
+Balawat, bronze gates from, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Baldachino, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
+<a href="#Page_283">283</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Banner, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of St. Cuthbert, <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Bas-relief, Assyrian, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bayeux tapestries, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Beads, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bede, mention of worked palls by, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bedsteads, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">at Kenilworth, <a href="#Page_283">283-4</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">at Hampton Court, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Bellini, portrait of Mahomet II., <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Black, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blode-bendes, or silk arm-bindings, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Blue, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Boadicea, dress of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bombacinum or cotton, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Book-coverings in library of Charles V., <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Borghese Palace, Rome, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p>
+
+<p>British Museum, sculptures in, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">vases, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">frieze of Parthenon, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">mantle of Demeter, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Egyptian dress, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">glass bowls, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">carpets from Nineveh, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Egyptian woollen embroidery, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">fine linen printed, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_416" id="Page_416">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>416]</a></span>
+<span class="in1">garment with gold ornaments, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">&ldquo;opus pectineum&rdquo; from Egypt, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">pavements, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">bronze statuette of Minerva, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">specimen of &ldquo;opus Anglicanum,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Brocade, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Bronze age, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">statues, <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Brown, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Buckram, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Burleigh House arras, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Byrri, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Byssus, <a href="#Page_134">134-5</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Byzantium, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="C" id="C"></a>
+Carpets, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">Persian, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
+<a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
+<a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Cashmere, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Castle Ashby, tapestries at, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Catacombs, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chair, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">chair-backs, <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Chaldean house, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Charles I., <a href="#Page_255">255</a>, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Charles V., library of, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chasuble, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">by Isabella of Spain, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">at Coire, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of St. Oswald, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">at Valencia, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">for Henry III., <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Chaucer, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chemmis, city of Pan, woollen trade in, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Chenille, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Church historical embroideries, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ciclatoun, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cinnabar, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Clavus latus, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cleves, Anne of, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cochineal, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Code of Manu, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Colour, <a href="#Page_175">175-193</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">prismatic, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">purple, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">crimson, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">copper, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">yellow, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">pure, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">iodine, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">chromatic, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Oriental, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">gas, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">foundation, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">green, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">liturgical, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">mystical, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Complication, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Confusion, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Constantine, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Consutum, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Contrast, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Conventional, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cope of St. Andrew, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">Syon, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Boniface VIII., <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">at Rheims, <a href="#Page_321">321-2</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Daroca, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">at Stoneyhurst, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Innocent III., <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">at Durham, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Copper, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coral, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coronation robes, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>, <a href="#Page_318">318</a>,
+<a href="#Page_362">362</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of St. Stephen of Hungary, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Charles X., <a href="#Page_339">339</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Edward the Confessor, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of James II., <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Corselet of Amasis in temple at Lindos, in Rhodes, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
+<a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cotton, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">cotton trees, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">woven, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">cotton plush, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Counterpane worked by Queen Catherine, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Coverlets, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Crewels, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>,
+<a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">work in, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Crimson, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cross, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of St. Andrew, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Greek, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">emblem of, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">prehistoric, <a href="#Page_335">335-6</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Croyland Abbey embroideries, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Crusaders, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Curtains, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>,
+<a href="#Page_272">272</a>, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">ordered by Sergius, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">by Pope John, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">by Stephen IV., <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Cushion at Hatfield, of James I.&rsquo;s reign, <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Cuthbert, St., <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">silk garments in tomb of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>,
+<a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364-5</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_417" id="Page_417">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>417]</a></span>
+Cyprus bowls, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="D" id="D"></a>
+Dado, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dais, the chamber of, <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dalmatic of Charlemagne, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317-18</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">at Valencia, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Damascus, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Decoration, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>,
+<a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>, <a href="#Page_355">355</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">art of, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Decorative, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Design, <a href="#Page_54">54-81</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">floral, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>,
+<a href="#Page_348">348</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">English, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">by St. Dunstan, <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Detail, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dress, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
+<a href="#Page_301">301</a>, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">Greek, <a href="#Page_297">297-8</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Roman, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">early Christian, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Claudius, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Duke and Duchess of Buckingham, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Durham Cathedral, <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Dyes, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">Indian, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="E" id="E"></a>
+East India Company, monopoly of trade by, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ecclesiastical embroidery, <a href="#Page_303">303</a>, <a href="#Page_327">327</a>,
+<a href="#Page_330">330</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">for images, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">priests&rsquo; robes, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">materials used in, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">names of garments in, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">at Durham, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">English, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Edward II., <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Edward III., <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Eighteenth century decorations, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">embroidery, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Eleanor, Queen, crosses of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Emare, mantle of, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Embroiderers&rsquo; Guild, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">list of names, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Company in Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>,
+<a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Embroideries, Babylonian and Ninevite, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
+<a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>,
+<a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>,
+<a href="#Page_350">350</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">Greek, <a href="#Page_31">31-2</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>,
+<a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">German, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Italian, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
+<a href="#Page_147">147</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Spanish, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>,
+<a href="#Page_331">331</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Portuguese, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Scandinavian and Celtic, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>,
+<a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
+<a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Egyptian, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
+<a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
+<a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Assyrian, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
+<a href="#Page_262">262</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Roman, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>,
+<a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Chinese, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
+<a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Persian, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>,
+<a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Japanese, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Russian, <a href="#Page_201">201</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
+<a href="#Page_313">313</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Delphic, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">English, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>,
+<a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_356">356-396</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">spurious, in Henry VI.&rsquo;s reign, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Embroidery, art of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>,
+<a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
+<a href="#Page_378">378</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">white, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in churches, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Emma, Queen, embroideries by, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Enamel, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Etruscan borders, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">tombs, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="F" id="F"></a>
+Fashion, <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fayoum, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">ancient Egyptian textile fabrics from, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>,
+<a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Fictile vases, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>,
+<a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Field of Cloth of Gold, <a href="#Page_381">381-2</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Filatorium, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fitness, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Flat, drawing on, <a href="#Page_69">69-70</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">stitches, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Flavius Vopiscus, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Flax, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Flemish work, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Floral patterns, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Floss silk, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Flowers, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Footstools, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Frames, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
+<a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Frescoes, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fringes, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Fulham, tapestry works at, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Furniture, <a href="#Page_280">280-293</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="G" id="G"></a>
+Gammadion, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_418" id="Page_418">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>418]</a></span>
+Gaudry, Bishop, tapestry of, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Geoffrey, Abbot, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gisela, Queen, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Giustini Palace, Florence, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gobelins, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
+<a href="#Page_247">247-8</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gold, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">threads, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Gothic design in, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_377">377</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">embroideries, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">needlework for Elinor of Aquitaine, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Spanish lace, <a href="#Page_381">381</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">caskets, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Gradation, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Green, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Gregory Nazianzen, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grey, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Grotesque, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Guimp, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="H" id="H"></a>
+Hair, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hampton Court, <a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">bed at, worked by Mrs. Pawsey, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Hand-looms, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hangings, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260-274</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of the Hebrew Sanctuary, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Alexander&rsquo;s tent, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">portraits on, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in Kosroes&rsquo; &ldquo;white palace,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_268">268</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">on Greek vases, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in Pompeii, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">saffron, mentioned by Euripides, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">French, sixteenth century, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">modern French, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in Holland House, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in Florence, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in Rome, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">English, from time of Harold to Edward IV., and others, <a href="#Page_370">370</a>,
+<a href="#Page_384">384</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392-3</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Harmonies, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hawaiian royal mantle, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Helen, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Helena, Empress, <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hemp, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Henry II., mantle of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Henry VIII., manufacture of tapestry in reign of, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">embroidery, <a href="#Page_302">302</a>, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>,
+<a href="#Page_384">384-5</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Heph&aelig;stion, catafalque of, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hexameron work of St. Ambrose and St. Basil, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Holland House, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Homer, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
+<a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Hom, the sacred, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="I" id="I"></a>
+Icelandic Sagas, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Illumination, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_305">305</a>,
+<a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Imperial, a silk tissue, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</p>
+
+<p>India, arts of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>,
+<a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">Museum, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Indian carving, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">shawls, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">cotton fabrics, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">dyes, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">embroideries, <a href="#Page_284">284</a>, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">manufactures, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>,
+<a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Inscriptions, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+<a href="#Page_341">341</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">woven in, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in tapestry, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Isabella of France, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of Spain, <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="J" id="J"></a>
+Jacket in Lady Waterford&rsquo;s collection, <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</p>
+
+<p>James I., manufacture of tapestry in reign of, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">portrait of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">work in reign of, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Josephus, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Juno, toilet of, <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Jute, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="K" id="K"></a>
+Kells, Book of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Khotan, Prince of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kosroes&rsquo; hangings, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Kunigunda, Empress, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="L" id="L"></a>
+Lace, <a href="#Page_222">222-235</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">bone, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">yak, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">needle-made, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">ancient lace-books, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">stitches, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Venetian, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Burano, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">list of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">blond, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">schools in France, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">for ecclesiastical purposes, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">bobbin, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Limerick, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Irish, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Honiton, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Spanish, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_419" id="Page_419">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>419]</a></span>
+Lambeth tapestry works, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">missal at, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Lares, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Leather, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lilac, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Linen, <a href="#Page_357">357-8</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lombardic, <a href="#Page_310">310</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lotus, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Louis XIV., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
+<a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Louis XV., <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
+<a href="#Page_276">276</a>, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Louis XVI., <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Lyons, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="M" id="M"></a>
+Maniple of St. Cuthbert, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">in Durham library, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Mantle of Demeter, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of Ajax, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Servius Tullius, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Alkisthenes, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Gisela, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of King Wiglaf, <a href="#Page_363">363-4</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Manu, Code of, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Manufactures of Nineveh and Babylon, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">at Lyons, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of silk, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">at Palermo, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mark&rsquo;s, St., Venice, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mary, Queen of Scots, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mary&rsquo;s, St., Hall, Coventry, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Melito, Bishop of Sardis, book on Symbolism by, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Middle Ages, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
+<a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>,
+<a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>,
+<a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
+<a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_273">273</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>,
+<a href="#Page_315">315</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mitre at Milan, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of St. Thomas &agrave; Becket, <a href="#Page_321">321</a>,
+<a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Monks of St. Florent, Saumur, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of Cluny, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Fleury, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in England, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of St. Alban&rsquo;s, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Monuments, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Morris, William, <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mosaics, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300</a>, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">Empress Theodora&rsquo;s dress figured in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>,
+<a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Sta. Pudenziana, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_317">317</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">early Christian, <a href="#Page_314">314</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in Sta. Maria Maggiore, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Mummy-wrappings, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Museum, Cluny, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>,
+<a href="#Page_277">277</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">at Boulac, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Muslin, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Mycen&aelig;, tomb of Agamemnon at, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">lion&rsquo;s gate of, <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="N" id="N"></a>
+Needle, the first, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">bronze, steel, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">bone, <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Nimroud, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nineteenth century, style of, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Normans, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Northumberland House, tapestries at, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Nunneries, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="O" id="O"></a>
+Opus Alexandrinum, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Opus Anglicanum, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Orange, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Order, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Oriental work, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Orphrey, <a href="#Page_368">368-9</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Oudenarde &ldquo;hallings&rdquo; or &ldquo;salles,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="P" id="P"></a>
+Painting, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Palermo, silk-weaving at, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pall of Alexander, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">at Dunstable, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of London Companies, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Pamphile silk-weaver, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Panels, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Patchwork, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">appliqu&eacute;, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>,
+<a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Patterns, <a href="#Page_82">82-117</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">wave, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">key, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Oriental, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">lotus, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">animal, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">lily, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">rose, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">palm leaf on shawl, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">sacred hom, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">pine-apple, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">honeysuckle, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">egg and tongue, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">cross, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">crenelated, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Renaissance, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">cloud, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">fundata or netted, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">wheel, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_420" id="Page_420">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>420]</a></span>
+<span class="in1">Moorish, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Sicilian, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">shell, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Indian balcony, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">chrysoclavus or palmated, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">wicker and lattice-work, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">bead, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">daisy, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">geometrical, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">German and Venetian books of, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">feather, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Persian, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">check, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">metal-work, <a href="#Page_325">325</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Ro&euml;s, or wheel and plate, <a href="#Page_336">336-7</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Indian dimity, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Peacocks, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">feathers, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Pearls, <a href="#Page_332">332</a>, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>,
+<a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pectineum, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Penates, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Penelope, bridal couch of, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Peplos of Athene, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p>
+
+<p>P&egrave;re Labb&eacute;, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Persian carpets, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>,
+<a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>,
+<a href="#Page_271">271</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">rugs, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">silks, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Perspective, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Peter&rsquo;s, St., Rome, <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pheidias, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Ph&oelig;nicians, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
+<a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">bowls from Cyprus, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Phrygium, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pictorial art, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pl&acirc;teresque, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Plumarii, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Plush, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pluvial of St. Silvester, <a href="#Page_319">319</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">at Bologna, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">at Aix, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Daroca, <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Polymita, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pompeii, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Portraits of Charles V., <a href="#Page_295">295</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of Richard II. at Wilton House, <a href="#Page_372">372</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, <a href="#Page_379">379</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in needlework in reign of James I., <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Portuguese silks, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Progression, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Proportion, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Pulvinarium, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Purl, <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Purple, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="Q" id="Q"></a>
+Queen Anne, style in reign of, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>,
+<a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_391">391</a>, <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Elizabeth, embroidery of, <a href="#Page_385">385-6</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">style in reign of, <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Queen Mary of Hungary, <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Matilda, <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="R" id="R"></a>
+Radiation, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Raphael, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">cartoons of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Renaissance, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>,
+<a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>,
+<a href="#Page_329">329</a>, <a href="#Page_380">380</a>, <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Repetition, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Reredos at St. Alban&rsquo;s, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of Vintners&rsquo; Company, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Richard C&oelig;ur de Lion, <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Robes of Julius C&aelig;sar, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of Childeric, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Bishop Adhelme, <a href="#Page_361">361</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of St. Thomas &agrave; Becket, <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Roger, King of Sicily, transports silk-weavers from Greece, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Roman silks, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">fashions, <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Romanesque, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>, <a href="#Page_323">323</a>,
+<a href="#Page_362">362</a>, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Roses, Wars of, <a href="#Page_371">371</a>, <a href="#Page_372">372-3</a>,
+<a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Rugs, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Runic art, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="S" id="S"></a>
+Samit, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sampler of Henry VII.&rsquo;s reign, <a href="#Page_379">379-80</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Saracenicum, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Satin, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of Bruges, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Scarlet, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</p>
+
+<p>School of Art Needlework, South Kensington, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>,
+<a href="#Page_288">288</a>, <a href="#Page_392">392</a>;<br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_421" id="Page_421">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>421]</a></span>
+<span class="in1">rise of, <a href="#Page_396">396-7</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">list of work executed at, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">designs for, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Schools, branch of Art Needlework, <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Screens, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sculptures, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Seam, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Seres, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Seventh century work, <a href="#Page_361">361-2</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sewing, plain, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Shells, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sicilian patterns, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">embroideries, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">textile designs, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_341">341</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">silk manufactures, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">fabrics, <a href="#Page_315">315</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">ecclesiastical designs, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Sicily, textile art in, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Si-ling-chi, Empress, inventor of unwinding the cocoon, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Silk, origin of, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">first woven by Pamphile at Cos, 300 <small>B.C.</small>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Roman and Chinese, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">trade in, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in cocoon, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">wild silk in China, <a href="#Page_154">154-5</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">attire mentioned in Latin poets, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">silken robes sold by Marcus Aurelius, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">garments given by Emperor Carinus, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">edict of Diocletian, with prices of articles, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">silk mentioned by poets and historians from first to sixth century,
+<a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">silkworm, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">monopoly of silk manufactures in Constantinople, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">first allusion to use of silk in Christian Church, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">palls of silk brought from Rome, <small>A.D.</small> 685,
+<a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Bede&rsquo;s remains wrapped in silk, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">specimens of silk in Auberville&rsquo;s &ldquo;Tissus,&rdquo; silk tissues
+called &ldquo;Imperial,&rdquo; <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Silk-weavers, Jewish, at Thebes in 1161, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">transported by Roger, King of Sicily, from Greece to Palermo,
+<a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">description of Royal manufactory at Palermo, by Hugh Falcandus, twelfth
+century, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">three periods in Sicily, <a href="#Page_162">162-3</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Saracenic, in India, <a href="#Page_166">166-7</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Italian, in Lyons, 1450, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Spanish at Malaga and Almeria, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in Hungary under Queen Gisela, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in the Flemish towns, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Asiatic, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Smock of Mary Tudor, <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Society of Arts, Birmingham, <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sofas, <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Spangles, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Spanish Armada, hangings, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sphinx, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Spinning, <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stamford, Arras woven at, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Stitches, <a href="#Page_194">194-259</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">lists of, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">gold, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">mosaic, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">cushion, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">plumage, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">satin, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">sampler, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">ecclesiastical, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">stem, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Stole, <a href="#Page_308">308</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">at Durham, <a href="#Page_364">364</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Aelfled, Queen of Edward II., <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Style, <a href="#Page_14">14-53</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sun-cross, Egyptian, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sunflower, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">radiated pattern of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Surcoat of Black Prince, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Swastika, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Symbolism, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>,
+<a href="#Page_307">307</a>, <a href="#Page_333">333</a>, <a href="#Page_334">334-5</a>,
+<a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Symmetry, <a href="#Page_63">63-4</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="T" id="T"></a>
+Table covers, <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tanaquil, robes worked by, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tapestry, <a href="#Page_235">235-259</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">in British Museum, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">woven, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Charles, Duke of Burgundy, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Gobelins, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Arras, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_422" id="Page_422">[<span class="hidden">Pg </span>422]</a></span>
+<span class="in1">Saracenic, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">at Brussels, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">French, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Italian, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">English, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">revival of, at Windsor, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in Cluny Museum, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Taste, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">Oriental, <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Tau, <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tent, funeral, of an Egyptian queen, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of Antar, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Nadir Shah, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Alexander, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Ptolemy Philadelphus, <a href="#Page_264">264-5</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Persian, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Textile art, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>,
+<a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>,
+<a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>,
+<a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_307">307</a>,
+<a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Thebes, silk-weavers of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Tissus&rdquo; of Auberville, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Titian, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Toga, <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tomb of Agamemnon, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">of Rameses, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of warrior at Kuban, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">in Crimea, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Anglo-Saxon, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of St. Cuthbert at Durham, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Trabea, <a href="#Page_309">309</a>, <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Tree of Life, <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Triptych in Cluny Museum, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">at Zurich, <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Tyrian purple, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="U" id="U"></a>
+Ulysses, <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="V" id="V"></a>
+Vatican, Etruscan gold ornament, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
+<a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Veil of Temple, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">classical, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
+<a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_312">312</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">for pyx, <a href="#Page_350">350</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">of Hebrew sanctuary, <a href="#Page_311">311</a>, <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Velvet, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_345">345</a>, <a href="#Page_347">347</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">stoles, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>,
+<a href="#Page_221">221</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">pall, <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Venetian red, <a href="#Page_289">289</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">style, <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Vestments, <a href="#Page_313">313</a>, <a href="#Page_326">326</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">Italian, <a href="#Page_329">329</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">Spanish, <a href="#Page_331">331</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">modern, <a href="#Page_343">343</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">set presented to Romsey and Croyland by Canute, <a href="#Page_366">366</a>,
+<a href="#Page_370">370</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">set bequeathed to Westminster Abbey by Henry VII., <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</span></p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="W" id="W"></a>
+Watteau, school of, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Welby, Lady, founder of School of Art Needlework, South Kensington, <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wiglaf, King, <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</p>
+
+<p>William and Mary, <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wilton carpet works, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Windsor, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wool, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">Berlin, <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Worcester, dress in tomb of Walter de Cantilupe, <a href="#Page_320">320</a>;<br />
+<span class="in1">cope of William of Blois, <a href="#Page_322">322</a>;</span><br />
+<span class="in1">tomb of King John, <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</span></p>
+
+<p>Workhouse sheeting, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Wroxton House, Arras at, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="Y" id="Y"></a>
+York, Archbishop of, Arras with design of the Four Seasons, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</p>
+
+
+<p class="index"><a name="Z" id="Z"></a>
+Zoroaster, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h2>ERRATA.</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Errata list">
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">Page</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">xv,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">line</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">27,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>for</em> Albert Castet <em>read</em> Albert Castel.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">10,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">24,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>read</em> as that of an important factor.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">17,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">22,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>for</em> slow <em>read</em> swift.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">26,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">16,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>for</em> art <em>read</em> artistic.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">42,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">16,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>for</em> are <em>read</em> were.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">56,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">5,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>read</em> advance of them, in the earliest.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">66,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">21,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>for</em> we <em>read</em> I.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">75,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">20,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>for</em> These <em>read</em> Those.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">101,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">18,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>for</em> from Cervetri, in Southern Italy, <em>read</em> from a tomb at Chiusi, in Etruria.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">156,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">8,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>for</em> Chin <em>read</em> Chan.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">195,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdrt">20,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>for</em> 6, 7. Bone needles from Neolithic cave-man&rsquo;s grave, <em>read</em> 6. Cave-man&rsquo;s needle from the Pinhole,
+Churchfield, Ereswell Crag. 7. Bone needle from La Madeleine, Dordogne.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">198,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">5,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">footnote, <em>for</em> act <em>read</em> art.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">208,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">3,</td>
+    <td class="tdl">footnote, <em>for</em> &ldquo;Arte Plumarii&rdquo; <em>read</em> &ldquo;Arte Plumaria.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">237,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">8,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>for</em> which prove <em>read</em> proving.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">239,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">17,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>delete</em> &rdquo; <em>after</em> of art.&rdquo;</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">18,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>insert</em> &rdquo; <em>after</em> backwards.</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">242,</td>
+    <td class="tdcnp">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tdr">9,</td>
+    <td class="tdl"><em>for</em> in the Crimea <em>read</em> at Chiusi.</td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<div class="bbox">
+<p><b>Transcriber's Note</b></p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_202">202</a>&mdash;the marker for footnote 2 was missing in the original. The transcriber has
+estimated where it should have been, based on the text and reference material therein.</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_303">303</a> includes an excerpt from Psalm 45, with quoted verse numbers of 10, 14 and 15.
+These should be verses 9, 13 and 14.</p>
+
+<p>Archaic spelling is preserved as printed. Variable spelling, hyphenation and use of
+accents has been made consistent where there was a clear prevalence of one form over the
+other, or with reference to reliable sources; otherwise, these are preserved as printed.
+Typographic errors, e.g. omitted, superfluous or transposed letters, and punctuation
+errors have been repaired. Other amendments are as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="amends">
+<p>Plate <a href="#pl71">71</a>&mdash;precipit amended to precepit and omitted word 'pio' added&mdash;"... Aelfled fieri
+precepit pio Episcopo Fridestano."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_xx">xx</a>&mdash;3 amended to 9&mdash;"From Layard&rsquo;s &ldquo;Monuments,&rdquo; Series i. pl. 9."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_xxi">xxi</a>&mdash;Edward amended to Richard&mdash;"6. Badge of Richard II."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_xxii">xxii</a>&mdash;John amended to Mark&mdash;"<span class="smcap">St. Mark.</span> Anglo-Saxon Book of the Gospels."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_115">115</a>&mdash;5. removed from beginning of section title, for consistency with others in that
+chapter, "GEOMETRICAL."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_197">197</a>&mdash;Encyclopedia amended to Cyclop&aelig;dia&mdash;"The second list is from Rees&rsquo; &ldquo;Cyclop&aelig;dia&rdquo;
+(Stitches), 1819 ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_311">311</a>&mdash;des Antiquit&eacute;s amended to Royale des Antiquaires&mdash;"&ldquo;... par la Soci&eacute;t&eacute;
+Royale des Antiquaires du Nord&rdquo; ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_316">316</a>&mdash;Lwewelig amended to Wledig&mdash;"... and in the Welsh ballad of &ldquo;The Dream of Maxen
+Wledig&rdquo; ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_316">316</a>, footnote <a href="#Footnote_502_502">502</a>&mdash;Pallison's amended to Palliser's&mdash;"See Mrs. Palliser&rsquo;s &ldquo;Lace,&rdquo; p.
+4."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_320">320</a>&mdash;T. amended to I.&mdash;"... (see
+Hon. and Rev. I. Clifford&rsquo;s list of embroideries in Appendix 5)."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_331">331</a>&mdash;Riario amended to Riano&mdash;"Don
+Juan F. Riano<sup>[533]</sup> says that Toledo is a perfect museum ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_331">331</a>, footnote <a href="#Footnote_533_533">533</a>&mdash;Riario amended to Riano&mdash;"See &ldquo;The Industrial Arts of Spain,&rdquo; pp.
+250-264, by Don Juan F. Riano, ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_417">417</a>&mdash;350 amended to 348&mdash;"Design,
+... floral, 71, 345, 348; ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_417">417</a>&mdash;210 amended to 109&mdash;"Embroideries,
+... Egyptian, 93, 114, 130, 134, 209, 236, 271; ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_419">419</a>&mdash;47 amended to 46 and 308 amended to
+276&mdash;"Louis XIV., 46, 247, 276, 332, 393."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_419">419</a>&mdash;167 amended to 93&mdash;"Mosaics,
+... Empress Theodora's dress figured in, 41, 93; ..."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_419">419</a>&mdash;306 amended to 117&mdash;"Mosaics,
+... in Sta. Maria Maggiore, 117, 322."</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_420">420</a>&mdash;index entries for 'Pall' and
+'Pamphile,' which originally followed the entry for 'Pattern,' have been
+moved to their correct places.</p>
+
+<p>Page <a href="#Page_421">421</a>&mdash;399 amended to 345&mdash;"Stitches,
+... ecclesiastical, 345; ..."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There are a number of discrepancies between the information in the list of illustrations (LOI) and the
+information on the plates themselves. Some of these are simple omission, others involve
+conflicting information. The transcriber has resolved and repaired some of these
+differences with reference to alternative sources. In general, it seems that the
+information on the plate is correct. Those that could not be resolved are as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="amends">
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl05">5</a>&mdash;LOI has "Journal Asiatique, Syro-Egyptien-Ph&oelig;nicien." Plate has "Journal
+Asiatique, Coupe de Palestrina."</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl09">9</a>&mdash;LOI has "sixteenth century." Plate has "seventeenth century."</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl10">10</a>&mdash;LOI has "5, 6, 7. Egyptian smooth and rippling wave pattern." Plate has "5, 6, 7.
+Egyptian Smooth and Rippling Water Patterns."</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl10">10</a>&mdash;LOI has "10, 11, 14. Babylonian and Chaldean." Plate has "10, 11, 14. Assyrian."</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl11">11</a>&mdash;LOI omits Assyrian references.</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl12">12</a>&mdash;LOI has "2, 3. Egyptian. 4, 5. Greek." Plate has "2, 3. Indian Lotus Patterns. 4,
+5. Egyptian Lotus Patterns."</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl15">15</a>&mdash;LOI has "Book of Kells." Plate has "Lindisfarne Gospels."</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl20">20</a>&mdash;LOI has "1, 2, 3. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian Silk. 5. Medi&aelig;val." Plate has "1, 2,
+3, 5. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian Silk."</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl28">28</a>&mdash;LOI has "1. Dress patterns from old MS. 2, 3. Old English tiles." Plate has "1, 2.
+Gothic tiles. 3. Gothic Border of a Dress. 4. Gothic Vine."</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl31">31</a>&mdash;LOI omits mention of a third Egyptian fundata pattern.</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl32">32</a>&mdash;LOI references "Bock's Lit. Gew. ii. p. 246." Plate references "Vol i. taf. xi."</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl35">35</a>&mdash;LOI omits mention of a peacock pattern. Plate omits mention of Persian type.</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl41">41</a>&mdash;The source of the examples are either omitted or different on the LOI to those
+given on the plate.</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl68">68</a>&mdash;LOI has "sixteenth century." Plate has "fifteenth century."</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl70">70</a>&mdash;LOI has "<small>A.D.</small> 434." Plate has "sixth century."</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl72">72</a>&mdash;LOI "<span class="smcap">St. Gregory and St. John (Prophet).</span>" Plate has "St. John" and "St.
+Roger."</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl74">74</a>&mdash;LOI gives different title for Strutt's book to that given on the plate. From
+research, it seems that the short title is actually "The Regal and Ecclesiastical
+Antiqities of England."</p>
+
+<p>Pl. <a href="#pl76">76</a>&mdash;LOI has "twelfth century." Plate has "XIII. century."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Illustrations have been moved where necessary so that they are not in the middle of a paragraph.
+Some of the plates do not have numbers on the plate themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Alphabetic links have been added to the beginning of the index for ease of navigation.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Needlework As Art, by Marian Alford
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Needlework As Art, by Marian Alford
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Needlework As Art
+
+Author: Marian Alford
+
+Release Date: November 14, 2009 [EBook #30472]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEEDLEWORK AS ART ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller, jenniemuse, Sam W. and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Dagger symbols are shown as a + sign. A female/Venus symbol occurs
+once (+ sign with a circle on top), and is noted as such. A carat
+(^) is used to indicate superscripted characters. The word Shush
+has a breve (u-shaped symbol) above the letter u. A circumflex has
+been used in this version of this e-text instead--Shush.
+
+The original text contained an errata list. The corrections have been
+made to this text, and the list moved to the end of the book for
+reference purposes only.
+
+Other notes may be found at the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+                NEEDLEWORK AS ART
+
+                       BY
+
+                 LADY M. ALFORD
+
+
+                 [Illustration]
+
+
+                     London:
+  SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, AND RIVINGTON,
+       CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.
+                      1886.
+
+            [_All rights reserved._]
+
+
+
+
+                  LONDON:
+  PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED,
+              ST. JOHN'S SQUARE.
+
+
+
+
+  [Illustration: TELEMACHUS    PENELOPE]
+
+
+
+
+DEDICATED BY PERMISSION
+
+TO
+
+THE QUEEN.
+
+
+
+
+TO
+
+THE QUEEN.
+
+
+_Your Majesty's most gracious acceptance of the Dedication of my book
+on "Needlework as Art" casts a light upon the subject that shows its
+worthiness, and my inability to do it justice. Still, I hope I may
+fill a gap in the artistic literature of our day, and I venture to lay
+my work at your Majesty's feet with loyal devotion._
+
+                                           MARIAN M. ALFORD.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In the Preface to the "Handbook of Art Needlework," which I edited for
+the Royal School at South Kensington in 1880, I undertook to write a
+second part, to be devoted to design, colour, and the common-sense
+modes of treating decorative art, as applied especially to embroidered
+hangings, furniture, dress, and the smaller objects of luxury.
+
+Circumstances have, since then, obliged me to reconsider this
+intention; and I have found it more practicable to cast the
+information which I have collected from Eastern and Western sources
+into the form of a separate work, which in no way supersedes or
+interferes with the technical instruction supposed to be conveyed in a
+handbook. I have found so much amusement in learning for myself the
+history of the art of embroidery, and in tracing the beginnings and
+the interchanges of national schools, that I cannot but hope that I
+may excite a similar interest in some of my readers, and so induce
+those who are capable, to help and lift it to a higher place than it
+has been allowed in these latter days to occupy. If I have given too
+important a position to the art of needlework, I would observe that
+while I have been writing, decorative embroidery has come to the
+front, and is at this moment one of the hobbies of the day; and I
+would point out that it contains in itself all the necessary elements
+of art; it may exercise the imagination and the fancy; it needs
+education in form, colour, and composition, as well as the craft of a
+practised hand, to express its language and perfect its beauty.
+
+I confess that when I undertook this task, I did not anticipate the
+time I have had to spend in collecting and epitomizing the many
+notices to be found in German, French, and English authors, on what
+has been considered among us, at least in this century, as merely a
+secondary art, and therefore, as such, of little importance. Cursory
+notices of needlework are scattered through almost every book on art;
+and under the head of textiles it is usual to find embroidery
+acknowledged as being worthy of notice, though not to be named in
+company with sculpture, architecture, or painting, however beautifully
+or thoughtfully its works may be carried out. I have tried to show
+that it deserves higher estimation.
+
+My first intention was simply to consider STYLE, good or bad, as it
+influences our embroidery of to-day, and to find some rules by which
+to guide that of the future in its next phase. But when we search into
+the fluctuations of style, and their causes, we find they have an
+historical succession, and that we must begin at the beginning and
+trace them through the life of mankind.
+
+This led me to attempt a sketch of consecutive styles, their overlap
+and variations.
+
+I then found that DESIGN, PATTERNS, STITCHES, MATERIALS, each require
+a separate study.
+
+COLOUR, as applied to dyes, claims to be regarded as differing from
+pigments on the painter's palette.
+
+HANGINGS, DRESS, and ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERIES each require
+different rules, and the study of the best examples of past centuries.
+Finally, it seems natural to dwell on our own proficiency in
+decorative work. ENGLISH EMBROIDERY has always excelled; and, as we
+have again returned to this occupation, it is worth while to recollect
+what we have done of old.
+
+In writing chapters on these subjects, I have found it most convenient
+to separate the historical and aesthetic questions from the technical
+rules, and the instruction which naturally belongs to a handbook, of
+which the purpose should be to teach the easiest and most orthodox
+manner of executing the simplest, and elaborating the finest works.
+Such questions ought not to be overlaid with archaeological inquiries,
+or with the information which only profits the designer; though of
+course it is best that the knowledge of design should be part of the
+education of the craft.
+
+Perhaps I may be found to have written a book too shallow for the
+learned, too deep for the frivolous, too technical for the general
+public, and too diffuse for the specialist of the craft.[1]
+
+I must deprecate these criticisms by saying that I have written it for
+the benefit of those who know nothing of the art, and are too much
+engaged to seek information here and there; who yet, being women, have
+to select and to execute ornamental needlework; or, being artists, are
+vexed at the incongruities and want of intention in the decorations in
+daily domestic use; I have also sought to help the designer, that he
+or she may know something of the history of patterns and stitches.
+
+If my readers should be aware of repetitions, they must forgive them;
+remembering that the same idea has to be looked at sometimes from a
+different point of view, according to the use to which it is to be
+fitted. The same material may be employed for wall-hangings and dress,
+and then the principles which have been formulated have to be varied.
+I do not shrink from repetitions if they make my meaning clear,
+remembering the Duke of Wellington's direction to his private
+secretary, "Never mind repetitions; and _dot_ your i's."
+
+Portions of these chapters have been already published in No. 49 of
+the _Nineteenth Century_,[2] in 1881; and more was delivered in three
+unpublished lectures the same year.
+
+I have acknowledged and noted on each page my authorities for the
+facts I have quoted. The illustrations that are not original, have
+been copied from other works by permission of authors and publishers.
+To all of these I wish to express my obligations and thanks,
+especially to Mr. Villiers Stuart, Dr. Anderson, Sir G. Birdwood, and
+Sir H. Layard, for their courtesy in allowing me the use of their
+plates. To my old and valued friend, Mr. Newton, I wish to express my
+gratitude for his unstinted gifts of time and trouble, bestowed in
+criticizing and correcting my book, encouraging me to give it to the
+public, and making it more worthy of publication.
+
+I have largely quoted Charles Blanc ("Ornament in Dress," English
+translation), Von Bock ("Liturgische Gewaender"), Dr. Rock ("The Church
+of our Fathers" and "Introduction to Textiles"), Semper ("Der Stil"),
+Yates ("Textrinum Antiquorum"), and Yule ("Marco Polo"), besides many
+others. But these authorities often differ, and, after weighing their
+arguments, I have ventured to select for my use the facts and
+theories which accord with my own views. Facts are often so
+interdependent and closely linked, that it requires great care to
+distinguish where they have been shaped or coloured (however
+unintentionally) to fit each other or the writer's preconceived ideas.
+Certain it is that facts are but useless heaps till the thread of a
+theory is found on which to hang them. This process, like that of
+stringing pearls, has to be often repeated, till each occupies its
+right place. Only those who have adopted and cherished a theory can
+appreciate the pain of cutting the thread, to displace what appeared
+to be a pearl, but which, from its false position as to date or place,
+or its doubtful origin, has proved only an empty manufactured glass
+bead of error.
+
+This has happened to me more than once; and since I read my lectures I
+have had to change my opinions in several instances. If, therefore,
+any of my readers should observe such changes, I hope they will give
+me credit for trying to convey _now_ what appears to me on each
+subject a correct impression.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [1] Besides the art, I have sought to give something of
+    the archaeology of needlework. Now the qualifications for
+    being a teacher on such subjects are rarely to be met
+    with, all combined. Mr. Newton, in his "Essays on Art
+    and Archaeology," p. 37, says that "the archaeologist
+    should combine with the aesthetic culture of the artist,
+    and the trained judgment of the historian and the
+    philologist, that critical acumen, required for
+    classification and interpretation; nor should that
+    habitual suspicion which must ever attend the scrutiny
+    and precede the warranty of evidence, give too sceptical
+    a bias to his mind." Such authorities have been
+    interrogated on each part of my subject.
+
+    [2] Quoted by permission of the Editor.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  PAGE
+  INTRODUCTION.                                                      1
+
+  CHAPTER I.--STYLE.
+
+  Definition of style--Development of style--Primitive--
+  Archaic--Egyptian--Babylonian--Phoenician influences
+  on early Greek style--Decoration of hangings of the
+  Tabernacle in the wilderness--Aryan ideas--The Code of
+  Manu--Indian art--Celtic style--Greek art in dress and
+  embroideries--Homer's descriptions of embroideries--Pallas
+  Athene--Shield of Achilles--Roman art--Byzantine art--Art
+  of Central Asia--Its arrival in Europe--Art of China,
+  Japan, and Java--Christian art--Scandinavian art--The Dark
+  Ages--Sicilian textile art--Renaissance--Arabesque--
+  Grotesque--Spanish Plateresque--Style of Queen Anne and the
+  Chippendales--Louis XV. style--Classical revival--Young
+  England's style--Nineteenth century style                         14
+
+  CHAPTER II.--DESIGN.
+
+  Artist and artisan--Prehistoric design--Naturalistic
+  design--Egyptian immutability--Slow evolution of
+  design--Greek perfection--Necessity of following rules--M.
+  Blanc's laws of ornamentation--Laws of composition--
+  Repetition--Alternation--Symmetry--Progression--Confusion--
+  Designs for hangings and dress materials--Floral design--Design
+  for carpets--The conventional--First principles                   54
+
+  CHAPTER III.--PATTERNS.
+
+  Ancestry of patterns--Classification--Their historical
+  value--Primitive patterns--The wave--Tartan--Prehistoric
+  African patterns--The naturalistic--Flowers--Shells--Indian
+  forms of naturalistic patterns--Egyptian--The lotus--
+  Sunflower--Celtic Zoomorphic patterns--The human figure on
+  Greek textiles--Animal forms in Oriental patterns--Symbolical
+  and conventional patterns--The wave patterns--The palm leaf--
+  The cone--Gothic--Arab--Moresque--The Sacred Hom--Egg and
+  tongue--The cross--Swastika--Fylfote--Gammadion--The
+  crenelated pattern--The Ninevite daisy--Emblematic
+  patterns--Bestiaria--Volucraria--Lapidaria--Byzantine
+  patterns--Gothic--Renaissance--The cloud pattern--The
+  fundata--Italian--French patterns--Radiated patterns--The
+  shell--Patterns by repetition--Balcony pattern--Chinese
+  wicker-work--Survival of a pattern--Opus
+  Alexandrinum--Quilting patterns                                   82
+
+  CHAPTER IV.--MATERIALS.
+
+  Raw materials--Revelations of the microscope--Hemp--Jute--
+  Honduras grass--Spartum--Pinna silk--Hair--Leather--
+  Feathers--Asbestos--Coral--Pearls--Beads--Wool--Classical
+  notices of wool--Careful improvement of wool by the
+  ancients--Tanaquil--Homeric woollen carpets--Crimson
+  textile fragments--Scandinavian woollen garments--Qualities
+  of wool--English wool--Goats' hair--Flax--Lake cities--
+  Byssus--Fine linen of Egypt--The Atrebates--Embroidery on
+  linen--Cotton--Indian origin--Carbasa--Buckram--Cotton
+  fabrics--Gold--Silver--Gold brocades--Jewish--Indian--
+  Chinese--Dress of Darius--Attalus--Attalic textiles--
+  Agrippina's golden garments--St. Cecilia's mantle--Roman
+  tombs--Gold wire--Anglo-Saxon tomb--Childeric's tomb--Proba's
+  gold thread--Golden wrappings from tombs of Henry I. and Henry
+  III.--Gold embroideries and jewellers' work of Middle
+  Ages--Spangles--Enamels--Purl--Modern schools of gold
+  embroidery--Silk--Pamphile of Cos--Early specimens of silk
+  stuffs--Chinese silks--The Seres--Mela--Seneca--M. Terrien
+  de la Couperie--Empress Si-ling-chi--Princess of
+  Khotan--Euripides--Lucan--Pliny--Silk in Rome--AElius
+  Lampridius--Flavius Vopiscus--Tailor's bill--Justinian's
+  codex--Imperial monopoly--Paul the Silentiary--Bede--King
+  John's apparition--Greek and Sicilian manufactories of
+  silk--Distinctive marks of different periods--Lyons--Spain--
+  Italy--Flemish towns--Marco Polo--Satin--Welsh poem, "Lady of
+  the Fountain"--Chaucer--Velvet--Transference of work to new
+  materials                                                        118
+
+  CHAPTER V.--COLOUR.
+
+  Harmony and dissonance--Names of tints--Authorities for
+  theories--Art of colouring--Expression of colouring--
+  Purple--Red--Crimson--Blue--Yellow--Pliny--Renouf--Chinese
+  colours--Indian dyes--Persian colours--Dyes of the
+  Gauls--Romans--Scotch--Scales of colour--MM. Charton and
+  Chevreul on tones of colour--Gas colours                         175
+
+  CHAPTER VI.--STITCHES.
+
+  Stitches--Part I.: The needle--Gammer Gurton's needle--Art
+  of needlework--Lists of stitches--Part II.: Plain work--
+  The seam--Mrs. Floyer--White embroidery--Nuns' work--
+  Greek--German--Spanish--Italian white work--Semper's
+  rules for white work--Part III.: Opus Phrygium--Gold
+  embroideries--Part IV.: Opus pulvinarium--Cushion stitches--
+  Mosaic stitches--Traditional decorations from Chaldea and
+  Assyria--German and Italian pattern-books--Part V.: Opus
+  plumarium--The Plumarii--Feather-work of India--Islands of
+  the Pacific--African work--Mexican and Peruvian--Cluny
+  triptych--Mitre of St. Charles Borromeo--Essay by
+  Denis--Chinese and Japanese feather-stitches--Part VI.:
+  Opus consutum or cut work--Patchwork--Egyptian and Greek
+  examples--Irish cut work--Chaucer--Francis I.'s hangings
+  at Cluny--Lord Beauchamp's curtains--Spanish examples--
+  Remarks--Art of application--Part VII.: Lace--Opus
+  filatorium--Mrs. Palliser--M. Blanc--Guipure--Sir Gardiner
+  Wilkinson--Netted lace--Homer--Solomon's Temple--Bobbin
+  laces--Yak--Coloured laces--Venetian sumptuary laws--Golden
+  laces--Point d'Alencon--Mr. A. Cole's lectures--M. Urbani
+  de Gheltof on Venice laces--Lace stitches--Revival of lace
+  school at Burano--English laces--Part VIII.: Tapestry--Opus
+  pectineum--Modes of weaving tapestry--Its great antiquity--
+  Egyptian looms--Albert Castel on tapestries--Homeric
+  picture-weaving--Arachne--A paraphrase by Lord Houghton--
+  Nomenticum--Sidonius Apollinaris--Saracenic weaving--Arras--
+  Brussels--Italian tapestries from Florence, Milan, and
+  Mantua--French tapestries--Cluny Museum collection--Gobelins--
+  Beauvais--English tapestry--Comnenus--Matthew Paris--Early
+  trade with Arras--Coventry tapestries--Chaucer--Tapestry
+  "of verd"--Hatfield tapestries--Armada tapestries--Sir F.
+  Crane--Mortlake manufactory--Francis Cleyne--Raphael
+  cartoons--Percy tapestry from Lambeth                            194
+
+  CHAPTER VII.--HANGINGS.
+
+  Classical hangings--Babylonian and Persian--Semper's
+  theory--Sanctuary in the wilderness--St. Peter's at
+  Rome--Abulfeda--Akbar's tent--Nadir Shah's tent--Tent
+  of Khan of Persia--Tents of Alexander the Great at
+  Alexandria--Roman hangings--Funeral pyres--Kosroes'
+  tent--Semper's rules for hanging decorations--Ancient
+  carpets--English and French hangings--Rules for designs
+  of hangings                                                      260
+
+  CHAPTER VIII.--FURNITURE.
+
+  Penelope's couch--Chaldean furnished house--The bed--Earl
+  of Leicester's inventories--State apartment of Alessandri
+  Palace--Indian embroideries for furniture--The sofa and
+  chair--The footstool--Furniture stitches--The table
+  cover--The screen--Book covers--Morris on furniture              280
+
+  CHAPTER IX.--DRESS.
+
+  Art of dress--Ancient splendour--Persian, Greek, and
+  Roman--Indian--Homeric--Early Christian--Charlemagne's
+  mantle and robe--Objects of dress--Embroidered garments          294
+
+  CHAPTER X.--ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERY.
+
+  Christian art--Dark ages--Greek and Roman ecclesiastical
+  dress--Northern influence--Continuity of ecclesiastical
+  art--Authorities--Anglo-Saxon orthodox colours--Veils of
+  the Temple--Hangings in Pagan temples and Christian
+  churches--Russian use of veils--Art in the early Church--
+  Rare examples--Destruction by the iconoclasts--Early
+  embroiderers--Empress Helena--Bertha, mother of
+  Charlemagne--His dalmatic--Pluvial of St. Silvester--Pluvial
+  of museum at Bologna--Daroca cope--Cope of Boniface VIII.--
+  Style of the twelfth century--Mantle of St. Stephen of
+  Hungary--Kunigunda's work for Henry II.--The Romanesque--
+  Movement perfecting Gothic art, thirteenth century--Opus
+  Anglicanum--Syon cope--Embroidery on the stamp--Pictures in
+  flat stitches--Flemish work--Renaissance--Work of some royal
+  ladies--French--Spanish--Sicilian and Neapolitan--German
+  work--Sacred symbolism--Melito's "The Key"--Mystical
+  colours--Prehistoric cross--Many forms of the cross--The
+  roes--The chrysoclavus--Modern decoration--Principles and
+  motives for church embroideries--The altar-cloth--The
+  reredos--The pulpit and reading-desk--The ancient
+  Paschal--The banner of St. Cuthbert--The fringe--Lay
+  heraldry of the Church--South Kensington Museum                  303
+
+  CHAPTER XI.--ENGLISH EMBROIDERY.
+
+  First glimpse of art in England--Dyeing and weaving in
+  Britain in early times--Caesar's invasion--Roman
+  civilization--Anglo-Saxon times and art--Adhelme's
+  poem--Icelandic Sagas--Saga or story of Thorgunna--English
+  work in the eighth century--The Benedictines--Durham
+  embroideries--Aelfled--St. Dunstan--Queen Emma's
+  work--William of Poitou--The Bayeux tapestry--Abbess of
+  Markgate--Gifts to Pope Adrian IV.--Robes of Thomas a
+  Becket at Sens--Innocent III.--English pre-eminence in
+  needlework from the Conquest to the Reformation--John
+  Garland on hand-looms--Blode-bendes and lacs d'amour--Opus
+  Anglicanum--English peculiarities in ecclesiastical
+  design--Penalties against luxury in dress--Protection the
+  bane of art--Dunstable pall--Stoneyhurst cope--Destruction
+  of fine works at the Reformation--Much on the Continent,
+  much collected in our old Catholic houses--Field of the
+  Cloth of Gold--Mary Tudor's Spanish stitches--Queen
+  Elizabeth's embroideries--Institution of Embroiderers'
+  Company--East India Company--Oriental taste discouraged on
+  Protectionist grounds--Decay of the art in England--Style
+  of James I.--Dutch style--Cushion stitches--Miss Linwood--
+  Miss Moritt--Mrs. Delany--Mrs. Pawsey--Postscript--Revival
+  of the art of needlework--"Royal School of Art Needlework"       356
+
+
+  APPENDIX
+
+     I. Charles T. Newton on Votive Dresses                        400
+
+    II. The Moritzburg Feather Hangings                            401
+
+   III. The Story of Arachne, translated by Earl Cowper            402
+
+    IV. Charlemagne's Dalmatic, by Lord Lindsay                    405
+
+     V. Notices of various Mediaeval Embroideries by the Hon.
+          and Rev. W. Ignatius Clifford                            407
+
+    VI. Syon Cope, Rock's Introduction, "Textile Fabrics"          408
+
+   VII. Assyrian Fringes                                           412
+
+  VIII. Hrothgar's House Furniture: Poem of Beowulf                412
+
+    IX. Thorgunna, by Sir G. Dasent                                413
+
+     X. Pedigree of Aelswith                                       414
+
+    XI. Statutes at Large                                          414
+
+
+
+
+LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
+
+
+CUTS.
+
+  Fig.|Page.|
+  ----+-----+
+   1  |  20 | Egyptian corselet. Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," p.
+      |     |   332.
+   2  |  25 | Tabernacle of Balawat. Temp. Shalmaneser. British
+      |     |   Museum.
+   3  |  30 | Zoomorphic Celtic pattern.
+   4  |  32 | Pallas Athene attired in the sacred peplos. Panathenaic
+      |     |   vase, British Museum.
+   5  |  62 | Wave pattern.
+   6  |  63 | Key pattern.
+   7  |  63 | Metopes and triglyphs.
+   8  |  73 | Persian carpet. Egyptian symbolic patterns.
+   9  |  91 | Gothic sunflower. R. S. A. N.
+  10  |  98 | Wave.
+  11  | 104 | Egyptian ally and enemy. Temp. Rameses II. Wilkinson's
+      |     |   "Ancient Egyptians," iii. p. 364.
+  12  | 105 | Assyrian crenelated pattern.
+  13  | 107 | Gothic type of trees, Bayeux tapestry.
+  14  | 111 | Radiated pattern.
+  15  | 111 | Radiated sunflower.
+  16  | 112 | Shell pattern.
+  17  | 112 | Balcony pattern.
+  18  | 115 | Varied adjustments of square and circle.
+  19  | 146 | Spangles.
+  20  | 195 | Needles.
+  21  | 208 | Feather patterns. Egyptian.
+  22  | 216 | Application. Egyptian. Auberville's "Tissus."
+  23  | 217 | Embroidered border on mantle. Crimea. "Compte Rendu."
+  24  | 281 | Babylonian or Chaldean house and furniture.
+  25  | 311 | Italian fifteenth-century pattern. Celtic type.
+  26  | 377 | Barbed quatrefoil.
+  27  | 380 | Holbein pattern. Sampler.
+  28  | 388 | Arms of Embroiderers' Guild; given by Queen Elizabeth.
+  29  | 393 | Portion of James II.'s coronation dress; from an old
+      |     |   print.
+
+
+PLATES.
+
+  Plate|Page.| Ref.|
+  -----+-----+-----|
+       |     |     | TITLE-PAGE. Penelope at her loom, reproached by her
+       |     |     |   son Telemachus. From vase found at Chiusi, in
+       |     |     |   Etruria. "Monum. d. Inst. Arch. Rom." ix. Pl. 42.
+     1 |  22 |  93 | ASSURBANIPAL (Sardanapalus). Sculptures from Nineveh.
+       |     |     |   British Museum.
+     2 |  22 |  93 | Portion of royal Babylonian mantle. From Layard's
+       |     |     |   "Monuments," Series i. pl. 9.
+     3 |  29 |     | ST. JOHN. From King Alfred's Celtic Book of the
+       |     |     |   Gospels. Lambeth Palace Library.
+     4 |  30 |     | A PAGE of the Book of St. Cuthbert, or Book of
+       |     |     |   Lindisfarne.
+     5 |  33 |     | SILVER BOWL from Palestrina. From Clermont Ganneau's
+       |     |     |   "Journal Asiatique, Syro-Egyptien-Phoenicien."
+     6 |  40 |  93 | EMPRESS THEODORA. Ravenna Mosaic.
+     7 |  42 |     | ITALIAN EMBROIDERY, fifteenth century. South
+       |     |     |   Kensington Museum.
+     8 |  43 |     | ITALIAN and SPANISH orphrey, sixteenth century.
+     9 |  45 |     | PLATERESQUE DESIGN. Spanish coverlet, green velvet
+       |     |     |   and gold, sixteenth century. Goa work.
+    10 |  87 |     | WAVE PATTERN. 1, 4, 9, 12, 13. Greek wave pattern.
+       |     |     |   2. Key or Maeander Greek wave. 3. Greek broken wave.
+       |     |     |   5, 6, 7. Egyptian smooth and rippling wave pattern.
+       |     |     |   8. Mediaeval wave. 10, 11, 14. Babylonian and
+       |     |     |   Chaldean. 15. Persian or Greek, from glass bowl,
+       |     |     |   British Museum. 16. English wave (or cloud). Durham
+       |     |     |   embroideries, tenth century.
+    11 |  88 |     | SIMPLE PATTERNS. 1. Persian. 2. Lotus border,
+       |     |     |   Egyptian.
+    12 |  90 |     | LOTUS BORDERS. 1. Indian. 2, 3. Egyptian. 4, 5, Greek.
+       |     |     |   6. Indian.
+    13 |  95 | 102 | INDIAN LOTUS. 1. With Assyrian daisy. 2. Lotus. 3. The
+       |     |     |   egg and tongue, or Vitruvian scroll from Vignola.
+       |     |     |   "Regole di Ordine di Architettura."
+    14 |  91 |     | SUNFLOWER PATTERN. R. S. A. N. Nineteenth century.
+    15 |  92 |     | PORTION OF A PAGE of the Book of Kells. Dublin
+       |     |     |   University Library.
+    16 |  93 | 114 | DEMETER. Greek fictile vase. British Museum.
+    17 |  93 | 217 | 1. GREEK EMBROIDERY, 300 B.C. From tomb of the Seven
+       |     |     |   Brothers, Crimea.
+       |     |     | 2. EGYPTIAN painted or embroidered linen. The cone,
+       |     |     |   bead, daisy, wave. Lotus-under-water patterns are
+       |     |     |   represented on this fragment.
+    18 |  93 |     | EGYPTIAN Tapestry weaving finished with the needle.
+       |     |     |   British Museum.
+    19 |  97 | 114 | EGYPTIAN key patterns. Wilkinson's "Ancient
+       |     |     |   Egyptians," p. 125.
+    20 |  99 | 101 | TREES OF LIFE. 1, 2, 3. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian silk.
+       |     |     |   5. Mediaeval. Birdwood's "Indian Arts."
+    21 | 101 |     | TREES OF LIFE. 1. Sculpture over gate of Mycenae.
+       |     |     |   2. Sicilian silks; Persian type.
+    22 | 101 |     | LOTUS MERGED INTO TREE OF LIFE. 1. Split Chinese
+       |     |     |   Lotus. 2. Split Persian Lotus, from a frieze by
+       |     |     |   Benozzo Gozzoli. Ricardi Palace, Florence. 3. Petal
+       |     |     |   of flower. Greek glass bowl from tomb in Southern
+       |     |     |   Italy.
+    23 | 101 |     | TREES OF LIFE. Sicilian silks. Auberville. 1, 2, 3,
+       |     |     |   4, 5, 10. Persian type. 6, 7, 8, 9, 11. Indian type.
+    24 | 101 |     | TREE OF LIFE transformed into vine. Modern pattern of
+       |     |     |   work from the Principalities.
+    25 | 103 |     | TYPICAL CROSSES. 1. Swastika fire-stick cross. 2.
+       |     |     |   From Greek vase, British Museum, 765 B.C. 3.
+       |     |     |   Sectarial mark of Sakti race. India. 4. Sectarial
+       |     |     |   mark of Buddhists and Jainis. 5. On early Rhodian
+       |     |     |   pottery. 6. Egyptian prehistoric cross. 7. Tau
+       |     |     |   cross. 8. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite.
+       |     |     |   9. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite. 10. Clavus,
+       |     |     |   "nail" or "button," or sun-cross. 11, 12, 13.
+       |     |     |   Scandinavian sun and moon crosses. 14, 15, 16.
+       |     |     |   Celtic. 17. Chrysoclavus. 18, 19. Stauracin
+       |     |     |   patterns. 20. Norwegian. 21. Runic. 22. Cross in
+       |     |     |   Temple of the Sun, Palenque. 23. Scotch Celtic
+       |     |     |   cross. 24. Cross at Iona. 25, 26. Runic and
+       |     |     |   Scandinavian crosses. 27. Cross diapered on
+       |     |     |   Charlemagne's dalmatic. 28. From mantle of Henry
+       |     |     |   II., Emperor of Germany.
+    26 | 103 |     | PREHISTORIC CROSSES. 1. Greek. Pallas, with plaited
+       |     |     |   tunic worked with Swastika. 2. Greek. Ajax playing
+       |     |     |   at dice with Achilles. Cloak embroidered with
+       |     |     |   Swastika and other prehistoric patterns. Fictile
+       |     |     |   vase, Vatican Museum.
+    27 | 105 |     | ASSYRIAN CARPET carved in stone, British Museum.
+    28 | 107 |     | GOTHIC. 1. Dress patterns from old MS. 2, 3. Old
+       |     |     |   English tiles.
+    29 | 109 |     | CLOUD PATTERNS. 1, 2, 3, 7. Japanese. 5, 8, 9.
+       |     |     |   Mediaeval. 4. Chinese. 6. Badge of Richard II.
+    30 | 109 |     | INDO-CHINESE COVERLET. Hatfield. Supposed to have
+       |     |     |   belonged to Oliver Cromwell.
+    31 | 109 |     | FUNDATA PATTERNS. 1. On Phoenician silver bowl.
+       |     |     |   ("L'Imagerie Phenicienne.") 2, 3. From tomb at
+       |     |     |   Essiout, Egypt. Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians,"
+       |     |     |   ii. p. 125. 1600 B.C.
+    32 | 124 |     | PART OF BORDER of silk, gold, and pearls. Worked by
+       |     |     |   Blanche, wife of Charles IV. of Bohemia. Bock's
+       |     |     |   "Lit. Gew." ii. p. 246.
+    33 | 147 |     | EMBROIDERED WINDOW HANGING from portrait of Mahomet
+       |     |     |   II., by Gentil Bellini; belonging to Sir Henry
+       |     |     |   Layard.
+    34 | 153 | 110 | CLASSICAL SILKS. 1. Greek. 2. Roman.
+    35 | 163 |     | DURHAM RELICS. Persian type of silk weaving.
+    36 | 164 |     | DURHAM RELICS. Norman and Persian types mixed.
+    37 | 164 |     | DURHAM RELICS. Graeco-Egyptian type.
+    38 | 164 |     | EGYPTIAN BOAT with embroidered and fringed sails,
+       |     |     |   and floating scarves. Wilkinson's "Ancient
+       |     |     |   Egyptians," iii. p. 211.
+    39 | 200 |     | WHITE EMBROIDERY from sculptured tomb of a knight,
+       |     |     |   fifteenth century. Ara Coeli, Rome.
+    40 | 201 |     | PROCESSIONAL CLOAK, Spanish work, temp. Henry VIII.,
+       |     |     |   belonging to Lord Arundel of Wardour.
+    41 | 204 |     | OPUS PULVINARIUM. Counted stitches. 1. Italian. 2.
+       |     |     |   Scandinavian. 3. Ancient Egyptian. Turin Museum.
+    42 | 206 |     | ITALIAN MOSAIC STITCH work, sixteenth century.
+       |     |     |   Alford House.
+    43 | 214 |     | JAPANESE OPUS PLUMARIUM. White silk.
+    44 | 216 |  25 | OPUS CONSUTUM. Funeral tent of an Egyptian queen.
+    45 | 219 | 123 | OPUS CONSUTUM. "Inlaid" and "onlaid." Italian,
+       |     |     |   seventeenth century.
+    46 | 235 |     | EGYPTIAN GOBELINS finished with the needle.
+    47 | 236 |     | RHEIMS CATHEDRAL TAPESTRY. The Virgin weaving and
+       |     |     |   embroidering on frame a "basse-lisse."
+    48 | 243 |     | TENT OF CHARLES THE BOLD, taken at Grandson, now in
+       |     |     |   museum at Berne. The badge is that of the Golden
+       |     |     |   Fleece.
+    49 | 252 |     | ENGLISH TAPESTRY belonging to Lord Salisbury, at
+       |     |     |   Hatfield House, temp. Henry VIII.
+    50 | 294 |     | ITALIAN KNIGHT of fifteenth century armed for
+       |     |     |   conquest. Gentile da Fabriano. Academia, Florence.
+    51 | 309 |     | ST. MARK. Anglo-Saxon Book of the Gospels. York
+       |     |     |   Minster Library.
+    52 | 312 |     | CLASSICAL PATTERN adapted into Christian art.
+    53 | 318 |     | CHARLEMAGNE'S DALMATIC. Vatican Treasury.
+    54 | 318 |     | CHARLEMAGNE'S DALMATIC. Vatican Treasury.
+    55 | 318 |     | PORTION OF CHARLEMAGNE'S DALMATIC. Half-size.
+    56 | 319 |     | ST. SILVESTER'S PLUVIAL. Treasury of St. John
+       |     |     |   Lateran, Rome. Opus Anglicanum, thirteenth
+       |     |     |   century.
+    57 | 319 |     | PORTION OF ST. SILVESTER'S PLUVIAL, showing its
+       |     |     |   condition.
+    58 | 319 |     | BOLOGNA COPE. Museo del Municipio. Opus Anglicanum.
+    59 | 319 |     | DAROCA COPE. Archaeological Museum at Madrid. Opus
+       |     |     |   Anglicanum.
+    60 | 319 |     | BONIFACE VIII.'S COPE from Anagni, his native place;
+       |     |     |   now in Vatican Treasury; twelfth century.
+    61 | 319 |     | ALTAR FRONTAL at Anagni, Italy. Italian work,
+       |     |     |   fourteenth century.
+    62 | 320 |     | WORCESTER RELICS of the tenth century. 1. From tomb
+       |     |     |   of Walter de Cantilupe. 2. From Aix, in Switzerland.
+       |     |     |   Same type.
+    63 | 320 |     | 1. MITRE OF THOMAS A BECKET. 2. The cross with twelve
+       |     |     |   leaves, "for the healing of the nations." Coronation
+       |     |     |   vestments at Rheims.
+    64 | 321 |     | ANGLO-SAXON WORK, purple and gold, from tomb of
+       |     |     |   William de Blois, Worcester. He died Bishop in 1236.
+    65 | 321 |     | A PORTION OF ST. STEPHEN OF HUNGARY'S MANTLE, worked
+       |     |     |   by his Queen Gisela. From Bock's "Kleinodien."
+    66 | 322 |     | PORTION OF MANTLE OF HENRY II., worked by his Empress
+       |     |     |   Kunigunda. From Bock's "Kleinodien."
+    67 | 325 |     | THE SYON COPE. South Kensington Museum.
+    68 | 329 |     | ITALIAN EMBROIDERIES designed by Pollaiolo; worked by
+       |     |     |   Paolo da Verona. Sixteenth century.
+    69 | 330 |     | SPANISH ALTAR FRONTAL. THE ARMS OF CASTILE embroidered
+       |     |     |   in gold with pearls. Ashridge. Plateresque style,
+       |     |     |   seventeenth century.
+    70 | 337 | 113 | CONSULAR IVORIES. Two diptychs. 1. Zurich,
+       |     |     |   Wasser-Kirche. Inscribed to Consul Areobindus,
+       |     |     |   A.D. 434. 2. At Halberstadt. No date. From Bock's
+       |     |     |   "Lit. Gew."
+    71 | 363 |     | AELFLED'S ORPHREY, signed by her. Durham Cathedral
+       |     |     |   Library.
+    72 | 363 |     | ST. GREGORY AND ST. JOHN (PROPHET), from Aelfled's
+       |     |     |   orphrey. Durham. English work, tenth century.
+    73 | 365 |     | ST. DUNSTAN in adoration, drawn by himself. Bodleian
+       |     |     |   Library, Oxford. Tenth century.
+    74 | 369 |     | SMALL PARSEME PATTERNS from Strutt's "Royal and
+       |     |     |   Ecclesiastical Antiquities of the English from
+       |     |     |   1100 to 1530."
+    75 | 369 |     | ENGLISH PATTERNS of embroidery. 1. Panel of a screen
+       |     |     |   in Hornby Church, Yorkshire. 2. Dress on a painted
+       |     |     |   window in St. Michael's Church, York. 3. Woven
+       |     |     |   material of the Towneley Copes.
+    76 | 375 |     | OPUS ANGLICANUM, twelfth century. British Museum.
+    77 | 376 |     | TYPICAL ENGLISH ORNAMENTS for ecclesiastical
+       |     |     |   embroideries, twelfth century.
+    78 | 377 |     | DUNSTABLE PALL. Temp. Henry VII.
+    79 | 378 |     | VINTNERS' COMPANY PALL. Henry VII.
+    80 | 378 |     | HENRY VII.'S COPE, from Stoneyhurst; designed by
+       |     |     |   Torrigiano, the sculptor of his tomb.
+    81 | 382 |     | SPANISH WORK. Temp. Henry VIII.
+    82 | 383 |     | ENGLISH "SPANISH WORK." Temp. Henry VIII.
+    83 | 389 |     | CUSHION COVER, Hatfield House. Temp. Elizabeth.
+    84 | 390 |     | ORIENTAL "TREE AND BEAST" PATTERN. Cockayne-Hatley.
+       |     |     |   Temp. James I.
+    85 | 391 |     | ENGLISH CREWEL WORK. Indian design. Temp. James I.
+
+
+
+
+NEEDLEWORK AS ART.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+The book of the Science of Art has yet to be written. Art has been
+called the Flower of Life, and also the Consoler;--adorning the
+existence of the strong and bright,--sheltering and comforting the sad
+and solitary ones of the earth. But, rather, it resembles a
+wide-spreading tree, covered with varied blossoms--bearing many
+fruits.
+
+To point out the history and the possibilities in the future of each
+branch that shades, refreshes, and gives wholesome fruit to the world,
+would be a task worthy of a master-hand and a pen of gold. But less
+ambitious labourers in the field of investigation which is only as yet
+partly cultivated, may each assist, by carefully collecting a little
+heap of ascertained facts; and it is, indeed, the duty of each as he
+passes to add his pebble to the slowly accumulating cairn of recorded
+human knowledge.
+
+Some one has said, "Build your house of little bricks of facts, and
+you will soon find it inhabited by a body of truth; and that truth
+will ally itself with other houses of facts, and in time a
+well-ordered, cosmical city will arise."
+
+My pebble is not yet polished. It is neither a diamond nor a ruby, but
+I think there are a few streaks of golden light in it, which I may
+venture to add to the daily accumulating treasure in the house of
+human artistic knowledge.
+
+My object in writing this volume is to fill up an empty space in the
+English library of art.
+
+The great exponents of poetic thought--verse, sculpture, painting, and
+architecture--have long since been well interpreted and appreciated.
+Men and women have written much and well on these large subjects, and
+we may hope for more ere long. The secondary or smaller arts have been
+hitherto neglected by us,--either treated merely as crafts, to which
+artistic education may give help, or as the natural or inferior
+outcome of the primal arts, having no claim to the possession of
+special laws and history. And yet, when Moses wrote and Homer sang,
+needlework was no new thing. It was already consecrated by legendary
+and traditionary custom to the highest uses. The gods themselves were
+honoured by its service, and it preceded written history in recording
+heroic deeds and national triumphs.
+
+It may be said that ivory carving is sculpture, and illuminated
+manuscripts and coloured glass windows are painting. But for metal
+work, whether in iron or gold, a place must be kept apart; and the
+same privileges are due to embroidery and to metallurgy. All arts must
+of necessity have their own laws and rules, which ensure their beauty
+of execution and their special forms of design; these two last, from
+the nature of their materials, and the modes of working them, must be
+studied independently of any connection with painting, architecture,
+or sculpture.
+
+Yet, if the unity of nature is an accepted fact,[3] then the
+acceptance of the unity of art must follow. Art must be considered as
+the selection of natural phenomena by individual minds capable of
+assimilating and reproducing them in certain forms and with certain
+materials adapted to the national taste, needs, and power of
+appreciation. If man cannot originate materials, he can invent
+combinations;--and this is Art.
+
+If proportion, colour, and sound alike depend on certain mathematical
+measurements, and on rhythmical vibrations, there must be a real and
+tangible relation between these elements, though applied to obtain
+different results. In music, as in all art, harmony is, or ought to
+be, a first consideration. We have seen by experiment how a note of
+our scale can by touch form geometrical figures with sand on a sheet
+of glass,--here form obeys the force of harmony. But what is harmony?
+
+By analogy we may argue from the art of music. We who believe that we
+have acquired the knowledge of music as a science, beyond all
+preceding knowledge of the subject, have in Europe been able to enjoy
+only our own musical scales; whereas throughout the East, those
+accepted by the human ear are very various, and appear to depart from
+what to our senses is harmony. Those Oriental musics have either been
+adapted to the Oriental ear, or the ear has been adapted to appreciate
+the forms and laws of harmony with which it came in contact.
+
+The same questions occur to us while examining into the different
+forms of decorative art; and we are constantly reminded that the laws
+which should govern them, are perhaps, infinitely larger and wider
+than we with our limited human capacities and experience, have
+hitherto been able to appreciate.
+
+"Ars longa--vita brevis" has been so often said, that from a proverb
+it has become a truism; but it must continue to be the refrain of
+those who write upon art. The subject is so long, and its
+ramifications are so intricate, that it is difficult to include them
+all under one category.
+
+My furthest aim here is to trace back the art of needlework to its
+beginning, without turning my eyes to the right or the left, though I
+cannot help feeling myself drawn aside almost irresistibly by casual
+glimpses of architecture, sculpture, and painting, which here and
+there touch very nearly the history of needlework.
+
+Except where they visibly influence each other, I avoid dealing with
+the greater arts, leaving them to the study of the learned in each
+special branch.
+
+All art, however, throws reflected lights, and gleaning in the track
+of those authors who have preceded us, we often pick up valuable hints
+which we accept, and make use of them gladly.
+
+Some writers have thought it incumbent on them to give a local
+habitation and an abiding place to needlework, and they have regarded
+it as a branch of painting. But I cannot endorse this classification.
+According to Semper, indeed, it is the mother-art of sculpture and
+painting, instead of being the offspring of either or both, as others
+have maintained.[4] They have, indeed, such distinct functions that
+each may justly boast its own original sources. Painting is the art of
+colour; sculpture is that of form; embroidery is the art of clothing
+forms. They are all so ancient, that in seeking to ascertain their
+beginnings and dates. It is difficult to fix the precedence of one
+over another. We may compare, distinguish, and yet again change our
+opinions as fresh facts come under our observation.
+
+The art of needlework reached its climax long ago, and is now very
+old. History and faded rags are the only witnesses to its fabulous
+glories, in Classical, Oriental, and early Mediaeval days. It would
+appear that nothing new remains to be invented. Copies of past styles,
+and selections from the scraps we retain and value as models, are all
+that we can boast of now.
+
+Dr. Rock truly says that few persons of the present day have the
+faintest idea of the labour, the money, the time, often bestowed of
+old upon embroideries which had been designed as well as wrought by
+the hands of men and women, each in their own craft the best and
+ablest of their day.
+
+Time is too short, our life too densely crowded, to allow leisure for
+the extravagance of what is, after all, only a luxury of art--no
+longer a civilizer, as of old, but just an efflorescence of our
+culture.
+
+Embroidery is now essentially "decoration," and nothing more. It is
+intended to appeal to the sense of beauty of the eye, rather than to
+the imagination. The designer for needlework should be an artist, but
+he need not be a poet. You may omit this art altogether, and you need
+be none the less sumptuously clothed and lodged. Yet it is worthy of
+careful study as historical evidence, and that in the present and
+future, as in the past, it may be an _art_, and not merely a _craft_.
+
+For the great web of history is composed of many threads of divers
+colours, and the warp and the woof are often exchanged, yet so
+connected and knotted together that the continuity is never broken. On
+this web, Time has drawn the picture of the past--sometimes faintly,
+sometimes with indelible tints and pronounced forms. By poetry; by
+architecture and its decorations; by dress, which represents and
+distinguishes nationalities; by customs, such as the different forms
+of burial; or even by such details as painting the eyes; also by the
+tradition and outcome of the laws of the tribes that flowed
+consecutively over Europe from the East; by the institutions which
+remained immutably fixed on their native soil, such as those of the
+Code of Manu, and those of Babylon, inscribed on bricks or clay; or by
+the words, their form and lettering, in which these are handed down to
+us;--out of all these the history of man is being reconstructed.
+
+How valuable is every witness to the ancient records, which were
+fading into myths in the memories of men. How joyfully is each little
+fact hailed as a landmark, in the general fog of doubt!
+
+Now embroidery may boast that it is a source of landmarks for all
+time.
+
+Without presuming to fix a date for its first beginning, that which I
+wish to impress on the mind of the reader is the long continuity of
+the art of needlework.
+
+The sense of antiquity induces reverence, and I claim for the needle
+an older and more illustrious age than can be accorded to the brush.
+While the great pendulum of Time has swung art in sculpture, painting,
+and architecture, from its cradle as in Mycenae, to its throne in
+Athens in the days of Pericles, and then back again to the basest
+poverty of decaying Rome--needle work, continually refreshed from
+Eastern inspiration, never has fallen so low, though it had never
+aspired as high as its greater sister arts.
+
+The stuffs and fabrics of various materials of the Egyptians, Chinese,
+Assyrians, and Chaldeans are named in the earliest records of the
+human race. How much these decorations depended on weaving, and how
+much on embroidery with the needle, may in each case be disputed. The
+products of the Babylonian looms are alluded to in the Book of Joshua.
+Their beauty tempted Achan to rescue them when Jericho fell;[5] and
+Ezekiel speaks of the embroideries of Canneh, Haran, and Eden, as well
+as of their cloths of purple and blue, and their chests of garments of
+divers colours[6].
+
+All these fabrics are named as merchandise, and were carried to the
+sea-coast, and thence over the ancient world, by the Phoenicians,
+the great shipowners and dealers of the East.
+
+Indian needlework and design is 4000 years old; and the long
+perspective of Egyptian art, while leading us still further back into
+unlimited periods, shows it changing so slowly, that we feel as if it
+had been all but stationary from the beginning.
+
+The Chinese claim 5000 years as the life of their history; but if, as
+is now suggested, their civilization is Accadian or Proto-Babylonian,
+their wonderful artistic and scientific knowledge may have been
+fragments of the great dispersal, secreted and preserved behind the
+wonderful wall[7] of stone, silence, and law, where it has lain
+fossilized ever since. One cannot but wonder at the perfection of the
+textile manufactures of the Chinese, their marvellous embroideries,
+and the peculiar modes of construction and design throughout their
+arts, which have shown but few moments of change in growth--scarcely a
+sign of evolution. And we may fairly surmise that this Accadian
+culture (if such it be) is reflected from antediluvian tradition.
+
+The archaeology of Oriental art is most interesting. We contemplate
+with awe the vast splendours of the consecutive civilizations of the
+East; the ancient richness and fertility of the whole of the Asiatic
+continent; the genius for empire and for commerce; the creative power
+which seemed to pour itself forth, unchecked by wars and conquests;
+the great dynasties which rose and fell, leaving behind them gigantic
+works, and the records of fabulous luxury in the empires of China,
+Assyria, India, and Persia, of which the remains have been of late
+years excavated, deciphered, and confronted with the historical texts
+which we have inherited, and had only partly believed. And studying
+these new aspects of history, we are saddened, thinking that the
+sunrise comes to us from shining over desert sands or the mounds of
+empty cities, where the lion and the jackal "reassert their primeval
+possession," or where the European and the Tartar, from the West and
+from the East, dispute their rights to suzerainty. We are dazzled and
+confused when we look back to those great days when the over-peopled
+kingdoms sent forth whole tribes, eastward to the confines of Asia,
+southward over India, and westward over Europe; and we bow reverently
+before the mighty Power that led the Jews, by a promise and a hope,
+across the seething nationalities, through the long passage of time
+from Abraham to Solomon; and which is again giving into the hands of
+those Oriental-looking men, so much power in shaping the destiny of
+mankind through their great riches.
+
+Moses commanded the Hebrew people to lend and never to borrow. They
+have obeyed his precept, except in art; to that they have lent or
+given nothing. There is no national Jewish art. For music only do they
+show artistic genius, and that is European and not Oriental. As
+illustrating their lack of intuitive decorative art, one need only
+refer to the architecture of the first, second, and third Temple
+buildings, which apparently reflected Babylonian and Semitic
+influences on an early Chaldean type. The embroideries mentioned by
+different writers, from Moses to Josephus, appear to have had always a
+Babylonian, or later a Persian inspiration.
+
+This absence of artistic genius is very remarkable in a people that
+had its origin in the Eastern centre from whence all art has radiated.
+
+The reason that so little survives of ancient embroidery is evident.
+Woollen stuffs and threads decay quickly--the moth and rust do corrupt
+them--and the very few ancient bits that remain, have been preserved
+by the embalming process, which has kept the contents of tombs from
+becoming dust.
+
+As to more modern embroideries, we ought to be thankful that the art
+has had its fashions; otherwise, the world would be overwhelmed with
+shabby rags. Human nature has a tendency to dislike the
+"old-fashioned"--i.e. the fashion of the last generation. That which
+our mothers worked or wore, is an object for affectionate sentiment,
+and the best specimens alone are preserved. That which belonged to our
+grandfathers and grandmothers has receded into the rococo; and a few
+more generations take us back to the antique, of which so little
+survives, from wear and tear, carelessness and theft, that we put away
+and preserve it as being curious and precious. We may hope that the
+general law of the survival of the fittest has guarded what is most
+remarkable.
+
+Certain works have been consecrated by the hands that executed them,
+or by that of the donor, or by the purpose for which they were
+bestowed, and are mostly preserved in churches or national museums. Of
+these there are vestments and altar decorations worked by royal and
+noble ladies; and coronation garments given by Queens and Empresses,
+such as Queen Gisela's and the Empress Kunigunda's at Prague and
+Bamberg, and Charlemagne's dalmatic at the Vatican, described in the
+chapter on ecclesiastical embroideries. Sculptured effigies help us as
+to embroidered patterns; for our forefathers often actually copied in
+bronze or stone the patterns of the garments in which the body was
+buried, or at any rate, those the man had worn in his life. Of these,
+King John's monument at Worcester, and the surcoat of the Black Prince
+at Canterbury, are remarkable examples.[8]
+
+The succeeding chapters will contain sketches of the history of the
+different stitches, and of the best examples of stitch and style
+remaining to us; and I shall try to extract from both the best
+suggestions for guidance in design and handicraft.
+
+Embroidery from its nature is essentially the woman's art.[9] It needs
+a sedentary life, industry and patience. It does not require a room to
+itself, and the worker may leave it at any moment between two stitches
+when called to other duties. Nunneries produced the finest work of the
+dark and middle ages; and their teaching inaugurated the workrooms in
+the palaces and castles, where young girls, whether royal, noble, or
+gentle, were trained in embroidery as an accomplishment and a
+household duty.
+
+The history of domestic embroidery ought to be looked upon as that of
+an important factor in the humanizing effect of aesthetic culture.
+
+The woman of the house has always been strong to fulfil her part in
+this civilizing influence with the implement which custom has awarded
+to her. Every man in the ancient East began his life under the tent or
+in the palace adorned by the hands of his mother and her maidens, and
+his home was made beautiful by his wife and his sisters and their
+slaves. There, as in mediaeval homes, lessons of morality and religion,
+and the love and fame of noble deeds, were taught by the painting of
+the needle to the minds of the young men, who would have scorned more
+direct teaching; and the children felt the influence, as the women
+wove what the bards sang.
+
+Alas! we have but few specimens of embroideries of which we know the
+history, earlier than the tenth and eleventh centuries.[10] Yet from
+the days of the books of the Old Testament and the song of the siege
+of Troy, down to the present time, the woman of the house has adorned
+not only herself and her dear lord, but she has hung the walls, the
+seats, the bed, and the tables with her beautiful creations.
+
+Homer's women were all artists with the needle. Venus seeking Helen,--
+
+    "Like fair Laodice in form and face,
+    The loveliest nymph of Priam's royal race,
+    Here in the palace at her loom she found:
+    The golden web her own sad story crown'd.
+    The Trojan wars she weaved (herself the prize),
+    And the dire triumph of her fatal eyes."[11]
+
+This must have been intended for hangings.
+
+Hecuba's wardrobe is thus described:--
+
+    "The Phrygian queen to her rich wardrobe went,
+    Where treasured odours breathed a costly scent;
+    There lay the vestures of no vulgar art,
+    Sidonian maids embroider'd every part.
+    Here, as the queen revolved with careful eyes
+    The various textures and the various dyes
+    She chose a web that shone superior far,
+    And glow'd refulgent as the morning star."[12]
+
+The women of the Middle Ages were great at the loom and frame. From
+the Kleine Heldenbuch of the thirteenth century, Rock quotes these
+lines:--
+
+    "Who taught me to embroider in a frame with silk,
+    And to sketch and design the wild and tame
+    Beasts of the forest and field?
+    Also to picture on plain surfaces;
+    Round about to place golden borders--
+    narrow and a broad one--
+    With stags and hinds, lifelike."
+
+Gudrun, like the women of Homer, embroidered history--that of the
+ancestors of Siegfried.
+
+But in the Middle Ages the embroiderers were ambitious artists. The
+deeds of Roland and the siege of Troy, all romantic and classical
+lore, provided subjects for the needle.
+
+Shakespeare gives a pretty picture of the graceful weaver and
+embroiderer:--
+
+    * * * "Would ever with Marina be:--
+    Be't when she weaves the sleided silk,
+    With fingers long, small, white as milk;
+    Or when she would with sharp neeld wound
+    The cambric, which she makes more sound
+    By hurting it....
+    Deep clerks she dumbs; and with her neeld composes
+    Nature's own shape, of bud, bird, branch, or berry,
+    That even her art sisters the natural roses."[13]
+
+Before closing this Introduction, I will take the opportunity to
+protest against the abuse of the phrase "High Art." It is generally
+appropriated by that which is the lowest and most feeble.
+
+An old design for a chair or table, by no means remarkable originally,
+but cheaply copied, and covered with a quaint and dismal cretonne or
+poorly worked pattern, of which the design is neither new nor
+artistic, is introduced by the upholsterer as belonging to "High Art
+furniture." The epithet has succeeded to what was once "fashionable"
+and "elegant." To get rid of carpets, and put down rugs, to hang up
+rows of plates instead of family portraits--this also is "high art."
+Likewise gowns lumped upon the shoulders, with all the folds drawn
+across, instead of hanging draperies. The term is never used when we
+speak of the great arts--painting, sculpture, and architecture. It is,
+in fact, only the slang of the cabinet-maker, the upholsterer, and
+milliner.
+
+All true Art is very high indeed and apparent; and needs not to be
+introduced with a puff. It sits enthroned between Poetry and History.
+Even those who are ignorant of its laws feel its influence, and the
+soothing grace which it sheds, falling like the rain, equally upon the
+just and the unjust. Man's nature always responds to the truly high
+and beautiful; only the most degraded are deprived of this source of
+happiness. And there are but few women, till debased by cruelty,
+misery, or drink, that do not try in some humble way (but especially
+with their needle) to adorn their own persons, their children, and
+their homes; and if their art is not high, it yet has the power to
+elevate them.[14] While the most ambitious women try a higher flight,
+into the regions of poetry, literature, painting, and even sculpture
+(why has no woman ever been an architect?), millions have enjoyed the
+art of the needle for thousands of years, and it will continue to be a
+solace and a delight as long as the world lasts, for, like all art, it
+gives the ever new joy of creation.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [3] See Duke of Argyll's "Unity of Nature."
+
+    [4] Walls, pillars, and roofs were certainly hung with
+    textile ornament before they were carved or painted.
+    This is Semper's theory, and though Woltmann and
+    Woermann ("History of Painting," Eng. Trans., Sidney
+    Colvin, p. 38) hardly accept this view, they do not
+    gainsay it. The women who wove hangings for the grove,
+    or more literally, "coverings for the houses" of the
+    grove, were probably the priestesses of Astarte, and
+    wove and worked the hangings of various colours. 2 Kings
+    xxii.; Ezek. xvi. 16-18.
+
+    "It is probable that the earliest kind of pictures were
+    either woven or embroidered upon figured stuffs of
+    various colours; and that in these decorations the
+    Greeks in the first instance imitated the Semitic races,
+    who had practised them from time immemorial." See
+    Woltmann and Woermann's "History of Painting" (Eng.
+    Trans.), p. 38.
+
+    [5] Joshua vii.
+
+    [6] Ezek. xxvii. 23.
+
+    [7] The wall of China, which, both figuratively and
+    literally, enclosed its civilization, and fenced off
+    that of the outer world, for thousands of years.
+
+    [8] When the tomb of King John was opened, the body was
+    found wrapped in the same dress as that sculptured on
+    his effigy. The surcoat of the Black Prince, of
+    embroidered velvet, still hangs above his monument, on
+    which it is exactly reproduced.
+
+    [9] Yet men, too, have wielded the embroidering needle.
+
+    [10] These remnants are not, like the straws in amber,
+    only precious because they are curious; they are most
+    suggestive as works of art.
+
+    [11] Pope's Homer, Iliad, book iii.
+
+    [12] Ibid. book vi.
+
+    [13] Shakespeare, "Pericles, Prince of Tyre," act iv.
+    20; v. 5.
+
+    [14] Surely it is a humanizing and Christian principle
+    which in Italy permits artistic work to be done in the
+    prisons where criminals are confined for life. Sisters
+    of Mercy teach lace-making to the wretched women who,
+    having committed great crimes, may never be seen again.
+    The produce of the work helps to pay the expense of the
+    prison, and at the same time a very small percentage is
+    given to the prisoners to send to their friends, or to
+    spend on little comforts, thus encouraging the poor
+    human creatures to exercise their best powers. We
+    believe this is sometimes allowed also in England and
+    France.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+STYLE.
+
+
+In venturing to approach so great a subject as the history of style, I
+would beg my readers to believe how well I am aware that on each point
+much more has been already carefully treated by previous writers, than
+will fall within the limits of a chapter that is intended only to
+throw light on textile art, and especially on embroidery.
+
+I suppose it is the same in all subjects of human speculation which
+are worthy of serious study; and therefore I ought not to have been
+surprised to find how much has already been written on needlework and
+embroidery, and how unconsciously I, at least, have passed by and
+ignored these notices, till it struck me that I ought to know
+something of the history and principles of the art which with others,
+I was striving to revive and improve.
+
+Then new and old facts crowded round me, and became significant and
+interesting. I longed to know something of the first worker and the
+first needle; and behold the needle has been found!--among the debris
+of the life of the Neolithic cave-man, made of bone and very neatly
+fashioned.
+
+Alas! the workwoman and her work are gone to dust; but _there_ is the
+needle!--proof positive that the craft existed before the last glacial
+period in Britain.[15] How long ago this was, we may conjecture, but
+can never finally ascertain. Then I find embroidery named by the
+earliest historians, by every poet of antiquity, and by the first
+travellers in the East; and it has been the subject of laws and
+enactments from the date of the Code of Manu in India, to the present
+century. One becomes eager to systematize all this information, and to
+share with the workers and thinkers of the craft, the pleasure found
+in its study.
+
+Perhaps what is here collected may appear somewhat bald and
+disjointed; but antiquity, both human and historical, is apt to be
+bald; and its dislocation and disjointed condition are owing to the
+frequent cataclysms, physical, political, and social, which needlework
+has survived, bringing down to us the same stitches which served the
+same purposes for decoration under the Code of Manu, and adorned the
+Sanctuary in the wilderness; and those stitches probably were not new
+then.
+
+I propose to give a slight sketch of the origin of the styles[16] that
+have followed each other, noting the national influences that have
+displaced or altered them, and the overlap of style caused by outside
+events.
+
+First, I would define what "STYLE" means.
+
+Style is the mark impressed on art by a national period, short or
+long. It fades, it wanes, and then some historical element enters on
+the scene, which carries with it new materials, needs, and tastes
+(either imported or springing up under the new conditions). The style
+of the day in art and literature alters so perceptibly, that all who
+have had any artistic training are at once aware of the difference.
+
+Of late years, the science of history has been greatly assisted by the
+science of language. When the mute language of art shall have been
+patiently deciphered, the historian will be furnished with new powers
+in his researches after truth.
+
+The first "ineffaceable" is a _word_; the second a _pattern_. This is
+proved by the history of needlework.
+
+As the world grows old, its youth becomes more interesting. Alas! the
+childhood of mankind is so distant, and it was so long before it
+learned its letters, that but few facts have come down to us, on which
+we may firmly build our theories; yet we must acknowledge the great
+stride that has been made in the last few years, in the scientific
+mode of extracting history from the ruins and tombs, and even the
+dust-heaps, of the past. Whole epochs, which fifty years ago were as
+blank as the then maps of Central Africa, are being now gradually
+covered with landmarks.
+
+Layard, Rawlinson, C. T. Newton, Botta, Rassam, Schliemann, Birch, G.
+Smith, and a crowd of archaeologists, and even unscientific explorers,
+are collecting the materials from which the history of mankind is
+being reconstructed.
+
+From them I have sought information about the art of embroidery, and I
+find that Semper gives it a high pre-eminence as to its antiquity,
+making it the foundation and starting-point of all art. He clothes not
+only man, but architecture, with the products of the loom and the
+needle; and derives from them in succession, painting, bas-relief, and
+sculpture.[17]
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Style has to be considered in two different aspects, from two
+different standpoints. First, historically and archaeologically,
+distinguishing and dating the forms which follow upon each other; and
+tracing them back in the order of their natural sequence; so as to
+guide us to the root, nay, to the seed[18] of each and all art.
+
+The subsidiary art of embroidery, in its highest form the handmaid of
+architecture, is full of suggestion, and may assist us greatly in the
+search which culminates in the text of "In the beginning."
+
+The other point of view from which style should be considered is the
+aesthetic. This enables us to criticize the works of different periods;
+extracting, as far as we may, rules for the beautiful and the
+commendable, and seeking to find the "why?" also observing the
+operation of the law by which decay follows too soon after the best
+and highest efforts of genius, thought, and invention in art.
+
+My present object is the history of consecutive styles, in so far as
+they concern needlework.
+
+Alas! nothing endures. This law is acknowledged by Goethe, when he
+makes Jove answer Venus, who bewailed that all that is beautiful must
+die,--that he had only bestowed beauty on the evanescent.
+
+It seems as if the moment the best is attained, men, ceasing to
+struggle for the better, fall back at once hopelessly and become mere
+imitators. They no longer follow a type, but copy a model, and then
+copy the copy. Imitation is a precipice, a swift descent through
+poverty of thought into the chaos of mannerism, in the place of style.
+
+The imitative tendency, as existing in all human minds, cannot be
+ignored or despised. In individuals it accompanies enthusiasm for the
+beautiful, and the graceful charm of sympathy. It maintains continuity
+between specimen and specimen, between artist and artist, between
+century and century; and it is this which enables an adept to say with
+certainty of consecutive styles, "This is Spanish work of the
+sixteenth century; that is Flemish or German work of the seventeenth
+century."
+
+The theory of development and of the survival of the fittest has been
+worked so hard, that it sometimes breaks down under the task imposed
+upon it. It would need to include Death in its procedure. In our
+creed, Death, means the moment of entrance into a higher existence;
+but in art it means extinction, leaving behind neither a history nor
+an artisan--only, perhaps, an infinitely small tradition, like the
+grain of corn preserved in the wrappings of a mummy, from which at
+first accident, and then care and culture, may evoke a future life.
+
+The various ways in which art has appeared at the beginning cannot
+here be discussed; nor how the Chinese and Hindu may have leapt into a
+perfection which has stood still for thousands of years, protected
+alike from expansion as from destruction, by the swaddling bands of
+codified custom; while Greek art rose like the sun, shone over the
+civilized world, and set--never again to see another epoch of glory.
+These subjects must be left for the study of the anthropological
+philosopher, who is working for the assistance and guidance of the
+future historian of art.
+
+Style in needlework has passed through many phases since the
+aboriginal, prehistoric woman, with the bone needle, drew together the
+edges of the skins of the animals she had prepared for food.
+
+For absolute necessity, in forming the garments and covering the tent,
+needlework need go no further than the seam. This, however, in the
+woven or plaited material, must fray where it is shaped, and become
+fringed at the edges. Every long seam is a suggestion, and every
+shaped edge a snare.
+
+The fringe lends itself to the tassel, and the shaped seam suggests a
+pattern; up-stitches are needed for binding the web, and before she is
+aware of it, the worker finds herself adorning, _embroidering_; and
+the craft enters the outskirts of the region of art.
+
+The humble early efforts at decoration, called by the French
+"primitif," are the first we know and class, and are found in all
+savage attempts at ornament. This style consists mainly of straight
+lines, zigzags, wavy lines, dots, and little discs.[19]
+
+Gold discs of many sizes, and worked with a variety of patterns, are
+found equally in the tomb of the warrior at Mycenae, and in Ashantee,
+accompanied in both cases with gold masks covering the faces of the
+dead. The discs or buttons remind us of those found in Etruscan tombs,
+though the execution of these last is more advanced. They appear to be
+the origin of the "clavus" or nail-headed pattern woven into silks in
+the Palace of the Caesars. The last recorded survival of this pattern
+is in woven materials for ecclesiastical purposes in the Middle Ages.
+
+Of very early needlework we only find here and there a fragment,
+illustrated occasionally by passing allusions in poetry and history.
+
+The ornamental art of Hissarlik[20] is so primitive that we cannot
+feel that it has any resemblance to that described as Trojan by Homer,
+who probably adorned his song with the art he had known elsewhere.[21]
+
+We know not what the actual heroes of the Iliad and Odyssey wore; but
+we do know that what Homer describes, he must have seen. Was Homer,
+therefore, the contemporary of the siege of Troy?--or does he not
+rather speak of the customs and costumes of his own time, and apply
+them to the traditions of the heroic ages of Greece? Whatever be the
+date of Homer himself, we can, with the help of contemporary
+survivals, reconstruct the house and the hall, and even furnish them,
+and clothe the women and the princes, the beggars and the herdsmen.
+
+From the remains of Egyptian, Babylonian, and Assyrian art we can
+perceive their differences and their affinities. It is from textile
+fragments, found mostly in tombs, that we obtain dates, and can
+suggest them for other specimens.
+
+The funeral tent of Shishak's mother-in-law, at Boulac, is most
+valuable as showing what was the textile art of that early period.[22]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 1.
+    Egyptian corselet. (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians.")]
+
+The corselet which, according to Herodotus, was given by Amasis, King
+of Egypt, to the Temple of Minerva at Lindos, in Rhodes, was possibly
+worked in this style; for Babylonian embroidery was greatly prized in
+Egypt, and imitated.
+
+The second corselet given by Amasis to the Lacaedemonians was worked in
+gold and colours, with animals and other decorations. This was of the
+seventh century B.C.[23]
+
+Amongst the arms painted on the wall of the tomb of Rameses, at Thebes
+(in Egypt), is a corselet, apparently of rich stuff,[24] embroidered
+with lions and other devices. (Fig. 1.)
+
+The Phoenicians imbibed and reproduced the styles they met with in
+their voyages. The bowls found in Cyprus described and engraved in the
+September number of the "Magazine of Art" (1883), are most interesting
+illustrations of the meeting of two national styles, the Assyrian and
+the Egyptian.[25]
+
+Homer's "Shield of Achilles"[26] must, in general design, have
+resembled these bowls (see Pl. 5). They also recall the description by
+Josephus of the Temple veils at Jerusalem, which were Babylonian.[27]
+
+Phoenicia, which was the carrier of all art, dropped specimens here
+and there, for many hundred years, along the borders of the
+Mediterranean and the coasts of Spain. We fancy we can trace her
+ocean-path by the western shores of Africa, and even to America;
+otherwise, how could it happen that a mummy-wrapping in Peru should so
+nearly resemble some of those wrappings found at Saccarah,[28] in
+Egypt, woven in precisely the same tapestry fashion?
+
+Among the puzzling phenomena due probably to Phoenician commerce, is
+the complete suite of the sacerdotal ornaments of a High Priest, found
+in his tomb,[29] now in the Vatican Museum. This reminds us of other
+specimens of archaic art from distant sources, that our attention is
+forcibly arrested, and we wonder whence they came, and whether they
+were collected from alien civilizations by the Phoenicians before
+they dispersed them.[30]
+
+Certain Egyptian sculptures of deformed and repulsive
+divinities--idols of the baser sort--are most interesting and puzzling
+by their affinity in style to the Indo-Dravidian and the art of
+Mexico, while they are entirely unlike that of Egypt. If Atlantis and
+its arts never existed, it may be suggested that it was the eastern
+coast of America that was spoken of under that name by the Egyptian
+priest with whom Herodotus conversed.
+
+The Babylonian and Ninevite embroideries, carefully executed on their
+bas-reliefs, have a masculine look, which suggests the design of an
+artist and the work of slaves. There is no following out of graceful
+fancies; one set of selected forms (each probably with a symbolical
+intention) following another. The effect, as seen on the sculptures in
+the British Museum, is royally gorgeous; and one feels that creatures
+inferior to monarchs or satraps could never have aspired to such
+splendours. Probably the embroidery on their corselets was executed in
+gold wire, treated as thread, and taken through the material; and the
+same system was carried out in adorning the trappings of the horses
+and the chariots. The solid masses of embroidery may have been
+afterwards subjected to the action of the hammer, which would account
+for their appearing like jeweller's work in the bas-reliefs (Pl. 1 and
+2).
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 1.
+    Assurbanipal fighting lions.
+    British Museum.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 2.
+    Portion of a Babylonian Royal Mantle. Layard's "Monuments," series
+        i., pl. 9.]
+
+The style of the Babylonian embroideries appears to have been
+naturalistic though conventionalized. We may judge of their styles for
+different purposes by the reliefs in the British Museum. From their
+veils and curtains at a later date, when they had crossed their
+art with that of India, we may imagine the mystical design of the
+Temple curtain as described by Josephus; in fact, as much as possible
+embracing all things on the earth and above it, excepting the images
+of the heavenly bodies.[31]
+
+Small carpets from Persia of the Middle Ages, as well as those woven
+and embroidered even to the present day, are echoes of the ancient
+Babylonian style, and most interesting as historical records of the
+traditions of human taste. Our artistic interests are stirred when we
+read in Ezekiel lists of the fabrics and materials of which Tyre had
+become the central depot, and we enjoy tracing them to the various
+looms, named in verse and history, where they were adorned with
+embroidery, and then either became articles of commerce, or were
+stored away to be kept religiously as heirlooms, or presented as gifts
+to the temples or to honoured guests.
+
+Mr. G. Smith, after saying that the Babylonian is without doubt the
+oldest of civilizations, continues thus:--"To us the history of
+Babylonia has an interest beyond that of Egypt, on account of its more
+intimate connection with our own civilization.[32] Babylon was the
+centre from which it spread into Assyria, thence to Asia Minor and
+Phoenicia, then to Greece and Rome, and so to all Europe. The Jews
+brought the traditions of the creation and of early religion from Ur
+of the Chaldees,[33] and thus preserved they became the heritage of
+all mankind; while the science and civilization of that wonderful
+people (the Babylonians) became the basis of modern research and
+advancement."[34]
+
+The hangings of the Tabernacle are so carefully described in the book
+of Exodus, that we can see in fancy the linen curtains, blue or white,
+embroidered in scarlet, purple, blue, and gold; the cherubim in the
+woven material; the fringes enriched with flowers, buds, fruit, and
+golden bells: and we can appreciate how little of Egyptian art and
+style the children of Israel brought back from their long captivity,
+and how soon they reverted to their ancient Chaldean proclivities,
+after returning to their wandering life of the tent.
+
+On the bronze gates from the mound of Balawat, near Nimroud, set up by
+Shalmaneser to celebrate his conquest of Tyre and Sidon,[35] we find a
+portable tabernacle, evidently meant to accompany the army on a march.
+It is not much larger than a four-post bed, with transverse poles for
+drawing the curtains, all fringed with bells and fruit. This is an
+illustration of the motive for the Tabernacle of the forty years'
+wandering in the desert. (Fig. 2.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 2.
+    Tabernacle on gates of Balawat, time of Shalmaneser II. (British
+        Museum).]
+
+Egyptian textile art is, perhaps, that of which we have the most early
+specimens. These are to be seen at Boulac, at Vienna, Turin, and the
+British Museum.[36] The Hieroglyphic, the Archaic, and the
+Graeco-Egyptian are all unmistakably the consecutive outcome of the
+national original style, which had totally disappeared in the
+beginning of our era. Few of the embroideries are more than two
+thousand five hundred years old. But the great piece of patchwork in
+leather, "the funeral tent of an Egyptian queen," as it covered the
+remains of a contemporary of Solomon,[37] absolutely exhibits the
+proficiency of the designer and the needlework of the eleventh century
+B.C. (Pl. 44.)
+
+The connection between Indian and Egyptian early art appears to have
+existed only in their use of the lotus as an emblem and a constant
+decoration; but their manner of employing it was characteristically
+different. (Pl. 12 and 13.)
+
+The Phoenicians carried with them the seeds of the Egyptian style
+over the ancient world; but these seeds only took root and flourished
+on the soil of Greece. The imitations of Egyptian style reappeared in
+Rome, and again in France "under the two Empires." In both cases they
+were only imitations, and neither had any permanent influence on the
+art of their day.
+
+I shall have to allude very often to our Eastern sources of artistic
+culture.
+
+Our own Aryan ancestors were so impregnated with beautiful ideas, that
+we must believe that we inherit from them all our graceful
+appreciation of naturalistic ornament. But even Aryan art met with
+reverses on its Eastern soil, from which it constantly rose again and
+renewed itself.
+
+The Mongols crushed for a time the element of beauty in India. They
+introduced a barbarous and hideous style which has its only
+counterpart in that of Central America. It was the produce of a
+religion, superstitious, cruel, and devilish.
+
+The Aryan art of India, which was elegant and spiritual, was revived
+by the kindred influence of Persia, and by the Renaissance in Europe.
+Italian and other artists were employed in India, and "the spirit of
+aerial grace, and the delicate sense of beauty in natural forms,
+blossomed afresh and flourished for 300 years. Birds, flowers, fruit,
+butterflies, became once more the legitimate ornament of every
+material."[38]
+
+I continue to quote from Sir G. Birdwood's "Arts of India." "The Code
+of Manu, from 900 to 300 B.C., has secured to the village system of
+India a permanent class of hereditary artistic workmen and artisans,
+who have through these 2500 years, at least, been trained to the same
+manipulations, and who therefore translate any foreign work which is
+placed before them to copy, into something characteristically
+Indian."[39] Indian art has borrowed freely from all sources without
+losing its own individuality. It has been said, "There is nothing
+newer in it than of the sixteenth century; and even then nothing was
+original, especially in the minor arts." But this is owing to the
+Hindu being equally endowed with assimilative and receptive
+capacity,[40] so that in the hands of the Indian craftsman everything
+assumes the distinctive expression of ancient Indian art.
+
+In India everything is hand-wrought; but as the spirit of its
+decorative art "is that of a crystallized tradition, its type has
+remained almost unaltered since the Aryan genius culminated in the
+Ramayana and Mahabharata--and yet each artisan in India is a true
+artist."[41] In art, unfortunately, "the letter killeth;" and true
+artists as they are, the ancient traditions bind and cramp them,
+while the ancient materials, the dyes, and the absolute command of
+time are failing: so that the beauty of Indian embroideries and other
+decorations is gradually reducing itself to mannerism, which is more
+dangerous to art than even had been the vicissitudes of war; for when
+peaceful days returned, and the waves of conquest had subsided, the
+ancient arts were found again deeply embedded in the traditions of the
+people. They gradually returned to their old ways, which are so
+indelible in the Hindu mind, that they will perhaps survive even the
+fashions of to-day.[42]
+
+From Yates' account it would appear that Europe had been fertilized
+with taste in art and manufactures from the East by three different
+routes.
+
+The Egyptian civilization, with all its Eastern antecedents and
+traditions, came to us by the Mediterranean and the Adriatic; the
+Phoenicians being the merchants who brought it through those
+channels. The Etruscans, who were the pedlars of Europe, travelled
+north, conveying golden ornaments and coral, and bringing back jet and
+amber. Their commercial track is to be traced by the contents of tombs
+on their path.[43]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 3.
+    St. John. From King Alfred's Celtic Book of the Gospels. Lambeth
+        Palace Library.]
+
+Secondly, there was also a Slavonian route from Eastern Asia, which
+conveyed Oriental art to the north of Europe. Celtic art, which
+certainly has something of the Indo-Chinese style, came to us probably
+by this route. Another branch of the Celtic family was settled on the
+north-eastern shores of the Adriatic. Celtic ideas and forms in art
+probably crossed Europe from this point,[44] and came to us meeting a
+cognate influence,[45] arriving from the north.[46] (Pl. 3.)
+
+Thirdly, Oriental taste and textiles came from the Byzantine Empire in
+the early days of Christianity, spreading to Sicily, Italy, Spain, and
+finally to France, Germany, and Britain.
+
+Runic art, whether Scandinavian or our own purer Celtic, is so
+remarkable for its independence of all other European national and
+traditional design, that I cannot omit a brief notice of it, though we
+have no ascertained relics of any of its embroideries.[47] It appears
+to have received, in addition to its own universal stamp--evidently
+derived from one original source--certain influences impressed on it
+like a seal by each country through which it flowed.[48] Wherever the
+Runes are carved in stone, or worked on bronze, gold, silver, ivory,
+or wood, or painted in their splendid illuminations (pl. 4), the
+involved serpent, which was the sign of their faith, appears,
+sometimes covered with Runic inscriptions; and this inscribed serpent,
+later, is twined round or heaped at the foot of the peculiar
+Scandinavian-shaped cross, the type of conversion. The serpent was
+sometimes altered into the partial semblance of a four-footed animal,
+the body and tail being lengthened and twined, and sometimes split, to
+give a new turn to the pattern. (Fig. 3.) All these zoomorphic
+patterns, as well as the human figures seen in the Book of Kells, the
+missal at Lambeth, and the Lindisfarne Book (which is, however, more
+English in its style), are yet of an Indo-Chinese type; the
+wicker-work motives often replacing the involved serpent design.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 3.
+    Celtic Zoomorphic pattern.]
+
+The Paganism of our own Celtic art, when it appears, is an
+interpolation between our first and second Christian conversions, and
+was brought to us in the incursions of the Vikings over Scotland and
+into England.
+
+  [Illustration: Page from the Lindisfarne MSS. British Museum]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 5.
+    Silver bowl from Palestrina. Ganneau. "Journal Asiatique, Coupe de
+        Palestrina." 1880.]
+
+Our knowledge of their advanced and most singular art comes out
+of their tombs, in which the warrior was laid with all his arms and
+his horse and his precious possessions, splendidly clothed according
+to his degree--in the belief that he would need them again in a future
+world.
+
+This northern tradition was so long-lived, that Frederick Casimir, a
+knight of the Teutonic Order, was buried with his sword and his horse
+at Treves, in 1781.[49]
+
+Greek embroideries we can perfectly appreciate, by studying Hope's
+"Costumes of the Ancients," and the works of Millingen and others;
+also the fictile vases in the British Museum and elsewhere. On these
+are depicted the Hellenic gods, the wars, and the home life of the
+Greeks. The worked or woven patterns on their draperies are infinitely
+varied, and range over many centuries of design, and they are almost
+always beautiful. It is melancholy to have to confess that in this, as
+in all their art, the Greek taste is inimitable; yet we may profit by
+the lessons it teaches us. These are: variety without redundancy;
+grace without affectation; simplicity without poverty; the
+appropriate, the harmonious, and the serene, rather than that which is
+astonishing, painful, or awe-inspiring. These principles were carried
+into the smallest arts, and we can trace them in the shaping of a cup
+or the decoration of a mantle, as in the frieze of the Parthenon.
+
+Homer makes constant mention of the women's work. Penelope's web is
+oftenest quoted. This was a shroud for her Father-in-law. Ulysses
+brought home a large collection of fine embroidered garments,
+contributed by his fair hostesses during his travels.
+
+Pallas Athene patronized the craft of the embroiderers; and the sacred
+peplos which robed her statue, and was renewed every year, was
+embroidered by noble maidens, under the superintendence of a
+priestess of her temple. It represented the battles of the gods and
+the giants (fig. 4), till the portraits of living men were profanely
+introduced into the design. The new peplos was carried to the temple,
+floating like a flag, in procession through the city.
+
+The goddess to whom the Greeks gave the protection of this art was
+wise as well as accomplished, and knew that it was good for women
+reverently to approach art by painting with their needles. She always
+was seen in embroidered garments, and worked as well as wove them
+herself. She appeared to Ulysses in the steading of Eumoeus, the
+swineherd, as a "woman tall and fair, and skilful in splendid
+handiwork."[50]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 4.
+    Pallas Athene attired in the sacred peplos.
+    (Panathenaic Vase, British Museum.)]
+
+Homer never tires of praising the women's work, and the chests of
+splendid garments laid up in the treasure-houses.[51] Helen gave of
+her work to Telemachus: "Helen, the fair lady, stood by the coffer
+wherein were her robes of curious needlework which she herself had
+wrought. Then Helen, the fair lady, lifted it out, the widest and most
+beautifully embroidered of all--and it shone like a star; and this she
+sent as a gift to his future wife."[52]
+
+Semper's theory is, that the one chief import of Oriental style being
+embroideries, therefore the hangings and dresses arriving from Asia
+gave the poetic Greek the motives for his art, his civilization, his
+legends, and his gods.[53] This may or may not be; there is no doubt
+that they influenced them.[54]
+
+Boettiger accordingly believes that Homer's descriptions of beautiful
+dress and furnishings are derived from, or at least influenced by,
+what he had learnt of the Babylonian and Chaldean embroideries. This
+is very probable, and would account for his poetical design on the
+shield of Achilles, in which his own inspiration dictated the
+possibilities of the then practised arts of Asia, of which the fame
+and occasional glimpses were already drifting westward. (Plate 5.)
+
+The description of the shield of Achilles is as follows: Hephaistos,
+"the lame god," "threw bronze that weareth not, into the fire; and
+tin, and precious gold and silver." "He fashioned the shield great and
+strong, with five folds (or circles) in the shield itself." "Then
+wrought he the earth and the sea, and the unwearying sun, and the moon
+waxing to its full, and the signs, every one wherewith the heavens are
+crowned." "Also he fashioned therein two cities of mortal men; and
+here were marriage feasts, and brides led home by the blaze of
+torches--young men whirling in the dance, and the women standing each
+at her door marvelling." Then a street fight, and the elders sitting
+in judgment. The other city was being besieged; and there is a
+wonderful description of the battle fought on the river banks, and
+"Strife, Tumult, and Death" personified, and mingling in the fight.
+Then he set in the shield the labours of the husbandman. This is so
+exquisitely beautiful that with difficulty I refrain from quoting it
+all. "He wrought thereon a herd of kine with upright horns, and the
+kine were fashioned of gold and tin," "and herdsmen of gold were
+following after them." "Also did the glorious lame god devise a
+dancing-place like unto that which once, in wide Knosos, Daidalos
+wrought for Ariadne of the lovely tresses. There were youths dancing
+and maidens of costly wooing, their hands upon their waists." "And now
+would they run round with deft feet exceedingly lightly"--"and now
+would they run in lines to meet each other." "And a great company
+stood round the lovely dance in joy; and among them a divine minstrel
+was making music on his lyre; and through the midst of them, as he
+began his strain, two tumblers whirled. Also he set therein the great
+might of the River of Ocean, around the utmost rim of the
+cunningly-fashioned shield."[55]
+
+There is, indeed, every proof that Greek art was the joint product of
+the Egyptian and Assyrian civilizations. Their amalgamation gave birth
+to the archaic style, struggling to express the strength and the
+beauty of man--half heroic, half divine. Gradually, all the
+surrounding decorations of life assumed as a governing principle and
+motive, the worth of noble beauty.
+
+The Greeks were the first artists. They broke away from the ancient
+trammels of customary forms, and replaced law with liberty of thought,
+and tradition with poetry.
+
+They destroyed no old ideas, but they selected, appropriated, and
+evoked beauty from every source. From the great days of Athens we may
+date the moment when materials became entirely subservient to art, and
+the minds of individual men were stamped on their works and dated
+them. Phases indeed followed each other, showing the links of
+tradition which still bound men's minds together to a certain extent,
+and formed the general style of the day. Yet there was in art from
+that time--life, sometimes death,--but then a resurrection.
+
+It appears from classical writers that about 300 B.C. Greek art had
+thrown itself into many new forms. Painting, for example, had tried
+all themes excepting landscapes. We are told that within the space of
+150 years the art had passed through every technical stage; from the
+tinted profile system of Polygnotus to the proper pictorial system of
+natural scenes, composed with natural backgrounds; and Peiraiikos is
+named as an artist of genre--a painter of barbers and cobblers,
+booths, asses, eatables, and such-like realistic subjects.[56]
+
+I suppose there is no doubt that all the Romans knew or felt of art
+was borrowed directly or indirectly from Greece,[57] first through
+Phoenician and perhaps Etruscan sources, and finally by conquest.
+Everything we have of their art shows their imitation of Grecian
+models. Their embroideries would certainly have shown the same
+impress.
+
+Greece--herself crushed and demoralized--even as late as the Eastern
+Empire gave to Rome the fashion of the Byzantine taste, which she at
+once adopted, and it was called the Romanesque. This style, which was
+partly Arab, still prevails in Eastern Europe, having clung to the
+Greek Church. In her best days, Roman poetry, architecture, and
+decorative arts were Greek of Greece, imitating its highest types, but
+never creating.
+
+It is surely allowable to quote here one of Virgil's Homeric echoes,
+which touches upon our especial subject,--
+
+    "Mournful at heart at that supreme farewell,
+    Andromache brings robes of border'd gold;
+    A Phrygian cloak, too, for Ascanius.
+    And yielding not the palm in courtesy,
+    Loads him with woven treasures, and thus speaks:
+    'Take these gifts, too, to serve as monuments
+    Of my hand-labour, boy; so may they bear
+    Their witness to Andromache's long love,
+    The wife of Hector:--take them, these last gifts
+    Thy kindred can bestow; in this sad world
+    Sole image left of my Astyanax!'"[58]
+
+It is sad to mark how not only the refinements of taste, but even the
+guiding principles of art, were gradually lost in the humiliation of a
+conquered people, the dulness and discouragement which followed on the
+expatriation or destruction of their accumulated treasures, and the
+deterioration of the Greek artist and artisan, carried prisoners to
+Rome, and settled there because it was the seat of luxury and empire.
+As the captive Jews hung their harps on the willow-trees by the waters
+of Babylon, and refused to sing, so Greek genius succumbed, weighed
+down by Roman chains. It sickened and died in exile.
+
+Late Roman art reminds us of the art of Etruria in its archaic days,
+except that the freshness and promise are wanting, and that the one
+was in its first, the other its second childhood.
+
+Before entering on the subject of Christian art, I must again refer,
+however briefly, to the Eastern origin of all art. It is evident that
+this had always flowed in streams of many types from that high
+watershed of Central Asia, where our human race is said to have been
+created, and whence all wisdom and knowledge have emanated. In the
+image of the Creator, man issued from thence, endowed with the gift of
+the creative power. Wave after wave of fresh and apparently differing
+nationalities followed each other; partially submerging those that had
+gone before, and spreading till it had reached the furthest shores of
+the Northern seas and the Atlantic, and encircled the Mediterranean.
+They all followed the same course from east to west. The Greek
+civilization was indeed so dazzling and strong, that it lighted the
+world all around; and India, Persia, and Assyria felt its influence
+reflected back on its old Asian cradle.
+
+But from the same high watershed[59] flowed other tribal types towards
+China, Java, and Japan, that had no affinity with any western
+civilization; and while the Assyrian, Persian, Indian, and Mongolian
+styles mixed and overlapped so near their sources, that it is
+sometimes hardly possible to reason out and classify their
+resemblances and their differences, the tribes flowing Eastward turned
+aside and went their own way, and have remained till now perfectly
+distinct.[60]
+
+In spite of their matchless dexterity in the manipulation of their
+materials, the infinite variety of their stitches, and exquisite
+finish in execution, carrying out to the utmost point the intended
+effect, yet Chinese and Japanese textile art differs in its inner
+principles from all our accepted canons of taste; so that their want
+of harmony, and sometimes their absurdity, is a puzzle of which we
+cannot find the key. This I have already alluded to (p. 3).
+
+I purposely avoid the questions suggested by Chinese art. The immense
+antiquity it claims cannot be allowed without hesitation. M. Terrien
+de la Couperie, however, believes that he has found the actual point
+of departure of Chinese civilization, and he considers it to be an
+early offshoot from Babylon.[61] He supports his theory on linguistic
+grounds, and we must anxiously wait to see if it is corroborated by
+further researches into the earliest records of the archaic Chinese
+literature. But immobility in art is a Chinese characteristic, and no
+national cataclysms seem to have disturbed it. The oldest specimens
+known are very like the most modern. Yet an adept, learned in Chinese
+art, can detect the signs which mark its different epochs.
+
+In this they differ from the Japanese, who, added to their inherited
+exquisite appreciation of natural beauty, have a power of assimilation
+that might lead in time to their possessing a school of art which,
+being really original, might become the style of the future. The
+civilization of Japan is not older than the fifth century A.D., and
+was probably then imported from Corea. Some of the earliest specimens
+we know of their art are embroidered religious pictures by the son of
+a Mikado Sholokutaiski, who was in the seventh century the great
+apostle of Buddhism in Japan; and the next earliest works are by the
+first nun, Honi, in the eighth century. We have European work as old,
+and it is most interesting to compare the differences of their styles
+and stitches.
+
+We must now return to the beginning of our era, when we find Greek
+taste, such as it was, still influencing and colouring art in Italy,
+and throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa, wherever Roman colonies were
+founded, till the eighth century. It died hard; but by that time the
+barbarians had poured from the east and north in successive waves, and
+conquered and suppressed the classical civilization.
+
+Nothing is so puzzling in textile art as the mixture of styles during
+the first 1000 years A.D. The Graeco-Roman, the Byzantine, and the
+Egyptian, crossed by the Arabian, Persian, and Indian styles, were
+reproduced in the Sicilian looms. Certain stock patterns, such as the
+reclining hares or fawns, as we find them on the Shishak pall, or that
+of the Tree of Life, approached by worshipping men or animals,
+originating in Assyrian art, are employed as borders, and fill up
+vacant spaces. The information collected from the tombs in the Crimea
+immediately preceding our era, is supplemented by the variety in style
+and materials from the Fayoum, now placed by Herr Graf'schen in the
+Museum at Vienna.
+
+Christian art, which began in Byzantium, gradually grew, and formed
+itself into the Gothic,[62] which in time overcame the general chaos
+of style.
+
+Eastern art continued to flow westward, modifying and suggesting.
+When the Phoenicians and Carthaginians had laid down their ancient
+commercial sceptre, it was taken up by the Greeks, and later by the
+Venetians and Genoese, always trading with Asiatic goods. Then the
+arts of the Scandinavians[63] and of the Celts (who were the weavers),
+though barbaric, still retained and spread certain Oriental
+traditions. Luxury was born in Babylon, and Persia became its nurse,
+whence all its glories and refinements spread over the world. But if
+luxury was Babylonian, art was Greek. Alas! the love of luxury
+survived in Rome the taste for art.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 6.
+    The Empress Theodora. Mosaic at Ravenna. Church of San. Vitale.]
+
+At Ravenna we learn much of the early Christian period from the
+mosaics in the churches. The Empress Theodora and her ladies appear to
+be clothed in Indian shawl stuffs. (Plate 6.) These, of course, had
+drifted into Rome, as they had long done into the Greek islands, by
+the Red Sea or by land through Tyre. Ezekiel (590 B.C.) mentions the
+Indian trade through Aden. Theodora's dress has a deep border of gold,
+embroidered with classical warriors pursuing each other with
+swords.[64] Works enriched with precious stones and pearls now appear
+for the first time in European art, and testify to its Oriental
+impress.
+
+The Byzantine Christian style was essentially the art of mosaic. Its
+patterns for architecture or dress, easily square themselves into
+little compartments, suggesting the stitches of "counted" embroideries
+("opus pulvinarium").
+
+In the beginning of the fourth century, when Greek influence was still
+languishing, we may date the commencement of ecclesiastical art. It
+was a new birth, and had to struggle through an infancy of nearly 800
+years, ignoring, or unconscious of all rules of drawing, colouring,
+and design. Outlines filled in with flat surfaces of colours
+represented again the art of painting, which had returned to archaic
+types, and in no way differed from the essential properties of the art
+of "acu pingere" or needlework, which was in the same phase--being,
+fortunately for it, that to which it was best suited.
+
+Therefore fine works of art were then executed by the needle, of which
+a very few survive, either in description or copied into more lasting
+materials; and showing that, with the minor arts of mosaic and
+illumination, it was in a state of higher perfection than the greater
+arts, which till the twelfth century were all but in abeyance.
+
+In discussing textile art, I am obliged to pass over a part of the
+dark ages, and to approach the period when it must be studied chiefly
+in Sicily, which became the half-way house on the high road to the
+East, and later the resting-place of the Crusaders to and from the
+Holy Land.
+
+Sicily, which had succeeded to Constantinople as being the great
+manufacturing mart during the Middle Ages, was in the hands of the
+Moors, the origin and source of all European Gothic textile art. Yet
+even at Palermo and Messina this art was long controlled by the
+traditions of Greece, ancient and modern, while fertilized by Persian
+and Indian forms and traditional symbolisms.
+
+The next European phase was the Gothic.[65] This was Arab and Moresque
+steeped in northern ideas; and finding its congenial soil, it grew
+into the most splendid, thoughtful, and finished style, far
+transcending anything that it had borrowed from eastern or southern
+sources.
+
+All its traditions were carried out in the smaller decorative
+arts--mosaics, ivories, and metal works; and, last and not least,
+beautiful embroideries, to adorn the altars and the dresses of
+monarchs and nobles. (Plate 7.)
+
+When taste was imperfect or declined, then the decorations were all
+rude, and the embroideries shared in the general rudeness or poverty;
+but as these crafts rose again, adding to themselves grace and beauty
+by study and experience, then needlework in England, Germany, France,
+Italy, and Spain grew and flourished.[66]
+
+  [Illustration: Italian embroidery XV. Century
+    Kensington Museum]
+
+  [Illustration: Italian orphreys XVI. Century
+    South Kensington Museum]
+
+  [Illustration: Orphreys French and Spanish
+    XVI. Century]
+
+Then came the Reformation, which, in Germany and England especially,
+gave a blow to the arts which had reserved their best efforts for the
+Church; and the change of style effected by the Renaissance was not
+suited to the solemnity of ecclesiastical decoration.
+
+The styles of the fifteenth and sixteenth century embroideries are
+better adapted for secular purposes; though their extreme beauty as
+architectural ornament in Italy, reconciles one to their want of
+religious character, on the principle that it was allowable to
+dedicate to the Church all that in its day was brightest and best.
+(Plate 8.)
+
+We possess much domestic embroidery of the Renaissance which is
+exceedingly beautiful--Italian, Spanish, and German. English
+needlework had lost its prestige from the time of the Reformation.[67]
+
+The best efforts of the German schools of embroidery preceded the
+Reformation, while those of Belgium never lost their excellence,[68]
+and still hold their high position among the workers of golden
+orphreys. In Italy they always retained much of the classical element.
+Probably the ancient frescoes which served as models were originally
+painted by Greek artists and their Roman imitators. This style
+flourished for a hundred years. The French adopted and modified it.
+
+The decorative style of that period is sometimes called the Arabesque,
+and sometimes the Grotesque. The fashion was really copied from the
+excavated palaces and tombs of the best Roman era. Raphael admired,
+and caused his pupils to imitate and copy them; and they influenced
+all decorative art for a considerable period. As long as beautiful
+forms of flowers, fruit, birds, and animals were adhered to, the
+Arabesque was a charming decoration, gay and brilliant; but when the
+beautiful was set aside, and the ugly ideas were reproduced, the style
+became the Grotesque, which word only means the grotto, cave, or tomb
+style, and is as undescriptive to us as the word Arabesque, which has
+nothing to do with the Arabs or their arts.
+
+It would appear that if the beautiful only is permissible in
+decorative art, and that if without beauty there is no reason that it
+should exist at all, then the Grotesque should not be allowed, except
+as a scherzo of the pencil; to be relegated, like all other
+caricatures, to the portfolio.
+
+A grotesque is something startling, laughable, perhaps ridiculous. A
+woman with the head of a goose and a flowery tail may be a symbolical,
+but it never can be an agreeable object. When the idea conveyed is a
+great one, then it is excusable. The Ninevite bull, with a human head
+and five legs, is a grotesque, but it is also a symbol of majesty and
+might. A Satyr is a grotesque, but he has been so long recorded and
+accepted that he has ceased to surprise us; and the Greeks spent so
+much genius in making him a graceful creature, that he has become
+picturesque, if not beautiful.
+
+Arabesques and Grotesques have now so long prevailed in decoration,
+that we have ceased to criticize them on principle, and accept them
+gratefully, in proportion to the gay fancy and reticent genius of the
+designer. Most Arabesques are, in fact, only graceful nonsense.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 9.
+    Spanish Coverlet, from Goa. Velvet and gold, Plateresque style,
+        seventeenth century.]
+
+Vitruvius (writing first century B.C.) says, that "in his time, on the
+covering of the walls were painted rather monstrosities than images
+of known things. Thus, instead of columns you will see reeds with
+crisp foliage, and candlesticks supporting temples; and on the top of
+these there are rods and twisted ornaments, and in the volutes
+senseless little figures sitting there; likewise flowers with figures
+growing out of their calyxes. Here a human head, there an
+animal's."[69] Evidently Vitruvius did not approve of grotesques, and
+his contemporary criticism is most valuable and amusing.
+
+In the Louis Quatorze period, a species of vegetable grotesque was the
+fashion, from which we suffer even now, and it deserves censure.
+Leaves and flowers of different plants were made to grow from the same
+stem, as only artificial flowers could do. The Greeks introduced into
+their decorations sprays and wreaths of bay, olive, oak, ivy, and
+vine, with their fruits; which are exquisitely composed and carefully
+studied from nature. It is true that they sometimes invented flowers
+of different shapes, following each other on the same stem, and
+untrammelled by any natural laws. These classical freaks of fancy are
+so graceful that their want of truth does not shock us, but they are
+more safely copied than imitated.
+
+The Renaissance was particularly marked in Spain and Portugal by the
+embroideries which the latter drew from their Indian possessions in
+Goa, whilst we in England were sedulously thrusting from our shores
+any beautiful Indian textiles that we imagined could injure our own
+home manufactures. It was, consequently, the worst phase of needlework
+with us, while Spanish and Portuguese embroideries of the sixteenth
+and seventeenth centuries are especially fine, their designs being
+European, and their needlework Oriental. Their Renaissance, which went
+by the name of the Plateresque, is a style apart. (Pl. 9.) The reason
+of its name is that it seems to have been originally intended for, and
+is best suited to, the shapes and decorations of gold and silver
+plate. It is extremely rich and ornate; not so appropriate to
+architecture as to the smaller arts, and wanting, perhaps, the
+simplicity which gives dignity. The style called Louis Quatorze
+following on the Renaissance in Germany, England, Spain, Italy, and
+France, assumed in each of these countries distinguishing
+characteristics, into which we have not time to enter now. In this
+style France took the lead and appropriated it, and rightly named it
+after the magnificent monarch who fostered it. This was a splendid
+era; and its furniture and wall decorations, dress, plate, and books
+shine in all the fertile richness and grace of French artistic
+ingenuity.[70] The new style asserted itself everywhere, and
+remodelled every art; but the long reign of Louis Quatorze gave the
+fashion time to wane and change. Under Louis XV. the defects increased
+and the beauties diminished. The fine heavy borders were broken up
+into fragmentary forms; all flow and strength were eliminated; and
+what remained of the Louis Quatorze style became, under its next
+phase, only remarkable for the sparkling prettiness which is inherent
+in all French art.
+
+In Italy this very ornate style was distinguished as the
+"Sette-cento," and was a chastened imitation or appropriation of the
+Spanish Plateresque and the French Louis Quatorze. In Germany it was a
+decided heavy copy of both, of which there are splendid examples in
+the adornment of the German palaces, royal and episcopal. In England
+the Continental taste was faintly reflected during the reign of Queen
+Anne and the first Georges; but except in the characteristic
+upholstery of the Chippendales, and one or two palaces, such as
+Blenheim and Castle Howard, we did not produce much that was original
+in the style of that day.
+
+Under Louis XV., Boucher and Watteau, in France, produced designs that
+were well suited to tapestries and embroideries. All the heathen gods,
+with Cupids, garlands, floating ribbons, crowns, and cyphers were
+everywhere carved, gilded, and worked. It was the visible tide of the
+frivolity in which poor Marie Antoinette was drowned; though before
+the Revolution she had somewhat simplified the forms of decoration,
+and straight lines instead of curves, and delicacy rather than
+splendour, had superseded, at least at court, the extravagant richness
+of palatial furniture.
+
+This was followed by the Revolution; and then came the attempt at
+classical severity (so contrary to the French nature) which the
+Republic affected.[71] Dress was adorned with embroidered spots and
+Etruscan borders, and the ladies wore diadems, and tried to be as like
+as possible to the Greek women painted in fictile art. Napoleon
+attempted a dress which was supposed to be Roman at his coronation.
+Trophies were woven and embroidered, and the "honeysuckle," "key," and
+"egg and anchor" patterns were everywhere. With the fall of the Empire
+the classical taste collapsed, and the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman
+furniture were handed over to hotels and lodging-houses. In most of
+the palaces on the Continent an apartment is still to be seen,
+furnished in this style. It was the necessary tribute of flattery to
+the great conqueror, who in that character inhabited so many of them
+for a short time. But there was no sign of the style being taken up
+enthusiastically anywhere out of France.
+
+After the fall of the Empire, all pretence of style was in abeyance,
+and it was then gradually replaced by a general craving for the
+"antique," the "rococo," and finally the "baroc," as the outcome of
+that part of a gentleman's education called the "grand tour." Every
+one bought up old furniture; Italy and Spain were ransacked; and
+foreign works of all ages were added to the hereditary house
+furnishings. Every wealthy home became a museum. Now the numerous
+exhibitions of the last few years, bringing together the works of all
+Europe and other continents, have enabled us to continue to collect
+and compare and furnish, without any reference to a particular style.
+
+Meantime "Young England" had become aesthetic. Bohemianism was the
+fashion, and the studio had to be furnished as a picturesque
+lounge:--ragged tapestries for backgrounds; antique chairs and bits of
+colour as cushions and draperies; shiny earthenware pots to hold a
+flower and to catch a high light. All these bridged the space between
+the new aestheticism and the old family museums; and from their
+combination arose the style called by courtesy the "Queen Anne"--a
+style which can be brought within the reach of the most moderate
+fortunes. In humble mansions you will be aware of the grouping of the
+old pieces of furniture, culminating perhaps in "my grandmother's
+cabinet," and her portrait by Hogarth; or "my great-grandfather's
+sword and pistols, which he carried at Culloden;" and his father's
+clock, a relic perhaps of the Scotch Dutch.
+
+The English style of to-day is really a conglomerate of the preceding
+two hundred years, and it is formed from the debris of our family
+life. It belongs mostly to the period of the pigtail; but it
+stretches back, and includes all that followed the Protectorate, and
+is therefore coeval with the wig. The name of "Queen Anne" would
+really do as well as any other, only that the style of her reign,
+which was heavy Louis Quatorze, is looked upon with suspicion, and
+never admitted for imitation. The "Nineteenth Century" would be a
+better name, for it has formed itself only within the last thirty
+years, in the very heart of the century, and is, in fact, a fortunate
+result of preceding conditions. It owes its existence, as I have said,
+partly to the archaeological tendencies of the day.
+
+The maimed tables and chairs, which had painfully ascended from saloon
+to bedroom, nursery, and attic, till they reposed in the garret (the
+Bedlam of crazy furniture), now have descended in all the prestige of
+antiquarian and family interest. Their history is recorded; the old
+embroideries are restored, named, and honoured. What is not beautiful,
+is credited with being "quaint"--the "quaint" is more easily imitated
+than the beautiful; and we have elected this for the characteristic of
+our new decorations. To be quaint, is really to be funny without
+intending it, and its claim to prettiness is its _naivete_, which is
+sometimes touching as well as amusing: this was the special
+characteristic of the revival in the Middle Ages. To imitate
+quaintness must be a mistake in art; as in life it is absurd to
+imitate innocence.
+
+The nineteenth century "Queen Anne" has its merits.[72] It combines
+simplicity, roominess and comfort, colour, light and shade. Soft
+colouring to harmonize the new furniture with the tender tints of the
+faded quaintnesses just restored to society; care in grouping even the
+commonest objects, so as to give pleasure to the eye; a revived taste
+for embroidered instead of woven materials, giving scope to the
+talents of the women of the house;--all these are so much gained in
+every-day domestic decoration. The poorest and most trivial
+arrangements are striving to attain to a something artistic and
+agreeable. This is still confined to the educated classes; but as good
+and bad alike have to begin on the surface, and gradually filter
+through to the dregs of society, we may hope that the women who wore
+the last chignon and the last crinoline may yet solace their sordid
+lives in flowing or tight woollen garments, adorned with their own
+needlework; and that the dark-stained floor of the cottage or humble
+lodging will set off the shining brass kettle, and the flower in a
+brown or blue pot, consciously selected with a view to the
+picturesque, and enjoyed accordingly.
+
+From what we know, it would seem that a vital change in a national
+style is never produced by the inspiration of one individual genius or
+great original inventor. It invariably evolves itself slowly, by the
+patient, persistent efforts of generations, polishing and touching up
+the same motive, and at last reaching human perfection.
+
+The annihilation of a style is oftenest caused by war passing over the
+land, or revolution breaking up the fountains of social life, and
+swamping the art and the artist.
+
+But another cause of such an extinction--perhaps the saddest--is that
+having reached perfection as far as it may, it deteriorates, sickens,
+corrupts, and finally is thrown aside--superseded, hidden, and
+overlapped by a newer fashion; and the worst and latest effort
+discredits in the eyes of men, the splendid successes that preceded
+its fall. Though the next succeeding phase may be less worthy to live
+than the last, yet, carrying with it the freshness of a new spring, it
+is acceptable for the time being.
+
+The moral I should draw from this is, that you cannot force style; you
+may prune, direct, and polish it, but you must accept that of your
+day, and only in accordance with that taste can your work be useful.
+Not accepting it idly or wearily, but cheerfully, on principle,
+seeking to raise it; refusing by word or deed to truckle to the false,
+the base, or the lawless in your art, or to act against the
+acknowledged canons of good taste. Not for a moment should ambition be
+checked, but it should always be accompanied by the grace of modesty.
+
+To the young decorator or artist who feels the glow of original design
+prompting him to reject old lines, and follow his own new and perhaps
+crude ideas, a few words of warning, and encouragement also, may be of
+use.
+
+In art, as in poetry, we may recognize the Psalmist's experience: "My
+heart burned within me, and at the last I spake with my tongue."
+
+In small as in great things, crude ideas should not be brought to the
+front. No one should give his thoughts to the world till his heart has
+_burned_ within him, and he has been _forced_ to express himself.
+
+Another wise saying, "Read yourself full, and then write yourself
+empty," also applies to art. Knowledge must first be accumulated
+before you can originate.
+
+Wait till your experience and your thoughts insist on expression;
+then subject the expressed idea to cultivated criticism, and profit by
+the opinion you would respect if another's work, and not your own,
+were under discussion.
+
+It is true that taste is surprisingly various. Some will dislike your
+design, because its style is a reflection of the Gothic; another may
+be objected to as being frivolously Oriental-looking and brilliant,
+whereas the critic likes only the sober and the dull. Few are
+sufficiently educated to appreciate style: and we cannot rule our own
+by anybody's opinion; but we can generalize and find something that
+shall be agreeable to all--something approaching to a golden mean. The
+artist for decoration should be sensitively alive to any suggestion
+from the style of that which he is to adorn, remembering the
+antecedent motives of its form, its history, and its date. He should
+try to make his new work harmonize with the old; but of one thing he
+may be certain--unless he absolutely copies an old design, his own
+will carry the visible and unmistakable stamp of his day.
+
+Even while suggesting copies this difficulty arises--how can a perfect
+facsimile be obtained? No reproduction is ever really exact, unless
+cast off by the hundred, stamped or printed by a machine.
+
+It has been said that the translator of a poem adds to, or takes from
+the original, that which he has or has not of the same poetical power;
+and in art the copy requires the same qualities to guide the hand that
+transmits the original motive to another material. An artist usually
+carries out his own ideas from the first sketch blocked out on the
+canvas, or scribbled on the bit of waste paper, to the last finishing
+touch. It is, as far as it can be in human art, the visible transcript
+of his own thought. In needlework this can hardly ever be. The
+designer, whether he be St. Dunstan, Pollaiolo, Torrigiano, or Walter
+Crane, only executes a drawing which leaves his hands for good, and is
+translated into embroidery by the patient needlewoman who simply fills
+in an outline, ignorant of art, unappreciative of its subtleties, and
+incapable of giving life and expression, even when she is aware that
+they are indicated in the original design. This is almost always the
+case; but there are exceptions. Charlemagne's dalmatic, for instance,
+shows signs of having been either the work of the artist himself, or
+else carried out under his immediate supervision.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [15] Boyd Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain," p. 285. See
+    also chapter on stitches (_post_), p. 195.
+
+    [16] Some of these styles survive; some are still
+    perceptible as traditions or echoes; some have totally
+    disappeared in our modern art, such as the Primitive or
+    the Egyptian.
+
+    [17] See Semper, "Der Stil."
+
+    [18] The history of Gaul begins in the 7th, and that of
+    Britain in the 1st century B.C., while the civilization
+    of Egypt dates back to more than 4000 B.C.; therefore
+    the historical overlap is very great. It is probable
+    that a large portion of Europe was in its neolithic age,
+    while the scribes were composing their records of war
+    and commerce in the great cities on the Nile, and that
+    the neolithic civilization lingered in remote regions
+    while the voice of Pericles was heard in Athens, and the
+    name of Hannibal was a terror in Italy.--See Boyd
+    Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain," p. 481.
+
+    [19] See chapter on patterns.
+
+    [20] In the Troad.
+
+    [21] Some of the Egyptian arts we know are pre-Homeric
+    (if Homer really sang 800 B.C.), and Asiatic art was
+    then in its highest development.
+
+    [22] See chapter on stitches, cut work (_post_). This
+    funeral tent is a monumental work, inasmuch as the
+    inscription inwrought on it gives us the name and title
+    of her in whose honour it was made, and whose remains it
+    covered. See Villiers Stewart's "Funeral Tent of an
+    Egyptian Queen."
+
+    [23] Herodotus, book ii. c. 182; book iii. c. 47
+    (Rawlinson's Trans.). See Rock's Introduction, p. xiv.
+
+    [24] Homer mentions "Sidonian stuffs and Phoenician
+    skill" (Iliad, v. 170); also "Sidonian Embroidery."
+    Ibid. vi. 287-295.
+
+    [25] The Assyrian designs are such as are now still
+    worked at Benares, and being full of animals, they are
+    called Shikurgah, or "happy hunting-grounds." See Sir G.
+    Birdwood's "Industrial Arts of India," p. 236. See also
+    Plate 4.
+
+    [26] See Perrot and Chipiez (pp. 737-757); also Clermont
+    Ganneau's Histoire de l'Art, "L'Imagerie Phenicienne,"
+    Plate 1, pt. 1. Coupe de Palestrina. He says that
+    certain scenes from the "Shield of Achilles" are
+    literally to be found on Phoenician vases that have
+    come down to us--vases of which Homer himself must have
+    seen some of analogous design.
+
+    [27] Homer speaks of Sidonian embroideries, "Iliad,"
+    vi., 287-295.
+
+    [28] See Egyptian fragments in the British Museum, and
+    the specimens of Peruvian textiles; and Reiss and
+    Stuebel's "Necropolis of Ancon in Peru."
+
+    [29] At Cervetri, Dennis' "Etruria," ed. 1878, i. p.
+    268.
+
+    [30] The restless activity of the Phoenicians has
+    often helped to confuse our aesthetic knowledge, and has
+    caused the waste of much speculation in ascertaining how
+    certain objects of luxury, belonging to distant
+    civilizations, can possibly have arrived at the places
+    where we find them.
+
+    [31] "The Beautiful Gate of the Temple was covered all
+    over with gold. It had also golden vines above it, from
+    which hung clusters of grapes as tall as a man's
+    height.... It had golden doors of 55 cubits altitude,
+    and 16 in breadth: but before these doors there was a
+    veil of equal largeness with the doors. It was a
+    Babylonian curtain of blue, fine linen, and scarlet and
+    purple; of an admixture that was truly wonderful. Nor
+    was the mixture without its mystical interpretation; but
+    was a kind of image of the universe. For by the scarlet
+    was to be enigmatically signified fire; by the fine
+    flax, the earth; by the blue, the air, and by the
+    purple, the sea;--two of them having their colours for
+    the foundation of this resemblance; but the fine flax
+    and the purple have their own origin for this
+    foundation, the earth producing the one, and the sea the
+    other. This curtain had also embroidered upon it all
+    that was mystical in the heavens excepting the twelve
+    signs of the zodiac, representing living creatures."
+    Josephus (Trans. by Whiston), p. 895.
+
+    [32] See also M. E. Harkness and Stuart Poole, "Assyrian
+    Life and History," p. 66.
+
+    [33] The visions of Ezekiel and St. John remind us of
+    the composite figures and animals in Ninevite
+    sculptures, and the prophetic poetry helps us to
+    interpret their symbolism.
+
+    [34] G. Smith's "Ancient History of the Monuments,"
+    Babylonia, p. 33. Edited by Sayce.
+
+    [35] In the British Museum. See "Bronze Ornaments of
+    Palace Gates, Balawat," pl. E 5.
+
+    [36] See Auberville's "Ornement des Tissus," pl. 1.
+
+    [37] The Egyptian queen in question was mother-in-law to
+    Shishak, whose daughter married Solomon. After his
+    son-in-law's death, Shishak plundered the "King's
+    House," and carried to Egypt the golden shields or
+    panels (1 Kings xiv. 26). The golden vessels went to
+    Babylon later, and the golden candlesticks to Rome.
+
+    [38] Sir G. Birdwood repeatedly points out that the
+    Vedic was the art that worshipped and served nature. The
+    Puranic is the ideal and distorted. The Moguls, about
+    700 B.C., introduced their ugly Dravidian art. Through
+    the Sassanian art of Persia, that of India was
+    influenced. Possibly the very forms which in India are
+    copied from Assyrian temples and palaces, may have
+    travelled first to Assyria upon Indian stuffs and
+    jewellery (Sir G. Birdwood's "Industrial Arts of India,"
+    i. p. 236).
+
+    [39] Ibid., p. 130 (ed. 1884).
+
+    [40] Nearchus (Strabo, XV. i. 67) says that the people
+    of India had such a genius for imitation that they
+    counterfeited sponges, which they saw used by the
+    Macedonians, and produced perfect imitations of the real
+    object. See Sir G. Birdwood's "Industrial Arts of
+    India," ii. p. 133 (ed. 1884).
+
+    [41] Ibid., ii. p. 131 (ed. 1884).
+
+    [42] See Sir G. Birdwood, p. 129 (ed. 1884). If
+    Fergusson is right in suggesting that the art of Central
+    America was planted there in the third or fourth century
+    of our era, it would, perhaps, appear to have taken
+    refuge in America when it was driven out of India by the
+    Sassanians, and was really Dravidian. He gives to the
+    Turanian races all the mound buildings, as well as the
+    fylfot or mystic cross, and he looks in Central India
+    for the discovery of some remains that will give us the
+    secret of the origin of the Indo-Aryan style. He thinks
+    the Archaic Dravidian is allied with the Chinese. See
+    Fergusson's "Architecture."
+
+    [43] Etruscan and Indian golden ornaments, including the
+    "Bolla" and the "Trichinopoly" chains and coral, are to
+    be found throughout Scandinavia and in Ireland. See
+    "Atlas de l'Archeologie du Nord," par la Societe Royale
+    des Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1857.
+
+    [44] Arrian tells us of the Celts, "a people near the
+    Great Ionian Bay," who sent an embassy to Alexander
+    before the battle of the Granicus--"a people strong and
+    of a haughty spirit." Alexander asked them if they
+    feared anything. They answered that they feared the "sky
+    might fall upon their heads." He dismissed them,
+    observing that the Celts were an arrogant nation
+    (Arrian, i. 4, 10).
+
+    [45] According to Yates, the merchandise of Eastern Asia
+    passed through Slavonia to the north of Europe in the
+    Middle Ages, without the intervention of Greece or
+    Italy. This may account for certain terms of
+    nomenclature which evidently came with goods transported
+    straight to the north. Yates' "Textrinum Antiquorum,"
+    vol. i. p. 225-246.
+
+    [46] These northern ideas, spreading over Germany,
+    England, and France, flourished especially on German
+    soil; and Oriental-patterned embroideries for hangings
+    and dress were worked in every stitch, on every
+    material, as may be seen in the museums and printed
+    catalogues of Vienna, Berlin, Munich, &c.
+
+    [47] Except, perhaps, the Serpent and Tree cope in
+    Bock's Kleinodien.
+
+    [48] The different Celtic nationalities are always
+    recognizable. There was found in a grave-mound at Hof,
+    in Norway, a brooch, showing at a glance that it was
+    Christian and Celtic, though taken from the grave of a
+    pagan Viking. Another at Berdal, in Norway, was at once
+    recognized by M. Lorange as being undoubtedly Irish.
+    There are many other instances of evident Celtic
+    Christian art found on the west coast of Norway under
+    similar conditions--probably spoil from the British
+    Islands, which were subject to the descents of the pagan
+    Vikings for centuries after the time of St. Columba's
+    preaching of Christianity in Scotland. For information
+    on the subject, see G. Stephen's "Monuments of Runic
+    Art," and F. Anderson's "Pagan Art in Scotland."
+
+    [49] "Scotland in Pagan Times," by J. Anderson, pp. 3-7.
+
+    [50] On a vase in the British Museum, Minerva appears
+    with her aegis on her breast, and clothed in a petticoat
+    and upper tunic worked in sprays, and a border of
+    kneeling lions. On another Panathenaic vase she has a
+    gown bordered with fighting men, evidently the sacred
+    peplos. (Fig. 4.)
+
+    [51] See the account of the veil of Here in the Iliad,
+    and that of the mantle of Ulysses in the Odyssey.
+
+    [52] See Butcher and Lang's Odyssey.
+
+    [53] "Der Stil."
+
+    [54] The Greeks collected into one focus all that they
+    found of beauty in art from many distant
+    sources--Egyptian, Indian, Assyrian--and thus fired
+    their inborn genius, which thenceforth radiated its
+    splendour over the whole civilized world.
+
+    [55] Homer's Iliad, xviii. 480-617 (Butcher and Lang).
+
+    [56] See "Woltmann and Woermann." Trans. Sidney Colvin,
+    p. 64.
+
+    [57] Except, perhaps, the keystone arch.
+
+    [58] Virg. AEneid iii. Trans. G.L.G.
+
+    [59] The Indian Cush.
+
+    [60] Except in the art of the Celts, whose Indo-Chinese
+    style shows evidence of Mongolian importation, and later
+    we find traces of a similar influence: for instance,
+    "Yarkand rugs are semi-Chinese, semi-Tartar, resembling
+    also the works of India and Persia. It is easy to
+    distinguish from what source each comes, as one
+    perceives the influence of the neighbouring native art"
+    ("On Japan," by Dresser, p. 322).
+
+    [61] See a paper by M. Terrien de la Couperie in the
+    Journal of the Society of Arts, 1881.
+
+    [62] "Rome had to be overthrown that the new religion
+    and the new civilization might be established.
+    Christianity did its work in winning to it those
+    Teutonic conquerors, but how vast was the cost to the
+    world, occasioned by the necessity of casting into the
+    boiling cauldron of barbarous warfare, that noble
+    civilization and the treasures which Rome had gathered
+    in the spoil of a conquered universe! Had any old Roman,
+    or Christian father been gifted with Jeremiah's
+    prescience, he might have seen the fire blazing amidst
+    the forests of Germany, and the cauldron settling down
+    with its mouth turned towards the south, and would have
+    uttered his lamentation in plaintive tones, such as
+    Jeremiah's, and in the same melancholy key" ("Holy
+    Bible," with Commentary by Canon Cook, Introduction to
+    Jeremiah, vol. i. p. 319).
+
+    [63] Scandinavian art became strongly tinctured with
+    that of Byzantium. The Varangian Guards were, probably,
+    answerable for this, by their intercourse between Greece
+    and their native land, which lasted so many centuries.
+    There have come down to us, as witnesses of this
+    intercourse, many coins and much jewellery, in which all
+    that is Oriental in its style has been leavened by its
+    passage through Byzantine and Romanesque channels.
+    Gibbon, writing of this period, says: "The habits of
+    pilgrimage and piracy had approximated the countries of
+    the earth" (see Gibbon's "Decline and Fall," chap. lv.).
+
+    Greek embroidered patterns and Greek forms of dress
+    still linger in Iceland. There was lately brought to
+    England a bride's dress, which might have belonged to
+    the Greek wife of a Varangian guardsman. It is
+    embroidered with a border in gold of the classical
+    honeysuckle pattern; and the bridal wreath of gilt metal
+    flowers might, from its style, be supposed to have been
+    taken from a Greek tomb.
+
+    [64] Evidently an imitation of the peplos of Minerva
+    (see fig. 4, p. 32).
+
+    [65] The descent from the Persian of Arab or Moorish
+    art, as we generally call it when speaking of its
+    Spanish development, is to be accounted for by the
+    presence of a considerable colony of Persians in Spain
+    in the time of the Moors, as attested by numerous
+    documents still in existence. See Col. Murdoch Smith's
+    "Preface to Persian Art," Series of Art Handbooks of the
+    Kensington Museum.
+
+    [66] Ronsard, poet, politician, and diplomatist,
+    compares the Queen of Navarre to Pallas Athene:--
+
+        "Elle adonnait son courage
+        A mainte bel ouvrage
+        Dessus la toile, et encor
+        A joindre la soie et l'or.
+        Vous d'un pareil exercise
+        Mariez par artifice
+        Dessus la toile en mainte traits
+        L'or et la soie en pourtraict."
+
+    [67] Mary de Medici brought back with her from Italy
+    Federigo Vinciolo as her designer for embroideries.
+
+    [68] See "Art Needlework," by E. Maxse, and "Manuel de
+    la Broderie," by Madame E. F. Celnart.
+
+    [69] From the Italian translation by Signor Minghetti.
+
+    [70] Gaston, Duke of Orleans (died 1660), kept hothouses
+    on purpose to supply models for floral textile designs.
+    Le Brun often drew the embroideries for the hangings in
+    rooms he had himself designed and decorated.
+
+    [71] We have all seen the dining-room wine-coolers
+    modelled in imitation of Roman tombs; and there is a
+    drawing-room in a splendid mansion still furnished with
+    cinerary urns covering the walls, while curule chairs
+    most uncomfortably furnish the seats.
+
+    [72] In his designs for papers and textiles, Mr. Morris'
+    poetical and artistic feeling--his admiration and
+    sensitiveness for all that is beautiful and graceful (as
+    well as quaint)--his respect for precedent, added to his
+    own fanciful originality,--have given a colour and seal
+    to the whole decorative art of England of to-day. It is
+    a step towards a new school. The sobriety and tenderness
+    of his colouring gives a sense of harmony, and
+    reconciles us to his repetitions of large vegetable
+    forms, which remind us sometimes of a kitchen-garden in
+    a tornado. For domestic decoration we should, as far as
+    possible, adhere to reposing forms and colours. Our
+    flowers should lie in their allotted spaces, quiet and
+    undisturbed by elemental struggles, which have no
+    business in our windowed and glass-protected rooms.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+DESIGN.
+
+    _Gorgo._ Behold these 'broideries! Finer saw you never.
+
+    _Praxinoe._ Ye gods! What artists work'd these pictures in?
+    What kind of painter could these clear lines limn?
+    How true they stand! nay, lifelike, moving ever;
+    Not worked--_created!_ Woman, thou art clever!
+
+      (Scene at a Festival) _Theocritus_, Idyll xv. line 78.
+
+
+The word design, as applied to needlework, includes the principles and
+laws of the art: the motives and their hereditary outcome; the art
+creating the principles; the laws controlling the art.
+
+Design means intention, motive, and should as such be applied to the
+smallest as to the greatest efforts of art. That which results from
+it, either as picture or pattern, is a record of the thoughts which
+produced it, and by its style fixes the date, of its production.
+
+I will first consider the principles of design, and afterwards, in
+another chapter, inquire into the origin of patterns; investigating
+their motives, and using them as examples, and also as warnings.
+
+The individual genius of the artist works first in design, though his
+work is for the use of the craftsman or artisan, his collaborator; for
+the two, head and hands, must work together, or else will render each
+other inoperative or ineffective.
+
+The artisan, by right of his title, claims a part in the art itself;
+the craftsman, by his name, points out that he, too, has to work out
+the craft, the mystery, the inner meaning, of the design or intention.
+
+The designer himself is subject to the prejudices called the taste of
+his day. He is necessarily under the influence which that taste has
+imposed upon him, and from which no spontaneous efforts of genius can
+entirely emancipate him. Whether he is conceiving a temple for the
+worship of a national faith, or the edging for the robe of a fair
+votaress, or the pattern on the border of a cup of gold or brass, he
+cannot avoid the force of tradition and of custom, which comes from
+afar, weighted with the power of long descent, and which crushes
+individuality, unless it is of the most robust nature.
+
+Of very early design we have most curious and mysterious glimpses. The
+cave man was an artist. The few scratches on a bone, cleverly showing
+the forms of a dog or a stag, a whale or a seal, nay, the figure of a
+man, have enabled us to ascertain and to classify the Palaeolithic cave
+man; from whom his less civilized successor, the Neolithic man, may be
+distinguished by his absence of all animal design.[73]
+
+These fragmentary scraps of information, pieced together only in these
+later years, teach us the value of very small facts which time and
+care are now accumulating, and which, being the remains of lives and
+nations passed away, still serve as the soil in which history can be
+fertilized.
+
+We have no means of judging whether the cave man was an artist on a
+greater or more advanced scale than is actually shown by the
+bone-scratchings; the only other relic of his handiwork is the
+needle.[74]
+
+It is evident that a direct imitation of nature, such as is seen in
+these "graffiti," and at an immense distance in advance of them, in
+the earliest known Egyptian sculptures, preceded all conventional art.
+Some of the earliest portrait statues in the Museum at Boulac exhibit
+a high degree of naturalistic design before it became subservient to
+the expression of the faith of the people. As soon as art was found to
+be the fittest conveyance of symbolism, it became the consecrated
+medium for transmitting language, thought, and history, and was
+reduced to forms in which it was contented to remain petrified for
+many centuries, entirely foregoing the study or imitation of
+nature.[75] It recorded customs, historical events, and religious
+beliefs; receiving from the last the impress of the unchangeable and
+the absolute, which it gave to the other subjects on which it touched.
+It ceased to be a creative art (if it had ever aspired to such a
+function), and was never the embodiment of individual thought. This
+phase prevailed under different manifestations in Assyria and China.
+Pictorial art had, in fact, become merely the nursing mother of the
+alphabet, guiding its first steps--the hieroglyphic delineation or
+expression of thoughts and facts.[76]
+
+In Egypt, the change from the first period of actual imitation of
+nature was succeeded by many centuries of the very slowest progress.
+Renouf speaks,[77] however, of "the astonishing identity that is
+visible through all the periods of Egyptian art" (for you could never
+mistake anything Egyptian for the produce of any other country). "This
+identity and slow movement," he says, "are not inconsistent with an
+immense amount of change, which must exist if there is any real life."
+In fact, there were periods of relative progress, repose, and decay,
+and every age had its peculiar character. Birch, Lepsius, or Marriette
+could at once tell you the age of a statue, inscription, or
+manuscript, by the characteristic signs which actually fix[78] the
+date.
+
+Design, unconsciously has a slowly altering and persistently onward
+movement, which but seldom repeats itself. It is one of the most
+remarkable instances of evolution. But it also has its cataclysms
+(however we may account for them), of which the Greek apotheosis of
+all art is a shining example, and the total disappearance of classical
+influence in Europe before the Renaissance is another.
+
+I will instance one prevailing habit of Egyptian art.[79] In the long
+processional subjects, and in individual separate figures, it was
+usual to draw the head in perfect profile, the body facing you, but
+not completely--a sort of compromise with a three-quarter view of
+it--and the feet following each other, on the same line as the
+profile. This mode of representing the human figure was only effaced
+gradually by the introduction of Greek art, and continued to be the
+conventional and decorative method even in the latest days of Egyptian
+art; and it is curious to observe, that in the Dark ages European
+design fell into the same habit. We cannot imagine that this distorted
+way of drawing the human figure could have any intentional meaning,
+and therefore may simply believe that it had become a custom; and that
+when art has so stiffened and consolidated itself by precedent and
+long tradition, as in Egypt and in India, certain errors as well as
+certain truths become, as it were, ingrained into it. Plato remarked
+of Egyptian art, that "the pictures and statues they made ten thousand
+years ago were in no particular better than those they make now."[80]
+
+One day, however, the Greek broke away from the ancient bonds of
+custom. The body was made to accompany the head, and the feet followed
+suit. But the strange fact remains that for several thousand years men
+walked in profile, all out of drawing. Evidently originality was not
+in much estimation among the Egyptian patrons of art. Design seemed to
+have restricted itself to effective adaptations in a few permitted
+forms in architecture and painting, and the illumination of the
+papyrus MSS.
+
+Egyptian elasticity of design found some scope in its domestic
+ornamentation, in jewellery and hangings, but especially in its
+embroideries for dress. Here much ingenuity was shown, and the
+patterns on walls and the ceilings of tombs give us the designs which
+Semper considers as having been originally intended for textile
+purposes. He strains to a point to which I can hardly follow him, the
+theory that all decorations were originally textile (except such as
+proceeded in China from the lattice-work motive); though I willingly
+accept the idea that textile decoration was one of the first and most
+active promoters of design.
+
+It is not possible for us to trace systematically the different points
+at which Egyptian and Asiatic art touch, but we can see that they were
+always acting and reacting on each other in the later centuries before
+our era, and that Greece profited by them. The first efforts of both
+to break through this chrysalis stage, resulted in the early Greek
+archaic style. Its strongly marked, muscular humanity reminds one of
+all the conflicting impressions struggling in the conception of the
+great artist who first embodied them. They appear to be breaking out
+from the trammels of Egyptian and Assyrian styles, which by meeting
+had engendered life; and Greek art was the child of their union. Then
+art, having shaken off symbolism as its only purpose, and seeking to
+represent the forms of men, yet possessed by a guiding spirit, first
+sought to convey the idea of expression. The worship of humanity,
+mingling with that of their gods, produced the Heroic ideal; and all
+the attributes of their heroes--majesty, beauty, grace, and
+passion--had to be depicted; as well as rage, sorrow, despair, and
+revenge. These were soon to be surrounded with all the splendours of
+the arts of decoration.
+
+Greece had prepared for this outburst of excellence and the perfect
+science of art, by collecting the traditions, the symbols, the
+experience in colouring, and the knowledge of beautiful forms, human
+and ideal. All that was needed for the advent of the man who could
+design and create types of beauty for all ages was thus accumulated,
+and the man came, and his name was Pheidias. A crowd followed him, all
+steeped in the same flood of poetry and art; and for several
+centuries they filled the world with the sense and science of beauty.
+Then the function of the designer--the artist--was changed and
+elevated, and he became, through the great days of Greek and Roman
+Pagan art, and afterwards through the rise of that of Christianity,
+the exponent of all that was poetical and ennobling in the life of
+man.
+
+But though the Greek artist had broken the chains of prescribed form,
+he still adhered to the "motive"--the inner symbolical thought--and
+strove to express it as it had never been expressed before.[81] New
+principles were evoked, and the artist, while revelling in the
+"sweetness and light" of freedom, framed for himself standards of
+taste and refinement, which he left as a heritage to all succeeding
+generations.
+
+I fear that I am repeating a platitude when insisting that freedom in
+all design, but especially that employed in decoration, must be kept
+within certain boundaries; otherwise it becomes lawless. Rules, like
+all other controlling circumstances, are of the greatest service to
+the artist, as they suggest what he can do, as well as decide what he
+ought not to attempt. All boundaries are highly suggestive; the size
+of a sheet of paper--the form of a panel--the colours in the box of
+pigments--even the touch of the brush which comes to hand,--all these
+help to shape the idea to our ends, and assist us in giving to the
+original motive the form which is most suitable. These restrictions
+are often regarded as impediments by the impatient artist; whereas he
+ought to look on them as hints and suggestions, and claim their
+assistance, instead of struggling against them. Let us accept the
+principle that it is good for each of our efforts at decoration that
+we are controlled by the space allotted to its composition. The
+relative size (small, perhaps, for a table-cover, but large for that
+of a book) and the shape to which we are limited, alter all the
+conditions of a design. Whether it is square or oblong, or lengthened
+into a frieze; whether it must be divided into parts, including more
+than one motive, or be grouped round one centre; whether it is to be
+repeated more than once within the range of the eye, or whether it is
+to disappear into space upwards or horizontally; and whether it is to
+stand alone, or be framed with lines or a border,--all these
+restrictions must govern the design, or, in its highest phase, the
+composition.
+
+The composition must consist of supporting lines well balanced, and
+"values" filling up the whole surface of the space, which is to
+contain it, and beyond which it must not seek to extend. As we have in
+embroidery no distances--only a foreground--the design must be placed
+all on one plane. The title of "composition" cannot be granted to a
+bouquet or a bird cast on one corner of a square of linen, however
+gracefully it may be drawn. It does not cover the space allotted to
+it.
+
+If we carefully study the great and guiding principles that have been
+distinctly formulated by some of the Continental authorities on
+decorative art, we shall find much help in composing our designs.
+Nothing is more interesting than to search for the foundation of the
+structure which centuries have helped to raise, and to dig out, as it
+were, the original plan or thought of the founder. So it is most
+instructive to learn the fundamental rules by which such results are
+secured.
+
+M. Blanc[82] says of the general laws of ornamentation: "There can be
+no nobler satisfaction to the mind, than to be able to unravel what is
+beyond measure complicated, to diminish what is apparently immense,
+and to reduce to a few clear points what has been till now involved in
+a haze of obscurity. Just as the twenty-six letters of the alphabet
+have been, and always will be sufficient to form the expression of the
+words necessary for all human thought, so certain elements susceptible
+of combination among themselves have sufficed, and will suffice, to
+create ornament, whose variety may be indefinitely multiplied."
+
+He reduces ornamental design to five principles, Repetition,
+Alternation, Symmetry, Progression, and Confusion.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 5.
+    Wave Pattern.]
+
+First, Repetition. "You may act on the mind, through sight, by the
+same means as those that will excite physical sensations. A single
+prick of a pin is nothing, but a hundred such will be intolerably
+painful. Repetition produces pleasurable sensations, as well as
+painful ones." An insignificant form can become interesting by
+repetition, and by the suggestion which, singly, it could not
+originate. For example, the rolling of the Greek scroll or wave
+pattern awakens in us the idea of one object following another. "It
+also suggests the waves of the ocean; or the poet may see in it a
+troop of maidens pursuing each other in space, not frivolously, but in
+cadence, as if executing a mystic dance." Change the curves into
+angular forms, as making the key pattern, and it will no longer flow,
+but become as severe as the other was graceful. No principle gives
+greater pleasure than repetition, and next to it, _alternation_.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 6.
+    Key Pattern.]
+
+Variety is here added to the law of repetition. "There can be
+repetition without alternation, but no alternation without
+repetition." Alternation is, then, a succession of two objects
+recurring regularly in turn; and the cadence of appearance and
+disappearance gives pleasure to the senses, whether it be addressed to
+taste, hearing, or sight. Alternate rhymes, and even short and long
+lines, soothe the ear in verse. In form, the alternations are the more
+agreeable, the more they differ. Such are, in architecture, a
+succession of metopes and triglyphs on a Doric frieze, where the
+circle and the straight lines relieve each other.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 7.
+    Metopes and Triglyphs.]
+
+Symmetry. The correspondence of two parts opposite to each other is
+symmetrical. "A living being, man or animal, is composed of two parts,
+which appear to have been united down one central line. Without being
+identical, if you folded them down the line, they would overlap and
+perfectly cover each other. Man is born with the sense of symmetry, to
+match his outward form; and he appreciates its existence, and
+instinctively feels the want of it. Symmetry is another word for
+justness of proportion. The Greeks understood by symmetry, the
+condition of a body of which the members have a common measure among
+themselves. We expect the two sides of a living being to correspond,
+and we look for these proportions in the living body to balance each
+other, which we do not expect to find in any other natural object. A
+large leaf at the end of a slender stem may be as appropriate, and
+give as much pleasure, as a small leaf in the same position; but a
+huge hand at the end of an arm is not so agreeable to our sense of
+symmetry as one of the size and outline which we naturally expect to
+see.
+
+"The mind of man expects to find, outside of himself and his own
+proportions, something which he feels is proportionate and
+symmetrical; in fact, he at once detects the want of it. The Japanese,
+with delicacy and taste, often substitute for symmetry its
+corollary--balance. The Chinese or Japanese vase will often have an
+appreciable affinity and resemblance to a Greek one, each preserving a
+secret balance, even in the extremest whimsicality of its composition.
+Proportion is another corollary to symmetry, if it is not another word
+for some of its qualities."
+
+"Progression. In this principle are included long perspectives,
+pyramidal forms in architecture, and certain processional
+compositions."
+
+"For pyramidal surfaces, such as pediments, a progressive ornament is
+the fittest. All the buildings in the East, and in the ancient cities
+of Central America, which are raised on pyramids of steps, show the
+tendency to this species of effect in giving dignity to the buildings
+placed on such platforms."
+
+"Perspectives are highly attractive specimens of progression, which,
+when made use of in the decorations of a theatre, produce delightful
+illusions."
+
+M. Blanc quotes Bernardin de St. Pierre, who says: "When the
+branches of a plant are disposed in a uniform plan of diminishing
+size, as in the pyramidal shape of a pine, there is progression; and
+if these trees be planted in long avenues, diminishing in height and
+colour, as each tree does in itself, our pleasure is redoubled,
+because progression here becomes infinite. It is owing to this
+feeling of infinity that we take pleasure in looking at anything that
+presents progression, such as nurseries in different stages of
+growth, the slopes of hills retreating to the horizon at different
+levels--interminable perspectives."
+
+All floral compositions which give the effect or impression of growth
+may be included in the progressive principle. A composition which,
+beginning as it were with a stem, spreads and floreates equally on
+each side; thrusting outwards and upwards, and ending in a topmost
+twig or bud, is governed by this principle.
+
+Confusion. Boileau is quoted by M. Blanc as saying, "A fine disorder
+is often the effect of art;" and he adds, "But before he said it,
+nature had shown it." Here we must observe that the confusions or
+disorders of nature are all subject to certain laws; and it is in
+adopting this idea, that an artistic confusion may give us the sense
+of its being ordered by, and subject to definite rules. These rules
+act as the frame affects the picture, circumscribing its
+irregularities, and restricting them to a certain area. "The
+artist-painter is, in a small space, permitted to employ confusion,
+because the art of the cabinet-maker will keep the geometrical effect
+in view." When the Japanese throw their ornaments, apparently without
+rule, here and there on the japanned box, they reckon on the square
+shape being sufficiently marked to the eye by its shining surface and
+sharp corners.
+
+The confusion in a Japanese landscape is so beautiful that one
+appreciates the innate sense of balance, which modifies the
+confusion--rules and orders it.
+
+"In the hands of the designer, confusion is only a method of rendering
+order visible in a happy disorder. Here contraries meet and touch....
+Admit these as the principles of all decoration, and you will find
+that, by following and combining them, you may produce varieties as
+numberless as the sands of the sea, and that a latent equilibrium will
+reduce nearly every complication and confusion to perfect harmony."
+
+Each of the five principles we have discussed has its corollary, which
+adds to the resources of the decorative artist. These are as
+follows:--To Repetition belongs harmony, or consonance; to
+Alternation, contrast; to Symmetry, radiation; to Progression,
+gradation; to balanced Confusion, deliberate complication.[83]
+
+_Harmonies_ in form and in colour are produced in different
+ways--sometimes by repetition with variation; sometimes by the
+different parts being rather reflected on each than repeated. This
+explains the harmony that may be called consonance, if I rightly
+understand M. Blanc's theory.
+
+_Contrast_ is most generally understood as a common resource in the
+hands of the artist for producing strong effects; but M. Blanc
+cleverly expresses the reticence needed to ensure contrast being
+pleasurable, not painful. "To adorn persons or things," he says, "is
+not simply for the purpose of causing them to be conspicuous; it is
+that they may be admired. It is not simply to draw attention to them,
+but that they may be regarded with feelings of pleasure.... If
+contrast be needed, let it be used as the means of rendering the whole
+more powerful, brilliant, and striking. For instance, if orange is
+intended to predominate in a decoration, let blue be mingled with it,
+but sparingly. Let the complementary colour be its auxiliary, and not
+its rival." Contrasts are always unpleasant, if the two forces
+struggle with each other for pre-eminence, whether it be in form or in
+colour. The rule to be observed in all ornamental design is this:
+"that contrasting objects, instead of disturbing unity, should assist
+it by giving most effect to that we wish to bring forward and
+display."
+
+_Radiation_ belongs to the principle of symmetry, starting from a
+centre from which all lines diverge, and to which all lines point.
+This is to be found throughout nature, from the rays of the sun to the
+petals of the daisy. All decorative art employs and illustrates it.
+
+"_Gradation_ in colour, as in form, is not quite synonymous with
+progression, but expresses a series of adroitly managed transitions.
+The English intermingle in their decoration, colours very finely
+blended; nor do they find any transition too delicate. This, as in all
+principles of ornament, has to be employed according to the feelings
+intended to be produced on the mind of the spectator--whether for
+absolute contrast or for imperceptible progression, when the tenderest
+colours are needed."
+
+_Complication_ is illustrated by M. Blanc, by a quotation from
+"Ziegler."[84] "Complication is another aspect of the art which owns
+the same sentiment as that expressed by Daedalus in his labyrinth,
+Solomon in his mysterious seal, the Greeks in their interlacing and
+winding ornaments, the Byzantines, the Moors, and the architects of
+our cathedrals in their finest works. Intertwined mosaics, and
+intersection of arches and ribs, all spring from complication."
+
+To follow the interlacing line of an ornament, gives the mind the
+pleasure of untying the Gordian knot, without cutting it. It gives the
+excitement of curiosity, pursuit, and discovery. "When we see these
+traceries so skilfully plaited, in which straight lines and curves
+intermingle, cross, branch out, disappear and recur, we experience a
+high pleasure in unravelling a puzzle which at first, perhaps,
+appeared to be undecipherable; and in acknowledging that a latent
+arrangement may be recognized in what at first, and at a distance,
+seems an inextricable confusion." The Celtic, Moorish, and Gothic
+styles illustrate and are explained by these remarks; and they are
+well worthy the attention of the designer.
+
+Having so freely borrowed from M. Blanc's chapter on the general laws
+of ornamentation, I will finish my quotations with the words with
+which he concludes: "There is no decoration in the works of nature or
+the inventions of men which does not owe its birth to one of the
+original principles here enumerated, viz. Repetition, Alternation,
+Symmetry, Progression, and Balanced Confusion; or else to one of their
+secondary causes, consonance, contrast, radiation, gradation, and
+complication; or lastly, to a combination of these different elements,
+which all finally lose themselves in a primordial cause--the origin of
+the movements of the universe--ORDER."[85]
+
+The extracts from M. Blanc's works I have carefully placed between
+commas, being most anxious to express my obligation to him for his
+carefully formulated epitome of the laws of design. But though I have
+largely quoted, there remains still much most interesting and
+suggestive matter, which I recommend the reader to seek in his book.
+
+Though we should call to our aid the general laws of design for all
+art, we must select from them what is specially appropriate for the
+needs of our craft. From the art of needlework we should eliminate
+as much as possible all ideas of _roundness_, all variety of surface
+and effects of light and shadow and contrasting colours. Unity,
+softness, grace, refinement, brightness, cheerfulness, pleasant
+suggestions,--these should be the objects in view when we design the
+panels for the drawing-room or boudoir, the hangings for the bed, or
+the cover for the table--harmony which will satisfy the eye, thoughts
+that shall please the mind.
+
+The objects in nature that give us the most unalloyed pleasure--birds
+and flowers--are those that from all time have served as the materials
+for decorative design, and therefore have been moulded into the
+traditional patterns which have descended to us from the earliest
+times. Design must follow the scientific laws of art, and shape the
+variations of traditional forms from which we cannot escape. In our
+present search after these inner truths, I repeat that we have nothing
+to do with the rules of painting, sculpture, and architecture, or any
+other of the secondary arts, such as wood carving, metal work, &c.;
+these having each their own intrinsic principles, which must be worked
+out as corollaries from the general laws of composition which govern
+all Aryan art.[86]
+
+It is curious that in drawing on the flat, in ancient frescoes, there
+appear to be no acknowledged rules of perspective--hardly more in
+Pompeii, than on early Chinese screens and plates; or than later in
+the Bayeux tapestries. And yet the Greeks, with their unerring
+instinct, actually made use of false architectural perspectives to add
+to the effects of height and depth in their colonnaded buildings.[87]
+They sensibly diminished the circumference of the columns, and used
+other means in their designs for this purpose. They understood the
+principle, but they did not carry it into flat decorative art. They
+did not attempt, when they painted a landscape on the wall, to do more
+than recall the idea they were sketching; and never thought of vying
+in scientific or naturalistic imitation with the real landscape they
+saw through the window; they did not wish to interfere with the effect
+of the statue, or the human figures grouped in front of it, to which
+the wall served as a background. Those threw shadows and cast lights;
+but in the flat there were no shadows, no perspective--all was
+flat.[88] We must draw from this the deduction that the Greeks held
+that flatness was an essential quality of wall decoration (except in
+friezes) as well as of all textile ornament; and for every reason we
+must accept this flatness as a general law for designs in embroidery.
+
+In hangings and dress materials, flatness is more agreeable than a
+complicated shaded design, especially when it is further confused by
+folds, disturbing and interrupting the flow of the lines of the
+pattern.
+
+The reader will perceive that the laws of composition for textiles
+quoted from M. Blanc, apply perfectly to designs on the flat, and to
+outlined sketches in black and white, as well as to the most
+elaborate compositions for pictures, either historical or "genre."
+They are rules which should be understood and employed by the man who
+draws for a wall-paper or an area railing; and certainly by him who
+makes patterns for our schools of design.
+
+It may therefore be laid down as a general rule, that all designs for
+embroidery should be considered first as outlined drawings, covering a
+flat surface, and then filled in with colour. The outlines should as
+little as possible overlap one another, as flatness is one of the
+first objects to be remembered; and this, of course, will be disturbed
+by the parts passing over or under each other. Indian designs in
+flowers have invariably a wonderful flatness, in the absence of all
+light and shadow; joined to a naturalistic suggestion of detail, which
+is accounted for by their traditional mode of copying from nature. The
+branch or blossom to be copied, is laid on the ground and pegged down
+with care, to eliminate every variety of surface, and every branch and
+twig so arranged that they may not cross or touch each other. This
+conventional composition is then drawn, and every natural distinction
+in the form carefully copied. I would suggest that this idea should be
+accepted as useful for imitation among ourselves in certain
+conventional compositions of vegetable forms. Perhaps it is our Aryan
+ancestry that has given us a prevailing taste for such decorations;
+and it is worth while to consider how best to manipulate them.[89]
+
+Clinging as we do to these floral designs, we can see that they are
+the only ones that bear repetition, whether covering the surface of
+the material in the rich irregularity of the flowers in a field, or
+conventionalized into a form or a pattern.
+
+The eye is never shocked or fatigued by such repetitions in orderly
+confusion, or trained by the hand into artistic shapes or meanderings
+of tracery. But when embroidery or weaving attempts to represent
+animals or typical human figures, repetition immediately becomes
+tiresome. A Madonna surrounded by angels, comes in badly, repeated
+over and over again as a pattern, broken up by folds, cut up by a
+seam, dislocated in the joining, and repeated in tiers. Such a design
+is figured in Auberville's book.[90] The drawing is beautiful, but by
+repetition it becomes ridiculous. I therefore deprecate this kind of
+ornament in textile work. For this reason embroidery, which can be
+fitted to each space that is to be covered, is preferable to woven
+designs, however richly or perfectly they may be carried out.
+
+Another class of design, which must be considered apart, is the
+conventional-geometrical, of which the special distinction appears to
+be that it consists of echoes or fragments of what we have seen
+elsewhere. These conventional patterns are often merely the _detritus_
+of past styles or motives crushed and placed by time in a sort of
+kaleidoscope. They remind one of the little wreaths of broken shells
+and coloured sea-weeds left on the sands by the retiring waves after a
+storm, and are sometimes full of beauty and suggestion. (Pl. 17.) We
+trace in these fragmentary patterns forgotten links with different
+civilizations; and we ponder on the historical events which have
+brought them into juxtaposition. These kaleidoscope patterns are to be
+seen in Persian and Turkish carpets of the present day, and we find,
+on examination, little bits which can only be the remnants of a
+broken-up motive, probably as much lost now to the designer who
+inherits the traditional form, as to us who can only see the vague
+results.
+
+I illustrate this remark by giving the border of a modern Persian
+carpet which has certainly had Egyptian ancestry. The boat, the
+beetle, and the prehistoric cross are to be found in it.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 8.
+    Persian Carpet.]
+
+Many conventional patterns of to-day are descendants of the
+lattice-work of Chinese art, and of the zigzags, lines, and discs of
+barbarous primitive ornamentation.
+
+The traceries in Indian stone windows show some of the most charming
+geometrical forms, and are akin to the Persian and Russian modes of
+composing conventional patterns. They appear on very ancient metal
+work, and are the motives of all the embroideries in the Greek islands
+and the principalities, and of the linen embroideries of Russia. Their
+Byzantine origin gave its impress to the European schools of the
+Middle Ages, and the pattern-books of Germany and Venice of the
+sixteenth century are full of them. They are best suited for the
+mosaic stitches, and, kept in their places as decoration, they are
+useful for carpets and borders.
+
+It should be impressed on our young artists, that, in composing their
+designs, they must be influenced by the materials to be employed, and
+the purpose for which the decoration is intended. Thus in textile
+design for dress and hangings (excepting for tapestries) the fact must
+never be lost sight of that they will be subject to disturbance by
+crossing folds and crumplings, which will break up the lines of the
+pattern. It is therefore evident that a design fitted for a rigid
+material in a fixed place, such as an architectural decoration in
+wood, stone, or stucco, must be subject to a treatment different from
+that which befits an embroidered curtain or panel.
+
+Stone and wood, being materials of uniform colour, require all the
+help of recessed shadows and projections to catch the light; whereas
+in textiles, form is assisted by colour, and smoothness of surface is
+a primary consideration. The strongly accentuated design for
+wood-carving becomes poor and lifeless when deprived of its essential
+conditions and _raison d'etre_, and the pattern which looks charming,
+outlined and filled in with colour, could be hardly seen incised on a
+flat stone surface. This seems a truism, but the neglect of these
+plain axioms causes many mistakes in decorative art. Mr. Redgrave
+says: "A design must be bad which applies the same treatment to
+different materials." He further says: "The position of the ornament
+requires special consideration. The varied quantities, bolder relief,
+and coarser execution are not only allowable, but absolutely
+necessary, at heights considerably above the eye. Moreover, each
+fabric has its own peculiar lustre, texture, &c. Thus, in the use of
+hangings, curtains, &c., the design might be suitable in silk, and
+coarse or dull in woollen."[91]
+
+Here I venture to differ from Mr. Redgrave. Perspective is as much to
+be respected in decoration as in pictures, near to the eye; and the
+gradation in size and colour, as the ornament travels up into height
+or fades into distance, is a phase of pleasure which should not be
+checked by enlargement of form or reinforcement of colouring.
+
+It is hardly necessary to warn our artists against a sort of design
+which is conventional, yet had its own meaning in the beginning. This
+is to be found in Indian carvings and embroideries of a certain date,
+or imitating the works of that distant period. It proceeded from a
+hideous worship of monstrous Dravidian divinities. Their statues are
+to be found, surrounded by coarsely designed patterns, in the temple
+architecture of the first and second centuries. Its characteristics
+are idols in niches or shrines, distorted in form or attitude; foliage
+of unnatural, twisted plants, added to the recurring of the lotus and
+tree of life; or animals destroying each other, or kneeling in worship
+to the idols. These ugly designs are purely conventional. Fergusson
+suggests that they were introduced into Mexico in the fourth or fifth
+centuries A.D. by Buddhism.[92]
+
+Those many-armed, sometimes many-faced divinities drove out the
+beautiful Aryan types, which, however, resumed their sway when the
+wave of the Renaissance flowed back to India, and was remodelled by
+Oriental taste to the lovely designs we find in the Taj Mahal.
+
+In M. Blanc's classification of ornament, he has placed Gothic design
+under the head of deliberate complication. The whole of the Gothic
+decorations, which are a gradual growth in one direction, arose from
+the study of interlacing boughs and stems, employed as the enrichment
+of the newly-grown forms of the vaulted roofs. The possibilities of
+great size and height covered these designs and inspired all their
+decoration; and the effect of reiteration and long recurring lines in
+perspective was essentially the motive of these avenues in stone.[93]
+
+Here enter the principles of repetition and progression, and you will
+find how carefully the designers of the twelfth, thirteenth, and
+fourteenth centuries worked up to these ideas. You will see in their
+embroideries, shining figures or pictures in gold, silver, and
+coloured silks, shimmering on dark velvet backgrounds, each design
+terminating a perspective of architectural forms which enhances their
+brilliancy. The most effective, probably, were generally employed for
+the adornment of the high altar, so as to be seen from a great
+distance. The smaller and less distinct and more delicate ornaments
+were reserved for the side chapels or for smaller churches, where such
+distant effects were inappropriate. But the motives of ecclesiastical
+embroidery will be discussed in a future chapter.
+
+All attempts at pictorial art are a mistake in textiles. It does not
+enter into such designs; and when by chance it is allowed to be so
+used, it is an error of judgment, and only exhibits a laborious and
+useless ingenuity. It is no longer an artistic delineation of a
+natural object, but becomes an imitation of another way of rendering
+such objects.
+
+Mr. Redgrave says that pictorial art in our manufactures is one of our
+great mistakes. "The picture must be independent of the material, the
+thought alone should govern it; whereas in decoration the material
+must be one of the suggestors of the thought, its use must govern the
+design."
+
+Perhaps it will appear to my readers that here I repeat, in different
+forms, what has been said in a previous chapter on the history of
+style. I think that it is better to do so, than to omit to show where
+style and design must accompany each other. Style, without any
+reference to design, would be but a barren subject; and design,
+without reference to style, would become lawless, and soon be lost in
+the mazes of bad taste and mannerism. Both subjects are of so large
+and important a nature that I do not attempt to do more than point out
+how, in their history and their influence, they belong to the craft of
+embroidery.
+
+Such influences belong to all art; and though I am anxious to confine
+myself to only one section of it, I find it difficult to resist the
+temptation to generalize and stray from the prescribed path, when
+large and important views are opened on every side, as I travel on
+from point to point.
+
+In sketching the history of design, as well as I may in so short a
+space, it is only considered in the light in which it illustrates our
+craft.
+
+I repeat that the design should be informed by the motive which
+suggested it, and by the need which has called it forth; and it must
+be moulded to the space it has to fill, and the position it will
+occupy. The design must be modified into different outward forms,
+according to whether it is to be fitted to the edge of a building
+against the sky; to a high panelled wall; to be applied as a frieze,
+or round the capital of a pillar; to the embroidered cover of an
+altar, or the silken hangings of a bed, or the framed flat spaces on
+the walls of a saloon. In fact, "intention," "place," and "shape" are
+necessary motives and limits to a flat design.
+
+Leaving aside all architectural ornamentation, and adhering only to my
+own subject, embroidery, I will limit my observations to the three
+purposes here suggested. Firstly, as the central effect of the holiest
+part of a church; secondly, in the domestic and comfortable room, to
+be adorned and made cheerful; and thirdly, as decking the refined and
+gay saloon or banqueting-hall.
+
+To the church we should devote the most splendid and effective
+contrasts, to blaze unframed against dark empty backgrounds, or amidst
+stone and marble decorations; something set apart from its
+surroundings, and asserting that separation, is the desirable effect
+to be attained.
+
+A totally different set of rules come into play when we have to select
+the decorations of a bedroom. Here a background does not exist. We are
+surrounded by four walls very near to the eye, so that perspectives
+are a secondary interest, if indeed they can claim any consideration;
+severe and magnificent ornamentation is out of place, except perhaps
+in that time-honoured institution--to be found in every great house
+possessing a suite of reception-rooms--the State bedroom, where the
+display of hangings and embroideries was the first motive of the
+decoration of the past, clothing and garnishing the bare spaces on the
+lofty walls. Space and separateness are not the object or aim of the
+bedroom of to-day; but lightness, snugness, and cheerful comfort, with
+which the design of the textile ornaments have much to do. This will
+in a later chapter come under the head of furniture.
+
+For the saloon we may accept any splendour of rich and costly design,
+and the variously shaped panels assist in suggesting the form of the
+decoration. The plain or moulded panels, called in Italian "targhe,"
+or shields, seem to be descended from the actual shields of gold which
+Solomon hung on the walls of the king's house in the Forest of
+Lebanon.[94] The motive was apparently Tyrian, and traces of it are
+also to be found in Assyrian sculpture.[95]
+
+The practice of framing the design gives opportunities for change of
+materials, colour, and pattern, permitting the employment of different
+flat surfaces laid on each other, and scope for endless enrichment;
+the framed picture being, perhaps, the central culminating attraction,
+crowning, as it were, the textile ornamentation.
+
+I merely give these instances as illustrating the rule that we have
+more than once laid down, that a design cannot fitly be employed
+except in the position for which the artist has composed it. I will,
+however, add that though it is right to give due consideration to the
+preparation of each work for its intended use, yet we often have
+charming suggestions offered to us, by the chance acquisition of a
+beautiful artistic specimen, which finds its own place and
+accommodates itself to the surrounding colours and forms. These are
+the happy accidents of which the cultivated artistic eye takes
+advantage, adding them to the experience which may help those who are
+seeking for the rules of harmony and contrast in design.
+
+Research into the mysteries and principles of design applies to woven
+arabesques and patterns, and must include machine-made textile
+ornament, and all decorative needlework. It is, in fact, the fabric
+for the million which most especially needs the careful study of
+guiding rules. When a plant sends forth hundreds of winged, wind-blown
+seeds, like the thistle, it spreads itself over wide fields, and is
+more mischievous than a more noxious growth, such as the deadly
+nightshade, which only drops an occasional berry into the earth. So a
+common cheap chintz or carpet, with a poor, gaudy, motiveless design,
+carries a bad style into thousands of homes wherever our commerce
+extends; disgracing us, while it corrupts the taste of other nations.
+
+In addressing our young designers, I would remind them that in art the
+race is not always to the strong. Prudence and educated powers,
+thoughtfulness and study, often carry us where unassisted and
+uncultivated genius has signally failed. Even such facilities as are
+afforded by the acquirement of freehand drawing, as taught in our
+schools of art, are not to be despised. The workman should thoroughly
+master his tools, or they will hamper him. The first step towards
+design is that you should learn to draw. After this, appreciation and
+observation are necessary, and due balance in outline and colour
+should be studied; and all this is as much needed in drawing a
+pattern as in composing a picture. The difference lies in our art
+being only decorative, wherein beauty and fitness are to be
+remembered, and nothing else; whereas the picture may have to record
+historical facts, or to inspire poetical thoughts--to awe or to touch
+the beholder. A decorative design is only asked to delight him.
+Intelligent delight, however, can only be evoked by intelligent art,
+and to this, decoration must be subjected.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [73] The earliest art we know (the bone-scratching) is
+    naturalistic and imitative. We are unaware of any
+    attempt at a pattern of the prehistoric period. The lake
+    cities are of so vague a date that their ornaments on
+    pottery are puzzling rather than instructive. The
+    earliest Hellenic pottery was scratched or painted.
+    Cuttle-fish, repeated over and over again, are among the
+    earliest attempts at a pattern, by repetition of a
+    natural object. Naturalism soon fell into symbolism,
+    which appropriated it and all art, and the upheaval of a
+    new culture was needed to lift it once more into the
+    region of individual creation. See Boyd Dawkins' "Early
+    Man in Britain;" also General Pitt Rivers's Museum of
+    Prehistoric Art, lately presented to the University of
+    Oxford.
+
+    [74] See Boyd Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain."
+
+    [75] "I hope, indeed, to enable them" (the members of
+    his class) "to read, above all, the minds of
+    semi-barbarous nations in the only language by which
+    their feelings were capable of expression; and those
+    whose temper inclines them to take a pleasure in mythic
+    symbols, will not probably be induced to quit the
+    profound fields of investigation which early art will
+    open to them, and which belong to it alone. For this is
+    a general law, that supposing the intellect of the
+    workman the same, the more imitatively complete his art,
+    the less he will mean by it, and the ruder the symbol,
+    the deeper the intention."--Ruskin's "Oxford Lectures on
+    Art," 1870, p. 19.
+
+    [76] See Isaac Taylor's "History of the Alphabet."
+
+    [77] Renouf's Hibbert Lectures, 1879, p. 67.
+
+    [78] Now there is a point of view in which we may regard
+    the imitative art of all races, the most civilized as
+    well as the most barbarous--in reference to the power of
+    correctly representing animal and vegetable forms, such
+    as they exist in nature. The perfection of such
+    imitation depends not so much on the manual dexterity of
+    the artist as on his intelligence and comprehension of
+    the type of the essential qualities of the form he
+    desires to represent. See Ch. T. Newton's "Essays on Art
+    and Archaeology," p. 17.
+
+    [79] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians."
+
+    [80] Plato's Second Book of Laws, p. 656.
+
+    [81] "The religion of the Greeks penetrated into their
+    institutions and daily life. The myth was not only
+    embodied in the sculptures of Pheidias on the Parthenon,
+    and portrayed in the paintings of Polygnotus in the Stoa
+    Poikile; it was repeated in a more compendious and
+    abbreviated form on the fictile vase of the Athenian
+    household, on the coin circulated in the market-place,
+    on the mirror in which the Aspasia of the day beheld her
+    charms. Every domestic implement was made the vehicle of
+    figurative language, or fashioned into a
+    symbol."--Newton's "Essays on Art and Archaeology," p.
+    23.
+
+    [82] "Art in Ornament and Dress," by M. Charles Blanc,
+    formerly Director of the French Institute. Eng. Trans.,
+    Chapman and Hall, London.
+
+    [83] See Charles Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress," p.
+    31.
+
+    [84] Charles Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress," p. 43.
+
+    [85] Charles Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress," pp.
+    43, 45, 46.
+
+    [86] Chinese design shows naturalistic art arrested and
+    perpetuated on totally different principles. Their
+    representations are all equally allied to their art of
+    picture-painting, whether on china with the brush, or on
+    textiles with the needle. The flatness of the picture is
+    still preserved by their ignorance of perspective. When
+    they attempted to express different distances, they did
+    so by placing them one above another, so that in reading
+    the composition the eye first takes in the distant
+    horizon; next below it, the middle distance; and being
+    thus prepared, it comes down to the actual living
+    foreground, on which rests the dramatic action and
+    interest addressed to the spectator. The Chinese
+    understood many of the secrets of art, yet never
+    achieved perspective.
+
+    [87] See Mr. Penrose's work on the measurements of the
+    Parthenon at Athens. Published by the Society of the
+    Dilettanti.
+
+    [88] Marked outlines in embroidery add to the flatness,
+    and enable us to omit cast shadows. In this it differs
+    entirely from pictorial art, where one of the great
+    objects is to avoid flatness.
+
+    [89] Semper's theory, already mentioned, is that textile
+    design was certainly flat; that it was the first form of
+    decoration, and was followed by bas-relief, which could
+    not at once rid itself of the original motive.
+
+    [90] Auberville's "Ornamentation des Tissus" (eleventh
+    century).
+
+    [91] Redgrave's "Manual of Design," pp. 43-45.
+
+    [92] This idolatrous type was introduced into England by
+    the Buccaneers, and reflected on our carvings and
+    embroideries of the time of James I., slightly modified
+    by the Italian Renaissance of that period. As this sort
+    of vulgar ornamentation has once prevailed, let us
+    protect ourselves against its possible recurrence.
+
+    [93] While making this passing allusion to the theory
+    that the origin of all Gothic decoration is mainly
+    founded on the motive of interlacing stems and foliage,
+    I wish to guard myself against being supposed in any way
+    to argue against other beginnings, whenever they can be
+    proved. I have said before that most decorations have a
+    mixed ancestry. But when I see single or clustered
+    columns starting from the ground--spreading at the base
+    like the gnarled root, and growing till they culminate
+    in crowns of foliage, forming symmetrical capitals, like
+    the first clusters of leaves on a strong young
+    sapling--then the branches spreading and interlacing,
+    only checked at equal intervals by a lovely leaf or
+    burgeon, till they meet in blossoms on the highest point
+    of the arch,--I cannot but adhere to the old idea that
+    rows of trees meeting overhead suggested Gothic ornament
+    as well as Gothic Architecture. The Spanish or Moresque
+    Gothic was overloaded with leaves and flowers, and the
+    German Gothic was enriched with fantastic trees and
+    flowers, each according to its national taste and
+    fashion. A Gothic tree is a very conventional plant; and
+    generally carries only one leaf on each branch. I have
+    given a specimen of archaic trees from the Bayeux
+    tapestry. They are typical of the Gothic botanical idea
+    and style down to the fourteenth century. (Fig. 13.)
+
+    Nor is this interpretation of Gothic design other than a
+    result of its descent from the Egyptian ancestral
+    motive, where the temple columns represented the single
+    stem of the lotus with one large blossom for its
+    capital, or else a bundle of stems of the lotus, palm,
+    and convolvulus flowering together into a beautiful
+    cluster. Even the gigantic columns of the great
+    hypaethral hall at Karnac are only a stupendous
+    exaggeration of the same stalk and flower motive. From
+    these were derived the forms of the early Greek
+    column--soon enriched by substituting the Acanthus for
+    the Lotus, but often retaining the convolvulus.
+
+    [94] 1 Kings x.; Ezek. xxvii. 10, 11. See Stanley's
+    "Lectures on the Jewish Church."
+
+    [95] Layard's "Nineveh and its Remains," vol. ii. p.
+    388; Rawlinson's "Ancient Monarchies," vol. ii. p. 2.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+PATTERNS.
+
+
+In the last chapter on design I have described patterns as the
+examples or illustrations of the art of decoration, and as being the
+records of the motives which produced them in different eras. My
+present object is to class and define patterns as decorative art.
+
+It is argued by some archaeologists that the recurrence of a pattern,
+for instance the "wave," over the whole world, proves that it really
+came from many sources, under the same conditions of life and art;
+showing also that a pattern is a thing that, like a flower, must grow,
+if the culture of the race be equal. I do not believe this. We can
+nearly always trace the family history of a pattern to its original
+motive; and in the very few cases where we are unable to do so, it is
+hardly necessary to cover our ignorance by stretching the fashionable
+theory of development over the few instances that are as yet
+unaccountable.
+
+I have been repeatedly asked to procure or to invent a new pattern.
+Such is my respect for the decorative achievement called a "pattern,"
+that I cannot hope for the moment of inspiration in which I might
+create such a thing. If any one has in his lifetime invented a
+pattern, he has done something truly remarkable, and as rare as is a
+really original thought on any subject. Patterns are commonly, like
+men, the result of many centuries of long descent from ancestors of
+remote antiquity.
+
+Individuals differ from their ancestors through inherited and
+surrounding conditions, and through the modifying powers of evolution,
+climate, and education. So also a pattern has, besides its ancestry
+and descent, the unconscious mark or seal of its day; and it is easy
+to trace whence it comes, if we set ourselves to examine the style of
+it seriously.
+
+The patterns of which we can nearly always name at once the
+nationality, are the Assyrian, the Chinese, the Egyptian, the Hindu
+(Aryan and Turanian), the Persian, the Archaic and the highly
+developed Grecian; the Roman, the Celtic, the Byzantine, the Arabian,
+the Gothic, the Renaissance, the Spanish Plateresque, the Louis
+Quatorze, and those of the art of Central America.
+
+The pattern cannot exist without design. Design means intention and
+motive. Many of the motives in Oriental textile decorations are
+suggestive of intention, as is shown by their names. Among Indian
+patterns we meet with "ripples of silver," "sunshine and shade,"
+"pigeon's eye," "peacock's neck," &c.[96]
+
+Patterns must be classed either by their dates, when ascertained, or
+according to their style, which must generally be allowed to cover
+vast areas and periods irregularly drifting down, overlapping, or
+being absorbed or effaced by the circumstances they have encountered.
+
+Only when a national style has been obstinately fixed, as in China,
+and bound down by strict laws and religious formulas, suited exactly
+to the people for whom they were evolved out of the national life, and
+imprinted on it by their own lawgivers, philosophers, and priests; and
+neither imposed by conquerors, nor swept over by the waves of a new
+civilization;--only in such cases can we find a continuity of
+decorative art which leads us far back on its traces. Then, on this
+long track, we learn how little, man, the decorating animal, has
+really advanced in his powers of creation. He has gone more than once
+to a certain point, and has then either been petrified by law and
+custom--turned into a pillar of salt, like Lot's wife, because he has
+looked back instead of striving to advance, or else through poverty or
+satiety has fallen into the last stage of the Seven Ages, "_sans_
+eyes, _sans_ teeth--_sans_ everything." When what is good is neither
+perceived nor desired, then the arts, small and great, dwindle and
+disappear, and nothing remains to show that they have been, but a
+name, and perhaps a pattern.
+
+Chinese design is the most striking example of the first of these
+phases; and the extinction of all classical art with the fall of
+Paganism in Rome is an instance of the second.
+
+In the chapter on style it is said that a pattern is as ineffaceable
+as a word. But one will occasionally disappear for a time, till the
+ruin that covers it is cleared away, and the lost design recovered and
+employed simply as a decoration, if it is beautiful; or perhaps fitted
+with a new meaning, and so it makes a fresh start.
+
+The importance of patterns, when traceable to their origin, as a means
+of investigating historical influences cannot be too much insisted on,
+and their history is full of suggestion as a guide to the decorator.
+Much has been argued and much ascertained from the evidence of these
+fragments of national civilizations, showing how an idea or a myth has
+been, as it were, engrafted into the essence of another national idea,
+partly altering what it finds, and changing to fit itself to its new
+surroundings. Eastern patterns have travelled far, and lasted long;
+and continue still to hold the fancy, and exercise the ingenuity, of
+the artist and decorator. When we find a pattern of which the
+nationality is strongly marked, it is worth our while to ascertain its
+date and history, which will help us to recognize cognate design
+wherever we may meet it. However, this is often not to be done; and
+then it is best to set these puzzling examples aside, and to await
+patiently the elucidation, which may come from some source of which we
+are as yet ignorant.
+
+In very early art we have little remaining but patterns, on which we
+may found theories by tracing them home to their original source. The
+oldest patterns had each a meaning and an intention. When a pattern
+has been enduring and far spread, it is because it was originally the
+expression of an idea or a symbol.
+
+In the earliest dawn of civilization, the arts were the repositories
+of the myths and mysteries of national faiths. Embroidery was one of
+these arts, and the border which edged the garment of a divinity, the
+veil which covered the grave of a loved one, or the flower-buds and
+fruit which fringed the hangings and curtains in the sanctuary, each
+had a meaning, and therefore a use. These symbolical designs and forms
+were constantly reproduced; and all human ingenuity was exercised in
+reforming, remodelling, and adding perfect grace to the expression of
+the same idea.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Patterns may be ranged under four heads--the Primitive, the
+Naturalistic, the Conventional, and the Geometrical.
+
+The primitive are those of which we know not the ancestry, and rarely
+can guess the motive. To us they are, in general, simply rude
+decorations. The naturalistic are those which are borrowed from
+natural forms, and are either only imitative, or else convey some
+hidden meaning. The conventional are those which, by long descent,
+have come to be accepted simply as ornamental art, with or without
+reference to an original motive, now lost. The geometrical or
+symmetrical are founded on form only, and in so far resemble our
+experience of the primitive; they express no meaning, and only serve
+to satisfy the eye by their balance and their ingenuity.
+
+
+PRIMITIVE.
+
+The first patterned forms with which we are acquainted are the
+primitive. They are found in all parts of the inhabited world. In our
+present ignorance as to the beginnings of the scattered tribes of men,
+we cannot judge if these are the remains of an earlier art or the
+first germs of a new one. Of one thing there is no doubt: this
+primitive decoration consists entirely of pattern; that is to say, of
+the repetition of certain (to us) inexpressive forms, which by
+reiteration assume importance and in some degree express beauty--the
+beauty of what Monsieur Blanc calls "cadence."
+
+After these first unintelligible forms, which simply by repetition
+become accepted patterns, come those called the Prehistoric, of which
+we know or guess something as to their original meaning, and which,
+having been reduced from the hieroglyphic-symbolical to the
+conventional, have thus crystallized themselves, by constant use, into
+a pattern. Such, for instance, is the simplest form of the "wave"
+pattern, which in very early art was a representation of water.
+
+The prehistoric water or wave patterns had other forms; for instance,
+zigzags, upright or horizontal, and undulating lines which are
+intelligible as expressing smooth or rough water. In general, however,
+the primitive and prehistoric patterns convey no idea, and consist, as
+we have said elsewhere, of lines, straight or wavy, sometimes
+intersected; of angles, zigzags, groups of dots, rings and little
+discs, and crosses of the Swastika shape. (Plate 10.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 10.
+    WAVE PATTERNS.
+    1, 4, 9, 12, 13. Greek Wave Patterns. 2. Key or Maeander, Greek
+        Wave. 3. Greek Broken Wave. 5, 6, 7. Egyptian Smooth and
+        Rippling Water Patterns. 8. Mediaeval Wave. 10, 11, 14.
+        Assyrian. 15. Persian or Greek (from Glass Bowl, British
+        Museum). 16. English Waves (Durham Embroideries.)]
+
+Where shall the tartan be placed? It is certainly primitive, and
+apparently had no intention beyond that of employing as many coloured
+threads as there were dyes, so as to form the brightest contrasts, or
+else to be as invisible as possible either in the sunshine or in the
+shade. The Gauls brought this kind of weaving with them from the East,
+and probably invented the pattern, if such a motiveless design can be
+so called. It had its classical name, "Polymita," and was admired in
+Rome when newly imported, as being something original and barbaric.
+The Romans found it in Britain, and Boadicea wore a tartan dress on
+the day of her defeat. Perhaps even then fashions came from France,
+and it may have been her best tunic from across the Channel. This
+fabric may have been imported by the Belgic Gauls, and was so easily
+woven on house looms, that it became in time the feudal dress of the
+Scottish tribes and clans, and the colours were ingeniously arranged
+to show the most different effects. The tartan has always been a
+resource for the woollen trade, and the fashion constantly recurs in
+France, either from sentiment or the actually inherited Gallic taste;
+but it remains a primitive pattern, and nothing can make it artistic.
+No embroidery can soften the constantly recurring angles, and only
+fringes can be employed to decorate a tartan costume. Pliny tells us
+of the ingenuity of Zeuxis, who, to show his wealth, had his name
+embroidered in gold in the squared compartments of his outer
+garment.[97]
+
+Primitive patterns still linger in many savage nations, but especially
+throughout uncivilized Africa. Curious to say, the very ancient
+fossilized early art of Egypt does not assist us to trace it back to
+a prehistoric style, though it may lead us into prehistoric times.
+
+
+NATURALISTIC.
+
+The phases of the naturalistic patterns are constantly recurring. Art
+is always tending to realism, in the laudable effort to reach the
+motive without the shackles of rules. Each phase has fallen a prey to
+symbolism, to conventionalism, or to mannerism, which last symptom
+marks the decline and fall of art. We shall find these phases
+everywhere in the design of patterns.
+
+Naturalism has always striven, by simple repetition, to reduce to
+patterns the forms of flowers, fruits, animals, birds, insects,
+reptiles, and other natural objects.
+
+In flower patterns the simplest forms by repetition make sometimes the
+richest patterns, and the most effective. (Plate 11, Nos. 1 and 2.)
+
+It is remarkable that one very beautiful class of natural objects is
+rarely employed in ancient decoration[98]--shells and corals. The
+barbarous tribes of the West Coast of Africa alone seem to have
+appreciated their forms, and added them to their small repertory of
+naturalistic patterns. They do not appear in any European or Asiatic
+textiles till the seventeenth century, when shells were much used in
+the decorations of the reigns of Queen Anne and Louis Quatorze.
+
+The first change from naturalism into the conventional was through
+symbolism, and belonged to the time when unwritten thought was first
+recorded by pictured signs, which then ceased to be merely decoration.
+We find that the naturalism of the earliest Egyptians and Asiatics was
+soon entirely absorbed by the effort to express some hidden meaning or
+mystery, and then to fit the representation to a special place and
+purpose, and to restore it, as it were, to decorative art.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 11.
+    1. Persian Flower Border.
+    2. Egyptian Border, composed of Head-dress of the god Nile
+        (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians").
+    3. Assyrian.
+    4. Assyrian.]
+
+The lotus and the patterns founded on its forms, and the many
+emblematic meanings attached to them, are notable examples of these
+transmutations in style and intention, and of the value given to their
+intention and use in Egypt and India, where each development was
+immediately crystallized into a recognized pattern, and given its
+place and language. It received its "_mot d'ordre_," and continued to
+act upon it long after the meaning was forgotten or out of date.
+
+The rolling pattern which had so long represented only the "wave," was
+given to the really straight stem of the lotus, and its blossom,
+substituted for the wave's crest, now filled many a frieze in Indian
+temple architecture; whereas the lotus stems in Egypt were still bound
+in sheaves to form columns, and the flowers, buds, and leaves spread
+and blossomed into capitals. Here we have symbolism and
+conventionalized naturalism, all combined, showing how their
+principles, though quite distinct, can mix and unite. The conventional
+form often superseded and effaced the naturalistic, and became the
+sign of an idea, or the hieroglyphic picture of a thing; immovable and
+unalterable in Egypt, where every effort was made to secure eternity
+on earth, but continually returning to naturalism in India, where the
+Aryan tendency, with the assistance of the "Code of Manu," always
+recurred to the restoration of the ancient naturalistic motive.
+
+In the India Museum we may see the "wave" motive converted into a
+lotus pattern by rolling the long stems, and filling up the spaces
+between with the full-faced blossom. Sometimes the pattern is started
+by the figure of an elephant, from whose mouth the stem of the flower
+of the sun proceeds. This occurs so often that it must originally
+have had a meaning. Sometimes the sacred convolvulus takes the place
+of the lotus. (Plate 12.)
+
+On an Egyptian mural painting are seen parties of men snaring ducks
+among papyrus and lotus plants. These are entirely conventional, and
+are, in fact, a sort of recognized hieroglyphic representing the idea
+of a lotus.[99]
+
+The lotus was the accepted emblem of the sun, and reduced to a
+many-leaved radiating pattern may be found as an architectural
+ornament on the outside of the Buddhist "topes," of which the models
+are on the staircase of the British Museum.[100] (Plate 13.)
+
+We have Sir G. Birdwood's authority for believing that, though the
+actual lotus was a native of India, and carried thence to Egypt, its
+decorative use as a pattern was Egyptian, and so returned to India.
+Both accepted it as their "sunflower."[101]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 12.
+    1. Indian Rolling Lotus Pattern.
+    2, 3. Indian Lotus Patterns.
+    4, 5. Egyptian Lotus Patterns.
+    6. Sacred Convolvulus. Indian (seventeenth century).]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 13.
+    1, 2. Indian Designs of Assyrian Daisy and Egyptian Lotus.
+    3. Vitruvian Scroll. Vignola. Architecture.]
+
+Can it be our Aryan descent which induces in us the earnest adoration,
+in our art of to-day, of our northern prototype of the sun's emblem? I
+fear that we must acknowledge that our aesthetic worship of our
+sunflowers is somewhat false and affected. AEstheticism is not art.
+Sunflowers, painted or embroidered as decoration, do not "take" if
+they are ordered and ranged, and reduced to a pattern like those of
+Egypt. They must be naturalistic, and, if possible, remind us of a
+disorderly cottage garden; whereas in India they were adapted
+from nature on fixed principles, which immediately reduced them to
+the conventional.
+
+  [Illustration: Sunflower pattern, R. S. A. N.
+    XIX. Century]
+
+I give an illustration of a Gothic sunflower resembling a transfigured
+rose; and another of an ordered naturalistic sunflower pattern, from a
+design of the Royal School of Art Needlework. (Plate 14.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 9.
+    Gothic Sunflower. From Christ's College Chapel, Cambridge.]
+
+I have given this account of the patterns founded on the lotus, as we
+can almost from this distance of time take a bird's-eye view of its
+rise in naturalism, its spread, dispersion, and its crystallization
+into conventional forms; also we can trace how the lotus patterns of
+Indian art have resulted, when accepted in Europe, in nothing but the
+rolling wave, carrying flower forms which no longer represent a lotus;
+and how the lotus bud and flower pattern has become in time the
+classical "egg and tongue;" which, however, may have resulted also
+from a combination of other motives.
+
+Representations of animal forms are sometimes very remarkable in
+phases of naturalism. The few remains of Celtic art that have survived
+are entirely animal, or very nearly so. In their stone, gold, silver,
+and bronze work, and in illuminated MSS., we meet with only animal
+forms; never a flower or a leaf.
+
+Besides the Indo-Chinese patterns in Celtic art, which suggest the
+Chinese lattice-work (so strongly insisted on by Semper as a constant
+motive), we also find in all their decorations compartments containing
+involved patterns of cords or strings knitted or plaited, suggesting
+the entrails of animals, which by these hunting people were consulted
+as being mysteriously prophetic of approaching events, especially
+success or failure in the chase, and impending warlike raids.[102]
+There is no other way of accounting for these designs, which are
+peculiar to the race, unless we believe they always represent snakes.
+(Pl. 15.)
+
+In England much that was characteristic of the style was lost as soon
+as the Saxons drove out the Celts, who carried it to Ireland, as may
+be seen in the Book of Kells, and the carving of the Harp of Tara, and
+the Celtic jewels in the Irish museums; but the interlacing patterns
+survived throughout Anglo-Saxon art, and were marvellously ingenious
+and beautiful; witness the Durham Book of St. Cuthbert.
+
+We have no Celtic textiles remaining to us, unless some embroidery in
+the Marien-Kirche collection at Dantzic may be of that style and time.
+This is suggested by its altogether Indo-Chinese and very barbarous
+character;[103] and one of the coronation mantles in Bock's
+"Kleinodien" is Runic in its peculiar serpent design.
+
+  [Illustration: Illumination from the Lindisfarne Gospels, about A.D.
+      700]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 16.
+    Demeter. From a Greek Vase in the British Museum.]
+
+"Judging from their illuminated MSS.," it is said, "the elements
+borrowed from textile art by the Celts are plaits, bows, zigzags,
+knots, geometrical figures in various symmetrically developed
+combinations, crosses, whorls, and lattice-work; next, those taken from
+metal work, such as spirals and nail-heads let into borders; thirdly,
+simple or composite zoomorphic forms, such as bodies of snakes, birds'
+heads on long necks, lizards, dogs, dragons, and the like."[104] They
+well understood how to make a pattern by the repetition of objects of
+any class.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 17.
+    1. Embroidery on a Greek Mantle, third century B.C., from the Tomb
+        of the Seven Brothers, Crimea.
+    2. Egyptian Painted and Embroidered Linen. The cone, the bead, the
+        daisy, the wave, the lotus under water, are all shown on this
+        fragment.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 18.
+    EGYPTIAN TAPESTRY.
+    1. Woven and embroidered on a Sleeve. 2. Woven and embroidered. 3.
+        Painted and embroidered.]
+
+Representations of human figures in embroideries probably originated
+in hangings for the wall; but have been treated as decorative forms,
+both by the Indians and the Greeks, for wearing apparel. The peplos of
+Minerva was bordered with fighting gods and giants, and the Empress
+Theodora's dress in the Ravenna mosaic repeats exactly the same
+motive. (See Fig. 4, and Pl. 6.)
+
+There are two other examples of such Greek patterns. The mantle of
+Demeter on a Greek vase in the British Museum, of the best period (Pl.
+16), is embroidered with flying genii and victorious chariots; and the
+embroidered mantle lately found in a Crimean tomb, is of precisely the
+same style of design, and the one illustrates the other. These
+instances are so exceptional, that it is curious that here, as in the
+case of the peplos, in each case there should happen to be a
+duplicate. (Plates 16 and 17, No. 1.)
+
+In Babylonian, Assyrian, and Chaldean art we constantly find animal
+forms in patterns. The lion and the hare, birds and insects, are the
+commonest; and there are some instances of human figures reduced to a
+pattern in these sculptured representations of textiles. (Plate 2.)
+
+There are curiously woven little human figures finished with the
+needle on the sleeve of an Egyptian dress in the British Museum, from
+Saccarah (Pl. 18), and, of course, when such a design is small, it
+ceases to be very objectionable. On the whole, however, naturalistic
+designs for embroideries are more safely confined to floral
+decorations, excepting always flat tapestries for walls, which,
+representing pictures, may be as naturalistic as their purpose and
+style will admit.
+
+Animal forms are often reduced to patterns by repetition in Indian
+and Persian embroidery.[105] The drawing is naturalistic, but the
+colouring is fanciful. We may see any day, on Persian rugs, scarlet
+lions pursuing and capturing blue or yellow hares. The flatness and
+want of all shadows tends to the conventional. Lions, bulls, cats,
+beetles, and serpents abound especially in Egyptian design; insects,
+reptiles, and fish in Asiatic patterns, where animals are sometimes
+made to walk in pairs, with their heads and tails twisted into a
+pattern.
+
+Though landscapes are so rarely worked that the subject is, perhaps,
+hardly worthy of notice, yet such mistaken specimens of ingenuity have
+occurred. An altar frontal was exhibited at Zurich, in 1883,
+containing some really exquisitely worked landscapes, which were quite
+out of place, both as art and as decoration, for an ecclesiastical
+purpose. This was of the beginning of the last century.[106]
+
+While we appreciate and should take advantage of our national tendency
+to naturalistic design, we must beware of looking on fixed rules as
+bonds which cramp our liberty, and of thinking that nature should be
+our only guide to an otherwise unassisted and unfettered inspiration.
+Without the wholesome checks of experience and educated taste, and the
+knowledge which teaches us what to avoid, as well as what to imitate,
+founded on the successes and failures of others, we fall into weak
+imitations of natural objects.
+
+Mr. Redgrave points out how unpleasant and jarring to our sense of
+what is appropriate, and therefore how offensive to good taste and
+common sense, it is to tread on a carpet of water-lilies swimming in
+blue pools, or on fruits and flowers heaped up and casting shadows
+probably towards the light.[107] Woollen lions and tigers, as large as
+life, basking before the fire in a wreath of roses, are alarming
+rather than agreeable, and are of the nature of a practical joke in
+art. It is the search for novelty in naturalism that leads to such
+astonishing compositions; and these, being successively rejected in
+the heart of our civilization and culture, are drifted away to
+vulgarize our colonies, or to be sold cheap to furnish Continental
+hotels, and make the English traveller blush for his home
+manufactures.
+
+
+SYMBOLICAL AND CONVENTIONAL.
+
+Though it is true that the highest art, pictorial and sculptural, is
+always struggling towards naturalism, the art of decoration is, by its
+nature, constantly tending to conventionalism. Patterns, if not
+absolutely geometrical or naturalistic, must be classed under this
+principle. Let us examine what is meant by a conventional pattern.
+
+It may be said that the conventional includes every form--the
+symbolic, the naturalistic, or even the hieroglyphic--that is selected
+and consecrated to convey a certain idea. The lily of Florence, which
+is something between a lily and an iris, but unlike either, is a
+conventional form; likewise the lily of France, which it is said was
+once a conventional frog. The rose of England, the shamrock, and the
+thistle have always been more naturalistic than is usual in such
+heraldic designs; but the parti-coloured rose of York and Lancaster
+was decidedly conventional, and heraldic.
+
+Conventional patterns now are those which, having been originally
+naturalistic in style, but perhaps emblematic as to their motive, have
+been repeated till the meaning and form have been lost; or else, as in
+the case of the lotus, the emblem is forgotten, and nothing remains
+but the recognized conventional form.
+
+One conventional pattern which, having commenced by being a symbol,
+has been repeated and varied till it has allowed the original
+essential meaning to escape, is the "palm-leaf" or "cone" pattern on
+French or Paisley shawls, which, having been a sacred emblem--the tree
+of life--in Persia, became in Europe, when the religious myth was
+lost, only a shawl pattern--merely a leaf, with plant painted within
+its outlines. (Plate 23, Nos. 10, 11.)
+
+Decorative designs become conventional in spite of the intention of
+the designer. He is overruled by the spaces to be covered and the
+materials to be employed. His design must produce a flat pattern; he
+must repeat it again and again; he must give it a strong outline; he
+must distribute it regularly at certain intervals. Repetition at once
+conventionalizes the most naturalistic drawing, and the most sacred
+and mysterious emblem. Alternation is equally a source of
+conventionalism. There is no motive that cannot be conventionalized
+into a pattern by repetition. A Gothic crown and a true lily,
+repeated, will make an ecclesiastical conventional pattern. Then come
+all the Arabian and Moresque forms (which are mostly geometric), and
+also the Gothic (which are partly geometric and partly naturalistic,
+especially those in German and debased Spanish and Portuguese Gothic
+design).
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 19.
+    1. Key Pattern.
+    2. Broken-up Key.
+    3. Beads.
+    4. Key and sign of Land.
+    5. Wave and Babylonian Daisy.
+    6. Key and Fundata.
+    7. Wave and Bead.
+    8. Wave and Daisy.
+    9. Key and Sun Cross.
+    These Key Patterns from Ceiling of a Tomb at Saccarah, in Egypt.
+        (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians.")]
+
+Then we must accept as conventional all those which may be called
+kaleidoscope patterns, which are broken fragments of old motives,
+repeated or "radiated" so as to become partly geometrical, wholly
+conventional. (See Pl. 17, No. 2.)
+
+Conventional patterns may be reduced into three kinds.
+
+First, the naturalistic, which have by repetition been adapted for
+decorative art.
+
+Secondly, the symbolical--Pagan or Christian, religious or historical,
+including the Heraldic.
+
+Thirdly, those conventional forms which may never have had any inner
+meaning, or else, having originally had one, have lost it.
+
+All these exist, sometimes apart and sometimes mingled; so that some
+thought must be expended in seeking the motive which has brought them
+together, and finding in each the internal evidence of its descent.
+
+It is evident that patterns, conventionalized and brought from distant
+sources, sometimes meet and amalgamate. When the origin of a
+conventional pattern is disputed, it is worth while to examine if it
+has a double parentage. Let me give, as an instance, the key pattern.
+It may have been, as Semper believes, originally Chinese, and derived
+from wicker-work design. It represents also the broken or dislocated
+"wave," the symbol of the River Maeander,[108] and for water generally.
+We find it everywhere in company with the wave, which never could have
+had any connection with wicker-work, not only in China, but in Persia,
+India, Egypt, Arabia, Greece, Rome, and Central America. (Pl. 19.)
+
+Can any invention of man show a more symbolical intention than the
+wave pattern? The airy leap drawn downwards by the force of
+gravitation; controlled, and again made to return, but strong to
+insist on its own curve of predilection, rushing back under the same
+circle; strengthened by the downward movement to spring again from its
+original plane; beginning afresh its Sisyphus labour, and facing the
+next effort with the same grace and agility. Undying force, and
+eternal flowing unrest--these are the evident intention and symbol of
+the wave pattern. Though I believe the key pattern to be a
+modification of the wave form, yet the locking and unlocking movement
+suggests a repetition of the Tau, or key of life.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 10.]
+
+When we admire the friezes of garlands hung between the skulls of oxen
+and goats, we cannot for a moment doubt the sacrificial idea on which
+the design was founded. When the wreaths are carried by dancing
+children, we recognize the impersonation of the rejoicing of the daedal
+earth.
+
+The Greeks, however strongly they exerted themselves to throw off the
+shackles of conventionality in sculpture, painting, and architecture,
+yet yielded to the traditional force of the symbolical pattern, and
+accepted most of the Oriental forms, merely remodelling them for their
+own use, and adding to their significance what their culture required;
+at the same time giving infinite variety, as their perfect taste
+dictated.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 20.
+    TREES OF LIFE.
+    1, 2, 3, 5. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian Silk. (Birdwood's "Indian Arts,"
+        pp. 331, 335, 336, 337.)]
+
+Aristophanes, in "The Frogs," laughs at the Persian carpet
+patterns--their unnatural birds and beasts and flowers--whilst he
+claims for his own frogs, that they at least have the merit of being
+natural.[109] This little touch of art throws a gleam of inner
+light on the struggle towards originality and truth which
+characterized the Greek principles of beauty and fitness in literature
+and art, in direct contrast to that which was always turning back to
+those fossil forms which were only respectable on account of their age
+and their mystery, but of which the tradition and intention were
+already lost.
+
+Roman patterns were merely Greek adaptations with an Etruscan flavour,
+which was a survival of the earliest Italian art. Perhaps the
+indigenous element had been already modified by Phoenician
+influence.
+
+In taking stock of Oriental symbolical patterns, we find that one of
+those of the widest ancestry and longest continuity is the "Sacred
+Hom."[110] (Pl. 20-24.) This is to be found in Babylonian,
+Persian,[111] Indian, Greek, and Roman art; and consequently it
+prevails in all European decoration (except the Gothic), where it was
+reduced to unrecognizable forms.
+
+Sir George Birdwood says the Hom or Homa was the Sanskrit Soma, used
+as an intoxicating drink by the early Brahmins, and was extracted from
+the plant of that name, an almost leafless succulent Asclepiad. It
+appears to have changed its conventional form as other plants by
+fermentation came to the front, containing what appeared to be the
+"spirit of life"--the _aqua vitae_.
+
+The palm, with its wonderful fruit, which is convertible into
+intoxicating drinks, and afterwards the vine itself, were each of them
+moulded into analogous conventional fruit forms, which keep as much as
+possible within the limits of the original cone shape. (Pl. 21.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 21.
+    1. Tree of Life and Lions. Gate of Mycenae. 2. Persian or Sicilian
+        Silk. Tree of Life and Leopards.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 22.
+    1. Split Lotus Fruit on Chinese Bowl. 2. Split Lotus resembling
+        Tree of Life. Frieze by Benozzo Gozzoli, Ricardi Palace,
+        Florence. 3. Petal of Flower on Glass Bowl from Southern
+        Italy. British Museum.]
+
+There is a palm-tree which absolutely carries a cone in the heart of
+its crown of fronds.[112] This may have helped to preserve the
+original motive of the sacred tree of life. The cone form in classical
+art was drawn from the pine cone and the artichoke; and in mediaeval
+art these were sometimes replaced by the pomegranate, and in the late
+Renaissance by the pine-apple, newly arrived from the West
+Indies.[113] It is a good example of the blending of one vegetable
+form into another, making the sequence, of which each phase in the
+East had an historical cause or a symbolical meaning,[114] but which
+in Europe had gradually lost all motive, and was simply an
+acknowledged decorative form.[115] In architectural ornament it is
+called the honeysuckle,[116] which it had grown to resemble in the
+days of Greece.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 23.
+    Different forms of Tree of Life, from Sicilian Silks.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 24.
+    Modern Embroidery from the Principalities, in which the cone-shaped
+        tree grows into a vine, and the two animals at the foot have
+        lost their shape and intention.]
+
+This sacred tree, the Homa of Zoroaster and of the later Persians, has
+so early a beginning that we find it on Assyrian monuments.[117] Rock
+says "that, perhaps, it stood for the tree of life, which grew in
+Paradise." It is represented as a subject of homage to men and
+animals, and it invariably stands between priests and kings, or beasts
+kneeling to it. It is figured on the small bucket for religious rites,
+carried in the hands, or embroidered in the upper sleeve of the
+monarch's tunic. It always represents a shrub, sometimes bearing a
+series of umbels of seven flowers each. (Pl. 2, 20.)
+
+Sometimes the expression of the symbol is reduced to the cone-fruit of
+the homa alone; or even to a blossom, as in the two glass bowls in the
+Slade collection in the British Museum, from a tomb at Chiusi, in
+Etruria. Here the design is a flower, of which each petal contains the
+essential emblem--a plant within a plant. These bowls, pronounced to
+be Greek of the fourth century B.C., have yet to me a strong Oriental
+character. (Pl. 22, No. 3.)
+
+I have spoken of the lotus as a naturalistic pattern. One mode of
+drawing and embroidering its flower in India, is to cut it in two;
+half the blossom is then carefully and almost botanically copied, thus
+conveying the inner meaning of the sacred flower. (Pl. 22, No. 3.)
+
+Another conventional pattern, common to all times of art and all
+nations, is that called in architecture the "egg and tongue" pattern.
+(Pl. 13.) This, as I have already said, is supposed to be derived
+directly from the lotus. The Egyptians formed it from the bud and
+blossom; and the pattern is found in India, Greece, and Rome, changing
+continually and yet retaining its identity. Vitruvius claimed to have
+given it the last touch and finish, so that in Italy it was called the
+Vitruvian scroll; and it is common to all decoration, even in
+textiles, though it is hardly suited for weaving or embroidery. This
+is one of the earliest patterns which, having ceased long ago to be a
+religious emblem or sign, still survives by its decorative fitness,
+and perpetuates the echoes of its origin.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 25.
+    TYPICAL CROSSES.
+    1. Swastika. 2. From a Greek Vase, 765 B.C. 3. Indian Sectarial
+        Mark of Sakti race. 4. Buddhist and Jainis mark. 5. Early
+        Rhodian Pottery. 6. Egyptian prehistoric Cross. 7. Tau Cross.
+        8. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite. 9. Ditto. 10. Clavus.
+        11, 12, 13. Scandinavian Sun and Moon Crosses. 14, 15, 16.
+        Celtic. 17. Chrysoclavus. 18, 19. Stauracin patterns. 20.
+        Scandinavian, from Norway. 21. Runic Cross. 22. Cross at
+        Palenque, in Temple of the Sun. 23. Scotch Celtic Cross. 24.
+        Cross from Iona. 25, 26. Runic Crosses. 27. Cross on the
+        Dalmatic of Charlemagne. 28. From the Mantle of Henry II.,
+        Emperor of Germany.]
+
+Of the conventional symbolical forms of the early Christian Church I
+shall speak more fully in the chapter on ecclesiastical art, and
+therefore would only point out here, while touching on symbolical
+decoration, how that phase of Christian art is a great historical
+instance of the deep ancient meanings it illustrates; showing the
+motive to be often in accordance with the inherited pagan symbol, and
+yet differing from it. Pre-eminent among these is the emblem of the
+Cross, so early and universally used, full of mysterious secret
+allusions to the groping faiths of idolatrous nations, before the
+great fundamental idea of the "Word" was attached to it. This was one
+of the old signs used as a pattern, and transfigured into a fresh
+type, of which the radiance reflected back light upon all that
+preceded it, even as Chinese ancestors are ennobled by the deeds
+of their descendants.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 26.
+    1. Pallas Athene, from a vase in Lord Northampton's Collection.
+        2. Ajax in a cloak embroidered with swastika, sun cross, and
+        prehistoric water patterns. Etruscan Museum. Vatican.]
+
+The cross (Pl. 25), was a sign and a pattern in prehistoric art. It
+was the double of the Tau, the Egyptian emblem of life; and while the
+Jews reject the Christian cross, they still claim to have warned off
+the destroying angel by this sign in blood over the lintels of their
+doors in the first Passover.
+
+But the most ancient and universal form of the cross is that of the
+Swastika, or Fylfote. This "prehistoric cross" is said to be formed of
+two fire-sticks, belonging to the ancient worship of the sun, laid
+across each other ready for friction; but losing that meaning, from an
+emblem they fell into a pattern, and this you will still find, utterly
+meaningless, on Persian carpets of to-day.
+
+Sir G. Birdwood gives the Swastika as the sectarial mark of the Sakti
+sects in India. Fergusson names it with the mound buildings, as
+belonging to all Buddhist art; and examples of the Swastika are to be
+found on Rhodian pottery from the Necropolis of Kamiros, where we find
+also the key pattern.
+
+In early Greek art the Swastika and Gammadion are everywhere,
+especially as embroidery on dress. Minerva's petticoats are sometimes
+worked all over with the latter. On an early Greek vase in the Museo
+Gregoriano, are painted Ajax and Achilles playing at dice; and the
+mantle of Ajax is squared into an embroidered pattern that alternately
+represents a sun or star and a Gammadion (Pl. 26, No. 2). But it is
+unnecessary to multiply classical examples, which are endless.
+
+The Christian Cross was often formed by converting the Tau into the
+Gamma, the sacred letter of the Greeks. It is said to have been the
+emblem of the corner-stone, and as a pattern, was called, down to the
+thirteenth century, the "Gammadion;" and though it had lost its
+original motive, it continued to preserve the idea of a secret and
+mystical meaning.
+
+The Gammadion, as well as the Swastika, enters largely into the
+illuminations of the Celtic Book of Kells and those of the Lindisfarne
+MSS.; also it is to be found on the Celtic shields in the British
+Museum, together with the Swastika. Both appear in the Persian carpets
+of to-day, and as patterns were, in ecclesiastical decoration,
+employed down to the fifteenth century, both for European and British
+textiles. The Swastika, as well as the wave pattern, is of mysterious
+and universal antiquity, and has certainly traversed four thousand
+years,--how much more we dare not say. It is to be found throughout
+Egyptian and Indian art--never in that of Assyria.
+
+Of the time of Rameses the Second we have two figures in a mural
+painting, an ally and an enemy, a guest and a prisoner, both clothed
+in embroidered garments, _parsemes_ with the prehistoric cross.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 11.
+    Egyptian Enemy and Ally.]
+
+In the chapter on ecclesiastical art I shall again refer to this
+immemorial symbolical and conventional pattern. I much regret that, in
+the absence of a translation, I am prevented from availing myself of
+the accumulated learning on the subject of "The Prehistoric Cross," by
+Baron Ernest de Bunsen.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 27.
+    Imitation of a Carpet carved in stone, from Nineveh, showing the
+        Indian Lotus and the Assyrian Daisy. (In the British Museum.)]
+
+There was a pattern called the "crenelated" which apparently was
+derived from the Assyrian battlement, and is found throughout classic
+art, somewhat conventionalized.[118] It is named as an embroidered
+pattern in the inscription recording votive offerings of dresses in
+the temple of Athene at Athens.[119]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 12.
+    Crenelated Pattern.]
+
+We know something of the conventional and symbolical embroideries of
+Nineveh, which are quite unlike those of India, except in the adoption
+of the lotus for decoration.[120] These are best understood by
+illustrations; and, therefore, I give one of the beautiful sculptured
+carpets from Nineveh, in the British Museum (Pl. 27), showing the
+Assyrian use of the lotus and cone, and the embroidered garment of a
+king from one of the sculptures in low relief (Plate 1). These are
+very stately--perfectly conventional and decorative; and we feel that
+they have grown where we find them, and are not borrowed from another
+civilization. What strikes us most, is the constant repetition and the
+little variety of ornament in these patterns. The forms are strongly
+marked--wheels or whorls, or daisies, often repeated. (The daisy
+belongs to Assyria as the lotus to Egypt.) The flowers are simply
+leafless blossoms. Splendid embroideries of sacred emblematical
+designs are, however, occasionally found, such as those from Layard's
+"Monuments" (Plate 2).
+
+Much has been written on the early symbolism of plants and flowers.
+The sun-myths have enlisted all floral legendary lore, and
+conventional ornament was largely drawn from them.
+
+Many symbols are present to us when we name certain plants. The lily
+is the acknowledged sign of purity, the rose of love, the honeysuckle
+of enduring faith, the laurel of poetry, and the palm of victory; the
+oak of strength, the olive of peace. Some plants have accumulated more
+than one meaning. The vine has many attributes. It is an emblem of the
+mysteries of the Christian Church. It symbolizes plenty, joy, the
+family. Ivy means friendship, conviviality, remembrance.
+
+The symbolism of beasts (_bestiaria_),[121] of birds (_volucraria_),
+and of stones (_lapidaria_) filled many volumes in the mediaeval ages,
+and are well worthy of the study of the decorative artist. The
+symbolism of animals and birds especially, constantly attracts our
+attention in the Oriental and Sicilian textiles of the early Christian
+times, and to the end of the thirteenth century. Later, in European
+textile decoration, most animals were accepted as emblematic in
+Christian art, beginning with the symbols of the four Evangelists. All
+the virtues and all the vices found their animal emblems
+conventionalized, and were thus woven, embroidered, and painted.[122]
+
+Reptiles and insects are included under the head of "beasts," and
+perhaps fishes also. Each was dowered with a symbolical meaning; and
+thus admitted into art, they were conventionalized by being strongly
+outlined, coloured flat; and by repetition without variation, were
+converted into patterns.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 28.
+    1, 2. Gothic Tiles. 3. Gothic Border of a Dress. 4. Gothic Vine.
+        Westminster Abbey.]
+
+When the use of heraldic illustration was added to the already
+accepted symbolism, animal decoration became very common, and soon
+forgot its symbolical motives, which were succeeded by Renaissance
+fanciful patterns; and then the conventionalized beast and its
+symbolism disappeared from European decoration, except when it was
+a direct copy of an Oriental design.
+
+Certain symbolical forms have, however, survived. The eagle has always
+meant empire, and the double-headed eagle, a double royalty.[123]
+Ezekiel represents Babylon and Egypt, symbolically, as two
+eagles.[124] But here we approach the subject of heraldry, which
+became a science in mediaeval days; and every man and woman in any way
+remarkable, every chivalrous action and national event, became a
+subject for textile art, and was woven or worked with the needle on
+banner, hanging, or dress. The altar decorations received a new
+stimulus as historical records, as well as religious symbols, and
+pride and piety were equally enlisted in these gifts to the Church.
+
+Byzantine patterns have a barbaric stamp, and yet have much of the
+grandiose about them; but they are to the last degree conventional. In
+the early mosaics, both in Constantinople and Rome, every face and
+head, every flower and animal, represents a type and not an
+individual.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 13.
+    Gothic Trees, from Bayeux tapestry.]
+
+Gothic foliage patterns, in England and elsewhere, are a struggle
+between the naturalistic and the conventional. The Norman style and
+the Romanesque, which preceded it, and from which it was modified and
+elevated, show their vegetable forms thick-stemmed and few-leaved,
+whereas the Gothic aspired to a developed gracefulness; and the
+Renaissance, which succeeded it, assumed all the freedom of natural
+flowers and plants, floating in the breeze, on their delicate stems.
+(Pl. 28.)
+
+All the Renaissance patterns, which, as their name denotes, were born
+again, like butterflies to frolic for a day of gay enjoyment, are
+purely decorative. Their generally charming, graceful forms group
+together to cover empty spaces with every regard to the rules of
+design and composition, but without any inner meaning. If we take
+these arabesques to pieces, we generally find the parts come from
+various sources; and having served last in pagan Rome for pagan
+purposes, had been slightly refashioned for Christian decorative
+art,[125] before the Byzantine inartistic taste, and barbaric
+splendour of metal-work patterns, had extinguished all the gay fancy
+of the arts of Southern Europe.
+
+The mediaeval revival was a return to the light and fantastic, and a
+protest against the solemnity of all Gothic art, which had had its
+great day, had culminated, and died out. The patterns of the
+Renaissance are all guided by the principles of repetition and
+duplication, or that of doubling the pattern, which repeats itself to
+right and left, as if folded down the middle.
+
+The principal lines thus echoed one another; but the artist was
+permitted to vary the conventionalism of the general forms of figures,
+flowers, fruit, or butterflies, so as to balance and yet differ in
+every detail.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 29.
+    CLOUD PATTERNS.
+    1, 2, 3, 7. Japanese.
+    4. Chinese.
+    5, 8, 9. Mediaeval.
+    6. Badge of Richard II.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 30.
+    Indo-Chinese Coverlet, supposed to have belonged to Oliver
+        Cromwell. Hatfield House.]
+
+Amongst the conventional patterns which have descended to us, and are
+in general use without any particular symbolical meaning being
+attached to them, we must instance those derived from the Cloud
+pattern. This is to be found in early Chinese and Indian art, but I do
+not recognize it in Egyptian or Greek decoration. It came through
+Byzantium, and took its place amongst early Christian patterns. (Pl.
+29.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 31.
+    THE FUNDATA OR NETTED PATTERN.
+    Portion of a Phoenician Bowl from Cyprus.
+    Egyptian.
+    Egyptian.
+    Egyptian.]
+
+The cloud pattern is also Japanese, and is supposed to have been
+originally derived from Central Asia. It varies in shape, and is found
+as an ornament on the head of the sceptre in the collection at Nara,
+in Japan, which is twelve or thirteen hundred years old. There is an
+example of the cloud pattern in Aelfled's embroidery at Durham; and it
+is often found under the feet of saints in painted glass and
+embroideries before the fourteenth century. A curious Indian example
+exists in a coverlet belonging to the Marquis of Salisbury, said to
+have been the property of Oliver Cromwell, on which the central
+medallion is filled with white horses careering amidst the cloud
+pattern.[126] (Pl. 30.)
+
+The _netted_ pattern called Fundata is extremely ancient. We find it
+in Egyptian mural paintings, as well as in the centre of a
+Phoenician bowl from Cyprus, now in the Louvre. The mediaeval Fundata
+was a silk material, covered with what appeared to be a gold network
+covering the stuff. It is supposed to be the same as that worn by
+Constantine,[127] and is named in ecclesiastical inventories as late
+as the fifteenth century. (Pl. 31.)
+
+All the wheel patterns are very ancient, and appear to be simply
+conventional wheels. In France they were called _roes_. There is a
+fine instance of this wheel pattern in Auberville's "Tissus." The
+wheels sometime enclose triumphal cars and other pictorial subjects.
+(Pl. 34.)
+
+The patterns which are apparently composed with the intention of
+avoiding all meaning, are the Moorish. They are neither animal,
+vegetable, nor anything else. They show no motive in their complicated
+domes, their honeycombing, and their ingenious conventional forms; but
+cover equally textile fabrics or stucco ceilings without suggesting
+any idea, religious or symbolical.
+
+All the splendid Italian brocades and velvet damasks were of
+conventional patterns, and like their Arab and Sicilian models, and
+also like their Spanish contemporaries, represented, and sought to
+represent nothing on earth. It was all floreated and meandering
+design; the motive reminding one of the pine-apple and the acanthus,
+or of vine stems meeting or parting, but never anything naturalistic
+for a moment. When animals were introduced it was always as a pattern
+doubled face to face, as if folded down a straight line.
+
+We may say the same of the succeeding Louis Quatorze and the Louis
+Quinze styles, which were of the culminating period of clever and
+fantastic conventional decoration.
+
+Our modern designs have phases of imitation, and the patterns of rich
+brocades which our great-grandmothers wore, came into fashion again
+about the third decade of this century. Now we have been trying to
+find our inspirations further back, and some of our copies of the
+simpler Sicilian patterns, with an occasional pair of birds, or a
+conventional plant, imitating the motive of the tree of life, have
+been very pretty. The only defect is the poverty which results from
+the absence of any active and informing motive. It is, however, easier
+to criticize than to create.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 14.
+    Radiated Pattern.]
+
+I would venture here to find fault with a very common method of
+converting a natural object into a conventional pattern, by radiation.
+Certain modes of repetition are very objectionable. A pattern, for
+instance, repeated four times round a centre, or a natural flower
+repeated exactly, but lying north, south, east, and west, are more or
+less inartistic, we may say vulgar. (Fig. 14.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 15.
+    Radiated Sunflower.]
+
+A natural flower may be conventionalized and radiated by placing it in
+the centre of the composition facing you; and the leaves arranged
+surrounding it, so as to formalize the design, though there is nothing
+really unnatural in the way in which they are made to grow. The
+illustration of a radiated sunflower explains my meaning.
+
+It has been already observed that by repetition almost any object may
+be reduced to a pattern, but taste must be exercised in the selection
+of what is appropriate and beautiful. Radiation is also really a
+useful factor in conventional art, but common sense must guide the
+artist here as well as taste. In radiating the forms of a flower,
+nature gives endless hints of beauty; but a radiating pattern of human
+figures would be ridiculous, and even the branches of a tree cannot be
+so treated.
+
+The awning of the classic hypaethral hall or court was often reproduced
+in Roman arabesques. Sometimes we find it in a classical tomb, painted
+over the ceiling, and recalling its original use. This was revived in
+the Cinque-cento Renaissance; and again in Adams' "Eighteenth Century
+Decorations," it became an accepted pattern, called "the shell,"
+losing its original motive, and descending to fill up the panels of
+tea-caddies and surround keyholes. When thus reduced to the appearance
+of a little ruff, it needs some thought to recognize it, and give it
+credit for its first motive.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 16.]
+
+It is amusing to find how a form which it seems impossible to reduce
+to a pattern, will yet fall into one by a judicious arrangement of
+light and shadow, and by repetition. There is a little frieze in one
+of the Indian cases on the staircase in the British Museum, which is
+extremely pretty and effective. It consists of a repetition of little
+balconies with recesses and pillars and figures in pairs. I give it as
+illustrating the way conventional patterns grow. This balcony pattern
+is of the sixth century, A.D.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 17.
+    Indian Balcony Pattern, from steps of tope of Jamal-Zartri,
+        Afghanistan. British Museum.]
+
+The ancient palmated pattern called Chrysoclavus, from the beginning
+of our era to the thirteenth century was partly a nail-headed design,
+and had become a Christian symbol. It was, probably, originally the
+primitive spot pattern; afterwards promoted to being an ornament of
+discs in colour or metal: this was Assyrian, Etruscan, and
+Mycenaean.[128] (Pl. 70.)
+
+Among the conventional patterns which have apparently no hidden
+meaning, but which clearly show their descent, are the Chinese and
+Japanese wicker and lattice-work designs. The beauty of these is
+wonderful.
+
+Semper shows that wicker (including bamboo work) was the foundation of
+all Chinese civilized life, for constructing houses, bridges,
+utensils, and for decoration. He gives this wicker-work origin to the
+universal key pattern, which may, however, have a double source--the
+wave, and the wicker-work.
+
+We find the Key pattern in a tomb at Essiout, in Egypt, painted
+perhaps about 1600 B.C., in company with some other very old
+friends,[129] the Tuscan border, the Egg and Tongue, and the Bead, the
+Daisy, and the Wave. (Pl. 17, No. 2.) We meet it everywhere in ancient
+and modern decoration. There are several forms of it on a large
+terra-cotta vase in the British Museum from Kameiros in Rhodes, and on
+Chinese fictiles and embroideries. It is found also on garments in
+Iceland, whither the Greek patterns must have drifted through Norway,
+and, as they could go no further, there they remained.
+
+I have often spoken of the extraordinary survival of a pattern. This
+is easy to account for when fashion, "the disturber," had not yet
+existed. Then the ancient motive told its own tale, and its great age
+was its claim to perpetual youth; but it is more remarkable where we
+meet with revivals at distant periods, and apparently without any
+connecting link of ancestry or style.
+
+For instance, the women of Genoa wore large cotton veils, printed with
+the Indian conventional tree and beast pattern, down to thirty years
+ago, when the fashion changed, and winter bonnets and summer muslin
+veils displaced the old costume. These patterns are now being printed
+in England on scores of cotton curtains for beds and windows.
+
+
+GEOMETRICAL.
+
+Geometrical patterns may be reduced to a very few primitive elements.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 18.
+    Varied adjustments of Square and Circle.]
+
+1. The Line, including straight and wavy lines.
+
+2. The Angular Forms, including squares, oblongs, cubes, &c.
+
+3. The Triangular, including zigzags, diamonds, &c.
+
+4. The Circular, including all spots, discs, and radiations.
+
+All these can be blended or mixed so as to form endless varieties. For
+instance, the square and the circle can intersect each other in
+different proportions, so as to give an entirely new effect to the
+pattern, each time the balance is altered or the phase of the
+repetition varied. The illustration will explain this. (Fig. 18.)
+
+Right angles may intersect each other so as to produce the whole gamut
+of Chinese lattice-work decoration, and all the Celtic and
+Scandinavian entwined patterns, from which so many of the embroideries
+in the Italian pictures of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are
+probably descended.
+
+The Moorish patterns are geometrical, and are created on the principle
+of avoiding in art the representation of any created thing. They show
+much ingenuity in keeping clear of any possible meaning. Most of these
+conventional patterns are founded on the ogee-arch and a kind of
+honeycomb pattern, involved and inverted. Their tiles, which nearest
+approach textile design, have, indeed, certain vegetable forms added
+to the others, but always geometrically arranged as no vegetables ever
+grew.
+
+Geometrical patterns begin with primitive forms, and come down to the
+floor-cloth designs of to-day. They can be extracted in endless
+variety from the combinations of the kaleidoscope. This style is well
+suited for pavements in mosaic--either secular or ecclesiastical.
+
+The Opus Alexandrinum furnishes us with most beautiful examples and
+adaptations for large or small spaces, so as to form the richest or
+the simplest floor decorations. How worthily a church may be thus
+adorned may be seen on the vast area of the floor of Santa Maria
+Maggiore in Rome, or that of the Church of St. Mark in Venice.
+
+The nearest approach to the Opus Alexandrinum in textiles has been in
+Patchwork, of which a more artistic use may yet be made. We might
+exercise ingenuity in this direction, giving really fine and effective
+designs to our workers in patches, whose productions are, in general,
+simply alarming.
+
+The fine quilting patterns of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
+are almost always geometrical, and make the best background to more
+resplendent embroideries overlying them, which is partly owing to
+their being only forms, and conveying no idea or inherited meaning.
+These expressionless designs are well fitted for spaces and borders in
+which the centres are elaborated, and require enclosing or framing;
+likewise, they are suited for large areas, which must not be perfectly
+plain, and yet not too disturbing to the eye, so as to distract it
+from the more important ornaments on the wall or ceiling. They suit
+carpets in passages or on staircases much better than any other kind
+of design, and form the best figured backgrounds for pictures. Both
+eye and mind often need repose, and therefore the simpler the
+geometrical pattern is, the better. Complicated and too ingenious
+combinations are painfully fatiguing. Simplicity and flatness are the
+greatest merits in such forms, as in shadowless patterns for textiles,
+and especially for embroideries.
+
+If we turn to nature to assist us with new geometrical patterns, we
+shall find the most exquisite forms in the crystals of every
+newly-fallen snowflake, and in the nodal-points on a plate of metal or
+glass, covered with sand, and struck by sound. We shall hardly ever
+find in these a repetition of exactly the same combination, and their
+variety is only equalled by their beauty.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [96] Sir G. Birdwood tells us of patterns of an Indian
+    brocade called "Chundtara" (moon and stars), figured all
+    over with representations of heavenly bodies.
+
+    [97] Pliny, "Natural History," lib. xxx. c. 8, Sec. 34.
+
+    [98] There is a shell pattern in gold on a twelfth
+    century fragment of a Bishop's garment at Worcester.
+
+    [99] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," vol. iii. pp.
+    132, 133, 350, 553.
+
+    [100] Boetticher, in his "Tektonik," will allow of but
+    one origin for the "egg and tongue" pattern. I cannot
+    give up the evident descent from the lotus flower and
+    bud; but I have said before that a pattern has sometimes
+    a double parentage, and it may be so in this case.
+
+    [101] The lotus is almost entirely lost as a native
+    growth in India, and is fast disappearing in Egypt. The
+    lotus blossom in Egypt was not only a sacred emblem, but
+    also an _objet de luxe_. At their feasts, the honoured
+    guests were presented with the flowers, and as they
+    faded, slaves carried round baskets of fresh blossoms.
+    See Wilkinson's "Manners and Customs of the Ancient
+    Egyptians."
+
+    [102] See the Book of Lindisfarne, and the two Celtic
+    bronze shields in the British Museum. These last are
+    very curious. The long involved lines show their origin,
+    and the shields are enriched with enamel and corals, in
+    repetitions of the prehistoric cross.
+
+    [103] See "Album of Photographs of the Marien-Kirche,
+    Dantzic," Taf. 31.
+
+    [104] Woltmann and Woermann, Eng. Trans., p. 202.
+
+    [105] Charlemagne's dress, in his tomb, was covered with
+    golden elephants. This must have been Indian. His mantle
+    was "_parseme_" with golden bees.
+
+    [106] Elsewhere there is a notice of Miss Morritt's
+    really beautifully embroidered landscapes at Rokeby; and
+    all who saw them will remember the extremely clever and
+    effective pictures in crewels by an accomplished
+    American lady, Mrs. Oliver Wendell Holmes, exhibited in
+    London a few years ago. These exceptional cases do not,
+    however, disprove the objections against employing the
+    most unfit and unmanageable materials for producing
+    subjects alien to the art of embroidery.
+
+    [107] See Redgrave's "Manual of Design," pp. 50-61.
+
+    [108] See Appendix 21, by Ch. T. Newton, to the first
+    edition of Ruskin's "Stones of Venice." He gives, as
+    instances of this pattern, certain coins from Priene,
+    where the River Maeander is symbolized by the angular key
+    pattern. Appendix, No. 1.
+
+    [109] "(Euripides _loquitur_) Not horse-cocks, nor yet
+    goat-stags, such as they depict on Persian carpets"
+    (Aristophanes, "The Frogs," v. 939-944). The Persian
+    carpets, which are the legitimate descendants of
+    Babylonian art, are curiously fragmentary. In a modern
+    design are to be seen birds, indicated by a head, bill,
+    and eyes; little coffee-pots, and flowers broken off at
+    the stalks, and small quadrupeds without any particular
+    form; also the prehistoric cross, the Tau, and bits of
+    broken-up wave and key patterns. All these, repeated
+    into a pattern, remind us of scraps in a kaleidoscope,
+    thrown together accidentally, or else taken up by chance
+    where history and art have dropped them.
+
+    [110] "Soma" or "Homa" ("Sarcostemma Viminale vel
+    Brevistigma"), from Cashmere and the Hindu Cush, still
+    used by the Brahmins, and the juice of which was the
+    first intoxicant of the human race. See Birdwood's
+    "Indian Art," vol. ii. pp. 336, 337.
+
+    [111] "The Hom, the sacred Persian tree, is constantly
+    placed between two animals, chained to it." See Pl. 23,
+    Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
+
+    [112] The Hom or Homa, the sacred tree of Assyrian and
+    Persian sculpture and textiles, is accounted for as a
+    pattern by Dr. Rock, who says: "From the earliest
+    antiquity a tradition came down through middle Asia, of
+    some holy tree, perhaps the tree of life spoken of as
+    growing in Paradise." It is always represented as
+    something like a shrub, and is a conventional portrait
+    of a palm; but Rock says it has every look of having
+    belonged to the family of the Asclepiadeae. For its last
+    transformation into a vine, see Pl. 24.
+
+    [113] Rock's "Introduction," p. cxxxi.
+
+    [114] Sir George Birdwood says: "The intimate absorption
+    of Hindu life in the unseen realities of man's spiritual
+    consciousness is seldom sufficiently acknowledged by
+    Europeans, and, indeed, cannot be fully comprehended by
+    men whose belief in the supernatural has been destroyed
+    by the prevailing material ideas of modern society.
+    Every thought, wish, and deed of the Hindu belongs to
+    the world of the unseen as well as the seen; and nothing
+    shows this more strikingly than the traditionary works
+    of India. Everything that is made has a direct religious
+    use, or some religious symbolism. The materials of which
+    different articles are fashioned, their weight, and the
+    colours with which they are painted, are fixed by
+    religious rule. An obscured symbolism of material and
+    colour is to be traced also in the forms of things, even
+    for the most domestic uses. Every detail of Indian
+    decoration, Aryan or Turanian, has a religious meaning,
+    and the arts of India will never be rightly understood
+    until there are brought to their study, a familiar
+    acquaintance with the character and subjects of the
+    religious poetry, national legends, and mythological
+    scriptures that have always been their inspiration, and
+    of which they are the perfected imagery." See Sir George
+    Birdwood's "Indian Arts," part i. p. 2.
+
+    [115] The Persian tree of life was not alien to the
+    worship of the Zoroastrian religion of the Sassanides,
+    and is said to have been the origin of the worship of
+    Bacchus. It was introduced by Oriental weavers into
+    Sicilian and Spanish stuffs.
+
+    [116] Sir G. Birdwood suggests that the honeysuckle
+    pattern is derived from the Tree of Life, cone, and
+    palm, refashioned and combined with the graceful
+    ingenuity of Greek art, and covering a mixture of sacred
+    traditional emblems.
+
+    [117] Haug, in his "Essays on the Sacred Writings of the
+    Parsees" (pp. 132, 239), tells us that these people
+    still hold the homa to be sacred, and from it squeeze a
+    juice used by them in their religious ceremonies.
+
+    [118] See Perrot et Chipiez, "Histoire de l'Art," vol.
+    ii. pp. 260, 267, Pl. xiv.
+
+    [119] See Appendix, No. 1.
+
+    [120] India, in return, afterwards influenced Persia,
+    the successor of Babylon.
+
+    [121] In India, the elephant is a very common element in
+    a pattern; in Egypt, the serpent; in Persia, the lion.
+    In animal patterns, certain emblems were grouped
+    together. The lion and the goose represent strength and
+    prudence; the lion and eagle, strength and dominion; the
+    lion and dove, strength and gentleness. We may see these
+    double emblems on Sicilian textiles.
+
+    [122] Chinese art is crowded with symbolisms.
+
+    [123] The double-headed eagle was the badge of Saladin,
+    as well as that of the Holy Roman Empire.
+
+    [124] Ezekiel xvii.
+
+    [125] In the earliest days of Christianity.
+
+    [126] "A cloud pattern from which issue two clasped
+    hands is the device of Guizot Marchand or Guido
+    Mercator, printer, in 1498. He lived at the College of
+    Navarre."--Dibdin's "Decameron," ii. pp. 33-36.
+
+    [127] See Gori (tom. iii. pp. 20, 84), as cited by Rock,
+    Introduction, p. liii. The same netted pattern was found
+    in the grave of an Archbishop of York of about the end
+    of the thirteenth century. Its name, _fundata_, is
+    derived from _funda_, the fisherman's net; also, in
+    later times, it was called _laqueata_. See Rock's
+    Introduction (p. liv.). See also M. Ch. Clermont
+    Ganneau's "L'Imagerie Phenicienne," Coupe de Palestrina;
+    and Chaldee et Assyrie, in Perrot and Chipiez, ii. p.
+    736. Another instance is shown here of the fundata
+    occurring in the bronze flat bowl copied from Layard's
+    "Monuments," 2nd series, plate 62. The whole design of
+    the bowl is Babylonian, consisting of a rich border of
+    repetitions of the tree of life; each has the peculiar
+    ornament of little knobs often seen on their
+    head-dresses.
+
+    [128] See Bock's "L. Gewaender," p. 129; Gori, "Thes.
+    Dipt." ii. pp. 20, 275; Marquardt, "Handbuch Roem. Alt."
+    vii. pp. 527-31 (Eng. Trans.). Authorities differ in
+    describing the Chrysoclavus. Sir G. Birdwood calls it a
+    button pattern ("Indian Arts," vol. ii. p. 241). The
+    "Chrysoclavus" was the name given to the palmated or
+    triumphal pattern with which the consular robes are
+    invariably embroidered in the Roman Consular ivories at
+    Zurich, Halberstadt, and in the South Kensington Museum.
+    The tenacious life of this pattern is curiously shown in
+    the way it appears in the fifteenth century on Italian
+    playing-cards. (See "Cartes a Jouer," an anonymous
+    French book in the print-room of the British Museum.)
+    The kings and knaves wear the Byzantine humeral, and the
+    Chrysoclavus pattern is carved on their chairs. Till
+    lately English playing-cards showed the same
+    dress-pattern. I shall discuss the Latin Clavus and the
+    Chrysoclavus amongst ecclesiastical embroideries, pp.
+    308, 336 (_post_).
+
+    [129] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," i. p. 125.
+    The date of these mural paintings may, however, be even
+    as late as the time of Alexander the Great.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+MATERIALS.
+
+
+1. RAW MATERIALS.
+
+The history of an art must, more or less, include that of its raw
+material.
+
+This is too true to be disputed, but in the art of embroidery it opens
+out such endless avenues, through such vast regions of technical
+study, that we must acknowledge the difficulty, or rather the
+impossibility, of including in one volume even a tithe of the
+information already collected.
+
+I shall, therefore, only dedicate a few pages to the history of those
+fibres which have always been most important in the different phases
+of our civilization.
+
+Among books on textile materials, I must again name the "Textrinum
+Antiquorum," by Yates. His premature death, and the loss that the
+world of art and manufacture has sustained by the chain of his
+invaluable researches being broken, cannot be appreciated but through
+the study of the first and only volume of this already rare book, from
+which I venture to quote largely.
+
+Semper's "Der Stil" is a work of reference on this subject, so
+valuable that it should, by a good translation, be placed within the
+reach of non-German scholars.
+
+From Colonel Yule's "Marco Polo," and his abundant notes, we learn
+much of Asiatic textile art in the thirteenth century, and its early
+traditions in the immutable East, and Sir G. Birdwood's books on this
+Indian art are most instructive.
+
+Egyptian textiles are splendidly illustrated by Sir Gardiner
+Wilkinson. All these modern writers quote Pliny and the Periplus;[130]
+and Pliny quotes all the classic authors, from Homer to his day. Here
+is a wide field for gathering information regarding the materials for
+embroidery in past ages.
+
+When we use the phrase "raw material" so glibly, with an aesthetic
+contempt for that which the art of man has neither manipulated nor
+reorganized, we show our own coarse appreciation, if not ignorance, of
+the wonderful inherent beauty and microscopic delicacy of form,
+colour, and substance of those materials which we fashion for our own
+uses.
+
+Few know the structure of the tender filaments of wool, flax, cotton,
+and silk; or that each has its peculiar form and attributes, and its
+individual capabilities for the purposes for which they appear to us
+to have been created, i.e. the clothing and adornment of man's dress
+and his home.
+
+I should like to draw attention to these well-attested facts.
+
+Seen through a microscope, the forms of these raw materials differ
+greatly.
+
+Flax is difficult to describe, as it varies according to the soil and
+climate it comes from. Its fibre, however, has always a shiny outer
+surface, and is transparent, cylindrical, and pipe-like; apparently
+with breaks or joints like those of a cane.
+
+Cotton also varies so much in its own kind, that every description is
+different and somewhat puzzling. Semper says that it approaches the
+ribbon form, with thickened edges, and is like a half-cylinder twisted
+spirally; but when wetted with oil, it swells into a complete
+cylinder.[131]
+
+Wool and hair are hollow pipes without joints. Woollen fibres look
+like cylindrical snakes with a scaly surface. This roughness gives
+wool a clinging power which exceeds that of any other material, except
+the hair of some few animals.[132]
+
+Silk threads consist of twin pipes laid parallel, and held together by
+the varnish with which they are glazed. Silk is tough and elastic.
+
+The qualities needed for textile materials may be thus enumerated:
+Pliability, toughness (i.e. tensile strength), and intrinsic
+durability.
+
+Of course, the material must to a certain degree influence the style
+of the fabric, and its selection must be according to the effect
+intended to be produced.[133] The fashions of the day, and the needs
+of the special manufacture, must greatly modify the choice of
+materials, which fluctuate, often disappear, and sometimes revive
+again.
+
+Certain materials which have been, at one period, much admired, have
+been entirely lost; and indeed we may say that the only permanently
+employed textiles are wool, flax, cotton, and silk, which apparently
+never can be superseded. With them, all domestic requirements can be
+satisfied, and all artistic and decorative fabrics produced, varied,
+and perfected; and these, from all time recorded in history, have been
+enriched and glorified with gold, either inwoven or embroidered.
+
+The game of "animal, vegetable, or mineral" might well be played with
+textiles only. Nothing has been alien to the crafts which from time
+immemorial have spun, woven, felted, netted, and embroidered.
+
+The materials now in general use, and which, once known, have never
+been abandoned, I have already named, and shall discuss their history
+separately; they are wool, flax, cotton, and silk. To these I must add
+hemp, both wild and cultivated.
+
+Hemp is a kind of nettle. It was grown in Colchis, and in those cool
+regions which did not produce flax. Hemp is hardly grown in India,
+except to extract from it the narcotic, Cannabis Indica. It was a
+northern production used throughout Scandinavia. Herodotus (iv. 14)
+says, "Hemp grows in the land of the Scythians, in a wild state, but
+it is now cultivated." From its Latin name, _cannabis_, comes our
+canvas, which has always been much used as a ground for counted
+stitches and backing for embroidery, its stiffness being its
+qualification for such purposes.[134]
+
+Jute (a rough sort of hemp) has been long an article of commercial
+importance for the manufacture of coarse-figured fabrics, dyed and
+woven, sometimes embroidered.
+
+The fibre of the Aloe has been used in the Riviera for laces and
+"macrami" (knotted fringes).
+
+The fibres of grasses, such as the "Honduras silk grass" (Rhea or
+Ramie), valuable for beauty, fineness, and toughness, have been worked
+or woven into stuffs.[135] This material is now coming into notice.
+
+Spartum is often named for coarse weaving;[136] also the fibres of
+barks, especially those of palm branches.[137]
+
+Another substance of classic use, and even now employed, though rather
+as a curiosity than as an article of commerce, is the silky filament
+produced by the shell-fish pinna; and also the fibres of certain
+sea-weeds.
+
+Fur and hair, especially that of camels and goats, has always been
+much prized.[138] We have seen both African and Indian striped or
+primitively decorated rugs of wool, touched here and there with scraps
+of cotton or silk, or some other odd material; and amongst them, tufts
+of human hair. The sentiment that motived the use of human hair has
+been either love or hate--the votive or the triumphal. We know that
+Delilah was not a stranger to this art. She wove into her web Samson's
+seven locks of strength, and "fastened them with a pin" (Judges xvi.).
+
+In the thirteenth century it was the custom for ladies to weave their
+own hair into their gifts to favoured knights. King Ris, if he had
+received any such token from his lady-love, returned it with
+interest; for he sent her a mantle in which were inwoven the beards of
+nine conquered kings, a tenth space being left for that of King
+Arthur, which he promised to add in course of time.[139]
+
+Leather has been from the remotest antiquity employed for the art of
+embroidery, either for the ground, as in the mantle of Boadicea, made
+of skins with the fur turned inwards and the leather outside, dressed,
+and embroidered on the seams;[140] or else as fine inlaid and onlaid
+application, as in the "funeral tent of an Egyptian queen" in the
+museum at Boulac, which is certainly the earliest specimen of
+needlework decoration that exists.[141] (Pl. 44.) The old Indian
+embroideries in leather are generally applied one on another. The
+North American Indians also embroider on leather.[142]
+
+Feather work will be discussed under the heading of "Opus
+Plumarium."[143]
+
+On the surface of textiles many substances have been fastened down, in
+order to give brilliancy to the general effect--skins of insects,
+beetles' wings, the claws and teeth of various animals.[144]
+
+Asbestos linen is the only mineral substance, besides gold, silver,
+and tin,[145] that has been employed in embroidery. It has the
+remarkable quality of indestructibility by fire. Asbestos linen can be
+cleansed by fire instead of water.[146] It is a soapy crystal, found
+in veins of serpentine and cipolino in Cyprus, and other Greek
+islands. Pliny says it was woven for the funeral obsequies of
+monarchs, as it preserved the ashes apart, being itself unharmed by
+the fires of cremation. There are several fragments existing, found in
+tombs. One of these is in the British Museum.[147]
+
+Marco Polo speaks of a stone fibre found at Chinchin, which answers in
+description to asbestos. It was spun by mixing it with threads of flax
+soaked in oil; and when woven, was passed through the fire to remove
+the flax and the oil.[148]
+
+A miraculous napkin of asbestos was long kept at Monte Casino.
+
+Coral, pearls, and beads of many forms have been used for the
+enrichment of embroideries, and for decorating textiles. The whole
+surface of the original fabric has often been entirely covered with
+them, or the pattern itself has been worked in nothing else. Pearls
+are constantly seen worked on dress, coats-of-arms, and embroidered
+portraits. Seed pearls, large coarse pearls, and sometimes fine and
+precious ones, were surrounded with gold thread embroidery. Coral was
+so much used in Sicilian embroideries, and so little elsewhere, that
+one gives the name of "Sicilian" to all such work; but occasionally we
+find coral embroideries in Spain and elsewhere (Pl. 32).
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 32.
+    Portion of Dalmatic embroidered by Blanche, Queen of Charles IV.
+        of Bohemia (fifteenth century). The figures in pearls, on a
+        background of beaten gold. Bock's "Liturgische Gewaender."
+        Vol. i. taf. xi.]
+
+Beads of glass were common in Egypt from the earliest times, strung
+together by threads so as to form breastplates rather than necklaces.
+Whence beads originally came we cannot tell, but it seems that the
+Phoenicians dropped them on all the shores of the world. Then, as
+now, savages had a passion for beads, and civilized men and women
+still admire them as trimmings. In the Middle Ages they were sometimes
+worked into pictures.[149]
+
+In as far as materials are essential to the art of embroidery, I must
+restrict myself to the history of silk, wool, flax, cotton, and gold.
+With these all the finest works have been executed for the artistic
+adornment of dress and hangings. All other materials have been
+occasional experiments, or else were resorted to in the absence or
+ignorance of the above five most important factors in our domestic
+civilization. The history of wool must take precedence as being that
+of the original, if not the first, of textile materials.
+
+
+2. WOOL.
+
+The wool of sheep and the hair of goats were used very early in the
+world's history for clothing, and probably also for hangings. The
+earliest civilizations plaited, span,[150] wove, and felted them.
+
+There is no reason to suppose that goats and sheep preceded the
+creation of man. No early fossils record them. Our sheep are supposed
+by zoologists to be descended from the Argali or Ovis Ammon of
+Linnaeus, inhabiting the central regions of Asia.[151]
+
+It is possible that plaited grasses may have preceded wool. But though
+certain prehistoric specimens are supposed to have been found in
+Spain, yet of this there is but imperfect proof.
+
+The pastoral tribes wandering over those fair regions that extend from
+Khotan to Arabia, following their flocks and herds, and studying where
+best to feed, increase, and multiply them, and obtain from them the
+finest texture of wool, are spoken of nowhere more than in the
+collected books of the Old Testament, open to us all; and there we
+learn how important a place these shepherds held in the world's
+civilization. "Watching their flocks by night," they watched the stars
+also, and they were astronomers; seeking the best pastures and fodder,
+they learned to be botanists, florists, and agriculturalists. They
+became also philosophers, poets, prophets, and kings.[152] Job and his
+country were enriched through the breeding of sheep. The seven
+daughters of Jethro, the High-priest, tended their father's flocks.
+
+The Arabians were always great breeders of sheep. The Greeks and
+Romans, from Homer to Virgil, sang of the herdsman's life. Our Lord
+Himself did not disdain to be called "the Good Shepherd."[153]
+
+The merchants who traded from the Arabian Gulf to Egypt, and across
+thence to the shores of the Mediterranean, and the Phoenicians of
+Sidon who brought overland their bales of raw material and
+manufactured Oriental fabrics, knew well where to find the best goods
+for their customers; and we hear frequently whence came this or that
+coloured wool. Chemmis, the city of Pan, retained its celebrity in the
+woollen trade down to the conquest of Egypt by the Romans. Nineveh and
+Babylon encouraged the manufactures and commerce in woollen tents,
+wall-hangings, and carpets. Nowhere were they so richly
+embroidered.[154]
+
+Solomon purchased woollens from Egypt. Damascus supplied the Tyrians
+with wool for their rugs. The stuffs and textile fabrics of wool, of
+the Chinese, Assyrians, and Chaldeans, are recorded in the earliest
+writings of the human race. How much their decoration depended on
+weaving, and how much on embroidery, we cannot tell. The products of
+the Babylonian looms are alluded to in the Book of Joshua,[155] and
+also by Ezekiel.[156]
+
+Assyrian stuffs were always celebrated for their splendid colours and
+various designs; among which were hunting scenes, battles, and special
+emblematic adornments.[157]
+
+From Miletus came the wool valued most highly by the Greeks. Spain
+produced the best black, and the north of Italy the best white wool.
+The Narbonensian and Egyptian wools were supposed to be the most
+durable, and when they became shabby, were dipped again and served
+another generation.
+
+From Yates' account of the great variety of wools, remarkable for
+their fine texture, their whiteness,[158] their blackness,[159] or
+their redness, their cool or their warm tints, it is evident that the
+ancients valued highly these different qualities.[160] The cloths that
+were of greatest account were of the finest or the warmest kinds. The
+sheep of Miletus, Attica, Megaris, and Tarentum were clothed in
+jackets, in order to preserve the fineness and whiteness of their own
+coats, and to protect them from being torn by the thorny bushes in
+their pastures. Columella calls them the "covered" and the "soft," and
+says they were often kept in the house.
+
+We find notices of the peculiarities of the various national breeds,
+caused by the soil on which their pasture grew, and the rivers and
+streams at which they drank, and these peculiarities were, if
+possible, encouraged. There is evidence also that some improvement of
+the breeds by crossing was practised in early times.
+
+As in all the life of the Greeks, the religious element had much
+influence in perfecting their flocks of sheep--only the most beautiful
+animals were considered worthy of sacrifice to the gods.
+
+A few of the rare specimens of stuffs which have been rescued from
+tombs, especially in the Crimea, and in the Fayoum, in Egypt, show a
+wool so fine and shining that it might be taken for silk, and the
+beauty of the weaving is marvellous, and much varied in style.
+
+A warrior's tomb in the district of Kuban contained a funeral pall,
+covering the sarcophagus, measuring at least three metres and a half
+each way, woven of brown wool, in twelve narrow strips sewn together
+and afterwards painted. The ground is yellowish, the design brown. The
+figures repeat mythical subjects, and alternate with patterns, and
+there is a border. One strip contains a scene from the story of Peleus
+and Thetis. Apparently this is Attic design. The coloured dresses worn
+by women of rank, and hung on the statues of the gods, were sometimes
+painted, sometimes stamped, and often embroidered, and they were
+nearly all of woollen fabrics.
+
+One of the great advantages of wool is its power of absorbing colour,
+as the pigment sinks into its very fibre, instead of clinging to the
+surface. It can be dyed of deeper colours than flax, cotton, or silk.
+
+Pliny tells us that Tanaquil combed, span, and wove her wool, and she
+herself made the royal mantle which Servius Tullius used to wear, and
+it was covered with a wavy pattern (undulata). Thence came the custom
+that when a maiden became a bride, her attendants carried a distaff
+trimmed with combed wool, and a spindle with yarn upon it. The robes
+worked by Tanaquil were dedicated by Servius Tullius to the statue of
+Fortune in her temple at Rome, and were still hanging there in the
+days of Tiberius.[161] Pliny remarks that it was a wonder that it
+neither fell from the image, nor was eaten by the moths, during five
+hundred and sixty years.
+
+He gives us interesting details of the weaving of woollen cloths, and
+speaks of the thick coarse wool with "great thick hair," used for
+carpets from the time of Homer. The same passage mentions felt. He
+tells us of the cloths with a curly nap, used in the days of Augustus;
+of the "papaverata" woven with flowers resembling poppies; and we hear
+from him of the cloth of divers colours woven in Babylon, and called
+thence Babylonica; and the Alexandrian webs, with many-coloured
+threads (polymita)[162], comparing them with those made in Gaul; and
+those woven by the Parthians.[163]
+
+We have already said that the wool of Miletus was a proverbial
+favourite with the Greeks. Eustathius speaks of the excellence of the
+Milesian carpets and hangings. Virgil represents the virgins of Cyrene
+spinning Milesian wool dyed of a deep sea-green.[164]
+
+In the British Museum is a fragment of Egyptian woollen or worsted
+embroidery on white linen, discoloured by its use as mummy wrapping;
+but the stitches of worsted remain a perfectly clear bright crimson
+and indigo blue. This shows how wool absorbs the colour and retains
+it. Even when the surface is faded, it can be made to emit it again by
+chemical processes.
+
+In tombs in the Crimea have been found variously woven and adorned
+woollen fabrics. There are fragments resembling in their texture a
+fine rep--a sort of corded stuff; another material resembling a
+woollen crepe, or fine "nun's gauze." This veiled a golden wreath.
+Then there is a stuff like what is now called "atlas"--a kind of
+woollen satin. Some woollens are woven simply like linen; some are
+wide, some very narrow, sewn together in strips, woven in meandering
+designs. One, like a piece of Gobelin tapestry, has a border of ducks
+with yellow wings and dark green heads and throats,[165] and then
+another with a pattern of stags' heads. This description recalls the
+specimens on plate 16 and plate 39.
+
+From these tombs are collected stuffs of wool, woven and embroidered
+in gold with combinations of many colours; and, in fact, through this
+collection, now placed in the Museum at St. Petersburg, we become
+aware that 300 B.C. the Greeks had learned all the secrets of the art
+of weaving wool. They, however, lost it, and it is only in India that
+its continuity was never broken. Indian looms still weave, of the
+finest fleeces, such shawls of Babylonian design as repeat the texture
+of the ancient Greek garments. But were they Greek? or did those
+beautiful woven fabrics come from Persia or India?[166]
+
+The first we know of Scandinavian wool for dress, is a fragment from a
+Celtic barrow in Yorkshire--a woollen plaited shroud. This fabric was
+an advance upon the original northern savage costume--a sheep-skin
+fashioned and sewn with a fish-bone for a needle, sinews for thread,
+and a thorn for a pin. But we must imagine that some use was made,
+besides plaiting, of the spun wool, of which the early northern women
+have left us evidence, in the whorls of their spindles, from
+prehistoric times.
+
+Wool has always appeared to be a natural material for dress. It is
+warm in winter, light in summer, and is always beautiful as it hangs
+in lovely soft draperies, heavy enough to draw the fabric into
+graceful curved lines, and yet capable of yielding to each movement
+in little rippling folds, covering, but not concealing the forms to
+which they cling. Classical draperies are explained by it. What the
+Italians call the "eyes of the folds," are particularly beautiful in
+woollens, and lend themselves to sculpturesque art.
+
+The other natural use of wool is for carpets. We have the evidence of
+the imitations, in mosaic, of carpets from the stone floors in Nineveh
+(now in the British Museum), that the art of weaving large and small
+rugs, and the principles of composition for such purposes was at that
+date well understood. The carpet-weaving traditions of Babylon appear
+to have been inherited by the occupiers of the soil, as it is supposed
+that the Saracens learned from Persia the art of weaving pile carpets,
+and imported thence craftsmen into Spain. We can trace Persian carpet
+patterns in Indian floor coverings. The Greeks called them _tapetes_;
+and the Latins adopted the name; and hence the Italian _tapeti_,
+French _tapis_, and our word tapestry.
+
+As artistic material, to which the world owes much beauty and comfort,
+woollens have always played a great part in the decorations of our
+houses, as of our garments. Fabrics have been made of them of every
+description, from the cheapest and commonest to the most refined; but
+if woollen stuffs are to be beautiful, they must be _fine_, and worked
+or embroidered by hand.
+
+Woollens brocaded or figured are not so effective as silken hangings.
+Woollen velvets are without light, dull and heavy. Still, even amongst
+our English fabrics, there have always been varieties of texture[167]
+and adaptations to different effects, and some are beautiful.
+
+Worsted thread, so called from Worsted, in Norfolk, where the
+materials for weaving and embroidering are manufactured, has always
+been very important in embroidery. Worsteds after a time gave way to a
+very beautiful material, called "German wool," which again has yielded
+the supremacy to "crewels"[168] (resembling the old worsteds). These
+crewels are nearly the same in substance and in their loose texture as
+the threads prepared from wool for tapestry weaving.
+
+We may claim, in England, the superiority in this manufacture, though
+we are constantly receiving from France novelties which give us good
+hints, and urge us to keep pace with the science of the Gobelins in
+their woollen dyes. The French, in return, employ our wools,
+especially those of Lincolnshire, in their tapestry workshops.
+
+The wool and hair of goats should be a study by itself. They have from
+the earliest times been used in India for the finest and softest
+fabrics, such as the lovely shawls of Cashmere and the neighbouring
+provinces. Cloth of Tars in the Middle Ages is supposed to be what is
+now called Cashmere.
+
+
+3. FLAX.
+
+Boyd Dawkins tells us that "The art of spinning and the manufacture of
+linen were introduced into Europe in the Neolithic age, and have been
+preserved with little variation from that period to the present day,
+in certain remote parts of Europe, having only been superseded in
+modern times by the complicated machinery so familiar to us. The
+spindle and distaff, or perforated spindle whorls, are of stone,
+pottery, or bone, such as are constantly found in Neolithic tombs and
+habitations. Thread from the Swiss lake cities is proved to be of
+flax, and there is evidence of weaving in some sort of loom."[169]
+
+The meaning of the word Byssus has been disputed; some authorities
+asserting that it includes both flax and cotton fabrics. Without the
+aid of the microscope, the dispute as to whether the material of the
+Egyptian mummy wrappings was cotton or flax, or a mixture of the two,
+would never have been settled; but now that the difference of the
+structure of each has been clearly ascertained, we know that cotton
+was never employed in Egypt, except for certain domestic uses. The
+mummy wrappings are entirely linen. Cotton was forbidden for the
+priests' dress in the temple, though they might wear it when not on
+duty.[170]
+
+There are specimens of Egyptian painted or printed patterns on fine
+linen in the British Museum;[171] and it is curious to see in Egyptian
+mural paintings the same patterned chintzes on furniture that were
+common a hundred years ago in England. Both must have come from India,
+and therefore were certainly cotton fabrics.
+
+Herodotus says the mummy cloths were of "byssine sindon," which may be
+translated "linen cloth."[172] Cotton he calls "tree wool."
+
+Yates has carefully argued the whole question, and, we think, has
+proved that byssus was flax, and not cotton.[173] He quotes Philo,
+who certainly must have believed that it was made of flax, from the
+description he gives of its appearance and qualities, which in no way
+apply to cotton or hemp. He says that "The Jewish high priests wore a
+linen garment of the purest byssus--which was a symbol of firmness,
+incorruption, and of the clearest splendour, for fine linen is very
+difficult to tear. It is made of nothing mortal, and becomes brighter
+and more resembling light, the more it is cleansed by washing."[174]
+
+Here is another quotation: "Cloth of byssus symbolizes firm faith. Its
+threads surpass even ropes of broom in firmness and strength."[175]
+Pliny says the flax grown in Egypt was superior to any other, and it
+was exported to Arabia and India.[176] The first known existing
+fragment of flax linen in Europe was taken from the tomb of the Seven
+Brothers in the Crimea. Its date is 300 B.C.
+
+In Solomon's time the Jews evidently depended upon Egypt for their
+fine linen. Herodotus describes the corselet of Amasis, the fineness
+of the linen, and the embroidered decorations of men and animals,
+partly gold and partly tree wool (i.e. cotton).[177]
+
+All the finest linen certainly came then from Egypt, and was much
+finer than any that is now made. That we call cambric, was woven there
+many centuries before it was made in Cambray.[178]
+
+Through the Phoenicians the fine linen came to Rome, as appears
+from the following notice of embroidery on linen by Flavius Vopiscus,
+in his "Life of the Emperor Carinus:" "Why should I mention the linen
+cloths brought from Tyre and Sidon, which are so thin as to be
+transparent, which glow with purple, or are prized on account of their
+laborious embroideries?"[179]
+
+The history of a fine embroidered linen curtain for a Roman house
+might have been this:--Grown in Egypt; carried to Nomenticum (Artois),
+and there woven; taken to India to be embroidered, and thence as
+merchandise to Rome.
+
+While flax was making its way northward, the Celts must also have
+taken it across Europe from their resting-place, after emigrating from
+the East. The word _linen_--_lin-white_--is a Celtic epithet, whereas
+_flax_ is an Anglo-Saxon word.[180]
+
+The Atrebates wove linen in Artois, 1800 years ago. Jerome speaks of
+their "indumenta," or shirts of fine linen; and the great weavers of
+to-day are still the Flemish descendants of the Atrebates. Their
+Celtic descent is witnessed in the Irish by their superiority in the
+crafts of the loom.
+
+The fine laces of Venice, France, and Belgium are all of linen, i.e.
+flaxen thread. Clearness and strength in these delicate fabrics cannot
+be obtained with cotton, which, especially when it is washed, swells
+and fluffs, and never has the radiant appearance and purity of flax.
+
+Embroidery is always a natural accompaniment of fine linen. Those that
+are still preserved to us from early and Middle-Age times are nearly
+all on linen, if not on silk. The woollen fragments are very few and
+imperfect. They have been invariably "fretted" by the moth.
+
+White needle embroidery is mostly worked in linen-thread, though
+cotton-thread has been used a great deal, and is very fit for the
+purpose.
+
+
+4. COTTON.
+
+Cotton was native to India,[181] as flax was to Egypt. It not only was
+grown, woven, and printed there from the remotest antiquity, but was
+cultivated nowhere else. The Egyptians do not appear to have grown it
+till the fourteenth century A.D., though they had long imported it as
+raw material, and as plain and printed webs.[182] It was called
+tree-wool.
+
+It was first woven in Italy in the thirteenth century, and used for
+making paper; and in the sixteenth, the plant was grown in the south
+of Europe. From Italy it was carried into the Low Countries, and only
+reached England in the seventeenth century,[183] so lately has the
+great staple of our manufactures first belonged to us.
+
+The fibre of cotton has neither the strength nor the durability of
+flax or silk, but it is the third in the group of the most universally
+qualified materials for all purposes of domestic textile art, ranging
+from carpets and sails, to fine chintzes for dress, and filmy muslins.
+The cloudy effect of these delicate fabrics is their own peculiar
+beauty. Muslins for hangings, printed or embroidered, have always
+been a luxury from India; they were called "carbasa," and were much
+esteemed in Rome as a protection against the sun.[184]
+
+But we have much earlier notice of them, as being the curtains
+described in the Book of Esther, hung with silver rings to the pillars
+of marble in the banqueting hall at Susa or Shushan: "blue and white
+muslin" (i.e. carpas,[185] mistranslated "green" in the Authorized
+Version), "fastened with cords of fine linen and purple."
+
+The word "carbasina" occurs in a play by Statius, evidently translated
+from a writer of the new Greek comedy period. It may be inferred,
+therefore, that the Greeks used cotton 200 B.C.[186] A century before,
+Nearchus (one of Alexander's admirals) speaks of the cotton-trees in
+India as if they were a new discovery. Yates gives us many quotations
+from Latin classical authors, proving the common use of cotton. Its
+Latin name was _bambacinum_, from _bombax_, hence the Italian
+_bambagio_, _bambagino_, _bambasino_.
+
+The variety of cotton fabrics in India is very numerous, each having
+its distinctive beauties and qualities inherited by tradition from
+early times. They are enumerated and described in Sir G. Birdwood's
+"Arts of India." Almost all of them have been made to carry
+embroideries--the transparent muslins,[187] as well as the fine
+cloths, and the stronger and thicker fabrics.[188]
+
+Most old English houses contain some hangings of thickly woven cotton,
+probably Indian, worked in crewel or worsted, of the time of James I.,
+or a little earlier; and beautiful patterns wrought in silk or thread,
+on fine cotton linen, reminding one of the arabesques of the Taj
+Mahal, succeeded those of the Jacobean style.
+
+Transparent muslins were often embroidered in gold and silver, or
+spangled and embossed with beetles' wings; and gold, silver, and silk
+were lavished on Indian cotton grounds, as well as on silken stuffs.
+Linen was not much embroidered in India, but often printed like
+chintz.
+
+Buckram, or plush of cotton, was certainly imported from the East to
+England, from the thirteenth century to the time of Elizabeth. There
+is at Ashridge, in Hertfordshire, a small jacket of very fine
+cotton-plush amongst the baby linen prepared by Elizabeth for the
+expected heir of Philip and Mary, and there are other small dresses of
+this material of the date of James I. A similar material called
+fustian is also named by Marco Polo as a cotton fabric; it is supposed
+to have been made in Egypt by the Arabs. This sort of cotton-plush,
+variously manipulated, is repeatedly mentioned by Herr Graf'schen in
+his "Catalogue of Egyptian Textiles from the Fayoum."
+
+Plano Carpini says the tunics of the Tartars were "bacramo," or else
+of baudichin (cloth of gold). Falstaff's "men in buckram" may be thus
+explained.[189]
+
+I have already said that cotton is inferior in its qualities to silk
+and flax, except in the production of transparent muslins. Its
+peculiarity is its tendency to "crinkle" or crumple in wearing,
+therefore it does not present a smooth flat surface, except by means
+of dressing, which unfits it for clinging effects but suits printed
+patterns. Such stuffs as workhouse sheeting, imitating certain fabrics
+of the sixteenth century, and which it has been the fashion of late to
+cover with embroidery, do not repay, by effective beauty, the trouble
+bestowed upon them.
+
+
+5. GOLD.
+
+A somewhat profane French writer, giving his ideas on the Creation,
+says that gold, the latest metal, was expressly created for the
+demoralization of mankind. This is an ugly version of the fact that it
+is found on the surface of the earth's crust, and that its beauty and
+worth makes it a desirable possession for which men will ever contend.
+
+Gold adorns every work of the artistic animal--man. It is the most
+becoming setting to all other beautiful things, the most gorgeous
+reflection of light and colour, the richest and softest background,
+the most harmonious medium for high lights. In all works of decoration
+it represents sunshine where it is not, and doubles it where it is.
+The word "illumination" in books belongs to the gilded illustrations
+of immortal thoughts.
+
+In embroideries, as grounding or as pattern, gold gives the glory:
+"Her clothing is of wrought gold." The raiment of needlework is
+comparatively ineffective without golden lights or background. As
+colour, it never can offend the eye, except when used to accentuate
+aggressively a vulgar pattern, or when it flashes and dazzles from
+over-polish and too lavish expenditure.
+
+Silver follows gold as a splendid element in decoration,[190] but it
+is not of such universal application and use; and when employed
+together, the proportion of gold should preponderate. Golden tissues
+belong to the earliest civilizations.
+
+Sir G. Birdwood says that "The art of gold brocades is older than the
+Code of Manu.... The excellence of the art passed in the long course
+of ages, from one place to another; and Babylon, Tarsus, Alexandria,
+Baghdad, Damascus, Antioch, Tabriz, Sicily, and Tripoli successively
+became celebrated for their gold and silver-wrought tissues, silks,
+and brocades.... Through every disguise (and mingling of style) it is
+not impossible to infer the essential identity of the brocades with
+the fabrics of blue, purple, and scarlet, worked in gold, of ancient
+Babylonian art."[191]
+
+The Israelites wove gold with their coloured woollens for the use of
+the sanctuary, and probably brought the art from Egypt; though I am
+not aware of any gold-woven stuffs from Egyptian tombs.[192]
+
+Indian and Chinese stuffs were from time immemorial woven with gold.
+
+The historians of Alexander the Great continually name gold as a
+material in dress.[193] Arrian, Justin, and Quintus Curtius, all speak
+of golden tissues as part of the luxury of the East.
+
+We hear of Darius' dress woven with golden hawks; and of the golden
+spoils of Persepolis; the dresses worn by Alexander's generals, and
+all his attendants clothed in purple and gold. Then, perhaps, the
+Babylonian tradition was brought to Europe; and ever after, purple and
+gold became the state apparel for courtiers as well as kings.[194]
+
+The hangings of scarlet, purple, and gold used at the nuptials of
+Alexander, and at his funeral, and his pall of the same material, point
+to the fact that gold was a recognized element in splendid textile
+weaving, as well as in the earliest ornamental embroideries.[195]
+
+Attalus II., king of Pergamus, was credited with being the inventor of
+gold weaving, but this must have been a mistake, as it was practised
+long before his time; but he may have devised some splendid golden
+tissues, which were called "Attalic," in honour of the king's
+patronage.[196] As, however, the gold flat plate or wire was probably
+that woven before his time,[197] it is possible that he may have
+invented or patronized the making of thread of gold, by twining it
+round flax or cotton.[198]
+
+Pliny says gold may be woven or spun like wool without any admixture
+of wool or flax,[199] and he quotes as examples the golden garment of
+Agrippina, and that worn by Tarquinius Priscus, mentioned by Verrius.
+
+It appears that the Egyptians knew the art of drawing gold wire, as
+some pieces have been found in their jewellery;[200] but we know not
+by what process it was worked, either then, or in the dark ages.
+
+A mechanic of Nuremberg, in the fourteenth century, invented a machine
+for the purpose; and this art of drawing wire was introduced into
+England 200 years later, in 1560.
+
+The pure cut gold was in use in Rome to a late date.[201] St. Cecilia,
+martyred 230 A.D., was buried with her golden mantle lying at her
+feet; and in 821, when Pope Pascal opened her grave, he found the
+evidence of her martyrdom in that splendid garment, showing that it
+had been soaked in blood.[202]
+
+There were found under the foundations of the new Basilica of St.
+Peter's, the bodies of Probus Anicius and his wife, Proba Faltonia, in
+a wrapping of gold.
+
+Dr. Rock gives us more examples,[203] but we will only add that of the
+wife of the Emperor Honorius, who in the year 400 A.D. was buried in
+a golden dress, which in 1544 was removed from her grave, and being
+melted, weighed 36 lbs.[204]
+
+The Anglo-Saxon tomb opened at Chessell Down, in the Isle of Wight,
+contained fragments of a garment or wrapping woven with flat gold
+"plate." These remains are now in the British Museum.
+
+Childeric was buried at Tournai, 485 A.D., and his dress of strips of
+pure gold was discovered and melted in 1653. But gold _thread_ also
+was then very generally used in weaving gold tissues.
+
+Claudian describes a Christian lady, Proba, in the fourth century,
+preparing the consular robes for her two sons on their being raised to
+the consulate:[205]--
+
+    "The joyful mother plies her knowing hands,
+    And works on all the trabea golden bands;
+    Draws the thin strips to all the length of gold,
+    _To make the metal meaner threads enfold_."
+
+Pure gold was woven in the dark ages in England. St. Cuthbert's
+maniple at Durham is of pure gold thread. John Garland says the ladies
+wove golden cingulae in the thirteenth century; and Henry I., according
+to Hoveden, was clothed in a robe of state of woven gold and gems of
+almost "divine splendour."[206]
+
+A wrapping of beautiful gold brocade covered the coffin of Henry III.
+when his tomb was opened in 1871.[207]
+
+The cope of St. Andrew at Aix, in Switzerland, is embroidered in a
+very simple pattern, with large circles containing St. Andrew's
+crosses.[208] This is worked in silver wire gilt, and is Byzantine of
+the twelfth century.
+
+In the writings of the Middle Ages we find constant reference to
+different golden fabrics. Among them are "samit" or "examitur" (a
+six-thread silk stuff, preciously inwoven with gold threads);[209] and
+"ciclatoun,"[210] which was remarkable for the lightness of its
+texture, and was woven with shining gold threads--but though light, it
+was stiff enough to carry heavy embroidery. We hear also of
+"baudekin," "nak," and cloth of pall. "Camoca" is "kincob."
+
+There appears to be a link between embroidery in gold and the
+jewellers' work which in the Dark and Middle Ages was so often applied
+to ecclesiastical and royal dress and hangings. This link was beaten
+gold work, "aurobacutos," "beaten work," or "batony."[211] Beauchamp,
+Earl of Warwick in the time of Henry VI., went over to France, having
+a "coat for my lord's body, beat with fine gold (probably heraldic
+designs). For his ship, a streamer forty yards long and eight broad,
+with a great bear and griffin, and 400 'pencils' with the 'ragged
+staff' in silver." This mode lasted some time; for in 1538, Barbara
+Mason bequeathed to a church a "vestment of green silk beaten with
+gold." Probably this beaten gold was really very thick gold-leaf laid
+on the silk or linen ground, as we see still in some Sicilian and Arab
+tissues. The embroidered banners taken from Charles le Temeraire, at
+Grandson, are finished with broad borders of gilded inscriptions, such
+as might be called beaten gold work.[212]
+
+But besides this thick gold-leaf, there was another mode of enriching
+embroideries. Laminae of gold were cut into shapes, and finished the
+work by accentuating the design in Eastern embroideries; They are
+found also in Greek tombs, and in the Middle Ages they varied from the
+little golden spangle to many other forms--circular rings, stars,
+crescents, moons, leaves, and solid pendant wedges of gold, all which
+approached the art of the goldsmith.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 19.
+    Spangles.]
+
+Enamel was soon added to the enrichment of these golden spangles,
+plates, or discs, which were enlarged to receive a design.[213] Of
+this style of embellishment we know none so striking as the saddle in
+the Museum at Munich, said to have been taken from a Turkish general
+in the fifteenth century. This is Italian of the finest cinque-cento
+style: blue velvet, covered with beautiful gold embroidery, and
+every vacant space filled with spangles of endless forms, and of
+precious goldsmiths' and enamellers' work. The Persian stirrups
+attached to it are of a totally different style of enamelling and
+jewellery, and speak for themselves, and for the school they came
+from.[214]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 33.
+    Window Hanging, by Gentil Bellini, from a Portrait of Mahomet II.,
+        property of Sir H. Layard.]
+
+Dr. Rock describes part of a chasuble wrought by Isabella of Spain and
+her maids of honour, in which the flowing design is worked out in
+small moulded spangles of gold and silver, set so as to overlap each
+other and give the effect of scales.
+
+To a late period, gold and silver embroideries, enriched with
+spangles, have been lavished on the head-dresses and stomachers of the
+peasantry throughout the north of Europe and Switzerland.[215]
+
+Pearls and gems, either threaded like beads, or in golden settings,
+are to be studied in the early pictures of the German and French
+schools; and the Anglo-Saxons excelled in such enrichments.
+
+Sir Henry Layard has a portrait of the fifteenth century, of the
+Sultan Mahomet II., by Gentil Bellini, from which has been copied the
+accompanying beautiful embroidered design of a window-hanging.[216]
+The grace of the lines, and the delicate taste with which the gems are
+set in the work, are a lesson in art (pl. 33).
+
+India sent to Europe more art in gold thread than has ever been
+produced amongst us from our own workshops.[217]
+
+The people of Goa, mostly Arabs, embroidered for the Portuguese those
+wonderful fabrics, glittering with gold and radiant with colours,
+which cover the beds and hang the rooms throughout Portugal and
+Spain.[218] The precious metals (often forming the whole grounding)
+were employed without stint; the patterns being either embroidered in
+coloured silks and gold; or on velvets or satins, with gold alone or
+mixed with silver.
+
+The fine gold threads for embroidery, which have preserved their
+brilliancy for so many centuries, such as we find worked in
+Charlemagne's dalmatic, in Aelfled's maniple, and in the mitres of
+Thomas a Becket, are certainly Oriental. To England they came in the
+bales of the merchants who brought us our silk, and even our needles,
+from India. Later we imported and copied the different ways of giving
+effect to inferior metals, and the Spaniard's gilt parchment thread
+reached us from their Moorish manufactories.[219]
+
+Designs were sometimes, in the sixteenth century, worked in gold
+twisted with coloured silks, sometimes only stitched down with them.
+The badges of the Order of the Dragon, instituted by the Emperor
+Sigismund, were thus embroidered, and placed on the cloaks of the
+knights. The work was so perfect that it resembled jewels of enamelled
+gold. Two ancient ones are in the Museum at Munich.
+
+Gold or silver or base metal wire was, in the later Middle Ages and
+down to our own times, much employed in the form of what is called
+"purl," i.e. coiled wire cut into short lengths, threaded on silk, and
+sewn down. German, Italian, and English embroideries were often
+enriched with this fabric. Sometimes the wire was twisted with
+coloured silks before it was coiled. There are beautiful specimens of
+this work of the days of Queen Elizabeth.
+
+Still, throughout Europe the best works were carried out with the best
+materials, and these always came from the East. But we sometimes find
+that the pressure of circumstances has for a time caused the
+employment of adulterated metals that have perished; and thus many
+fine works of art have been spoiled.[220]
+
+The use of bad materials has therefore been as unfortunate for art as
+that of pure gold, which has tempted so many ignorant persons to burn
+golden embroideries and tapestries, and melt down the ore they
+contain. How little of all that human skill and invention have
+carefully elaborated is now preserved to us! To gold and silver
+textiles their materials have been often a fatal dower.
+
+It has sometimes puzzled any but the most experienced embroiderers to
+distinguish between the stuffs woven with the golden threads on the
+surface, and finely brocaded or patterned in the loom; and those other
+cloths, embroidered by hand, which have been so manipulated that
+hardly an atom of the gold can be detected at the back. This is done
+by a technical mode of treating the surface, which is more easily
+shown than described. The gold is really drawn into the spaces between
+the threads of the canvas or linen grounding, but never pulled
+through. For many reasons this is an advantage, and when executed
+cunningly, as it was in England in the twelfth century, it is rich,
+beautiful, lasting, and economical. It is a peculiar mark of the "opus
+Anglicanum," and it is to be seen in the mitre at Munich, where this
+stitch is employed on a white satin ground;[221] also in the working
+of the two pluvials at San Giovanni Laterano at Rome, and at the
+Museum at Bologna, as well as that at Madrid, which are all three
+English of the thirteenth century, by design as well as by stitches.
+
+I cannot close this chapter without naming the many schools of gold
+embroidery in Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. The King of
+Bavaria has an establishment for gold work, and this is very finely
+carried out, highly raised, and richly designed.[222] In Spain there
+is also a Royal School, where stately works are executed.
+
+It is to be regretted that the modern designs are motiveless, and not
+so beautiful as the old ones, and it is very difficult to have any
+ancient piece of work copied exactly. Little modernisms creep in
+wherever the pattern has to be fitted into a new shape; for the
+accomplished needlewoman is seldom an artist.
+
+All honour is due to certain manufacturers at Lyons who are working in
+the spirit of the old masters, and have been seriously considering how
+best to reproduce the beautiful soft surface of the gold thread of
+which the secret was lost in the fifteenth century.[223]
+
+The old Chinese flat gold was, about the sixteenth century, superseded
+by what was manufactured in Spain, and is no longer imported or,
+perhaps, even made.
+
+
+6. SILK.
+
+The origin and history of silk is learnedly and elaborately discussed
+in Yates' "Textrinum Antiquorum." He gives us his authorities, and
+literal translations for the benefit of the unlearned, who cannot read
+the original texts. I have availed myself without hesitation of his
+quotations, and of the carefully considered opinions he has drawn from
+them.
+
+It has been already said that wool and flax preceded silk in Egyptian,
+Greek, and Roman manufactures. There is no certain mention of silk in
+the Books of the Old Testament.[224] Silk is, however, named in the
+Code of Manu.[225]
+
+No shred of silk has been found in any Egyptian tomb, nor till
+lately, and with one exception only, in those of the Greeks.
+
+Auberville says, "La soie ne fit son apparition en Europe que 300 ans
+avant notre ere."[226]
+
+Pamphile, daughter of Plates, of Cos, is said by Aristotle to have
+there first woven silk (300 B.C.). Probably raw silk was brought to
+Cos from the interior of Asia, and Pamphile is by some supposed to
+have "effiled" the solid manufactured silks, and woven them again into
+gauzy webs. Yates suggests that it is possible that Pamphile obtained
+cocoons and unwound them, as the passage in Aristotle may be so
+interpreted.
+
+The specimen of early silk-weaving which we have above alluded to, was
+taken out of the "Tomb of the Seven Brothers" at Kertch, in the
+Crimea, and is of the third century B.C. It consists of several bits
+of very transparent painted silk. These fragments are an actual and
+yet a contemporary witness to the truth of the tradition of Pamphile's
+Coan webs, which are of the same date: possibly they were her
+handiwork.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 34.
+    1. Classical Silk. Greek. (Semper's "Der Stil," p. 192.) 2.
+        Classical Silk. Roman. (Auberville, pl. 4.)]
+
+Whether Pamphile's silk gauzes were the only fine webs of Cos,[227] is
+a disputed question. She has the credit of being the first to clothe
+victorious generals in triumphal garments, and she has been
+immortalized by her cleverness and industry. Both Aristotle and Pliny
+assert that she first invented the Coan webs, and that some of them
+were of silk is undoubted. The question is, How came it there?
+whence and by what route? and what country was its original home and
+birthplace?
+
+After stating the _pros_ and _cons_ of the question, how and where did
+silk first make its appearance, Sir G. Birdwood concludes that both
+the worm and the cocoon were known to the Greeks and Romans, by report
+and rare specimens, from the time of Alexander's return from his
+Indian campaign.[228]
+
+Of course the remains of these fabrics are extremely scarce; and, in
+fact, only two are at present known to me besides the Kertch specimen.
+The first is given in Semper's "Der Stil," and is evidently classical
+Greek or Roman; but the silk material might have been effiled from an
+Oriental stuff (pl. 34, No. 1). The second must have been originally a
+Roman pattern, modified by the Persian loom in which it was woven.
+This may have been a Roman triumphal robe of the date of Julius Caesar
+(pl. 34, No. 2).
+
+It is clear that Chinese silken stuffs were not generally known in
+Southern Europe till the time of Julius Caesar, who displayed a
+profusion of silks in some of his splendid theatrical representations.
+
+How silk first arrived from the East is disputed; some say it came by
+the Red Sea, and other authorities believe it was brought from China,
+_via_ Persia, by land.
+
+But it is not necessary that it should have entered our civilization
+by only one gate. The Periplus Maris Erythraei makes frequent mention
+of the trade in silks, through India, by the Indus to the coasts of
+the Erythrean Sea. They were also brought through Bactria to Barygaza,
+near Surat, from a city called Thina (China?). The author of the
+Periplus, of course, refers to some place in the country vaguely
+called Serica.[229]
+
+That the trade which brought it into Europe was difficult and
+limited, is proved by the fact that silk continued, even as late as
+the third century of our era, to be an article of luxury, of which the
+manufacture and use continued to be the subject of legal enactments
+and restrictions, for 600 years after Pamphile's first essay in
+silk-weaving in Cos.
+
+"The Seres" was the name given by the ancients to the nation which
+produced silk; and it was undoubtedly that accepted for the distant
+region now called China, including Corea, and later, the kingdom of
+Khotan. The first mention of these people as a distinct nation is by
+Mela (iii. 7), who speaks of them as an "honest people, who bring what
+they have to sell, and return for their payments."[230]
+
+The prevailing idea amongst the Greeks was that silk was combed from
+the trees. Seneca says:--
+
+    "Nor with Maeonian needle mark the web,
+    Gathered by Eastern Seres from the trees."
+
+              Seneca the Tragedian, "Herc. AEtaeus," 644.[231]
+
+This was, till lately, believed to be only a fiction, intended to hide
+the truth and enhance the value of the new Coan material. But it is
+now ascertained that some of the wild silk in China is carried by the
+silkworm round the trees, wrapping them up, as it were, in large,
+untidy cocoons; so that, as usual, tradition had truth for its
+foundation.
+
+There was always much mysterious report about the new material.
+Dionysius Periegetes tells of a barbarous people called the Seres,
+who "renounce the care of sheep and oxen, but who comb the coloured
+flowers of the desert, and with them produce woven precious stuffs, of
+which they make figured garments, resembling the flowers of the field
+in beauty, and in texture the web of the spider."[232]
+
+There is no doubt that as Egypt was the first to weave linen, and
+India to produce cotton textiles, so in China originated the material
+of silk and its manufacture.
+
+M. Terrien de la Couperie, who has deciphered the Archaic books of the
+Chinese Records, sees there excellent linguistic proofs that the
+Chinese nation was originally a fragment of the first Babylonian
+civilization. He there finds that when these Accadians arrived on the
+furthest eastern coast of Asia, they met with and enslaved an
+aboriginal race, who already cultivated the silkworm, and wove and
+worked its produce, and were called by them "the Embroiderers."[233]
+
+This is supposed to have been an historical event contemporary with
+the life of Abraham, and, therefore, 5000 years old.
+
+The Chinese say that Tekin or Sin, the son of Japhet, instructed his
+children in painting, sculpture, and embroidery, and in the art of
+preparing _silk_ for different woven fabrics.[234]
+
+Whether we are justified or not in believing in so very early a date,
+at any rate we must remember that it is now ascertained that silk was
+used in China 2600 years before our era.
+
+Auberville says there is a legend that the Empress Si-ling-chi[235]
+(2600 B.C.) had the happy inspiration to invent the unwinding of the
+cocoon before the insect cut the threads; and for this discovery she
+was placed among the divinities.
+
+Before her time, they had certainly for more than 300 years used the
+precious material in its mutilated condition.[236]
+
+Some centuries later the Emperor Chan received tribute in linens and
+silken stuffs. Tissues of many colours were painted or richly
+embroidered.[237]
+
+In the second century A.D., a prince of Khotan,[238] Kiu-sa-tan-na,
+was desirous of obtaining from China the eggs of the silkworm, but his
+request was refused; and it was prohibited that either eggs of the
+silkworm or seed of mulberry-trees should cross the border.
+
+Then the King of Khotan asked for a Chinese princess in marriage, and
+this favour being granted, he found means to inform the lady privately
+that in her future kingdom she would find no silk to weave or work.
+The dread of such an aimless life roused all her womanly instincts.
+Defiance of the law, love of smuggling, and the wish to please her
+husband and benefit her future people, gave her courage to conceal the
+eggs and seeds in the folds of her dress and the meshes of her
+beautiful hair, and so she carried a most precious dower into her
+adopted country.[239] Thus was broken the spell which for more than
+3000 years had confined the secret of China within the fence of its
+wonderful wall; and later on, A.D. 530, the eggs were brought to
+Byzantium.[240]
+
+From China, therefore, comes our silk.[241] We may say it is traced to
+the beginning; but how far back had the archaeologist to grope before
+he could find it!
+
+I transcribe a few more quotations from Yates' translations and
+authorities.[242]
+
+In the Hippolytus of Euripides, 383, Phaedra _loquitur_:--
+
+    "Remove, ye maids, the vests whose tissue glares
+    With purple and with gold; far be the red
+    Of Syrian murex; this the shining thread
+    Which furthest Seres gathers from the boughs."
+
+Lucan describes the transparent material which veiled Cleopatra's
+form:--
+
+    "Her snowy breast shines through Sidonian threads,
+    First by the comb of distant Seres struck;
+    Divided then by Egypt's skilful hand,
+    And with embroidery transparent made."
+
+Pliny's account of silk and its manufacture is mostly fanciful, though
+founded on half-known facts.
+
+The Latin poets of the Augustan age speak of silk attire with other
+luxurious customs from the East.[243] The Roman senate, in the reign
+of Tiberius, decreed that only women should wear silk, on account of
+its effeminacy.
+
+Silk was accumulated for the wardrobes of the empresses till A.D.
+176, when Marcus Aurelius, "the Philosopher," sold all the imperial
+ornaments and the silken robes of his empress by auction in the Forum
+of Trajan.[244]
+
+We learn that silk was precious and fabulously esteemed to the end of
+the second century A.D.; but it is seldom mentioned in the third
+century.
+
+AElius Lampridius speaks of a silken cord with which to hang himself,
+as an imperial extravagance on the part of Heliogabalus (and of this
+only one strand was silk); and he mentions that Alexander Severus
+rarely allowed himself a dress of silk (holosericum), and only gave
+away robes of partly silken substance.
+
+Flavius Vopiscus says that Aurelian had no dress wholly of silk
+(holosericum).[245] His wife begged him to allow her a shawl of purple
+silk, and he replied, "Far be it from me to permit thread to be
+reckoned worth its weight in gold!"--for a pound of gold was then
+worth a pound of silk.
+
+Flavius Vopiscus further states that the Emperor Carinus, however,
+gave away silken garments, as well as dresses of gold and silver, to
+Greek artificers, players, wrestlers, and musicians.[246]
+
+Yates gives us a translation of an edict of Diocletian, giving a
+maximum of prices for articles in common use in the Roman empire. It
+reads like a tailor's or a dress-maker's bill of to-day:--
+
+                                                             DENARII.
+  To the tailor, for lining a fine vest                         6
+  To the same, for an opening of an edging of silk             50
+  To the same, for an opening and an edging of a mixed
+    tissue of silk and flax                                    30
+  For an edging of a coarser vest                               4[247]
+
+A monument at Tivoli is erected to the memory of his estimable wife,
+Valeria Chrysis, by "M. N. Poculus, silk manufacturer." This was
+probably an imperial office in the fourth century.[248]
+
+From the first to the sixth centuries, poets and historians
+continually speak of silk,[249] praising its beauty or blaming it as
+extravagance or luxury; but according to Yates, all the information we
+collect from these sources requires to be tested as to accuracy, and
+is often erroneous.
+
+I have spoken of the first silk-weaving in Cos, 300 B.C. The first
+arrival of the silkworm in Europe was in the sixth century, 900 years
+later. Cosmas Indicopleustes and another monk brought eggs from China
+in the hollow staves they carried in their hands. This was a great
+event in European commerce. The eggs were solemnly presented to the
+Emperor Justinian, and the monopoly of their cultivation is to be
+found in his law-ordaining codex.[250]
+
+The monopoly of the silk manufactures was confined to the area of the
+imperial palace of Constantinople, but the cultivation of the worm
+gradually spread over Greece, Asia Minor, and India.
+
+The first allusion to the use of silk in the Christian Church is by
+Gregory Nazianzen (A.D. 370), "Ad Hellenium pro Monarchis Carmen:"
+"Silver and gold some bring to God, or the fine thread by Seres
+spun."[251] Basil illustrates the idea of the resurrection by the
+birth of the butterfly from the cocoon.[252]
+
+Paul the Silentiary (A.D. 562) alludes to the frequent use of silk in
+the priests' vestments at the Church of St. Sophia at Constantinople.
+
+Bede relates that the first Abbot of Wearmouth went to Rome for the
+fifth time in A.D. 685, and brought back with him two scarves or palls
+of incomparable workmanship, and entirely of silk, with which he
+purchased land of three families at the mouth of the Wear. Bede's own
+remains were wrapped in silk.
+
+Auberville gives us, in his "Tissus," specimens of Roman silks between
+the first and seventh centuries, but he cannot fix their exact
+date.[253]
+
+The finest webs of Holosericum from the imperial looms were generally
+bestowed upon the Church, and thus consecrated, the earliest
+ascertained specimens that have survived have been preserved; and of
+these, most have been found in the tombs of saints, bishops, and kings
+who were buried in priestly as well as in royal garments.[254]
+
+Among the silk and satin fabrics, the tissue called "Imperial" is
+mentioned by several early English authors. Roger de Wendover and
+Matthew Paris describe the apparition of King John as clad in "royal
+robes of Imperial."[255] William de Magna Villa brought from Greece,
+in 1170, a stuff called Imperial, "marbled" or variegated, and covered
+with lions woven in gold.
+
+In the Eastern Empire, this industry after a time fell into the hands
+of the Jews; and in 1161, Benjamin of Tudela says the city of Thebes
+contained about 2000 Jewish silk-weavers.
+
+The breeding of the worm in Europe seems to have been confined to
+Greece from the time of Justinian to the twelfth century; but in 1148,
+Roger, King of Sicily, brought as prisoners of war, from Corinth,
+Thebes, and Athens, many silk-weavers, and settled them at Palermo.
+"Then might be seen Corinthians and Thebans of both sexes, employed in
+weaving velvet stoles interwoven with gold, and serving like the
+Eretrians of old among the Persians."[256]
+
+Hugh Falcandus[257] has left a description of the Royal manufactory at
+Palermo, and the Hotel de Tiraz which absorbed all the smaller
+Saracenic factories already started. The Hotel de Tiraz had four
+great workshops, in which were separately carried on the weaving of
+plain tissues, velvets, examits and satins, and flowered stuffs
+(damasks), and lastly, gold brocades and embroideries. It was from the
+last that proceeded the real works of art, and the embroideries with
+pearls and precious stones.[258] The highest efforts of the loom were
+apparently finished with the needle,[259] as in the figured textiles
+of Egypt.
+
+The continuity of Sicilian textile designs from the sixth to the
+sixteenth centuries (a thousand years) is very remarkable. Owing to
+its originally strongly stamped Oriental character, great knowledge of
+the arts of weaving, spinning, and dyeing silk is required to enable
+any one to assign an exact date to materials which only remodelled
+their style three times.
+
+Dr. Rock's rules for deciphering these three dates may, however, be
+easily learned, as they are broad and simple. In his comprehensive
+"Introduction to the Textiles in the Kensington Museum" (p. lxvii) he
+says that the three defined periods of silk-weaving in Sicily are:
+First, from the time of Justinian to the Hohenstaufen (from the sixth
+to the twelfth century); secondly, from the accession of Frederick I.
+(Barbarossa), 1152, to Charles IV., 1347 (twelfth to fourteenth
+centuries); the third period is of one century only, from 1347 to
+1456.
+
+The first period especially shows African animals, such as the giraffe
+and the different kinds of antelopes, mixed with Arabian mottoes; and
+the patterns are generally woven with gold. This is merely gilt
+parchment, the silk being mingled with cotton.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 35.
+    Peacock Pattern. Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.]
+
+The second period, beginning in the twelfth century, shows the arrival
+of Count Roger's Persian and Greek workmen, captives from Thebes,
+Corinth, and Athens. The fresh designs show fragments of Greek taste,
+such as masks and foliage, and give one a slight foretaste of the
+Renaissance.[260]
+
+These semi-classical echoes are contemporary in the Sicilian looms
+with such Norman motives as a crowned sovereign riding with a hawk
+upon his wrist.
+
+This description singularly applies to the relics removed from the
+tomb of St. Cuthbert, at Durham, in 1827; among which are fragments of
+three wrappings, or garments of silk, so suggestive of the artistic
+traditions of many nationalities, and the long descent of patterns,
+recognizable after the lapse of centuries, that a description of them,
+accompanied by illustrations, can hardly fail to be interesting. They
+are all now reduced by time to a rich golden brown, though there are
+indications that blue, green, and red have been woven into their
+fabric, and there are also on one of them traces of gilding. The first
+(plate 35) shows Oriental conventional peacocks, double-headed and
+collared, framed within circles which slightly intersect each other,
+thus giving the opportunity for varying the original motive by
+breaking up the rolling arabesqued pattern, and uniting the stems and
+flowers contained in the border. The spaces between the circles are
+filled in with gryphons in pairs, of the Babylonian stamp, thick
+limbed with strongly-marked muscles. There is a border or guimp,
+Persian in character, in which are small crosses surmounting
+repetitions of the crenelated pattern found in Assyrian ornament.
+
+The second piece of silk contains a large rosace. Scattered about it
+are repetitions of the Persian leaf or tree of life, and the border
+consists of kneeling hares or fawns between a Persian arabesque and a
+corded line. The mixture of Egyptian and Assyrian styles is remarkable
+throughout, till we come to the centre of the rosace, where we find a
+most incongruous man in armour on horseback with a hawk on his wrist,
+giving the Norman stamp of the reigning house and influence in Sicily.
+The central subject is exactly repeated on an embroidered twelfth
+century chasuble in the treasury of the Cathedral of Bamberg, only
+that a royal crown and robes are worn by the horseman (pl. 36).[261]
+
+The third specimen is the most noteworthy (plate 37). There is nothing
+of Assyrian here, but it reminds one of Egyptian and Greek art, and at
+once suggests Count Roger's Greek slaves at the Sicilian looms, but
+the design is probably of a much earlier date, and the subject is
+puzzling. A piece of drapery resembling an Egyptian sail with its
+fringes[262] (pl. 38) is looped up on each side to the head of a
+thyrsus, and above it hangs a large cluster of fruits. The lower part
+of the drapery rests upon water, and is somewhat like a boat, with
+ducks swimming towards it, and fish disporting themselves in the
+rippling waves. Between the circles the ducks are repeated, facing a
+shield enriched with rows of the crenelated pattern surmounted by a
+vine.
+
+These fragments have belonged each to a very large and freely woven
+silk shawl or mantle. The circles are about two feet across. There is
+a different arrangement of the threads in each web, giving different
+fine diapers, and the last described has a raised pattern which might
+have been intended to represent water.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 36.
+    NORMAN AND PERSIAN TYPE.
+    A Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 37.
+    GRAECO-EGYPTIAN STYLE.
+    A Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 38.
+    Boat with coloured sail, from the tomb of Rameses III. at Thebes.
+        (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," iii. p. 211.) Explanatory of
+        the design on St. Cuthbert's silk shroud, pl. 37.]
+
+It is most likely that in the twelfth century, or even a little
+later, the body of St. Cuthbert was wrapped in these shawls, and so
+left when at the Reformation, his shrine was destroyed, and the coffer
+containing his remains buried in the same place, and piously concealed
+till our own day. I shall describe the beautiful embroideries in which
+the body had been clothed in the tenth century when I come to the
+subject of English work.
+
+The third period of silk-weaving art is unmistakably Sicilian. At the
+end of the thirteenth century and beginning of the fourteenth, Palermo
+struck out her own line. The Greek cross appears in various forms. The
+designs are of a wonderful richness and capricious ingenuity. They
+show alike Asiatic, African, and European animals, and every kind of
+mythological creature--griffins, dragons, dogs, and harts, with large
+wings; swans, pheasants, and eagles, single or double-headed, often
+pecking at the sun's rays; beautifully drawn foliage and flowers, and
+heraldic emblems and coats-of-arms. One peculiarity of the third
+period is the frequent use of green patterns on "murrey"-coloured
+grounds.
+
+All this splendour of design was commonly lavished on poor material.
+The silks continued to be mixed with cotton, and the gold, or rather
+the gilding, was so base that it has almost always become black on the
+foundation strips of parchment or paper.[263]
+
+The heraldic silks are mostly of the time of the Crusades, when the
+distinguished pilgrims and warriors, especially the English, made
+Sicily their half-way house to the Holy Land, and brought from thence
+fabrics woven to suit their tastes. In Auberville's book we find,
+under the dates of many centuries, the most remarkable fragments now
+known. On portrait-tombs and in some very ancient pictures are figured
+beautiful silks woven in gold, which are recognizable at once by their
+Arab-Sicilian style. Of this type, the remarkable fragment of the
+dress of Richard II., in the Kensington Museum, dates itself, by
+carrying the cognizances of his grandfather and his mother, and the
+portrait of his dog Math.[264]
+
+The last period of the Sicilian silks is especially marked by the
+inscriptions being mostly nonsense, and only woven in as ornament,
+with the forms of Arab lettering.[265]
+
+Sir G. Birdwood says that whether the Saracens found the manufacture
+of silk already established in India or not, they certainly influenced
+the decorative designs. He adds that kincobs are now woven at
+Ahmedabad and Benares, identical in design with the old Sicilian
+brocades; while the Saracenic Sicilian silks abound in patterns which
+prove their origin in Assyrian, Sassanian, or Indian art.
+
+We know that the Saracens introduced colonies of Persian, and probably
+Indian workmen into Spain, after the beginning of the ninth century,
+to assist them in their architecture and textile manufactures, and in
+return the Mogul emperors of Delhi invited many Italian and French
+designers into India.
+
+The Taj and other buildings in Rajpootana are decorated with exquisite
+mosaics coeval with those of Austin of Bordeaux. Their styles of art
+in textiles, and in other materials, have acted and reacted upon each
+other; and nothing throws more light on the affinities and the
+development of the modern decorative arts of Europe than the history
+of the introduction, under Justinian, of the silk manufactures from
+the East into the West.[266]
+
+From Palermo, all the stages of the manufacture of silk spread
+themselves over Italy and into Spain. According to Nicolo Tegrini, the
+flourishing silk-weavers of Lucca having been ejected from the city in
+the early part of the fourteenth century, carried their art elsewhere,
+and even to Germany, France, and Britain.[267]
+
+Italian weavers went to Lyons in 1450, and so started the silk
+industry that it has steadily increased till now. It gives employment
+to about 31,000 looms and 240,000 workpeople of both sexes.
+
+The Moors, when they overflowed into Iberia, carried with them all
+their Orientalisms, traditions, manufactures, and designs; thus
+disobeying their prophet, who forbade the use of silk except to women.
+
+Senhor F. de Riano tells us that from the ninth to the eleventh
+centuries, Spain was producing fine silk tissues. The Moorish
+Cordovese writer, Ash-Shakandi, who lived in the beginning of the
+thirteenth century, says, "Malaga is famous for its manufactures of
+silks of all colours and patterns, some of which are so rich that a
+suit made of them will cost many thousands. Such are the brocades with
+beautiful designs and the names of the Caliphs, Ameers, and other
+wealthy people woven into them."[268]
+
+The same author, speaking of the manufactures of silk at Almeria, says
+that thence came the brightest colours; and Al-Makhari adds a list of
+precious silk tissues, naming the "Tiraz," the "Iscalaton," and the
+robes called each by its own special name.[269] Ash-Shakandi also
+mentions the looms of Murcia, and its carpets.[270]
+
+When the Moors were driven from Spain, the silk works of Malaga and
+Almeria were ruined. But those of Valencia became famous, and flourish
+to this day. Talavera della Reina also produces fine ecclesiastical
+fabrics, and at Toledo the ancient traditions are preserved, and they
+still weave sixteenth-century designs.
+
+In Italy, Genoa, Florence, and Milan followed the Sicilian silk
+manufactures, and each has left specimens of the craft, of which Rock
+has pointed out the marked individualities.
+
+The rich stuffs with inscriptions inwoven in gold, in the Middle Ages,
+were called "literatis."
+
+The designs of Lucca at first imitated the Moorish Sicilian type; and
+introduced as their speciality, white figures, such as angels in white
+garments, and exchanged the Oriental intricate patterns for a bolder
+and simpler style.
+
+Venice, of course, also showed at first the Oriental impress; but she
+soon struck out a line of her own; and her especial invention was
+shown in weaving, from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries,
+square pieces of silken tissue, representing sacred subjects.
+
+Florentine tissues, especially their velvet and gold brocades, were
+particularly splendid, and can be recognized by the loops of gold
+thread drawn to the surface and left there. Of these early Florentine
+gold brocades we have still beautiful examples in the palls of our
+City companies and in ancient ecclesiastical vestments. The loops of
+gold have been the custom since the thirteenth century, and still
+prevail in certain traditional fabrics, for instance, in the banners
+woven annually for the prizes at the horse races in Florence. The
+Corsini family, who have for many generations and for hundreds of
+years competed in these races, had, in their princely palace at Rome,
+a room entirely hung with the silk of these gorgeous banners.
+
+In Hungary, Queen Gisela, in the eleventh century, established looms
+for weaving silk; and many convents throughout Europe and in England
+wove silken tissues for the service of the Church, till the great
+manufactures absorbed these partially private enterprises.[271]
+
+Individual exertion produced copies, or motives that are taken from
+Eastern, Southern, or Northern inspirations; but it is only in large
+national schools of arts or crafts that an absolutely recognizable
+style becomes apparent. For example, the early French silks from
+monastic establishments are not remarkable for either style or texture
+till the sixteenth century, when they came to the front as a national
+manufacture, and have held the highest place in silk-weaving ever
+since.
+
+The Flemish towns of Ypres, Ghent, and Mechlin were known for their
+silken webs in the thirteenth century, and at that time innumerable
+small schools of the craft seem to have covered Europe. They are
+constantly named in the lists of fine furnishings in Germany. In
+England, France, and Germany, as well as in the Low Countries, each
+convent had, besides its silk-weaving looms, its workshops for
+embroideries on silk, woollens, and linens, borrowing from the
+Byzantine Empire, Sicily, and Spain, their designs and patterns.
+
+About this time (the thirteenth century), Marco Polo resided and
+travelled in Asia. He visited the principal cities of Syria, Persia,
+Khotan, and Cathay, and from him we have information of the different
+Asiatic textiles, generally bearing the name of the city where they
+were woven. He names, for instance, the mediaeval "baudas" and
+"baudakin" (with endless modifications in the spelling), from Baghdad.
+This afterwards gave the word baldachino to the awning or canopy over
+the altar, which it retained even when textiles had given place to
+marbles and mosaics.[272]
+
+Satin is only found named in catalogues about the fourteenth century.
+But the dalmatic of Charlemagne, at Rome, is embroidered on a stout
+blue satin, and has never been transferred; and at Constantinople,
+Baldwin II., at his coronation in 1204, was shod and clothed in
+vermilion satin embroidered with jewels; while all the Venetian and
+French barons present were clad in satin.[273] Semper and Bock believe
+that it had been a Chinese material long before it reached Europe.
+
+Satin was often called "blattin," in connection with the colour of the
+cochineal insect (blatta), whose dye was invariably used for satin. We
+cannot tell, however, which was certainly named from the other.[274]
+
+In the poem of "The Lady of the Fountain," translated by Lady
+Charlotte Guest from the Welsh ballads of the thirteenth century, silk
+and satin are often named. At the opening of the poem, King Arthur is
+described seated on a throne of rushes, covered with a flame-coloured
+satin cloth, and with a red satin cushion under his elbow.
+
+Fiery red was the orthodox colour for satin. In old German poems we
+find it described as "pfellat," always as being fiery. One kind of
+pfellat was called salamander.[275] Bruges satins were the most
+esteemed in the Middle Ages. Chaucer speaks of "satin riche and
+newe."[276]
+
+Satin and velvet are the contrasting silken materials. In satin the
+threads are laid along so that the shining surface ripples with every
+ray of sunshine, and the shadows are melted into half-lights by the
+reflections from every fold. It makes a dazzling garment, splendid in
+its radiant sheen; whereas in velvet, where each thread is placed
+upright and shorn smoothly, all light is absorbed and there are no
+reflections, and the whole effects are solemn, rich, and deep.[277]
+Some of the oldest velvets resemble plush in the length of their pile,
+and have not the dignity of velvet.
+
+Semper, from the different derivations that have been suggested,
+selects the connection of the word "velvet" (German, _Felbert_) with
+"welf," the skin or fur of an animal.[278]
+
+Among the gifts to Charlemagne (ninth century) from Haroun el Raschid
+were velvets; and the earliest existing specimen we know of is named
+by Bock as being in the Pergament Codex at Le Puy, in Vendome, where,
+amongst other curious interleaved specimens of weaving, is a fine
+piece of shorn silk velvet.[279]
+
+Marco Polo, in the thirteenth century, frequently speaks of velvet as
+an Asiatic fabric. It is first known as a European textile in Lucca,
+about 1295, and we may therefore say that it was imported from the
+East.[280]
+
+In the next chapter on colour I have noticed the curious fact that the
+word purple was sometimes used to mean colour, and sometimes to
+express the texture of velvet, thus confounding the two; but I have
+also pointed out that it had other meanings, and had become a very
+comprehensive word for everything that expressed richness and warmth.
+
+While examining and judging embroideries, we must be careful not to
+be deceived by the different dates often occurring in the grounding
+and the applied materials. Much embroidery was worked on fabrics that
+were already old and even worn out; and others have been transferred
+centuries ago, and perhaps more than once, to fresh grounds.[281]
+
+This sometimes causes a good deal of difficulty in dating specimens.
+One should begin by ascertaining whether the needlework was originally
+intended to be cut out (_opus consutum_), and so laid on a ground of
+another material, and worked down and finished there.
+
+Of course it is always evident and easily ascertained, whether the
+work has been transferred at all. If so--and from each succeeding
+transference--small fragments may be found showing on the cut edges.
+You will often see remains of two or more of these layers, reminding
+you of the three Trojan cities dug up at different depths under each
+other at Hissarlik.
+
+In judging each specimen the acumen of the expert is needed to obtain
+a correct opinion, and he should not only be an archaeologist, but a
+botanist and a herald besides;[282] and, in fact, no kind of knowledge
+is useless in deciphering the secrets of human art. But even when so
+armed, he is often checked and puzzled by some accidental caprice of
+design or mode of weaving, and after wasting trouble and time, has to
+cast it aside as defying classification.
+
+It is, however, as well to note these exceptions, as, when compared,
+they sometimes explain each other.
+
+What I have said regards, of course, the historical and archaeological
+side of the study of textiles, and I have treated of them as being
+either the origin or the imitations of different styles of embroidery,
+and so inseparably connected with the art which is the subject and
+motive of this book; and not only in this does the connection between
+them exist, but in the fact that as embroideries always need a ground,
+silken and other textiles are an absolute necessity to their
+existence.
+
+For these reasons alone I have given this chapter on materials, short
+and imperfect, but suggesting further research into the writings of
+the authors I have quoted, and, I hope, exciting the interest of the
+reader.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [130] Periplus of the Erythrean Sea.
+
+    [131] It is described by Yates as having the appearance
+    of a flat ribbon, with the edges thickened like a hem.
+
+    [132] This rough bark is probably the reason that it
+    absorbs colour into its substance (perhaps under the
+    scales); and it may also account for its being capable
+    of felting.
+
+    [133] It may be laid down as a fundamental rule in
+    technical style, that the product shall preserve the
+    peculiar characteristics of the raw material.
+    Unfortunately, the artist is often ignorant of the
+    qualities of the fabric for which he is designing, and
+    the workman who has to carry it out is a mechanic, in
+    these days, instead of a craftsman.
+
+    [134] Molochinus, or malva silvestris (wild hemp),
+    Yates, pp. 292-317, is sometimes spoken of as a mallow,
+    sometimes as a nettle. In the Vocabulary of Papias (A.D.
+    1050) it is said that the cloth called molocina is made
+    from thread of mallow, and used for dress in Egypt.
+    Garments of molochinus were brought from India,
+    according to the Periplus (see Pliny, 146, 166, 170,
+    171). It was seldom used by the ancients, but both
+    Greeks and Romans made it serve for mats and ropes. The
+    Thracians wove of it garments and sheets. It is not
+    named in the Scriptures.
+
+    [135] See Gibbs' "British Honduras."
+
+    [136] Spartum was a rush. Pliny says it was used for the
+    rigging of ships.
+
+    [137] The bark of trees such as the Hybiscus Tiliaceus,
+    and that of the Birch (see Yates, p. 305-6). Birch bark
+    was embroidered, till latterly, by the Indian women in
+    North America with porcupines' quills. Pigafetta says
+    (writing in the sixteenth century) that in the kingdom
+    of Congo many different kinds of stuff were manufactured
+    from the palm-tree fibre. He instances cloths on which
+    patterns were wrought, and likewise a material
+    resembling "velvet on both sides."
+
+    [138] "Camoca" or caman in the Middle Ages is supposed
+    to have been of camels' hair, mixed with silk. Edward
+    the Black Prince left to his confessor his bed of red
+    caman, with his arms embroidered on each corner. Rock
+    (p. xliv) gives us information about the tents and
+    garments of camels' hair found throughout the East,
+    wherever the camel flourishes and has a fine hairy
+    winter coat, which it sheds in the heat. The coarser
+    parts are used for common purposes, and the finest serve
+    for beautiful fabrics, especially shawls. Marco Polo
+    tells of beautiful camelots manufactured from the hair
+    of camels; and of the Egyptian coarse and very fine
+    fabrics woven of the same materials.
+
+    [139] "Le Chevalier a Deux Epees" (quoted by Dr. Rock),
+    and Lady Wilton, "Art of Needlework," p. 128.
+
+    [140] See p. 359, _post_, for Boadicea's dress.
+
+    [141] See Mr. Villiers Stuart's "Funeral Tent of an
+    Egyptian Queen."
+
+    [142] The Moors in Spain excelled in leather-work and
+    embroidery upon it; and Marco Polo describes the
+    beautiful productions of the province of Guzerat, of
+    leather inlaid and embroidered with gold and silver
+    wire. Yule's "Marco Polo," p. 383.
+
+    [143] See chapter on Stitches.
+
+    [144] See Chardin, vol. i. p. 31.
+
+    [145] Tin, called "laton," was used to debase the metal
+    threads in the Middle Ages. It is also named as a
+    legitimate material for metal embroideries.
+
+    [146] For all information about asbestos, see Yates, pp.
+    356, 565.
+
+    [147] There is one at the Barberini Palace at Rome. A
+    sheet, woven of asbestos, found in a tomb outside the
+    Porta Maggiore, is described by Sir J. E. Smith in his
+    "Tour on the Continent" (vol. ii. p. 201) as being
+    coarsely spun, but as soft and pliant as silk. "We set
+    fire to it, and the same part being repeatedly burnt,
+    was not at all injured."
+
+    [148] See Yule's "Marco Polo," vol. i. pp. 215, 218, and
+    Yates, p. 361.
+
+    [149] There are specimens of bead-work pictures at St.
+    Stephen's at Coire, in the Marien-Kirche at Dantzic, and
+    elsewhere. See Rock, p. cv. This is, in fact, mosaic in
+    textiles, without cement.
+
+    [150] Witness the stone whorls for the spindles in our
+    prehistoric barrows, and the "heaps" of the lake cities.
+
+    [151] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 129.
+
+    [152] An Egyptian Dynasty called themselves the Shepherd
+    Kings.
+
+    [153] Yates gives endless quotations to show how ancient
+    and how honourable an occupation was that of tending
+    sheep.
+
+    [154] Semper, i. p. 139. The cover of the bed on which
+    was laid the golden coffin in the tomb of Cyrus was of
+    Babylonian tapestry of wool; the carpet beneath it was
+    woven of the finest wrought purple. Plautus mentions
+    Babylonian hangings and embroidered tapestries. See
+    Birdwood's "Indian Arts," i. p. 286.
+
+    [155] Joshua vii.
+
+    [156] Ezekiel xxvii. 22.
+
+    [157] Semper, "Der Stil," i. p. 138.
+
+    [158] Yates, pp. 79, 91, 93, 99, 102, 445. Lanae Albae.
+
+        "The first, Apulia's; next is Parma's boast;
+        And the third fleece Altinum has engrossed."
+
+                                      Martial, xiv. Ep. 155.
+
+    Martial also speaks of the matchless Tarentine togae, a
+    present from Parthenius:--
+
+        "With thee the lily and the privet pale
+        Compared, and Tibur's whitest ivory fail;
+        The Spartan swan, the Paphian doves deplore
+        Their hue, and pearls on the Erythrean shore."
+
+                                      Martial, viii. Ep. 28.
+
+    [159] The sheep of Tarentum, from the days of the Greek
+    colonists, were famed, as they are still, for the warm
+    brown tints on their black wool. Pliny says that this is
+    caused by the weed _fumio_, on which they browsed.
+    Swinburne says, in his "Travels in the Two Sicilies,"
+    that there the wool is so tinged by the plant now called
+    _fumolo_, which grows on the coast.
+
+    [160] See Bluemner's "Technologie," p. 92; also "Comptes
+    Rendus de la Commission Imperiale Archeologique" of St.
+    Petersburg, 1881; also the Catalogue Raisonnee of Herr
+    Graf'schen's Egyptian Collection of Textiles at Vienna.
+
+    [161] See Pliny's "Natural History," viii. 74, Sec. 191.
+    Tanaquil is credited with the first invention of the
+    seamless coat or cassock.
+
+    [162] The Gauls in Britain wove plaids or tartans. See
+    Rock, p. xii; Bluemner, pp. 152-54; Birdwood, p. 286.
+
+    [163] Pliny, "Natural History," book viii., 73, 74.
+
+    [164] "Georgics," iv. 334; Yates, p. 35.
+
+    [165] "Comptes Rendus de la Commission Imperiale
+    Archeologique," St. Petersburg, 1881. Much of this
+    Gobelin weaving has lately been found in Egypt. See
+    "Katalog der Teodor Graf'schen Fuende in AEgypten," von
+    Dr. J. Karabacek.
+
+    [166] Semper considers that the famous Babylonian and
+    Phrygian stuffs were all woollen, and that gold was
+    woven or embroidered on them. See "Der Stil," i. p. 138.
+
+    [167] Worcester cloth was forbidden to the Benedictines
+    by a Chapter of that Order at Westminster Abbey in 1422,
+    as being fine enough for soldiers, and therefore too
+    good for monks. See Rock's Introduction, p. lxxviii.
+
+    [168] Both these fabrics are represented in Egyptian and
+    Greek fragments, and are equally well preserved.
+
+    [169] Boyd Dawkins, "Early Man in Britain," pp. 268,
+    275.
+
+    [170] See Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," vol. iii. p.
+    116; Yates, p. 23.
+
+    [171] It appears that the art of printing textiles was
+    known in Egypt in the time of Pliny. See Yates, p. 272,
+    quoting Apuleius, Met. l. xi.; also see Wilkinson,
+    "Ancient Egyptians," vol. ii. p. 196, pl. xii.
+
+    [172] See Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 268, 335;
+    Herodotus, ii. 86. Herodotus and Strabo speak of
+    Babylonian linen, cited by Yates, p. 281.
+
+    [173] "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 267-80. A peculiarity
+    of Egyptian linen is that it was often woven with more
+    threads in the warp than in the woof. A specimen in the
+    Indian Museum, South Kensington, shows in its delicate
+    texture 140 threads in the inch to the warp, and 64 to
+    the woof. Another piece of fine linen has 270 to the
+    warp, and 110 to the woof. Generally there are twice or
+    three times as many threads, but sometimes even four
+    times the number. Wilkinson gives a probable reason for
+    this peculiarity. See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians,"
+    vol. i. chap. ix. pp. 121-226. See Rock's Introduction,
+    p. xiv.
+
+    [174] De Somniis, vol. i. p. 653. Yates, p. 271.
+
+    [175] Philo, cited by Yates, p. 271.
+
+    [176] Paulinus ad Cytherium, cited by Yates, p. 273.
+
+    [177] Herodotus, l. ii. c. 182, l. iii. c. 47.
+    Rawlinson's Trans.
+
+    [178] Proverbs vii. 16.
+
+    [179] Yates, p. 291. Denon describes a tunic found in a
+    sarcophagus, which he examined, and says: "The weaving
+    was extremely loose, of thread as fine as a hair, of two
+    strands of twisted flax fibre."--Auberville's "Ornement
+    des Tissus," p. 4. Some marvellously fine specimens of
+    such cambric may be seen at the South Kensington Museum
+    and the British Museum.
+
+    [180] Not that we have any remains of flax linen from
+    their tombs.
+
+    [181] It was carried thence, at a prehistoric date, to
+    Assyria and Egypt.
+
+    [182] There is no proof that it was grown in Egypt till
+    the fourteenth century A.D., when it is mentioned for
+    the first time in a MS. of that date of the "Codex
+    Antwerpianus." See Yates, Appendix E, p. 470.
+
+    [183] Birdwood, p. 241.
+
+    [184] Puggaree. Yates says that cotton has always been
+    supposed to be the best preserver against sunstroke, p.
+    341.
+
+    [185] _Carpas_, the proper Oriental name for cotton, is
+    found in the same sense in the Sanskrit, Arabic, and
+    Persian languages. Yates, p. 341.
+
+    [186] In the AEneid, the garment of Chloreus the Phrygian
+    is thus described:--
+
+        "His saffron chlamys, and each rustling fold
+        Of muslin (_carpas_), was confined with glittering gold."
+
+                                             AEneid, xi. 775.
+
+    [187] Dakka muslins are the most esteemed. Their poetic
+    names, "running water," "woven air," "evening dew," are
+    more descriptive than pages of prose. See Birdwood, ii.
+    p. 259.
+
+    [188] Chintzes, calicoes, fine cloths, and strong
+    tent-cloths, cotton carpets, &c., &c. Forbes Watson
+    classifies the calicoes as being white, bleached and
+    unbleached, striped, &c., printed chintzes, or
+    pintadoes. See Birdwood, p. 260.
+
+    [189] For Buckram and Fustian, see Rock, pp. lxxxv,
+    lxxxvi. In Lady Burgeweny's (Abergavenny) will, 1434,
+    she leaves as part of the furnishings of her bed "of
+    gold of swan," two pairs of sheets of Raine (Rennes),
+    and a pair of fustian. Anne Boleyn's list of clothes
+    contains "Bokerams, for lining and taynting," gowns,
+    sleeves, cloaks, and beds. Rock, lxxxvi. Renouard, in
+    his "Romaunce Dictionary," quotes the following: "Vestae
+    de Polpia e de Bisso qui est bacaram." For the antiquity
+    of this fabric, see Herr Graf'schen's Catalogue of
+    Textiles from the Fayoum.
+
+    [190] See Yates, p. 300, citing "Herod's silver
+    apparel."
+
+    [191] "Indian Arts," ii. p. 237.
+
+    [192] Rock, p. xxv. Yates (p. 3) says they cut their
+    gold for wearing apparel into thin plates, and did not
+    draw it into wire, as it is translated in the Vulgate
+    (Exodus xxxix.). The ephod made by Bezaleel was of fine
+    linen, gold, violet, purple, and scarlet, twice dyed,
+    with embroidered work. This tradition must have guided
+    the artist who designed the ephod in the National Museum
+    at Munich, in the seventeenth century, for a prince
+    boy-bishop.
+
+    [193] Quintus Curtius says that many thousands, clothed
+    in these costly materials, crowded out of Damascus to
+    meet Alexander.
+
+    [194] There is a very ancient local tradition at Shush,
+    that A.D. 640, in the reign of the Kaliph Omar, the body
+    of the prophet Daniel was found, wrapped in cloth of
+    gold, in a stone coffin; and, by order of the victorious
+    general, it was placed in one of glass, and moored to
+    the bridge which spanned the branch of the Euphrates
+    flowing between the two halves of the city, so that the
+    waters flowed over it. See "Chaldea and Susiana," by
+    Loftus, and Sir G. W. Gore Ouseley's translation of a
+    Persian version of "The Book of Victories." Alexander is
+    said to have been buried in a glass coffin. (See
+    Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," ii. p. 102, note +.)
+
+    [195] Yates, pp. 367-70; Rock, p. xxvi.
+
+    [196] "Aura intexere eadem Asia invenit Attalus Rex unde
+    nomen Attalicis."--Pliny, viii. c. 48, and Yates, p.
+    371. The reign of Attalus II. was B.C. 159-188.
+
+    [197] "And they did beat the gold into plates, and cut
+    it into wires, and work it into the blue, and the
+    purple, and the fine linen."--Exod. xxxix.
+
+    [198] See Yates, p. 371; and Bock, xxxiii.
+
+    [199] Pliny, xxxiii. In the Museum at Leyden there is a
+    shred of gold cloth found in a tomb at Tarquinia, in
+    Etruria. This is a compactly woven covering over bright
+    yellow silk.
+
+    [200] Gold wire is still worked through leather at
+    Guzerat. See Birdwood, p. 284, Ed. 1880. Marco Polo
+    mentions this embroidery 600 years ago. Bk. iii. chap.
+    xxvi. (Yule). The hunting cuirass of Assurbanipal (pl.
+    1) appears to be so worked, and of such materials. Also
+    see Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," vol. iii. p. 130.
+    This gold for weaving was beaten into shape with
+    hammers.
+
+    [201] Pope Eutichinus, in the third century, buried many
+    martyrs in golden robes.
+
+    [202] "Liber Pontificalis," t. ii. p. 332.
+
+    [203] See Rock, pp. xxvii, xxxv; and Parker's "Use of
+    the Levitical Colours," p. 49.
+
+    [204] See Yates, p. 376.
+
+    [205] Rock, p. xxxv. The toga picta, or trabea, part of
+    the official dress of her sons.
+
+    [206] Hoveden's "Annal." p. 481, Ed. Savile; Rock, p.
+    xxx.
+
+    [207] See "Archaeologia," 1880, pp. 317, 322; also Pl.
+    74, No. 20 (_post_).
+
+    [208] Bock, "L. Gewaender," taf. ix. vol. i.
+
+    [209] Rock, p. xxxvii.
+
+    [210] Ciclatoun, according to Rock, p. xxxix, is a
+    common Persian name for such tissues in the East. This,
+    in common with nasick, nak, and many other beautiful
+    tissues, was wrought in gold with figures of birds and
+    beasts.--Yule's "Marco Polo," ed. 1875, i. p. 65.
+
+    Dr. Rock quotes the old ballad,--
+
+        "In a robe right royall bowne,
+        Of a red ciclatoune,
+          Be her fader's syde;
+        A coronall on her hede sett,
+        Her clothes with byrdes of gold were bette
+          All about for pryde."
+
+    [211] In St. Paul's in London there was formerly an
+    amice adorned with the figures of two bishops and a
+    king, hammered out of silver, and gilt. Dugdale, ed.
+    1818, p. 318. See also Rock, pp. xxix-xxxii.
+
+    [212] Museum at Berne.
+
+    [213] A piece of Venetian work to be seen at the South
+    Kensington Museum is an altar frontal, worked in coral,
+    gold beads, seed pearls, and spangles. All jewellers'
+    work, including enamel, was much admired and introduced
+    into their embroideries. (See Rock's Introduction to
+    Catalogue of the Kensington Museum, pp. civ-cviii, ed.
+    1870.)
+
+    [214] On this gorgeous piece of Italian art there are
+    added a number of buttons (for we can give them no other
+    name), with crosses and hearts under crystal, which seem
+    to have belonged to another period and workmanship, or
+    else are to be attributed to a superstitious feeling on
+    the part of the maker, who placed these Christian signs,
+    perhaps, surreptitiously, and for the good of his own
+    soul.
+
+    [215] The Museum of National Art at Munich has a fine
+    collection of gold and silver, spangled, and black bead
+    head-dresses, now mostly antiquated, though in peasant
+    dress it yet survives.
+
+    [216] It is embroidered in gold, with red silk and gems;
+    and I have elsewhere said that it probably issued from
+    the Hotel de Tiraz at Messina.
+
+    [217] Terry, in his "Voyage to the East Indies," speaks
+    of the rich carpets (p. 128): "The ground of some of
+    these is silver or gold, about which such arabesques in
+    flowers and figures as I have before named are most
+    excellently disposed."
+
+    [218] These of late years have been the most gorgeous
+    objects at exhibitions of old needlework, and the
+    ambition and despair of collectors.
+
+    [219] Gold thread was also made of gilt paper, equally
+    by the Moors and the Japanese.
+
+    [220] In Aikin's "Life of James I.," p. 205, we have a
+    curious account of the monopoly of gold thread, that had
+    been granted, with others, to George Villiers, Duke of
+    Buckingham. The thread was so scandalously debased with
+    copper as to corrode the hands of the artificers, and
+    even the flesh of those who wore it. This adulterated
+    article they sold at an exorbitant price, and if they
+    detected any one making a cheaper or better article,
+    they were empowered to fine or imprison them, while a
+    clause in their patent protected themselves. The
+    manufacturers of this base metal thread were two
+    Frenchmen, Mompesson and Michel, and Edward Villiers,
+    the Marquis' brother, was one of the firm. Doubtless
+    they drove for a time a roaring trade, as gold
+    embroideries were then universally worn, both by men and
+    women; but the House of Commons interfered, and the
+    monopoly was abolished.
+
+    [221] Mitre of white satin, with two figure subjects in
+    flat gold--the martyrdom of St. Stephen, and that of St.
+    Thomas of Canterbury.
+
+    [222] The School of Gold Embroidery at Munich produces
+    work of a richness and precision which has, perhaps,
+    never been excelled. The raised parts of the design are
+    first cast in soft hollow "carton," and the gold is
+    worked on it and into the recesses with the help of a
+    fine stiletto, which pioneers the needle for each
+    stitch. This is embroidery "on the stamp," but without
+    padding.
+
+    [223] Bock, "L. Gewaender," vol. i. p. 48. Prizes are
+    offered at Lyons for the best mode of manufacturing gold
+    and silver thread that will not tarnish.
+
+    [224] Yates says, pp. 160-162: "Whether silk was
+    mentioned in the Old Testament cannot, perhaps, be
+    determined. After fully considering the subject,
+    Braunius decides against silk being known to the Hebrews
+    in ancient times ('De Vestitu Heb. Sacerdotum,' i. c.
+    viii.)." The contrary opinion is founded on the passage,
+    "I clothed thee with broidered work, and shod thee with
+    badger-skins. I girded thee about with fine linen, and
+    covered thee with silk" (_meshi_).--Ezekiel xvi. But the
+    translation is disputed.
+
+    [225] "Code of Manu," xi. 168; xii. 64. Yates,
+    "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 204.
+
+    [226] Auberville, "Ornement des Tissus," p. ii.
+
+    [227] Yates (pp. 173, 174) believes that "Cos" should
+    always be read for Cios, about which there seems to be
+    some confusion. Chios has also been substituted for the
+    name of "Cos," the island.
+
+    There is no doubt that the Roman ladies obtained their
+    most splendid garments from Cos--perhaps of wool as well
+    as of silk.
+
+    [228] Birdwood, "Textile Arts of India," ii. p. 269.
+
+    [229] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 204.
+
+    [230] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," note (*), p. 184.
+    Aristotle (fourth century B.C.), however, had already
+    given evidence respecting the use of silk, which was
+    adopted and repeated by Pliny, Clemens Alexandrinus, and
+    Basil. Aristotle tells the story of Pamphile. One
+    thousand years later Procopius (sixth century A.D.) says
+    the raw material was then brought from the East, and
+    woven in the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Berytus.
+    See Yates, pp. 163, 164.
+
+    [231] Ibid., note (*), p. 184.
+
+    [232] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 181.
+
+    [233] I have mentioned this already, to prove the
+    antiquity of the art of embroidery. Here I repeat it in
+    reference to the first mention of silk. (See p. 38
+    _ante_.)
+
+    [234] "Bibliotheque Orientale de M. Herbelot," ed. 1778,
+    vol. iii. p. 19.
+
+    [235] Auberville, p. 2; Yates (pp. 172, 173) calls her
+    Si-ling, wife of Hoang-ti, and quotes the "Resume des
+    Principaux Tractes Chinois," traduits par Stanislas
+    Julien, 1837, pp. 67, 68.
+
+    [236] Auberville, "Histoire des Tissus," pp. 2-4; "Du
+    Halde," vol. ii. pp. 355, 356 (8vo edition, London,
+    1736).
+
+    [237] Related by Klaproth, the Russian Orientalist.
+
+    [238] Yates, p. 238. "History of Khotan," translated by
+    M. Abel Remusat, pp. 55, 56.
+
+    [239] Khotan or Little Bucharia would, in common
+    parlance, be included in Serica; and therefore silk
+    exported thence to Europe would have been perfectly
+    described as coming from the Seres. Yates, p. 231, 232.
+
+    [240] Yates, p. 231.
+
+    [241] While in Europe the arts of daily use and
+    decoration were struggling for life after many
+    interruptions and revolutions, the civilization of
+    Japan, which is nearly contemporary with Christianity,
+    spent itself in perfecting to the most exquisite finish
+    the arts which had been imported from China and Corea.
+    Japan also inherited the power and the tradition of
+    concealment, and so Europe remained unconscious, until
+    the last century, of the miraculous arts which a
+    semi-barbarous people were cultivating--_not_ for
+    commercial purposes. Auberville, "Tissus," pp. 2-4.
+
+    [242] Yates, pp. 175-184.
+
+    [243] Yates, p. 176. The silken flags attached to the
+    gilt standards of the Parthians inflamed the cupidity of
+    the army of Crassus. The conflict between them took
+    place 54 B.C. About thirty years after this date, Roman
+    luxury had reached its zenith--
+
+        "The insatiate Roman spreads his conquering arm
+        O'er land and sea, where'er heaven's light extends."
+
+                               "Petronius Arbiter," c. cxix.
+
+    After these words he says that among the richest
+    productions of distant climes, the Seres sent their "new
+    fleeces."
+
+    [244] Yates, p. 183.
+
+    [245] "Holosericum," whole silk; "subsericum," partly
+    cotton, hemp, or flax. The longitudinal threads or warp,
+    cotton; the cross threads, silk. Rock, "Textile
+    Fabrics," p. xxxvii (ed. 1870).
+
+    [246] Yates, p. 195.
+
+    [247] Yates, p. 198. For the value of the denarius, see
+    Waddington, "Edit. de Diocletien," p. 3.
+
+    [248] Gruter, tom. iii. p. 645; Yates, p. 205.
+
+    [249] Yates, p. 246. The words "silk" and "satin" are
+    spoken of by Yates as having two derivations--the one
+    imported to us through Greece and Italy, the other from
+    Eastern Asia, through Slavonia, by the north of Europe.
+
+    [250] Yates, p. 231; who remarks, p. 203, that the laws
+    of Justinian are not directed against the use of silk as
+    a luxury, but rather as appropriating it as an imperial
+    monopoly and source of revenue.
+
+    [251] Tom. ii. p. 106 (ed. 1630). See Yates, p. 213.
+
+    [252] Yates, p. 214.
+
+    [253] Auberville, Plate 4. Amongst these are what he
+    calls "Consular silks." These are, or may be, included
+    in the palmated class, as they are evidently woven for
+    triumphal occasions. One of the most remarkable has
+    every mark of Oriental design. It represents a picture
+    in a circle, repeated over and over again, of a warrior
+    in his quadriga. Black or coloured slaves drive the
+    horses, either running beside them or standing upon
+    them; and other slaves carry beasts on their shoulders,
+    and are stooping to give them drink at a trough. The
+    space between the circles is filled in with the tree of
+    life, growing out of its two horns. The colours are
+    purple and gold. He places this between the first and
+    seventh centuries (see pl. 34).
+
+    [254] There are, however, a few that have not had the
+    security of the tomb, and yet have survived, such as the
+    chasuble and maniple at Bayeux, of the seventh century,
+    and Charlemagne's dalmatic.
+
+    [255] Roger de Wendover, "Chronica," t. iv. p. 127, ed.
+    Coxe. Quoted by Rock from Ralph, Dean of St. Paul's. See
+    Rock, Introduction, p. lv.
+
+    [256] Roger de Wendover, "Chronica," t. iv., ed. Coxe;
+    also Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 243, 244.
+
+    [257] In the twelfth century. Semper, i. p. 38.
+
+    [258] See illustration from the portrait of Sultan
+    Mahomet II., by Gentil Bellini. _Ante_, p. 146, Plate
+    33.
+
+    [259] See Semper, p. 157.
+
+    [260] The Sicilian type of design in silk-weaving was
+    carried into Germany about the end of the second period.
+    We are informed by Auberville that there existed at that
+    time a manufacture of ecclesiastical stuffs at Leipzig,
+    from which he gives us fine examples.
+
+    [261] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewaender," vol. ii. Taf.
+    xxxiii. The pattern is twelfth century "metal work,"
+    embroidered in gold.
+
+    [262] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," iii., pl.
+    xvi.; v., pl. xxxiv. In general, a scarf floats from the
+    prow or from the oars.
+
+    [263] The Crusaders carried away splendid booty from the
+    towns they took and ransacked. As it was the great
+    gathering-place of all Eastern and Western nations,
+    Jerusalem was a mart for rich merchandise from Persia,
+    Arabia, Syria, and Phoenicia, till the times of the
+    Latin kings. Antioch, as well as Jerusalem, yielded the
+    richest plunder. Matthew Paris (a contemporary
+    historian), speaking of what was taken at Antioch, 1098,
+    says, "At the division of costly vessels, crosses,
+    weavings, and silken stuffs, every beggar in the
+    crusading army was enriched." Alexandria, as early as
+    the middle of the sixth century, A.D., had been the
+    depot for the silken stuffs of Libya and Morocco. Here
+    is a wide area opened to us for suggestions as to the
+    origin and traditions of patterns in silk textile art.
+    See Bock's "Liturgische Gewaender," vol. i. pp. 29, 30.
+
+    [264] Rock, Introduction, p. ccxlviii, and p. 268, No.
+    8710.
+
+    [265] The weaving of inscriptions in textiles is not a
+    Saracenic invention. Pliny says it was a custom among
+    the Parthians. See Rock's "Textile Fabrics," p. lxi.
+
+    "In allusion to lettered garments, Ausonius thus
+    celebrates Sabina, of whom we otherwise know nothing:--
+
+        "'They who both webs and verses weave,
+        The first to thee, oh chaste Minerva, leave;
+          The latter to the Muses they devote.
+        To me, Sabina, it appears a sin
+        To separate two things so near akin;
+          So I have writ these verses on my coat.'"
+
+    See Lady Wilton on "Needlework," p. 53.
+
+    [266] Birdwood, "Indian Arts," p. 274.
+
+    [267] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 244; Tegrini,
+    "Vita Castruccii," in Muratore, "Ital. Script.," t. xi.
+    p. 1320.
+
+    [268] Riano, "Cat. of Loan Exhibition of Spanish Art in
+    South Kensington Museum," 1882, p. 46.
+
+    [269] In Hoveden's account of the fleet of Richard I.
+    coasting the shores of Spain, he speaks of the delicate
+    and valuable textures of the silks of Almeria. Rog.
+    Hoveden, Ann., ed. Savile, p. 382. Rock, p. xx.
+
+    [270] Bock, pp. 39, 40, quotes from Anastasius and the
+    Abbot of Fontenelle, proving that silken rugs were
+    manufactured in Spain by the Moors.
+
+    [271] Auberville, "Histoire des Tissus," p. 14.
+
+    [272] Yule's "Marco Polo," p. 224. "Baudakin" from
+    Baghdad, "damask" from Damascus. "Baudakin" was woven
+    with beasts, birds, and flowers in gold.
+
+    [273] "Recit de Robert Clari." He was one of the
+    companions of Ville d'Hardouin, and a witness to the
+    coronation of Baldwin II. See Auberville's "Histoire des
+    Tissus," p. 21.
+
+    [274] Satin is called by Marco Polo "zettani," and he
+    says it came from Syria. The French called it "zatony;"
+    the Spaniards named it "aceytuni," which is probably
+    derived from "zaituniah," the product of Zaiton. Yates
+    (p. 246) gives the derivations of the words satin and
+    silk; the one imported to us through Greece and Italy,
+    the other from Eastern Asia, through Slavonia and
+    Northern Europe.
+
+    [275] Ibid. In the Wigalois, a story is told of a cavern
+    in Asia full of everlasting flames, where costly fellat
+    was made by the Salamanders, which was fireproof and
+    indestructible.
+
+    [276] "Man of Lawe's Tale: Canterbury Pilgrims."
+
+    [277] "Ohitos terciopelos" (three-piled-velvet eyes) is
+    a pretty Spanish phrase, describing the soft, dark,
+    shadowy eyes of the Spanish girls.
+
+    [278] The Italian word _velluto_ means "shaggy."
+
+    [279] Bock, i. pp. 99-101.
+
+    [280] Buckram was sometimes a silken plush, but
+    generally was woven with cotton. This was also Asiatic,
+    and named by travellers of the twelfth and thirteenth
+    centuries. I have already mentioned it as a textile in
+    the chapter on cotton. When woven of silk it belongs to
+    the class of velvets.
+
+    [281] Elsewhere I have spoken of the embroideries of the
+    early Christian times found in the Fayoum, in Egypt.
+    These afford notable examples of the ancient method in
+    putting in patches on a worn or frayed garment. They
+    invariably embroidered them, and so added a grace to the
+    old and honoured vestment, and justified the classical
+    appellation, "Healer of clothes" for a darner. The
+    comparatively modern additions of the restorer, are in
+    ancient as in later specimens, often a puzzle to the
+    archaeologist.
+
+    [282] The specimens in the South Kensington Museum,
+    where Dr. Rock gives their approximate dates, are most
+    useful to the student of this subject.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+COLOUR.
+
+    "My soul, what gracious glorious powers
+    To hue and radiance God has given!"
+
+                                  Cautley, "Emblems," p. 21.
+
+
+It is my intention to confine myself to the discussion of colour, in
+as far as it belongs to the dyes of textiles and the materials for
+embroidery. I will adhere as closely as I can to this part of what is
+a great and most interesting subject--one which the science of to-day
+has opened out, and by the test of experiment, cleared of erroneous
+theories; revealing to us all its beauty and fitness for the use and
+delight of man.
+
+As through all ages the eye has been gradually educated to appreciate
+_harmony_ in colour, so _dissonance_--that is, what errs against
+harmony--hurts us, without apparently a sufficient reason; and we have
+to seek the causes of our sensations in the scientific works and
+lectures of Professor Tyndall and others.
+
+There is no doubt that the appreciation of colour has belonged in
+different degrees to the eye of every animal, but especially to that
+of man, ever since light first painted the flowers of the field. The
+eye is created to see colour, as well as form. But we know that men,
+being accustomed to acquiesce in the powers with which they find
+themselves gifted by nature, enjoy and use them, long before they
+begin to study, classify, and name them.
+
+When we recollect that the circulation of the blood was not known
+within the last three hundred years, and that Albert Duerer painted
+the skeleton Death on the bridge of Lucerne, with one bone in the
+upper and one in the lower arm, we shall be surprised to find that the
+ancients had named the colours they saw, with some degree of
+descriptive and scientific precision. The word "purple," for instance,
+covered a multitude of tints, which had not as yet been
+differentiated, either in common parlance or in poetry,[283] though as
+articles of commerce the purple tints had been early distinguished.
+
+What names have we now, in this present advanced day, for defining
+tastes or smells? We say that something smells like a violet, or a
+rose, or a sea breeze, or a frosted cabbage. We say a smell is nice or
+nasty, that a taste is delicious or nauseous; but beyond calling it
+sweet or sour, we have no descriptive words for either smells or
+tastes, whereas the nations who traded in the materials for dyes
+exchanged their nomenclatures, which we can recognize from the
+descriptive remarks of different authors.
+
+Colour, as an art, was born in those lands which cluster round the
+eastern shores of the Mediterranean--the northern coasts of Syria and
+Arabia, and the isles of Greece. All art grew in that area, and all
+its adjuncts and materials there came to perfection, though often
+imported from more southern and eastern sources.[284]
+
+E. Curtius says that the science of colour came into Europe with the
+Phoenicians and accompanied the worship of Astarte. This, of course,
+applies to artistic textiles, as the Greeks had already acquired the
+art of dyeing for plain weaving. Numa, in his regulations for
+necessary weaving, refers also to colour. The Italians therefore
+must at that time have made some advance in the art, especially the
+Etruscans.[285]
+
+The infinity of variation in colour is difficult to imagine. The
+chemists of the Gobelins have fixed and catalogued 4480 tones.
+Besides, we must not forget that it is now all but ascertained that
+the same colour is probably appreciated differently by nearly every
+eye.[286]
+
+How the eye accepts colours and conveys them to the mind is still a
+question in dispute, though the theories of Tyndall, Helmholz, Hering,
+Charpentier, and others, aided by experiments, are drawing ascertained
+facts into a circle, which will ere long be complete, and the
+mysteries of colour may be ascertained.
+
+Probably the effects of colour on educated minds are as various as the
+tints and shades of tones of the many substances which receive
+them,--reflected from all surrounding objects, blazing in light, or
+softened by shadow,--fresh and glowing, or permanently faded--shining
+with modern varnish, or sobered by the dust of ages.
+
+It is the art of the colourist, whether he paints pictures, or dyes
+textiles, or embroiders them, to reduce the tints of the prism to an
+endurable and delightful lowness of tone, while preserving as far as
+possible all their light and purity.
+
+Prismatic colours are so radiantly glorious, that when we see the
+rainbow in the sky it is each time a joyful surprise. The most stolid
+natures are moved by it; we have even seen our dog staring at it.
+
+When, in experiments on light, the shafts of colour are thrown on the
+wall, they are greeted with shouts of admiration; but these glories
+are veiled to us by the fact that the eye cannot dissect the prismatic
+ray without the assistance of the instrument that has revealed it.
+This is a merciful arrangement; for we are not fitted to live in a
+prismatic display, any more than in a continuity of lightning flashes.
+We should go mad or blind if exposed to either.
+
+Science has shown us the perfect beauty of colour without form, the
+soothing pleasures of its harmonies, and the delightful surprises of
+its contrasts. From the glimpses we have of its nature and laws, we
+may hope for fresh inspiration for the art of the colourist.
+
+Though it is true that each eye, even when educated, retains its own
+special appreciation of the colours that gratify its seeing nerve, yet
+there are certain standards which give almost universal pleasure.[287]
+
+The blind and the colour-blind must remain exceptions for all time;
+and there are many gradations in colour-blindness, till we come to the
+normal class of seeing eyes; and passing them by, reach to those few
+men, gifted beyond all others with that fund of sensitive eye-nerve
+and mental power, which enables them to create new thoughts in
+colour.[288] Titian and his school arose from the inherited science
+and tradition, and carefully prepared pigments of his immediate
+predecessors, acting on an exceptional eye and mind, imbued with the
+splendours of the early mornings and the sunsets in the glowing
+atmosphere of Venice.
+
+Colour has long been supposed to convey certain impressions to the
+mind. The absence of all colour, which we call "black," symbolizes in
+dress, grief, pride, or dignity; according as it drapes the mourner,
+the Spanish grandee, or the priest.[289] Yellow being the colour of
+the sun and of corn and gold, represents riches, generosity, and
+light. Red stands between the dark and the lively colours, and
+represents warmth and animation, dignity, splendour, life, love, and
+joy.
+
+The expression of blue is that of purity. It recalls the distant sky,
+the calm ocean, and has an immortal and celestial character. It
+ascends to the highest and descends to the lowest tones of
+_chiaro-oscuro_. Nothing so nearly approaches pure white as the palest
+blue; nothing is so nearly black as the darkest.
+
+Green has been assigned by nature the place of the universal
+background. It is the complementary colour of red, softening and
+assimilating it by reflected shadows, and setting off the glory of
+every flower and fruit. The expression of green is gaiety and modesty,
+light and tenderness, shadow and repose, to both the eye and the
+mind.[290]
+
+It must be allowed that it is by the earliest associations of the
+individual, or by those derived from the family, the tribe or the
+nation, that colours are connected with such attributes welded by art
+and time into traditional meanings, which they absolutely
+possess,[291] and from which fashion cannot disconnect them; such,
+for instance, is the royalty of purple.
+
+The word purple is so indiscriminately used as a poetic epithet,
+rather than as a distinctive appellation, that much confusion has been
+caused by it. Historically, among the Persians, Greeks, and Romans it
+appears to have been simply the royal colour, varying from the purest
+blue, through every shade of violet, down to the deepest crimson.
+Sometimes, poetically, "purple" seems to have described only a
+surface. The breezy or stormy sea was purple; the sky was purple; the
+hyacinthine locks of Narcissus, the rosy lips of Venus were purple. As
+a textile, velvet was purple, even when it was white.[292]
+
+The epithets "purple" and "wine-coloured" are often bestowed on the
+Mediterranean Sea, and are justified by its occasional hue:--
+
+    "As from the clouds, deep-bosom'd, swell'd with showers,
+    A sudden storm the purple ocean sweeps,
+    Drives the wild waves, and tosses all the deeps."
+
+                       Pope's Homer, "Iliad," b. xi. v. 383.
+
+Professor Tyndall suggests that the soft green of the sea, shadowed by
+clouds, assumes a subjective purple hue. Homer must have observed this
+before he became blind.
+
+Pliny gives us much information about this colour; he enumerates the
+different sea-shores and coasts, Egyptian, Asiatic, and European,
+whence came the shell-fish (the murex and pelagia) that produced the
+so-called Tyrian purple dyes.[293]
+
+He says that Romulus wore the purple, and that the dyed garments, all
+purple, were sacred to the gods in those days. After saying that it
+was still a colour of distinction, he continues: "Let us be prepared
+to excuse the frantic passion for purple, though we are impelled to
+inquire why such a high value is placed on the produce of this fish,
+seeing that in the dye the smell of it is offensive, and the colour,
+of a greenish hue, resembles the sea when tempestuous." He describes
+purples[294] as being differently coloured according as to whether
+these "conchylia" inhabited the sea mud, the reefs, or the pebbly
+shores, the last being the most valuable.[295] This purple, said to
+have been imported from the coasts of Tyre, was till lately sold in
+Rome for its weight in gold; it gave the burning rosy red dye of the
+Cardinal's robes, and was called "Porpora encarnadina," purple
+incarnadine. It is full of light and freshness, and never fades; in
+fact, it has all the qualities ascribed to it by Pliny. It intensifies
+in the light.[296]
+
+After purple, scarlet was the colour most esteemed by the ancients.
+The Israelites must have carried with them the dyes which coloured the
+hangings, woven or embroidered, belonging to the sanctuary in the
+wilderness, of which the outer covering of rams' skins was dyed
+scarlet, and was probably of the nature of red morocco.[297]
+
+There was the mineral dye, (cinnabar or red sulphate of mercury), and
+the insect dye; the first was probably used in mural painting. It is
+translated in our Bible as vermilion, in the account given by Jeremiah
+of a "house, ceiled with cedar, and painted with vermilion."[298] Also
+Ezekiel gives us another instance of house-painting in vermilion.[299]
+Homer, who as a rule does not describe colouring, says the Greek ships
+were painted red.
+
+It is probable that cinnabar was tempered, by admixture of white or
+other colours, for the monochrome painting of the Egyptians and
+Greeks. It was called by the Greeks miltos, by the Romans minium.
+
+The dye of the red portions of the funeral tent of Queen Isi-em-Kheb,
+Shishak's mother-in-law, is found by analysis to be composed of
+hematite (peroxyde of iron) tempered with lime. This is a beautiful
+pink red.[300]
+
+The mineral red now called vermilion must have borrowed its name from
+the insect dye which the Greeks and Romans called "kermes." In the
+Middle Ages the dye from the kermes was still called "vermiculata," of
+which the word vermilion is a literal translation.
+
+We should be fortunate if we could find how the Greeks and Romans
+prepared the cinnabar for mural painting, of which we find remnants in
+ruins and tombs--a lovely and pure red, with a tender bloom on it like
+a fragment of the rainbow, and not the slightest shade of yellow.
+
+One of the most beautiful specimens of this scarlet that I am
+acquainted with, is a small drinking-cup (a "rhyton") at the British
+Museum, in the form of a sphinx, with a white face, gilded hair, and a
+little cap of pure cinnabar, which is so soft in tone that it suggests
+the texture of scarlet velvet.
+
+Cochineal, which was first brought from America in the sixteenth
+century, has now replaced almost every other scarlet dye for textiles.
+
+Crimson is once mentioned in Chronicles as karmel,[301] which may mean
+the dye of the kermes insect;[302] and from this the word crimson is
+legitimately derived. Whether the scarlet coupled with it is a
+vegetable, mineral, or insect colour, we have no means of
+ascertaining. "Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white
+as snow; though they be red as crimson, they shall be as wool."[303]
+
+From what Pliny says, it appears that some green dyes were produced
+from a green clay; others from metals. Copper furnished the most
+beautiful shades.
+
+Blue has always been extracted from indigo. Pliny tells us that the
+Phoenicians brought it from Barbarike, in the Indies, to Egypt; and
+he quotes the "Periplus" on this subject. He gives an amusing report
+that indigo is a froth collected round the stems of certain reeds; but
+he was aware of its characteristic property, that of emitting a
+beautiful purple vapour when submitted to great heat; and he says it
+smells like the sea. The Egyptians likewise extracted blues from
+copper.
+
+Yellow was anciently, in Egypt, sometimes a vegetable and sometimes a
+mineral dye. Browns and blacks were prepared from several substances,
+especially pine wood and the contents of tombs burned into a kind of
+charcoal.
+
+We find that lime, chalk, white lead, and other mineral substances
+were employed by the ancients for the different approaches to dazzling
+whiteness. That of the lily, the emblem of purity, can only be
+emulated in textile or pictorial art by opaque substances reduced as
+much as possible by bleaching to the last expression of the colour of
+the raw material. Nothing that is transparent can be really white, as
+colours are seen through it, as well as the reflected lights on the
+two surfaces.
+
+In painting, we can produce the effect of whiteness in different ways,
+leading by the gradation of tender colours and shadows up to a high
+light. But in textile art, which is essentially flat, it is necessary
+to pursue a different method, and that of isolation is the most simple
+and effective, and was well understood in Egypt, Greece, and India.
+The white pattern, or flower, is surrounded with a fine dark line
+(black is the best), which effectually separates it from all the
+surrounding colours, and gives it the effect of light, even when the
+whiteness retains enough of the natural colour of the raw material to
+tone it down very perceptibly. The eye accepts it as white, and
+ignores the tint that pervades it, and is hardly to be expelled from
+silk or wool. Linen and cotton are the whitest of materials, after
+passing through the hands of the chemist or the bleacher.
+
+It is amusing to observe that Pliny regarded colours, whether
+vegetable or mineral, rather as useful for the pharmacopeia of his
+day, than as dyes or artistic pigments. He speaks contemptuously of
+the art of his time, and yet he gives some curious hints that are well
+worth collecting for experiment. His fragmentary information, though
+often inaccurate, is most valuable to those who are seeking once more
+to find lasting colours, and despair of discovering mordants that will
+fix the aniline tints. From him we learn more of the Egyptian
+colouring materials than of any others, as he named their sources,
+European, Asiatic, or African; and there is no doubt of the perfection
+of their mural pigments and textile dyes, which have remained
+unimpaired to the present time.
+
+Renouf says that "painting, as it is now understood, was totally
+unknown to the Egyptians; but they understood harmony of colour,[304]
+and formulated in it certain principles for decorative uses. They made
+the primary colours predominate over the secondary by quantity and
+position. They introduced fillets of white or yellow in their
+embroideries, as well as in their paintings, between reds and greens,
+to isolate them; and they balanced masses of yellow with a due
+proportion of black." They never blended their colours, and had no
+sense of the harmony of prismatic gradations, or the melting of one
+tint into another; each was worked up to a hard and fast edge line. If
+in one part of a building, one set of colours predominated, they
+placed a greater proportion of other colours elsewhere, within the
+range of sight, so as to readjust the balance. Those they employed
+were mostly earthy mineral colours (used alike for frescoes and for
+painting cotton cloths, though vegetable dyes were needed for woollens
+and linens). These were: for _white_, pure chalk; for _black_,
+bone-black mixed with gum; for _yellow_, yellow ochre; for _green_, a
+mixture of yellow ochre and powdered blue glass; for _blue_, this same
+blue glass mixed with white chalk; for _red_, an earthy pigment
+containing iron and aluminium.[305] They understood the chemistry of
+bleaching, and the use of mordants in dyeing.[306]
+
+The statistical records of China of the time of Hias (2205 B.C.),
+according to Semper, mention colours as being of five tints, and all
+the produce of the Chinese Empire.[307]
+
+In the unchanging art of India, the ancient colours are used now.
+Therefore, when we give the following list, we must suppose that it
+embraces all that have been known from the beginning.
+
+Indian dyes are mostly vegetable. For _yellow_, akalbir, the root of
+the Datiscus Canabinus; also yellow is dyed with asbarg, the flower of
+the Cabul larkspur (_Delphinium sp._).
+
+_Orange._ Soneri dyed with narsingar, the honey-scented flower of
+nyclanthes (_Arbor Tristis_).
+
+_Scarlet_ is first dyed with cochineal (formerly with kermes), which
+gives a crimson colour; next with narsingar, which turns it vermilion.
+
+_Purple_ is dyed first with cochineal (formerly kermes), afterwards
+with indigo.
+
+_Lilac._ Ditto, only paler.
+
+_Blue._ All shades of indigo.
+
+_Green._ With indigo first, and next the various yellow dyes.
+
+_Brown._ Sandal-wood, called "sandali;" almond colour (Badami).
+
+_Grey._ Sulphate of iron and gold.
+
+_Black._ Deepest shade of indigo.[308]
+
+Speaking of Indian coloured textiles, Sir G. Birdwood says: "All
+violent contrasts are avoided. The richest colours are used, but are
+so arranged as to produce the effect of a neutral bloom, which tones
+down every detail almost to the softness and transparency of the
+atmosphere." He says that in their apparel both the colouring and the
+ornaments are adapted to the effect which the fabrics will produce
+when worn and in motion. "It is only through generations of patient
+practice that men attain to the mystery of such subtleties."
+
+An outline, in black or some dark colour that harmonizes with the
+ground, or else worked in gold, is common in Indian work, not only for
+the purpose of isolating the colours of the design, but also to give a
+uniform tone to the whole surface of the texture. Their traditional
+arrangements of tints were thoroughly satisfying to the eye. But
+degenerated by European commerce, the artistic sense of beauty itself
+is disappearing throughout our Indian Empire.
+
+Persian carpets (the fine old ones of the fourteenth to the
+seventeenth centuries) give us lessons in the art of isolating
+colours. In these, a flower will lie upon a surface which contains two
+or more other tints, and as the design passes over them, the outline
+colour is changed, so as to isolate the flower equally on the
+different grounds. This is done with such art that the eye ignores the
+transition till it is called to remark it. For instance, as a white,
+or no-coloured pattern, wanders over a green and red ground, the
+outline changes suddenly from green to red, and again to green as it
+leaves the opposite colour on the ground pattern.
+
+Mr. Floyer speaks of the brilliancy and lasting qualities of the dyes
+which the Persians, by slow and tedious processes, extract from
+plants; from the "runaschk" (madder), a fine red; from the "zarili"
+(the golden), which is a yellow flower from Khorasan, and also from
+the leaves of the vine, a bright yellow.[309] They import indigo from
+Shastra (or from India), by the Khurum river. He says these dyes are
+perfectly fast, leaving no trace on a wetted rubber, whereas the
+European dyes they sometimes use come off freely.
+
+Pliny says the Gauls had invented dyes counterfeiting the purple of
+Tyre; also scarlet, violet, and green, all of these were dipped in the
+juices of herbs.[310]
+
+Vitruvius says the Romans extracted dyes from flowers and fruits, but
+he neither specifies nor describes them.
+
+The ancient Highland tartans were dyed with bark of alder for black,
+bark of willow for flesh colour. A lichen growing on stones supplied
+their violets and crimson.[311] The lichen on the birch-tree gives a
+good brown; heather gives red, purple, and green.[312]
+
+Thus we see that pure colours for dyeing textiles have been extracted
+from vegetable substances--herbs, wood, seeds, flowers and fruits,
+mosses and sea-weeds;[313] mineral substances--earths, sands, ores,
+metals, rusts, and stones; animal substances--both of land, water, and
+air; beasts, fishes, shells, birds, and insects.
+
+It is evident, from the derivation of the word, that there were
+chromatic scales in colour before the phrase was ever applied to
+music.
+
+The Greeks and Romans are supposed to have understood chromatic scales
+of tints--animal, vegetable, and mineral--and except with the
+intention of producing startling effects, they did not mix them. They
+felt that each was harmonious as a whole, and, unlike the Egyptians,
+they studied harmony. They arranged their scales according to the
+materials from which they were extracted, and kept those from
+different chemical sources apart, as being discordant.[314] One scale
+was that of the iodine colours, of and from the sea. Marine products
+are mostly iridescent. To comprehend this, think of the harmonious
+interchange of delicate tints, called by the ancients "purple," on a
+string of pearls. Shells and shell-fish, sea-weeds and fish, furnished
+these dyes. They were called "conchiliata."
+
+The chemistry of the arts of bleaching was not unknown to the
+ancients; but they reserved and regulated it for certain purposes,
+preferring to retain at least a part of the original colouring, as
+shades of grounding which served, as a surface glaze does in painting,
+to connect and harmonize the superinduced tints.
+
+Experiments with the object of reviving this mode of producing
+harmonious combinations, have been made lately at the Wilton Carpet
+Works, by dyeing shades of colour on unbleached goat's and camel's
+hair, and sheep's wool; and the tones produced are beautifully soft
+and rich.
+
+M. Edouard Charton ascribes the great change in the modern scales of
+colours to the discovery by the French, in the Gobelins, of a pure
+scarlet dye, the use of which made it necessary to raise the tone of
+all other colours. He says that scarlet was formerly represented by
+the dye called kermes, which indeed was not scarlet, but altered from
+crimson to something approaching it by the addition of narsingar, of
+which the bright yellow gave the scarlet effect.
+
+M. Chevreul, director of the dyeing department of the Gobelins, has
+succeeded in composing the chromatic prism, to which I have already
+alluded, containing 4420 different tones. We may take it for granted,
+that from these may be selected any possible scale of tints required
+for decorative work. This vast area for choice of our material will
+impose on the artist of the future fresh responsibilities.
+
+In the typical Oriental colouring, the whole arrangement was
+traditional, and it was irreligious to depart from what had been fixed
+by statute many centuries before, and only perfected by the experience
+of many generations of men; and this veneration for traditional custom
+has hitherto been prevalent in European art to a certain point. But
+the old conservative perfection of unadulterated colour has already
+been done away with. The freedom of experimental art is chartered, and
+mercantile interests now, as ever, govern the supply of materials.
+
+Our normal bad taste and carelessness has been cast back on the lands
+which were the cradle of art, and we receive, to our surprise, gaudy,
+vulgar, and discordant combinations from the East, whence we drew our
+first inspirations. For the future we shall have to study ancient
+specimens, and correct our errors by the help of their teaching to the
+eye and mind.
+
+Gas colours are at present our worst snares. They are in general very
+beautiful; but they are so evanescent, and fade into such unexpected
+and contradictory tones, that we cannot reckon upon them. When
+embroidering with the coloured materials of the day, we are in
+constant dread of what disastrous effect may be produced by the first
+shaft of sunshine that may fall from our moderately illuminated sky,
+through the uncurtained window.
+
+The trade in colours can hardly be an honest one, till the means of
+fixing each tint permanently is ascertained.[315] At any rate,
+something should be done towards grouping them, with respect to their
+enduring qualities, so that when they fade, if fade they must, they
+may do so harmoniously, and in sympathy with each other; and while
+they are in their first glow they should be selected, as much as
+possible, from what Pliny calls natural colours,[316] which recall the
+exquisite effects of nature, searched out and displayed by every sunny
+gleam, reflected on each other in lovely tones, and subdued and veiled
+by passing shadows. It is said that Mr. Wardle, of Leek, is now
+seeking for dyes of pure unadulterated colours, and mordants to fix
+them. He deserves all success.
+
+The reason I have entered, in even so cursory a manner, into the
+history of colours is my desire to point out the great value placed,
+long ago, on the careful preparation of those used in ancient textile
+art; and to show how our forefathers sought them out in many lands
+and waters; how they noted their varieties; how they classed and
+prized them for their endurance as well as for their pristine beauty;
+how they paid their weight in gold or silver for certain culminating
+tints; and how they, therefore, produced works which became matters of
+history and landmarks in civilization.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [283] "Seeing, they saw not, neither did they
+    understand."
+
+    [284] See Pliny's "Natural History," which gives much
+    information on the subject.
+
+    [285] E. Curtius, "Greek History;" Engl. Trans., i. p.
+    438; Bluemner's "Technologie," p. 216.
+
+    [286] Charpentier "differentiates in every normal eye a
+    sensibility for light, a sensibility for colour, and a
+    sensibility for form (a visual sensibility)."--See
+    "Modern Theories of Colour," _The Lancet_, August 19th,
+    1882, p. 276. We can perceive, by studying works of art,
+    how variously these gifts are distributed, or, at any
+    rate, how differently they are received and acted upon
+    by individual minds.
+
+    [287] The effect of colour on the brain is a subject
+    only just now beginning to attract attention.
+    Experiments on the insane have been made in Italy,
+    especially, I believe, at Venice; and it is said to be
+    ascertained that red and green are irritants, whereas
+    windows glazed with blue glass alternating with white
+    have sensibly calmed the nerves of the patients.
+
+    [288] Let us compare the beautiful creations of the
+    Venetian school with the demoralizing brightness of
+    aniline colours, or the opaque, earthy tints which some
+    call beautiful, mistaking their dulness for softness and
+    sobriety of colouring. But they, too, have their uses.
+
+    [289] Black and red are, in ecclesiastical work, the
+    emblems of mourning.
+
+    [290] The Bardic rules in early Britain enjoined three
+    simple colours: sky blue, the emblem of peace, for the
+    bard and poet; green, for the master of natural history
+    and woodcraft; spotless white (the symbol of holiness),
+    for the priest and Druid.
+
+    [291] The blind man said that red was like the sound of
+    a trumpet, which shows what a soul-stirring colour it
+    was in his mind's eye.
+
+    [292] "Purpura" is supposed to mean crimson velvet. It
+    came, like "cramoisi," to be a name for a tissue. Fr.
+    Michell quotes velvet of Vermeil-cramoisi, "violet and
+    blue cramoisi, and pourpre of divers colours," but he
+    says he never met with "pourpre blanche." Yule, ed.
+    1875, i. p. 67. Plano Carpini (p. 755) says the
+    courtiers of Karakorum were clad in "white purpura;" and
+    that on the first day of the great festival in honour of
+    the inauguration of Kuyuk Khan, all the Mogul nobles
+    were clad in pourpre blanche, the second day in ruby
+    purple, and the third in blue purple: on the fourth day
+    they appeared in Baudichin (cloth of gold). (Yule,
+    "Marco Polo," vol. i. p. 376.) White purple is also
+    named in the inventories of Sta. Maria Maggiore at Rome,
+    and those of Notre Dame in Paris. "Histoire du Tissu
+    Ancien, a l'Exposition de l'Union Generale des Arts
+    Decoratifs."
+
+    [293] Francois Le Normant, in his "Grande Grece," tells
+    of the dye of the purple of Tarentum from the murex,
+    found in the Mare Piccolo. He says that Tarentine
+    muslins, woven from the filaments of the pinna dipped in
+    the dye of the murex, rivalled those of Cos. Le Normant
+    laments the total neglect of the murex in these days
+    (could its trade be revived?) Plutarch says that
+    Alexander the Great, having made himself master of Susa
+    (Shushan), found, amongst other riches of marvellous
+    value, "purple of Hermione" worth forty thousand talents
+    (Quintus Curtius says fifty thousand), which, though it
+    had been stored 190 years, retained all its freshness
+    and beauty. See Plutarch's "Lives," edited by J. and W.
+    Langhorne, vol. ii. p. 739; Bluemner, i. p. 224-240. The
+    reason assigned for their dye being so perfect was that
+    the Susanians knew how to comb the wool to be dipped,
+    and prepare it with honey. According to Aristotle the
+    dress of Alcisthenes, the Sybarite, was dyed with this
+    purple from Shushan (Ciampini, Vet. Mon.).
+
+    [294] Semper gives us an account of iodine colours.
+    Some, he says, were extracted from sea-weeds, green and
+    yellow; the purples, when finest, from the shell-fish.
+    The Phoenician coasts gave the best purples; those of
+    the Atlantic the best blacks and browns. And thus he
+    completes the scale of iodine colours. See Semper, "Der
+    Stil," i. p. 206.
+
+    [295] Heaps of the shells of this "murex trunculus" have
+    been found at Pompeii, near the dyers' works. Hardouin
+    says that in his time they were found at Otranto, and
+    similar remains have been noticed at Sidon. Sir James
+    Lacaita informs me that the living shells are still
+    found along the shores of the Adriatic, as well as on
+    the wash near Argos. No doubt the Phoenicians traded
+    first in the produce of the Sidonian and Tyrian coasts,
+    though they afterwards went farther afield in collecting
+    their dyes. Auberville says that the purple of the
+    Romans was a deep violet (double dyed, purpurae dibaphae),
+    and that this colour was Asiatic. The Phoenicians
+    traded in it, and sold it for its weight in silver.
+    Instead of fading in the sunshine, its colour
+    intensified. The enduring nature of this colour is
+    proved by the purple fragments from a Greek tomb in the
+    Crimea of about 300 B.C., described in chapter on
+    stitches, p. 217. See "Histoire du Tissu Ancien, a
+    l'Exposition de l'Union Generale des Arts Decoratifs."
+
+    [296] Though really red of the purest colour, it
+    doubtless received its name of Tyrian purple as being
+    one of the materials of the amethystine double dye. The
+    web or fleece was first dipped in the dye of Purpura,
+    and then in that of the Buccinum, or they reversed the
+    process to give a different tint. This is Pliny's
+    account of the process of dyeing, which is very simple,
+    and gives no details. Semper says that the ancients
+    called black and white the two extremes of purple--white
+    the thinnest, and black the thickest or most solid layer
+    of colour. Both were thus considered as colour. (Semper,
+    i. pp. 205-7.) As long as there is light, black always
+    appears to be either blue, or brown, or green, till with
+    darkness all colour disappears.
+
+    [297] Exod. xxv. Semper (i. p. 103) suggests that these
+    rams' skins were dyed with the periploca secamone--a
+    plant still used for this purpose in Egypt.
+
+    [298] Jeremiah xxii. 14.
+
+    [299] Ezekiel xxiii. 14: "The images of the Chaldeans."
+    "The men portrayed in vermilion on the wall."
+
+    [300] Villiers Stuart, "Funeral Tent of an Egyptian
+    Queen." See Appendix.
+
+    [301] 2 Chron. ii. 7.
+
+    [302] The Arabs received the kermis from Armenia, and
+    the name was originally "Quer-mes," "oak-apple." Sardis
+    was famed for its kermes dye. See Birdwood, "Indian
+    Arts," p. 238, ed. 1880, and Yule's "Marco Polo," i. p.
+    67.
+
+    [303] Isa. ii. 18.
+
+    [304] Renouf's Hibbert Lectures, p. 67-69. It may be
+    called balance, rather than harmony.
+
+    [305] Wilkinson, "Manners of the Ancient Egyptians,"
+    vol. iii. pp. 301-3.
+
+    [306] Bluemner, p. 220. See Pliny, "Natural History,"
+    xxxv. 42.
+
+    [307] Semper, i. p. 248.
+
+    [308] See Birdwood's "Indian Arts," p. 272. In the Code
+    of Manu, black garments are sacred to the Indian Saturn,
+    yellow to Venus, and red to Mars. See Birdwood, p. 235.
+
+    [309] See Floyer's "Unexplored Baluchistan," pp. 278,
+    373, 406. The Persians produce their deep yellow from
+    the skin of the pomegranate, by boiling it in alum.
+    Major Murdoch Smith describes the Persian processes for
+    dyeing patterns red and black in textiles. The Italian
+    women dye their own dresses in the pomegranate yellow;
+    also in turmeric yellow, and other vegetable dyes.
+
+    [310] Pliny, "Natural History," xxii. 3. Unfortunately,
+    Pliny seldom condescends to give us the recipes for
+    dyeing processes.
+
+    [311] Logan's "Scottish Garb."
+
+    [312] See Elton's "Origins of English History."
+
+    [313] The Cretan tincture was extracted from a plant
+    which Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny respectively
+    name. The last calls it the _Phycos thalassion_. This
+    was not a sea-weed, but a lichen--probably the same from
+    which the orchid purple of modern art is prepared. See
+    Birdwood, "Indian Arts," i. p. 238.
+
+    [314] The same scale of colour varies as much on the
+    different textiles employed, as it does from the colours
+    extracted from other chemicals. Silk, wool, cotton,
+    flax, give very different results. The colouring matter
+    may be identical, yet you cannot place them side by side
+    without being aware that they may be repellant, instead
+    of harmonious in tone. The scale is sometimes removed to
+    another pitch, and they will no more harmonize than
+    instruments that have not been attuned to the same
+    diapason. See Redgrave's Report on Textile Fabrics.
+
+    [315] With the changes in colouring materials has arisen
+    the necessity for discovering new mordants. The gas
+    colour of madder is exactly the same chemically as that
+    extracted from the vegetable, but the old mordant does
+    not fix it, and it changes very soon to a dull
+    blackish-purple hue.
+
+    [316] Pliny, "Natural History," ix. 12. The most
+    unnatural, and the most disagreeable dyes, are the
+    magentas. Sir G. Birdwood tells us that the Maharajah of
+    Cashmere has adopted a most efficient plan for the
+    suppression of magenta dyes within his dominions--first,
+    a duty of 45 per cent. on entering the country, and at a
+    certain distance within the frontier, they are
+    confiscated and destroyed.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+
+_Part 1._
+
+STITCHES.
+
+Stitches in needlework correspond to the touches of the pencil or
+brush in drawing or painting, or to the strokes of the chisel in
+sculpture. The needle is the one implement of the craft by which
+endless forms of surface-work are executed. With a thread through its
+one eye, it blindly follows each effort of its pointed foot, urged by
+the intelligent or mechanical hand grouping the stitches, which, being
+long or short, single or mixed, slanting, upright, or crossed, are
+selected as the best fitted for the design and purpose in hand. The
+word "stitches" does not, however, in this chapter represent merely
+the plural of one particular process of needle insertion, but the
+produce and effect of each different kind of stitch by grouping and
+repetition, according to its most ancient nomenclature. That which is
+astonishing is the endless variety of surface, of design, of hints and
+suggestions, of startling effects, and of lovely combinations,
+resulting from the direction of the needle and manipulation of the
+materials, and differing from each other according to the power or the
+caprice of the worker. But the machine is always the same--the
+threaded needle strikes the same interval, forming the "stitch."
+
+This venerable implement, _the needle_, has, through the ages, varied
+but little in form. The attenuated body, the sharp foot, the rounded
+head, and the eye to hold the thread, are the same in principle,
+whether it is found in the cave-man's grave, formed of a fish's bone
+or shaped from that of a larger animal; hammered of the finest bronze,
+as from Egypt, or of gold, like those found in Scandinavia. A bronze
+needle was lately discovered in the tomb of a woman of the Vikings in
+Scotland, and its value is shown by its being placed in a silver case.
+Steel needles were first made in England in 1545, by a native of
+India. His successor, Christopher Greening, established a workshop in
+1560 at Long Crendon, in Bucks, which existed there as a needle
+factory till quite lately. The rustic poetic drama, entitled "Gammer
+Gurton's Needle," performed at Ch. Coll., Cambridge, in 1566, was a
+regular comedy, of which a lost needle was the hero. In those days the
+village needle was evidently still a rare and precious possession.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 20.
+    1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Bronze needles from Egyptian tombs now in British
+        Museum. 6. Cave-man's needle from the Pinhole, Churchfield,
+        Ereswell Crag. 7. Bone needle from La Madeleine, Dordogne.]
+
+The art of embroidery consists of a design, which includes the
+pattern, and the handicraft or stitches--the "motive" and the
+"needlework."
+
+In painting, as in sculpture, the first idea, as well as the last
+touch, must come from the same head and hand. But in needlework it is
+not so. The pattern is the result of tradition. It is almost always
+simply a variation of old forms, altered and renewed by surrounding
+circumstances and sudden or gradual periods of change.
+
+However much the design may alter, rising often to the highest point
+of decorative art, and as often falling back to the lowest and most
+meaningless repetitions and imitations, the _stitches_ themselves vary
+but little. The same are to be found in Egyptian and Greek specimens,
+and the classical names are those used by mediaeval writers, and have
+come down to us, "floating like bubbles on the waves of time."
+
+Sir George Birdwood[317] thinks that every kind of stitch is found in
+traditional Indian work. I confess that I have not been able hitherto
+to trace any of the "mosaic" stitches to India, nor do we ever see
+them in Chinese or Japanese embroidery, which shows every other
+variety. They are, however, occasionally found in Egyptian work.
+
+The following is a list of stitches, under the nomenclature of
+classical, Roman and mediaeval authors:--
+
+    Opus Phrygionium or Phrygium.     Passing or metal thread work.
+    Opus Pulvinarium.                 Shrine or cushion work.
+    Opus Plumarium.                   Plumage or feather work.
+    Opus Consutum.                    Cut work.
+    Opus Araneum or Filatorium.       Net or lace work.
+    Opus Pectineum.                   Tapestry or combed work.
+
+Here are two English lists of stitches; their quaintness must be my
+excuse for copying them. The first is from Taylor, the water-poet's
+"Praise of the Needle" (sixteenth century):--
+
+    "Tent work, raised work, laid work, prest work,
+    Net work, most curious pearl or rare Italian cut work,
+    Fine fern stitch, finny stitch, new stitch, and chain stitch,
+    Brave bred stitch, fisher stitch, Irish stitch, and queen's stitch,
+    The Spanish stitch, rosemary stitch, and maw stitch,
+    The smarting whip stitch, back stitch, and the cross stitch.--
+    All these are good, and these we must allow,
+    And these are everywhere in practice now."
+
+The second list is from Rees' "Cyclopaedia" (Stitches), 1819:--
+
+    "Spanish stitch,
+    Tent stitch on the finger,
+    Tent stitch in the tent or frame,
+    Irish stitch,
+    Fore stitch,
+    Gold stitch,
+    Twist stitch,
+    Fern stitch,
+    Broad stitch,
+    Rosemary stitch,
+    Chip stitch,
+    Raised work,
+    Geneva work,
+    Cut work,
+    Laid work,
+    Back stitch,
+    Queen's stitch,
+    Satin stitch,
+    Finny stitch,
+    Chain stitch,
+    Fisher's stitch,
+    Bow stitch,
+    Cross stitch,
+    Needlework purl,
+    Virgin's device,
+    Open cut work,
+    Stitch work,
+    Through stitch,
+    Rock work,
+    Net work, and
+    Lent work.
+
+    "All which are swete manners of work wroughte by the
+    needle with silke of all natures, purls, wyres, and weft
+    or foreign bread ('braid'), etc., etc."
+
+
+_Part 2._
+
+PLAIN WORK AND WHITE WORK.
+
+We are told that the primal man and woman sewed in Paradise.
+
+To "sew," in contradistinction to the word to "embroider," is derived
+from the Sanskrit _su_, _suchi_, and thence imported into Latin,
+_suo_.[318] To prove how highly esteemed needlework was among the
+Romans, I may mention that the equivalent of the phrase "to hit the
+right nail on the head" was _rem acu tangere_, "to touch the question
+with the point of the needle."
+
+"Plain work" is that which is necessary. As soon as textiles are
+needed for covering and clothing, the means are invented for drawing
+the cut edges together, and for preventing the fraying where the
+material is lacerated by the shaping process. Hence the "seam," the
+"hem," and all the forms of stitches that bind and plait. These
+necessary stitches constitute plain needlework, and are closely
+followed by decorative stitches, which in gradation cover the space
+between plain needlework and embroidery.
+
+Semper has given us his archaeological theories for the origin of
+needlework and its stitches.
+
+These are his arguments, if not always his words. He says: "The seam
+is one of the first human successful efforts to conquer
+difficulties."[319]
+
+A string, a ribbon, a band, may serve to keep together several loose
+things; but by means of the seam, small things actually become large
+ones. For example: a full-grown man can, by its help, cover himself
+with a garment made of the skins of many small animals. When Eve sewed
+fig-leaves together, she made of these small pieces a garment of
+patchwork.
+
+Acting on the principle of making a virtue of necessity, accepting and
+adorning the severe facts of life, seams came to be an important
+vehicle of ornament. The Gauls and Britons embroidered the seams of
+their fur garments. "We may judge of the antiquity of the seam by its
+universal and mythological meaning. The seam, the tie, the knot, the
+plait, and the mesh are the earliest symbols of fate uniting
+events."[320]
+
+We find but little mention of plain work in mediaeval writings. When
+linen was worked for some honourable purpose, such as a gift to a
+friend or a royal personage, it was generally embroidered or stitched
+in some fancy fashion. Queen Elizabeth presented Edward VI., on his
+second birthday, with a smock made by herself. Fine linen was about
+this time constantly edged with bone laces.
+
+Mrs. Floyer has written so well, and given us so much practical
+information on plain needlework, that I feel it unnecessary to enter
+at any length into the principles of plain sewing, as my theme is
+needlework as decorative art.
+
+Mrs. Floyer has, as it were, unpicked and unravelled every stitch in
+plain work, till she has discovered and laid bare its intention, its
+construction, and effect. She, has also given us rules made clear to
+the dullest understanding, instructing us how to teach the young and
+ignorant. She shows us the quickest and most perfect way of working
+different materials for different purposes, and tells us how to select
+them. I will, therefore, refer my readers to her most useful and
+instructive books,[321] and pass on at once from the craft of plain
+needlework, to stitches as the art of embroidery.
+
+The link between plain and decorative work deserves attention. This
+link is "white embroidery." I imagine it was not a very ancient form
+of the art, and was practised first in mediaeval days; when we begin to
+have constant notices of it. The first white laces appear to have
+followed close upon the first white embroideries.
+
+There is a tomb of the fourteenth century in the Church of the Ara
+Coeli at Rome, where the effigy of a knight lies on his bed, draped
+with a sheet and a coverlet, both embroidered. These are evidently of
+linen worked in white.[322] I give a drawing of them in illustration
+(pl. 39).
+
+From that date we find continually mention of such work by nuns and
+ladies.[323] In England it was especially called "nuns' work" (plate
+42). There is a great survival of this stitchery in Italy amongst the
+peasantry. They have always adorned their smocks and aprons, and their
+linen head-coverings, and the borders of sheets for great occasions,
+with patterns in "flat stitches," "cut stitches," and "drawn work."
+The Greek peasants do the same. In Germany will be found much curious
+white embroidery, of designs which show their antiquity; and from
+Spain we get "Spanish work" in black, on white linen, which is nearly
+allied to the stitches of white work.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 39.
+    Embroidery imitated in marble on the tomb of a knight, in the Church
+        of the Ara Coeli, Rome.]
+
+Lord Arundel of Wardour possesses a linen cover for a tabernacle (or
+else it is a processional cloak) which is of the purest
+Hispano-Moorish design, and unrivalled in beauty. It is
+embroidered in Spanish stitches in white thread, on the finest linen,
+and is intersected with fine lace insertion (pl. 40). It is said to
+have been found in the time of Elizabeth with some other articles in a
+dry well; among them a little satin shoe, of which the shape proves
+its date to be of the end of Henry VIII.'s reign. Russian embroidery,
+consisting of geometrical patterns in red, blue, and black thread, is
+of this class.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 40.
+    Processional Cloak, time of Henry VIII., belonging to Lord Arundel
+        of Wardour.]
+
+In England alone, the peasantry do no white work for home use, and we
+must suppose it has never been a domestic occupation. Indeed, the love
+of the needle is by no means an English national tendency, in the
+lower classes. Nothing but the plainest work is taught in our schools.
+Anything approaching to decorative art, with us, has been the
+accomplishment of educated women, and not the employment of leisure
+moments in the houses of the poor.
+
+Semper, in "Der Stil,"[324] gives rules for white embroidery, and the
+reasons from which he deduces them are good. He says, that allowing it
+as a maxim that each textile has its own uses and its own beauties, we
+should place nothing on linen which would militate against its
+inherent qualities and merits; and that, as the great beauty of flax
+is its smoothness and purity, all projections and roughnesses should
+be avoided which would catch dust or throw a shadow. Carrying out this
+idea, it would appear that satin, and not lace stitches are therefore,
+the most suitable for this kind of decoration. The accepted rule for
+selecting the stitch for each piece of work is this: on stout grounds
+the thread should be round and rich, whereas delicate materials carry
+best the most refined and shining thread work; and in embroidering the
+smooth surface of linen fabrics, the flattest stitches are the most
+appropriate.
+
+
+_Part 3._
+
+OPUS PHRYGIUM (_or gold work_).
+
+Gold embroideries were by the Romans attributed to the Phrygians. All
+gold work was vaguely supposed to be theirs, as all other embroidery
+was included in the craft of the Plumarii in Rome.
+
+It has been disputed whether needlework in gold preceded the weaving
+of flat gold or thread into stuffs, or whether it was an
+after-thought, and an enrichment of such textiles. I imagine that the
+embroidery was the first, and that the after-thought was the art of
+weaving gold. Babylonian embroideries appear to be of gold wire, as we
+see them in the Ninevite marbles.
+
+An instance of the way golden embroideries were displayed among the
+Greeks is that of the Athenian peplos, which, as I have already said
+(p. 32), was worked by embroideresses under the superintendence of two
+Arrhephorae of noble birth. It was either scarlet or saffron colour,
+and blazed with golden representations of the battles of the giants,
+or local myths and events in the history of Athens.[325]
+
+The art of the Phrygians, who gave their name in Rome to all golden
+thread-work, has come down to us through the classic "auriphrygium"
+and the "orphreys" of the Middle Ages. Semper thinks that the flat
+gold embroidery was the first invented.[326]
+
+The Phrygians had attained to the utmost perfection in tissue ornament
+when the Romans conquered them, and finding their art congenial to the
+growing luxury of Rome, they imported and domesticated it; both the
+people and their work retaining their national designation. Pliny,
+ignorant of the claims of the Chinese, gave to the Phrygians the
+credit of being the inventors of all embroidery.[327] The garments
+they thus decorated were called "phrygionae," and the work itself "opus
+Phrygium." The term "auriphrygium," at first given to work in gold
+only, was in time applied to all embroidery that admitted gold into
+its composition; and hence the English mediaeval term, "orphreys."
+
+All the gold stitches now called "passing" came from Phrygia; Semper
+attributes all the "mosaic stitches" to the Phrygians, calling them
+"opus Phrygionium."[328] Gold stitches are splendidly exemplified in
+the embroidered mantle of St. Stephen, of the ninth century. The only
+somewhat earlier piece of mediaeval gold embroidery with which I am
+acquainted is the dalmatic of Charlemagne in the Vatican, richly
+embroidered in fine gold thread; and the mantle of the Emperor Henry
+II. in the Museum at Munich, worked by his Empress Kunigunda, who
+appears to have been somewhat parsimonious in her use of the precious
+material.
+
+Almost all ecclesiastical and royal ancient embroideries were
+illuminated with golden grounds--golden outlines or golden flat
+embroideries. Later still, raised gold thread work has imitated gilt
+carvings or goldsmiths' jewellery; and we feel that it was at once
+removed from its place as embroidery, and became an elaborate
+imitation of what should belong to another craft.[329] Such
+deviations from the proper office and motive of needlework are so
+dangerously near to bad style and bad taste, that they always and
+inevitably have fallen into disrepute.
+
+
+_Part 4._
+
+OPUS PULVINARIUM (_or cushion work_).
+
+This "opus pulvinarium" is not only to be found in Oriental work, but
+it has also survived in a very few fragments from Egypt.[330] One of
+these, in the British Museum, is worked on canvas, in wool and flax;
+another in a white shining thread, resembling asbestos, on linen or
+fine canvas. They are regular "canvas" or "cross" stitches, and
+therefore, under mediaeval nomenclature, would be classed as "opus
+pulvinarium." This name must include all stitches in gold, silk, and
+wool, whether Phrygian, Egyptian, or Babylonian in their origin,
+excepting the flat and lace stitches (plate 41).
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 41.
+    MOSAIC STITCHES.
+    1. Italian Pattern, sixteenth century. From Frida Lipperheide's
+        Musterbuch. 2. Scandinavian. Bock, i. taf. xi. 3. Egyptian.
+        From Auberville's "Tissus," p. 1.]
+
+Semper's term, "mosaic" stitches, is a good one, as it covers all that
+are relegated into patterns in small square spaces, counted by the
+threads of the textile on which they are laid.[331] He believes that
+the mosaic patterns and cross stitches in needlework preceded the
+tesselated pavements, and formed their first motive, though the stitch
+now refers itself back to the mosaic, at least in name.
+
+It is remarkable that in Chaldea and Assyria there still exist some
+ruined walls, which are adorned with pilasters, panels, and other
+architectural forms, covered with some sort of encaustic, imitating
+textile patterns.[332] The effect is produced by means of a kind of
+mosaic work of small nails or wedges of baked clay, with china or
+glazed coloured heads. These are inlaid into the unbaked clay or
+earth, of which the walls are constructed, and while binding it
+together, give the effect of the surface being hung with a material
+which has a pattern worked all over in cross stitch.
+
+The Chinese, the Chaldeans, and the Assyrians long continued to show
+in their buildings the tradition of this style of decoration. In Egypt
+there has been found some unfinished mural painting where the plaster
+has been previously prepared by dividing it into small rectangular
+spaces, apparently on the principle of the canvas ground for cross
+stitches.
+
+The name "mosaic" stitch does not interfere with, or militate against
+the classical appellation of _opus pulvinarium_, which means "shrine
+work" or "cushion stitches." These appear to have been from the first
+considered as the best suited for adorning cushions, chairs,
+footstools, and the beds on which men reclined at their feasts, as
+they are firmly-set stitches which will stand friction.
+
+Most of the work now done in Syria, Turkey, Greece, and the
+Principalities, shows different forms of the mosaic stitches; so also
+does the national Russian work, which is Byzantine. All these designs
+are conventional and mostly geometrical.
+
+This work, in the East, is generally the same on both sides. We may
+infer that the spoil anticipated by Sisera's mother, "the garments
+embroidered on both sides, fit for the necks of those who divide the
+spoil," was of this kind.
+
+Thus we see that the "opus pulvinarium" has a very respectable
+ancestry; and though it had somewhat degenerated in the early part of
+our century, and had languished and almost died out under the name of
+Berlin wool work, yet it has done good service through the days of
+mediaeval art down to the present time, both in England and throughout
+Europe (pl. 42); and it will probably revive and continue to be
+generally used.
+
+Though the least available for historical or pictorial work, and not
+by any means the best for flower-pieces (as the squareness of the
+stitches refuses to lend itself to flowing lines or gradations of
+colour, unless the stitches are extremely fine, and the work, in
+consequence, very laborious), yet it finds its especial fitness in all
+geometrical designs. It is also particularly well suited to heraldic
+subjects.
+
+A remarkable example of the use of cross stitches exists in the
+borders of the Syon cope, in which the coats-of-arms are so executed.
+This is of the thirteenth century; and besides these cushion stitches,
+it exhibits all those which are grouped in the style called opus
+Anglicum or Anglicanum.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 42.
+    Italian "Nun's Work," from a pyx cloth, sixteenth century.]
+
+Many charming designs for this kind of stitch may be found in the old
+German pattern-books of the Renaissance (Spitzen Musterbuecher), and
+also in those Venetian "Corone di Vertuose Donne" lately reprinted by
+the Venetian publisher Organia. These are worthy of a place in every
+library of art.
+
+It would seem best to place the chain stitch named "tambour" in this
+class, as it naturally assimilates with the plaited and cross
+stitches. It is so called from the drum-shaped frame of the last
+century in which it was usually worked.
+
+
+_Part 5._
+
+OPUS PLUMARIUM (_or plumage work_).
+
+The "Opus Plumarium" is one of the most ancient groups, and includes
+all flat stitches, of which the distinguishing mark is, that they
+_pass_ each other, overlap, and blend together. "Stem," "twist,"
+"Japanese stitch," and "long and short" or "embroidery stitch," belong
+to this class, to which I propose to restore its original title of
+plumage work.
+
+The origin of the name is much disputed, but it is supposed to have
+pointed to a decoration of plumage work, and we find that feathers
+have been an element in artistic design from the earliest times. There
+were patterns in Egyptian painting which certainly had feathers for
+their motive (fig. 21, p. 208).
+
+Semper, finding that birds'-skins were a recognized article for trade
+in China, 2205 B.C.,[333] believes that they were used as onlaid
+application for architectural decoration; and this is possible, for we
+still obtain from thence specimens of work in different materials
+partly onlaid in whole feathers, whereas sometimes the longer threads
+of the feathers are woven by the needle into the ground web. In Her
+Majesty's collection there are some specimens from Burmah--creatures
+resembling sphinxes or deformed cherubim, executed in feathers,
+applied on silk and outlined in gold. We have likewise from Burmah, in
+the Indian Museum, two peacocks[334] similarly worked; the legs and
+beaks are solidly raised in gold thread; and the outlines also are
+raised in gold, giving the appearance of enamelling. The _cloisonne_
+effect of brilliant colours, contrasted and enhanced by the separation
+of the gold outlines, can be seen to perfection in specimens of the
+beautiful Pekin jewellers' work, where the feathers are inlaid in gold
+ornaments for the head and in the handles of fans. Nothing but gems
+can be more resplendent.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 21.
+    Feather patterns, Egyptian.]
+
+These survivals help us to understand the casual mention we find in
+classical authors, of the works of the Plumarii, which appellation was
+given at last to all embroiderers who were not Phrygians.[335]
+
+We have other glimpses of Oriental feather-work in different parts of
+India.[336]
+
+The use of feathers is common in the islands of the Pacific. It is
+native to the Sandwich islanders; and M. Jules Remy describes the
+Hawaiian royal mantle, which was being constructed of yellow birds'
+feathers through seven consecutive reigns, and was valued in Hawaii at
+5,000,000 francs. A mantle of this description is the property of Lady
+Brassey.
+
+In Africa, ancient Egyptian art furnishes us with traditional feather
+patterns and head-dresses; and Pigafetta tells us of costumes of
+birds' skins, worn in the kingdom of Congo in the sixteenth century
+for their warmth; sea-birds' feathers being highly esteemed.[337]
+
+In America, where birds are most splendid, the art of the feather
+worker was carried to the greatest perfection. It was found there by
+the Spaniards, and recorded in all their writings for its beauty of
+design and execution, and for its great value, equal to that of gold
+and precious stones.
+
+Though now looked down upon, as being a semi-barbarous style of
+decoration, because it exists no longer except in semi-barbarous
+countries, we must consider feather work as a relic of a past higher
+civilization which has died out, rather than simply as the effort of
+the savage to deck himself in the brightest colours attainable.
+
+Feather-work is a lost art, but the name of "opus plumarium" remains,
+and proves that it was still recognized as such in the days of Roman
+luxury. The name survived when the practice was all but forgotten in
+Europe,[338] and the art itself disused, probably, because the birds
+of our continent rarely have any lovely plumage to tempt the eye.
+
+But the glory of feather-work was found again in Mexico and Peru, and
+the surrounding nations, in the sixteenth century--praised, exalted,
+demoralized, and crushed out by the cruelties of conquest. The
+Spaniards at first brought home beautiful garments and hangings,
+representing gods and heroes, all worked in feathers.[339] Under their
+rule the natives produced pictures agreeable to the taste of their
+masters. Pope Sixtus V. accepted a head of St. Francis, which had been
+executed by one of the ablest of the "amantecas" (the name for an
+artist in feathers). Sixtus was struck with surprise and admiration at
+the beauty and artistic cleverness of the work, and, until he had
+touched and examined it closely, would not believe that plumage was
+the only material used.
+
+There are beautiful hangings and bed furniture at Moritzburg, near
+Dresden, said to have belonged to Montezuma. They were given to
+Augustus the Strong, King of Poland, by a king of Spain.
+
+In the seventeenth century, and later, feather work was still an art
+in Mexico, the convents continuing to preserve its traditions.
+Bustamente says that this industry was still in operation in the
+beginning of our century. The Mexican Museum preserves specimens of
+the last three hundred years, from the time of the conquest of Mexico.
+
+There is in the Cluny Museum, in Paris, a beautiful triptych,
+evidently of the sixteenth century. It is worked in feathers, with
+delicate outlines in fine gold thread. Nothing can exceed the
+tenderness and harmony of the colouring in shades of blue, and warm
+and cool brown tints. This is probably a survival of that lost art of
+Mexico which was carried on in their convents, and may have been a
+copy of a treasured relic of European art.
+
+Among the few noteworthy specimens that have survived, is the mitre of
+St. Carlo Borromeo at Milan, described by M. F. Denis as being both
+artistic and beautiful. He tells us in his Appendix that even now, a
+tissue of feathers is woven in France, as soft and flexible as a silk
+damask; and rivalling the Mexican scarlet feather fabric, which the
+Spaniards admired so greatly. He also speaks of the inlaid feather
+work, invented by M. Le Normant of Rouen, in the last century, and
+afterwards continued in Paris by his English pupil, Mr. Levet, who
+sold two of his works to the then Duke of Leeds, in 1735. The first is
+a vase of flowers, the second a peacock, designed by M. Oudry (peintre
+du Roi). Both of these, framed as screens, are now at Hornby Castle.
+
+Unfortunately feathers are, by their nature, most attractive to that
+greatest destroyer, next to Attila--the moth. Ghirlandajo called
+mosaic in marble and glass, "painting for eternity;" we may call
+feather work, "painting for a day."
+
+From the essays of M. Ferdinand Denis,[340] much may be learned of the
+_arte plumaria_ of the Mexicans and their neighbours of Brazil,
+Guatemala, Peru, and Yucatan, and the land of the Zapotecas, &c.,
+where it was also cultivated. He says that their civilization is so
+mysterious that we have as yet no means of judging whence came their
+art.
+
+Fergusson suggests the similarity between Central Asian and Central
+American art, both in architectural forms and plastic and sculptured
+remains. He thinks that its tradition was transmitted from Asia to
+America in the third and fourth centuries of our era. If so, it was an
+unlucky moment for the recipients, as the art of Asia, as well as that
+of Europe, was then at its lowest and most debased phase; perhaps,
+however, the more fit for the fertilization of that of a perfectly
+barbarous people. There is something fascinating in the suggestions on
+this subject in Mr. Donelly's "Atlantis;" but when conjecture is only
+founded on tradition, and without proof, we must not take it into
+serious consideration.
+
+Having proved the universal use of feathers, it is not difficult to
+appreciate the causes which suggested everywhere the transfer of this
+decorative art to another craft, employing less perishable materials.
+Embroidery probably followed it closely and absorbed it throughout
+Asia and in Egypt; and the survivals now are only an accidental
+specimen, a tradition, and a name.[341]
+
+The name "Plumarii," for the embroideries, is thus fully accounted
+for, and we need seek no further elucidation. It was commonly used in
+classical Roman times. "Opus plumarium" seems to have become the
+legitimate term for all needlework. The Plumarii were the
+embroiderers, whether their work was in wool, or thread, or in silk
+(at a later period),[342] with or without admixture of gold or silver
+(as the Argentarii were the jewellers).
+
+The article on the word "plumarius" in Hoffman's Lexicon,[343] after
+describing two kinds of Plumarii, Phrygians and Babylonians, proceeds
+to say, "These latter, who wove garments and hangings of various
+colours, were called 'Plumarii;' but though this name was at first
+confined to craftsmen who wove patterns in the shape of feathers, in
+course of time the name was extended to those artists who, with the
+needle or by painting, embellished robes."[344]
+
+The "opus plumarium" included, as I before said, all flat stitches;
+and I repeat that "feather application" was certainly its first
+motive; and next came the stitches that conveyed the same desired
+effect, though a new material was employed, fitted for the needle,
+which, having served its apprenticeship in "plain work," now came to
+the front as a decorative agent.
+
+Painting with the needle began with an attempt to model with it; the
+lay of stitches being so arranged as to give the whole effect of
+light and shadow, so as to delineate the forms without changing the
+shades of the material used. I give on the opposite page some Japanese
+birds, which will explain what I mean. The stitches are so
+intelligently placed as absolutely to give the forms of the birds
+imitated. They represent plumage, and a more artistic representation
+cannot be imagined. (Pl. 43.)
+
+The same stitch which we find prevailing in China and Japan as plumage
+work, is employed in embroidering flowers. Here satin, stem, and
+plumage stitches are blended together, and excellent decorative
+effects are produced; but the texture of flowers is not to be
+imitated, as is that of the plumage of birds. "Satin" stitch is a more
+restricted form of plumage stitch; and "stem" is another variety of
+these flat stitches, very useful in its place. I therefore have
+assigned the name of "plumage stitch" to that hitherto called
+"embroidery" or "long and short" stitches; and I give the term
+"plumage work" to include all the "flat" stitches.
+
+Practically, it is allowed that these flat stitches, especially the
+plumage stitch, give most scope for freedom in needlework, as they are
+laid on at once, and according to the inspiration of the worker, and
+may cover the outline and efface it. The stitches are not counted, and
+have more of the nature of touch than any others, as their length,
+thickness, and closeness may be varied at will. The artist's design
+thus admits of interpretation according to the taste and feeling of
+the needlewoman.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 43.
+    Japanese Opus Plumarium.]
+
+
+_Part 6._
+
+OPUS CONSUTUM (_or cut work_).
+
+This is "Patchwork," or "Applique" ("inlaid" and "onlaid"). Vasari
+calls it "Di commesso," and says that Botticelli invented it for the
+use of Church banners, as being much more effective than any other
+style of work, or even than painting, as the outlines remained firm
+(non si stinguano), and were not affected by the weather (as in
+painted cloths) and were visible on both sides of the banner.
+Botticelli drew with his own hand the baldachino of Or San Michele,
+and the embroideries on a frieze carried in procession by the monks of
+Santa Maria Novella; he died 1515. Perhaps he may have revived the art
+of application in his own day.
+
+There are, however, much earlier examples of patchwork, of which the
+first and most remarkable is the Egyptian funeral tent of Queen
+Isi-em-Kheb, mother-in-law of Shishak, who besieged and took Jerusalem
+three or four years after the death of Solomon, B.C. 980. It may be
+described as a mosaic, or patchwork of prodigious size, made of
+thousands of pieces of gazelles' skins, dyed, and neatly sewn together
+with threads of colour to match, resembling the stitching of a glove,
+the outer edges bound with a cord of twisted pink leather, sewn on
+with stout pink thread (pl. 44). The colours are described as being
+wonderfully preserved, when it is remembered that they are nearly as
+old as the Trojan War; though perhaps their preservation is less
+surprising than that the flowers wreathed about several royal mummies
+of the same period should have shown their colours and forms when the
+cases were first opened, so as to be recognized as blue larkspur,
+yellow mimosa, and a red Abyssinian flower, massed closely together on
+the foundation of a strong leaf cut in zigzags. Among the flowers lay
+a dead wasp, whose worthless little form and identity were as
+perfectly preserved as those of the mighty monarch on whose bosom it
+had completed its short existence. The tent itself consists of a
+centre or flat top, divided down the middle, and covered over one
+half with pink and yellow rosettes on a blue ground; on the other half
+are six large vultures, each surrounded with a hieroglyphic text which
+is really an epitaph. The side flaps are adorned first with some
+narrow bands of colour; then with a fringe pattern; then with a row of
+broad panels, red, green, and yellow, with a device or picture and
+inscription in the two other colours; on this border there are
+kneeling gazelles, each with a pink Abyssinian lotus blossom hanging
+to its collar. The rest of the side flaps and the whole of the front
+and back flaps are composed of large squares, alternately pink and
+green. This, for its antiquity, its style, its stitchery, materials,
+and colours, is a most interesting work of early art, and an example
+of the perfection to which it had attained. It is remarkable how much
+variety of effect has been produced with only four colours, by the
+artistic manner of placing and contrasting them. To our more advanced
+taste, however, the whole effect of the contrasting colours is
+inharmonious and gaudy, though certainly striking and typical.[345]
+
+Another piece of Egyptian application, from the Museum at Turin, is a
+pretty leaf pattern cut out in red stuff, laid on a white ground, and
+worked down with a darker outline of the same colour.[346]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 22.
+    Piece of applique in red stuff and red outlines from Egypt.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 44.
+    Funeral Tent of Isi-em-Kheb. From Villiers Stuart's "Funeral Tent
+        of an Egyptian Queen."]
+
+We have an instance of ancient "application" of about 600 years
+later, Greek in its beauty of design and execution. Alas! we can only
+ascertain, from tattered fragments taken out of a tomb in the Crimea,
+that it was parseme with figures on horseback or in chariots. The
+border is very beautiful. Compare the fragments of which we have
+obtained a copy with the mantle of Demeter, from a Greek vase, and you
+will perceive how the styles correspond (Pl. 16, Fig. 23). The ground
+material is of the finest woven wool, of a deep violet or purple
+colour, enriched with application of another fine woollen fabric of a
+most brilliant green, worked down, outlined and embroidered in white,
+black, and gold-coloured wool, apparently in stem stitches.[347] The
+accompanying illustration gives the effect and general design of the
+outer border only, in which the applied leaf is worked down in red,
+gold, and white.
+
+It is much to be regretted that the centre of the mantle is so
+tattered and discoloured that it is impossible to do more than
+ascertain that the design that is embroidered on it consists of
+figures on horseback or in chariots, in spirited attitudes. The second
+and broader border is to be found (pl. 17).
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 23.
+    Narrow border of a Greek mantle.]
+
+"Opus consutum" cannot in any sense perhaps be the name of a stitch or
+stitches. But it applies to a peculiar style of embroidery employing
+certain stitches. It is the term given to all work cut out of plain or
+embroidered materials, and applied by "working down" to another
+material as grounding. It includes all raised and stuffed application
+in silk, woollen, and metal thread work. It has been given to all work
+in which the scissors are active agents, whether in cutting out the
+outlines or in incising the pattern, as in much of the linen and
+muslin embroideries of our day, now called "Madeira work," of which a
+great deal was made in the first part of the century by English ladies
+who designed and collected patterns from each other, and gave the
+produce of their industry as gifts to their friends for collars,
+cuffs, and trimmings.[348]
+
+"Cut work" is named by Chaucer, and is constantly to be found in
+inventories from his time to the beginning of the last century. At
+Coire, in the Grisons, is a very beautiful chasuble, of which the
+orphrey is of the school of the elder Holbein or Lucas Cranach,
+applied and raised so as to form a high relief. The figures are
+covered with satin and embroidered. The chasuble itself is of fine
+Saracenic silk, woven with golden inscriptions in broad stripes. The
+colours are brown, crimson, and gold.
+
+  [Illustration: Wall Pilasters
+    Applique Cut work, Italian XVI. Cent^ry
+    Property of Countess Somers]
+
+In the later Middle Ages, a good deal of this work was executed in
+Germany for wall hangings; figures were cut out in different
+materials, and embroidered down and finished by putting in the details
+in various stitches. As art they are generally a failure, being more
+gaudy than beautiful. This, however, is not necessarily the case, for
+there is at the Hotel Cluny a complete suite of hangings of the time
+of Francis the First, partly applied and partly embroidered, which
+are beautiful in design and colouring, especially the fruit and
+trophies in the borders.
+
+In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries cut work was much employed
+in Italy for large flowered arabesque designs, commonly in velvet or
+silk, making columnar wall hangings, which are often very effective;
+giving the rooms an architectural decoration, without interfering with
+the arrangement of works of art, pictures, statues and cabinets,
+placed in front of them. Besides, it was supposed that the utmost
+effect of richness was thus accomplished with the least labour, and
+very large spaces and very high walls covered, without losing anything
+of beauty by distance, as must be the case when the work's highest
+merit is in the delicacy of the stitches and the details of form. (Pl.
+45.)
+
+The Earl of Beauchamp has inherited a most beautiful suite of hangings
+of "applique work;" silks of many kinds are laid on a white brocade
+ground with every possible variety of stitch, forming richly and
+gracefully designed patterns; and showing to what cut work can aspire.
+
+A great deal of "opus consutum" has been done in the School of Art
+Needlework, in the way of restoration of old embroideries. Here may be
+seen copies of different models of many periods; amongst other British
+specimens, part of a bed at Drumlanrig, in which James I. slept. In
+this work the application is cut out, raised and stuffed, and
+"couched" with cords, and the whole thing is as stiff, strong,
+conventional, and enduring as if it were a piece of upholstery that
+was carpentered yesterday, instead of being needlework of at least 250
+years ago.
+
+One of the most remarkable large works of this style that exists was
+shown in 1881, at the South Kensington Museum, during the Spanish
+Exhibition.[349] It was of the kind called "on the stamp." This was a
+landscape seen between columns wreathed with flowers and creepers. In
+the foreground couched a stag, the size of life--a wonderful
+reproduction of the hide of the creature in stitches. The relief is so
+high that the columns appear to be circular by the shadows they throw;
+and the stag is stuffed so as to be raised about six inches. The work
+is superb, and causes pleasure as well as wonder; and yet, in spite of
+the beauty of the design, and the richness of the materials--gold,
+silver, silk, and wool profusely used--it is a divergence from the
+legitimate art of embroidery, and is simply the attempt of the
+needlewoman to combine again the arts of sculpture and painting with
+the help of so inadequate an implement as the needle. Therefore,
+except as being a marvellous and beautiful curiosity, it is a failure;
+it is not art.[350]
+
+Practically, cut work is the best mode of arriving at splendid effects
+by uniting rich and varied tissues.[351] The Italian curiosity vendors
+know this well, and often cut up the remnants and rags of rich stuffs,
+old faded silks, and scraps of gold and silver tissues, and with them
+copy fine old designs, and sell them as authentic specimens of such
+and such a date.
+
+I was once requested to give an opinion as to the date of a curtain
+border bought in Italy, and on consideration I gave the following
+verdict: "The design is of the sixteenth century; the applied velvet
+and gold cord, of the seventeenth century; the brocaded silk ground,
+eighteenth century; the thread with which the whole was
+worked--machine-made silk thread (English)--middle of nineteenth
+century." The whole effect was excellent, and very antique.
+
+This art of "application" is the distinctive part of the "opus
+consutum," and it is the best and most economical method for
+restoration of old embroideries, of which the grounding material is
+generally worn out long before the stitches laid upon it. Much
+beautiful work has thus been rescued from annihilation, and restored
+to use from its long imprisonment in the boxes and drawers of the
+garret and store-room. But it is cruel to transfer historical or
+typical works, and so puzzle the artist and the historian.
+
+It is so troublesome to embroider on velvet or plush, or gold tissues,
+that application is the easiest and most effective mode of dealing
+with these fabrics.[352] The outlines laid down in cord have the best
+effect, while binding the edges and securing them from fraying, and it
+is almost certain that the eye receives most pleasure, in flat art,
+from a defined outline, which satisfies it; where there are no cast
+shadows, it lifts the work from the background, and separating the
+colours, it enhances their beauty. It would appear, however, as a
+rule, that either black or gold metal should invariably be employed,
+because they do not interfere with any colour they approach. White is
+distracting and aggressive. The Greeks sometimes used gold colour
+instead of gold, as we see in the mantle from the Crimea already
+referred to; but this is not nearly so agreeable to the eye as pure
+gold.
+
+A great deal of modern "opus consutum," or application cut work, has
+been done in Constantinople of late years. The designs in general, are
+not artistic; nor are the colouring and materials very commendable.
+The onlaid material is, in general, sewn down with chain stitches, and
+cut out afterwards.
+
+
+_Part 7._
+
+LACE.--OPUS FILATORIUM OR ARANEUM.
+
+Mrs. Palliser says that from the earliest times the art of lace-making
+has been so mixed up with that of needlework, that it is impossible to
+enter upon the one without naming the other. This is, in fact, what
+she has done, showing the intimate connection between the two in her
+charming work on lace, where much information about embroideries in
+general, may be found in the introduction.[353]
+
+M. Blanc also considers that there is but a slight transition between
+embroidery and guipure, which he says was the first lace.[354] As all
+the earliest specimens and designs for guipure were Venetian, the art
+was, therefore, probably an Italian invention, though an Oriental
+origin has sometimes been attributed to it. The objection to this last
+theory is that we find no ancient specimens, and no modern
+continuation of such work in the East.
+
+The word "guipure" is a stumbling-block. It has been applied to many
+forms in the varying art of lace-making; which same variableness has
+caused its nomenclature to assume the terms belonging to other textile
+arts where they approach or touch each other, (as in netting, fringes,
+or embroideries). The nearest approach to laces before the thirteenth
+century was more in the nature of what we now call guimp.[355]
+
+Embroidery differs from lace, in that it is worked on already woven
+tissues; whereas lace is manufactured at once, both ground and
+design.[356] But the link between the two is not missing.
+
+In the twelfth century they worked "opus filatorium," which consisted
+of embroidery with the needle on linen, of which half the threads had
+been drawn out, and the remainder were worked into a net by knotting
+them into groups, then dividing, and knotting them again.[357] There
+is a piece of work described in an old catalogue quoted by Rock. "St.
+Paul's, London, had a cushion covered with knotted thread: Pulvinar
+copertum de albo filo nodato." Here lace and embroidery touch each
+other.[358] Sir Gardiner Wilkinson notices some early Egyptian work in
+the Louvre as "a piece of white network pattern, each mesh containing
+an irregular cubic figure." This sounds much like lace-work.
+
+It may be fairly asserted that the term "embroidery" embraces the
+craft of lace-making, as almost all ancient and much modern lace is
+simple embroidery, and formed entirely by the needle.
+
+Some kinds of lace, however, are made by plaiting and twisting the
+threads attached to bobbins round pins which are previously arranged
+in the holes of a pattern, pricked on parchment or glazed paper.[359]
+The original motive and idea of lace is a net. The patterns called by
+the ancients "de fundata," are netted designs meshed. You will see
+them constantly in Egyptian and Greek art, both in wall painting and
+textile decoration. Homer speaks of golden cauls, and so does
+Isaiah,[360] as adorning women's heads. They also mention nets of
+flax.
+
+The capitals of the brazen columns adorned with "nets of chequer work"
+in Solomon's Temple are very curious.[361] And the author of "Letters
+from Italy, 1776," tells of the garment of a statue at Portici, edged
+with a border resembling fine netting. Egyptian robes of state appear
+to have been sometimes trimmed with an edging of a texture between
+lace and fringe.[362]
+
+Lace has been made of many materials in many ways. We may instance
+"passementerie," made with bobbins (bone lace), with or without pins,
+or with the needle only, by hand. The materials have been gold,
+silver, silk, thread (these two last white or coloured), the fibres of
+plants, and human hair.[363] A lace called "yak" is made of wool or
+hair.
+
+Bone laces in gold and silver, or the two mixed and interchanged, are
+continually mentioned in the inventories of the fifteenth, sixteenth,
+and seventeenth centuries. Bed hangings, chair and cushion covers, and
+table cloths were constantly trimmed with gold and silver bone lace,
+and fringes of the same.[364] Laces in coloured silks were made in
+Spain and the Balearic Isles late in the last century.[365]
+
+In 1542, a sumptuary law was passed in Venice, forbidding the metal
+laces embroidered in silk to be wider than "due dita," i.e. about two
+inches. This paternal interference in the details of life is truly
+Venetian. It was intended to "protect the nobles and citizens from
+injuring themselves and setting a bad example."
+
+Perhaps this strict rule was relaxed in favour of crowned heads and
+royal personages; for there is at Ashridge, among the relics of Queen
+Elizabeth's enforced visit, a toilet-cover of red and gold striped
+silk, with a trimming of lace, four inches broad, of Venice gold and
+silver lace embroidered in coloured silk. Specimens of these laces are
+rare, owing to the intrinsic value of the metal. We must suppose the
+origin of these golden trimmings to belong to a very early period. A
+piece of gold wire lace guimp was lately found in a tomb near Wareham,
+and is supposed, with reason, to be Scandinavian.[366]
+
+M. Blanc describes lace as a "treillage" or network, and says it is
+made in three ways. You may complete the ground first, and then work
+the pattern with the needle. This he calls lace "pure et simple;" and
+he considers that it differs from guipure in that the latter consists
+of flowers and arabesques worked separately, and then connected with
+bars, lines, or meshes. This guipure is the second mode of
+lace-making.[367] The third is by machinery; but this has the inherent
+defect of all machine-made fabrics, to a practised eye; i.e. a certain
+rigidity and coldness in the exactly repeated forms, in which the
+human touch is wanting. It is curious how in art, even a "pentimento"
+is valuable, recalling the hand that erred as well as created; the
+attention that strayed, or reconsidered the design.[368]
+
+M. Blanc, speaking of the beauty of point d'Alencon, praises it
+especially as being entirely needlework. He names the different modes
+of lace-making, and judges their merits. Of needle-made lace he says:
+"And the value of this lace not only arises from its representing a
+considerable amount of labour, but also because nothing can replace in
+human estimation the fabrics produced by a man's, and still less by a
+woman's handicraft. However the hand may have been restrained by the
+necessity of faithfully following, on green parchment, the designs
+imagined and traced by another person, there is always, even in
+copying an outline, an individuality, an imperceptible deviation to
+the right or to the left, above or below the tracing, which impresses
+on the design the accent of strength or weakness, of indecision or
+determination."[369] I would add, of intelligence or stupidity; of
+knowledge or ignorance.
+
+This is not the first time, and will certainly not be the last, that I
+shall have sought to impress on the needlewoman the fact that her
+individuality cannot fail to be strongly marked in her work; and I
+would urge her to carry out the suggestions that her experience and
+her taste afford her, while seeking to render faithfully the original
+motive of the designer. In lace-making, as in all art, the interest
+and the life, as it were, is imparted to each specimen by the
+attention and thought bestowed upon it.
+
+Mrs. Palliser shows us, by her beautiful illustrations, how much
+variety may be given to designs for lace-making, which have changed
+with each period of contemporary art, and are markedly distinctive of
+their nationalities.
+
+Mr. A. Cole's lectures on lace, his volume of photographs, and M.
+Seguin's valuable work, are full of information.
+
+M. Urbani de Gheltof's "Technical History of Venetian Laces,"
+translated into English by Lady Layard, is a beautiful little book and
+a worthy imitation of the ancient lace-books of the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries.[370]
+
+The subject has been so thoroughly discussed by adepts in connection
+with its revival as a local industry in its original cradle, that I
+will confine myself to a few observations on its history and its place
+in decorative art.
+
+Fringes, Knotting, Netting, Knitting, Crochet, Tatting, and
+Lace-making, are all parts of the same branch of ornamental
+needlework. They are all "trimmings," in the sense of being decorative
+edges to more solid materials. They are not available as coverings for
+warmth or decency; but they serve to give the grace of mystery to the
+object they drape or veil. They soften the outlines and the colours
+beneath them, while they permit them to peep through their meshes.
+They are hardly to be included in what is called high art, having more
+affinity with grace, refinement and coquetry, than with aesthetic
+culture or noble thought.
+
+This tendency in lace work may be the reason that the masculine mind
+does not, in general, appreciate these lovely textures, but rather
+despises them (even when the designs are beautiful and ingenious), as
+being flimsy and deficient in honest intention; whereas women have
+always greatly prized them for their delicacy and refinement, and
+their great value, on account of the time, trouble, and eyesight
+expended upon them. Their knowledge of stitches also enables them to
+appreciate their variety, and the taste shown in their selection and
+arrangement for carrying out each design.
+
+Lace stitches are almost innumerable.[371] Upwards of a hundred are
+named, and their variations are endless. But a volume would not
+suffice us for entering into the details of the craft; many of its
+stitches have been imported into embroideries in gold, silk, and
+crewels; and such adaptations are always allowable, provided the
+effect is good.
+
+We have every reason to believe that the claims of Venice as the first
+and original school of lace-making have been satisfactorily
+proved.[372] Genoa, Florence, Milan, especially the last,[373]
+followed suit. Germany, France,[374] and Spain soon started their
+schools; but Lady Layard believes that Spain received all her
+inspiration and the greater part of her laces from Venice, which
+likewise sent teachers to France and to Brussels--or rather, we may
+say, had many first-class workwomen decoyed from her manufactories to
+assist in starting rival industries in other countries.[375]
+
+The first pattern-books were printed in Venice in the sixteenth
+century; and these "Corone di belle e virtuose donne," as they are
+sometimes entitled,[376] were imitated in France and Germany.
+
+Venice was proud of her industry, and of the noble ladies who fostered
+it. It is recorded in the "Virtu in Giocco of Giovanna Palazzi" that
+Giovanna Dandolo, or "la Dandola," (wife of the Doge Malapiero,) was
+the first patroness of Venice laces. She also fostered the art of
+printing in Venice, and is spoken of as a "principessa di gran'
+spirito, ne di private fortune," and her memory is cherished in
+connection with these proofs of her patriotism. We hear also that
+Morosin or Marosin, wife of the Doge Marin Grimani, patronized
+Venetian lace-making. Her forewoman, or _maestra_, was a certain
+Cattina Gardin, and through her the art was settled at Burano, where
+it has been so lately revived.
+
+At the Cathedral of Burano, is kept in the sacristy, perhaps the
+finest existing piece of artistic lace of the sixteenth century. It
+contains many groups of figures from the history of our Lord,
+beautiful both in design and execution, worked in "Punti Fogliami,"
+and filled in with exquisite tracery. This was the border of an
+antipendium.
+
+Mrs. Palliser laments the extinction of the art in Venice, and says
+that but one woman of the old craft had survived; but her elegy was
+premature, as that old woman, by name Cencia Scarpariola, has lived to
+see hundreds of girls at Burano reviving all the old traditions,
+having learnt from her the secrets of the "mestiere," or "mystery."
+Under the patronage of the Princess Margherita, now Queen of Italy,
+and with the active help and superintendence of Countess Adriana
+Marcello and Princess Giovanelli, most beautiful laces are now made in
+every old point, French and Flemish, as well as Venetian. Pezzi,
+merli, and merletti are executed in the different styles which include
+all lace-making, and of which we here give a list from M. de Gheltof's
+book:--
+
+    Net lace.
+    Cut lace.
+    Open lace.
+    Flowered lace.
+    Knotted lace.
+    Darning or square netting.
+    Venice point.
+    Burano point.
+    Drawn lace.[377]
+    Embroidered linen.[378]
+
+The price of these laces is very high, but not beyond their value when
+we consider the vast amount of skilled labour bestowed on them. We are
+often told that old lace is cheaper than new, as an absurd fact,
+because the antiquity of lace is supposed to add to its value. Yes,
+but principally as an object of archaeological interest; whereas that
+which is being made now is supporting by its daily wage the
+needlewoman and her family, and perhaps providing for her old age;
+and as the strain on the eye is very heavy, many lace-workers early in
+life lose their sight, at least for all the purposes of their
+craft.[379] For these reasons we cannot say that the prices required
+for such luxurious trimmings are unreasonable. Zanon da Udine gives us
+an idea of how costly they were in old times. He says that Giuseppe
+Berardi, a lace merchant in Venice, made a profit of 75,000 francs on
+a commission for a set of lace bed-hangings for the wedding of Joseph
+II., Emperor of Germany, which proves the high prices paid for the new
+laces of their day.
+
+Blond laces, which take their turn occasionally as fashionable
+trimmings, veils, and Spanish mantillas, are so called from their
+original Venetian name, "merletti biondi," pale laces. De Gheltof
+derives this appellation from the celebrated collar of Louis Quatorze,
+and fancies it was made of the fair hair of the workers; but this is
+only vague conjecture. The term was applied in the seventeenth century
+to laces in silk, gold, and silver--never to thread laces. I confess I
+do not find the reason for the name, but accept De Gheltof's
+information that it was given by the authority of the magistrates of
+Mercanzia in 1759.
+
+This is but a very slight sketch of the history of lace. Venice being
+its birthplace, and likewise the busy scene of its rehabilitation, I
+have lingered over its school, and left but little space for the
+discussion of those of Spain, Flanders, Belgium, and France. But these
+have been thoroughly investigated, and their individual merits are
+well appreciated, both as antique and modern dress decoration.
+
+I have already said that the lace schools in France were instituted by
+Colbert, who placed one at Auxerre, under the especial care of his
+brother, the bishop of that city. Louis Quatorze made it one of his
+splendid caprices, and not only set the example, but forced the
+fashion into this luxurious and extravagant channel.
+
+In Spain, lace was made to look its best by being worn stretched over
+the great hoops of the "Guard-Infante;" and the fashion spread all
+over Europe. The white laces, resembling carved ivory or those in gold
+and silver, which remind one of solid jewellers' work, when spread
+over the surface of these fortified outworks, guarding from all
+approach the persons of the Infantas of Spain, assume in the portraits
+by Velasquez, a dignity which is in keeping with their value. The
+splendid designs show brilliantly on a background of scarlet, rose
+colour, or black silk; and that which, hanging loosely, looks only
+tawdry and ragged, had a magnificent effect when thus displayed.
+
+For ecclesiastical purposes, these grand solid laces seem most
+appropriate, being effective in large spaces, and easily seen at a
+distance, hanging over the edge of the altar, as a border to the linen
+cloths, or finishing the white alb of the officiating priest.
+
+One cannot but agree with M. Blanc, who points out that each piece of
+lace had its intention, and that a fashionable ball-dress trimmed with
+the edging of an antique altar-cloth in loops, is in false taste, to
+say no worse of the misappropriation.
+
+Though we have had no schools of lace in England (unless we can call
+our imitative industries schools), we have samplers of the time of
+Queen Elizabeth, and down to the middle of the last century, showing
+that drawn lace and cut lace were regularly taught, probably as an
+accomplishment, by Italians. The laces of Devonshire and the Isle of
+Wight (called Honiton) form a group totally distinct from those of
+Northamptonshire, Bedfordshire, and Oxfordshire, which last are very
+simple cushion bobbin-laces.
+
+From the sixteenth century English ladies have, for their amusement,
+made cut laces. Still, we must confess we have no national style of
+lace, and the only enduring ones have been those of France and
+Belgium, which have always kept the lead since their establishment,
+though fluctuating in design with the varying fashions of each epoch.
+Perhaps the reason of their longevity is that they have followed
+always the taste of their day. That of our time being decidedly
+archaeological, ancient patterns are now the most successful.
+
+There is a kind of embroidery darned-work, called "Limerick lace,"
+which is said to be only made in Ireland, and being partly
+machine-made, is not pure lace, and therefore little esteemed. Very
+fine thread laces have been produced at Irish work schools; but no
+commercial result has followed. Clever imitations of Venice point have
+come from Ireland lately, called "raised crochet." This is a novelty,
+and it is extremely fine and beautiful work.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 46.
+    Egyptian "Gobelins," Woven and Embroidered.]
+
+The Exhibition of Irish Lace in London (June, 1883), shows how
+widespread have been the efforts of Irish ladies to employ the
+peculiar genius of the sister island for delicate work with the
+needle, which has always been shown in their beautiful embroideries on
+muslin and cambric. It appears that every kind of lace, except,
+perhaps, Brussels point, has been made in Ireland within the last 180
+years; but as in each case the effort was always that of one
+individual woman, the school fell away when she died.
+
+The names of these ladies are now worthily recorded in the official
+catalogue of the exhibition, with photographs of the specimens
+produced under their superintendence and care. Perhaps a permanent
+industry may crown, however late, their exertions to help the women of
+Ireland.
+
+
+_Part 8._
+
+TAPESTRY--OPUS PECTINEUM.
+
+It is necessary to define precisely what is meant by the word
+"tapestry."[380] The term has been applied to all hangings, and so
+caused confusion between those that are embroidered with a design, on
+a plain or brocaded woven material, and those which are inwoven with
+the design from the first.[381] This latter was called in classical
+language, "opus pectineum," because it was woven with the help of a
+comb (the "slay"),[382] to push the threads tight between each row of
+stitches; and the individual stitches were put in with a sort of a
+needle, or by the fingers only, and laid on the warp. It was thus
+practised by the Egyptians, by the Persians, Indians, and Peruvians;
+and in Egypt was often finished by embroidery. (Pl. 46.) In Egyptian
+tombs we have evidence of their tapestry, from the mural paintings
+representing men and women weaving pictures in upright looms. The
+comb which served to push the threads together after the stitches were
+laid in is sometimes found in the weaver's tomb.
+
+We have, in the British Museum, pieces of "opus pectineum" from
+Saccarah, in Egypt; and also fragments from a Peruvian tomb, of
+barbarous design, but the weaving is equal to the Egyptian; and both
+resemble the Gobelins weaving of to-day. Whence came the craft of the
+Peruvians?
+
+Tapestry is woven in two ways, by a high or by a low-warp loom
+(_haute-lisse_ or _basse-lisse_), vertical or horizontal. The "slay"
+is the implement which is peculiar to the craft. I shall not enter
+into any description of the mode of working the looms, as this has
+been thoroughly well done by masters of the art.[383] But I would call
+attention to the Frontispiece, copied from a Greek vase, where
+Penelope is portrayed sitting by her _haute-lisse_ frame. I also refer
+the reader to the illustration from the Rheims tapestries, in which a
+mediaeval artist shows the Blessed Virgin weaving at one that is
+horizontal or "basse-lisse." (Pl. 47.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 47.
+    Portion of a Tapestry Hanging. Cathedral. Rheims. The Virgin weaves
+        and embroiders at a _basse-lisse_ frame.]
+
+For the best information I have been able to obtain regarding tapestry
+weaving, I must acknowledge my indebtedness to M. Albert Castel's
+"Bibliotheque des Merveilles."[384] He has given great care to the
+consideration of this subject, and has collected good evidences to
+prove his conclusions, which I willingly accept _en bloc_. Of course
+he has chiefly dealt with the French branch of the art, and with the
+Flemish, from which it immediately descends. He begins, however, by
+quoting Pliny, to prove the antiquity of weaving, and gives a verse of
+Martial's to this effect: "Thou owest this work to the land of
+Memphis, where the slay of the Nile has vanquished the needle of
+Babylon."[385]
+
+Homer makes Helen weave the story of the siege of Troy; this may have
+been partly embroidered; and there are some pieces of woven tapestry
+introduced most ingeniously into the web of a linen shirt or garment,
+of which the sleeve is in the Egyptian department of the British
+Museum, proving that figures were pictured by weaving quite as early
+as the date of Troy, and unmistakably finished with the needle (Plate
+18); at any rate, as early as the days of Homer. Arachne's web was
+interwoven with figures. She and Minerva rivalled each other in
+ingenious design and perfect execution. The description of the
+beautiful hangings they wove, the glorious colours with their
+tenderly graduated tints, and the graceful borders, appear to be
+almost prophetic of the highest efforts of the looms of the
+Gobelins.[386][387] Arachne's name is derived from the Hebrew word
+for weaving, "Arag."
+
+It appears that the town now called Arras, but anciently Nomenticum,
+was always a centre of the trade of the weavers;[388] for Flavius
+Vopiscus, writing in A.D. 282, says that thence came the Byrri--woven
+cloaks with hoods, which were much in vogue amongst all classes in the
+later Roman Empire. The craft of weaving, which flourished in the
+Flemish and other adjacent countries, seems to have become native to
+that soil, and to have clung to it, surviving many historical
+cataclysms.[389]
+
+Though in the fifth century the inhabitants of that country were
+transported wholesale to Germany by the Vandals, and among them those
+of the town of Arras, yet, thanks to the monasteries, there was a
+survival and a revival; the craftsmen grouping themselves round the
+religious houses. Specimens as models were brought from the East.
+Aster, Bishop of Amasis (a town in Asiatic Turkey), describes these
+Oriental hangings in one of his homilies. He says that animals and
+scenes from the Bible were woven on white grounds.[390]
+
+Sidonius Apollinaris, Bishop of Clermont Ferrand,[391] says that some
+foreign tapestries are "pictured" with the summits of Ctesiphon and
+Nephates, "wild beasts running rapidly across void canvas, and also by
+a miracle of art, the Parthian of wild aspect with his head turned
+backwards." This might be a description of a Chinese composition, and
+probably it is so.[392]
+
+Woven tapestry is also called "Arras,"[393] because that town in the
+Netherlands was the home and school of the art of picture weaving in
+the Middle Ages. It has been hitherto excluded from the domain of
+needlework, because of the different use of the needle employed in
+it. It has always been woven on a loom, and is, in fact, embroidery
+combined with the weaving; for the shuttle, or slay, or comb completes
+each row of stitches. It belongs as much to our art as does tambour
+work, which is done with a hook instead of a needle. Tapestry weaving
+is the intelligent craft of a practised hand guided by artistic skill.
+The forms of the painted design must be copied by a person who can
+draw; and the colours require as much care in selection, as in
+painting with oils or water-colours. Such a thing as a purely
+mechanical exact copy is impossible in any art; and the difficulties
+are increased a hundredfold when it is a translation into another
+material, and another form of art. Besides, in this case, the copies
+are worked from the back, and the picture is reversed. The question is
+this: Can it be claimed as belonging to the same craft as embroidery?
+I answer in the affirmative, and I claim it.
+
+"When the Saracens began to weave tapestry we cannot tell; but the
+workers in woven pictures were called Sarassins, and their craft, the
+'opus Saracenicum.'"[394] The French and Flemish artisans who
+continued to weave in the old upright frames (_haute-lisse_) were,
+whether Christians or not, called "Sarassins." Probably they came
+through Spain, possibly from Sicily to Flanders and to France, or else
+from Byzantium. Viollet-le-Duc says that the "Saracinois" was a term
+applied to the makers of velvety carpets (_tapis veloutes_).[395] This
+is possible.[396] Woven carpets of Oriental type were spreading
+themselves as articles of luxury through Europe early in the Middle
+Ages; and the Persian style of design was much the same then, when the
+first models were brought to Spain, and thence to Arras, as it is now
+in the carpets we buy just woven in Persia.[397] The oldest specimens
+known here have been exhibited in the Indian Museum, and may be of the
+thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The perishable nature of the
+material makes us dependent on the sculptured records of all artistic
+design for our knowledge of carpets and hangings of more than a
+thousand years ago; and we must confess that we find nothing really
+resembling a Persian pattern in any classical tomb or sculpture of the
+Dark Ages.[398]
+
+I have allowed myself to touch upon carpet weaving, as it is germane
+to tapestry; though it is a branch that soon loses itself and leaves
+artistic work in the distance. Except the first design, it has become
+purely mechanical.
+
+After what has been quoted from Ovid's "Metamorphoses," and bearing in
+mind the pictured webs described by Homer, and likewise the evidence
+of the frescoes in Egypt, and the woman weaving on the Greek fictile
+vase found at Chiusi, we may be justified in concluding that, like all
+other arts, that of tapestry existed in very early days, died out, and
+had to begin afresh, and gradually return to life, during the Middle
+Ages.
+
+Bishop Gaudry, about 925, possessing a piece of tapestry with an
+inscription in Greek letters surrounded by lions "parseme," was much
+put about till he obtained something to match it, to hang on the
+opposite side of his choir at Auxerre.[399] And it is known that the
+monks of St. Florent, at Saumur, wove tapestries about 985, and
+continued to do so for two centuries. St. Angelme of Norway,[400]
+Bishop of Auxerre, who died in 840, caused many tapestries to be
+executed for his church. At Poitiers this manufactory was so famous in
+the eleventh century, that foreign kings, princes, and prelates sought
+to obtain them, "even for Italy." The rules of their order of the
+monks of the Abbey of Cluny, dated 1009, were followed by those of St.
+Wast and of the Abbey of Fleury, and others in France, who all wove
+wool and silk for tapestries. Le Pere Labbe, from whom much of this
+information is drawn and acknowledged by M. Charton (my authority),
+says that in 876, at Ponthievre, in presence of the Emperor Charles
+the Bold, the hall of the council-chamber was hung with pictured
+tapestries, and the seats were covered with them.[401]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 48.
+    Order of the Golden Fleece. Tapestry at Berne, taken from Charles
+        the Bold at the Battle of Grandson, 1476.]
+
+Sufficient has been said to show that during the dark ages hangings
+were woven in France, Germany, and Belgium,[402] and that England was
+not behind the rest of the civilized world in this craft. I think,
+also, that we have indicated its Oriental origin.[403]
+
+Arras continued to lead as the great tapestry factory till the end of
+the fifteenth century, when the commercial failure of the city began,
+at the death of Charles le Temeraire, Duke of Burgundy.[404] Plate 48
+shows a portion of his tent hangings woven with the order of the
+golden fleece taken at the battle of Grandson--now in the museum at
+Berne. Till then Arras had supplied most of the splendid decorations of
+which we find such marvellous lists. Every possible subject--religious,
+romantic, historical, and allegorical--was pressed into the service,
+and pictured hangings were supposed to instruct, amuse, and edify the
+beholders. The dark ages were illuminated, and their barbarity
+softened, by these constant appeals to men's highest instincts, and to
+the memories of their noblest antecedents and aspirations, which
+clothed their walls, and so became a part of their daily lives. The
+great Flemish and French workshops became the illustrators of the
+history of the world, as it was then read or being enacted. It is a
+record of faiths, religious and political; and of national and family
+lives and their changes. The Exhibition at Brussels in 1880 showed, by
+its "Catalogue Raisonne," how much could be extracted from its storied
+tapestries of both archaeological and artistic information.[405]
+
+Though the art continued to be the servant of refined luxury in the
+fifteenth century, Arras itself had done its work,[406] and was
+superseded as the greatest weaver of artistic tapestry by a neighbour
+and rival. Brussels, which had been gradually asserting itself as a
+weaving community, from that date absorbed most of the trade of Arras,
+and thence forwards, till Henri IV. established the works of the
+Savonnerie, Brussels led European taste, and employed the best
+artists. Brussels employed Leonardo da Vinci and Mantegna, Giovanni da
+Udine, Raphael, and later, Rubens and the great Dutch painters, to
+design cartoons for tapestry works. Raphael's pupil, Michael Coxsius,
+of Mechlin, superintended the copying of his master's cartoons.
+Shortly afterwards, Antwerp, Oudenarde, Lille, Tournai, Valenciennes,
+Beauvais, Aubusson, and Bruges all had their schools;[407] and the
+adept can trace their differences and peculiarities, and name their
+birthplace, without referring to their trade-mark, or to that of the
+manufacturer, which is usually to be found in the outer border.
+Poitiers, Troyes, Beauvais, Rheims, and St. Quentin likewise had their
+schools, and became famous.
+
+Want of space prevents my entering more fully into this subject of the
+northern tapestries, and I must refer my readers to the authorities I
+have quoted from so largely.
+
+
+ITALIAN TAPESTRY.
+
+The word Arrazzi shows us whence the Italians drew their art.
+Doubtless there were looms in the Italian cities, and especially under
+ecclesiastical patronage, through the dark ages. Rome was in
+communication with the Atrebates in the third century, by whom she was
+supplied with the Byrri, or hooded cloaks then worn; and as it had
+been a centre for weaving commerce, it is probable that Rome received
+from Arras the craftsmen as well as the produce of their looms. At the
+Renaissance we find factories for pictured webs in Florence, Rome,
+Milan, Mantua, and elsewhere. The best artists of the Italian
+schools--Mantegna, Leonardo, Raphael and his scholars, &c., &c.--gave
+their finest designs to be executed in Italy, before they were sold to
+Arras, Brussels, France, or England, and they are accumulated in the
+treasure-room of every palace in Italy. But the finest collections are
+those of the Vatican, and of the Pitti in Florence. A splendid volume
+might be edited of these grand artistic works; such a record would be
+invaluable. Vasari[408] and Passevant give us occasional glimpses of
+local factories for tapestry, but, as we have before said, this
+subject has still to be investigated.
+
+
+FRENCH TAPESTRY.
+
+In France, as elsewhere, tapestry was probably woven in private looms
+and in the religious houses from early days. M. Jubinal believes that
+it was made at Poitiers, Troyes, Beauvais, Rheims, and St. Quentin as
+early as 1025.[409] Froissart describes the entry of Isabel of
+Bavaria as a bride into Paris, when the houses were covered with
+hangings and tapestries representing historical scenes.[410] The Cluny
+Museum possesses a most curious mediaeval suite of hangings from the
+Chateau de Boussac, of the early part of the fifteenth century. They
+tell the story of the "Dame au Lion," and are brilliantly coloured and
+charmingly quaint and gay in design. Hangings designed by Primaticcio
+were woven at Fontainebleau, where Francis I. started the manufacture
+in 1539. However, the first national school of tapestry weaving was
+that at Chaillot, under the experienced teaching of workmen from
+Arras; afterwards transferred to the town of Gobelins, 1603, by Henri
+Quatre.[411] Louis Quatorze and his minister Colbert splendidly
+protected this manufacture by law, privilege, and employment; so did
+Louis Quinze. Before the Revolution, other considerable tapestry works
+were flourishing at Aubusson in Auvergne, at Felletin in the upper
+Marches, and at Beauvais. These two last were especially famed for
+velvety tapestries (_veloutes_).
+
+As usual, the French have surpassed all other nations in this textile
+art. The pictorial tapestries of the Gobelins have carried the beauty
+of wall hangings to the utmost perfection. Nothing can be more festive
+than a brilliantly lighted hall, glowing with these woven pictures or
+arabesques, framed in gilded carvings or stuccoes. Still we must
+acknowledge that, in choice of worthy subjects, the Flemish ideal,
+which had been left far behind, was the highest. The weavers of the
+time of Louis Quatorze aspired only to teach the glories of France,
+not the moralities of society and civilization, in their historical
+compositions, which were then superseded by classical mythology, or
+else by scenes from rustic life, of the Watteau School. La Fontaine's
+fables gave some of the prettiest and gayest designs, and were
+generally the centres of splendid arabesques. The drawing and
+execution were perfect.
+
+It is to be feared that in the future, great works of textile
+decoration will be few and far between. It is only when the State, or
+the monarch that represents the dignity of the State, protects and
+fosters these artistic factories, that they can continue to thrive.
+Without such powerful encouragement, fashion, commercial depression,
+or a war will stop for a time the orders without which funds fail,
+discouragement sets in, and ruin quickly follows; and the best workman
+when unemployed, or forced for some years to wield the sword, loses
+his practised skill never to be restored. In France, whatever has been
+the form of government, the old traditions of protection for the
+Gobelins have been acted up to and maintained. The consequence is that
+science and art still contribute their efforts in the machinery, the
+colouring, and the designing of hangings of which the materials[412]
+and the execution are unrivalled. Probably there will never again be a
+Tuileries or a Versailles to adorn, but an Hotel de Ville, especially
+if it is occasionally destroyed, may give from time to time
+opportunity for such decorations.
+
+
+ENGLISH TAPESTRY.
+
+When we consider the antiquity and the excellence of the art of
+tapestry on the Continent, we cannot pretend that there can be the
+same general interest in that of our English looms. But to ourselves
+it naturally assumes the greatest importance; and I have tried to
+trace the efforts of our ancestors in this direction, by noting every
+certain sign of English production, in what must have been an
+imitation of Flemish or Oriental weaving. The few facts here collected
+may be of service to the future writer of the history of English
+tapestries.
+
+Comnenus, Prince of Arras, fled before the Romans from Nomenticum to
+England; and he and his Atrebates settled themselves between
+Silchester and Sarum, and the Belgae and Parisi did the same. The
+Romans found them here when they invaded England. Wherever the Belgic
+tribes spread themselves, the art of weaving was established. Comnenus
+probably brought over, and left to his descendants, the inheritance of
+this craft.
+
+Dr. Rock thinks that pictured tapestry was woven at an early period in
+the Middle Ages by the monks in England. The earliest proof of this
+that we possess, is the notice by Matthew Paris (thirteenth century)
+describing the three reredos for St. Alban's Abbey; the first, a large
+one, depicting the finding of the body of the Protomartyr; the others,
+"The Prodigal Son" and "The Man who fell among Thieves." All these
+were executed by the orders of Abbot Geoffrey.[413]
+
+While in London in 1316, Simon, Abbot of Ramsay, bought for the use of
+his monks, looms, shuttles, and a slay. "Pro weblomes emptes xx^d. Et
+pro staves ad eadem vj^d. Item pro iiij Shittles, pro eadem opere
+vj^d. Item j sloy pro textoribus viii^d."[414]
+
+In Edward II.'s time there were hangings woven in England which appear
+to have been absolutely tapestries. They were much valued abroad, and
+were called "Salles d'Angleterre." Charles V. of France (1364)
+possessed among his articles of costly furniture, "Une salle
+d'Angleterre vermeille brodee d'azur, et est la bordure a vignettes,
+et le dedans de Lyons, d'Aigles, et de Lyopars."[415]
+
+Our trade with Arras must have improved our tapestries. We are told of
+Edward III. selling his wools to that town, and being therefore called
+by Philip de Valois, his "Marchant de Laine." Horace Walpole refers to
+an act, "De Mystera Tapiciarorum," of the time of Edward III., 1327,
+"regarding certain malpractices of the craft," which proves its
+existence in England at that period.[416]
+
+Mr. French, in his catalogue of the Exhibition in London, 1851, quotes
+the tapestries of St. Mary's Hall at Coventry, to prove that there was
+a manufactory in England, _temp._ Henry VI. There were certainly
+individual looms, though we doubt whether it had yet become a national
+industry, as we have so few specimens remaining. The St. Mary's
+tapestries contain portraits of Henry VI., Cardinal Beaufort, &c., and
+are probably contemporary works. The subject is the marriage of Henry
+VI.
+
+There is also a piece of tapestry at Bude, in Cornwall, the property
+of Mr. Maskell, which came from a royal sale. Here the marriage of
+Henry VII. is depicted, and the style resembles that of the Coventry
+hangings. The costumes are certainly English, and the original
+pictures must have been English, though they might have been wrought
+at Arras, reminding one of the groups of figures and the dresses on
+the Dunstable Pall (see Plate 78).
+
+Dr. Rock also quotes the reredos belonging to the Vintners' Company,
+representing St. Martin sharing his cloak with a beggar. He thinks
+this is executed by the monks of St. Alban's, and attributes to those
+of Canterbury the fine tapestries of the legends of the Virgin at Aix,
+in Provence, of which we have the history. They were originally given
+to Canterbury Cathedral by Prior Godstone, and were called Arras work.
+There is no doubt that there were looms and artists in the convents
+and monasteries before there was any recognized school of such work in
+England. Probably till the Reformation such hangings were being woven
+all over Europe, and only then ceased in Germany and England. One
+cannot but regret that the weight of the evil which preponderated over
+the good in the Houses of the Church, should have caused so much that
+was beautiful in art to be crushed by their ruin.
+
+Chaucer speaks of "tapestry of verd."[417] This green tapestry seems
+to have been intended to give a bowery effect to the room it hung; and
+one can imagine that it pleased the taste of the poet of the "Flower
+and the Leaf." It seems to have been much the fashion in England and
+elsewhere about that period, and generally represented landscapes and
+woody foregrounds only; but sometimes figures and animals were
+portrayed, and always in the same tints of bluish-green.
+
+Dr. Rock gives us an extract from the wardrobe accounts of Edward II.,
+containing the following items: "To a mercer of London for a green
+hanging of wool, woven with figures of kings and earls upon it; for
+the king's service upon solemn feast days in London;" therefore the
+"tapestry of verd" was not a novelty even in the time of Chaucer.[418]
+
+Oudenarde was famous for these "hallings" or "salles." All the
+specimens mentioned in the catalogue of tapestries exhibited at
+Brussels in 1880, are said to be from thence. But we see no reason why
+it should not have been an English style of weaving also. The first
+establishment of a permanent manufactory in England, did not, however,
+take place until the latter end of the reign of Henry VIII., when
+Robert Sheldon "allowed" his manor-house at Barcheston, in
+Warwickshire, to "one Hicks," whom he signalizes in his will as "the
+author and beginner of all tapestry of Arras in England." This will is
+dated 1576.[419]
+
+  [Illustration: SUMMER
+    English Tapestry, Temp. Henry VIII. at Hatfield]
+
+There are four pieces of tapestry representing the Seasons, removed
+from an old family house and placed by Lord Salisbury at Hatfield
+House, where they hang in the great corridor. These were probably
+woven in Barcheston. (Plate 49.) The style is English Renaissance, and
+the design full of intention; in fact, they have the seal of the time
+of Henry VIII. Only one characteristic reminds one of Flemish art,
+and that is the mode of drawing the plants and flowers, which might
+have been taken out of an old German herbal. The landscapes and
+peasantry are unmistakably English. The pictures are worked with
+strong black outlines which emphasize every detail and give the effect
+of a highly coloured outlined engraving; reminding one of the
+children's books by Marcus Ward or by Walter Crane.[420]
+
+The tapestries called the "Spanish Armada hangings" were probably
+woven here late in Elizabeth's reign. In her time we find in
+catalogues of household goods, descriptions of splendid hangings,
+furnishings of palaces and private houses. The MS. inventory of the
+Earl of Leicester's belongings, in the library at Longleat, astonishes
+us with the abundance of suites of hangings of tapestry that it
+enumerates, as well as those embroidered by hand, and others of
+stamped and painted leather.
+
+It was in the reign of James I. that the manufacture was set up at
+Mortlake, in Surrey. Aubrey, in his "History of Surrey, i. p. 82,"
+however, dates the institution in the subsequent reign; but Lloyd[421]
+is not only positive for the former date, but affirms it was "of the
+motion of King James himself," who gave L2000 towards the undertaking;
+and we have further proofs extant that he spent largely, and
+encouraged it in every way. He gave to Sir Francis Crane, who erected
+the house at Mortlake, "the making of three Baronets" towards his
+project for manufacture of tapestry.[422]
+
+Another curious item which we quote, shows that the funds for the
+enterprise were not easily forthcoming. It is a warrant "to Sir
+Francis Crane: L2000 to be employed in buying L1000 per ann. of
+pensions or other gifts made of the king, and not yet payable, for
+ease of His Majesty's charge of L1000 a year towards the maintenance
+of Sir Francis Crane's tapestry manufacture."[423]
+
+Apparently this little arrangement did not succeed, for there is an
+acknowledgment by Charles I., in the first year of his reign,[424]
+that he is in debt to Sir F. Crane: "For three suits of gold tapestry
+we stand indebted to Sir Francis Crane L6000. Also Sir F. Crane is
+allowed L1000 annually for the better maintenance of said works for
+ten years to come." The king also granted the estate of Stoke Bruere,
+near Stamford, in Northamptonshire, as part payment of L16,400 due to
+him on the tapestry works at Mortlake.[425] The great value of these
+tapestries is shown by the prices named in the Domestic Papers of the
+State Paper Office, and in private inventories; they were woven in
+silk, wool, and gold, which last item accounts both for their price
+and for their disappearance.
+
+William, Archbishop of York and Lord Keeper, gave L2500 for four
+pieces of Arras representing the four Seasons.[426] Their value,
+however, fell during the civil wars, for the tapestries of the five
+Senses from the Palace of Oatlands, which were from the Mortlake
+looms, were sold in 1649 for L270. The beautiful tapestries at
+Houghton were woven at Mortlake: these are all silk, and contain whole
+length portraits of James I. and Charles I., and their Queens, with
+heads of the royal children in the borders. A similar hanging is at
+Knowle, wrought in silk, containing portraits of Vandyke and Sir
+Francis Crane.[427]
+
+Francis Cleyne was a decorator and painter employed in the works at
+Mortlake by Charles I., who, while he was still Prince of Wales,
+brought him over to England from Rostock, in Mecklenburg (his native
+place), while the Prince was in Spain wooing the Infanta. Cleyne was
+great in grotesques, and also undertook in historical designs.[428]
+
+Three of the Raphael cartoons were sent to be copied at Mortlake.[429]
+The purchase of these cartoons by the king, showed how high was the
+standard to which he tried to raise the art in England. The "Triumph
+of Caesar," by Mantegna, was obtained for the same purpose in 1653; and
+certain Dutch prisoners were forwarded to the manufactory to be
+employed on the work.[430] It was entrusted to the care of Sir Gilbert
+Pickering, who was either an artist or the superintendent of the
+works.
+
+After the death of Sir Francis, his brother, Sir Richard Crane, sold
+the premises to Charles I. During the civil wars, the property was
+seized upon and confiscated as having belonged to the Crown. It
+occupied the site of what is now Queen's Head Court. The old house
+opposite was built by the king for the residence of Cleyne the artist.
+Gibson, the dwarf, and portrait painter, who had been page to a lady
+at Mortlake, was one of his pupils.[431]
+
+The value of the king's collection of tapestries was well understood
+during the Protectorate. The tapestry house remained in the occupation
+of John Holliburie, the "master-workman." After the Restoration,
+Charles II. appointed Verrio as designer, intending to revive the
+manufactory. This was not, however, carried out; but the work still
+lingered on, and must have been in some repute, for Evelyn names some
+of these hangings as a fit present among those offered by a gallant to
+his mistress.[432]
+
+Arras is said to have been woven at Stamford, but we have no data of
+its establishment or its suppression. Burleigh House contains much of
+it; and there is a suite of hangings at Belton House, near Grantham,
+of which there are duplicates at Wroxton House, in Oxfordshire, all
+having the same traditional origin at Stamford. Possibly Sir Francis
+and Sir Richard Crane may have received orders at their house at
+Stoke Bruere, which lay near enough to Stamford to account for the
+magnates of the town and neighbourhood obtaining furnishings of their
+tapestries, and, perhaps, vying with each other in decorating their
+apartments with them.[433]
+
+In Northumberland House there was a fine suite of tapestry, woven in
+Lambeth, 1758.[434] This is the only sample of that loom of which we
+ever find any mention. There were also works at Fulham, where
+furniture tapestry in the style of Beauvais was made. This manufactory
+was closed in 1755.[435] It may be hoped that the revival of tapestry
+weaving at Windsor in our own day may be a success, but without the
+royal and noble encouragement it receives, it would probably very soon
+fall into disuse.
+
+Unless it is supported by the State, such an exceptionally expensive
+machinery cannot possibly be kept at work. It requires the
+superintendence of the best artists, and the weavers themselves must
+needs have the highest technical education to enable them to copy
+really fine designs. These artistic requirements, besides the extreme
+tediousness of the work, make it the most expensive of all luxurious
+decorations--even more costly than embroideries by the hand, covering
+the same spaces. However, the two styles of hangings never can enter
+into competition, except in a financial point of view. Tapestries are
+the best fitted for wall coverings, and embroideries for curtains of
+all kinds--for beds, for windows, and for portieres.
+
+The old hangings are now again having their day, and we are striving
+to save and restore all that remain to us. We must continue to guard
+these treasures from the moths, their worst enemies; and science
+should be invoked to assist us in the preservation of these precious
+works of art, of which the value is now again understood and
+appreciated, and which increases with every decade that is added to
+their antiquity.
+
+Tapestry, as art, has its own peculiar beauties, and one of them is
+the softening, yet brilliant effect of the alternate lights and
+shadows of the ridge-like surface; the separation of each stitch and
+thread also casting minute shadows in the opposite direction, and
+giving an iridescent effect. It is a mistake to struggle against this
+inherent quality, instead of seeking to utilize it. The coarser and
+simpler tapestries of our ancestors are really more beautiful and
+effective in large spaces--flat in the arrangement of colours, and
+sharply outlined--than the imitations of paintings of the last two
+centuries, in which every detail of form and colour is sought to be
+expressed.[436]
+
+M. Blanc says that tapestries were intended to cover the bare walls,
+but not to make us forget their existence. The wall being intended for
+comfort and defence, the mind is solaced with the idea it conveys. It
+is a mistake, therefore, to substitute a surface picture, so real that
+it at once does away with this impression of security, while a
+certain conventional art should amuse the mind with shadowy
+representations and suggestions.
+
+It is, perhaps, fortunate that the possibilities of tapestry weaving
+are restricted, and thus its very imperfections become the sources of
+its best qualities as decoration and comfort. One element of textile
+weaving, the use of gold, both in the backgrounds and in the
+draperies, takes it at once out of the region of naturalism, while
+giving it light and splendour.
+
+The designer for tapestry need not be a great genius. Harmony, repose,
+grace, and tender colouring are the qualities most valuable to such an
+artist. Battle-pieces, and other exciting and awful subjects, are only
+bearable in apartments that are used for state occasions, or for
+hanging corridors and anterooms. They are painful to live with.
+
+All tapestries are liable to suffer by the double nature of their
+materials--their woollen surface and linen threads which are affected
+by both damp and heat crinkling the forms and puckering the faces, and
+bringing out unexpected expressions and deformities. For this reason
+the design should be as flat and as simple in its outline and shading
+as is consistent with beauty.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [317] Birdwood, "Indian Arts," p. 283.
+
+    [318] "The word in Sanskrit for a needle is _suchi_,
+    from _such_, to sew or pierce. This is the same word as
+    the Latin _suo_, to sew; so probably the common word
+    used by the Aryans in their primeval habitations was
+    _su_, and they clearly knew how to sew at that remote
+    period. Eve sewed fig-leaves together. Adam sewed also.
+    The Hebrew word is _tafar_, and clearly meant _sewing_,
+    not _pinning_ together with thorns. Sewing is the first
+    recorded art of our forefathers."--Letter from Mr.
+    Robert Cust.
+
+    [319] Semper, "Der Stil," Textile Kunst, i. pp. 77-90.
+
+    [320] Semper, Textile Kunst, "Der Stil," i. p. 77. The
+    German word "naht," here literally translated, would be,
+    uniting, weaving, bringing together.
+
+    [321] "Handbook of Plain Needlework," by Mrs. Floyer.
+    See also her "Plain Hints for Examiners," &c.
+
+    [322] Dr. Rock, "Introduction," pp. cix, cx, calls it
+    "thread embroidery," and names some specimens in the
+    South Kensington Museum. He says it was sometimes done
+    in darning stitches for ecclesiastical purposes, for
+    instance, for coverings for the pyx. It is mentioned in
+    the Exeter inventory of the fourteenth century. There is
+    notice of white knotted thread-work belonging to St.
+    Paul's, London, in 1295, by Dugdale (p. 316).
+
+    [323] St. Catherine of Sienna's winding-sheet is
+    described as being cut work (punto tagliato) on linen.
+    This sounds like embroidery of the type now sold as
+    "Madeira work," the pattern being cut out and the edges
+    overcast.
+
+    [324] Semper, "Der Stil," i. pp. 132, 203.
+
+    [325] See Semper, "Der Stil," i. p. 289.
+
+    [326] Ibid. He cites Athenaeus, iv. 64.
+
+    [327] Phrygia in general, and especially Babylon, were
+    famed for their embroideries. "Colores diversos picturae
+    intexere Babylon maxime celebravit et nomen
+    imposuit."--Pliny, lib. viii. 74. See D'Auberville,
+    "Ornement des Tissus," p. 7.
+
+    [328] "Der Stil," i. p. 196. "Opus Phrygium," in the
+    Middle Ages, included all gold work in flat stitches.
+    The cloak worked by Queen Gisela in the ninth century,
+    for her husband, St. Stephen, King of Hungary, the
+    imperial mantle at Bamberg, of the date of 1024, and the
+    robes of Bishop William de Blois (thirteenth century),
+    in the library at Worcester Cathedral, are all "opus
+    Phrygium," and resemble each other in style.
+
+    [329] In the Museum at Munich are two remarkable
+    examples of these imitations. There is an embroidered
+    badge of the Order of the Dragon, worked in gold and
+    woven over with coloured silks, so as to present the
+    appearance of enamel (sixteenth century). The second is
+    a dress for a herald of the Order of St. Hubertus, which
+    is richly embroidered in gold and silver, and the badge
+    and collar are imitated in the most extraordinary
+    manner, and laid on entirely in gold needlework. This is
+    of the seventeenth century.
+
+    [330] In Salt's collection from Saccarah (British
+    Museum); also at Turin, in the Egyptian Museum; and in
+    the collections in the Louvre, figured by Auberville in
+    the "Ornamentation des Tissus."
+
+    [331] Hence the French name, _pointes comptees_.
+
+    [332] See Semper, ii. p. 213, for wood-work at
+    Panticapaeum, Kertch, in the Crimea, which evidently has
+    descended in style from panelled needlework hangings.
+    Chaldean wall decoration at Khorsabad and Warka, near
+    Nimroud, recalls the effect of "opus pulvinarium"
+    according to Loftus. See Semper, i. p. 327.
+
+    [333] "Der Stil," i. pp. 196, 248. This is known from
+    the archaic books of imperial commerce.
+
+    [334] Peacocks' feathers, either woven or onlaid, are
+    those most commonly used in China and Japan. "Ka Moolelo
+    Hawaii," by M. Jules Remy, Paris, 1861. See Ferdinand
+    Denis, "Arte Plumaria," p. 66.
+
+    [335] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 373, translates
+    from Publius Syrus the word _plumata_, "feathered." The
+    word "embroidered" would have here improved the sense,
+    even though it is a peacock that is described.
+
+        "Thy food the peacock, which displays his spotted train,
+        As shines a Babylonian shawl with feather'd gold."
+
+    He also quotes Lucan, who is praising the furnishings of
+    Cleopatra's palace: "Part shines with feathered gold;
+    part sheds a blaze of scarlet."--Yates, p. 373.
+
+    [336] Sir G. Birdwood, with all his enthusiasm for
+    Indian art and its forms, yet cannot resist a touch of
+    humour when he describes a state umbrella, of which the
+    handle and ribs are pure gold, tipped with rubies and
+    diamonds, the silken covering bordered with thirty-two
+    fringed loops of pearls, and "also appropriately
+    decorated with the feathers of the peacock, heron,
+    parrot, and goose."--Birdwood, "Indian Arts," ii. p.
+    182.
+
+    [337] "History of the Kingdom of Congo," c. viii. p. 55,
+    by Filippo Pigafetta (translated by Mrs. M. Hutchinson).
+
+    [338] In the Tyrol certain embroideries are called
+    "Federstickerei."
+
+    [339] For the feather hangings at Moritzburg, see
+    Appendix 2.
+
+    [340] "Arte Plumaria," by M. Ferdinand Denis. Paris,
+    1875.
+
+    [341] The Plumarii mentioned by Pliny were craftsmen in
+    the art of _acu pingere_, or painting with the needle.
+    Though Seneca speaks of the "opus plumarium" as if it
+    were absolutely feather-work, yet it may have been at
+    that time undergoing its transition into embroidery,
+    suggested by feathers, and imitating them in gold,
+    silver, wool, or thread. When Lucan describes the
+    extraordinary change introduced into Roman habits and
+    luxury by Cleopatra's splendours, his use of the words,
+    "pars auro plumata nitet," probably means their
+    imitation or mixture with gold embroidery, and would,
+    therefore, come under the head of "opus Phrygium."
+
+    [342] It is said that the work, named "Plumarium," was
+    made by the needle; and the Greeks, from the variety of
+    the threads, called it "Polymitum." "Plumarium dicitur
+    opus acu factum quod Graeci a licionum varietate
+    multiplici polymitarium appellant."--Robert Stephan.
+    "Thesaurus Linguae Latinae," s.v. Plumarius.
+
+    [343] Bluemner, i. p. 209. "The Plumarii were a class of
+    persons mentioned by Vitruvius, and found likewise in
+    inscriptions. It cannot be decided with certainty what
+    was their occupation; their name would lead us to
+    suppose that it has something to do with
+    feathers."--Becker's "Gallus," ii. p. 288. But see
+    Marquardt, "Handbuch d. Roem. Altert." vii. pt. 2, p.
+    523.
+
+    [344] "Plumarium qui acu aliquod depingit super
+    culcitris plumeis."--R. Steph., "Thesaur. Lat."
+
+    [345] See "The Funeral Tent of an Egyptian Queen," by
+    Villiers Stuart.
+
+    [346] See Auberville's "Tissus," Plate i.
+
+    [347] "Compte Rendu de la Commission Archeologique, St.
+    Petersburg, 1881." Pl. iii. pp. 112,119.
+
+    [348] In the British Museum is the lining of a shield
+    which shows the arms of Redvers, third Earl of Albemarle
+    (who died 1260), applied in different coloured silks.
+
+    [349] Lent by the Archaeological Museum at Madrid.
+
+    [350] Rees' Cyclopaedia speaks of embroideries "on the
+    stamp or stump," as being so named "when the figures are
+    high and prominent, supported by cotton, wool, or hair;"
+    also in "low and plain embroideries, without enrichment
+    between." He speaks of work "cut and laid on the cloth,
+    laid down with gold, enriched with tinsel and spangles."
+    Rees' Cyclopaedia, "Embroidery," 1819.
+
+    [351] "Opus consutum." The way in which this applied
+    work is used in India, for the special adornment of
+    horse-cloths, saddles, and girths, is very interesting.
+
+    [352] The chapter on "application," in the Handbook of
+    Embroidery of the Royal School of Art Needlework, will
+    be useful to those who need instruction in the most
+    practical, and therefore the quickest way of doing cut
+    work.
+
+    [353] Mrs. Palliser's "History of Lace." The origin of
+    needle-made lace-work is attributed by M. de Gheltof to
+    the necessity for disposing of the frayed edges of
+    worn-out garments. This I think somewhat fanciful.
+    _Fringes_ may have been so suggested.
+
+    [354] See M. Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress" (p.
+    200).
+
+    [355] Mrs. Bayman (late Superintendent in the School of
+    Art Needlework) writes thus: "I see no reason to doubt
+    that the word guipure is derived from 'guipa' or
+    'guiper,' a ribbon-weaver's term for spinning one thread
+    round another; and that guipure was originally more like
+    what we now call 'guimp,' or like 'point de Raguse,'
+    first being made of thread, of more or less thickness
+    and commoner material, wound round with a finer flax,
+    silk, or metal; then they cut shapes, bold scrolls, and
+    leaves out of cartisane, vellum, or parchment, winding
+    and covering them over with the more precious thread.
+    These figures were then connected by brides, only as
+    close as was required to hold them together, and leaving
+    large open spaces, thus forming the large scroll
+    patterns seen in so many old pictures." No doubt the
+    heavy "Fogliami" and "Rose point" laces developed
+    themselves from these still older kinds of point. As the
+    cord and card lace disappeared, the name slid on to all
+    laces with large, bold patterns and open brides, though
+    the special method which first created it had been
+    effaced. Latterly, embroidered netting or laces have
+    been called "guipure d'art." Littre gives the derivation
+    of the word; he says it is from the Gothic _Vaipa_, or
+    German _Weban_ or _Weben_ (_g_ and _p_ replacing the _w_
+    and _b_).
+
+    [356] The word lace came from France, where it was
+    called _lacis_ or _lassis_, derived from the Latin
+    _laqueus_ (a noose). These words originally applied to
+    narrow ribbons--their use being to lace or tie.
+
+    [357] The Venetians early made much lace for furniture
+    or ecclesiastical linen adornment, of what they called
+    "maglia quadrata," which was usually squared netting,
+    afterwards filled in with patterns in darned needlework.
+    This somewhat primitive style of lace trimming was
+    popular on account of its simplicity, and descended to
+    the peasantry for their domestic decorations in Spain,
+    Germany, France, and Italy. There are specimens of this
+    work believed to be of the thirteenth century. At the
+    time of the Renaissance the simple geometrical designs
+    developed into animals, fruits, flowers, and human
+    figures.
+
+    [358] See Rock, p. cix, cx. He says that a sort of
+    embroidery was called network, and certain drawn work he
+    calls "opus filatorium." See Catalogue of Textiles in
+    the South Kensington Museum, by D. Rock, p. cxxvii.
+
+    [359] Reminding us of the description of a net--"holes
+    tied together by a string." As a contrast in descriptive
+    style, we would quote Dr. Johnson on network: "Anything
+    reticulated or decussated at equal distances, with
+    interstices between the intersections."--Johnson's
+    Dictionary.
+
+    [360] Isaiah iii. 18, xix. 9.
+
+    [361] The nets of chequer work which hung round the
+    capitals, with the wreaths of chain work, were designed
+    by Hiram of Tyre, at Solomon's desire (1 Kings vii. 17).
+
+    [362] A fringe lace is made on the Riviera, of the
+    fibres of the aloe, and is called "macrame," which is an
+    Arabic word. Mrs. Palliser's "History of Lace," p. 64.
+
+    [363] A collar of fine white human hair was made in
+    point lace stitches at Venice, and worn at his
+    coronation by Louis Quatorze. It cost 250 pieces of
+    gold. "Scritti di V. Zanon da Udine" (1829). Cited by
+    Urbani de Gheltof, "Merletti di Venezia," pp. 22, 23.
+
+    [364] See, for example, the inventory of the household
+    goods of the great Earl of Leicester at Longleat; also
+    the lists of the possessions of Ippolito and Angela
+    Sforza (sixteenth century).
+
+    [365] Coloured thread and silk laces are still made in
+    Venice.
+
+    [366] In the British Museum.
+
+    [367] M. Blanc's use of the word "guipure" is different
+    from that found in the notices of the art by other
+    authorities.
+
+    [368] The first lace-making machine was contemporary, or
+    nearly so, with the stocking-making frame. About the
+    year 1768 it was altered, and adapted for making
+    open-work patterns. In 1808, the Heathcot machine was
+    started for bobbin net. In 1813, John Leaver improved on
+    this idea, with machine-woven patterns. The Jacquard
+    apparatus achieved the flat patterns, and the new
+    "Dentelliere" has perfected the art. Lace-making by
+    machinery employed by the latest official returns in
+    1871, 29,370 women in England, and 24,000 in France. See
+    Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th edition, p. 183-5.
+
+    [369] M. Charles Blanc, "Art in Ornament and Dress," p.
+    211.
+
+    [370] The information contained in these volumes is most
+    valuable, for the lace-worker as well as the collector.
+
+    [371] Lady Layard suggests that the cut lace work, which
+    was the earliest made in Venice ("punto tagliato,"
+    "point coupe"), simply consists of button-hole stitch
+    with purl ornaments. These are varied with geometrical
+    stitches and needle-weaving in those solid laces called
+    "punti tagliati Fogliami," and "Rose point de Venise,"
+    of the finest kinds.
+
+    [372] Urbani de Gheltof, in his book, "Merletti di
+    Venezia," p. 9, says that Venetian laces and fringes
+    were furnished thence for the coronation of Richard III.
+    (1483). I fancy that gold guimps or braid, rather than
+    netted laces, must be here intended, as we have no other
+    notice of lace so early. See _Ibid._ pp. 10-20.
+
+    [373] Henry VIII. had a pair of hose of purple silk,
+    edged and trimmed with a lace of purple silk and gold,
+    of Milanese manufacture. Harl. MSS., 1519.
+
+    [374] The manufacture of point d'Alencon was created
+    under the special orders of Louis Quatorze, by Colbert,
+    in 1673. Now more than 200,000 women, besides the
+    machinists, are employed in lace-making in France.
+    Colbert imported the teachers from Venice.
+
+    [375] Yriarte says that Alencon, Argenton, Sedan,
+    Mercourt, Honiton, Bedford, Buckinghamshire,
+    Oxfordshire, Mechlin, Bruges, Brussels, all followed in
+    imitation of Venice. Yriarte's "Venise," p. 250.
+
+    [376] Titian drew the designs for one of these books for
+    "punti tagliati." The laces made in the Greek islands
+    probably owe their origin to Venice, showing the same
+    "punti in aria."
+
+    [377] I have already spoken of "lacis" as either darned
+    netting or drawn work. Of this there is an English
+    specimen at Prague, said by tradition to be the gift of
+    Queen Anne of Bohemia, wife of Richard II. It originally
+    trimmed or bordered an ecclesiastical garment.
+
+    [378] For further information, we refer the reader to M.
+    Urbani de Gheltof's book on Venice laces already cited
+    (Organia, Venice, 1876), and Lady Layard's translation
+    (1882).
+
+    [379] I am assured on the best authority that this is
+    unknown as yet at Burano; but the workers, as well as
+    the revived industry, are very young. The modern school
+    of Burano has only been established eleven years. It is
+    certainly delightful to see the 320 happy faces,
+    singing, chattering, and smiling over their graceful
+    occupation; and the beauty of the Buranese women, which
+    is celebrated, has not suffered from their occupation.
+    There is a charming little article of the _Revista di
+    Torino_, 1883, which describes the improvement in the
+    social condition of Burano, morally and physically, and
+    the way it is recognized by the inhabitants. Instead of
+    signs of miserable poverty, the promoters of the lace
+    school are greeted by the women leaning from the windows
+    with, "Siestu benedetta!" ("Be thou blessed!").
+
+    [380] The word "tapestry" comes from the Greek _tapes_,
+    which is used equally for hangings or carpets. The
+    Italians call carpets "tapeti" to this day. It is
+    believed to have been originally an Egyptian word for
+    such fabrics.
+
+    [381] For instance, the embroidered hangings of the
+    eighth century at Gerona, in Spain, have been more than
+    once quoted as proofs of tapestries having been
+    manufactured there at that period.
+
+    [382] The "slay" means the "strike." The word had the
+    same meaning originally: to slay a man was to strike
+    him.
+
+    [383] See De Champeaux, South Kensington Museum Art
+    Handbook, 1878.
+
+    [384] "Bibliotheque des Merveilles" (sur les
+    Tapisseries), publie sous la direction de M. Edouard
+    Charton, a Paris, 1876.
+
+    [385] Martial, xiv. 150.
+
+    [386] Minerva accepts the challenge of the Maeonian
+    Arachne, who will not yield to her in the praises of
+    being first in weaving wool. The girls desert the
+    vineyards round the little town of Hypaepa, to look at
+    her admirable workmanship. She boasts that hers is finer
+    than that of Pallas, and, desiring a vain victory,
+    rushes upon her own destruction. "... They stretch out
+    two webs on the loom, with a fine warp. The web is tied
+    to the beam; the slay separates the warp; the woof is
+    inserted in the middle with sharp shuttles, while the
+    fingers hurry along, and being drawn with the warp, the
+    teeth (notched in the moving slay) strike it. Both
+    hasten on their labour, and girding up their garments to
+    their bosoms, they move their skilful arms, their
+    eagerness beguiling their fatigue. There are being woven
+    both the purples, which are subjected to the Tyrian
+    brazen (dyeing) vessel with fine shades of minute
+    difference; as in the rainbow with its mighty rays
+    reflected by the shower, where, though a thousand
+    colours are shining, yet the very transition eludes the
+    eyes that look upon it; to such a degree is that which
+    is adjacent the same, and yet the extremes are
+    different. The pliant gold is mingled with the threads,
+    and ancient subjects are represented on the webs." Then
+    follows the list of the subjects. The web of Pallas had
+    a large central design, and a smaller one on each
+    corner, surrounded with a border of olive leaves.
+    Arachne's contained nineteen pictures, of two or more
+    figures each, and was surrounded by a border of flowers,
+    interwoven with the twining ivy. Ovid's "Metamorphoses,"
+    book vi.
+
+    Through the kindness of my friend, Lord Houghton, I am
+    enabled to give the sequel of the story--Arachne's
+    transformation into the Spider, as--
+            A PARAPHRASE AND A PARABLE.
+
+        Lo! how Minerva, recklessly defied,
+        Struck down the maiden of artistic pride,
+        Who, all distraught with terror and despair,
+        Suspended her lithe body in mid-air;
+        Deeming, if thus she innocently died,
+        The sacred vengeance would be pacified.
+        Not so: implacable the goddess cried--
+        "Live on! hang on! and from this hour begin
+        Out of thy loathsome self new threads to spin;
+        No splendid tapestries for royal rooms,
+        But sordid webs to clothe the caves and tombs.
+        Nor blame the Poet's Metamorphoses:
+        Man's Life has Transformations hard as these;
+        Thou shall become, as Ages hand thee down,
+        The drear day-worker of the crowded town,
+        Who, envying the rough tiller of the soil,
+        Plies her monotonous unhealthy toil,
+        Passing through joyless day to sleepless night
+        With mind enfeebled and decaying sight,
+        Till some good genius,[437] kindred though apart,
+        Resolves to raise thee from the vulgar mart,
+        And once more links thee to the World of Art."
+
+    [387] Appendix 3.
+
+    [388] Guicciardini ascribes the invention of woven
+    tapestry to Arras, giving no dates; so we do not know
+    whether he attributes it to the Belgic Atrebates or to
+    their successors, the Franks. In either case the craft
+    was probably imported from the East.
+
+    [389] The Atrebates were the inhabitants of that Belgic
+    region till the fifth century; now it is the province of
+    Artois, probably a corruption of the name "Atrebates."
+    Taylor, "Words and Places" (1865), pp. 229-385.
+
+    [390] Castel, "Des Tapisseries," p. 30.
+
+    [391] Sidonius Apollinaris, Epist. ix., 13. Cited in
+    Yule's "Marco Polo," p. 68.
+
+    [392] Castel, "Des Tapisseries," p. 31.
+
+    [393] The commentators of Vasari, MM. Lechanche and
+    Jenron, believe that this art was coeval in the Low
+    Countries with Roman civilization and Christianity; but
+    it would appear that the weavers had fled to Britain to
+    escape from the Romans. Ibid. p. 52. Traces of the name
+    Arras have been found by Bochart and Frahn in Ar-ras,
+    the Arabian name for the river Araxes and the people who
+    inhabit its shores; but this may be accidental, and is
+    at best an uncertain derivation.
+
+    [394] Rock, Introduction, p. cxii. This "Saracenic work"
+    is really so like what is called by the Germans
+    "Gobelins" when found in Egyptian tombs that one can
+    hardly doubt whence the Moors brought their art. There
+    are several Egyptian specimens in the British Museum.
+    See also the catalogue of Herr Graf'schen's collection
+    of Egyptian textiles, from the first to the eighth
+    century. "Katalog der Teodor Graf'schen Fuende in
+    AEgypten, von Dr. Karabacek. Wien, 1883."
+
+    [395] Viollet-le-Duc, "Dictionnaire du Mobilier
+    Francais, Tapis," p. cxii; also M. Jubinal, "Tapisserie
+    Historique." It is difficult absolutely to assign to any
+    known specimens a date anterior to the fifteenth
+    century; although M. de Champeaux thinks that the
+    "Sarazinois" were mostly or entirely carpet-weavers
+    about the eleventh century. He says there is documentary
+    authority to prove that these were woven with flowers
+    and animals. There is a very deep-piled velvety carpet
+    at Gorhambury (the Earl of Verulam's place). Here Queen
+    Elizabeth's arms and cypher appear on a Persian or
+    Moresque ground pattern surrounded with a wreath of oak
+    leaves. It may have been a gift from Spain,--left after
+    one of her visits to her Chancellor.
+
+    [396] "Tapisseries des Gobelins," A. L. Lacordaire, p.
+    10 (1853). He considers that the Sarazinois were
+    embroiderers as well as weavers--and this theory is
+    supported by extracts from an inventory of Charles VI.'s
+    hangings of 1421.
+
+    Every detail of the art and its materials was carefully
+    regulated by the French statutes of 1625-27, containing
+    many laws for the perfecting of the manufacture of new
+    as well as the restoration of old tapestries--and fines
+    were imposed for not using materials as nearly as
+    possible matching the original ones; and likewise for
+    any other dereliction from the rules of the craft. Ibid.
+    pp. 9, 10, 14.
+
+    [397] At the Poldi Bezzoli Museum in Milan there are
+    some very fine carpets; one especially, a Persian, is
+    supposed to be of the fifteenth century. This is very
+    finely woven of pure, tender colours, and the whole
+    composition, flowers and animals (most beautifully drawn
+    lions, &c.), is delicately outlined in black on a white
+    ground. The colouring is rich and harmonious, and has
+    the iridescent effect of mother of pearl.
+
+    [398] In the San Clemente frescoes at Rome there are
+    hangings which show a semi-Asiatic style.
+
+    [399] "Memoires Historiques et Ecclesiastiques
+    d'Auxerre," par M. l'Abbe Leboeuf, i. pp. 178, 231.
+
+    [400] There are very interesting Norwegian tapestries of
+    the sixteenth century, which show distinctly an Eastern
+    origin.
+
+    [401] Jubinal, "Tapisseries," pp. 25, 26;
+    Viollet-le-Duc, "Dic. de Mobilier Francais," p. 269.
+
+    [402] There is much splendid tapestry--German, and
+    especially Bavarian,--to be seen at Munich; and, indeed,
+    the more one seeks, the more one finds that private
+    looms were constantly at work in the Middle Ages for
+    votive offerings. There is a tapestry altar-piece at
+    Coire, in the Grisons, of the Crucifixion, which is
+    evidently of the fourteenth century. The colours are
+    still brilliant, and the whole background is beautifully
+    composed of growing flowers. No sky is seen. There is at
+    Munich an altar frontal of tapestry, Gothic of the
+    fifteenth century, exquisitely beautiful. The weaver has
+    introduced a little portrait of herself at her loom,
+    under the folds of the virgin's cloak at her feet.
+
+    [403] M. Albert Castel ("Tapisserie," p. 53) believes
+    that the taking of Constantinople, when Earl Baldwin was
+    elected to the throne of Byzantium, had a great effect
+    on Flemish art, which then received a strong impulse
+    from Oriental designs and traditions. See M. Jubinal's
+    very interesting account of the tapisserie de Nancy
+    which lined the tents of Charles the Bold at the siege
+    of Nancy (p. 439). These tapestries are an allegory
+    against gluttony. "Tapisseries Hist.," pp. 1-5.
+
+    [404] Charles the Bold has left us records of his taste
+    in tent hangings of Arras at Berne, as well as at Nancy.
+    These are the plunder from his camp equipage after the
+    battle of Grandson. The whole suite, of many pieces,
+    represents battles and sieges, and sacred subjects also,
+    such as the adoration of the Magi. They are finely drawn
+    and splendidly executed with gold lights, and are of the
+    most perfect style of the fifteenth century. The
+    National Museum at Munich contains most valuable
+    specimens of very early and very fine tapestries;
+    amongst others, a Virgin, which was certainly designed
+    in the school of Duerer, and is of the greatest
+    perfection of its art, both as to colour and drawing and
+    the general effect, which has a soft, dreamy beauty,
+    only to be seen in fine woollen tapestries, and
+    differing from pictorial design and intention.
+
+    [405] See Rock, cxii: Among the remarkable suites of
+    tapestry of which we find historical mention are the
+    following: In 1334, John de Croisette, a "Tapissier
+    Sarazinois, demeurant a Arras vendit au Duc de Touraine
+    un tapis Sarazinois a or: de l'histoire de Charlemagne"
+    (Voisin, p. 6). Of the many recorded as belonging to
+    Philip, Duke of Burgundy and Brabant, one piece, "Haulte
+    lice sanz or: de l'histoire du Duc de Normandie, comment
+    il conquit Engleterre."--"Les Ducs de Bourgogne," par le
+    Comte de Laborde, ii. p. 270, No. 4277.
+
+    [406] M. de Champeaux, the author of the "Handbook of
+    Art Tapestry" belonging to the series of the Kensington
+    Museum, 1878, says that the history of Arras has yet to
+    be written. He, however, gives a great deal of
+    interesting information, especially about the French
+    tapestries, on which subject we fancy there is little
+    more to tell. Their art does not come from such a
+    distant time as that of the Belgian manufactures. After
+    Louis IX. had decimated the inhabitants, and dispersed
+    the remainder, Arras yet made a gallant struggle to
+    revive her industry and compete with the rising
+    prosperity of Brussels; but France had decreed against
+    her.
+
+    [407] "Encyclopaedia Britannica" ("Art Tapestry"), pp.
+    17, 97.
+
+    [408] Vasari vividly describes the design for a tapestry
+    for the King of Portugal--the history of Adam--on which
+    Leonardo da Vinci, then aged twenty, was engaged. He
+    lingers tenderly over the picture of the flowery field
+    and the careful study of the bay-trees. Vasari, tom.
+    vii. p. 15; ed. Firenze, 1851.
+
+    [409] See M. Jubinal's "Tapisseries Historiees," p. 26;
+    Viollet-le-Duc, "Mobilier Francais," i. p. 269.
+
+    [410] Froissart's "Chronicles," iv., chap. 23; Johnes
+    ed. 1815.
+
+    [411] M. de Champeaux, "Handbook of Art Tapestry," p.
+    24; also Rock, "Textiles," p. 122. M. Lacordaire,
+    "Tapisserie des Gobelins," p. 15, tells us that under
+    Louis XIII. the statutes of 1625-27 contain many
+    regulations for the perfection of the materials employed
+    in weaving new as well as in restoring old tapestries.
+    Fines were imposed for not matching the colours
+    carefully.
+
+    [412] English wool is still used for the finest
+    tapestries at the Gobelins. The wool from Kent is
+    considered the best.
+
+    [413] "Vitae St. Alban. Abbatum," p. 40; Rock, p. cxi.
+    That the walls were covered with tapestry in the
+    thirteenth century is supposed to be proved by the
+    description of Hrothgar's house in the Romance of
+    Beowulf. We are told that the hangings were rich with
+    gold, and a wondrous sight to behold. "History of
+    Domestic Manners, &c., in England during the Middle
+    Ages," by Thomas Wright, p. 2.
+
+    [414] Matthew Paris, in Dugdale Monast., ed. 1819, ii.
+    p. 185.
+
+    [415] Quoted by Michel from MSS. in the Imperial
+    Library, Paris.
+
+    [416] This was a writ to the Aldermen and Sheriffs of
+    the City of London, principally levelled against the
+    dealings of "certain Frenchmen which were against the
+    well-being of the trade of the Tapissiarii ... by
+    petition of Parliament at Westminster." Calend. Rot.
+    Pat. Edward III., p. 148, "De Mystera Tapiciarorum,"
+    Lond. M. 41.
+
+    [417] Called "verdures" in French inventories.
+
+    [418] Rock's Introduction, p. lxxix.
+
+    [419] "The art of weaving tapestry was brought to
+    England by William Sheldon, Esq., about the end of the
+    reign of Henry VIII."--See Dugdale's "Warwickshire"
+    ("Stemmata:" Sheldon), 2nd edition, folio, vol. i. p.
+    584; also Lloyd's "State Worthies," p. 953, quoted by
+    Manning and Bray, "Hist. of Surrey," vol. iii. p. 82.
+    But we have an earlier notice of a spirited attempt to
+    make fine tapestries at Kilkenny. Piers, Earl of
+    Ormonde, married the daughter of Fitzgerald, Earl of
+    Kildare, "a person of great wisdom and courage." They
+    brought from Flanders and the neighbouring provinces
+    artificers and manufacturers, whom they employed at
+    Kilkenny in working tapestries, diaper, Turkey carpets,
+    cushions, &c. Piers died 1539. Carte's Introduction to
+    the "Life of James, Duke of Ormonde," vol. i. p. 93
+    (Oxford, 1851).
+
+    [420] William Sheldon at his own expense brought workmen
+    from Flanders, and employed them in weaving maps of the
+    different counties of England. Of these, three large
+    maps, the earliest specimens, were purchased by the Earl
+    of Orford (Horace Walpole), by whom they were given to
+    Earl Harcourt. He had them repaired and cleaned, and
+    made as fresh as when out of the loom, and eventually
+    gave them to Gough, the antiquary, who bequeathed them
+    to the University of Oxford. The Armada tapestry, which
+    is stated to have been designed by Henry Cornelius
+    Vroom, the Dutch marine painter, and woven by Francis
+    Spiering, appears to have been, in 1602, in the
+    possession of Lord Howard, Lord High Admiral and the
+    hero of the Armada. Fuller particulars are given in
+    Walpole's "Anecdotes," i. p. 246, under the name of
+    Vroom, Sandart being the principal authority. Part of
+    them were in the House of Lords till 1834, when they
+    perished in the fire. These had been engraved in 1739 by
+    John Pine, but it appears that at that time there were
+    in the royal wardrobe other pieces, now lost.
+
+    [421] Lloyd's "Worthies."
+
+    [422] Calendar of State Papers, cx. No. 26, James I.,
+    1619-23.
+
+    [423] Calendar of State Papers, vol. clxxxi. No. 48.
+
+    [424] Rymer, "Foedera," vol. viii. p. 66, ed. 1743.
+
+    [425] Brydges, "Northamptonshire," i. p. 323, under the
+    head of "Stoke Bruere," pt. 1, p. 48.
+
+    [426] Manning and Bray's "History of Surrey," vol. iii.
+    p. 302.
+
+    [427] Horace Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting in
+    England," vol. ii. p. 22.
+
+    [428] Macpherson, "Annals of Commerce."
+
+    [429] There is in Brydges' "Northamptonshire," under the
+    head of "Stoke Bruere" (the estate which King James gave
+    to Sir F. Crane as part payment of the deficit of
+    L16,400 in his tapestry business), mention of the
+    cartoons of "Raphael of Urbin, ... had from Genoa," and
+    their cost, L300, besides the transport. M. Blanc says,
+    with great justness, that Raphael, when he prepared
+    these cartoons for tapestry, made designs for weaving,
+    and _did not paint pictures_. If they had been intended
+    for oil pictures, they would have been very differently
+    treated.
+
+    [430] Calendar State Papers, Domestic, Sept. 28th, 1653.
+
+    [431] Horace Walpole's "Anecdotes of Painting," vol.
+    iii. p. 64.
+
+    [432] See Evelyn's very scarce tract, entitled "Mundus
+    Muliebris," printed 1690, p. 8.
+
+    [433] Lord Tyrconnell, Lord Exeter, and Lord Guildford
+    had married three of the Brownlow heiresses of Belton,
+    who had a winter residence at Stamford.
+
+    [434] Designed by Francesco Zuccharelli. Rock,
+    Introduction, p. cxiv.
+
+    [435] It has been at different periods the crowning
+    glory of the craft of the weaver to place different
+    patterns or pictures on the two sides of the web. This
+    would almost appear to be impossible, but that it has
+    been done in late years, according to Rock, who tells us
+    that he saw a banner so woven, with the Austrian eagle
+    on one side and the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception
+    on the other. He says that the same manufacturer was
+    then being employed in producing ecclesiastical garments
+    with the colours and patterns so varied.
+
+    [436] In old tapestries three tints only were employed
+    for the complexions of men, women, and children--the
+    man's reddish, the woman's yellow, and the child's
+    whiter than either. It is an agreeable economy of
+    colours, simple and effective, and avoids the pictorial
+    imitation that one deprecates. See M. Charles Blanc's
+    "Grammaire des Arts Decoratifs: Tapisserie," p. 112.
+
+    [437] The poet here refers to H.R.H. the Princess
+    Christian.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+HANGINGS.
+
+    "... Her bedchamber was hang'd
+    With tapestry of silk and silver...."
+
+                             "Cymbeline," Act II., Scene IV.
+
+
+The most important works that have been executed in embroidery, have
+been hangings or carpets. We may look upon these as belonging to the
+history of the past. Never again will such works be undertaken. Their
+_raison d'etre_, as well as the means for their production, have
+ceased to exist. We have very ancient historical evidence of the use
+of hangings (or tapestries), either as curtains to exclude prying
+eyes, or as coverings to what was sacred or else unseemly, or as
+ornamental backgrounds in public and private buildings.
+
+There is no doubt that in pillared spaces the enclosures and
+subdivisions were completed by hangings from pillar to pillar, from
+the earliest times of Asiatic civilization. In Assyria, and afterwards
+in Greece and Rome, the open courts and rooms were shaded from the sun
+and rain by umbrella-like erections with hangings stretched over them.
+From the Coliseum's vast area to that of the smallest atrium in the
+Pompeian house, the covering principle was the same.
+
+Palace-halls and temples alike were furnished in this way, and the
+cold splendour of the polished marbles was enhanced by contrast with
+the shadowing folds of soft textures richly embroidered in bright
+colours and gold. The statues, the gold and silver vessels, the
+shrines heaped with votive offerings, were all brought into higher
+relief and effect by the screens, the curtains, and the veils which
+classical perfect taste would plan so as to carry out the decorator's
+intention. Babylonians, Persians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks, and
+Jews, each adorned their sacred places in similar fashions.[438]
+Clemens Alexandrinus says that behind the hangings of the Egyptian
+temples were hidden their "foolish images."[439]
+
+The word "hangings" was applied to all large curtains and tapestries,
+tent coverings, screens dividing empty spaces, or pendant between
+pillars; also sails,[440] banners, and decorations for processional
+purposes covering walls or hanging from windows; all these have been
+embroidered or woven with pictures and patterns. Carpets, from having
+originally the same name, "tapete," are to be added to this list, and,
+in fact, their uses are often interchanged. Kosroes' famous hangings
+were used as a carpet, and Persian and Babylonian carpets have been
+hung on the walls. A Babylonian hanging must have resembled, in its
+style (of which we have descriptions), the Persian carpet of to-day.
+
+Semper gives excellent reasons for his theory that, next to dress,
+hangings (the clothing of architecture) were the earliest phase of
+art.[441] He looks upon the most ancient paintings on architecture as
+absolutely representing textile coverings. Some of the earliest
+Babylonian decorations show men supporting draperies, which he
+believes to be the tradition of the time when the tallest slaves held
+up the hangings to their own height; and above them, in tiers, were
+men, dwarfs, and even children fastened on brackets, carrying the
+hangings up to the roofs. This was an Assyrian custom, and was adopted
+by the Romans as a mode of disposing of their prisoners of war.
+Woltmann and Woermann appear to lean to the suggestion that permanent
+imitations of hangings were carried out in painted or encaustic tiles
+covering the masonry of Chaldean buildings at Nimroud and Khorsabad.
+The pale ones associated with low reliefs, and really resembling them,
+as they were partly raised, and the reliefs in alabaster and stone,
+which were partly coloured, were in harmony, and yet in contrast, with
+the brilliant tiles of Babylon.[442]
+
+We know exactly what were the purple, scarlet, and white hangings of
+the Sanctuary in the wilderness, designed by Bezaleel, and that the
+veil of the Temple was blue, purple, crimson or scarlet, and white,
+i.e. worked on white linen; and we know from Josephus, that "the veil
+of the Temple, which was rent in twain" sixteen centuries later, was
+that dedicated by Herod, and was Babylonian work, representing heaven
+and earth[443] (see p. 23 _ante_). Its colouring was scarlet, white,
+and blue. Scarlet and white hangings seem indeed to have been an
+Oriental fashion; and fashion then was not ephemeral, but lasted
+hundreds of years. The embroidered curtains of the Tabernacle are
+repeated in the hangings of Alexander's wedding tent, after 1500
+years; and a thousand years later still they reappear in the seventh
+century, when Pope Sergius gave curtains to the high altar
+(baldachino) in the basilica of St. Peter's at Rome of this same
+scarlet and white embroidery.
+
+In early Oriental art, the enormous expenditure of work is appalling
+to think of. Abulfeda describes the palace of the Caliph Moctader, on
+the banks of the Tigris, as being adorned with 38,000 pieces of
+tapestry, and of these 12,000 were of silk worked in gold. What a
+wealth of women had to be wasted in creating such a wealth of
+embroideries![444]
+
+There is a Bedouin romance which describes the tent of Antar, and
+shows the taste for large works. Five thousand horsemen could skirmish
+under its embroidered shade; and Akbar's largest tent held 10,000
+persons.
+
+Nadir Shah's gorgeous tent, which was of the end of the seventeenth
+and the beginning of the eighteenth century, was of scarlet cloth on
+the outside, lined with violet satin embroidered with gold and
+precious stones. The peacock throne was placed within it, and was kept
+there during the remainder of Nadir Shah's reign.
+
+Sir John Chardin says that "The Khan of Persia caused a tent to be
+made which cost two millions: they called it the house of gold;" and
+it was resplendent with embroideries.[445] These are comparatively
+modern works, and sound commonplace and vulgar compared to those of
+Greece and Egypt.
+
+The Greeks imitated the tents and temporary buildings of the Eastern
+monarchs. This phase of Oriental luxury was imported by Alexander the
+Great, and we have the description of two of his gorgeous creations at
+Alexandria, where he outrivalled the ancient traditional glories of
+Assyria and Persia. His own tent was supported by fifty golden
+pillars, carrying a roof of woven gold, embroidered in shimmering
+colours, and divided from the surrounding court, filled with guards
+and retainers, by scarlet and white curtains of splendid material and
+design.
+
+But more gorgeous is the account of the tent in which he entertained
+ninety-one of his companions-in-arms on the occasion of his marriage.
+This tent was supported by columns twenty cubits high, plated with
+silver and gold, and inlaid with precious stones. The walls of the
+court were formed by curtains adorned with figures worked in gold, and
+were hung from beams plated with the precious metals, to match the
+columns. The outer court was half a mile in circumference.[446]
+
+Yet Alexander's wedding-tent was exceeded in splendour by that erected
+by Ptolemy Philadelphus for his great pomp at Alexandria, described by
+Kallixenos, as cited by Athenaeus.[447] This tent, crowned with golden
+eagles, was supported by pillars fifty cubits high. They upheld an
+architrave with cross-beams covered with linen, on which were painted
+coffers, to imitate the structure of a solid roof. From the centre was
+suspended a veil of scarlet bordered with white. The pillars in the
+four angles represented palm-trees of gold, and the intermediate
+columns were fashioned as thursi, and were probably wreathed with
+golden vines and bunches of grapes made of amethysts, as we know of a
+Persian tent so adorned, and the whole idea of the erection was
+evidently fresh from the East.[448] A frieze eight cubits high was
+composed of niches containing groups of tragic, comic, and Satyric
+figures "in their natural garb;" and nymphs and golden tripods from
+Delphi. The tent was separated from the outer peristyle by scarlet
+hangings, covered with choice skins of wild beasts. Upon these were
+hung the celebrated Sikyonian pictures, the heritage of the Ptolemaic
+dynasty, alternating with portraits and rich hangings, on which were
+embroidered the likenesses of kings, and likewise mythological
+subjects. Between these and the frieze hung gold and silver shields.
+Opposite the entrance, vessels of the most costly materials and
+workmanship, valued at 10,000 talents of silver, were ranged, so as to
+strike the eye of all who entered there. Golden couches supported by
+Sphinxes were placed along the sides of the tent, furnished with soft
+purple woollen mattresses, and coverings gaily and exquisitely
+embroidered. The floor was strewn with fresh blossoms, except where a
+most costly Persian carpet covered the centre. In the doorways and
+against the pillars stood a hundred precious statues by the greatest
+artists.
+
+This description dazzles the imagination! To be an upholsterer (a
+vestiarius) in those days was to be an engineer, architect, and
+artist! Semper, from whose translation we are quoting, remarks that
+the luxurious "motive" of such an erection naturally arose from the
+desire to make use of the mass of artistic materials acquired by
+conquest, and the effort to reduce them to certain architectural
+principles already accepted.[449]
+
+That Alexander did not purposely destroy the Persian embroideries is
+evident from the fact that Lucullus speaks of them 200 years later.
+
+Rome accepted and adopted all the Oriental uses of hangings, in the
+Temple and the house for temporary festive occasions.
+
+By both Greeks and Romans hangings were used in triumphal processions,
+covering immense moving cars or draping the temporary buildings which
+lined the avenues of their progress. Also the funeral pyres which
+Greece and Rome copied from Assyria were hung with splendid materials
+and embroideries. Without describing one of these awful erections, it
+is impossible to give any idea of how much artistic treasure was
+thrown into the flames which consumed the remains of a great man. The
+funeral pyre dedicated by Alexander to his friend Hephaestion recalls
+that erected by Sardanapalus in one of the courts of his own palace,
+on which he perished, surrounded by his wives and his treasures.
+Hephaestion's catafalque was built of inflammable materials, 250 feet
+high, raised in many stories, and hung with pictorial tapestries,
+painted and embroidered. Each story was adorned with images of ivory
+and gold. In the upper story were enormous hollow figures of Sirens,
+filled with singers, who chanted the funeral odes.[450] It is to be
+hoped that they were released before the conflagration.
+
+The records of such extravagant funeral ceremonies teach us how much
+of human thought, how much of art and beauty which had helped to
+civilize the world, were torn from the places they were intelligently
+designed to decorate, heaped up by the conquerors, and as ruthlessly
+spent and destroyed for the boast of a day.[451]
+
+Christian Rome adopted the traditions of Pagan decoration, and
+introduced them in her worship, processions, and shows. A great
+religious procession like that of the "Corpus Domini" in our own
+times, has reminded us of a Roman triumph. The baldachini and the
+banners; the torches; the streets, festooned with draperies; even the
+Pagan emblems, which have been converted into Christian symbolism--all
+these were the echoes of classical days; but they are fast
+disappearing. Two thousand years will have worn out and effaced these
+customs, and our children will not see them.
+
+I have not space to linger over the many descriptions of Oriental,
+Grecian, and Roman work to be gathered from classical authors, but
+from them this lesson is to be learned that the first principle which
+guided those great decorators was the individuality and
+appropriateness of each design to the purpose for which it was
+intended and the place it was to fill. But even their peculiar
+excellences did not save them from the universal law of destruction.
+When the hangings were worn, or became for any reason distasteful,
+they were replaced by others, often by gifts or spoils from friendly
+allies or conquered kings. The quantity of gold laid upon these great
+religious or national works was the cause of their destruction as soon
+as they were withdrawn and superseded by something of a newer fashion.
+The intrinsic value in precious metals of such works is proved by
+Pliny's statement that Nero gave four millions of sesterces for covers
+of couches in a banqueting-hall.[452] The hangings or carpets taken by
+the Caliph Omar from Kosroes' white palace (A.D. 651) must have been
+some of the finest and most valuable embroideries ever known. They
+formed a tapestry carpet or hanging, representing all the flowers of
+spring, worked in coloured silks, gold, and precious stones. Kosroes
+entreated Omar to keep it intact for himself, but he was so virtuous
+that he cut it up into little bits and divided it amongst his
+generals. Gibbon describes this wonderful piece of work.[453] We have
+heard much of a marvellous carpet, given lately by the Guicowar of
+Baroda to the tomb of Mahomet at Medina, which, from its description,
+recalls the style of Kosroes' hangings; and their history gives us a
+notable instance of how works of art in the time of war and conquest
+come to be considered only for the value of their materials. War, the
+enemy of culture, all but effaces whole phases of art when a country
+is overrun and plundered. But there is almost always a residuum, which
+has influence whenever there is a revival, beginning with the smaller
+arts of luxury in more peaceful and prosperous days.[454]
+
+To return to the classical veils and hangings. You may see them on
+Babylonian bas-reliefs, on Greek fictile vases, or painted in frescoes
+on the walls of Egyptian tombs and temples; in the houses in Pompeii
+and Herculaneum, and in the remains of Roman villas and tombs
+everywhere. From all of these we may learn something.
+
+The obvious intention of hangings in household decoration is to cover
+bare walls, so as to adorn at once that which was rough or common,
+without delay or trouble. They were also used as curtains to shut out
+the cold or the heat, and to give privacy to rooms without doors or
+windows. Hangings on bare walls have always been meant to hang
+straight down, undisturbed by folds, whereas curtains and portieres
+would probably have to be looped up or continually drawn aside. The
+designs to be worked upon them should necessarily be regulated by
+their shape and use.
+
+Semper considers that a square is an expressionless form, and that it
+should be avoided.[455] If you wish to give dignity to a room, its
+hanging decorations should be divided into panels of greater height
+than breadth, so as to elevate the spaces they cover. Horizontal
+stripes bring down the ceiling, and even in furniture, look ill except
+as borders. Nothing can be more ugly or inartistic than the curtains
+one finds in old illuminations, covered with bands of the same pattern
+throughout the surface, but even this is less unpleasant on the walls
+than lines crossing each other at right angles. The Romans looked on
+chequers as barbarous national characteristics, and left them to the
+Gauls and Britons. Chequers should be avoided unless they express a
+meaning, as in Scotch tartans. Semper observes that the striped
+stuffs, especially those of Oriental fabrics, were never intended to
+be spread out flat, but to be draped in folds and loops, and the lines
+only seen broken up. He continues:--"One rule, which cannot be
+neglected with impunity, is this: that whether the hanging or screen
+is supposed to stand or to hang, there must be an above and a below to
+every pattern, and it must, moreover, be upright." All foliage
+designs, and those containing animals, must start from below, and grow
+upwards. Another of his laws is that the heaviest colours should be
+placed below, and the palest and brightest above. This may be
+disputed. It must be first determined where contrast is needed. If
+the darkest part of the pattern is below, it may be necessary to give
+it the lightest background, on the principle of balancing quantities
+in colour. The dado, or lowest border, will often give the necessary
+weight to the design. Semper goes on to say, "A surface may be made to
+appear to stand, or to hang down, according to its decoration. For
+instance, a triangle will hang or stand, according as its apex points
+downwards or upwards. But in draped curtains all symmetry of design is
+lost, and the rich forms and fulness of folds rather tend to destroy
+the effect of elaborate patterns, and to take their place."
+
+Another important difference between standing and hanging tapestries
+is their finish or edge, the upper one being an upright continuous
+border, and the lower one a fringe. In both cases it is a continuation
+of the main threads of the material, and these belong exclusively to
+the hanging tapestries and curtains. The fringe is so essential a part
+of hanging decoration, that we must pause and give it our best
+consideration. In Babylonian art it is most important. The extreme
+solidity of the knotted fringes in their dress and hangings show
+either the thickness of the woven substance, or that the fringes were
+made by enriching the warp and adding to it. They are almost always,
+on the Assyrian sculptures, simply knotted fringes; but the little
+portable Chaldean temple on the bronze gates from Balawat (near
+Nimroud), in the British Museum, shows fringes of bells or fruit like
+those of the Jewish tabernacle in the wilderness (fig. 2). On Egyptian
+linen we sometimes see, woven or worked, a reticulated pattern which
+imitates a fringe.
+
+The carpets of the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Persians were evidently
+used sometimes as hangings, though many of their designs would not
+have served both purposes equally well. That the Babylonian weavers,
+however, understood that a carpet lying on the ground should be
+covered with an even pattern, and be finished with a border all round,
+is evident from the exquisitely chiselled designs, imitating carpets,
+on two portions of pavements in the British Museum (pl. 27); and we
+may compare these with the different treatment of designs for the
+veils of the temples, both in Babylon and Egypt, on which were
+represented the signs of the zodiac and all the heavenly bodies, and
+other symbolical and unconventional forms. The Atrium of the Greek and
+Pompeian houses, which was modelled on the same idea, was separated
+from the Court by curtains, hung on rods or nails. On festive
+occasions these may have been garlanded with natural flowers. If so,
+we may be sure that the little wreaths worked on them, as we learn
+from frescoes, would combine with the gala day's decorations, and
+would be designed with that view. The Greek artist would never have
+approved of natural flowers or trees, embroidered as if growing out of
+a dado, simulating a garden worked in wool. This would have been
+considered a bad attempt at pictorial art.
+
+M. Louis de Ronchaud, in his "Tapisseries des Anciens," speaks of the
+hangings which he supposes to have decked the recess that contained
+the chryselephantine statue of Athene Parthenos in her temple at
+Athens. He says these votive hangings dressed the pillars that
+surrounded the Hecatompedon, and formed a tent over the head of the
+goddess. M. de Ronchaud believes that among the subjects of the
+Delphic embroideries, described by Euripides in the tragedy of Ion,
+may be recognized some derived from the designs on saffron-coloured
+hangings, spoken of by the poet as "the wings of the peplos."[456]
+
+The downfall of decorative art, domestic as well as national, kept
+pace with the downfall of the Roman Empire. During the Dark Ages, of
+such art there seems to have been very little; and of that the best
+was Celtic or Anglo-Saxon. But the darkness shrouds from our view the
+artistic life of the world, and the dawn was very long in breaking. We
+must therefore return to the subject of hangings, after a gap of
+nearly a thousand years, when the first stirrings of the European
+revival came, in the twelfth century.[457] Symonds says: "The arts and
+the inventions, the knowledge and the books, which suddenly became
+vital at the time of the Renaissance, had long lain neglected on the
+shores of that Dead Sea which we call 'The Middle Ages.'"[458]
+
+There can be no doubt that, during the Dark Ages, hangings woven and
+embroidered continued to be the custom throughout Europe. Our own
+Anglo-Saxon records prove that such furnishings were employed to
+mitigate the cold bareness of our northern homes from the earliest
+times. Sir G. Dasent informs me that in Icelandic Sagas, as early as
+the eleventh century, there are frequent notices of hangings both in
+churches and in the halls of houses; such, for instance, as the Saga
+of Charlemagne, i.e. scenes out of Charlemagne's life, worked on
+hangings 20 ells long. In Scaldic poetry, a periphrasis for a "lady"
+is "the ground of hangings," or "the bridge of hangings," all pointing
+to embroidery.
+
+From illuminated MSS. engraved in Strutt's "Antiquities of the
+English," and contemporary European work of the tenth to the
+thirteenth centuries, we find that the favourite style of embroidery,
+when not representing historical or sacred subjects, was a _parseme_
+pattern. Armorial bearings were generally reserved for cushions,
+chair-backs, and the baldachinos of altars, beds, and thrones.[459]
+Richer and more flowing designs were later introduced.
+
+In the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, splendid
+tapestries of Arras, and hangings even of cloth of gold, were common
+as palatial decorations. Sometimes we have a glimpse of less ambitious
+hangings; for instance, in the London house of Sir Andrew Larkynge,
+Knight, in the fifteenth century, the hall was hung with sage-green
+panels, bordered with gold "darned work," and the "parler" with
+sage-green, bordered with crimson.
+
+French embroidered hangings were very fine in the sixteenth century.
+Jeanne d'Albret, the mother of Henri IV., was a great patroness of
+such works. Miss Freer tells us that--
+
+"When Jeanne and Antoine took possession of the Castle of Pau, they
+found their new abode rich in works of art and splendid decorations.
+The refined taste of Marguerite d'Angouleme was visible everywhere.
+Jeanne's presence-chamber was adorned with hangings of crimson satin,
+embroidered by the hand of Marguerite herself. The embroidery
+represented a passage from the history of the Queen's own life."
+
+"During the hours which the Queen allowed herself for relaxation, she
+worked tapestry, and discoursed with some one of the learned men whom
+she protected."
+
+"The Queen daily attended the afternoon sermon, preached by her
+chaplains in rotation. Often, however, weary with the excess of her
+mental labours, and lulled by the drowsy intonation of some of these
+ministers, the Queen slept during part of the discourse. Jeanne always
+felt severe reproach of conscience when she had thus involuntarily
+yielded to fatigue; and finding the inclination grow upon her, she
+demanded permission from the Synod to work tapestry during the sermon.
+This request was granted; and from thenceforth, Queen Jeanne, bending
+decorously over her tapestry-frame, and busy with her needle, gave due
+attention to the rambling addresses of her preachers."
+
+"Comme elle (Jeanne d'Albret) estoit grandement adonnee aux devises,
+elle fit de sa main de belles et grandes tapisseries, entre lesquelles
+il y a une tente de douze ou quinze pieces excellente qui s'appelle
+_les Prisons brisees_, par lesquelles elle donnoit a connoistre
+qu'elle avoit brise les liens et secoue le joug de la captivite du
+Pape. Au milieu de chaque piece, il y a une histoire du Vieu Testament
+qui resent la liberte, comme la delivrance de Suzanne, la sortie du
+peuple de la captivite d'Egypte, l'elargissement de Joseph. Et a tous
+les coins il y a des chaisnes rompues, des menottes brisees, des
+strapades et des gibbets en pieces, et par-dessus en grosses lettres
+ce sont ces paroles de la deuxieme aux Corinthiens, ch. iii.: _Ubi
+spiritus, ibi libertas._"[460]
+
+Cluny boasts a most curious suite of hangings from the Chateau de
+Boussac, of the early part of the fifteenth century, which are
+charming, quaint, and gay, and historically and archaeologically
+interesting. They tell the story of the "Dame au Lion."
+
+Modern French tapestries, from the manufactories of the Savonnerie,
+the Gobelins, and elsewhere, are decorative to the highest degree.
+Nothing can be more festive than these works of the time of Louis
+XIII., XIV., and XV., framed in white and gold, carved wood, or
+stucco, reflected in mirrors, and lighted by crystal or glass
+chandeliers and girandoles. Such hangings have nothing in common with
+those of early times; they are not temporary coverings of bare spaces,
+but panels in decorated walls, where they form an integral part of the
+architectural composition and design. They do not merely serve to give
+warmth, comfort, and colour to desolate halls, as did those ancient
+tapestries belonging to the furniture of the great man who sent them
+on before him from palace to palace, carrying them away with his
+baggage lest some one else should do so in his absence. These were
+probably merely attached by loops and nails, as one sees in country
+villas or castles in Italy to this day.
+
+We find that the Italians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
+often hung their walls with upright strips of work, in the guise of
+pilasters. The walls were thus divided into panelled spaces, which
+separated pictures, statues, and cabinets, of which the style did not
+agree in juxtaposition. These pilasters were generally of "opus
+consutum," or "applique" in its different forms. Above, next to the
+cornice, and below, next to the dado, or even touching the floor, they
+were connected by borders of similar work. The spaces between were
+mostly filled in with rich brocades or velvets of one colour, so as to
+make the best backgrounds for the artistic treasures grouped against
+them. Sometimes fine tapestries filled the intervening spaces, and
+sometimes splendid embroideries. There is a beautiful example of this
+sort of decoration at Holland House, where the dining-room is adorned
+with pilasters worked on velvet in gold and coloured silks, with
+tapestries between them. This is Florentine work, of the sixteenth or
+beginning of the seventeenth century.
+
+Hangings entirely in needlework, to cover large spaces, are rare, but
+a few are to be found all over Europe in museums, palaces, and private
+houses, which are interesting as objects of art. The genealogical tree
+of the Counts of Kyburg, designed in the sixteenth century, and
+carried to France as plunder, and now restored to its home near
+Zurich, is a remarkable instance of a piece of needlework that
+deserved the value placed on it. Many splendid pieces of embroidered
+tapestries are at the Cluny Museum. The beatitudes of St. Catherine,
+from the castle at Tarrascon, and the hangings worked in applique and
+flat stitches with portraits of Henri IV., Jeanne d'Albret, &c., are
+monuments of industry, and design; and are very beautiful.
+
+There, is a large room at Castle Ashby hung with tapestry in cross
+stitches, worked by the ladies of the family, and finished 150 years
+ago. The industry shown here is indubitable, but the designs are
+barbarously bad and funny. In the Palazzo Giustini at Florence there
+is a suite of hangings worked also in cross stitches of the same
+period, of which the design is very clever and graceful, and the
+effect beautiful and artistic. An irregular bank of brown earth is
+crowded with grasses and small flowers about a foot above the dado,
+and from this grow rose-bushes, covered with blossoms of different
+shades, held back to a treillage of delicate "cane colours." The
+leafage is brown, against a sky that is not blue, but which rather
+reminds one of blue than of grey. It is conventionally treated, and
+the effect is singularly rich and harmonious. Had it been a little
+more naturalistic, it would have looked too much like a painted
+picture; but as it is, the decoration is charming, and so universally
+admired that we cannot but wonder it has never been imitated. In the
+Borghese Palace at Rome there is a ball-room hung with white satin
+embroidered with wreaths of flowers, and a similar one in the Caetani
+Palace, on crimson satin. These are about 150 years old, and are so
+far above being mere objects of fashion, that they must be placed by
+their beauty of design and execution amongst objects of art, and so
+will probably survive more centuries of change, holding their own, and
+increasing in value and esteem.
+
+For hangings in church decoration, the reader is referred to the
+chapters on ecclesiastical art and on tapestry.
+
+Having discussed the origin and reason for hangings, and having tried
+to draw from what has been accepted as beautiful and perfect in taste,
+some guidance in hanging our modern rooms, supposing always that the
+spaces are fitted for really fine decorations, I yet would add a few
+more words on this subject. There are in general some previous
+conditions which will help us to choose the style and design of such
+furnishings. In the first place, we should study what is appropriate
+to the persons who will first inhabit the rooms. The bride's apartment
+may be white and gold, garlanded with roses, and gay with groups of
+Cupids; but such prettinesses would not be suitable to the home of a
+mourning Queen. Tender or subdued colouring equally sets off groups of
+young and lovely faces, and the bent form robed in black. Embroideries
+are always agreeable on such backgrounds, and it is as a vehicle for
+needlework that I now allude to the design of the artist in hangings.
+We are somewhat restricted, or we ought to be, when there are
+treasures of art already in the house, by the desire to exhibit them
+to the best advantage. The hangings should be of a colour which suits
+all pictures, and if the walls are either embroidered or tapestried
+with woven designs, they should be very much subdued, both in form and
+colour, so as not to prevent the eye from perceiving at once the
+precious objects hung against them. A fine brocade or velvet of one
+colour suits pictures best; but if our object is to show off our
+cabinets, which are generally black, and our statues, which are mostly
+white, then richly embroidered backgrounds in brilliant colours are
+the best, compensating the eye in variety and splendour.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [438] The "women who wove the hangings for the grove"
+    were probably priestesses of the worship of Astarte
+    (2 Kings xxiii. 7).
+
+    [439] He says that within the sacred shrine was revealed
+    their god--a beast rolling on a purple couch--veiled
+    with gold embroidered hangings; and he describes the
+    magnificent temples, gleaming with gold, silver, and
+    electrum. Quoted from Clemens Alexandrinus, in Renouf's
+    "Hibbert Lectures," p. 2.
+
+    [440] "Fine linen with broidered work from Egypt was
+    that which thou spreadest forth to be thy
+    sail."--Ezekiel xxvii. 7. Egyptian sails were woven and
+    painted; sometimes they were blazoned with embroidered
+    patterns. The Phoenix was set there to indicate the
+    traveller's return. See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians,"
+    vol. iii., ed. 1837, p. 211.
+
+    [441] See Semper, "Der Stil," vol. i. p. 273.
+
+    [442] The figure-painting of the nations we have spoken
+    of, successful so far as it concerns its special purpose
+    of exhibiting a clear and comprehensive chronicle of
+    events, is at the same time no more, so far as it
+    concerns its artistic effect, than a piece of tapestry
+    or embroidery done into stone, and can only be estimated
+    ... as a piece of coloured wall decoration. Woltmann and
+    Woermann, "History of Painting," Eng. Trans., pp. 23-30.
+    See also Perrot and Chipiez, "Histoire de l'Art dans
+    l'Antiquite," for tile decorations at Nimroud; vol. ii.
+    p. 704.
+
+    [443] Compare this record with Solomon's veil for the
+    Temple, of blue, and purple, and crimson, and fine linen
+    (2 Chron. iii. 14), and the hangings designed by
+    Bezaleel, of scarlet, blue, purple, and embroidered with
+    gold (Exod. xxxix. 2, 3, 5; see also Josephus, "Wars of
+    the Jews," Whiston's trans., p. 895).
+
+    [444] As cited from Abulfeda by Gibbon, chap. lii. ix.
+    p. 37, ed. 1797. When one is moved to pity, thinking of
+    the enforced labour of thousands of captive women,
+    fallen, perhaps, from high estate, and only valued for
+    the toil of their hands, it comforts one to believe that
+    they would hardly have produced beautiful works without
+    enjoying some happiness in the creation of that beauty.
+
+    [445] Yule's "Marco Polo," vol. i. p. 394, note 7.
+
+    [446] See Semper, "Der Stil," i. pp. 310, 311; Chares,
+    ap. Athen. xii. 54, p. 538.
+
+    [447] Semper's "Der Stil," i. p. 311; Athen. v. 25, p.
+    196.
+
+    [448] Phylarchus, ap. Athen. xii. 55, describes a
+    Persian tent in which were golden palm-trees, and vines
+    fruited with precious stones, under which the Persian
+    kings held their state. On an Assyrian sculpture at the
+    British Museum is seen Assurbanipal on a couch, the
+    queen opposite to him, under an arbour of jewelled
+    vines; unless it represents a rural entertainment, which
+    is unlikely.
+
+    [449] The art of the "tapezziere," "tapissier,"
+    "tapestry-hanger," is not a recognized one with us,
+    though it is in Italy and France, where the hangings for
+    special occasions in churches and houses are stored
+    away, treasured for hundreds of years, cleaned and
+    mended, and hung and placed to the best advantage by men
+    educated for the purpose. In poor churches which possess
+    no fine materials for decoration, one has often wondered
+    at and admired the picturesque effects extracted from
+    yards of muslin, gold tinsel, and box wreaths,
+    artistically combined. Our house carpenter is the only
+    representative we have of the vestiarius, and he is but
+    a feeble descendant from the ancestors of his craft, who
+    were expected to study and evolve the adornments of the
+    building for its completion, the materials of decoration
+    for special occasions, and lastly, the mechanical means
+    for hanging and stretching the draperies. These were
+    sometimes movable frames or posts--"scabella" (whence
+    "escabeau," echafaudage, scaffolding).
+
+    [450] Semper, "Der Stil," i. pp. 314, 315.
+
+    [451] Never again will such great works be executed with
+    the needle. In civilized countries, sovereign splendours
+    are at a discount. The East occasionally produces
+    something fine, because there they still have harems and
+    slaves; but even these ancient institutions are losing
+    their stability and in the interest of humanity, if not
+    in that of needlework, we may soon hope there will be
+    neither the one nor the other. We must allow, however,
+    that the purple and gold embroideries now being executed
+    for the King of Bavaria in his school at Munich are
+    royally splendid, and, by their execution, worthy of
+    past days.
+
+    [452] Pliny, viii. 44, 196.
+
+    [453] Gibbon's "Roman History," ix. c. 51, p. 370, ed.
+    1797; also see Crichton's "History of Arabia," i. p.
+    383.
+
+    [454] The utter dispersal of accumulated family and
+    household treasures has had a sad illustration in the
+    loads of Turkish and Slav embroideries which have
+    flooded the markets of Europe since the Russo-Turkish
+    war. Work, treasured for generations, sold for a piece
+    of bread, robbed from the deserted home or the bazaar,
+    stolen from the dying or the dead. These are so
+    suggestive of the horrors of war, and touch us so nearly
+    in connection with the rights and wrongs of the Eastern
+    question, that they cause us more pain than pleasure
+    when we study these beautiful specimens of well-blended
+    colours and designs, that show their Aryan (Persian or
+    Indian) origin. Lady Layard's residence in
+    Constantinople was, perhaps, the "happy accident" which
+    will have preserved the secrets and practice of this
+    work for future generations, by her active and generous
+    institution of a working organization for the poor
+    exiled and starving women, and for the sale of their
+    work in England.
+
+    [455] Semper, "Der Stil," i. p. 30, Sec. 10.
+
+    [456] This subject has been ably treated in the
+    Introduction to "La Tapisserie," by Eug. Muentz; Paris,
+    1885.
+
+    [457] I refer to the chapter on "English Embroideries"
+    for the _parseme_ patterns of our mediaeval hangings, and
+    to the section on tapestry in the chapter on "Stitches."
+
+    [458] "Renaissance in Italy," J. A. Symonds, p. 4.
+
+    [459] But to this rule there are notable exceptions, of
+    which Charles the Bold's hangings for his tent (now at
+    Berne) furnish a brilliant example. Here the Order of
+    the Golden Fleece is repeated on a field of flowers,
+    exquisitely designed.
+
+    [460] "Life of Jeanne d'Albret," by Miss Freer, pp. 68,
+    123, 330.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+FURNITURE.
+
+    "Jane, I hate aesthetic carpets;
+    High-art curtains make me swear.
+    Pray cease hunting for the latest
+                      Queen Anne chair.
+    I care nothing for improvements,
+    On the simple style of Snell,
+    Which will suit both you and me ex-
+                      tremely well."
+
+                 ROBERT CUST, "Parody of the Last Ode of the
+                           First Book of Horace."
+
+    "First, as you know, my house within the city
+    Is richly furnish'd with plate and gold;
+    Basons and ewers, to lave her dainty hands;
+    My hangings all of Tyrian tapestry;
+    In ivory coffers I have stuff'd my crowns;
+    In cyprus chests my arras, counterpoints,
+    Fine linen, Turkey cushions boss'd with pearl,
+    Costly apparel, tents and canopies,
+    Valance of Venice gold, in needlework;
+    Pewter and brass, and all things that belong
+    To house, or housekeeping."
+
+       SHAKESPEARE, "Taming of the Shrew," Act II., Scene I.
+
+
+The last chapter on hangings, their history and uses, and the
+preceding account of tapestries, naturally lead to the consideration
+of the furniture which may accompany them.
+
+Homer's description of Penelope's bridal couch is very curious. The
+central idea is the bedpost, fashioned out of the stem of an
+olive-tree growing in the court, and inlaid by Ulysses himself with
+gold, silver, and ivory, and bands of dyed purple ox-hide. The stone
+walls and roof were built over to cover it in, as it stood yet rooted
+in the ground.[461]
+
+The illustration is a very quaint delineation of a Chaldean
+four-roomed house, where the rooted tree with its stem and branches is
+suggestive of the state of the domestic art of the architect and the
+upholsterer in those Archaic days.[462]
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 24.
+    Assyrian delineation of Chaldean House.]
+
+Furniture has been the excuse and the vehicle for embroideries, from
+the footstool and the cushion to the window curtain and the
+bed-hangings.[463]
+
+Such curtains are the most permanently important features in the
+economy, or rather the luxury of the house. Let us begin with the
+decorations of the state bedroom.
+
+Now the shape of the bed must regulate the design. If there is only a
+canopy--like that over a throne--one may have fine work for the head
+of the bed inside the canopy, and a rich border round its valance;
+this should contrast with the walls; and the curtains should marry the
+two together, by the embroidered borders belonging to the fashion of
+the bed, and accompanying the window curtains; while the plain surface
+should match with the wall hangings. Another method is to have the bed
+and curtains hung with plain materials, to contrast with embroidered
+or tapestried hangings on the walls.
+
+This style of bed canopy absolutely belongs to the decoration of the
+wall to which it is attached. But when we have to deal with a large
+four-post bed--"a room within a room," as poor Prince Lee Boo
+said--the bed may, in its own decoration, be totally independent of
+the wall hangings; and care must be taken that we do not injure the
+effect of both by too much contrast or too much similarity. Every room
+has its own individuality, and the first beginning of its decoration
+must be the key-note to guide the rest of the furnishing and
+adornment. I am anxious to point out that the bed and its belongings
+are a most important element in the beauty and dignity of style of the
+room and the house that contains it. It is a splendid opportunity for
+displaying the embroideries of the women of the family, and for
+exercising their taste. "The chamber of Dais," as it was called in old
+times, was always carefully adorned for the welcome of the honoured
+guest. The bed-hangings, and even the linen, were embroidered,[464]
+and the greatest care and the most artistic work were lavished on the
+coverlet in firm stitches and twisted threads, while on the curtains
+the frailest materials and most delicate stitches were freely
+bestowed, as they were safe from friction. We may employ floss-silk
+and satin-stitch for such works with safety.
+
+As a rule we should avoid too great a variety of design in the
+decoration of a bedroom, and at the same time beware of its becoming
+monotonous.
+
+I should say that a change in the design, though not in the style, of
+the different parts of the bed is admissible, and gives opportunities
+for rich and graceful work. For instance, a parseme pattern may be
+varied judiciously on the curtains, the valance, and the heading;
+provided there is a connecting link (say a cypher) found throughout.
+If the back of the Baldachino is embroidered, it admits of totally
+different treatment, and the valance must include a border according
+to its outline.
+
+The ingenuity and magnificence of the Elizabethan bedroom furnishings
+are proved by the inventories to be found in old houses. Those
+describing the property of the Earl of Leicester, in the Library at
+Longleat, are so characteristic of a time when each room contained
+artistic furniture, that I cannot help making here some extracts, and
+pointing out that embroidery was usually employed to individualize
+each decoration.
+
+"At Killingworth (Kenilworth) Lord Leicester's Bedsteads." "A fayre,
+rich, standing Square Bedstead of carved walnut-tree wood: painted
+with silver hearts, ragged staves and roses. The furniture and teste
+crimson velvet embroidered with silver roses, and lined throughout
+with Buckram." There was apparently a second set of curtains inside
+of striped white satin, trimmed and fringed with silver, and the
+velvet curtains were also fringed with silver with long "buttons and
+loops."
+
+Another bedstead is described, with the pillars painted red, and
+varnished. The teste and curtains of red silk edged with gold and
+silver bone lace, and embroidered "in a border of hops, roses, and
+pomegranates."
+
+Another "Bedstead painted red and gold, and varnished; with crimson
+velvet, gold and silver in breadths, embroidered over with red, gold,
+and silver,--lined with Milion (Milan) fustian," &c., &c. The
+catalogue of the tapestries and embroidered hangings include fifteen
+suites at Kenilworth only; and three other houses are equally well
+provided. The ground of one of these suites of five pieces of
+embroidery, of animals and flowers, is described as being "Stannel
+cloth lined with cannevois" (canvas). Each room has chairs, cushions,
+carpets (which appear to have covered the floor and the tables), and
+"Cabinutts" (cabinets) covered with embroideries.
+
+In a Florentine Palace (the Alessandri), there is a state
+apartment,[465] where the bed, the walls, the curtains, and the
+furniture are entirely decorated with the same splendid materials,
+i.e. gold brocaded with crimson velvet. The eye longs for some repose
+amidst the gorgeous reiterated forms and colours. If the bed and
+curtains had been either plain crimson velvet or embroidery, it would
+have been much more beautiful. This sort of example is a lesson and a
+warning, which is valuable even under less splendid conditions.
+
+Amongst our fine Indian embroideries, those of Lucknow, Gulbargah,
+Aurungabad, and Hyderabad are well fitted for beds and furniture.
+These we can study in the Indian Museum, and it seems a pity not to
+profit by, and encourage the resources of our own Empire.
+
+Carpets and rugs were sometimes embroidered as well as woven in
+patterns. They were anciently spread on thrones, couches and sofas, at
+entertainments;[466] and used for covering the catafalques at funeral
+ceremonies, or for laying over tombs, as is still the custom in the
+East. We who restrict their use to domestic purposes, are beginning to
+understand that these decorations look best when the patterns are
+geometrical, and that natural objects, such as rabbits and roses, even
+when conventionalized, are unpleasant to tread upon.
+
+The sofa and chairs are so often the vehicles for embroidery that we
+must give them a separate share of our attention. The square shapes of
+the chair-backs repeated several times give us an opportunity for
+balancing colours and introducing forms of decoration which may be
+made to contrast with everything else in the room, and so enhance the
+general effect. Say that the carpet is red, and the furniture and
+hangings are of tender broken tints, it will be a pleasure to the eye
+if the cushions on the sofa and the chairs and seats are panelled with
+a deeper or lighter colour than the carpet, but always reposing the
+eye by contrasting plain surfaces with richness of design. Then the
+footstool or cushion should break away entirely from the carpet on
+which it lies, that the poor thing may be spared the kick it
+invariably receives, when the master of the house has tripped over its
+invisible presence.
+
+For furniture, the cushion stitches, i.e. canvas and cross stitches,
+are certainly the best. They are the most enduring, as they bear
+friction without fraying; and are therefore, in this case, preferable
+to satin stitches, which are liable to be spoilt by contact, and give
+the lady of the house, who is probably the artist, a pang each time an
+honoured guest occupies the comfortable chair embroidered in floss
+silk, unaware that it is an aesthetic investment, and that a percentage
+of its beauty is disappearing every time it is brought into collision
+with broadcloth.[467] This brings us to the subject of the covers
+called "housses" by French upholsterers, and which may come under the
+head of small decorations, or rather, of petty disfigurements. The
+things which went by the horrid name of "antimacassars" have, however,
+given way to "chair-backs," and crochet has been displaced by linen
+veils worked in crewels. This is a step in the right direction. No
+well-regulated eye could do otherwise than suffer from the glaring
+white patterns of crochet-work, mounted aggressively on the back of
+every chair in the room, as a buffer between it and the human head and
+shoulders. The suggestion was disagreeable, and the present chair-back
+still recalls it. To reconcile us to its use, it must be sparingly
+used, and artistically disposed. The "antimacassar" is a remaining
+sign of the overlap of dress and manners. Our great-grandmothers
+embroidered the chairs, and valued them exceedingly, and never would
+have contemplated that they should be soiled by a male or female head
+lying back upon them. True, they wore powder and pomatum then--but
+they never leant back; such a solace, and solecism in manners, was
+reserved for the privacy of the bedroom and the arm-chair covered with
+cotton pique or washing chintz. Under the new manners, and since the
+introduction of the graceful lounge, the antimacassar doubtless has
+saved many ancestral works, but nowadays we wear neither powder nor
+pomatum. On the contrary, we dye, dry, and frizzle our hair till it
+might serve as a brush to remove any dust it encountered, and it
+spoils nothing.
+
+The table-cover is a source of endless variety;[468] on the whole I
+should recommend here plain surfaces and deep borders. The articles
+thrown on the table are best set off by plain grounds. The colour of
+the table-cover may be a test of artistic taste, and may make or mar
+the whole effect of the furnishings of the room, especially if it is
+newly acquired, in order to enliven the fading glories of ancestral
+taste.
+
+The Screen.--This evidently began its existence as a curtain hung on a
+movable frame for the purpose of dividing large chambers for separate
+uses.[469] The Chinese seem to have been the first to stretch the
+curtain tight over the frame, making it a fixture, and often an actual
+partition, painted with pictures by brush or needle.
+
+To our modern home, the screen in a large room, gives a sense of
+snugness, and is an actual necessity for keeping off the draughts
+drifting in through ill-fitting window-frames and doors; and at the
+same time serving aesthetically as a background to high chairs and
+tables heaped with objects of art, and tall vases of flowers. The
+high screen groups and unites the pictures of active and still life
+around it; and meanwhile the little fire-screens are performing the
+merciful service of saving the complexions of our daughters from being
+sacrificed to Moloch in front of our scorching coal fires. I need not
+recommend these as fit surfaces for embroidery--they offer themselves
+to it; and the School of Art Needlework is a living witness to how
+much they are appreciated and how largely employed. On the screen,
+decorative ambition is permitted to rise to pictorial art. Nothing in
+furniture is prettier than the screen covered with refined needle
+painting, either arabesqued or naturalistic. You may vary the designs
+to any extent, either as large pictures covering many folds, or in
+small pictures repeated or varied on each. Here design to
+individualize the living-room comes into play, and is most conspicuous
+for good or for evil effect.
+
+Amongst the occasional furnishings of the home, we would instance
+embroidered curtains to veil pictures, which are perhaps too sacred to
+expose to the general eye. We know how often in churches and
+sacristies on the Continent, one, or even two veils have to be
+withdrawn before the holy and precious picture is displayed. We have
+seen these little curtains beautifully worked so as to form by their
+design a picture in the space they cover. Crimson silk is perhaps
+worked in gold and colours for a gilt frame, and white and silver
+within ebony or walnut settings. I would recommend this style of work
+to the consideration of our decorators. It is interesting to find in
+an old catalogue at Hampton Court, how pictures of sacred subjects
+were thus decently veiled, in the profaner moments of court
+gaieties.[470]
+
+Embroidered book coverings were often very beautiful, either as
+simply clothing the boards, or when finished with metal-work corners,
+backs, and clasps.
+
+I quote the following lines, said to have been written by Tasso on a
+case for a book, embroidered for him by Leonora d'Este:--
+
+    "Questo prezioso dono,
+    Ch' ornar coll' ago ad Eleanora piacque,
+    Lo vidde Aracne, e tacque.
+    Or se la mano, che la piaga fe al core,
+    Si bello fe d' amore il dolce laberinto,
+    Come uscirne potro, se non estinto?"
+
+In the catalogue of Charles V.'s library, the materials used for
+bindings are thus named: Soie veluyau, satin damas, taffetas, camelot,
+cendal, and drap d'or; and many were embroidered.
+
+Tact, discretion, and knowledge are required when we undertake to
+adorn the home to be lived in; and while employing the art of
+embroidery to embellish it, we must never forget that harmony, and the
+absence of anything startling, tends to the grandiose as well as the
+comfortable. Bright bits of colouring should be reserved for pictorial
+art, or for small objects, such as cushions and stools. If for the
+general tint blue be chosen, let it be either pure pale colour, like
+the aether, or a soft one, pale or dark, such as indigo; but the
+startling aniline blues should be avoided as being offensive to the
+nerves of the eye. If red be the foundation colour, let it be Venetian
+red, part scarlet, part crimson; or pure crimson (Tyrian purple), or
+pure scarlet (cochineal). Never employ scarlet with a yellow tinge; it
+may not affect yourself, but it is blinding to many eyes. Avoid
+brickdust, which is simply a dirty mixture of earthy colours. Of green
+there are few shades that are not beautiful, soothing, and more or
+less fitted for a background to needlework. Olive-green, sea-green,
+pea-green, emerald-green, and sage-green,--Nature teaches us how
+these harmonize together and with all other colours. Only arsenical
+green is impracticable and repulsive. Yellow, pale as a primrose,
+glowing as gold, or tender as butter, is always beautiful; but one
+tint we would exclude from our list, called "buff," which never can
+assimilate with any other colour, and is often the refuge of the
+weak-minded man that cannot face the responsibility of choosing an
+atmosphere in which he will have to spend many hours of his existence,
+when the walls, the ceiling, and the hangings will inevitably obtain a
+subtle, but real influence on his nerves; which, in the case of buff,
+will be that of a yellow fog, while pale primrose will have the effect
+of early sunrise, and pure gold that of sunset.
+
+A rule to be respected is that decoration should be reposing instead
+of exciting. The unexpected, which is an element in the enjoyment of
+what is new, should be such as to become the more agreeable the longer
+we are accustomed to it. Mr. Morris's golden rule is this: "Have
+nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful or believe to
+be beautiful."[471] In decorative art, and therefore in embroidery,
+the first object to consider is beauty--beauty in conception,
+proportion, drawing, and colour. I would not have it thought that I am
+placing our secondary art too high, and giving it too much importance,
+when I apply to it the first essential rules of art; but one of these
+furnishes my excuse. It is that "the simplest and smallest creation
+should be as faultless as the greatest and grandest." Now beauty
+cannot be obtained, even in little works, without proportion in size,
+harmony and balance in colour, and correctness in form, and these
+require the careful study of first principles.
+
+Proportion in size is most important, both as regards ourselves and
+our surroundings--objectively and subjectively. When our masters, the
+Greeks, wished to express force and majesty, they sculptured their
+gods of unearthly size, larger than their heroes, who yet exceeded in
+stature their human models. The statue of the god placed in the temple
+was the largest object seen, and the delicacy and refinement of the
+details in dress, throne, and base only enhanced the effect of
+majestic proportion.
+
+In the temple men were to be reminded of their own nothingness. In the
+gymnasium, and on the racecourse, and at the public games, the
+surrounding pictures and statues were all intended to excite ambition
+by showing men the heroic size to be attained by the awards of fame.
+But at home, in the house, man is already supreme, and needs no
+incentive to assert himself, and no tall standard by which he may be
+measured. The Lares and Penates themselves were very small objects to
+look at, whatever may have been the thoughts they suggested. Nothing
+is so alarming or unpleasant as gigantic figures worked in tapestry or
+embroidery.
+
+And if even the guardian gods of the house were kept in due subjection
+as to size, why not all decorations, and especially those representing
+the flowers of the field? Certainly in worked decorations flowers
+should be no larger than in nature--perhaps on the whole they are best
+rather smaller. Botanical monstrosities on the wall dwarf the flowers
+in a bow-pot near them, and nature has her own lovely proportions,
+which should be studied and respected. These remarks, of course, apply
+exclusively to domestic decoration, which is the special object of our
+art, and for the guidance of which the suggestions contained in this
+chapter are intended.
+
+I would strongly advocate the return to the old system for the
+production of large embroideries. If ladies would design, or have
+designed for them, curtains or tapestries, and let the work-frame be
+the permanent occupier of the morning sitting-room, they might at
+least commence works that members of the family or friends might
+continue and complete at their leisure; and should they at any time
+hang fire, a needlewoman or clever professional worker might be called
+in to help to finish it. Thus ladies might assist the art of
+needlework by their own original ideas, and give individual beauty to
+their homes, and an impetus to the occupation which helps to support
+so many of our struggling sisters. The frame or metier is always a
+pretty object in the drawing-room or boudoir. The French understand
+this well; and make it one of their most useful "properties" in their
+scenic representations of refined home life.
+
+I will conclude this chapter with two quotations. The first is part of
+Sir Digby Wyatt's advice in a Cambridge Lecture. "You can never hope
+(he says) to have the means of supplying yourself with what is
+beautiful unless you take pains to add to the production of that
+beauty. The colour which the decorative painter" (and the embroiderer
+also) "may cast around you is neither more nor less than an atmosphere
+in which your eye will be either strengthened or debilitated. If you
+accustom your eye only or mainly to contemplate what is satisfactory
+in colour and form to the highest tastes, it will gradually become
+allured to such delicacy of organization as to reject unintentionally
+all that is repugnant to perfect taste."
+
+Mr. Morris, in a lecture to the "Birmingham Society of Arts and School
+of Design," says of ugly furnishings: "Herein the rich people have
+defrauded themselves as well as the poor. You will see a refined and
+highly educated man nowadays, who has been to Italy and Egypt and
+where not, who can talk learnedly enough (and fantastically enough
+sometimes) about art and literature of past days, sitting down without
+signs of discomfort in a house that, with all its surroundings, is
+just brutally vulgar and hideous. All his education has done for him
+no more than that."
+
+"You cannot civilize man unless you give him a share in art." But the
+man must be civilized by education to accept that share of art that
+his life offers to him. It must be admitted that though a man may be
+educated enough to enable him to theorize, he may yet be too poor to
+furnish with taste. If he is able to act up to his theories, and to
+surround himself with what is refined, and fail to do so, and is
+contented not to stir in this matter, he is not truly educated.
+
+"Now that which breeds art is art. Any piece of work that is well done
+is so much help to the cause." "The cause is the Democracy of Art, the
+ennobling of daily and common work."
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [461] Odyssey, xxiii., l. 190.
+
+    [462] Layard's "Monuments," 1st series, pl. 77; see
+    "Histoire de l'Art," ii., Perrot and Chipiez.
+
+    [463] A bed may be absolutely without any hangings or
+    tester, and yet carry embroidery, as in the curious
+    funeral couch of a sepulchral monument in painted
+    terra-cotta in the Campana Museum of the Louvre. Here
+    the mattress is worked to resemble ticking, striped, and
+    the cushions have embroidered ends; and are made in the
+    form of bolsters. There is a similar sepulchral monument
+    in the British Museum. Both of them were found at
+    Cervetri, and are quaint examples of early Etruscan art.
+    See Dennis' "Etruria," 2nd ed., p. 227.
+
+    [464] The thread embroideries in counted stitches were
+    worked in an endless variety of beautiful designs, of
+    which the collection in Franz and Frida Lipperheide's
+    "Musterbuecher fuer Weibliche Handarbeit" is most
+    interesting and exhaustive; including Italian and German
+    "Lienenstickerei," Berlin, 1883.
+
+    [465] Of the seventeenth century.
+
+    [466] The carpets used by the Romans were called
+    Triclinaria Babylonica, for the use of the triclinium,
+    and Polymata cubicularia, for the cubiculum. These were
+    dyed crimson, scarlet, and purple. See Horace's Satires,
+    ii. 6; also Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman
+    Antiquities," s.v. Tapes., p. 102-106, Triclinium.
+
+    [467] "Marco Polo," p. 92, ed. Yule, speaking of the
+    ladies of Caramania in the thirteenth century, says they
+    produced exquisite needlework on silk stuffs of divers
+    colours, with figures of birds, beasts, trees, and
+    flowers. They worked hangings for the noblemen's use, as
+    well as cushions, pillows, quilts, and all sorts of
+    things.
+
+    [468] Lampridius ("Antonin. Heliogab." cap. xxvi. see
+    Bock, p. 129) says, in the life of Heliogabalus, that
+    table-covers were embroidered for the emperor,
+    representing the dishes which were to be placed upon
+    them at the festal table of this epicure.
+
+    [469] See the screen on the Assyrian bas-relief in the
+    British Museum, placed round the back of the throne on
+    which the king is seated. This is apparently a frame on
+    which hangings are fixed.
+
+    [470] See inventory Of Henry VIII.'s goods, &c., I. Ed.
+    VI. (Bib.) Harl. 1419, quoted by Felix Summerley in his
+    "Handbook of Hampton Court."
+
+    [471] I would add, "except that which is consecrated by
+    time or sentiment."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+DRESS.
+
+    "Whatever clothing she displays,
+    From Tyre or Cos, that clothing praise;
+    If gold show forth the artist's skill,
+    Call her than gold more precious still;
+    Or if she choose a coarse attire,
+    E'en coarseness, worn by her, admire."
+
+             OVID, "Ars Amat." ii. 297, 300 (Yates, p. 180).
+
+
+Having glanced at the decoration of the house, I must now proceed to
+say a few words on Dress. Semper, Labarte, and Sir Digby Wyatt all
+take it for granted that the Art of Dress preceded all other arts.
+
+Every ancient record shows how early decoration of dress by needlework
+began, and how far it had gone; and when we read of festal
+hospitalities and marriage gifts, embroidered garments are invariably
+named. Solomon in all his glory, though he praised the lily, yet shone
+in splendid apparel. The Greeks refined the gold, and painted the
+lily.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 50.
+    Italian Knight dressed for conquest, by Gentile da Fabriano.
+        Academia at Florence.]
+
+As soon as dress became an art, and not merely an acknowledged
+necessity for warmth and decency, I see no reason to deny that the
+same decorative genius that embroidered the garment might at the same
+time have imagined the carving of the chair and the inlaying of the
+sword and bow; but as regards the precedence of the arts, we can only
+guess at what is probable. Beauty in dress is certainly a universal
+instinctive passion. Perhaps the birds (which Mr. Darwin and others
+credit with preening their plumage, conscious that their spots are
+the brightest, and their feathers the glossiest, and that they are
+therefore adored by the hens, and the envy of the shabbier cocks)
+suggested to men the same method for securing the preference of the
+other sex, who in return willingly helped to adorn the idols of their
+hearts and homes. (Plate 50.) This natural state of things still
+prevails in Central Africa, where Schweinfuerth describes a king
+dancing before his 100 wives costumed in the tails of lions and
+peacocks, and crowned with the proboscis of an elephant. It appears,
+however, that, unlike Cleopatra, "custom had staled his infinite
+variety," and the 100 ladies looked on the splendid display with blank
+indifference.
+
+This is only a barbarous illustration of the fact that in the earliest
+civilizations magnificent garments were worn by men to dazzle and awe
+the beholders by the splendour which represented wealth and conquest.
+How glorious a man could appear apparelled to represent majesty and
+dominion, may be learned by studying Canon Rock's book on the
+coronation dresses of the Emperors of Germany--a book great in every
+sense of the word. The portrait of Charles V. robed and crowned is a
+dazzling example of the arts of dress, embroidery, and jeweller's
+work. These garments have for ages been treasured at Vienna,
+Aix-la-Chapelle, and in the Vatican at Rome.
+
+The coronation garments of the Emperors of Russia are said to be
+gorgeously beautiful.
+
+It seems hardly necessary to assert that embroidery has always been
+especially applicable to dress. Each garment, being individualized by
+the design depicted on it, was fitted for individual uses and
+occasions. The conqueror's palmated mantle, the coronation robe, the
+bridal garment, the costume of the peasant for festival days, and the
+officiating vestments of the priests for special services of prayer
+and praise--these were loyally or piously worked; they descended from
+generation to generation as family treasures or as historical
+memorials, and sometimes as holy relics,[472] till they and the call
+for them, were swept away at once by social changes; yet some still
+remain and hold their place. Priestly garments, together with Church
+decorations, never laid aside in the Roman and Greek Churches, are
+being partially revived in our own; and for secular adornment the
+embroiderer is often called upon to work a garland, to enwreathe the
+form of a pretty woman, to lie on her shoulders and encircle her
+waist.
+
+The greatest loss to the art is that men as a rule have ceased to
+individualize themselves, or their position or office by dress,[473]
+and have left entirely to the women the pleasure and duty of making
+themselves as lovely and conspicuous as their circumstances will
+permit. The same linen and broadcloth are cut in the same shapes, of
+which the only merit is that they are said to be comfortable, and
+whose highest aim is to be spotless and unwrinkled; these show the
+altered conditions of the highly civilized man, and woman too, for he
+has long left behind him the idea of dazzling the female eye or heart
+by the attraction of colour. This applies only to European costume at
+home or in the colonies. The East still retains its pleasure in
+gorgeous combinations, in which man enfolds his person, and shows how
+beautiful he can make himself when thus clothed, in accordance with
+the classical axioms, as to how much of the human form should be
+revealed, and how much concealed.
+
+The principle on which the ancients embroidered their garments was
+like that of the Indians, the large surfaces plain, or covered with
+quiet diapers or spots, the rich ornaments being reserved for the
+borders, the girdles and the scarves. Their garments hung loose from
+the shoulders or girdle; whether long or short they clung to the
+figure or fluttered in the wind. The long flowing robes to the feet
+veiled the form completely, and were only thrown off for the battle or
+the chase, or in the struggles for victory in the races and games.
+Dress, in the supreme reign of beauty, was intended to flow around, or
+to conceal, but never to _disguise_, the human frame it enclosed.
+
+Homer thus describes Juno's toilet before calling on Jupiter:--
+
+    "Around her next a heavenly mantle flow'd,
+    That rich with Pallas' labour'd colours glow'd;
+    Large clasps of gold the foldings gather'd round;
+    A golden zone her swelling bosom bound."
+
+                                         Iliad, xiv. v. 207.
+
+The Greeks certainly wore delicate and tasteful embroidery on their
+garments, frequently finished with splendid borders, while the large
+space between was dotted with stars or some simple pattern. We learn
+this from the paintings on Greek fictile vases. In the British Museum
+there is a little bronze statuette of Minerva (with twinkling diamond
+eyes). She has a broad band of embroidered silver foliage from her
+throat to her feet.
+
+As the beauty of Greek forms acted and reacted on the beauty of their
+"Art of Dress," so we may be certain that all deformity of dress has
+been produced by deformity of race in mind or body, and that climate
+is an important factor in both. The cold of the farthest north has
+produced people short, fat, and hairy; which natural gifts have been
+supplemented by their warm clothes or coverings, in the same way that
+a "cosy" covers a teapot. Flowing garments there would be utterly out
+of place, petticoats are unknown, and the Lapp hangs out nothing that
+can be the vehicle for carrying an icicle. Their dresses, or cases,
+are planned to keep out the cold, and to place another atmosphere
+between the heart of the breathing mass, and the cruel, cutting, outer
+wind. Hence, the materials used are not only woven hair, but the furry
+skins themselves. In the south, under the sunshine, dress is for the
+greater part of the year only needed for decency and beauty. The
+flowing and delicate cottons and silks and fine woollens, are shaped
+to cover and adorn the beautiful forms, which for entire isolation
+take refuge in the never-failing mantle. The mantle was the great
+opportunity for the embroiderer's craft. Alkisthenes, the Sybarite,
+had a garment of such magnificence that when it was exhibited in the
+Temple of Juno at Lacinium, where all Italy was congregated, it
+attracted such universal admiration that it was sold to the
+Carthaginians by Dionysius the Elder for 120 talents. The ground was
+purple, wrought all over with animals, except the centre, where were
+seen Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Minerva, Venus, and Themis. On one border
+was the figure of Alkisthenes himself, on the other was depicted the
+emblematic figure of his native city, Sybaris. The size of the
+garment was Homeric--it was fifteen cubits, or twenty-two feet in
+breadth.[474]
+
+That the ladies of Greece in the fourth century carried down the
+historical and Homeric traditions of the embroidery frame, and made it
+part of their daily lives, while the Persian women of rank left such
+work to their slaves, is evident from the pretty legend told of
+Alexander the Great, who desiring to beguile the weariness of his
+prisoners, the wife and family of Darius, sent them some of his
+garments to embroider. When it was reported to him that these
+princesses were much mortified, believing it was a suggestion of their
+fallen fortunes, Alexander hastened to reassure them--saying that his
+own mother and sisters occupied themselves in embroidering dresses.
+
+The Persians and Babylonians seem to have preferred subjects for their
+embroidered dresses somewhat in the style of the mantle of
+Alkisthenes, which was probably Oriental, and suggests the Babylonian
+mantle in Jericho, "which tempted Achan to sin." The Egyptian frescoes
+on the other hand, sometimes give us women and goddesses dressed in
+small flowery patterns that remind one of Indian chintzes. These were
+probably woven, painted, and embroidered, and filled in with threads
+of gold. The Romans varied their fashions, but they preferred for a
+time striped borders on their garments,[475] and called them
+"molores," "dilores," "trilores," up to seven. The Greeks but seldom
+departed from the rule of plain or quietly patterned surfaces with
+rich borders in their delineations of dress, though there are examples
+of large designs covering the whole garment.
+
+The embroidered dresses of early Christian times are to be judged of
+by mosaics and frescoes--mostly Italian. Those of the dark ages were
+till lately only names and guesses. But a hiatus in our knowledge has
+been filled up lately by the store of entombed textiles discovered in
+the Fayoum in Egypt, and now at Vienna, in Herr Graf'schen's
+Collection. Here we have a variety of shapes, designs, and stitches,
+and every kind of subject, sacred and profane, Christian and Pagan,
+and the missing links between Indian and Byzantine fabrics are
+revealed. They cover nearly 400 years, from the third to the seventh
+century, and many of them may be looked upon as apart from any
+ecclesiastical or even Christian suggestions. I have spoken of them in
+the chapter on Woollen Materials.[476]
+
+After the seventh century, we again come into the dawning light of
+history--and find here and there an illustrative fragment, nearly
+always ecclesiastical, taken from the graves of priests and monarchs.
+Charlemagne's mantle and robe embroidered with elephants and with
+bees, preserved at Aix-la-Chapelle--his dalmatic in the Vatican--the
+Durham embroideries, are rare and precious examples of that early
+period.
+
+Semper describes the difference between "the covering" and the
+"binding." This seems to be little considered in modern costume, but
+it is so essential that I would impress it on my readers. He says that
+"the covering seeks to isolate, to enclose, to shelter, to spread
+around, over a certain space, and is a collective unit," whereas
+binding implies ligature, and represents a "united plurality,"--for
+example, a bundle of sticks, the _fasces_ of the lictors, &c. "Binding
+is linear, in dress it is either horizontal or spiral." What can the
+united plurality be that justifies the binding often bestowed on the
+figure in fashionable costumes? more fitted for binding together the
+bones of the dead, than for permitting the agility of the muscles of
+the living. Semper continues,--"Anything that goes against this
+important axiom is wrong."[477]
+
+I think we must all agree that the objects of dress are decency,
+isolation, warmth, grace, and beauty. As long as fashion takes the
+place of taste, and extravagant _chic_ supersedes grace and beauty, we
+must not hope that fine designs to individualize dress will be called
+for. The French machine-made embroideries are so beautiful, and
+comparatively cheap, that we cannot compete with them. The best
+artists design them, and the only fault to be found is this, that as
+they are made by thousands of yards, and can only be varied by
+interchange of colours, they become common the day they are produced.
+It has been said that "fashion is made for a class, but taste for
+mankind."[478] Fashion is the enemy of taste, though she makes use of
+her services. The gown, of which the fashion is in every sense
+imported from France, will probably never again be the vehicle for
+home embroideries. But there are other articles of personal adornment
+which will always be available for the fancies of decorative
+taste--the fan, the purse or satchel, the apron, the fichu, the point
+of the shoe, and the muff--all these are objects on which thought and
+ingenuity may well be expended, and which will remain as records of
+personal feeling when the workers and givers of such graceful
+mementoes are far away. Carriage-rugs and foot-muffs, and embroidered
+letter-cases, and book-covers, must be placed somewhere between
+furniture and personal ornament. In all these the "_imprevu_," or
+"unexpected," is what is valuable, including all that is original and
+quaint.
+
+Embroidery will, however, probably continue occasionally to be
+employed in the adornment of dress--and will leave of each phase and
+period of art some fine examples on which the archaeologist of the
+future may pause and reason.
+
+There are in most old houses some specimens of old secular work--few
+earlier than the date of Henry VIII. Gothic dress is very rare, except
+the ecclesiastical. But from the fifteenth century till now, there
+remains enough to exercise our curiosity, our artistic tastes, and our
+power of selection and comparison; and hints for beauty and grace may
+often be found and adapted to the style of our own day.
+
+Planche's "Dictionary of Dress," and Ferrario's "Costumi antichi e
+moderni di tutti i Popoli," are great works on dress and costume, and
+both are splendidly illustrated and worthy of study.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [472] Elsewhere I have spoken of dress being continually
+    offered to the images of the pagan gods in the temples.
+    Herodotus (ii. p. 159) tells us that Pharaoh Necho
+    offered to the Apollo of Branchidae the dress he happened
+    to have worn at both his great successes (the victory of
+    Magdalus and the taking of Cadytis). In the procession
+    of Ptolemy Philadelphus the colossal statue of Bacchus
+    and his nurse Nysa were draped, the former in a shawl,
+    the latter in a tunic variegated with gold. See Yates,
+    "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 369. Old clothes were sent as
+    votive offerings to temples, and inscriptions recording
+    lists of such decorations are still extant. See Appendix
+    1. The Greeks honoured the menders and darners, and
+    called them "healers of clothes." Bluemner, p. 202.
+
+    [473] Men in former days preferred to show by their
+    dress their station and the company they belonged to.
+    Guilds had their ceremonial dresses, and their
+    "liveries," and their cognizances, and considered it an
+    honour to wear them. See Rock, "Church of our Fathers,"
+    ii. p. 115.
+
+    [474] Aristotle, De Mirab. Auscult., xcvi.
+
+    [475] Asterius, Bishop of Amasis, in the fourth century,
+    describes both hangings and dress embroidered with
+    lions, panthers, huntsmen, woods, and rocks; while the
+    Church adopted pictorial representations of Christian
+    subjects. Sidonius alludes to furniture of like
+    character. See Yule, "Marco Polo," p. 68.
+
+    [476] "Katalog der Theodor Graf'schen Fuende in AEgypten,"
+    von Dr. J. Karabacek, Wien, 1883.
+
+    [477] Semper, "Der Stil," p. 28.
+
+    [478] Unfortunately this axiom may be reversed. Taste
+    only belongs to a small class, and mankind follows it,
+    whether good or bad, if it only be the fashion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERY.
+
+    "And now as I turn these volumes over,
+    And see what lies between cover and cover,
+    What treasures of art these pages hold,
+    All ablaze with crimson and gold....
+    Yes, I might almost say to the Lord,
+    Here is a copy of Thy Word
+    Written out with much toil and pain;
+    Take it, O Lord, and let it be
+    As something I have done for Thee!
+    How sweet the air is! how fair the scene!
+    I wish I had as lovely a green
+    To paint my landscapes and my leaves!
+    How the swallows twitter under the eaves!
+    There, now, there is one in her nest;
+    I can just catch a glimpse of her head and breast,
+    And will sketch her thus, in her quiet nook,
+    For the margin of my Gospel-book."
+
+                       LONGFELLOW, "The Golden Legend" ("The
+                               Scriptorium"), p. 176.
+
+    "Upon Thy right hand did stand the queen in a vesture of
+    gold, wrought about with divers colours.... The king's
+    daughter is all glorious within: her clothing is of
+    wrought gold. She shall be brought unto the king in
+    raiment of needlework."--Psalm xlv. 10, 14, 15.
+
+
+If the Bride is the type of the Church, how truly has she been, for
+eighteen centuries, throughout Christendom, adorned with gold, and
+arrayed in raiment of needlework.
+
+By ecclesiastical embroideries, we mean, of course, Christian work for
+Christian churches. The first pictured decorations of our era, in
+early frescoes, mosaics, and illuminated MSS., and the first specimens
+that have come down to us of needlework and textiles, testify by their
+_naivete_ to their date.[479]
+
+The prosperity of the Church's hierarchy was founded on the ruins of
+the Empire, over which Attila had boasted that where his horse trod no
+grass grew; and truly the cultivated art of those splendid days had
+lapsed at once to a poverty of design and barrenness of ideas which
+would soon have dwindled into mere primitive forms, had not a fresh
+Oriental impulse arrived from Syria, Egypt, and Byzantium,--and then
+the arts were born anew.[480] The continuity was broken; yet, being
+devoted to the service of the Church, the new arts were by it moulded
+and fostered. Little lamps twinkled here and there in monastic houses.
+Hangings for the churches, coverings for the altars, robes for the
+priests, occupied the artist and the embroiderer.
+
+The forms, the colours, the uses, were adapting themselves to become
+the symbols of orthodoxies and heresies, and thus became a part of the
+history of the Church. The links are many between them and the history
+of the State; and here ecclesiastical embroideries come in as
+landmarks.
+
+Royal and princely garments, which had served for state occasions,
+were constantly dedicated as votive offerings, and converted into
+vestments for the officiating priest, and so were recorded and
+preserved.[481]
+
+Royal and noble ladies employed their leisure hours in work for the
+adornment of the Minster or the home church or chapel. Gifts of the
+best were exchanged between convents, or forwarded to the holy father
+at Rome, and were often enriched with jewels. The images of the Virgin
+and saints received from wealthy penitents many costly garments,[482]
+besides money and lands.
+
+This dedicatory needlework has preserved to us the records of
+classical, Byzantine, and Arab-Gothic design, which otherwise must
+have been lost.
+
+The Church records and illuminated MSS. give us most trustworthy
+information of the way in which the altars, the priests, and even the
+kings were arrayed; and the catalogues of royal wardrobes are also
+very instructive, as we find how often princely gauds became, as gifts
+to the Church, commemorative of historical events, such as a victory
+or an accession, a marriage or a coronation.
+
+Woltmann and Woermann say that the efforts of the Christians in the
+time of Constantine tended to delay the extinction of classical design
+in Rome. Of the fourth century they give as examples the mosaics of
+"S^ta. Pudenziana," where we can still find antique beauty of
+design. We may also mention the church of "St. Agnese fuori le mura,"
+which once contained the sarcophagi of Constantine and his mother
+Helena, and of which the decorations in the ceilings are entirely
+classical, though the motives had been transferred to Christian
+symbolism.[483]
+
+The total disappearance of Greek art did not occur till the eighth
+century, when the new blood infused from foreign sources began to
+assert itself.[484]
+
+Rome had succeeded to Greece as being the centre of Christian art,
+which assumed the phase commonly called the Romanesque. This was a
+conglomerate of Oriental, Byzantine, and Graeco-Roman, varied in
+different countries. Then there were the Scandinavian, and Runic, and
+Celtic styles drifting from the North; the Lombardic, of Central
+Italy; the Ostro-Gothic, of Ravenna; the Byzantine, of Venice, all
+acting and reacting upon each other.
+
+All these rough and inchoate attempts at the beautiful, prepared the
+world for the acceptance of the Arabic influence, which is said to
+have been imported at the end of the eleventh century by the
+Crusaders, to whose pious enterprise some attribute the whole of the
+splendid Gothic art of the three succeeding centuries. But the marking
+characteristic of the Arabic arch is wanting; the ogee shape is seldom
+to be found in Christian architecture;[485] and the pointed arch so
+naturally results from the intersection of the round arches, that we
+cannot but look upon these causes as co-incident.
+
+I have elsewhere remarked how often in art different causes co-operate
+to form a style. The father and mother are of different nationalities,
+and the result shows the characteristics of its double parentage. The
+learned antiquaries, who draw their arguments mainly from the form of
+the arch, must settle whence and how Gothic art in stone came into
+Europe. It was doubtless the effect or result of more than one cause.
+
+But in as far as it influenced textile art, we have come to the period
+when it must be studied in Sicily, the half-way house and
+resting-place of the Crusaders on their highroad to the Holy Land.
+
+Sicily, which had succeeded to Constantinople as being the great
+manufacturing mart during the Middle Ages, was, in the hands of the
+Moors, the origin and source of all European Gothic textile art. Yet
+even at Palermo and Messina they were controlled by the traditions of
+the schools of Greece, ancient and modern, and by Babylonian, Indian,
+and African forms and symbolisms.
+
+Byzantium furnished many of their designs, which were sometimes of
+very remote date, though pressed into the service of the new style and
+the Church.
+
+These and all the streams of ecclesiastical decoration throughout
+Europe flowed towards Rome, and were re-issued with the fiat and seal
+of the Central Church, which also afterwards presided over the art of
+the Renaissance.[486]
+
+By studying what remains to us of fragments and records we know all
+the materials which clothed the primitive and mediaeval Church, and we
+find that there was but little originality in textile decoration or in
+the forms of dress, which either resembled those of the priests in the
+Jewish synagogue or those of the heathen temples; and were adapted
+from traditional patterns.
+
+The constant repetition of the cross and the signs of the Passion,
+with the emblems of saints and martyrs, were interwoven with the
+ancient classical forms, mixed up with the old symbolisms partially
+altered to suit their new service of Christian art. Of course such
+changes were inevitable, while the old motives were being translated
+to the new uses.
+
+The corselet of Amasis (the Egyptian corselet, p. 20, _ante_) closely
+resembles the Jewish ephod, which probably was borrowed from
+Egypt.[487]
+
+In Rock's "Church of Our Fathers," vol. i. p. 409, we find mention of
+the consular trabea, profusely worked in gold, as being the origin of
+the cope.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 51.
+    St. Mark. Anglo-Saxon Book of the Four Gospels in the Cathedral
+        Library at York.]
+
+It has been suggested and disputed that the stole was an adaptation of
+the latus clavus; indeed, if we compare the examples given by
+Bock[488] we can hardly doubt that the consular trabea and the latus
+clavus either served as the models for the Christian Bishop's dress,
+or were derived from the same traditional sources. Such is the
+intimate chain of design from century to century, from age to age;
+from Egypt to the Holy Land, and thence to Rome.
+
+Bock gives his authorities for saying that the clavus was sometimes an
+applied border, sometimes a loose stripe hanging down in front, as may
+be seen in two consular diptychs given in plate 70. Much has been
+written on this latus clavus, its origin and meaning, and I shall
+return to it in reference to the chrysoclavus pattern, p. 337, _post_,
+and I refer the reader, who may wish to enter more fully into the
+questions raised by conflicting opinions regarding the clavus, to
+Marquardt's "Handbuch Roem. Alterthuemer," vii. p. 2, pp. 528-533, where
+great learning and ingenuity have been expended, without arriving at
+any satisfactory conclusions.[489]
+
+This keeping to the old lines and outward appearance as much as
+possible was mainly due to a regard for safety during the
+persecutions, and also to the Christian spirit of adoption and
+conversion, rather than that of antagonism, which influenced all their
+early manifestations.
+
+This unchanging character of art was also partly owing to the absolute
+sterility of the ashes of Roman Imperialism.
+
+It is true that through the Dark Ages individual genius occasionally
+flashed and left a mark here and there; but such phenomena are so
+rare, that when they occur we hesitate before we assign them to that
+age.
+
+The Anglo-Saxon art of illumination shows these inspired moments; I
+would point to their drawings in the books in the Bodleian at Oxford,
+and the "Book of the Four Gospels" (of the tenth century) in the
+Minster Library at York, which are original and graceful, and have a
+reflection from the classical traditions. To an artistic eye they are
+beautiful. (Plate 51.)
+
+The conscientious colouring of the Anglo-Saxon MSS. is liturgical. Mr.
+Clapton Rolfe[490] says that the Levitical traditions in the earlier
+system of decoration in the Christian Church had a far stronger hold
+on the popular mind than we are willing now to admit; and that the
+five Levitical colours, gold, blue, purple, red, and white, were
+retained in the Christian ritual. Whenever we come across figures of
+Anglo-Saxon bishops, the liturgical vesture entirely agrees with the
+Biblical description.
+
+Embroideries before the twelfth century generally preserve a
+semi-Roman, semi-Oriental character, which is nearly related to the
+art which is called Lombardic. This differs from what we know of
+Scandinavian and Celtic design through illuminated books,[491] carving
+on stone crosses throughout the north of Europe, Great Britain, and
+Ireland, and the remains we possess of their metal work. I am not
+aware of any ecclesiastical embroideries which show a Celtic
+origin,[492] unless the intertwined patterns on Italian dresses in
+paintings of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries may be supposed
+to be derived from that source. (See p. 91, _ante_.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 25.]
+
+In accounting for the instances of evident Oriental influence on
+Christian art, which came through Byzantium, we must not restrict
+ourselves to searching out the Arabian traditions, but we must
+remember also how much Babylon and Persia, as well as India, had given
+to the Empire of the East, and these influences were in full force at
+the time that Christian art was being organized.
+
+We know, for example, that the great veil of the temple at Jerusalem,
+given by Herod, was Babylonian.
+
+The materials--linen, silk, and woollen--on which ecclesiastical
+embroideries were worked at Rome and Constantinople were accepted all
+over the Christian world. The fabrics were plain, striped, and
+figured; and came from Persia and India, Greece, Alexandria, and
+Egypt. Even Chinese and Thibetian stuffs are often named. Cloths of
+gold and silver also came from the East, as in the days of Attalus.
+All these furnished the grounds on which needlework was lavishly
+spent.
+
+The great veils which divided the pagan and Jewish temples were at
+first adopted in the Christian churches, but they gradually
+disappeared from common use, in spite of occasional survivals and
+revivals during the Dark Ages.
+
+Records exist of the hangings of the ancient basilica of St. Peter at
+Rome, spread between the pillars supporting the baldachino over the
+high altar and those of the choir; and at the Ostro-Gothic imperial
+court of Ravenna, in the fifth century, Maximianus ordered a set of
+similar splendid curtains (tetravela) to be worked for the altar.
+Anastasius Bibliothecarius (ninth century), in his biographies of the
+popes, mentions curtains and embroidered altar-pieces worked in the
+sixth and seventh centuries.[493]
+
+Sergius (A.D. 687) ordered four white and four scarlet curtains, and
+Pope John (701) hung white ones between the pillars on either side of
+the altar at St. Paul's. St. Zacharias[494] gave similar hangings to
+the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul. Stephen IV. placed immense
+silver curtains at the entrance of the basilica of St. Peter's, and in
+768 gave to it sixty-five curtains of figured Syrian stuffs.[495] The
+same hangings prevailed at intervals in England, France, and Germany,
+till the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when the new Gothic style
+of high, pointed arches altered the decorative customs.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 52.
+    Fragments of Silk to be seen at Coire in Switzerland, also in the
+        South Kensington Museum.]
+
+From Anastasius's mode of speaking of ecclesiastical garments, it
+appears that they were named in the treasury catalogues after the
+animals represented on them--"the peacock garment," "the elephant
+casula," "the lion cope." Evidently these were Oriental gold brocades,
+Indian or Persian, or else reproductions of their designs, and from
+Auberville's and Bock's books of engravings we can judge how they
+repeated and varied their motives. One woven subject, which evidently
+started its textile career as one of the labours of Hercules, was
+gradually transferred to Samson, or to Daniel in the lions' den.
+(Plate 4, Auberville's "L'Ornement des Tissus.") (Plate 52.)[496]
+
+However, in Russia and throughout the Greek Church the ancient
+Byzantine use of hangings still remains in force.
+
+The art of embroidery has always given its best efforts to these
+church draperies.
+
+Rome was so laden with splendid embroideries by her eastern conquests,
+that probably the Christian decorators would have availed themselves
+of some of the accumulated stores; but we have no record of such
+adaptations, unless the splendid curtains and the silver hangings of
+Pope Stephen IV. were taken out of some imperial treasure-house.
+
+The contrast between early ecclesiastical art and that which
+immediately preceded it in the palaces of the Caesars (at Rome, Tivoli,
+and wherever we find their ruined glories) is most remarkable.
+
+The lovely and the lively had been suddenly abandoned for the heavy
+earnest solemnity and inartistic drawing of the frescoes of the
+underground church of St. Clemente in Rome, and that of the early
+Christian mosaics.
+
+It is as if the arts which had lent, nay, given themselves to the
+glorification of idols, had suddenly died out, leaving behind them
+neither an artist, nor a skilled artisan, scarcely a tradition.
+
+The new Christian ideas had to be painfully recorded on sacred
+buildings and their furnishings for more than a thousand years; with
+all the patient acquiescence of untaught ignorance, and the struggling
+uncertainty of genius pursuing a distant glimmering light, apparently
+unconscious of all that had preceded it in Egyptian and classic art.
+The great political and religious revolutions in Europe had crushed
+and buried the arts under the ruins of the Empire over which Time
+himself seemed to have broken his hour-glass, so little was there to
+show any memory of their past, or hope for their future. The alternate
+progress and destruction of the arts in European civilization strike
+the student, in vivid contrast with the immutability of those of the
+East, especially in India and China, where the old forms were still
+being maintained by the swaddling bands of codified custom[497] that
+had restricted their development, but prolonged their existence, and
+so they had survived, while Greece conquered and robbed the East and
+Egypt, and Rome crushed Greece and was in her turn despoiled by the
+Goths and Huns.[498]
+
+Christian art had to begin at the very beginning, and collect its own
+traditions, and organize its own forms. These gradually accumulated,
+availing themselves of accepted symbols, and adding to them hidden
+meanings. The Reformation checked this development in the north of
+Europe, but after 300 years we are now witnessing its revival, which
+is not merely owing to a religious impulse, but also to the
+archaeological tendency of our day and to the historical interest we
+attach to the ceremonials of the East.
+
+As the Reformation in Germany was less sweeping and iconoclastic than
+our own, we find there many more remains of ecclesiastical art
+collected in the churches to which they have always belonged, or in
+museums into which they have drifted;[499] and the Germans have thus
+been enabled to do more than even the French, in training the
+different schools of work throughout the Continent.
+
+They have proved the Oriental character of the fabrics employed
+through the Dark and Middle Ages, i.e. for about 1400 years, whether
+they were Syrian, Indo-Chinese, Indian, Alexandrian, Greek, Sicilian,
+or Spanish, or whether they had come from Asia by the north or the
+south of Europe. The same traditional forms governed them all. But an
+adept is able generally to class and name each specimen by the
+texture of the webs, by the way gold or gilt thread is inwoven in
+them, whether the metal is pure or alloyed, round or flat; also by the
+mode of twisting and dyeing the wool, flax, or silk, and its quality
+and colouring matter.
+
+Among the earliest historical church embroiderers the foremost figure
+is that of the Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, claimed in
+Wales and in the Welsh ballad of "The Dream of Maxen Wledig" as being
+a Welsh princess married to the Emperor Constans. She is said to have
+embroidered an image of the Virgin, which Muratori speaks of as
+existing in the Church of Vercelli in the seventeenth century. Bock
+says it is still there, and he quotes an ancient inventory of the
+treasures of Phillip the Good, of Burgundy, which names a "Riche et
+ancienne table d'autel de brodeure que on dit que la premiere
+Emperriez Christienne Fist."[500] The Empress Helena died in the
+fourth century.[501]
+
+Then after a long interval comes "Berthe aux grands pieds" the mother
+of Charlemagne, who in the eighth century was famed for her
+needlework, which is celebrated in a poem by Adhelm in the eighth
+century, quoted by Mrs. Palliser,[502] "a ouvrir si com je vous dirai
+n'avoit meillior ouvriere de Tours jusqu'a Cambrai," and her
+grand-daughter Gisela followed in her footsteps. Nearly contemporary,
+is Aelfled's Durham embroidery,[503] described in the chapter on
+English work.
+
+Christian art before the twelfth century is very often rich, usually
+picturesque, from its fulness of intention; sometimes beautiful, when
+it recalls some echo from the East, or some tradition of Greek
+art;[504] but the embroideries of those centuries are almost always
+quaint; this is invariably the archaic phase of all early art. Born in
+the catacombs of Rome--roused by impulses from the north, by education
+in the south, and everywhere encouraged by the fostering hand of the
+Church, and the patronage of papal and of royal and imperial
+houses,--it evolved its forms, and emancipated itself at last from its
+poor and sordid condition; and the Gothic phase of each nation
+attained to its own peculiar growth and characteristics; and among
+them the foremost in the world's estimation was the English school of
+embroidery, to which the next chapter is devoted.
+
+There has been much controversy as to the date of the dalmatic of
+Charlemagne in the Vatican treasury. Like every good early piece of
+Gothic work in Italy, it is allotted to the days of Pope Boniface
+VIII. (thirteenth century). But when we examine this splendid relic we
+cannot doubt that it is of a much earlier time, as there is nothing
+Gothic to be found in it. It is full of the lingering traces of Greek
+art (not Byzantine). It reminds us most of the mosaics of Santa
+Pudenziana, which are always quoted to prove that Greek art still
+survived in Rome in the eighth century.[505] The dalmatic has been
+much restored, but, I believe, most carefully kept to the old lines.
+It is worked on a thick, dark-blue, or purple, satiny silk, which had
+entirely fallen into little stripes, but has been skilfully mended,
+and the embroidery has never been transferred. On the front is our
+Lord in glory, saints below, and angels above, with a border of
+children playing, which is truly Greek. The motive of this is the "Ibi
+et Ubi." On the back is the Transfiguration, and on the humerals are
+the sacraments of bread and wine. The whole, as art, is beautiful; and
+it is historically most interesting. Lord Lindsay tells us that in the
+dalmatic of Charlemagne, (called that of Leo III.) Cola di Rienzi
+robed himself over his armour, and ascended to the Palace of the Popes
+after the manner of the Caesars, with sounding trumpets before him, and
+followed by his horsemen--his crown on his head and his truncheon in
+his hand--"Terribile e fantastico."[506]
+
+This dalmatic must be ranked first and highest among ecclesiastical
+embroideries. (Plates 53, 54, 55.)
+
+Some of the details are curious. The whole of the blue satin ground is
+worked with crosses "parseme." Parts of the design are so adorned with
+larger and smaller Greek crosses--and others with the starry cross. On
+the shoulder is once embroidered the mystic swastika.[507]
+
+  [Illustration: Charlemagne's Dalmatic
+    The Vatican, Rome]
+
+  [Illustration: Charlemagne's Dalmatic
+    The Vatican, Rome]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 55.
+    Details of Charlemagne's Dalmatic. Vatican Treasury.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 56.
+    Cope called "of St. Silvester." Treasury of St. John Lateran, Rome.
+        English Embroidery, thirteenth century.]
+
+Rock says, "Those who have seen, in the sacristy of St. Peter's at
+Rome, that beautiful light-blue dalmatic said to have been worn by
+Charlemagne when he sang the gospel at High Mass, at the altar vested
+as a deacon, the day he was crowned Emperor in that church by Pope
+Leo III., will remember how plentifully it is sprinkled with crosses
+between its exquisite embroideries, so as to make the vestment a real
+'stauracin.'"[508]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 57.
+    Portion of the Cope at St. John Lateran, showing its condition.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pluvial, English, XIII. Century
+    Museum at Bologna]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 59.
+    The Daroca Cope. Museum at Madrid. Opus Anglicanum, fourteenth
+        century.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 60.
+    Portion of the Cope of Boniface VIII., twelfth century. From
+        Anagni. Now in the Vatican Collection.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 61.
+    Altar Frontal from Anagni, Italy.]
+
+Signor Galletti, Professor of Embroidery to the Pope, says it is
+undoubtedly of the eighth century. It has been suggested that the
+design is of the date of the Exarchate. It is, however, something of
+infinitely finer style; it is noble, simple Greek.
+
+Charlemagne's dalmatic is embroidered mostly in gold--the draperies in
+basket-work and laid stitches; the faces in white silk split-stitch,
+flat, with finely-drawn outlines in black silk. The hair, the shadowy
+part of the draperies, and the clouds are worked in fine gold and
+silver thread with dark outlines. The hands, feet, and draperies have
+a fine bas-relief effect. (Plate 53, 54, 55).
+
+The "pluvial of St. Silvester," in the church of St. John Lateran at
+Rome, is probably, from its Gothic style, of the time of Boniface
+VIII. (thirteenth century).[509] It never served St. Silvester, except
+as being perhaps dedicated to him. On seeing it, one is convinced that
+it is English. It has one peculiarity of English Gothic design in the
+canopies being supported by twisted pillars of vine-stems, in this
+case intersected by green shoots, and carrying leaves. The angels, the
+two cherubim clothed in peacocks' feathers, the fine split-stitch, the
+gold grounding, and the drawing are also distinctly English.
+
+I give an outline of the pluvial from photographs,[510] and a finished
+woodcut of the centre to show the style and condition of the work. The
+design is most beautiful, and we can only regret the loss of the
+border, which has been entirely cut off. This shows how elaborate is
+the design, yet how artistically arranged as a whole composition.
+(Plate 56, 57.)
+
+It is difficult to settle the precedence between this splendid piece
+of church decoration and the rival pluvial of Bologna in the Museo
+Civico, said to have come from the church of San Giacomo. It resembles
+in style and execution that of St. Silvester, but its architectural
+arrangement contains six circles of subjects, worked like the other in
+silk and gold, with gold groundings; and both are embroidered on
+linen. On careful examination of this splendid work of art, I have
+come to the conclusion that it is English. (Plate 58.)
+
+The Daroca cope (lately belonging to the Archaeological Museum at
+Madrid) is undoubtedly English. We can claim it by its peculiar
+shrine-work, and the twined columns on the orphreys; by the cherubim,
+by the peacock-feathered angels, and by the form of the panels
+enclosing the different subjects, from the "Life of Our Lord." (Plate
+59.)
+
+The cope of Boniface VIII. in the Vatican came from the church of his
+native place, Anagni (plate 60), where are still very curious old
+embroideries (see Hon. and Rev. I. Clifford's list of embroideries in
+Appendix 5). Some appear extremely ancient, but there is no sign by
+which they may be dated. Some are probably of the thirteenth century,
+and are very coarse Italian work, though finely designed (plate 61).
+There are doubtless many interesting specimens still to be found in
+the sacristies of Italian churches. But they have generally been
+transferred to museums.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 62.
+    1. From Tomb in Worcester Cathedral, of Bishop Walter de Cantilupe,
+        consecrated 1236.
+    2. Embroidered Cope at Aix in Switzerland.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 63.
+    Mitre of Thomas a Becket at Sens, showing the Scandinavian Fylfot
+        Cross (thirteenth century).
+    Jewelled Cross on Rose-coloured Cope at Rheims (twelfth century).]
+
+In the tomb of Walter de Cantilupe (eighteenth century) at Worcester,
+were found the remains of a dress which is decidedly of an earlier
+date--evidently of Oriental material, but Anglo-Saxon work--so exactly
+resembling in style that at Aix given by Bock,[511] that we
+can hardly doubt that they proceeded from the same workshop, or at
+least are of coeval design. Both are worked with a dark red outline on
+a red silk ground. The faces and hands are in white silk--all the rest
+between the outlines is gold thread, flat stitch. Bock places its date
+as antecedent to the tenth century, and indeed there is no reason to
+doubt that this is correct, though the Worcester fragment was taken
+out of a tomb of two centuries later. As these garments were stored in
+the church treasuries; and as antiquity (without an historical
+interest) was then of no value, these old clothes, holy by their use
+and office, yet by their shabbiness unfit for public show, may have
+been reverently disposed of in clothing the bodies of departed
+priests, who probably had worn those very vestments, when officiating
+at the altar near which they were laid to rest. When the date of the
+wearer of the garment is ascertained, the dress cannot be of a later
+period, but it may have belonged to a much earlier one. The
+architectural part of these two embroideries, i.e. the canopy work,
+resembles that of the Bayeux tapestry. Both appear to be English.
+(Plate 62.)
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 64.
+    From Tomb of Bishop William of Blois, died 1236. Worcester
+        Cathedral Library.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 65.
+    A portion of the Mantle embroidered by Gisela for her husband, St.
+        Stephen of Hungary. From Bock's "Kleinodien."]
+
+In the eleventh century, and for some part of the twelfth, needlework
+design in England, France, and Germany first assumed a phase, which
+may be called the metal-work style. It is to be found on the robes and
+mitres of St. Thomas of Canterbury (Thomas a Becket) at Sens[512]--on
+the famous rose-red cope of satin embroidered with gold and pearls at
+Rheims (which we should incline to believe is English)[513] (plate
+63). The fragment of the cope of William of Blois, found in his tomb,
+is in this style. (He died in 1236.) The fragments of this curious
+garment, worked in gold on a purple silk material, evidently Oriental,
+are also preserved under glass in the Cathedral Library at Worcester
+(plate 64).
+
+Amongst the finest instances of ecclesiastical needlework, and,
+indeed, we may say, of ecclesiastical art of the twelfth century, is
+the coronation robe of St. Stephen of Hungary, decorated by his queen,
+Gisela,[514] which is preserved in the Imperial Treasury at Ofen
+(plate 65).
+
+Of this authentic historical work we have the whole story. The
+original design,[515] drawn on linen, carefully coloured, is to be
+seen at the Benedictine convent abbey of Martinsburg, near Raab in
+Hungary. The care with which the work was carried out shows the value
+then placed on such undertakings considered as art, and it has been
+justified by its survival of 800 years; time having spared it owing to
+its perfect materials and manipulation, till it received cruel
+injuries by being carried off and thrown into the bog of Orsava during
+the revolution under Kossuth. It was, however, recovered and restored,
+and was worn by the present emperor at the splendid and picturesque
+ceremonial of his coronation at Pesth. The design reminds us of the
+mosaics in the apse of Santa Maria Maggiore and other churches at
+Rome, and it is extremely beautiful. It consists of an arrangement of
+medallions and inscriptions, with "metal-work" ornaments in bands
+alternated with smaller medallions. Yet the figures are not so finely
+drawn as those of the Durham relics of the beginning of the tenth
+century. The drawing of the figures of the Gisela mantle resembles
+those on the garments of Walter de Cantilupe (plate 62), which, from
+their design and stitches, seem to be of this period. The
+architectural parts are very like in design to those of the Bayeux
+tapestry, though they are infinitely better, and they have Lombardic
+characteristics.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 66.
+    Portion of the Coronation Mantle of Henry II. of Germany,
+        embroidered by the Empress Kunigunda. From Bock's
+        "Kleinodien."]
+
+It appears that Queen Gisela had personally embroidered this
+many-figured, richly-embroidered representation of the "Ibi et
+Ubi"--The Saviour in His glory as Victor over death and hell, seated
+on the bow of heaven, surrounded by choirs of angels and saints, and
+prophets of the Old Testament; below on thrones, are the twelve
+Apostles. The figures are worked in Oriental gold thread on Byzantine
+crimson silk.
+
+In contrast to the Ubi, the heavenly hereafter, the queen, in the
+lowest broad hem (border) has represented the Present, the then "Ibi,"
+by the leaders of the Hungarian magnates and the half-figures of the
+royal givers in large gold-embroidered medallions.
+
+The next finest specimen of eleventh century needlework was the gift
+of Henry II., Emperor of Germany, and his wife Kunigunda, to the
+cathedral of Bamberg, where it still exists[516] (plate 66).
+
+This, again, consists of medallions great and small, of which the
+borders, gracefully intertwined, form a large composition[517]
+covering the whole surface of the imperial pallium it once adorned.
+But in the fifteenth century it was transferred from its original
+purple silk ground to one of dark-blue damask, and altered to the form
+of a chasuble, as we see it now. The general design resembles that of
+the mantle of Gisela.
+
+Bock calls the style of these works Romanesque; and he thinks that
+they show a Saracenic influence. They appear, however, as I said
+before, to be rather Lombardic than anything else. The reader is
+referred to Dr. Bock's preface for further lists of Continental works
+and workers.
+
+Abbe Martin considers that in the thirteenth century the opening out
+of Gothic art was extended to the laity, and was really the sign of a
+great social revolution. Gothic art had till then only served the
+Church, and had been by circumstances closed to the people, who were
+yet unfitted, by their want of education, for artistic life.[518]
+
+Art was till then almost exclusively produced by the monastic orders,
+into which all talent had drifted. But about this time it fell into
+the hands of architects and other originators of design, who presently
+banded themselves together into brotherhoods and guilds.[519]
+
+Embroidery till the thirteenth century had been entirely in the hands
+of cloistered women, and the ladies who practised it learned their
+craft with the rest of their education in convents, and their work was
+simply ecclesiastical and dedicatory. At that period social burgher
+life in the towns had first begun to develope its love of luxury,[520]
+and to follow the fashions of other countries, and the changes of
+forms in dress and furnishing which came from foreign parts, though
+frequently checked by sumptuary laws. This social movement preceded
+everywhere political and religious revolutions. Embroidery then became
+customary in lay dress, and lost its religious character, or rather
+its religious monopoly.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 67.
+    The Syon Cope, South Kensington Museum (thirteenth century).]
+
+We find that about this time throughout the Church the forms of
+ecclesiastical garments were considerably modified, and made more
+comfortable for the officiating priest; and the old traditional trabea
+was cut down to the mediaeval chasuble.
+
+English needlework of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries had its own
+peculiar style of metal-work pattern, resembling the hinges and
+spreading central ornament branching across the wood-work on our
+church doors.[521]
+
+When we meet with this kind of design on foreign church vestments, we
+feel inclined always to claim the merit of them for the English
+school. The foreign metal-work patterns are much lighter and more
+geometrical, and have not the firmness and at the same time the fancy
+that we find in our own of the twelfth century; and they remind us
+rather of the goldsmiths' than of the blacksmiths' craft. The English
+embroidery of this style has the character of "applique," i.e. one
+material laid upon another and fastened down.
+
+There are differences of opinion as to the accepted characteristics of
+the "opus Anglicanum," which in the twelfth century began to be
+celebrated.[522] Some say that it was principally remarkable for its
+admixture of jewellers' work in the borders, or the imitation of it in
+gold thread. Some give the attempt to reproduce the effect of
+bas-reliefs in the embroidered groups of figures; others, again, point
+out the peculiarities of the "laid stitches" in gold, which so
+permeated the linen grounding, as to give the look of a material woven
+with gold thread. We may fairly say that _all_ these, which were then
+ingenious novelties, combined to give this opus Anglicanum its value,
+as well for its beauty as for its ingenuity.[523]
+
+The Syon cope, (now one of the treasures of art in the Kensington
+Museum), is a perfect example of this work; and is also, according to
+Bock, "one of the most beautiful among the liturgical vestments of the
+olden period anywhere to be found in Christendom." Dr. Rock's study of
+this piece of thirteenth century work in his "Catalogue of the
+Embroideries in the South Kensington Museum" is most interesting, as
+exemplifying all the characteristics of the Gothic art of the period,
+in its historical, aesthetic, heraldic, liturgical, emblematical, and
+textile aspects. I have ventured to transcribe the whole of this
+notice in the Appendix.[524] I will only add here that the one error
+into which I think he has fallen, is in naming the stitches. The
+"diapers" are not opus plumarium, but opus pulvinarium, of the class
+of "laid stitches." This was ascertained by examining the back of the
+material under the ancient lining by a most competent judge[525] in my
+presence, and so a long-disputed point is set at rest (plate 67).
+
+Ciampini says that in the twelfth century, the arts went hand in hand,
+each lending something to the design of the others. This, however,
+has always been the case.[526] (Whether they greatly profited by such
+exchanges is another question.) I cannot but agree with Semper's
+often-reiterated theory, that textile art was a leading influence and
+constant suggestion to _all_ art from the beginning. And the way that
+ecclesiastical decoration was so led in the twelfth century is very
+apparent. In the new art of stained mosaic glass in church windows we
+see the reflex of the flat illuminations and embroideries of that
+period; and while these were being influenced by metal-work, painting
+was being transferred again to textile art, pictures being woven as
+well as embroidered,[527] while textiles were seeking to emulate
+reliefs in a forced and unnatural manner, more ingenious than
+artistic.
+
+While England in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was exciting the
+admiration of all European artists by the imitation of bas-reliefs in
+needlework, by the arrangement of the light and shadows in the "lay"
+of the stitches, and by a little help from the pressure of hot irons,
+to accentuate its apparent indentations, a similar inroad into the
+sister art of sculpture, or, perhaps, we should say a similar
+adaptation from the sister art, was going on in Switzerland and
+Germany, especially in Bavaria.
+
+There was a clever and artistic mode of stuffing and raising of the
+important parts of the embroidered design, such as the figures, the
+coats-of-arms, or the emblems of the Passion, &c., in sacred subjects
+in imitation of high-relief. There are some beautiful specimens that
+have been evidently designed in the School of Cranach. I will only
+mention the orphrey, of which the subject is the "Tree of Jesse,"
+exhibited at Zurich, 1883, the chasuble at Coire in the Grisons, and
+the little triptych in the museum of the Wasser-Kirche in Zurich. This
+last is exquisitely pretty. The finest, however, is the altar-piece
+belonging to Prince Borghese at Rome, which is certainly German in its
+design.[528]
+
+Beautiful as these few examples are, they yet show the mistake of
+mixing different forms of art. The designs are reduced to a compromise
+between painting, sculpture, and needlework, which excites interest
+and perhaps amusement rather than admiration.
+
+Glass painting, of which we have no notice till the tenth century,
+shares many of the rules which hitherto had applied only to
+embroideries. It was intended to give colour and interest to those
+parts of a building which otherwise were cold and lifeless. _Flatness_
+in the composition, and the avoidance of pictorial effects (especially
+any perspectives) show that it was intended for conventional
+decoration, rather than as a rival to mural painting. There is no
+doubt that it generally superseded textile hangings, because it
+supplied the want of colour for the large traceried windows just
+coming into architectural design, toning down the crudeness of the
+masses of light, and tinting the walls and pavements on which it was
+cast.
+
+When coloured glass came into general use, embroidered hangings mostly
+disappeared. Whatever may have been the cause, there is no doubt of
+the coincidence.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 68.
+    An embroidered Panel, designed by Pollaiolo, and worked by Paulo
+        da Verona. In the Church of St. Giovanni at Florence (fifteenth
+        century).]
+
+The applied embroideries of the north of Germany were evidently
+inspired by the newly-discovered art of glass-painting, and
+resemble its designs, both in the compositions of figures and heraldic
+subjects. Of this we may remember examples in the Scandinavian
+Exhibition at South Kensington in 1881.[529]
+
+All the most beautiful and picturesque needlework that we possess of
+the true ecclesiastical Gothic type, and which belongs to the perfect
+flowering of the art, is of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
+just before the spirit of the Renaissance crept northward over Europe,
+preceding the Reformation and its iconoclastic effacements. This
+remark especially applies to England.[530] The art of representing
+Scriptural subjects in flat stitches, as medallions accompanied by
+beautiful foliage, and heraldic designs, is illustrated to us by the
+palls belonging to several London companies--and by those belonging to
+churches, especially that of the church at Dunstable, in which court
+ladies, knights, and saints form a most artistic border--the costumes
+being of the date of Henry VII. (see p. 378, _post_).
+
+The perfection of the embroideries of Flanders of that period has
+never been exceeded, and it continues still to produce the most
+splendidly executed compositions in gold and silken needlework, of
+every variety of stitches. The Flemish work and its peculiar mode of
+laying golden grounds with flat-laid thread stitched down in patterns
+was carried into Italy, where great artists did not disdain to design
+for textiles. I give, as an instance, Vasari's account of the
+embroidered set of vestments designed by Antonio Pollaiolo for the
+church of San Giovanni at Florence. These were carried out by Paolo da
+Verona, and took twenty-six years for their completion; and they were
+only one set of vestments, "embroidered by the most subtle master of
+the art, Paolo da Verona, a man most eminent in his calling, and of
+incomparable ingenuity (_ingenio_). The figures are no less admirably
+executed with the needle than drawn by Pollaiolo with the pencil,--and
+thus we are largely indebted to one master for his design, and to the
+other for his patience" (plate 68).
+
+Towards the end of the fifteenth century the Gothic styles were
+replaced by the Renaissance, but the technical part of the art of
+embroidery for the churches lost none of its value. All the talent of
+the artist and the ingenuity of the craft continued to be lavished on
+altar decoration and priestly garments, in Flanders, Spain, France,
+and Italy. But the solemnity of these works was certainly impaired by
+their being emancipated from the traditional ecclesiastical forms and
+their accompanying symbolism, to which the old designers had so
+faithfully adhered. Ecclesiastical decorative art became, so to speak,
+unorthodox.
+
+As a proof of this secular, I might almost say irreverent spirit, I
+quote Bock's accusation against Queen Mary of Hungary, who in her
+embroideries, preserved at Aix-la-Chapelle, is said to have
+represented herself as the Queen of Heaven, surrounded by her adorers
+on their knees.
+
+There is no doubt, however, that needlework aspired in the fourteenth
+and fifteenth centuries to the highest place in art, and was
+enthusiastically cultivated by women of rank and position, of artistic
+taste, who still gave themselves to the productions of beautiful
+decorations, though they no longer confined themselves to
+ecclesiastical motives.
+
+  [Illustration: Spanish Altar Frontal, Gold Embroidery
+    XVII. Cen^y]
+
+Gabrielle of Bourbon and Isabella, sister of Louis XI., spent their
+lives in preparing and overlooking fine works in their own apartments,
+and assembled around them noble damsels for this purpose. Anne of
+Brittany, who lived in an artistic atmosphere, had her own workshop of
+embroidery. Pictorial design now asserted its dominion over
+needlework, which accepted it, just as it had been influenced in the
+eleventh and twelfth centuries by metal-work motives, and, before
+then, by the art of mosaic.
+
+In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the Spanish plateresque
+embroideries (adopted and modified in Flanders and in France),
+consisting of heavy gold and silver arabesques of mutilated vegetable
+forms, superseded the graceful Renaissance of the classical
+taste.[531] These Spanish embroideries forced their way by their
+gorgeousness, in spite of their want of real beauty. They varied their
+effects with pearls, corals, and precious stones[532] (plate 69).
+
+Spain, though she was much despoiled during the Peninsular War by her
+French invaders, yet still possesses some of the finest ecclesiastical
+work in the sacristies of Seville, Granada, Burgos, Toledo, Segovia,
+and Barcelona. Don Juan F. Riano[533] says that Toledo is a perfect
+museum of the work of the sixteenth century.
+
+Sicilian and Neapolitan ecclesiastical needlework showed the Spanish
+taste of their masters, but not its perfection. The use of pearls,
+coral, and beads[534] prevailed, and we may in general affix its date
+and its origin to each specimen by the silver largely used in the two
+kingdoms of Sicily and rarely elsewhere; also by the extreme
+brilliancy or rather the gaudiness of its colouring.
+
+English ecclesiastical work came suddenly to an end at the
+Reformation. What was not destroyed is to be found in the possession
+of the old Roman Catholic families who have religiously collected the
+residue, preserved by concealment or by being overlooked; and in the
+wardrobes of Continental sacristies.[535]
+
+But the church decorations of France, Germany, Flanders, Spain, and
+Italy have meantime, for the last 300 years, gone through all the
+variations of lay styles, emanating from anything but ecclesiastical
+motives. First, the Renaissance's semi-pagan (so-called) arabesques;
+then the Spanish plateresque, which was a revolt against their own
+bastard Moorish-Gothic; next, the "Louis Quatorze," followed by the
+"Louis Quinze" and the "Louis Seize," light, frivolous, and elegant,
+essentially social, and not serious.[536] Then a return to the
+classical of the Empire; and finally, since the beginning of this
+century, to a conglomerate, lawless imitation of forms and styles,
+utterly meaningless and uninteresting, as well as wanting in
+ecclesiastical dignity and decorum. We are glad to believe that we are
+ourselves striving to reconstruct some sort of style that shall be
+able to express poetical and religious ideas, especially in our church
+decorations. At any rate, it must be of some use to understand the
+hidden springs which once raised ecclesiastical embroideries, and
+especially those of England, so high as objects of beauty, worthy to
+adorn the house of God, and to be for centuries valued as monuments of
+pious industry and thoughtful art.
+
+One of these hidden springs and ancient underlying motives was the
+symbolism which gave a religious intention to the smallest design for
+the humblest use, provided that its purpose was the service of the
+Church.
+
+Sacred symbolism is a subject to which I have alluded more than once;
+and it has played such an important part in the construction and
+growth of ecclesiastical art, that I cannot but give a short notice to
+the subject under this aspect.
+
+Symbolism in art is what metaphor is in speech. It is the
+representation to the eye of an object which suggests something else
+besides itself.
+
+Dr. Rock tells us that the symbolism of Scripture texts was given to
+the world in a book by St. Melito, Bishop of Sardis, A.D. 170. Its
+title is "The Key."[537] In the fourth century were produced two great
+works on Scriptural symbols, that of St. Basil in his homilies on the
+six days of the creation, and that by St. Ambrose; both entitled
+Hexameron.
+
+We meet this subject at every turn in the succeeding centuries,
+till in the twelfth we find it formulated and divided into
+branches--Bestiaria, Volucraria, and Lapidaria--and each type had
+frequently more than one meaning. Thus a lion represented power,
+sovereignty, dominion; also the "House of Judah;" a hare the emblem
+of man's soul; a peacock that of wisdom (many-eyed). The ruby
+represents love. The pearl, innocence. The twelve stones in a
+breastplate, the twelve tribes of Israel.[538] Trees and flowers had
+also their symbolical meanings, though we are not aware of their
+being recorded in any mediaeval book. We know that the vine is the
+tree of life; the stem of Jesse, the sacramental emblem; that the
+lily stands for purity, the woodbine for chastity, and the rose for
+religious ecstasy. The crowned lily was always the special emblem of
+the Virgin.
+
+These symbols had many of them a distant source, and had been, as I
+have already indicated, emblematic of other inner meanings in the
+expression of pagan faiths. The tree of life was Babylonian; the horn,
+Persian; the fire-sticks of the prehistoric cross, Egyptian or Indian;
+and the composite animals representing many qualities, Ninevite
+(probably Accadian).[539]
+
+All these were utilized, so that their already accepted uses should be
+helps and adjuncts, instead of impediments to the appreciation of
+divine truths; in the same way that "all that was lovely and of good
+repute" in the belief and morals of the ancient peoples, reasserted
+and purified, was claimed by the new teachers as types and antitypes.
+The symbolism of colours has been always considered very important in
+liturgical decoration,[540] and their meanings are discussed in the
+chapter on colour.
+
+The mystical colours, as has been already stated, are five--red, blue,
+purple, white, and gold. These the Christian Church inherited from the
+Levitical law, and continued faithful to them till the modern Roman
+use introduced green and black. The Church of England before the
+Reformation never allowed any but the original five mystic colours.
+
+The symbolism of ecclesiastical embroideries, as well as that of all
+Christian art, being intended to illustrate the truths of Christianity
+by the teaching of the eye, the great symbol of our faith, the
+_Cross_, naturally drew to itself all its prehistoric forms as being
+the prophetic types of the "true cross."
+
+The earliest form of the prehistoric cross, [Illustration], is supposed
+to refer to the worship of the sun, and is said to be formed of two
+fire-sticks (for producing fire by friction) laid across each other.
+This is almost universal in prehistoric, archaic, classical, and
+Christian art to the thirteenth century. The next most ancient form is
+a broken cross, thus, [Illustration], said to be the double of the Tau,
+or Egyptian sign of life, and claimed by the Rabbins as having been the
+sign in blood, which stopped the hand of the angel of death, over the
+doors of the Israelites at the first Passover. This afterwards was
+called the "Gammadion," from its likeness to a doubled Greek gamma,
+and it was also said to symbolize the "corner-stone."[541] The third
+commonest form, apparently a modification of that of the fire-sticks,
+[Illustration], is to be found throughout Celtic and Scandinavian art,
+and was called in England "the fylfote" (from its likeness to the arms
+of the Isle of Man), and likewise "the Gammadion," though it shows
+another source than the Greek letter.
+
+From these three forms already in use, added to that of the
+Crucifixion, endless varieties were composed to suit the
+ecclesiastical taste and requirements of different national styles of
+symbolical decoration. I refer my readers to plate 26 in the chapter
+on patterns for a few of these from different sources. They are
+extremely suggestive. I have there entered more fully into the
+subject, regarding it as a fertile pattern motive in textile art.[542]
+
+The cross "bearing twelve fruits for the saving of the nations"[543]
+is so like some of the representations of the Persian or Indian Tree
+of Life, that the transmission and adoption of the symbolic form is
+evident. The cross (plate 63) is a good mediaeval example, and is taken
+from the celebrated rose-coloured cope at Rheims, embroidered with
+gold and pearls on a rose-coloured satin ground.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 70.
+    IVORY CONSULAR DIPTYCH.
+    1. In the Wasser-Kirche Museum, Zurich. Sixth century. 2. Of an
+        earlier period, and finer workmanship, at Halberstadt. No
+        date given.]
+
+The Roes is an ecclesiastical pattern of wide use and of very long
+descent, often named in ancient Church inventories. It is sometimes
+called the "Wheel and Plate." Its origin is probably Oriental, but it
+certainly was adopted by the Romans as the motive of their triumphal
+garments, the _togae pictae_, worn in the processional return of a
+conqueror, whether he were a general or a sovereign. The first motive
+was a surface covered with circles, closely touching each other, and
+containing figures which had a reference to their purpose. In
+Christian times the heads of saints were sometimes inserted,
+especially in that form of the Roes called the chrysoclavus, from the
+intersticial ornament between the circles.
+
+I have written (p. 308-9) about the Trabea, which on the Roman
+consular ivory diptychs of several centuries is so invariably
+embroidered with this same clavus pattern (plate 70) that we must
+conclude that it had a meaning and a tradition.
+
+The very ancient superstition that driving in a nail is a fortunate
+rite, may have been connected with the pattern called the clavus; and
+the chrysoclavus, from being merely a nail pattern, became consecrated
+in Christian art as representing the heads of the nails of the
+Crucifixion, and hence its early Christian name.[544] It was
+originally filled in with a radiated ornament like the sun; (probably
+the first motive of this pattern, which seems to be the same as the
+Egyptian sun-cross,) and its peculiar decoration remained in
+possession of the descriptive name "palmated," though it is difficult
+to discover in it any likeness to the palm branch or tree, unless it
+is supposed to resemble it as seen from above.
+
+The toga triumphalis was also called the toga picta, because its
+precious purple fabric was covered with gorgeous embroideries. After
+it had been worn at the triumph or festival, by the victorious
+general, the distinguished noble, or the Emperor, it was laid by and
+dedicated in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Thus these palmated
+triumphal patterns, and their traditional decorations, having by their
+dedication to the gods assumed a religious character, were woven for
+Christian ecclesiastical use during the dark ages, and were repeated
+in Sicily and Spain down to the beginning of the fifteenth
+century.[545]
+
+I have elsewhere spoken of the "cloud pattern," which is very ancient,
+Chinese, Indian, and mediaeval. Its use has always been for celestial
+subjects in embroidery, either isolating or supporting spiritual
+figures. This was appropriated by ecclesiastical art, and we find it
+nowhere else in Europe.
+
+This sketch of the history of ecclesiastical needlework, (necessarily
+incomplete from want of space), is founded on the works of Semper,
+Bock, Rock, and the comparison of many specimens in collections and
+exhibitions in London and elsewhere. Auberville absolutely places
+before us the materials as well as the patterns of the weaving of the
+Christian era, as well as fragments of Egyptian textiles, in his
+beautiful book on Tissues.
+
+For forms and patterns we cannot do better than study Bock's
+liturgical chapters and their illustrations, as well as Dr. Rock's
+"Church of our Fathers."
+
+The stitchery of Christian art has been discussed in the chapter on
+stitches, and I repeat that there is nothing new in the treatment of
+solid embroideries, (lace stitches having been the only innovation of
+the last 400 years), though many of the ancient stitches have lost
+their distinctiveness, and fallen into a pitiful style by gradual
+descent which reached its lowest point in the early part of this
+century, as is shown by the robes embroidered for the coronation of
+Charles X. in the museum of the Louvre.
+
+In the commencement of this our nineteenth century, there was a total
+cessation of embroidery, which had, for nearly 2000 years held its own
+as an art, apart from all others; perhaps a secondary one--yet mixed
+up with every refinement and luxury of civilization.
+
+Its revival in England, especially, is owing to many causes. As
+ecclesiastical decoration I have already attributed it to the
+archaeological tendencies of our day, as well as to the aesthetic
+sentiment which protests, after so long a period of abstention,
+against the puritanical bareness and coldness of our national forms of
+worship. The obliteration of embroidery from the list of the arts was
+more complete in England than elsewhere; as the church of Rome still
+continued to be adorned with beautiful work on altar-cloths and
+frontals, and priest's dresses, which, though too much regulated in
+design by the lay tastes and fashions of the time, have combined to
+keep up a traditional school of needlework throughout the Continent.
+
+Exhibitions abroad and at home have shown us what a latent power in
+art embroidery still preserves, and architects have employed the
+women's needles to give colour and beauty to the decaying churches,
+which have been restored to their original architectural effects by
+careful copies of what remained in wood, stone, and glass.
+
+The number of new churches has also given rise to the production, in
+more than one semi-conventual establishment, of beautiful and
+effective works, such as the altar-cloth at Durham, and those at
+Canterbury and Worcester. Such works have revived the impulse of
+artistic and ecclesiastical taste, and in many small churches we have
+seen beautifully embroidered altar decorations.[546]
+
+There are, however, many amateurs who are perhaps mistresses of the
+craft of needlework, and who are yet not educated sufficiently to
+design a really thoughtful and beautiful work of art, and to these a
+few remarks may be addressed, which may help the struggling aspirants,
+and show them how they fail, and where to seek for assistance.
+
+I shall begin by pleading for more careful design, and less parsimony
+in expenditure upon the usual church adornments. It is once more a
+received dogma in ecclesiastical art, one in which all religious
+opinions agree, that the building in the parish which is set apart for
+the first public duty, that of worship, should show as much beauty as
+the means and taste of the community can command.
+
+Perhaps the little church has just been restored, or completely
+rebuilt from the foundations; the consecration is imminent. The white
+stone, carved or plain, shines fresh and cold, and the whole space
+looks poor and bare.
+
+The rich woman of the neighbourhood sees and feels that colour is
+wanting (for the windows must wait till their use as pious memorials
+fills them with glowing tints). The central point of the whole
+edifice, the altar, calls for the first key-note in colour to be
+struck, and a splendid altar-cloth is the fitting instrument.
+
+She consults the architect, who probably is also an artist, and the
+design is agreed upon, and hurriedly drawn and carried out; for there
+is not a moment to lose if it is to be ready for the opening day. It
+may be beautiful, and it sometimes is so, but the mere want of time
+for due consideration often results in the commonplace ornamentation,
+which neither satisfies the eye nor the mind. It is often only a mere
+bit of colour and a mediaeval pattern, and has no apparent motive or
+meaning to give it value.
+
+One sometimes finds that a conventional form has been selected, of
+which the emblematic intention it originally expressed has been
+forgotten or overlooked. Therefore, while to the unlearned it conveys
+no meaning, it is read as absolute nonsense by the ecclesiastical
+archaeologist, simply because it is worked in a language of
+undeciphered hieroglyphics--unknown to the worker--meaningless,
+reminding us of the Graeco-Egyptian inscriptions, of which the pictured
+words seem to have been copied at random for their prettiness, or the
+Arabian lettering on some of the ancient Sicilian textiles, which is
+nonsense. The sense and the emblematic meaning are forgotten, and the
+conventional form--an empty shell--is alone retained, conveying no
+idea, and reduced to the low purpose of being a pretty pattern, vague
+and unintelligent.
+
+I have so often said that a pattern always originally possessed, and
+should always retain a meaning, that I fear to become tiresome; but I
+repeat it here, as in ecclesiastical design it is more important than
+elsewhere; the meanings are deeper, and convey more essentially solemn
+traditions and allusions. If the motive of the designer is evident,
+and is conscientiously worked out, its value receives an enduring
+quality, and its present interest is enhanced.
+
+Embroidery is not less eloquent than her sister-arts in the teaching
+of divine lessons, and appealing through the beauty of form and
+colour to the poetical instincts of the congregation, of which the
+least educated members almost unconsciously feel the influence; and
+besides, the people are always alive to the charms of symbolism, when
+it is placed within their reach. As a proof of this, among our own
+peasantry and mechanics, I would point to their universal enjoyment of
+the "Pilgrim's Progress."
+
+In the symbolism of art, the thoughts which are individual to the
+artist can only be expressed by known forms and colours, even as the
+poet must employ the words and the metres already accepted by the
+literature of his language.
+
+Hurry is fatal to art. But another and very serious cause of its
+deterioration is its costliness.
+
+In the dark and mediaeval ages, time was of no account. Skilled labour,
+such as was needed for carving, illuminations, and embroideries, was
+freely given as the duty of a life, for one particular object, the
+good of a man's soul. The cloistered men and women worked for no
+wages; neither to benefit themselves nor their descendants; hardly for
+fame,--that was given to the convent which had the credit of
+patronizing and producing art,[547] while the very name of the artist
+was forgotten.
+
+It was from pure love of the art as a craft, and the belief that it
+was a good work in which they were engaged, and from their abundant
+leisure, that they were enabled to evolve the lovely creations which
+delight and astonish us when shown in the sacristies and treasuries of
+foreign religious houses and churches, where they have been cherished
+for centuries. Like the silkworm they spent themselves; and by their
+industrious lives were surrounded in their living graves by the
+elaborated essence of their own natures, a joy and consolation to
+themselves, and a legacy to all time. To them, also, art appeared as
+the consoler.
+
+But to return to the grievances of to-day--cheapness and hurry,
+economy of pence and hours--these often are the bane of the work which
+we give to the Church, sometimes as a memorial, sometimes as a
+thank-offering. The colours are bad, because cheap dyes fade, and none
+others can be had without much trouble, and we have only time to
+select among those that are for sale. The work is poor because it must
+be done quickly, and we cannot afford to delay and pay for the extra
+hours necessary to make the stitches worthy and capable of lasting.
+Possibly we cannot give the time ourselves, nor can find any one
+effectually to organize and overlook the work.
+
+Though the design, the motive, the colours and materials, as well as
+the stitches, need to be each carefully studied, yet we perhaps accept
+an ancient drawing intended for a different place and use; and thus we
+fail to produce any effect, with uncongenial surroundings. Sometimes
+we feel obliged to take the design forced upon us by a shopwoman as
+ignorant as ourselves, with the submissive hope "that it will do."
+
+Now to a truly artistic mind it would appear that each little church,
+however simple and devoid of ornament, requires its own special
+colours and design, besides the individual motive of the giver; and
+people forget that the whole effect in any such compositions must be
+comprehensive, and that one careless mistake spoils all.
+
+The High Church, in its love of ritualistic vestments, has sometimes
+been prejudicial to the general adoption of properly studied altar
+decorations; as there is a common suspicion that a clergyman's
+personal wish for ornament, akin to a woman's addiction to fine
+clothes, governs all his attempts to adorn the altar; whereas there
+should be, and there often is, a real artistic feeling for the fitness
+of things, in the furnishings of the most beautiful building set aside
+by the community for the glory of God. But it is not necessary for
+beautiful effects that there should be any coloured vestments. When
+the clergy are duly robed in the orthodox surplice and scarves, there
+is, perhaps, something funereal in the white linens and black Geneva
+silk, but yet the traditional white and black have their own value
+against a background of altar-cloth and reredos splendidly coloured.
+
+Now that, in spite of prejudice, church decoration is so much the
+custom of our day, it is worth our while to consider seriously how
+best to carry it out, and search into the principles which may apply
+to all ecclesiastical embroideries, whether they are to be dedicated
+in the Minster, the village Church, or the home Chapel.
+
+We must begin by remembering that in these days, if we cannot do the
+work ourselves, it must be highly paid for. The skilled artisan who is
+no artist, receives enough to feed his family, according to the higher
+wages of the time. The woman's slow stitchery has to support probably
+as many claims, and yet it is always grudged as being too costly. The
+sculptor or the painter who succeeds in obtaining employment, is
+highly paid, but the designer for metal-work or embroideries occupies
+an unrecognized place in art, and barely earns enough to live by. The
+illuminator has ceased to exist; he would starve--probably has been
+starved out long ago.
+
+The decorative designer, having, therefore, no status, has no
+education; and it is almost impossible to find in England an artist to
+accept orders for thoughtful ecclesiastical designs. Hundreds of boys
+and girls are taught "freehand drawing," and having copied some casts
+and lithographs and drawn some flower-pieces, without any particular
+aim, find a precarious living by designing frightful wall-papers for
+the million. These poor creatures, from whose lives all ambition and
+originality have been effaced, are our decorative artists.
+
+Still a beautiful original design can sometimes be obtained, and if
+that is beyond our reach, we may courageously copy from ancient
+models, selecting judiciously what is most suitable for our purpose.
+
+The ecclesiastical artist should be well informed in the modes of
+working a design. The stitch if selected without experience may mar
+the effect of the whole composition, as some stitches of themselves
+convey the meaning of shadow, and others that of light.
+
+In ecclesiastical work which is intended to be effective in the
+distance, as well as perfect in detail, it is worth while to weigh the
+claims of the architectural low-relief motive, i.e. a flat raised
+surface, with an edge sufficiently accentuated to catch a light on one
+side, and cast a sharp shadow on the other. All flat _raised_ stitches
+conduce also to this effect, especially if edged with a cord, and it
+is much more striking than in stuffed work (on the stamp), which has
+not the incisive effect that is given by the tool to the sharp edge of
+stone or wood carvings.
+
+If we can afford to give to our church without stint, let us seek for
+the most beautiful textiles, such as are again woven in imitation of
+the old fabrics; gratefully acknowledging all that Pugin, Ruskin, and
+the foreign manufacturers, especially those at Lyons, have done in the
+revival of woven designs. Let us avoid those materials which are
+easily spoiled by sunshine, dust, and smoke, and all those that fray
+easily. Woollens are not long lived. Crewels, beautiful as they are,
+are not salient in their effect. Silks, satins and velvet, and gold
+brocades,[548] or groundings worked in with gold thread, are the only
+materials worthy of bearing fine embroidery, fit to receive them, and
+capable of keeping them for centuries. Plushes and worsted velvets are
+unworthy, indeed they are worthless.
+
+The gold we employ must be either pure "passing," or else the Chinese
+or Japanese gold threads which differ in colour, but have each their
+own value, and never tarnish, even in the coal smoke of London. Pure
+silver, too, is beautiful, and if it is really pure, can be kept
+bright with bread crumbs.
+
+In composing the altar decoration for the cathedral or the village
+church, we ought to take into consideration what is suitable for the
+surrounding architecture. In great spaces, the majestic altar-cloth or
+frontal, shining with gold and silver, and glowing with silken
+embroideries, recalls the splendid altar "palli" encrusted with gems
+in St. Mark's, St. Peter's, and other ancient churches; and is in
+perfect keeping with the high and gorgeous reredos, the rich screen,
+the fretted roof and clustered ornaments of a great cathedral choir.
+Such glories are unattainable in the modest village church.
+
+But though we may subdue the brilliancy of our decoration, we should
+try to make it yet a work of art. The design may have as much
+intention, the work be as refined and individual, and the gold as
+pure, as in larger works. The precious metals may be confined to small
+spaces in the parts we desire to accentuate, such as the cross in the
+centre, or the edges of the orphreys, or they may be entirely replaced
+with fine silk work.
+
+The altar-cloth we desire to present, may be simply a gift, so that we
+may choose any design that will agree with the date of the building.
+We may prefer any subsequent style, but not one anterior to that of
+the architecture. It would be a mistake to imitate Anglo-Saxon
+ornaments in a church of the flamboyant style.
+
+Perhaps the altar-cloth we are discussing may be intended as a sort of
+votive offering, a memorial of a baptism, a wedding, or a funeral.
+
+For the first, white silk worked in gold and silver, or gold-coloured
+silk, or parseme with conventional spring flowers would be
+appropriate. For a marriage, crimson, rose-colour, blue and gold, or a
+mixture of all these, to produce a festive and gorgeous effect. For a
+funeral, purple or violet silk or velvet, with palms and the crown of
+thorns in gold or silver.[549] These would serve at the festivals of
+the Church: the purple for Good Friday,[550] the crimson for Saints'
+days, the white for Christmas and Easter Sunday.
+
+The reredos, or the screen curtain behind the altar, should be made
+available for enhancing its effect, as well as for enlarging the area
+of textile coloured decoration.
+
+As this is intended for a background, it should be either subdued or
+else contrasting, in juxtaposition with that which it is intended to
+supplement. Woollen embroideries or tapestries are the most usually
+selected for this purpose. The softness of fine crewels is well shown
+near the more glowing tints of silk, velvet, and gold of the altar
+frontal. If this is white, or light coloured, the reredos hanging
+should be of dark or richly worked material; if the frontal is dark,
+the contrast should be preserved by hangings of tender shades.
+
+The pulpit and reading-desk, with their small cushions and veils, and
+beautiful worked covers for the books, give opportunities for
+repetition of colour which is often required for picturesque effect.
+
+I should recommend the young ecclesiastical designer to study the
+principles which guided the authors of some of the fine Gothic
+examples remaining to us, such as the great Stoneyhurst cope, and the
+palls of the different London companies, as well as the very few fine
+altar-cloths still existing. All these have their brilliant and
+effective treatment; they are intended to be glorious, and either
+represent massive jewellers' work or tissues of wrought gold.
+
+Anciently, the ornaments for the different church services, which we
+timidly reduce to floral decorations (often, however, very beautifully
+planned and executed), gave the opportunity for displaying costly
+embroidered hangings.
+
+The paschal of the choir of Durham, for example, was a marvellous
+construction of wood and gilding, metal-work, and (probably) hangings.
+It was as wide as the "lateral" of the choir, and as high as the
+building, so that the central and seventh candlestick (that from which
+the new fire for the year was kindled) was so near the roof that there
+was a "fine convenience through the said roof of the church for the
+help of lighting it." I quote from a rare book printed by G. S. Ross
+for Mrs. Waghorn, 1733.
+
+This little book is full of interesting matter regarding Durham
+Cathedral, though the author is most concerned in relating the
+vandalisms committed by the dean's wife, Mrs. Whittinghame, who
+evidently had "no culture," and a strong turn for appropriating odds
+and ends, such as tombstones, embroidered silk, and other curiosities
+which she deemed valueless except for her own purposes,--such a woman
+is a real archaeological misfortune!
+
+The corporax used in celebrating the mass by St. Cuthbert in the
+seventh century (he died and was buried at Holy Isle in 657) was
+supposed to be endowed with miraculous powers and was carried into
+battle on many occasions as a banner.
+
+This banner was of crimson velvet on both sides, wrought with flowers
+in green silk and gold, and fringed with red silk and gold. The
+corporax cloth was inserted in the centre, and covered with a square
+of white velvet, having on it a cross of red velvet, "most
+artificially worked and fringed, with little silver bells in the
+fringe." This was carried into battle, till Dame Whittinghame "did
+most injuriously destroy the same in her fire."
+
+One feels as if this woman were spiteful, as well as stupid. But for
+her punishment, her memory is kept quite the contrary to green by Mrs.
+Waghorn's careful record of her iniquities; which has at the same time
+fortunately preserved to us the description of the banner of St.
+Cuthbert, and gives also an idea of "the good and sumptuous furniture
+of changeable suits," and of "the divers vestments wrought and set
+round about with pearls, both stoles and flannels, &c."
+
+Looking at it from a distance, it appears that the "fair white linen"
+for the communion service always requires the softening of the edges
+by fringes, by cut work embroidery, or by thick lace edgings. If a
+white ground for embroidery is required, nothing is more beautiful
+than linen, especially if it is not over-bleached. White, in art,
+should be represented by the nearest approach to no colour; but it is
+more agreeable to the eye by its being tempered with a suggestion of
+the natural tint, of which all textile substances possess something
+(excepting cotton) before they have passed through the hands of the
+fuller or the chemist.
+
+Corporals and veils for the pyx used to be of white linen, embroidered
+with white silk or linen thread; the silk gives a beautiful, varied,
+shining brightness.
+
+I think a few words should be said about the fringe.[551] Its motive
+and _raison d'etre_ is the disposal of the threads of the warp when it
+is cut out of the frame; these being tied and knotted symmetrically,
+become an artistic decoration instead of an untidy tangle of threads
+and thrums. Edging the material and finishing it with its own loose
+ends is a very ancient custom; and we can see from the sculptures of
+Nineveh that they were great in that city in the art of fringe-making,
+and the Israelites, when they made their hangings for the sanctuary,
+trimmed them with fringes. It stands to reason that an added fringe
+should be arranged with reference to the origin of the decoration, and
+the moment we think of it, the eye is annoyed by seeing a deep fringe
+of one or two colours traversing the whole widths of the frontal and
+super-frontal, quite irrelevantly, and without any reference to the
+masses of colours, woven or embroidered, above them; and the
+consequence of this carelessness is, that it makes it look as if this
+part of the decoration, came from another source, independent of the
+composition which it ought to supplement. The fringe should belong to
+the whole design, and be carefully fitted to the spaces occupied by
+the colours above it, each of its compartments or divisions being
+filled in with those tints which are most conspicuous in the general
+design and would show effectively in the warp. It is not necessary to
+account for all the colours, as the threads employed to form the woof
+would naturally disappear at the sides of the web. The sections of the
+fringe should be skilfully arranged so as to reappear at equal
+distances, or at least they should be so balanced as to produce that
+effect. If this is impossible, the fringe should be all of one shade,
+matching exactly the ground of the textile. It may be relieved by
+clustered knobs, or hanging beads or cups of different colours and
+gold. The celebrated pluvial at Aix-la-Chapelle has a fringe of gold
+bells hanging to a gold cord, which amalgamates with the pattern.[552]
+The veils of the Sanctuary in the wilderness were fringed with
+attached ornaments, bells, blossoms, knops, flowers, and fruit, which
+sounds extremely pretty.
+
+To resume, let me once more urge that in church work neither time nor
+trouble be spared; nor yet money grudged, if possible. The design
+should be full of intention, the stitching perfect, and the materials
+most carefully chosen for tints, for endurance and smoothness.
+Remember that no inferior substitute will serve to give present
+effect, nor will it last into the future.
+
+Design, as I have elsewhere said, is all the better for being to a
+certain degree circumscribed, relegated, and regulated by the laws of
+traditional usage, as well as those of good taste, and this applies
+especially to ecclesiastical design.
+
+These laws serve as the frame which encloses the motive thought, and
+makes it a complete whole, that can admit of no amplifications.
+
+New symbols should not be adopted except for the expression of new
+facts or altered circumstances, and these can but seldom enter into
+liturgical art.
+
+There is so much already formulated and admitted, and the area in
+which we may gather our materials is so large, that we need not seek
+for more than we find under our hand, ready for use.
+
+Besides the symbolism of dogma, we have all the heraldry of the
+Saints; and can repeat and vary the emblems of those to whom the
+church we are working for is dedicated. The keys of St. Peter, the
+sword of St. Paul, the lilies of the Virgin, the cross of St. Andrew,
+the eagle of St. John,--I need hardly enumerate all these legitimate
+sources of decoration. Then there is the lay heraldry which belongs to
+the history of each church, and which memorializes the reign of the
+monarch when it was begun, finished, or restored, and the pious work
+and care of the founder and benefactor, the architect, and sometimes
+that of the sculptor.
+
+Now as our forefathers accepted all this material for ecclesiastical
+design, remodelling it to their own uses in different centuries, so we
+cannot ourselves do better than imitate them, and profit by their
+experience; never missing an opportunity of studying ancient
+embroideries; and while we admire in them all that is admirable, and
+appreciate their historical and archaeological value, we may yet
+extract greater benefit for ourselves, by criticizing what is
+imperfect, as well as what is possibly a descent and failure from a
+higher type.
+
+We must make a judicious selection of what to imitate and what to
+avoid.
+
+As a general rule, I should warn the young artist against the
+imitation of "naivete" and so-called "quaintness;" especially in our
+designs for Church embroidery as it is hardly a noble quality in art,
+though we look on it with a tender pity, half-way between admiration
+and contempt, when we find it inevitably in mediaeval work; struggling
+to overcome the expression of something difficult, and expressing a
+difficulty only partly overcome. We find ourselves putting our minds
+into the attitude of the artist who conceived those figures with arms
+conventionally growing out of the encasing garment; conventionally
+holding a book, and giving a blessing with a conventional twist, not
+entirely ungraceful, nor devoid of a certain dignity, rather felt than
+perceived. Yet we contemplate them with a smile of conscious
+superiority, appreciating our own refined sense of their merits and
+infantine progress towards something good, that time--a long
+time--would, and did evolve. But those efforts at last culminated in a
+Christian art, such as is seen in the splendid forms and adornments in
+stone, gold, silver, glass, and embroideries of the thirteenth and
+fourteenth centuries. Such splendours as the windows of Bourges, the
+Sainte-Chapelle at Paris, or those of the Cathedral of Toledo, or
+King's College Chapel at Cambridge. Such sculptures and traceries as
+those of the Puits de Moise at Dijon, and the Chapter House at
+Southwell in Nottinghamshire. Such embroideries as the Syon cope, and
+the Borghese triptych. These are types worthy of all praise, and they
+are full of instruction to the student of ecclesiastical art.
+
+The Kensington Museum offers us endless help and suggestions in its
+very interesting collection of liturgical vestments of every date and
+school; and its textiles, illustrated by the inventory of their
+learned collector, Dr. Rock, are most instructive.[553]
+
+In the library of that museum are to be found many of the learned
+works on these subjects by French and German _savants_. The
+exhibitions in the English counties are never without a case or a room
+full of embroideries, collected from the treasure-chests of the
+neighbouring churches and country houses, and especially from those of
+the ancient Roman Catholic families. The colleges of Oscott and
+Stoneyhurst have collected, by purchase or by gift, many fine relics
+of the craft, which are most liberally granted for exhibition.
+
+For those who can go further afield there is instruction in almost
+every Continental town. Rome, Florence, Milan, Toledo, Sens, Rheims,
+Aix-la-Chapelle, Berne, Vienna, Halberstadt, Berlin, and Munich--each
+and all have stores of beautiful liturgical objects carefully
+preserved; of many dates, and many styles, and showing endless
+varieties of design, which can be employed on new works by careful
+selection and adaptation. Most of these belong to the eleventh and
+succeeding centuries; any earlier examples are fragmentary, and have
+generally been taken from the tombs of kings and bishops.
+
+It seems to savour of desecration, this opening of shrines and
+disturbing the ashes of the illustrious dead, if only for the
+satisfaction of archaeological curiosity. But except where it has
+hitherto been protected by the sanctity of the tomb, there is so
+little that remains to us,--so few textiles have survived the friction
+of use, or even that of the air, through as many as a thousand years
+or more, that we may plead the hunger for truth, and the eager desire
+for proofs of identity and verification of historical legends, which
+are to be extracted from the shape of a garment, from the pattern on
+the border, or the lettering on the web of which it is composed;
+whence we reverently cut a fragment, and preserve it under glass.
+
+    "If studious, copie fair what time hath blurr'd,
+    Redeem truth from his jawes."[554]
+
+Before closing this chapter, I would wish to observe that I have
+entered into the subject of church decoration in no ritualistic
+spirit; I do not treat it theologically, but as art; and if these
+decorations are to be carried out at all, I feel that I am rendering a
+service to those whose duty or pleasure it is to provide them, by
+pointing out where they may find the principles which have been the
+spring and life of mediaeval art, and the survivals which are now the
+best exponents of those principles to guide us in the works of our
+day.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [479] Figure-drawing in early Christian art was for
+    nearly a thousand years primitively barbarous, with
+    occasional exceptions. The rapid decline in Europe,
+    through the art of the Catacombs and St. Clemente at
+    Rome, and the frescoes and mosaics of Ravenna, down to
+    the Bayeux tapestries, is very remarkable. In those
+    inartistic compositions during the early Middle Ages,
+    the figures were drawn facing the spectator, the head
+    and feet in profile, differing in nothing from the
+    Egyptian and Assyrian modes of representation. We can
+    hardly account for this return to childish ways, from
+    which Greece and Rome had so long been emancipated,
+    except by supposing that they came from the imitations
+    of Oriental textiles, which still retained very ancient
+    forms; for instance, the motive of the sculptured lions
+    over the gate of Mycenae. We cannot say that Greek art in
+    Rome was quite extinct till the eighth century. About
+    that time there was a remarkable revival in England.
+
+    [480] Till very lately we have been entirely dependent
+    on the frescoes in the Catacombs and in the underground
+    Church of St. Clemente at Rome, and on monumental art
+    and illuminations, for our knowledge of the textiles of
+    the earliest days of Christianity. But Herr Graf'schen's
+    discoveries in Egypt will, when published, add greatly
+    to our information on this subject.
+
+    [481] The book by Parker on the "Liturgical Use" says
+    that only the five liturgical colours were permitted in
+    the use of the Church of England. Before the Reformation
+    the Norman and English liturgical colours were
+    different. (Rock, "Church of our Fathers," ii. p. 268.)
+    Perhaps nothing was originally worked departing from
+    this rule, but votive offerings are inventoried as being
+    of all colours, having been accepted and used as
+    decoration and for vestments.
+
+    [482] I have already spoken of the custom of clothing
+    the images of the gods as a classical tradition. The
+    Greeks draped their statues in precious garments, often
+    the spoils of subjugated nations, offerings from the
+    conquerors, or obsequious tribute from the conquered.
+    Newton (Appendix 1) tells us of inscriptions containing
+    inventories of old clothes offered in the Greek Temples.
+    Ezekiel (xvi.) speaks of silk and linen embroideries
+    given for covering the idols. The images of the saints
+    in Roman Catholic churches are, we know, constantly
+    draped in splendid embroideries, and hung with jewels.
+
+    [483] There is here an overlap of several centuries.
+
+    [484] Charlemagne's dalmatic, described hereafter, of
+    which the pedigree is well ascertained, justifies
+    Woltmann and Woermann's theory; as this eighth-century
+    embroidery shows, by its design, that Greek art was
+    still a living power.
+
+    [485] Of which we have yet examples on the Continent,
+    here and there; for instance, in the Cathedral at Coire
+    in the Grisons, and in the Romanesque church at Clermont
+    in Auvergne (not the cathedral). I do not include in
+    this statement of the rare occurrence of the ogee, the
+    European countries which were subject to Moorish rule,
+    i.e. Spain and Portugal.
+
+    [486] This, slightly modified, continued to prevail till
+    the time of Louis XIV., when France took the lead, and
+    gave a style to the world which entirely broke away from
+    all mediaeval tradition.
+
+    [487] Rock's "Church of our Fathers," i. p. 409. Compare
+    Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," i. p. 332 (see fig. 1);
+    and Bock's "Liturgische Gewaender," taf. i., i. p. 130,
+    fig. 6. Bock does not give his authority for the pattern
+    on the ephod.
+
+    [488] Bock's "Liturgische Gewaender," i. taf. i., iii.,
+    vi.
+
+    [489] Yates' "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 203, 376, Sec.
+    103. He quotes from Claudian the description of a
+    trabea, said to have been woven by the goddess Roma
+    herself, for the consul Stilicho. I give this as showing
+    how forms and patterns become sacred by their being
+    attributed to the inspiration of the gods. The name of
+    Stilicho marks his tomb in Sant' Ambrogio's Church at
+    Milan, on which is a curious moulding, carved with
+    alternate roses and mystic crosses.
+
+    [490] Clapton Rolfe, "Ancient Use of Liturgical
+    Colours."
+
+    [491] See the Book of Kells, Library, Dublin; also St.
+    Cuthbert's Durham Book, British Museum, and the Celtic
+    MSS. in the Lambeth Palace Library.
+
+    [492] Celtic and Scandinavian designs are characterized
+    by meandering, interlaced, and knotted lines, which are
+    described and discussed in the chapter on patterns. The
+    forms of the Celtic stone crosses are very beautiful.
+    See "L'Atlas de l'Archeologie du Nord, par la Societe
+    Royale des Antiquaires du Nord" (Copenhagen, 1857),
+    where the metal remains are shown by careful engravings;
+    also George Stephen's "Old Northern Runic Monuments."
+
+    [493] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewaender," i. p. 126,
+    quoting Anastasius Bibliothecarius, pp. 153, 156, 189.
+
+    [494] Ibid. p. 189.
+
+    [495] The information here collected proves that these
+    sovereign gifts to the great basilicas were by no means
+    of costly materials, especially as compared with the
+    preceding splendours of Rome, or the still more
+    astounding luxury of Alexandria through the Greek
+    conquests of the Eastern nations. To these rules of
+    economical decoration, however, we find occasionally
+    exceptions. We gather also from later lists that the
+    embroideries of the Papal See were culled, in the
+    thirteenth century, from France, Spain, Germany, and
+    England.
+
+    [496] See also Bock's "Liturgische Gewaender," vol. i.
+    pp. 9, 18, 56, 86, plate 2. At a later period the lion
+    motive is supposed to have represented a Christian in
+    the arena, and it certainly in time was symbolical of
+    man struggling with the dominion of sin. However, Bock
+    considers the design to have been originally classical
+    Greek, and it survived to the seventh and eighth
+    centuries, and was reproduced as late as the sixteenth.
+
+    [497] The Code of Manu in India, which 2500 years ago
+    regulated all the crafts and ruled their decorations, is
+    still in full force, and Chinese art was crystallized in
+    the reigns of the first emperors of the Hia dynasty,
+    2197 B.C.
+
+    [498] We cannot but respect the memory of Attila, who
+    checked the spoliation of Rome by his troops.
+
+    [499] The collections of needlework in Germany are very
+    rich. The treasury of the cathedral at Halberstadt, the
+    Markt-Kirche of Brunswick, the sacristy of the
+    Marien-Kirche of Dantzic, and that of the Kaland
+    Brethren at Strahlsund are especially quoted by Bock. At
+    Quedlinburg are the tapestries of its famous abbess; at
+    the Pilgrim Church of Marie at Zell are fine remains of
+    stuffs and embroideries by the ladies of the imperial
+    house of Hapsburg, of the thirteenth century; at the
+    Abbey of Goess (near Lieben, Steiermark) is to be seen
+    the remarkable needlework of the Abbess Kunigunda, and
+    in the cathedral treasury of Heidelberg the antipendium
+    of the fourteenth century, made for the church at Tirna.
+    The museums of Berlin, Munich, and Vienna are very rich
+    in textiles.
+
+    [500] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewaender," p. 133.
+
+    [501] Helen Lwyddawc. See "Mabinogion," by Lady C.
+    Guest, pp. 279-284. This beautiful story is told in the
+    language of the romance period, and yet has a certain
+    Celtic colouring in it, which shows its origin. The
+    ballad opens with a description of Helen watching a game
+    of chess, clothed in white and gold, seated on a chair
+    of gold, when Maxentius finds her in her father's
+    palace.
+
+    [502] See Mrs. Palliser's "Lace," p. 4.
+
+    [503] See chapter on English embroidery, _post_.
+
+    [504] Early decorations of ecclesiastical dress are so
+    thoroughly illustrated by the ancient frescoes and
+    mosaics in Italy, that we can form an idea of the
+    embroidered vestments of each period by studying them,
+    and the early illuminated books that are scattered over
+    Europe. Dr. Bock gives authentic illustrations as well
+    as information about the finest Continental specimens.
+
+    [505] For the mosaics of Santa Pudenziana, see Woltmann
+    and Woermann, i. p. 167, "History of Painting."
+    Translated by Sidney Colvin.
+
+    [506] Appendix 4. Lord Lindsay's "History of
+    Ecclesiastical Art," i. p. 136. These gorgeous vestments
+    are engraved by Sulpiz Boisseree in his "Kaiser
+    Dalmatika in der St. Peterskirche," and far better by
+    Dr. Rock, in his splendid work on the "Coronation Robes
+    of the German Emperors."
+
+    [507] It is singular that we find the starry cross and
+    the swastika filling alternate square spaces on the
+    mantle of Achilles--playing at dice with Ajax--on a
+    celebrated Greek vase in the Etruscan Museum at the
+    Vatican. I have referred to this design elsewhere.
+    (Plate 26.)
+
+    [508] Rock's "Introduction," p. liii.
+
+    [509] This date is assigned to it by Monsignor Clifford.
+
+    [510] Kindly supplied to me by the Father Superior of
+    San Clemente in Rome.
+
+    [511] In the cathedral of Aix, Switzerland. Bock's
+    "Liturgische Gewaender," i. taf. ii.
+
+    [512] One of these mitres has, it is said, been brought
+    to England.
+
+    [513] Bock, "Liturgische Gewaender," ii. taf. xii. This
+    is dyed in Tyrian purple (rosy red), and is simply the
+    cross, representing the tree with twelve leaves, "for
+    the healing of the nations."
+
+    [514] Bock, "Liturgische Gewaender," i. taf. iii. pp.
+    157-160.
+
+    [515] Bock, _ibid._, p. 158, quotes the Jesuit Erasmus
+    Froehlich, (1754).
+
+    [516] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewaender," i. taf. iv. pp.
+    165, 166. "One of three costly garments."
+
+    [517] Modifications of the "wheel pattern" ("wheel and
+    plate"). Of these works of the tenth and eleventh
+    centuries the fine Roman lettering in the borders is a
+    marking characteristic.
+
+    [518] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewaender," i. p. 214.
+
+    [519] There was no guild of embroiderers in England that
+    we know of till that incorporated in the reign of
+    Elizabeth. See chapter on English embroidery.
+
+    [520] Bock, i. 214, says that the splendid stuffs and
+    embroideries were entirely consecrated to the use of the
+    Church, till the luxurious arts invaded European
+    domestic life from the seventh to the twelfth century.
+
+    [521] See the cross on the Rheims cope (plate 63).
+
+    [522] There is no doubt it was only used for church
+    work.
+
+    [523] At Aachen, in Switzerland, there is a very
+    remarkable pluvial of one kind of opus Anglicanum, which
+    has been already alluded to. The border, of splendid
+    gold embroidery, has the pattern completed in fine
+    flowers of jewellers' work. (See Bock, "Liturgische
+    Gewaender," ii. p. 297, taf. xli.-xliv.) Rock, "Textile
+    Fabrics," Introduction, p. xxxi, cites from Mon. Angl.
+    (ii. 222), the vestments given to St. Alban's Abbey by
+    Margaret, Duchess of Clarence, A.D. 1429, as being
+    remarkable for pure gold in its texture and the
+    splendour of the jewels and precious stones set into it,
+    as well as for the exquisite beauty of its embroideries.
+    These are some of the characteristics of the opus
+    Anglicanum.
+
+    [524] Appendix 6.
+
+    [525] Mrs. Bayman, of the Royal School of Art
+    Needlework.
+
+    [526] If it is true that in the days of the Greeks and
+    Romans the art of acupictura or needle-painting copied
+    pictorial art, so likewise in the Egyptian early times,
+    painted linens imitated embroideries. This we learn by
+    specimens from the tombs. Painted hangings and
+    embroideries appear to have been equally used for
+    processional decorations. In the Middle Ages painted
+    hangings imitated embroideries and woven hangings, and
+    were considered as legitimate art.
+
+    [527] See Bock, vol. i. p. 10.
+
+    [528] Exhibited in the "Esposizione Romana" in 1869, in
+    the cloisters of Santa Maria degli Angeli.
+
+    [529] See Woltmann and Woermann, who quote evidence as
+    to works in painted glass as early as the ninth and
+    tenth centuries in France and Germany ("History of
+    Painting," vol. i. pp. 316-339). They remark that the
+    character of painted glass is nearly akin to textile
+    decoration, that it is essentially flat and unpictorial.
+    And doubtless there is an analogy between the two, but
+    rather suggesting patchwork or cut work than legitimate
+    embroidery.
+
+    [530] "Vasari," ed. Monce, taf. v. p. 101.
+
+    [531] See plate 69, which is a fine altar-frontal of the
+    plateresque Spanish.
+
+    [532] The dress of the "Virgin del Sagrario" at Toledo,
+    embroidered with pearls, and the chasuble of Valencia,
+    worked with corals, show how profusely these costly
+    materials were employed.
+
+    [533] See "The Industrial Arts of Spain," pp. 250-264,
+    by Don Juan F. Riano, and catalogues of Loan Exhibition
+    by him for the South Kensington Museum series, 1881. The
+    works of Spanish Queens and Infantas are to be seen at
+    the Atocha, the church of the Virgin del Pilar at
+    Madrid.
+
+    [534] There are most interesting examples of Scriptural
+    subjects in Bock's "Liturgische Gewaender," i. taf. x.
+    pp. 207, 208; taf. xi. pp. 239-278. These are of the
+    thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; and we have some
+    good fifteenth century bead-work in the South Kensington
+    Museum.
+
+    [535] The splendid embroideries from Westminster Abbey,
+    sold to Spanish merchants at the Reformation, now at
+    Valencia, and the cope in the Museum at Madrid, are
+    instances of these exportations. The Syon cope also was
+    returned to England, after its long wanderings, about
+    sixty years ago. I give its history by Dr. Rock in the
+    Appendix 6.
+
+    [536] For examples of this ornate and graceful, but
+    frivolous style, we may remember the mosaic altar
+    frontals throughout the basilica of St. Peter's at Rome.
+
+    [537] See Dr. Rock's "Catalogue of Textile Fabrics,"
+    South Kensington Museum, Introduction, p. cxxxvi.
+
+    [538] Bock's "Liturgische Gewaender," i. taf. vi., vii.,
+    pp. 385-392. The emblematic meanings of stones is
+    constantly alluded to in the Old Testament. Their
+    symbolism has, therefore, a high authority and most
+    ancient descent. In the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford is an
+    illuminated copy of Philip de Than's Bestiarium,
+    composed for Adelais, second wife of Henry I.
+
+    [539] "Cyclopaedia of Bible Literature," vol. vii. p.
+    477.
+
+    [540] See Clapton Rolfe, "The Ancient Use of Liturgical
+    Colours." (Parker, 1879.)
+
+    [541] See "Indian Arts," by Sir G. Birdwood, i. p. 97.
+    He says this [Illustration] form is the sign of the
+    Buddhist or Jainis, and that the [Illustration]
+    fire-stick form was that of the Sakti race in India.
+
+    [542] See chapter on patterns, p. 103-4, _ante_.
+
+    [543] Revelations chap. xxii. v. 2.
+
+    [544] In mediaeval times the cross in a circle was
+    sometimes called the "clavus" [Illustration]. It was
+    the same as an Egyptian sign, meaning "land" (plate 25).
+    Donelly fancifully claims the sign as being that of the
+    garden of Eden, and of the four rivers flowing from it
+    (see "Atlantis").
+
+    [545] See plate 70, No. 1. In the upper part of the
+    Halberstadt diptych, No. 1, the "gens togata" are
+    sitting on Olympus, clothed in such purple garments
+    embroidered with the chrysoclavus.
+
+    [546] I would instance the little church of St. Mary,
+    built and adorned by the late W. E. Street, at Feldy, in
+    Surrey.
+
+    [547] The art of illumination had in general kept a
+    little in front of that of the painter, and illumination
+    and embroidery went hand in hand.
+
+    [548] The fine brocades of velvet and gold, of which we
+    find examples in the centres of palls, and a notable one
+    in the celebrated Stoneyhurst cope, are still reproduced
+    to order at Lyons, Genoa, Florence, and in Spain. The
+    Florentine is distinguished by the little loops of gold
+    thread which pervade it.
+
+    [549] In the English ritual gold was permitted wherever
+    white was enjoined. This shows a true appreciation of
+    the effect of the metal, separating and isolating all
+    colours, and being of none.
+
+    [550] The purple is not one of the five mystic colours
+    named; it is included in blue, and therefore the most
+    ritualistic critic need not object to it.
+
+    [551] Under the Carlovingians, priestly garments were
+    often enriched with splendid fringes, trimmed with
+    bells. A Bishop of Elne, who died in 915, left to his
+    church a stole embroidered with gold and garnished with
+    bells. So rich were the fringes at that epoch, that King
+    Robert, praying one day in the church, became aware that
+    while he was lost in meditation a thief had ripped off
+    part of the fringes of his mantle. He interrupted his
+    proceedings by saying, "My friend, suppose you content
+    yourself with what you have taken, and leave the rest
+    for some other member of your guild." See "Histoire du
+    Tissu Ancien," Union Central des Arts Decoratifs. For a
+    fringe with bells, see the beautiful example in Bock's
+    "Liturgische Gewaender" (plates xli. xlii. xliii. vol.
+    ii. p. 297), already quoted.
+
+    [552] Resembling the fringe of St. Cuthbert's corporax,
+    with its silver bells.
+
+    [553] This valuable collection of textiles is so ancient
+    and therefore so frail, that it seems a pity to send
+    portions of it continually travelling about the country
+    for loan exhibitions. Change of climate--cold, heat, and
+    damp--carelessness in packing and unpacking--above all,
+    the reckless exposure to floods of sunshine even when
+    they are protected from dust by glass,--all these
+    endanger the preservation of what can never be replaced,
+    and has only survived till now because of the quiet and
+    darkness in which it has lain for centuries.
+
+    [554] George Herbert, "The Churchyard Porch," v. 15.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+ENGLISH EMBROIDERY.
+
+
+Through the preceding chapters I have tried to moderate my predominant
+interest in our national school of needlework, seeking to place it in
+its just position alongside of the coeval Continental schools.
+However, the more I have seen of specimens at home and abroad, the
+more I have become convinced of the great superiority of our
+needlework in the Middle Ages. As information about our own art must
+be valuable to us, I give a short account of English embroidery.
+
+In England our art, like our language, is mixed. Our early history is
+one of repeated conquest, and we can only observe where style has
+flowed in from outside, or has formed itself by grafting upon the stem
+full of vitality already planted and growing. It is interesting to
+seek its root.
+
+There is every reason to believe, from the evidence of the animal
+remains of the Neolithic Age (including those of sheep), that they
+came with their masters from the central plateau of Asia.
+
+The overlap of the Asiatic civilizations over the barbarism of
+Northern Europe shows that Assyria[555] as well as Egypt was a highly
+organized empire, and the Mediterranean peoples far advanced in the
+arts of life, while the Neolithic man survived and lingered in
+Britain, France, and Scandinavia. Yet, even at that early period, the
+craft of spinning and the use of the needle were practised by the
+women of Britain.[556]
+
+Our first glimpses of art may have come to us by Phoenician traders,
+touching at the Scilly Islands and thence sailing to the coasts of
+Cornwall and Ireland. From Ireland we have curious relics as witnesses
+of their presence--amongst others, jewellery connected by, or pendant
+from, "Trichinopoly" chains, similar to those dug out of Etruscan
+tombs, and which were probably imported into Ireland as early as the
+sixth century B.C.[557]
+
+In the Bronze Age the chiefs and the rich men wore linen or woollen
+homespun. Fragments of these have been found in the Scale House barrow
+at Rylston, in Yorkshire. Dr. Rock says that an ancient Celtic barrow
+was opened not long ago in Yorkshire, in which the body was wrapped in
+plaited (not woven) woollen material.[558] Before this time the Cymri
+in Britain probably wore plaited grass garments; they also sewed
+together the skins of animals with bone needles.
+
+Dyeing and weaving were well understood in Britain before the advent
+of the Romans. Hemp and flax, however, though native to the soil, were
+not employed by the early Britons. Linen perhaps came to us first
+through the Phoenicians, and afterwards through the Celts, and was
+naturalized here by the Romans.
+
+Anderson ("Scotland in Early Christian Times") gives a high place to
+the forms of pagan art which prevailed in the British Isles, before
+the Roman civilization; and differing from and influencing that which
+came from Scandinavia. We must certainly allow that it was art, and
+that it contained no Greek or other classical element. His
+illustrations explain and give great weight to his theories.
+
+Caesar invaded England forty-five years B.C.[559] The Romans gave us
+Christianity and the rudiments of civilization, but their attempts to
+Romanize us met with little success. Probably they imported their
+luxuries, and removed all they valued at the time of their exodus.
+From them we know what they found and what they left in Britain.
+Boadicea, Queen of the Iceni, the day of her defeat wore a tartan
+dress (polymita) and an "embroidered" or "fur" mantle; probably the
+fur was inside, and the skins embroidered outside. Dion Cassius,[560]
+who describes Boadicea's motley tunic, says that the bulk of the
+people wore what was apparently a chequered tartan. Semper says that
+the early tribes of Northern Europe, like the North American Indians
+of the present time, embroidered their fur wraps. The Emperor
+Honorius, in the fourth century, made it illegal for Roman nobles to
+wear extravagantly-worked fur robes; perhaps the report of Boadicea's
+dress had set the fashion in Rome.
+
+During the first four centuries of our era, all art in Britain must
+have come from our Roman masters; and owing to their neglect of the
+people they conquered, we benefited little by their civilization.
+
+All that we know of their decorative art in Britain, is that it was,
+with few exceptions, chiefly of small bronze statues, somewhat crude
+and colonial, as appears from the remains of their architecture,
+sculpture, mosaics, and tombs.[561] Of their textiles we have no
+relics, and hardly know of any recorded, if we except the works of the
+Empress Helena. See p. 316, _ante_. We must remember that, as she was
+a British princess, it is likely that she had learnt her art at home,
+and therefore that the women of England were already embroiderers as
+early as the beginning of the fourth century.[562]
+
+On the departure of the Romans, chaos ensued, till the Britons, who
+had called in the Saxons to help them, were by them driven into Wales,
+Brittany, and Ireland, which last they Christianized; and mingled the
+art of the Germans and Celts with that of the Danes and Norsemen[563];
+all which may be traced in the Irish remains to be seen in the
+College Museum at Dublin and elsewhere. From the time that England
+became Anglo-Saxon, literature, law, and art began to crystallize; and
+when, under Egbert, one kingdom was formed out of the heptarchy, order
+and a sense of beauty were in the course of development. Then came the
+invasion of the Danes (ninth century), who robbed, destroyed, and
+arrested all artistic improvement, till Alfred got rid of them for a
+time. Early in the seventh century the women of England had attained
+great perfection in needlework. This appears from a passage in a poem
+by Adhelme, Bishop of Sherborne. He speaks of their shuttles, "filled
+not with purple only, but with various colours, moved here and there
+among the thick spreading threads."[564] He had himself a robe "of a
+most delicate thread of purple, adorned with black circles and
+peacocks." This may or may not have been woven in England, but at that
+time weaving, as well as needlework, was the delight and occupation of
+the ladies of the court and of the cloistered nuns.[565] The thralls
+(slaves or serfs) were employed in weaving in the houses of the
+nobles, probably they embroidered also.
+
+Mrs. Lawrence sees reason to believe that in the seventh century, silk
+and fine linen were the materials for altar decorations, vestments,
+and dress; whereas the hangings of the house were of coarse canvas
+adorned with embroidery in thick worsted.[566] She says the term
+"broiderie" was reserved for the delicate works on fine grounds, in
+silk and gold and silver thread, and enrichments in metal work.
+Precious stones and pearls had already been introduced into the
+Byzantine and Romanesque designs imported from Greece and Rome.
+
+The English Dominican Friar, Th. Stubbs, writing in the thirteenth
+century, describes in his notice of St. Oswald a chasuble of
+Anglo-Saxon work, which exactly resembles that of Aix.[567] This is
+splendidly engraved in Von Bock's "Kleinodien" amongst the coronation
+robes of the Emperors of Germany, and is adorned with the richest
+golden orphreys, imitating jewellers' work, enriched with pearls and
+silver bells.
+
+There is an Icelandic Saga of the thirteenth century which relates the
+history of Thorgunna, a woman from the Hebrides, who was taken to
+Iceland on the first settlement of the country by Norway, A.D. 1000.
+She employed witchery in her needlework, and her embroidered hangings
+were coveted by, and proved fatal to, many persons after her death,
+till one of her inheritors burned them.[568]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 71.
+    One of the ends of the Stole of St. Cuthbert at Durham, which
+        together bear the inscription, "Aelfled fieri precepit pio
+        Episcopo Fridestano."]
+
+English ecclesiastical art did not necessarily keep to Christian
+subjects; for it is recorded that King Wiglaf, of Mercia, gave to
+Croyland Abbey his splendid coronation mantle and "velum;" and that
+the latter was embroidered with scenes from the siege of Troy.[569]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 72.
+    St. John.
+    St. Roger.
+    Durham Embroideries, tenth century.]
+
+It was probably on account of such derelictions from orthodox subjects
+of design that in the eighth century the Council of Cloveshoe
+admonished the convents for their frivolous embroideries.[570]
+
+In the eighth century our English work in illuminations and
+embroideries was finer than that of any Continental school; and
+therefore, in view of the great advance of these secondary arts, we
+may claim that we were then no longer outer barbarians, though our
+only acknowledged superiority over Continental artists was in the
+workrooms of our women and the cells of our religious houses.
+
+During the terrible incursions of the Danes, and the many troubles
+that accrued from these barbarous and idolatrous invaders, the
+convents and monasteries, especially those of the order of St.
+Benedict, kept the sacred flame of art burning.[571] Both monks and
+nuns wrote, illuminated, painted, and embroidered. They evidently
+continued their relations with foreign art, for it is difficult to say
+at what period the Norman style began to be introduced into England.
+It was the outcome of the Romanesque, and of this, different phases
+must have come to us through the Danes and the Saxons.
+
+I cannot but dwell on the early life and springtide of our Anglican
+Christian art, which in many points preceded and surpassed that of
+other northern nations, as we arose from that period commonly called
+the Dark Ages. Ours was a gradual development, adding to itself from
+outer sources new strength and grace. The better perfection of details
+and patterns was succeeded by Anglo-Saxon ingenuity and refinement in
+drawing the human figure. The art, which was native to England, may be
+judged by the rare examples that we possess, and of which we may well
+be proud; though we must remember with shame how much was destroyed at
+the Reformation. Enough however, remains to prove that our English art
+of illumination of the ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries was very
+beautiful, and we are not surprised therefore to find in the
+embroideries of that period grace and artistic feeling.
+
+The stole and maniple of the Durham cathedral library, which bear the
+inscription "Aelfled fieri precepit pio Episcopo Fridestano," are of
+the most perfect style of Anglo-Saxon design; and the stitching of the
+silk embroidery and of the gold grounding are of the utmost perfection
+of needlework art (plates 71, 72).
+
+The history of this embroidery is carefully elucidated by Dr. Raine in
+his "Saint Cuthbert." He says that Frithestan was consecrated bishop
+in 905, by command of Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the Great.
+Aelfled was Edward the Second's queen. She ordered and gave an
+embroidered stole and maniple to Frithestan. After her death, and that
+of Edward, and of the Bishop of Winchester, Athelstan, then king, made
+a progress to the north, and visiting the shrine of St. Cuthbert, at
+Chester-le-Street, he bestowed on it many rich gifts, which are
+solemnly enumerated in the MSS. Cott. Brit. Mus. Claud. D. iv. fol.
+21-6. Among these are "one stole, with a maniple; one girdle, and two
+bracelets of gold." That the stole and maniple are those worked for
+Frithestan by the command of his mother-in-law, Aelfled, may fairly be
+said to be proved. These embroideries, worked with her name and the
+record of her act, were taken from the body of St. Cuthbert in
+1827.[572]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 73.
+    St. Dunstan's Portrait of himself in adoration. From his Missal in
+        the Bodleian Library, Oxford.]
+
+Another and earlier Aelfled was the widow of Brithnod, a famous
+Northumbrian chieftain. She gave to the cathedral of Ely, where his
+headless body lay buried, a large cloth, or hanging, on which she had
+embroidered the heroic deeds of her husband. She was the ancestress of
+a race of embroiderers, and their pedigree will be found in the
+Appendix.[573] At this time a lady of the Queen of Scotland was famed
+for her perfect skill in needlework, and the four daughters of Edward
+the Elder were likewise celebrated embroiderers.
+
+St. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, is said to have designed
+needlework for a noble and pious lady, Aedelwyrme, to execute in gold
+thread, A.D. 924.[574] He prepared and painted a drawing, and directed
+her work.[575] I here give the portrait of our celebrated early
+designer from the MS. in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, said to be
+by his own hand, and which represents him kneeling at the feet of the
+Saviour (plate 73).
+
+Shortly before the Norman conquest, in the beginning of the eleventh
+century, we have notices of sundry other very remarkable pieces of
+work.
+
+The Danish Queen Emma, daughter of Richard, Duke of Normandy, when she
+was wife to Ethelred the Unready, and again during her second marriage
+to Canute, gave the finest embroideries to various abbeys and
+monasteries. Canute, being then a Christian, joined her in these
+splendid votive offerings. To Romsey and Croyland they gave
+altar-cloths which had been embroidered by his first queen,
+Aelgitha,[576] and vestments covered with golden eagles. She worked
+one altar-cloth on shot blood-red and green silk,[577] with golden
+orphreys at the side and across the top. When one considers what the
+life of poor Queen Emma was, one hopes that "Art the Consoler" came to
+her in the form of her favourite craft, and that she did find
+consolation in it.
+
+Croyland Abbey seems to have been most splendidly endowed by the
+Anglo-Saxon monarchs. There is continual mention in the records of
+those times of offerings of embroideries and other Church apparels.
+Queen Editha, the wife of the Confessor, dispensed beautiful works
+from her own workrooms, and herself embroidered King Edward's
+coronation mantle.
+
+When in the eleventh century the Normans became our masters, they
+found cathedrals, churches, and palaces which almost vied with their
+own; likewise sculptures, illuminated books, embroidered hangings,
+and vestments of surpassing beauty.
+
+William of Poitou, Chaplain to William the Conqueror,[578] relates
+that the Normans were as much struck on the Conqueror's return into
+Normandy with the splendid embroidered garments of the Saxon nobles,
+as with the beauty of the Saxon youth. Queen Matilda, who evidently
+appreciated Anglo-Saxon work, left in her will, to the Abbey of the
+Holy Trinity, "My tunic worked by Alderet's wife, and the mantle which
+is in my chamber, to make a cope. Of my two golden girdles, I give the
+one which is adorned with emblems to suspend the lamp before the great
+altar."
+
+I come now to the earliest large work remaining to us of the
+period--the Bayeux tapestry. We must claim it as English, both on
+account of the reputed worker, and the history it commemorates, though
+the childish style of which it is a type is indeed inferior in every
+way to the beautiful specimens which have been rescued from tombs in
+Durham, Worcester, and elsewhere. They seem hardly to belong to the
+same period, so weak are the designs and the composition of the
+groups. Though Mr. Rede Fowke gives the Abbe de la Rue's doubts as to
+the accepted period of the Bayeux tapestry, which he assigns to the
+Empress Matilda, he yet leans to other equally good authorities who
+consider the work as being coeval with the events it records.[579]
+
+Mr. Collingwood Bruce is of the same opinion, and for this
+reason--the furniture, buildings, &c., are all of the eleventh
+century, and our ancestors were no archaeologists, and always drew what
+they saw around them. Mr. Bruce fancies the design to be Italian,
+"because of the energetic action of the figures;" this seems hardly
+justified when we look at the simple poverty of the style. Miss A.
+Strickland suggests that the artist was perhaps Turold the Dwarf, who
+has cunningly introduced his effigy and name. That the tapestry is not
+found in any catalogue before 1369, is only a piece of presumptive
+evidence against the earlier date, and cannot compete with the
+internal evidence in its favour. On 227 feet of canvas-linen, twenty
+inches wide, are delineated the events of English history from the
+time of Edward the Confessor to the landing of the Conqueror at
+Hastings. The Bayeux tapestry is worked in worsted on linen; the
+design is perfectly flat and shadowless. The outlines are firmly drawn
+with cords on thickly set stem-stitches. The surfaces are laid in flat
+stitch. Though coarsely worked, there is a certain "maestria" in the
+execution.
+
+The word "orphrey" (English for auriphrigium or Phrygian gold
+embroidery) is first found in Domesday Book, where "Alvide the maiden"
+receives from Godric the Sheriff, for her life, half a hide of land,
+"If she might teach his daughters to make orphreys."[580]
+
+In the end of the eleventh century, Christina, Abbess of Markgate,
+worked a pair of sandals and three mitres of surpassing beauty, sent
+through the Abbot of St. Alban's to Pope Adrian IV., who doubtless
+valued them the more because they came from his native England.[581]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 74.
+    English Patterns, chiefly from Strutt's "Royal and Ecclesiastical
+        Antiquities of England."
+    1. 1066. 2. 1092. 3. 1100. 4. 1171. 5. 1171. 6. 1189. 7. 1189. 8.
+        1361. 9, 10. 1377. 11. 1399. 12. 1422. 13. 1426. 14. 1440. 15.
+        1445. 16. 1416. 17. 1445. 18. 1477. 19. 1530. 20. 1272.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 75.
+    1. Panel of a Screen in Hornby Church. Painted fifteenth century.
+    2. Dress pattern from painted glass. St. Michael's Church, York.
+        Fourteenth century.
+    3. A portion of the material of the Towneley Copes. Fifteenth
+        century.]
+
+Of the twelfth century (1170) we have the robes and mitres of Thomas
+a Becket at Sens; and another mitre of the period, white and gold, is
+in the museum at Munich, with his martyrdom embroidered on one side,
+and that of St. Stephen on the other. The gold needlework is so
+perfect that it resembles weaving. It is recorded that a splendid
+dress was embroidered in London for Elinor of Aquitaine, which cost
+L80, equal to L1400 of the value of to-day.[582]
+
+Rock ("Church of our Fathers," t. ii. p. 279) truly says that it is
+shown by plentiful records and written documents, from the days of St.
+Osmond to the time of Henry VIII., that the materials employed in
+English ecclesiastical embroideries were the best that could be found
+in our own country or in far-off lands, and the art bestowed on them
+was the best we could learn and give. Various fabrics came from
+Byzantine or Saracenic looms, which are described as damasked, rayed,
+marbled, &c. The few surviving specimens fully justify the admiration
+bestowed on them throughout Christendom.
+
+Matthew Paris, in the reign of Henry III., says that Innocent III.
+(1246), seeing certain copes and infulae with desirable orphreys, was
+informed they were English work. He exclaimed, "Surely England is a
+garden of delight! In sooth this is a well inexhaustible! And where
+there is so much abundance, from thence much may be extracted!"[583]
+
+From the Conquest to the Reformation the catalogues of Church
+vestments which are to be found in the libraries of York, Lincoln, and
+Peterborough, show the luxury of ecclesiastical decoration. In Lincoln
+alone there were upwards of 600 vestments wrought with divers kinds of
+needlework, jewellery, and gold, upon "Indian baudichyn," samite,
+tartarin, velvet, and silk. Even in reading the dry descriptions of a
+common inventory, we are amazed by the lists of "orphreys of goodly
+needlework," copes embroidered with armorial bearings, and knights
+jousting, lions fighting, and amices "barred with amethysts and
+pearls, &c. &c." The few I have named will give an idea of the
+accumulation of riches in the churches, and the gorgeousness of
+English embroideries.[584]
+
+I have collected from Strutt's "Illustrations"[585] and other sources
+a number of patterns for domestic hangings, copied from MSS. of
+contemporary dates, covering about 400 years, from the time of Harold
+to Edward IV. The hangings may have been more effective than appears
+at first sight, if the materials were rich and enlivened with gold. I
+give two textile designs which in their style are peculiarly English
+(plates 74, 75).
+
+Now we enter on the age of romance and chivalry, when all domestic
+decorations began to assume greater refinement. Carpets from the East
+covered the rushes strewn on the floors, and splendid tents were
+brought home by crusading knights; and the decorative arts of northern
+Europe were once more permeated with Oriental taste and design.
+
+We know that in the so-called "days of chivalry," i.e. from the
+Conquest till the beginning of Henry VIII.'s reign, needlework was the
+occupation of the women left in their castles, while the men were away
+fighting for the cross, for the king, for their liberties, or for
+booty.
+
+This period included the Crusades, the Wars of the Roses, wars with
+France, and rebellions at home; and yet there was a taste for art,
+luxury, and show spreading everywhere.[586]
+
+The women were expected to provide, with their looms and their
+needles, the heraldic surcoats, the scarves and banners, and the
+mantles for state occasions.[587] They also worked the hangings for
+the hall and chapel, and adorned the altars and the priests'
+vestments. Alas! time, taste, and the moth have shared in the
+destruction of these gauds. The taste for the "baroc" is a new
+acquisition; no one cared for what was old, merely because it was old.
+The rich replaced their hangings and their clothes when they became
+shabby; the poor let them go to pieces, and probably burned the old
+stuff and the embroideries for the sake of the gold thread, which was
+of intrinsic value. But both in prose and poetry we read descriptions
+of beautiful works in the loom, or on the frame, executed by fair
+ladies for the gallant knights whose lives and prowess these poems
+have preserved to us. I will give one quotation from that of Emare,
+in Ritson's collection: "Her mantle was wroughte by a faire Paynim,
+the Amarayle's daughter." This occupied her seven long years. In each
+corner is depicted a pair of lovers, "Sir Tristram and Iseult--Sir
+Amadis and Ydoine, &c., &c. These pictures were adorned with precious
+stones." The figures were portrayed--
+
+    "With stones bright and pure,
+    With carbuncle and sapphire,
+    Kalsedonys and onyx clere,
+    Sette in golde newe;
+    Diamondes and rubies,
+    And other stones of mychel pryse."
+
+The lady who owns this mantle is herself great in "workes of
+broderie."
+
+From the Conquest to the Wars of the Roses, England may claim to have
+gradually acquired a higher place in art. Our architecture, sculpture,
+manuscripts, and paintings were not surpassed on the Continent:
+witness Queen Eleanor's crosses, and her tomb in Westminster Abbey;
+and the portrait of Richard II., surrounded by saints and angels, at
+Wilton House,[588] a picture which, preceding Fra Beato Angelico's
+works by at least a quarter of a century, yet suggests his style,
+refined drawing, and tender colouring. All who saw the frescoes found
+in the Chapel at Eton College when it was restored, will remember
+their extreme beauty, and regret that they were effaced, instead of
+being preserved and restored. They were a lesson in what English art
+was in the end of the thirteenth, during the fourteenth, and into the
+beginning of the fifteenth centuries.
+
+During the Wars of the Roses, when a duke of the blood-royal is said
+to have begged his bread in the streets of the rich Flemish towns,
+ladies of rank, more fortunate, were able to earn theirs by the work
+of their needle.[589]
+
+The monuments of the eleventh and twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth
+centuries, are our best authorities for the embroideries then worn.
+The surcoat of the Black Prince in Canterbury Cathedral is a
+noteworthy example. The sculptured effigy on the tomb over which it is
+suspended is absolutely clothed in the same surcoat, with the same
+accidents of embroidery, as if it had been modelled from it.
+
+In Worcester, when the archaeologists opened King John's tomb in 1797,
+they found him in the same dress and attitude as that portrayed on the
+recumbent statue.[590] Dress was then extravagantly expensive, and
+embroidered dresses were worn with borders richly set with precious
+stones and pearls.
+
+The Librate Roll of Henry III. gives us a list of embroiderers' names:
+Alain de Basinge, Adam de Bakeryne, John de Colonia, &c.; and in the
+wardrobe accompts of Richard II., William Sanstoune and Robert de
+Ashmede are called the "Broudatores Domini Regis." These may have
+been the artists to whom the orders were delivered, for in the Librate
+Roll of Henry III. we find Adam de Baskeryne receiving 6_s._ 8_d._ for
+a "cloth of silk, and fringe, purchased by our commands to embroider a
+certain chasuble which Mabilia of St. Edmunds made for us." There were
+certainly then purveyors and masters of the craft. Stephen Vigner, in
+the fourteenth century, is so warmly commended by the Duke of Berri
+and Auvergne to Edward III., that Richard II. appointed him his chief
+embroiderer, and Henry IV. pensioned him for his skilful services.
+
+John Garland, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, is a good
+authority for the use by our women of small hand-looms. In these they
+wove, in flax or silk (often mixed with gold), the "cingulae" or
+"blode-bendes" so often mentioned, supposed to be gifts between
+friends for binding the arm, when blood-letting was so much in fashion
+that the operation was allowed to assume a certain air of coquetry.
+But the idea suggests itself that this was oftener the gift of the
+fair weaver to her favoured lover, to fold round his arm as a scarf in
+battle or tourney, to be ready in case it was needed for binding up a
+wound, and had possibly served as a snood to bind her own fair hair.
+There is an account of a specimen of this kind of weaving by M.
+Leopold Delisle.[591] He describes the attachment of a seal to a grant
+from Richard Coeur de Lion to Richard Hommet and Gille his wife,
+preserved in the archives of the Abbey of Aunai, in the department of
+Calvados. He considers it to be either French or English, and says it
+was a "lac d'amour," or "tie of love," cut up to serve its present
+purpose. It is woven with an inscription in white on a ground of
+green, backed with pale blue, and the material is silk. The woven
+legend is thus translated from the old French--"Let him perish who
+would part us."
+
+  [Illustration: Opus Anglicanum, XIII. Century
+    British Museum]
+
+The term "opus Anglicanum" is first recorded in the thirteenth
+century, and is supposed simply to mean "English work." But there is
+also good authority for its having been applied, on the Continent
+especially, to a particular style of stitchery, of which the Syon cope
+in the Kensington Museum is the best preserved great example known.
+Its peculiarity consists in its fine split-stitch being moulded so as
+to give the effect of a bas-relief; and this appears to have been
+generally reserved for the medallions representing sacred subjects,
+and especially employed in modelling the faces and the nude parts of
+the figures delineated. The effect of this work has often been
+destroyed, as time has frayed and discoloured the parts that are
+raised, exhibiting the canvas ground, reversing the high lights, and
+causing dark spots in their stead. This reversal of the intended
+effect is an additional practical argument for the flatness of
+embroidery.[592]
+
+From the Librate Roll of Henry III. one can form an estimate of the
+value of the "opus Anglicanum" in its day.[593] In 1241 the king gave
+Peter de Agua Blanca a mitre so worked, costing L82. This would be,
+according to the present value, L230.
+
+The finest specimens of this English work are to be found on the
+Continent, or have been returned from it.[594] They had either been
+gifts to popes or bishops before the Reformation, or they had been
+sold at that time of general persecution and pillage. Among the most
+remarkable are the pluvial (called) of St. Silvester at Rome, the
+Daroca pluvial at Madrid, the great pluvial at Bologna, and the Syon
+cope, of which I have already spoken. The general idea and prevailing
+design of these three great works are so singular, and yet so alike,
+that they must have issued from the same workshop, and that was
+certainly English.
+
+In the Daroca cope the cherubim, with their feet on wheels, which are
+peculiar to English design, and the angels (in the vacant spaces
+between the framed subjects from the life of our Lord) have their
+wings carefully done in chain split-stitch representing peacocks'
+feathers, of which the silken eyes are stitched in circles, and then
+raised with an iron by pressure, so as to catch a light and throw a
+shadow. The ground is entirely English gold-laid work. This cope, so
+markedly national in design and stitches, probably drifted to the
+Continent at the time of the Reformation.[595]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 77.
+    Characteristic English Parseme Patterns for Ecclesiastical
+        Embroideries.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 78.
+    Dunstable Pall. Property of the Vicar of Dunstable _ex officio_.]
+
+A wonderfully preserved specimen of the "opus Anglicanum," of which a
+photogravure is here given, was lately presented by Mr. Franks to the
+Mediaeval Department of the British Museum (plate 76). In this may be
+seen most of the characteristics of this work in the thirteenth
+century; such as the angels with peacock feather wings, moulded by hot
+irons; the features of all the figures similarly manipulated; the
+beautiful gold groundwork, which in this instance is covered with
+double-headed eagles; and lastly, the fashion of the beard on the face
+of our Lord and of all the men delineated--the upper lip and round the
+mouth being invariably shaven; whereas, in Continental work, the
+beard is allowed to grow into the moustache, closely surrounding the
+mouth. There are other peculiarities belonging to English design--such
+as the angels rising between the shrine-work on the pillars out of a
+flame or cloud pattern, and the pillars very often formed of twined
+stems bearing vine-leaves or else oak-leaves and acorns. The
+compartments which frame the groups, when they are not placed in
+niches, are usually variations of the intersected circle and square.
+Plate 77 shows the cherubim which from the thirteenth to the sixteenth
+centuries are found on English ecclesiastical embroideries--also the
+vase of lilies (emblematic of the Virgin), and the Gothic flowers
+which are so commonly _parseme_ over our mediaeval altar frontals and
+vestments.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 26.]
+
+It appears that in the reign of Edward III. the people ingeniously
+evaded the penalties against the excess of luxury in dress, by wearing
+something that looked as gay, but was less expensive than the
+forbidden materials; and which did not come under the letter of the
+law. They invented a spurious kind of embroidery which was, perhaps,
+partly painted (such examples are recorded). In the 2nd Henry VI.
+(1422) it was enacted that all such work should be forfeited to the
+king. The accusation was that "divers persons belonging to the craft
+of Brouderie make divers works of Brouderie of insufficient stuffe and
+unduly wroughte with gold and silver of Cyprus, and gold of Lucca, and
+Spanish laton (or tin); and that they sell these at the fairs of
+Stereberg, Oxford, and Salisbury, to the great deceit of our Sovereign
+Lord and all his people." In those days any dishonest work or material
+was illegal and punishable.[596]
+
+This was, in fact, a protectionist measure in favour of the chartered
+embroiderers, and gave them a slight taste of the advantages of
+protection. For a time it was doubtless useful in keeping up the
+standard of national work. Then followed further measures for the
+benefit of the established monopolies. First, a statute in 1453 (Henry
+VI.), forbidding the importation of foreign embroideries for five
+years. This is re-enacted under Edward IV., Richard III., and Henry
+VII.; and was partially repealed in the 3rd and 5th George III. While
+we are on this subject, we may remark that in 1707, the importation of
+embroidery was forbidden to the East India Company, and we closed our
+ports to all manufactured Indian goods. The only artistic trade _now_
+protected is that of the silversmith; no plate from foreign workshops
+being permitted to enter England--not even do we allow Indian plate to
+come in, except under certain conditions. This may be the reason that
+our own plate is so very bad in design and execution, for want of
+competition and example.
+
+Protection is always more or less fatal to art. The Wars of the Roses
+had injured our own best schools, and we needed refined imported ideas
+to raise our standard once again. Perhaps, since embroidery had become
+a regular industry, our markets were overstocked by home productions
+which were outrivalled by the works from the Continent, and it was
+distress that caused the plea for protection.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 79.
+    Pall of the Vintners' Company (sixteenth century).]
+
+It is fair to say that some of the English works of that time, of
+which we have specimens, are as good as possible. In the Dunstable
+pall, for instance, the figures of which are perfectly drawn and
+beautifully executed, the style is excellent and pure English (plate
+78). The pall itself is of Florentine crimson velvet and gold brocade,
+with the little loops of gold drawn through the velvet, showing the
+loom from whence it came. The white satin border carries the
+embroidery. It is a more perfect specimen of the later fourteenth
+century work than the famous pall of the Fishmongers' Company, which
+shows the impress of the Flemish taste, which was at its perfection in
+the fifteenth. The style reminds us of that of the fine tapestries
+from the St. Mary's Hall, Coventry, of which the subject is King Henry
+VI. and Cardinal Beaufort praying. The Vintners' Company's pall is
+also very fine (plate 79).
+
+  [Illustration: Henry VII.'s Cope from Stoneyhurst]
+
+Of the time of Henry VII. we have the celebrated cope of Stoneyhurst,
+woven in Florence, of a gold tissue, the design raised in crimson
+velvet. It is without seam, and the composition which covers the whole
+surface is the crown of England lying on the portcullis; and the Tudor
+rose fills up the space with a magnificent scroll. The design is
+evidently English, as well as the embroidery, which is, however, much
+restored[597] (plate 80).
+
+This is one of the "whole suite of vestments and copes of cloth of
+gold tissue wrought with our badges of red roses and portcullises, the
+which we of late caused to be made at Florence in Italy ... which our
+king, Henry VII., in his will bequeathed to God and St. Peter, and to
+the Abbot and Prior of our Monastery at Westminster,"[598] which were
+designed for him by Torrigiano.
+
+From the portraits of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries we can
+judge of the prevailing taste in dress embroideries of that period,
+which consisted mostly of delicate patterns of gold or silver on the
+borders of dresses, and the linen collars and sleeves. Of this style I
+give a small sampler, from Lord Middleton's collection. We have a good
+many specimens of the work of these centuries, both ecclesiastical and
+secular. They had still a Gothic stamp, which totally disappeared in
+the beginning of the sixteenth century in the new style of the
+Renaissance.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 27.
+    Sampler, from Lord Middleton's collection.
+    Time, Henry VIII.]
+
+The next great change throughout northern Europe affecting all the
+conditions of life, most especially in England, was caused by the
+Reformation, which swept away both the art and the artist of the
+Gothic era. The monasteries which had fostered painting, illumination,
+and embroidery, and the arts which had been so passionately devoted to
+the Church, were doomed. George Gifford, writing to Cromwell of the
+suppression of a religious house at Woolstrope, in Lincolnshire, after
+praising that establishment says, "There is not one religious person
+there, but what _can_ and _doth_ use either embrotheryng, wryting
+bookes with a fayre hand, making garments, karvynge, &c."[599]
+
+In the general clearance the churches and shrines were swept, though
+never again garnished, and the survivals have to be painfully sought
+for, and are so few that a short catalogue will tell them all.
+
+The greater part of the fine embroideries which escaped the
+"iconoclastic rage" of the Reformation, and the final sweep of the
+Puritans, are to be seen now in the houses and chapels of the old
+Roman Catholic families, who have either preserved or collected them;
+also in the museums of our cathedrals, and spread about the Continent.
+For instance, at Sens are the vestments of Thomas a Becket, and at
+Valencia, in Spain, there are yet in the chapter-house a chasuble and
+two dalmatics, brought from London by two merchants of Valencia, whose
+names are preserved--Andrew and Pedro de Medina. They purchased them
+at the sale of the Roman Catholic ornaments of Westminster Abbey in
+the time of Henry VIII. They are embroidered in gold, and represent
+scenes from the life of our Lord. The background of one is a
+representation of the Tower of London.
+
+In 1520 was held the famous tournament of the Field of the Cloth of
+Gold.[600] Here came all England's chivalry surrounding their splendid
+young king; followed by squires and men-at-arms, and carrying with
+them tents, banners, and hangings covered with devices and mottoes.
+Their own dresses, of rich materials and adorned with embroidery (as
+well as the housings of their horses), vied in ingenuity and splendour
+with those of the still more luxurious court and following of Francis
+I., the French king. The tradesmen and workmen and workwomen in
+England were driven crazy in their efforts to carry out the ideas and
+commands of their employers. It is recorded that several committed
+suicide in their despair. It was worse than the miseries caused by a
+Court Drawing-Room now. Ingenuity in devices was the order of the day.
+Francis and his "Partners of Challenge" illustrated one sentimental
+motto throughout the three days' tourney. The first day they were
+apparelled in purple satin, "broched" with gold, and covered with
+black-ravens' feathers, buckled into a circle. The first syllable of
+"corbyn" (a raven) is _cor_, a "hart" (heart). A feather in French is
+_pennac_. "And so it stode." The feather in a circle was endless, and
+"betokened sothe fastnesse." Then was the device "Hart fastened in
+pain endlesse."
+
+The next day the "Hardy Kings" met armed at all points. The French
+king and his followers were arrayed in purple satin, broched with gold
+and purple velvet, embroidered with little rolls of white satin, on
+which was written "Quando;" all the rest was powdered with the letter
+L--"Quando Elle" (when she). The third day the motto was laboriously
+brought to a conclusion. Francis appeared dressed in purple velvet
+embroidered with little white open books; "Liber" being a book, the
+motto on it was, "A me." These books were connected with worked blue
+chains; thus we have the whole motto: "Hart, fastened in pain
+endlesse, when she delivereth me not of bondes." Could painful
+ingenuity go further? On the English side we have similar devices.
+Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, the bridegroom of the Dowager Queen of
+France, Henry's sister, was clothed on one side in cloth of frise
+(grey woollen), on which appeared embroidered in gold the motto,--
+
+    "Cloth of frise, be not too bold
+    That thou be match'd with cloth of gold."
+
+This parti-coloured garment was on the other side of gold, with the
+motto,--
+
+    "Cloth of gold, do not despise
+    That thou be match'd with cloth of frise."
+
+Besides mottoes, cyphers and monograms were the fashion, embroidered
+with heraldic devices. These particulars we find in Hall's account of
+the tournament, with a detailed description of the golden tent in
+which the monarchs met, and which gave its name ever after to the
+plain near Guisnes, where the jousts were held. What we read of its
+construction recalls the Alexandrian erections, of which I have spoken
+already, as well as their hangings and embroideries.
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 81.
+    English Specimens of Spanish Work. Time of Henry VIII. Lord
+        Middleton's Collection.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 82.
+    English Specimen. Spanish Work. Henry VIII. Louisa, Lady Waterford's
+        Collection.]
+
+Incrustations of pearls and precious stones gave a dazzling brilliancy
+to the tent, divided into many rooms, and adapted to the climate of
+the north. It covered a space of 328 feet. Hall describes the tent,
+the jousts, and the splendid apparel belonging to this last chapter of
+the magnificence of chivalry. Brewer remarks that magnificence was, in
+those days, often supposed to be synonymous with magnanimity (at any
+rate, it was erected into a royal virtue). "The Mediaeval Age," he
+says, "had gathered up its departing energies for this last display of
+its favourite pastime, henceforth to be consigned without regret to
+the mouldering lodges of the past."[601]
+
+We cannot say how much of French taste was imported from this meeting
+of French and English luxury. The spirit of the Renaissance, fresh
+from Italy, was reigning in France, but we had also in Italy our own
+emissaries. John of Padua was probably only one of many Englishmen who
+travelled to learn and improve themselves in their special crafts.
+
+Catherine of Aragon introduced the Spanish taste in embroidery, which
+was then white or black silk and gold "lace stitches" on fine linen
+(plate 81). This went by the name of "Spanish work," and continued to
+be the fashion down to and through the reign of Mary Tudor, who
+remained faithful to the traditions of her mother's and her
+grandmother's work[602] (plate 82). Catherine of Aragon had learned
+her craft from her mother, Queen Isabella, who always made her
+husband's shirts. To make and adorn a shirt was then an artistic feat,
+not unworthy of a queen. Isabella instituted trials of needlework
+amongst her ladies. In the days of her disgrace and solitude,
+Catherine turned to her embroidery for solace and occupation. She came
+forth to meet the Cardinals Wolsey and Campeggio with a skein of red
+silk round her neck.[603] Taylor, the water poet, says,--
+
+                    "Virtuously,
+    Although a queen, her days did pass
+    In working with her needle curiously."
+
+At Silbergh Castle, in Westmoreland, was a counterpane and toilet
+embroidered by Queen Catherine.
+
+Anne of Cleves brought with her the taste for Flemish and German
+Renaissance designs; and all the cushion stitches were in vogue. The
+Renaissance borders for dress were mostly worked in gold on coloured
+silk on the linen collars and cuffs. Holbein's and other contemporary
+portraits illustrate this peculiarity of the costumes of the time. The
+women's head-dresses also carried much fine, beautifully designed, and
+delicate work.
+
+In the reign of Henry VIII. fine hangings were worked and woven in
+England; the royal inventories give us an idea to what extent.
+Cardinal Wolsey's walls were covered with splendid embroideries,
+besides the suites of tapestries still adorning the hall at Hampton
+Court. One room was hung with embroidered cloth of gold.
+
+Mary Tudor, as I have said, was Spanish in all her tastes, and we
+have lists of her "smocks" all worked in Spanish stitches, black and
+gold, or black silk only.[604] This taste, following the political
+tendencies of the time, entirely disappeared under Elizabeth. It
+survives, however, in peasant dress in the Low Countries.
+
+Queen Elizabeth spent much of her time in needlework. She herself had
+received the education of a man, as well as her cousin, Lady Jane
+Grey; and doubtless many women were taught at that time Greek and
+Latin, and to study philosophy, mathematics, and the science of music,
+as a training for serious life. Elizabeth studied and embroidered too;
+at any rate, she stood godmother to many pieces of embroidery, which
+are to be seen still in the houses she visited or occupied.
+
+While at Ashridge, and afterwards as a prisoner at Hatfield, she so
+employed herself; and among the specimens of work of the sixteenth
+century exhibited at South Kensington in 1873, were her shoes and cap,
+worked in purl, a semainiere in the same stitch, also cushion-covers
+in divers cushion stitches, and a portmonnaie in exquisitely fine
+satin-stitch; all of which articles, and many more, were left by her
+at Ashridge when she was hurried away in the dead of night to
+Hatfield.[605]
+
+The character of the Renaissance of the sixteenth century, just
+released from the trammels of Gothic traditions, was somewhat lawless
+in England, being unchastened by the classical element which entirely
+controlled the movement in Italy.
+
+The queen's dress soon departed from the severe simplicity which she
+at first affected, and every part of her costume was covered with
+flowers, fruit, and symbolical designs; while serpents, crowns,
+chains, roses, eyes and ears crowded the surfaces of the fine
+materials of her dresses. These symbolical designs were rich without
+grace, and ingenious rather than artistic, although their workmanship
+was perfect. In Louisa, Lady Waterford's collection we find a jacket
+for a slight girl's figure, of white linen, covered with flowers,
+fruit, and berries, all carried out in satin and lace stitches. There
+are butterflies with their wings disengaged from the ground; pods
+bursting open and showing the round seeds or peas; caterpillars
+stuffed and raised; all these astonish us by their quaint perfection,
+and shock us by their naturalistic crudeness of design, and the utter
+want of beauty or taste in the whole effect. The impression left on
+the mind is, how dear it must have cost the pocket of the purchaser
+and the eyes of the workers. There are, however, exceptions to these
+defective poor designs; and in the same collection is a cushion-cover
+worked in gold and silver plate, purl and silk, on a red satin ground,
+which is as good as possible in every respect, and is purely English
+in style. The stitches and materials are most refined and varied.
+Purl, which was a newly made material imported from Italy and Germany,
+was then in much vogue, and we have seen a few fine specimens of it,
+that have been imitated from the Italian cinque-cento raised and
+stuffed needlework, which are very curious and almost very
+beautiful,--only one feels that the same effect could have been
+produced by simpler means. This work is characteristic of the reigns
+of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and James I. We have needlework of another
+most unhappy queen of this date. Poor Mary, Queen of Scots, tried to
+soften Elizabeth's heart towards her prisoner by little gifts of her
+own embroideries.[606]
+
+We have no account of the cause of the incorporation of the
+Embroiderers' Company by Queen Elizabeth,[607] in the third year of
+her reign, Oct. 25th, 1561, confirmed by James II., April 12th, 1686,
+which is still a London guild. It received the lions of England as a
+special favour. The arms are thus blazoned: "Palee of six argent and
+azure on a fess gules, between three lions of England pass. gardant
+or. Three broches in saltire between as many trundles (i.e. quills of
+gold thread), or. Crest: on a wreath a heart; the holy dove displayed
+argent, radiated or. Supporters: two lions or (guttee de sang). Motto:
+'Omnia Desuper.' Hall, 20, Gutter Lane." There were branches,
+incorporated and bearing the arms, at Bristol and Chester, in 1780.
+(See Appendix.)
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 28.
+    Arms of Embroiderers' Guild.]
+
+In the reign of James I. it was the fashion to do portraits in
+needlework, stitched flat or raised. Some are artistic in design and
+execution, but they are mostly ridiculously bad.
+
+The East India Company was founded in 1560, under Elizabeth, and
+obtained the monopoly of the Anglo-Indian trade, under Cromwell, in
+1634. This would have been the moment for encouraging a fresh
+importation of Oriental taste into our degenerate art. Cromwell's own
+service of plate was scratched over ("graffito") with a childish and
+weak semi-Indian, semi-Chinese design; and we must accept this as
+typical of the artistic Oriental knowledge of that day. Grafted on the
+style of James I., it shows, however, that Indian ideas were creeping
+in and sought for, if not understood in high places, under the
+auspices of the East India Company. Needlework alone was excluded from
+all benefit. From that date, for 150 years, Indian manufactures
+were imported, _with the exception of embroidery_, which was
+contraband by the ancient statutes. This accounts for our faint and
+ignorant imitations of Indian work, and the extreme rarity of the true
+specimens to be met with in England, unless of a later period.
+
+  [Illustration: Cushion cover Temp. Queen Elizabeth
+    XVI. Century]
+
+But our Aryan instincts have always led our English tastes towards
+conventional naturalism. Although we have lost the rules and
+traditions which converted natural objects into patterns, we are
+continually, in our style, leaning and groping in their direction, and
+twining flowers, those of the field by preference, into
+semi-conventional garlands and posies.
+
+In the seventeenth century, when James I. was king, protection had
+done its worst. The style of work called "embroidery on the stamp" was
+then the fashion. This sort of work in Italy continued to be artistic,
+but the English specimens that have survived from this reign are
+mostly very ugly. Continental art had ceased to influence us, and bad
+taste reigned supreme, except in our architecture, which had
+crystallized into a picturesque style of our own called "James I.,"
+and was the outcome of the last Gothic of Henry VIII. and the Italian
+style of Edward VI. and Elizabeth. But the carvings of that phase of
+architecture were semi-barbarous. Nothing could have been poorer than
+their composition, or coarser than their execution, and the needlework
+of the day followed suit. Infinite trouble and ingenuity were wasted
+on looking-glass frames, picture frames, and caskets worked in purl,
+gold, and silver. The subjects were ambitious Solomon and the Queen of
+Sheba, and James and Anne of Denmark,[608] and other historical
+figures were stuffed with cotton or wool, and raised into high
+relief; and then dressed and "garnished" with pearls; the faces either
+in painted satin or fine satin stitch; the hair and wigs in purl or
+complicated knotting. Windsor Castle as a background for King James
+and King Solomon alike, pointed the clumsy allegory, and the lion of
+England gambolling in the foreground, amid flowers and coats-of-arms,
+filled up the composition.
+
+The drawing and design were childish, and show us how high art can in
+a century or less slip back into no art at all. Any one comparing the
+Dunstable or the Fishmongers' pall with one of the best caskets of
+this period would say that the latter should have preceded the former
+by centuries. In James I.'s time, ignorance of all rules of
+composition was added to the absence of any sort of style.[609] I give
+the illustrations of the time of James I. Plate 83 is a cushion from
+Hatfield House, rich and rather foolish, with tiny men filling in the
+corners left vacant by large flowers, caterpillars, &c.
+
+Charles I. gave a raised embroidered cope to the Chapter of Durham, of
+this description of work.[610]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 84.
+    English embroidered curtain (James I.), at Cockayne Hatley, Beds.]
+
+  [Illustration: Pl. 85.
+    Embroidered Hangings. Crewels on Linen. Hardwicke Hall.]
+
+The other fashionable work of that day had its merits. It was the
+custom to embroider hangings or linen in crewels. Considering how
+often in this book and my preceding lectures I have said that this
+style of work was common (even in the early days of Egypt and
+Assyria), it may well be said, when was it _not_ the fashion? and I
+must answer, "only since the days of Queen Anne." It seems as if
+before that time our designs for work were partially influenced by the
+fine Indian specimens which had surreptitiously crept into England.
+Some of these are very cleverly executed. Huge conventional trees grow
+from a green strip of earth carrying every variety of leaf and flower
+done in many stitches. The individual leaf or flower is often very
+beautiful. On the bank below, small deer and lions disport themselves,
+and birds twice their size perch on the branches (plate 84).[611] But
+even where the work is finest, the incongruities are too annoying. The
+modern excuse for it, "that it is quaint," does not reconcile us to
+its extravagant effect. To be quaint in art is, as I have said before,
+to be funny without intending it; and these curtains are funny by
+their absence of all intention or perspective, and when hung they
+make everything in the room look disproportionate to the unnatural
+size of the foliage. (Plate 85.) Specimens of this work are to be
+found in most English country houses. It has lasted till now, partly
+because the crewels first manufactured in the sixteenth century were
+of an excellent quality, and secondly, because there was no gold to
+make it worth any one's while to destroy them; so the old hangings
+went up into the attics in all the disgrace of shabbiness, and have
+come down again as family relics. Even the moths have been deprived of
+their prey, by these curtains having served for the beds of the
+household, so that they have been kept for their nearly 300 years of
+existence, aired and dusted. Much of this work has been recovered from
+farmhouses and cottages in tolerable preservation. In many cases the
+flowers have survived the stout linen grounds on which they were
+worked. The Royal School of Needlework has often been commissioned to
+restore and transfer the crewel trees on to a new backing. The
+hangings and the curtains I have described, prevailed from the end of
+Elizabeth's reign to that of Queen Anne, and gradually deteriorated.
+The stitches, of which the variety at first was infinite, had given
+place to a coarse uniform stem stitch--"gobble stitch." The materials
+also were of inferior quality, and less durable, so that the latest
+specimens are in general in the worst condition.
+
+It is remarkable how little the beautiful Continental work influenced
+our English school. We were enjoying perfect protection, and were
+clumsily taking advantage of our security from all competition. In the
+Italian palaces this was the moment of the finest secular embroideries
+in satin stitches, gold and silver, and "inlaid" and "onlaid"
+appliques. Likewise in Spain and Portugal the Oriental work,
+especially that executed at Goa, filled the palaces and the convents
+with gorgeous hangings, carpets, table-covers, and bed furniture. We
+feel it painful to contrast with these our own shortcomings in art,
+and our faded glories.
+
+The fact is, that, owing to our art-killing protectionist laws,
+embroidery had the misfortune to be treated at that time as textile
+manufacture, and not as art at all.
+
+In the reign of William and Mary, Dutch taste had naturally been
+brought to the front.[612] This included Japanese art, or imitations
+of it, and also had something of late Spanish. The Georges brought
+into England, and naturalized a rather heavy work, in gold and
+silver--the design being decidedly a German "Louis Quatorze"--richly
+stitched and heavily fringed, and much employed on court dresses and
+on state furniture. We have seen royal beds and court suits which show
+very little difference in style. It does not appear that this was
+worked by ladies. It has, somehow, a professional look.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 29.
+    Part of James II.'s Coronation Dress.
+    From an old Print.]
+
+Occasionally, however, we meet with pieces of exceptionally beautiful
+work of the end of the seventeenth and early part of the eighteenth
+centuries. The style is the most refined Louis Quatorze, but the work
+is actually English. The white satin coverlets belonging to the
+Marquis of Bath and the Duke of Leeds are not to be exceeded in
+delicacy and splendour. The embroidered dresses of the Duke and
+Duchess of Buckingham, in Westminster Abbey (early eighteenth
+century) are of this description.
+
+From Queen Anne to George III., a great deal of furniture was covered
+with the different cushion stitches, either in geometrical or
+kaleidoscope patterns, or else displaying groups of flowers or
+figures, quaint and sometimes pretty. These designs are generally,
+however, wanting in grace, and their German feeling shows them to be
+the precursors of the Berlin wool patterns.
+
+When the crewel-work hangings ceased to be the fashion, home work took
+another direction. All the ladies imitated Indian dimity patterns, on
+muslin, in coloured silks or thread, with the tambour-frame and
+needle;[613] but in 1707 the "Broiderers' Company," we presume, found
+that the Indian manufactures were engrossing the market, and a fresh
+statute was obtained, forbidding the importation from India of any
+wrought material. This cruel prohibition carried its own punishment.
+The Indian trade was ours, and we might have adapted and assimilated
+the Indian taste for design. We might have brought over men and women
+great in their most ancient craft, and so produced the most splendid
+Indo-English School. The Portuguese at least sent out their own silks
+and satins to be worked at Goa; _we_ threw away our chance, and signed
+the death-warrant of our art.
+
+About the middle of the last century, several ladies, notably Miss
+Linwood, Miss Moritt, of Rokeby, and Mrs. Delany, copied pictures in
+worsteds. Some of these are wonderfully clever and even very pretty,
+but they are rather a painful effort of pictorial art under
+difficulties, than legitimate embroideries. These pictures would have
+served the purpose of decoration better as medallions in the centres
+of arabesque panels, than framed and glazed in imitation of oil
+paintings. Some of the followers of this school produced works that
+are shocking to all artistic sense, especially as seen now, when the
+moths have spoiled them. They can only be classed with such abortive
+attempts at decoration as glass cases filled with decayed stuffed
+birds, and vases of faded and broken wax flowers.
+
+I may record with praise the efforts of Mrs. Pawsey,[614] a lady who
+started a school of needlework at Aylesbury. She was patronized by
+Queen Charlotte; and for her she worked the beautiful bed at Hampton
+Court, of purple satin, with wreaths of flowers in crewels touched up
+with silk, which look as if they might have been copied from the
+flower-pieces of a Dutch master. The execution is very fine, and
+reminds one of the best French work of the same period. Mrs. Pawsey
+taught and helped ladies to embroider in silk and chenille, as well as
+crewels, and in many country houses we can recognize specimens of her
+style; usually on screens worked in silk and chenille, with bunches of
+flowers in vases or baskets, artistically designed.
+
+This was our last attempt at excellence, immediately followed by the
+total collapse of our decorative needlework, and the advent of the
+Berlin wool patterns.
+
+
+POSTSCRIPT.
+
+A postscript to this chapter will perhaps be acceptable to those who
+have taken an interest in the "History of English Embroidery," and who
+will therefore care to know about the revival which has filled so many
+workshops with what is now called "Art Needlework."
+
+There was a public demand for something better than the worsted
+patterns in the trade, and the Royal School of Art Needlework rose and
+tried to respond to that call by stimulating original ideas and
+designs, and imitating old ones in conformity with modern
+requirements. The difficulties to be overcome were at first very
+great. The old stitches had all to be learned and then taught, and the
+best methods to be selected; the proper materials had to be studied
+and obtained--sometimes they had to be manufactured. Lastly, beautiful
+tints had to be dyed; avoiding, as much as possible, the gaudy and the
+evanescent.
+
+The project of such a school was first conceived in the autumn of
+1872.
+
+Lady Welby, herself an accomplished embroideress, had the courage to
+face all the difficulties of such an undertaking. A small apartment
+was hired in Sloane Street, and Mrs. Dolby, who was already an
+authority on ecclesiastical work, gave her help. Twenty young ladies
+were selected, and several friends joined heartily in fostering the
+movement.
+
+H.R.H. the Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein gave her name as
+President, and her active co-operation.[615]
+
+The school grew so fast, that for want of space for the work-frames,
+it had to remove into a larger house, No. 31, Sloane Street, and
+finally in the year 1875 it found its present home in Exhibition Road,
+when the Queen became its Patron. In 1878 the Association was
+incorporated under the Board of Trade, with a Managing and a Finance
+Committee, and a salaried manager to overlook the whole concern.
+
+From 100 to 150 ladies at a time have there received employment. Their
+claims were poverty, gentle birth, and sufficient capacity to enable
+them to support themselves and be educated to teach others.
+
+Branch schools have been started throughout the United Kingdom and in
+America.[616]
+
+The education of the school has been much assisted by the easy access
+to the fine collections of ancient embroideries in the Kensington
+Museum, and by the loan exhibition of old artistic work, which was
+there organized in 1875, at the suggestion of H.R.H. the President;
+and since then there have been three very interesting loan exhibitions
+in the rooms of the Royal School.
+
+It was, indeed, necessary that the acting members should avail
+themselves of every means of instruction, in order to fit themselves
+for the task they had undertaken. They were expected at once to be
+competent to judge all old work, to name its style and date, and even
+sometimes its market value. They were to be able to repair and add to
+all old work; to know and teach every stitch, ancient and modern; and
+produce designs for any period, Gothic, Renaissance, Elizabethan,
+James I., or Queen Anne; besides contemporary European work,--all
+different, and each requiring separate study.
+
+Some important works have been produced which will illustrate what has
+been said:--
+
+    1. A suite of window curtains for her Majesty, at
+    Windsor (style, nineteenth century; sunflowers).
+
+    2. Curtains for a drawing-room for the Duchess of
+    Buccleuch: crimson velvet and gold applique (Louis
+    Quatorze).
+
+    3. Curtain for Louisa, Lady Ashburton: coloured silk
+    embroidery on white satin (Venetian, sixteenth century).
+
+    4. Curtain, also for Louisa, Lady Ashburton: brown
+    velvet and gold applique (_Italian_).
+
+    5. Dado for the Hon. Mrs. Percy Wyndham: linen and
+    crewels. Peacocks and vines (_Mediaeval_).
+
+    6. Furnishings and hangings for state bedroom for
+    Countess Cowper, Panshanger: crimson satin, embroidered
+    and coloured silks (_Chinese_).
+
+    7. Curtains for music gallery for Mr. Arthur Balfour:
+    blue silk, applique, velvet, and gold (_Italian_).
+
+The earnest attempt to produce an artistic school of embroidery met
+with recognition and help from the highest authorities. Sir F.
+Leighton granted permission for appeals to his judgment. Mr. Burne
+Jones, Mr. Morris, Mr. Walter Crane, and Mr. Wade gave original
+designs.
+
+We cannot guess whether the taste which has sprung up again so
+suddenly will last. Perhaps its catholicity may prolong its
+popularity, and something absolutely new in style may be evolved,
+which shall revive the credit of the "opus Anglicanum." Of one thing
+we may be sure--that it is inherent in the nature of Englishwomen to
+employ their fingers. And the busy as well as the ignorant need a
+guide to the principles of design, as well as the technical details of
+the art of embroidery. This should be supplied by the Royal School of
+Art Needlework, which by inculcating careful drawing, by reviving old
+traditions and criticizing fresh ideas, becomes a guarantee for the
+improvement of domestic decorative design.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [555] "The people of Babylon, the Accadians, had a
+    written literature and a civilization superior to that
+    of the conquering Assyrians, who borrowed their art of
+    writing, and probably their culture, which may have been
+    the centre and starting-point of the western
+    civilization of Asia, and therefore the origin of our
+    own. Accadian civilization was anterior to that of the
+    Phoenicians and the Greeks, and is now received in
+    these later years as the original form, and become again
+    the heritage of mankind. It has been said that Assyrian
+    art was destitute of originality, and to that of the
+    Accadians, which they adopted, we ourselves owe our
+    first customs and ideas. Four thousand years ago these
+    people possessed a culture which in many of its details
+    resembles that of our country and time."--"Assyrian Life
+    and History," p. 66, by M. Harkness and Stuart Poole.
+
+    [556] "The arts of spinning and the manufacture of linen
+    were introduced into Europe and drifted into Britain in
+    the Neolithic Age. They have been preserved with but
+    little variation from that period down to the present
+    day in certain remote parts of Europe, and have only
+    been superseded in modern times by the complicated
+    machinery so familiar to us.... The spindle and distaff
+    are proved by the perforated spindle-whorls, made of
+    stone, pottery, or bone, commonly met with in Neolithic
+    habitations or tombs. The thread is proved, by
+    discoveries in the Swiss lakes, to have been made of
+    flax; and the combs that have been found for pushing the
+    threads of the warp on the weft show that it was woven
+    into linen on some sort of loom."--Boyd Dawkins' "Early
+    Man in Britain," p. 275.
+
+    [557] I am aware that the presence of the Phoenicians
+    (or Carthaginians) on our coasts has been disputed; but
+    I think that the evidence of the Etruscan ornaments I
+    have mentioned gives more than probability to the truth
+    of Pliny's account of the expedition of Himilco from
+    Gades, 500 B.C. By some he is supposed to have been a
+    contemporary of Hanno, and of the third century B.C.
+    There is some confusion in the imperfect record of the
+    voyage; but it is difficult to interpret it otherwise
+    than that he touched at several points north of Gaul.
+    (See Boyd Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain," pp. 457-461;
+    see also Perrot and Chipiez, "L'Histoire de l'Art dans
+    l'Antiquite," t. iii.; "Phenicie et Cypre," p. 48.) For
+    a contrary opinion, see Elton's "Origins of English
+    History." Elton ascribes the first knowledge of the
+    British islands to the voyage of Pytheas in the fourth
+    century B.C.; he acknowledges that the geography of
+    Britain was well known to the Greeks in the time of
+    Alexander the Great. We owe to Pliny and Strabo the few
+    fragments from Pytheas that have been rescued from
+    oblivion, and to Pliny the notices of Himilco. (See
+    Bouillet's "Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Geographie.")
+
+    [558] See Rock's Introduction to "Textile Fabrics," p.
+    xii.
+
+    [559] I give the following amusing tradition, which was
+    probably founded on the celebrity of the English pearl
+    embroidery of the Anglo-Saxon times, of which much went
+    to Rome:--
+
+    "Then Caesar, like a conqueror, with a great number of
+    prisoners sailed into France, and so to Rome, where
+    after his return out of Brytaine, hee consecrated to
+    Venus a surcote of Brytaine pearles, the desire whereof
+    partly moved him to invade this country."--(Stow's
+    "Annales," p. 14, ed. 1634.) Tacitus, in the Agricola
+    12, says that British pearls are grey and livid.
+
+    [560] See Rock's Introduction to "Textile Fabrics," p.
+    xii.
+
+    [561] These are the poor results of the Roman invasion
+    and neglect of Britain during their occupation. The
+    second invasion of Britain by the Romans, under
+    Claudius, was caused by the squabbles between the chiefs
+    of the different tribes. Comnenus, the prince of the
+    Atrebates, was at war with the sons of Cunobelinus
+    (Cymbeline). He took his grievances to Rome, and the
+    Roman legions were despatched to settle the matter, and
+    to dazzle the world by the echoes rather than the facts
+    of the triumphant victories in the land of the "wintry
+    pole." Claudius marched with elephants clad in mail, and
+    bearing turrets filled with slingers and bowmen,
+    accompanied by Belgic pikemen and Batavians from the
+    islands in the Rhine, A.D. 44. The dress of Claudius on
+    his return from Britain was purple, with an ivory
+    sceptre and crown of gold oak leaves. One officer alone
+    was entitled to wear a tunic embroidered with golden
+    palms, in token of a former victory. The Celts, the
+    Gauls, the Gaels, the Picts, the Scots, and the
+    Saxons,--all crowded and settled in Britain when the
+    Romans left it in 410, after nearly four hundred years
+    of misgovernment. (See Elton's "Origins of English
+    History," pp. 306-308.)
+
+    [562] Semper, "Der Stil," pp. 133, 134. See Louis
+    Viardot, "Des Origines Traditionnelles de la Peinture en
+    Italie" (Paris, 1840), p. 53, note. Also see "Les Ducs
+    de Bourgogne," part ii. vol. ii. p. 243, No. 4092.
+    Muratori was born in 1672; and he says the Empress
+    Helena's work was in existence in the beginning of the
+    eighteenth century. (See p. 316, _ante_.)
+
+    [563] When St. Augustine (546) came to preach to the
+    Anglo-Saxons, he had a banner, fastened to a cross,
+    carried before him, on which was embroidered the image
+    of our Lord. (See Mrs. Lawrence's "Woman in England,"
+    pp. 296, 297.) Probably this was Roman work.
+
+    [564] Quoted by Mrs. Lawrence, "Woman in England," p.
+    49, from one of Adhelme's Latin poems. Adhelme, Bishop
+    of Sherborne, died in 709, having been thirty years a
+    bishop. He wrote Latin poems, of which the most
+    important, in praise of virginity, is in the Lambeth
+    Library, No. 200. The MS. contains his portrait. See
+    Strutt's "English Dresses," ed. Planche.
+
+    [565] An Anglo-Saxon lady named Aedelswitha, living near
+    Whitby, in the sixth century, collected a number of
+    girls and taught them to produce admirable embroideries
+    for the benefit of the monastery. (See Rock's "Church of
+    our Fathers," p. 273; also his Introduction to
+    "Textiles," p. xxvii.) Bock speaks of Hrothgar's
+    tapestries, embroidered with gold, of the thirteenth
+    century. See Appendix 8. But the earliest English
+    tapestry I have seen is that in York Minster, in which
+    are inwoven the arms of Scrope, 1390. Wright says of the
+    Anglo-Saxon women, "In their chamber, besides spinning
+    and weaving, the ladies were employed in needlework and
+    embroidery, and the Saxon ladies were so skilful in this
+    art, that their works were celebrated on the
+    Continent."--"History of Manners in England during the
+    Middle Ages," by Thomas Wright, p. 52.
+
+    [566] See Mrs. Lawrence's "Woman in England," i. p.
+    296-7.
+
+    [567] See Rock's "Church of our Fathers," ii. p. 272,
+    quoting Th. Stubbs. "Acta Pontif. Th. ed. Twysden," 1.
+    ii. p. 1699; also Bock's "Liturgische Gewaender," i. p.
+    212, and p. 325 _ante_.
+
+    [568] Appendix 9.
+
+    [569] This could hardly have been intended originally
+    for an ecclesiastical purpose. It sounds as if it were a
+    stray fragment from Graeco-Roman art, rather than a
+    survival of the classical legend employed as a pretty
+    motive for decoration. Wiglaf's veil is named by
+    Ingulphus. See Strutt's "English Dresses," pp. 3, 7. See
+    also "Historia Eliensis," l. 2, ed. Stewart, p. 183.
+
+    [570] See Rock's "Textile Fabrics," p. xxi.; also for
+    Council of Cloveshoe, see his "Church of Our Fathers,"
+    p. 14.
+
+    [571] The Benedictines drained the marshes of
+    Lincolnshire and Somersetshire to employ the poor in the
+    eighth century. St. Bennet travelled to France and
+    Italy, and brought back from his seven journeys cunning
+    artificers in _glass_ and stone, besides costly books
+    and copies of the Scriptures, in order (as is expressly
+    said by Bede) that the ignorant might learn from them,
+    as others learned from books. See Mrs. Jameson's
+    "Legends of the Monastic Orders," pp. 56, 57.
+
+    [572] See Raine's "St. Cuthbert," pp. 50-209. Mr. Raine
+    describes it as being "of woven gold, with spaces left
+    vacant for needlework embroidery." Beautifully drawn
+    majestic figures stand in niches on rainbow-coloured
+    clouds, and the effect is that of an illumination of the
+    ninth century. The style is rather Greek or Byzantine
+    than Anglo-Saxon. For further notices of St. Cuthbert's
+    relics, see chapter on Materials, _ante_; also see
+    Rock's "Introduction," p. cxvii.
+
+    [573] Appendix 10.
+
+    [574] See "Calendar of the Anglican Church," by J. H.
+    Parker (1851): "St. Dunstan was not only a patron of the
+    useful and fine arts, but also a great proficient in
+    them himself; and his almost contemporary biographers
+    speak of him as a poet, painter, and musician, and so
+    skilled a worker in metals that he made many of the
+    church vessels in use at Glastonbury."
+
+    [575] See Rock's "Church of our Fathers," p. 270.
+
+    [576] Strutt's "English Dresses," p. 70, quoted from
+    Ingulphus' "History of Croyland Abbey."
+
+    [577] Shot, or iridescent materials, were then and had
+    been some time manufactured at Tinnis in Egypt, a city
+    now effaced. It was called "bouqualemoun," and employed
+    for dresses and hangings for the Khalifs. See Schefer's
+    "Relations du Voyage de Nassiri Khosrau," p. cxi. The
+    original was written in the middle of the eleventh
+    century.
+
+    [578] See Duchesne's "Historiae Normanorum." Fol. Paris,
+    1519.
+
+    [579] Queen Matilda was not the originator of the idea
+    that a hero's deeds might be recorded by his wife's
+    needle. Penelope wove the deeds of Ulysses on her loom,
+    and it is suggested by Aristarchus that her peplos
+    served as an historical document for Homer's "Iliad."
+    See Rossignol's "Les Artistes Homeriques," pp. 72, 73,
+    cited by Louis de Ronchaud in his "La Tapisserie," p.
+    32. Gudrun, like the Homeric woman, embroidered the
+    history of Siegfried and his ancestors, and Aelfled that
+    of the achievements of her husband, Duke Brithnod. The
+    Saga of Charlemagne is said to have been embroidered on
+    twenty-six ells of linen, and hung in a church in
+    Iceland.
+
+    [580] Domesday ed. Record Commission, under head of
+    Roberte de Oilgi, in co. Buckingham. See also another
+    entry under Wilts, where "Leivede" is spoken of as
+    working auriphrigium for King Edward and his Queen.
+
+    [581] Canon Jackson, writing of embroidery, says: "That
+    this was cared for in the great monasteries at this
+    early date appears from a MS. register of Glastonbury
+    Abbey in the possession of the Marquis of Bath. It is
+    called the Liber Henrici de Soliaco, and gives an
+    account of the affairs of that abbey in A.D. 1189
+    (Richard I.)." There was a special official whose
+    business it was to provide the monastery with church
+    ornaments generally, and specially with "aurifrigium,"
+    or gold embroidery, on vestments. For this a house and
+    land, with an annual allowance of food, was set apart.
+    Another tenant also held some land, to which was
+    attached the obligation to find a "worker in
+    gold."--Letter from Canon Jackson to the Author.
+
+    [582] See Mrs. Lawrence's "Woman in England," vol. i. p.
+    360. She quotes an entry from Madox, a sum of L80 (equal
+    to L1400 of to-day) for an embroidered robe for the
+    Queen, paid by the Sheriffs of London.
+
+    [583] Matthew Paris, "Vit. Abb. St. Albani." p. 46;
+    Rock, "Church of our Fathers," vol ii. p. 278.
+
+    [584] See Mrs. Dolby's Introduction to "Church
+    Vestments."
+
+    [585] Strutt's "Royal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of
+    England," ed. mdcclxxiii.
+
+    [586] Though the work was domestic, the materials came
+    from the East and the South; and while the woven gold of
+    Sicily and Spain was merely base metal on gilded
+    parchment, our laws were directed to the preservation of
+    pure metals for textile purposes.
+
+    [587] Matthew Paris, "Hist. Angl.," p. 473, ed. Paris,
+    1644. See Hartshorne's "Mediaeval Embroideries," pp. 23,
+    24.
+
+    [588] The reproduction by the Arundel Society of this
+    picture will familiarize those who care for English art
+    with what is, perhaps, its finest example, next to the
+    crosses of Queen Eleanor. It has been erroneously
+    attributed to Van Eyk, but it is undoubtedly English.
+    That its art is contemporary with the time of Richard
+    II., is shown by the design and motives of the woven
+    materials and embroidery in which the king and his
+    attendant saints are clothed. They remind us of the
+    piece of silk in the Kensington Museum, into which are
+    woven (probably in Sicilian looms) the cognizance of the
+    King's grandfather, the sun with rays; that of his
+    mother Joan, the white hart; and his own, his dog Math.
+    This is a good example of the value of an individual
+    pattern. It helps us to affix dates to other specimens
+    of similar style.
+
+    [589] See Miss Strickland's mention of the Countess of
+    Oxford in her "Life of Queen Elizabeth of York," p. 46.
+
+    [590] From the fragments found, it appeared that King
+    John's mantle was of a strong red silk. Till lately,
+    when it was effaced by being completely gilt, the mantle
+    on the recumbent effigy was of a bright red, bordered
+    with gold and gems. See Greene's "Worcester," p. 3,
+    quoted in the "Report of the Archaeological Association
+    of Worcester," p. 53.
+
+    [591] "Notice sur les Attaches d'un Sceau," par M.
+    Leopold Delisle (Paris, 1854); and also Rock's
+    Introduction to "Textile Fabrics," p. xxii.
+
+    [592] The opus Anglicanum often included borders and
+    orphreys set with jewellers' work (or its imitation,
+    worked in gold thread), gems, and pearls.
+
+    [593] Edward III. had from William de Courtenay an
+    embroidered garment, "inwrought with pelicans, images,
+    and tabernacles of gold. The tabernacles were like
+    niches, with pinnacles and roofs."
+
+    [594] Bock, "Liturgische Gewaender," i. p. 211, says
+    there is a piece of opus Anglicanum in the treasury of
+    Aix-la-Chapelle, called the Cope of Leo III.
+
+    [595] For further notice of the "opus Anglicanum," see
+    chapter (_ante_) on ecclesiastical embroideries.
+
+    [596] Appendix 11.
+
+    [597] The orphreys are probably not the original work.
+
+    [598] "Testamenta Vetusta," ed. Nicholas, t. i. p. 33.
+
+    [599] Woolstrope, Lincolnshire. Collier's
+    "Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain," v. p. 3 (ed.
+    Lothbury). This proves that the monks sometimes plied
+    the needle.
+
+    [600] See Hall's "Union of the Houses of York and
+    Lancaster," pp. lxxv-lxxxiii.
+
+    [601] See Brewer's "Reign of Henry VIII.," vol. i. pp.
+    347-376.
+
+    [602] In the Public Record Office is an inventory of
+    Lord Monteagle's property, 1523 A.D.; amongst other
+    things, is named a piece of Spanish work, "eight
+    partletts garnished with gold and black silk work." This
+    Spanish work is rare, but the description reminds us of
+    a specimen belonging to Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford
+    (Plate 82)--a square of linen, worked with ostriches,
+    turkeys, and eagles in gold and black silk stitches. See
+    Mrs. Palliser's "History of Lace," pp. 6, 12.
+
+    [603] Quoted from Cavendish by Miss Strickland, "Queens
+    of England," iv. p. 132.
+
+    [604] "The invalid queen, in her moments of
+    convalescence, soothed her cares and miseries at the
+    embroidery frame. Many specimens of her needlework were
+    extant in the reign of James I., and are thus celebrated
+    by Taylor, the poet of the needle:--
+
+        "'Mary here the sceptre sway'd;
+          And though she were no queen of mighty power,
+        Her memory will never be decay'd,
+          Nor yet her works forgotten. In the Tower,
+        In Windsor Castle, and in Hampton Court,--
+          In that most pompous room called Paradise,--
+        Whoever pleases thither to resort,
+          May see some works of hers of wondrous price.
+        Her greatness held it no disreputation
+          To hold the needle in her royal hand,
+        Which was a good example to our nation
+          To banish idleness throughout the land.
+        And thus this queen in wisdom thought it fit;
+          The needle's work pleased her, and she graced it.'
+
+    "According to Taylor, Mary finished the splendid and
+    elaborate tapestry begun by her mother."--Miss
+    Strickland's "Life of Mary Tudor," v. p. 417.
+
+    [605] "After the action at D'Arbre de Guise, Elizabeth
+    (of England) sent to Henri IV. a scarf embroidered by
+    her own hand. 'Monsieur mon bon frere,' wrote the queen,
+    'its value is naught in comparison to the dignity of the
+    personage for whom it is destined; but I supplicate you
+    to hide its defects under the wings of your good
+    charity, and to accept my little present in remembrance
+    of me.'"--"Henri IV.," by Miss Freer, p. 311.
+
+    [606] In the year 1683 the Marchese Luca Casimiero degl'
+    Albizzi visited England, and his travels were recorded
+    in manuscript by Dr. A. Forzoni. At Windsor he observed
+    over a chimney-piece a finely wrought piece of
+    embroidery--"un educazione di fanciulli"--by the hands
+    of Mary Queen of Scots.--Loftie's "History of Old
+    London;" also article on "Royal Picture Galleries," by
+    George Scharf, p. 361 (1867).
+
+    [607] "The Company of the Embroiderers can make appear
+    by their worthy and famous pieces of art that they have
+    been of ancient use and eminence, as is to be seen in
+    divers places at this day; but in the matter of their
+    incorporation, it hath relation to the fourth year of
+    Queen Elizabeth."--Stow's "Survey of London and
+    Westminster," part ii. p. 216; also see Edmonson's
+    "Heraldry," vol. i. (1780). "The Keepers, Wardens, and
+    Company of the Broiderie of London.... 2 keepers and 40
+    assistants, and the livery consists of 115 members. They
+    have a small but convenient hall in Gutter
+    Lane."--Maitland's "History of London," book iii. p.
+    602.
+
+    [608] The fashion of this work began much earlier, for
+    we find in the inventory of "St. James's House, nigh
+    Westminster," 1549: "42 Item. A table wherein is a man
+    holding a sword in his one hand and a sceptre in his
+    other hand of needlework, partly garnished with seed
+    pearl" (p. 307).
+
+    [609] The merit or blame of this rounded padded work (a
+    caricature of the raised embroidery of the opus
+    Anglicanum) is often erroneously awarded to the "nuns of
+    Little Gidding." The earliest specimens we know of this
+    "embroidery on the stamp" are German. At Coire in the
+    Grisons, at Zurich (see chapter on ecclesiastical art),
+    and in the National Museum at Munich are some very
+    beautiful examples. The Italians also executed elaborate
+    little pictures in this manner; but I cannot praise it
+    however refined in execution or beautiful the design. I
+    have seen no English specimens that are not beneath
+    criticism; they are only funny.
+
+    [610] In the Calendar of the State Papers Office
+    (Domestic, Charles I., vol. clxix. p. 12), Mrs. H.
+    Senior sues the Earl of Thomond for L200 per annum, her
+    pay for teaching his daughter needlework. Mrs.
+    Hutchinson, in her Memoir, says she had eight tutors
+    when she was seven years old, and one of them taught her
+    needlework. This shows how highly this accomplishment
+    was still considered in the days of Charles I. and the
+    Commonwealth. Later, Evelyn speaks of the "new bed of
+    Charles II.'s queen, the embroidery of which cost L3000"
+    (Evelyn's Memoirs, January 24, 1687). Evelyn says of his
+    own daughter Susanna, who married William Draper: "She
+    had a peculiar talent in designe, as painting in oil and
+    miniature, and an extraordinary genius for whatever
+    hands can do with a needle." See Evelyn's "Memoirs,"
+    April 27, 1693; also see Mrs. Palliser's "History of
+    Lace," pp. 7, 8.
+
+    [611] The tree-pattern, already common in the latter
+    days of Elizabeth, reappeared on a dress worn by the
+    Duchess of Queensberry, and described by Mrs. Delany;
+    she says, "A white satin embroidered at the bottom with
+    brown hills, covered with all sorts of weeds, and with a
+    brown stump, broken and worked in chenille, and
+    garlanded nasturtiums, honeysuckles, periwinkles,
+    convolvuluses, and weeds, many of the leaves finished
+    with gold." Mrs. Delany does not appreciate this ancient
+    pattern.
+
+    [612] Queen Mary only knotted fringes. Bishop Burnett
+    says: "It was strange to see a queen work so many hours
+    a day." Sir E. Sedley, in his epigram on the "Royal
+    Knotter," says,--
+
+        "Who, when she rides in coach abroad,
+        Is always knotting threads."
+
+    Probably it was the fashion, as Madame de Maintenon
+    always worked during her drives with the king, which
+    doubtless prevented her dying of _ennui_!
+
+    [613] I quote from the _Spectator_, No. 606: "Let no
+    virgin receive her lover, except in a suit of her own
+    embroidery."
+
+    [614] Her style was really legitimate to the art. It was
+    flower-painting with the needle. Miss Moritt copied both
+    figures and landscapes, with wonderful taste and
+    knowledge of drawing. Miss Linwood's and Mrs. Delany's
+    productions are justly celebrated as _tours de force_,
+    but they caused the downfall of the art by leading it on
+    the wrong track.
+
+    [615] Lord Houghton alludes to H.R.H.'s patronage of the
+    revival of embroidery in his paraphrase of the "Story of
+    Arachne," p. 238, _ante_.
+
+    [616] "Opposed to the 'utility stitches' are the art
+    needlework schools that have branched out in many
+    directions from New York.... The impulse that led to
+    their formation was derived from South Kensington
+    (England), and affords a striking instance of the
+    ramifications of an organization."--_Atlantic Monthly_
+    ("Women in Organization"), Sept., 1880.
+
+
+FINIS.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDICES.
+
+
+APPENDIX I., TO PAGE 105.
+
+_By Ch. T. Newton._
+
+Though the embroidered and richly decorated textile fabrics of the
+ancients have perished, all but a few scraps, we may form some idea of
+the richness and variety of Greek female attire from the evidence of
+the inventories of dedicated articles of dress which have been
+preserved for us in Greek inscriptions.
+
+In the Acropolis at Athens have been found a number of fragments of
+marble on which are inscribed lists of various female garments
+dedicated, for the most part, in the Temple of Artemis Brauronia, in
+the Archonship of Lykurgos, B.C. 338-35. These articles were thus
+carefully registered because they formed part of the treasures
+dedicated to the gods of the Acropolis, which it was the duty of the
+state to guard, and to commit to the custody of officers specially
+selected for that duty. One of these fragments is in the Elgin
+Collection at the British Museum, and has been published by Mr. Hicks
+in the "Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British
+Museum," Part 1, No 34; and the entire series has since been given to
+the world in the "Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum" of the Academy of
+Berlin, ii., Part 2., Nos. 751-65.
+
+The material of these garments seems to have been either linen or fine
+woollen; the colours white, purple, or some shade of red, mostly used
+as a border or in stripes; or a shade of green, the tint of which is
+described as "frog colour," saffron, or sea-green.
+
+The borders and patterns noted remind us of those represented on the
+garments of figures in vase pictures, such as the embattled border,
+the wave pattern, and certain patterns in rectangular compartments. A
+group of Dionysos pouring out a libation while a female serves him
+with wine, and a row of animals, are also noted among the ornaments.
+
+The inscription, "Sacred to Artemis," woven into the fabric of the
+garment, occurs twice. Gold, as an ornament fixed on the dress, is
+mentioned in these entries. It is noted that some of these dresses
+served to deck the statue of the goddess herself. Most of the garments
+are the _chiton_ or tunic, flowing to the feet; the _chitoniskos_, a
+shorter and more ornamental garment worn over it; and the mantle,
+_himation_. Pieces of cloth or rags are also mentioned among the
+entries; these were probably the remnants of cast-off garments
+dedicated by their wearers. Some of the dresses are described as
+embroidered with the needle.
+
+In the worship of the Artemis Brauronia, certain Athenian girls
+between the ages of five and ten were solemnly dedicated to the
+goddess every five years. In publishing the inventory in the British
+Museum already referred to, Mr. Hicks remarks, "It may have been the
+custom sometimes to dedicate to the goddess the garments worn by
+children at their presentation, just as we know that the garments in
+which persons had been initiated at the Greater Eleusinia were worn by
+them until threadbare, and then dedicated to some god. If so, the
+number of children's clothes mentioned in our inventory is easily
+explained. Or were these the clothes of children cut off by Artemis in
+infancy, such as bereaved mothers nowadays often treasure for years,
+having no temple wherein to dedicate them?" Mr. Hicks further remarks
+that it was usual for the bride before marriage to dedicate her girdle
+to Artemis; and at Athens the garments of women who died in childbirth
+were likewise in like manner so dedicated. It is probably on account
+of such dedications that Artemis was styled Chitone--the goddess of
+the _chiton_.
+
+Another list of vestments is preserved in an inscription found at
+Samos, and published by Carl Curtius in his "Inschriften u. Studien
+zur Geschichte von Samos," pp. 17-21. The garments in this list were
+dedicated to the goddess Here (Juno) in her celebrated temple at
+Samos. The entries relate chiefly to articles of female attire, but
+some few are dedicated to the god Hermes. Some of these articles were
+doubtless worn by the deities themselves on festive occasions, when
+their statues were decked out. The toilet, _kosmos_, of goddesses was
+superintended by a priestess specially chosen for that purpose. She
+was called _kosmeteira_, or "Mistress of the Robes."
+
+In the Samian list of garments, those which are embroidered or
+ornamented with gold are specially noted. Some of the tunics are
+described as Lydian. Curtains or hangings are also mentioned in this
+list. These must have been used to ornament the interior of the
+temple, or to screen off the statue of the goddess on the days when
+she was withdrawn from the gaze of the profane. Such hangings were,
+probably, a main cause of the conflagrations by which Greek temples
+were from time to time destroyed in spite of the solidity of their
+walls.
+
+
+APPENDIX II., TO PAGE 210.
+
+In the Castle of Moritzburg, built by Augustus the Strong, Elector of
+Saxony and King of Poland, is a quaint apartment, on the walls of
+which are hung rugs of feather-work, of which the borders are adorned
+with set patterns of fruit and flowers, and the colouring is as soft
+as a Gobelins tapestry. The feathers are woven tightly into the warp,
+in the same manner as the tufts are set in a velvety carpet; forming a
+surface as delicate as silk to the touch. There are four high-backed
+chairs covered with the same work in smaller patterns. But what is
+especially remarkable is an immense canopy, like that of a state bed,
+with urn-shaped ornaments of stiff feathers at the corners; and a
+pretty bell-shaped fringe of scarlet feathers. The same ornament edged
+a large rug like those on the wall, thrown over what at first appeared
+to be a bed; but on examination it was found to be a rough wooden
+platform, said to be the throne of Montezuma. The story is that
+Augustus the Strong went to Spain incognito at the age of eighteen, in
+search of adventures, and distinguished himself at a bull-fight. When
+the king (Charles II.) heard the name of the young hero, he gave him a
+hospitable reception, and afterwards sent these Mexican treasures to
+him as a token of friendship.
+
+
+APPENDIX III., TO PAGE 237.
+
+_Story of Arachne, abridged by Earl Cowper from Ovid's Metamorphoses._
+
+    Arachne's tale of grief is full:
+      Her father was of low degree;
+    No thought beyond his crimson'd wool,
+      His daughter and his wife had he.
+
+    The wife had fill'd an early tomb,
+      The daughter lived--and all the land
+    Of Lydia boasted of her loom,
+      Her needle, and her dexterous hand.
+
+    To watch her task the nymphs repair
+      From fair Timolus' vine-clad hill;
+    They deem the work divinely fair,
+      The maid when working fairer still.
+
+    The softness of the fleecy ball,
+      By skilful fingers taught to flow
+    In lengthening lines--they watch'd it all--
+      And round and round the spindle go.
+
+    Wondering, they view the rich design:
+      Ah, luckless gift! ah, foolish pride!
+    'Twas Pallas taught the art divine,
+      But this the haughty maid denied.
+
+    "Me taught," she cried, "by Pallas! Me
+      By Pallas! Let the goddess first
+    Accept my challenge. Then, should she
+      Surpass me, let her do her worst."
+
+    Vain, impious words! The goddess came
+      In likeness of an ancient crone,
+    With grizzled locks and tottering frame,
+      And spoke with warning in her tone.
+
+    "Though matchless in thine art," she cried,
+      "Though first of mortals, tempt not fate.
+    Age makes me wise. Thou hast defied
+      A goddess. It is not too late."
+
+    The unhappy maid, with madness blind,
+      Replied, and scarce restrain'd the blow.
+    "'Tis plain, old woman, that your mind
+      Is drivelling to address me so.
+
+    "Some daughter or some slave may want
+      Your counsel. Let her but appear,
+    This mighty Pallas whom you vaunt!"
+      The goddess answer'd, "She is here."
+
+    She spoke, and lo! that ancient crone
+      Was young and fair, and tall and proud:
+    --The nymphs fell prostrate. She alone--
+      Arachne--neither shrank nor bow'd.
+
+    One blush quick came and pass'd away,
+      Hovering as clouds, when night is done,
+    Grow rosy at the dawn of day,
+      Then whiten with the rising sun.
+
+    She did not shrink--she did not pause--
+      But headlong to destruction ran;
+    And thus the strife ordain'd to cause
+      Such dark calamity began.
+
+    Each for the contest takes her stand--
+      The goddess here, the mortal there--
+    And each proceeds with skilful hand
+      The means of victory to prepare.
+
+    The beam each loom supports full well,
+      And to the loom the warp is tied;
+    Nor will I now forget to tell
+      The reed that doth the warp divide.
+
+    The woof the shuttle in doth bring,
+      The nimble fingers guide its way;
+    And still from either work-frame ring
+      The blows inflicted by the slay.
+
+    Each to her bosom binds her vest:
+      The arms of each, quick moving, feel
+    No sense of toil, no need of rest,
+      For weariness is quench'd by zeal.
+
+    And all the gorgeous tints of Tyre
+      In varying shades are mingled there;
+    And every hue the sun's bright fire
+      Can kindle in the showery air,--
+
+    When the wide rainbow spans the sky;
+      The bow whose colours, in the end
+    So different, yet so like when nigh,
+      In harmony's own concord blend,--
+
+    And precious threads of glittering gold
+      Enrich the growing web. But say!
+    What ancient tale by each was told?
+      What legend of an earlier day?
+
+    Pallas her well-known triumph drew;
+      The gods assembled in their force,
+    And Neptune with his trident, too,
+      Exulting in the fiery horse,--
+
+    Which from the rock he made to bound:
+      But she herself, more deeply wise,
+    A greater blessing from the ground
+      The olive brought, and gain'd the prize.
+
+    The border of this main design
+      With Rhodope's sad tale was set;
+    And all who dared the gods divine
+      To rival--and the fate they met.
+
+    Meanwhile Arachne wove the wool:
+      The web with many a picture shone.
+    She drew Europa with her bull,
+      And Leda with her snow-white swan.
+
+    Deois with her snake display'd,
+      And Danaee with her shower of gold;
+    And many a tale besides the maid,
+      Had fate permitted, would have told.
+
+    But the dread goddess now no more
+      To check her rising envy strove;
+    The half-completed task she tore,
+      And all the pictured crimes of Jove.
+
+    The shuttle thrice the air did rend,
+      Thrice did the heaven-directed blow
+    Full on Arachne's head descend,
+      And made her purple blood to flow.
+
+    Arachne's soul was proud and high:
+      She drew a cruel cord around
+    Her tender neck--and, driven to die,
+      Was from a beam suspended found.
+
+    Her death the unpitying goddess stay'd;
+      "Henceforth, vain fool! for such a crime
+    For ever shall thou hang," she said;
+      "A warning to the end of time."
+
+    In scorn she spoke, and over all
+      Her rival's face and form she smear'd
+    A deadly drug. The head grew small,
+      And each fair feature disappear'd.
+
+    And off the beauteous tresses fell;
+      The tender waist that was so slim,
+    In loathly sort was seen to swell,
+      Shrivell'd and shrank each comely limb.
+
+    The spider's fingers still remain
+      To spin for ever.--We may vie
+    With fellow mortals, but 'tis vain
+      To struggle with the gods on high.
+
+    _January, 1885._             COWPER.
+
+
+APPENDIX IV., TO PAGE 318.
+
+_Extract from "History of Christian Art." By Lord Lindsay. Vol. i. pp.
+136-139._
+
+"But perhaps the noblest testimony to the revival under the Comneni is
+afforded by the designs on the Dalmatic or sacerdotal robe, commonly
+styled 'Di Papa San Leone,' preserved in the sacristy of St.
+Peter's--said to have been embroidered at Constantinople for the
+coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor of the West, but fixed by German
+criticism as a production of the twelfth, or the early part of the
+thirteenth century. The Emperors wore it ever after, when serving as
+deacons at the Pope's altar during their coronation-mass. You will
+think little of it at first sight, and lay it aside as a piece of
+darned and faded tapestry, yet I would stake on it, alone, the
+reputation of Byzantine art. And you must recollect, too, that
+embroidery is but a poor substitute for the informing hand and the
+lightning stroke of genius.
+
+It is a large robe of stiff brocade, falling in broad and unbroken
+folds in front and behind,--broad and deep enough for the Goliath-like
+stature and the Herculean chest of Charlemagne himself. On the breast,
+the Saviour is represented in glory, on the back the Transfiguration,
+and on the two shoulders Christ administering the Eucharist to the
+Apostles.
+
+The composition on the breast is an amplification of No. V. (as above
+enumerated) of the Personal traditional compositions.--In the centre
+of a golden circle of glory, 'Jesus Christ, the Resurrection and the
+Life,' robed in white, with the youthful and beardless face, his eyes
+directly looking into yours, sits upon the rainbow, his feet resting
+on the winged wheels[617] of Ezekiel, his left hand holding an open
+book, inscribed with the invitation, 'Come, ye blessed of My
+Father,'--his right raised in benediction. At the four corners of the
+circular glory, resting on them, half within it, half without, float
+the emblems of the four Evangelists; the Virgin and the Baptist stand
+to the right and left of our Saviour, the Baptist without, the Virgin
+entirely within the glory, the only figure that is so placed; she is
+sweet in feature and graceful in attitude, in her long white robe.
+
+Above Our Saviour's head, and from the top of the golden circle, rises
+the Cross, with the crown of thorns suspended upon it, the spear
+resting on one side, the reed with the sponge on the other, and the
+sun and moon looking down upon it from the sky.
+
+The heavenly host and the company of the blessed form a circle of
+adoration around this central glory; angels occupying the upper part,
+emperors, patriarchs, monks and nuns the lower; at the extremity, on
+the left side, appears Mary Magdalen, in her penitence--a thin
+emaciated figure, imperfectly clothed, and with dishevelled hair.
+
+In the corners, below this grand composition, appear, to the right,
+St. John the Baptist, holding the cross, and pointing upwards to Our
+Saviour; to the left, Abraham seated, a child on his lap, and resting
+his hand on another by his side.
+
+The background and scene of the whole composition is of blue, to
+represent heaven,--studded with stars, shaped like the Greek cross.
+
+The Transfiguration, which corresponds to this subject on the back of
+the robe, is the traditional composition, only varied by the unusual
+shape of the vesica piscis which encloses Our Saviour. The two
+compositions representing the Institution of the Eucharist, on the
+shoulders, are better executed and more original. In each of them, Our
+Saviour, a stiff but majestic figure, stands behind the altar, on
+which are deposited a chalice and a paten or basket containing crossed
+wafers. He gives, in the one case, the cup to St. Paul, in the other
+the bread to St. Peter,--they do not kneel, but bend reverently to
+receive it; five other disciples await their turn in each
+instance,--all are standing.
+
+I do not apprehend your being disappointed with the 'Dalmatica di San
+Leone,' or your dissenting from my conclusion, that a master, a
+Michael Angelo I might almost say, then flourished at Byzantium.
+
+It was in this Dalmatic--then _semee_ all over with pearls and
+glittering in freshness--that Cola di Rienzi robed himself over his
+armour in the sacristy of St. Peter's, and thence ascended to the
+Palace of the Popes, after the manner of the Caesars, with sounding
+trumpets and his horsemen following him--his truncheon in his hand and
+his crown on his head--'terribile e fantastico,' as his biographer
+describes him--to wait upon the legate.[618]"
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+    [617] In the 'Manual of Dionysius,' recently published
+    by M. Didron (p. 71, &c.), these winged wheels are
+    interpreted as signifying the order of angels commonly
+    distinguished as Thrones. Their interpretation as the
+    Covenants of the Law and Gospel, sanctioned by St.
+    Gregory the Great in his Homilies, is certainly more
+    sublime and instructive.
+
+    [618] Cited from the original life, printed in
+    Muratori's 'Antiquit. Ital. Medii AEvi,' tom. viii., by
+    M. Sulpice Boisseree, in his essay, 'Ueber die
+    Kaiser-Dalmatica,' &c.
+
+
+APPENDIX V., TO PAGE 320.
+
+The Hon. and Rev. Ignatius Clifford has permitted me to make extracts
+from his "Memoranda of some remarkable Specimens of Ancient Church
+Embroidery." First on his list is the Cope now in the possession of
+Colonel Butler Bowden, of Pleasington, near Blackburn, Lancashire. I
+give his account of the mutilated condition, from which he has made
+his beautifully drawn restoration. "Formerly," he says, "portions of
+this cope, some made up into chasuble, stole, maniple, and some scraps
+detached, were at Mount St. Mary's College, Spink Hill, near
+Chesterfield, Derbyshire."
+
+The well-known architect, the late Augustus Welby Pugin, having seen
+them (or at least the chasuble), wrote on the 20th April, 1849, to the
+Rector of the College, "I found it to be of English work of the time
+of Edward I., and have no hesitation in pronouncing it to be the most
+interesting and beautiful specimen of church embroidery I have ever
+seen."
+
+Other portions of the cope had been made up into an altar-frontal, and
+were in the possession of Henry Bowden, Esq., of Southgate House,
+Derbyshire, some four or five miles from the college.
+
+The ground is crimson velvet. The designs are wrought in gold, silver,
+silk, and seed pearls. The silks are worked in chain, or rather in
+split stitch. It contains between seventy and eighty figures.
+
+Only two small fragments remain of the quasi-hood.
+
+In the orphrey are kings, queens, archbishops, and bishops. In the
+body of the cope are the Annunciation--Adoration of the Magi--Our Lady
+enthroned at the right of her Divine Son. _Lowest row_ of single
+figures--St. Simon, St. Jude, St. James, St. Thomas, St. Andrew, St.
+Peter, St. Paul, St. Barnabas, St. Matthew, St. Philip, St. James, St.
+Bartholomew. _Middle row_--St. Edward the Confessor--a Bishop--St.
+Margaret, St. John the Evangelist, St. John the Baptist, St.
+Catherine, an Archbishop, St. Edmund king and martyr. _Top row_--St.
+Lawrence, St. Mary Magdalene, St. Martha (or St. Helen?), St. Stephen.
+In the intervals, angels seated on faldstool thrones, and bearing
+stars; also two popinjays.
+
+Mr. Clifford describes the Steeple Aston Cope. The ground is of a
+richly ribbed faded silk. The design worked in gold and silks is
+enclosed in quatrefoils of oak and ivy. The Syon Cope he refers to
+Rock's "Textile Fabrics." See Appendix.
+
+The Dalmatic from Anagni, exhibited at Rome in 1870, he thinks is
+probably English.
+
+The Pluvial in the Basilica of St. John Lateran at Rome, he speaks of
+as "having much the appearance of the celebrated Opus Anglicanum."
+
+He describes the subjects embroidered on it thus: "No border round the
+curved edge. The orphrey is divided into tabernacles containing an
+archbishop, two bishops, and three kings and queens. Between the
+tabernacles are four angels, each accompanied by one of the
+evangelistic symbols. The body of the cope is cut into a most
+elaborate system of tabernacles, with a centre compartment of a
+different form for the group of the Crucifixion. The subjects are
+chiefly from the life of our Lord and the Blessed Virgin. The small
+quasi-hood is embroidered with two wyverns or griffin-like creatures.
+The pelican and the phoenix are introduced over the top central
+group of the enthronement of our Lady."
+
+Mr. Clifford gives the history of the Cope of Pius II. (Bartolomeo
+Piccolomini, "AEneas Silvius") fifteenth century. It is a masterpiece
+of Italian embroidery of the early Renaissance. The material was gold
+brocade, covered with wonderful designs carried out in needlework,
+representing saints and angels, trees and birds, and arabesques. The
+whole was adorned with pearls and precious stones valued at L80,000.
+At his death the pope bequeathed this vestment to the cathedral of his
+native town. The cope was stolen in March, 1884, from the treasury at
+Pienza; and shortly afterwards discovered in the shop of a dealer in
+antiquities at Florence, but completely stripped of its precious
+stones and of some of its more valuable embroidery. After magisterial
+investigation, the cope was restored to Pienza.
+
+The cope at Bologna is thus described: "Subjects from the New
+Testament contained in two rows of tabernacle compartments, twelve in
+lower, seven in upper row. Spandrils occupied by angels playing on
+various musical instruments. After each row, a border containing
+medallions with heads (of angels, prophets, &c.), twenty-three in
+lower, nine in upper row. No orphrey; no border or outside curve;
+quasi-hood very small."
+
+
+APPENDIX VI., TO PAGE 326.
+
+_From Rock's "Textiles," p. 275._
+
+"The Syon Monastery Cope; ground green, with crimson interlacing
+barbed quatrefoils, enclosing figure of our Lord, the Blessed Virgin
+Mary, the Apostles, with winged cherubim standing on wheels in the
+intervening spaces, and the orphreys, morse, and hem wrought with
+armorial bearings; the whole done in gold, silver, and various
+coloured silks. English needlework, thirteenth century; 9 feet 7
+inches by 4 feet 8 inches.
+
+"This handsome cope, so very remarkable on account of its
+comparatively perfect preservation, is one of the most beautiful among
+the several liturgical vestments of the olden period anywhere to be
+now found in Christendom. If by all lovers of mediaeval antiquity it
+will be looked upon as so valuable a specimen of art of its kind and
+time, for every Englishman it ought to have a double interest,
+showing, as it does, such a splendid and instructive example of the
+opus 'Anglicum,' or English work, which won itself so wide a fame, and
+was so eagerly sought after throughout the whole of Europe during the
+Middle Ages."
+
+Dr. Rock gives a list of the subjects. St. Michael overcoming Satan
+(from Rev. xii. 7, 9). The next quatrefoil above this is filled with
+the Crucifixion. Here the Blessed Virgin is arrayed in a green tunic,
+and a golden mantle lined with vair; her head is kerchiefed, and her
+uplifted hands sorrowfully clasped. St. John--whose dress is all of
+gold--is on the left, at the foot of the cross, upon which the
+Saviour, wrought all in silver--a most unusual thing--with a cloth of
+gold wrapped about His loins, is fastened by three (not four)
+nails.... In the highest quatrefoil is figured the Redeemer in glory,
+crowned as a king, and seated on a cushioned throne. Resting upon His
+knee and steadied by His hand is the Mund, or ball representing the
+earth.... This is divided into three parts, of which the largest, an
+upper horizontal hemicycle, is coloured crimson (now faded to a
+brownish tint), but the lower hemicycle is divided vertically in two,
+of which one portion is coloured green, and the other white or
+silvered....
+
+The next two subjects to be described are--one on the right hand, the
+death of the Blessed Virgin Mary; the other, on the left, her
+burial....
+
+Below the burial we have our Lord in the garden, signified by two
+trees; still wearing the crown of thorns; our Lord in His left hand
+holds the banner of the Resurrection, and with His right bestows His
+benediction on the kneeling Magdalene, who is wimpled, and wears a
+mantle of green, shot yellow, over a light purple tunic.
+
+Below, but outside the quatrefoil, is a layman clad in gold, upon his
+knees, and holding a long, narrow scroll bearing words which cannot
+now be satisfactorily read.
+
+Lowermost of all we see the Apostle St. Philip, with a book in one
+hand, in the other the flaying knife.
+
+A little above him St. Peter, with his two keys, one gold, the other
+silver; and somewhat under him is St. Andrew with his cross. On the
+other side of St. Michael and the Dragon is St. James the
+Greater--sometimes called of Compostella, because he lies buried in
+that Spanish city--with a book in one hand and in the other a staff,
+and slung from his wrist a wallet, both emblems of pilgrimage to his
+shrine in Galicia.... In the next quatrefoil above is St. Paul with
+his sword, and over to the right St. Thomas; still further to the
+right St. James the Less. Just above is our Saviour, clad in a golden
+tunic, and carrying a staff, overcoming the unbelief of St. Thomas.
+Upon his knees that Apostle feels, with his right hand held by the
+Redeemer, the spear wound in His side.
+
+As at the left side, so here, quite outside the sacred history on the
+cope, we have the figure of an individual probably living at the time
+the vestment was wrought. The dress of the other shows him to be a
+layman; by the shaven crown of his head, this person must have been a
+cleric of some sort; but we cannot tell ... for the canvas is worn
+quite bare, so that we see nothing now but the lines drawn in black to
+guide the embroiderer.... This Churchman holds up another scroll
+bearing words which can no longer be read.
+
+"When this cope was new, it showed, written in tall gold letters more
+than an inch high, an inscription now cut up and lost ... the word
+_ne_, and a V on some of the shreds are all that remains of it.
+
+"In its original state it could give us the whole of the twelve
+Apostles. Portions can still be seen.... The lower part of the
+vestment has been sadly cut away, and reshaped with the fragments;
+perhaps at that time were added the present heraldic orphrey, morse,
+and border, probably fifty years later than the other portions of this
+matchless specimen of the far-famed 'Opus Anglicum.'" "Of angels,"
+the "nine choirs," and the three great hierarchies, Cherubim,
+Seraphim, and Thrones, are figured here. Led a good way by Ezekiel,
+but not following that prophet step by step, our mediaeval draughtsmen
+found out for themselves a certain angel form. To this they gave a
+human shape, that of a comely youth; clothing him with six wings, with
+human feet; instead of the body being full of eyes, the wings are
+often composed of the bright-eyed feathers of the peacock. On this
+cope the eight angels standing upon wheels are so placed that they are
+everywhere nearest to those quatrefoils wherein our Lord's Person
+comes, and may therefore be taken as representing the upper hierarchy
+of the angelic host. The other angels, not upon wheels, no doubt
+belong to the second hierarchy; while those that have but one pair of
+wings (not three) represent the lowest hierarchy. "All, like our Lord,
+are barefoot. All of them have their hands lifted in prayer.... For
+every lover of English heraldry this cope, so plentifully blazoned
+with armorial bearings, will have a special value, equal to that
+belonging to many an ancient roll of arms." The orphrey, morse and hem
+contain the arms of Warwick, Castile and Leon, Ferrars, Geneville
+Everard, the badge of the Knights Templars, Clifford, Spencer, Lemisi
+or Lindsey, Le Botiler, Sheldon, Monteney of Essex, Champernoun,
+England, Tyddeswall, Grandeson, FitzAlan, Hampden, Percy, Chambowe,
+Ribbesford, Bygod, Roger de Mortimer, Golbare or Grove, De
+Bassingburn, with many others not recognized, and frequent
+repetitions.... "Besides their heraldry, squares at each corner are
+wrought with swans and peacocks of curious interest for every lover of
+mediaeval symbolism...." These coats of arms, being mostly blazoned on
+lozenge-shaped shields, suggest that possibly they record those of the
+noble ladies who worked the border; while those on circles may be the
+arms of religious houses or donors.
+
+"A word or two upon the needlework; how it was done; and the now
+unused mechanical appliance to it after it was wrought, so observable
+on this vestment, lending its figures more effect."
+
+"We find that for the human face, all over this cope, the first
+stitches were begun in the centre of the cheek, and worked in circular
+lines, into which, after the first start, they fell, and were so
+carried on through the rest of the flesh tints.
+
+"Then with a little iron rod, ending in a small bulb slightly heated,
+were pressed down those parts of the faces worked in circles, as well
+as the wide dimple in the throat. By the hollows thus sunk a play of
+light and shadow is brought out that lends to the parts so treated a
+look of being done in low relief. Upon the lightly clothed figure of
+our Lord the same process is followed, and shows a noteworthy example
+of the mediaeval knowledge of external anatomy.
+
+"We must not, however, hide from ourselves that the unequal surfaces,
+given by such a use of the hot iron to parts of the work, expose it to
+the danger of being worn by friction more than other parts, and soon
+betray the damage by their threadbare, dingy look, as is the case in
+the example just cited. The method for grounding the quatrefoils is
+remarkable for being done in a long zigzag diaper pattern (laid
+stitch)....
+
+"The stitching on the armorial bearings is the same as that now
+followed in many trifling things worked in wool (cross stitch).
+
+"The canvas (or linen) for every part of this cope is of the finest
+sort, but its crimson canvas lining is thick and coarse....
+
+"A word or two about the history of this fine cope...."
+
+Dr. Rock now enters into the history of the guilds, which included
+noble laymen and women, and members of the clergy; and tells us that
+the rolls of these associations sometimes grew to be exceedingly
+wealthy. He says that each of these guilds had usually in its parish
+church a chapel or altar of its own, splendidly provided for, to which
+offerings were spontaneously given by individuals, or by members
+clubbing together that their joint gift might be the more worthy.
+
+Perhaps the cleric and the layman worked on the cope may have been the
+donors. Dr. Rock suggests that possibly Coventry may have been the
+place of its origin, "where the famous Corpus Christi plays" (which
+this cope so well illustrates) "drew crowds every year to see them, as
+is testified by the Paston letters. Taking this old city as a centre,
+with a radius of no great length, we may draw a circle on the map
+enclosing Tamworth, tower and town, Chartley castle, Warwick,
+Charlcote, and Althorp. The lords of these broad lands would, in
+accordance with the religious feelings of those times, become brothers
+of the famous Guild of Coventry, and on account of their high rank
+find their arms embroidered on the vestments belonging to their
+fraternity. That such a pious queen as the gentle Eleanor, wife of
+Edward the First, who died 1290, should have in her lifetime become a
+sister is very likely, so that we may easily account for the
+shield--Castile and Leon."
+
+The other noble shields may possibly record munificent benefactions.
+"The whole must have taken very long in the working, and the
+probability is that it was embroidered by the nuns of some convent
+which stood in or near Coventry....
+
+"Upon the banks of the Thames at Isleworth, near London, Henry V.
+built and munificently endowed a monastery, to be called 'Syon,' for
+the nuns of St. Bridget's order. Among the earliest friends of this
+new house was a Master Thomas Graunt, an official in one of the
+Ecclesiastical Courts of the kingdom. In the Syon Nun's
+Martyrologium--a valuable MS. lately bought by the British
+Museum--this Churchman is gratefully recorded as the giver to their
+convent of several precious ornaments, of which this very cope
+seemingly is one. It was the custom for a guild or religious body to
+bestow some rich church vestment upon an ecclesiastical advocate who
+had befriended it by his pleadings before the tribunal, and thus to
+convey their thanks to him with his fee. After such a fashion this
+cope might easily have found its way, through Dr. Graunt, from
+Warwickshire to Middlesex.
+
+"At the beginning of Elizabeth's reign it went with the nuns, as they
+wandered in an unbroken body through Flanders, France, and Portugal,
+where they halted. About sixty years ago it came back again from
+Lisbon to England, and has found a home in the South Kensington
+Museum."
+
+For want of space I have been obliged to omit a great deal of Dr.
+Rock's interesting account of the Syon Cope. The reader is referred
+for further details, especially regarding the heraldry and the
+subjects in the quatrefoils, to Rock's "Textile Fabrics," pp. 275-291,
+in the South Kensington Museum (No. 9182).
+
+
+APPENDIX VII., TO PAGE 350.
+
+The Assyrians were great in fringes. Of this we can judge from their
+sculptures, in which the rich deep and broad fringe forms the ornament
+and accentuates the shaping of the garments of kings and priests and
+nobles. Loftus, in his "Babylon and Susiana," tells of the only
+actually existing remnant of their textile art of which I can find any
+record. Some terra-cotta coffins were opened at Warka (the ancient
+Erech), and in one of them was a cushion, on which the head, gone to
+dust, had reposed. It was covered with linen--fringed. Nothing else
+had survived the ages except a huge wig of false hair. Such
+fragmentary echoes from a life, a civilization, and an art dead for
+thousands of years, are curiously pathetic, and touch and startle the
+thinking mind.
+
+
+APPENDIX VIII., TO PAGE 369.
+
+The following poem from the Anglo-Saxon poem of Beowulf shows that the
+hospitable hall of the Saxon earl was hung with tapestry embroidered
+with gold.
+
+                Foela poera was
+                Much people were
+    Wera and Wifa pe pat win rued
+    Men and women who that wine house
+    Gest sele gyredon gold fag scinon
+    That guest-hall garnished. Cloths embroidered with gold
+    Web-after wagum. Wundersiona feld
+    Those along the walls many wonderful sights
+    Sioga gustryleum para pe on swyle stara [female or Venus symbol]
+    To every person of those that gaze on such.
+
+                               Translation by Thomas Arnold.
+
+The poem of Beowulf is supposed to have been written in the early part
+of the twelfth century.
+
+The lines which follow are from a poem, recomposed from earlier sagas,
+in the beginning of the twelfth century. It serves to show that arras
+was used in bedrooms thus early in Germany.
+
+From the "Niebelungen Lied," uebersetzt von Karl Simrock, p. 294.
+
+    Manche schmucke Decke von Arras da lag
+    Aus lichthellem Zeuge und manches Ueberdach
+    Aus arabischer Seides so gut sie mochte sein,
+    Darueber lagen leisten du gaben herrlicher Schein.
+
+I owe these notices to the kindness of the Rev. A. O. Winnington
+Ingram.
+
+
+APPENDIX IX., TO PAGE 362.
+
+_Abridged from Trans. by Sir G. Dasent._
+
+(_From the Ezrbyggja Saga._)
+
+In that summer in which Christianity was established by law in Iceland
+(A.D. 1000), there came a ship from off the sea out to Snowfellsness,
+in Iceland. It was a Dublin ship, and on board it were Irishmen and
+men from Sodor and the Hebrides, but few Norsemen.... On board the
+ship was a woman from the Hebrides, whose name was Thorgunna. Her
+shipmates said that they were sure she had such treasures with her as
+would be hard to get in Iceland.
+
+Thurida, the housewife at Frida, was envious and covetous of these
+precious goods, and received Thorgunna into her home in hopes, by some
+means, to possess herself of them, especially the embroidered hangings
+of a bed; but Thorgunna refused to part with them. "I will not lie in
+the straw for thee, though thou art a fine lady, and thinkest great
+things of thyself." Thorgunna made her own terms with Thurida and
+Master Harold, and set up her bed at the inner end of their hall. Her
+richly worked bed-clothes, her English sheets and silken quilt, and
+her bed-hangings and canopy were such "that men thought nothing at all
+like them had ever been seen." An air of truth is given to the whole
+story by the details. Thorgunna is described as "tall and strong and
+very stout. She was swarthy brown, with eyes set close together; her
+hair was brown and very thick. She was well-behaved in daily life, and
+went to church every morning before she went to her work." Then comes
+an account of a storm, and a rain of blood; and how Thorgunna sickened
+and died, and at her own desire was carried to be buried to Skilholt,
+which she prophesied would one day be considered holy, and that
+priests might there sing dirges over her.
+
+There is a curious and picturesque account of the two days' journey to
+Skilholt, and the adventures that befell the funeral cortege;
+including the incident of the corpse cooking the supper of the convoy
+at an inhospitable farmhouse where they had sought refuge and received
+no entertainment.
+
+On Harold's return home after the funeral, he proceeded to carry out
+the wishes of Thorgunna, who had warned him that the ownership of her
+embroidered hangings would cause trouble, and therefore she had
+desired they should be burned. Thurida, however, could not bear to
+lose them, and persuaded Harold to spare them. "After this followed
+many signs and portents, and deaths of men and women, and apparitions
+of ghosts, until Kjartan (Thurida's son) brought out all Thorgunna's
+bed-hangings and furniture, and burned them in the fire."
+
+
+APPENDIX X., TO PAGE 365.
+
+Aelfled or Athelfleda was the founder of a race of embroiderers. Their
+pedigree is as follows:--
+
+       BRITHNOD,     ===          ATHELFLEDA.
+   a Northumberland   |       She embroidered the
+  Chief or Alderman.  |  daring deeds of her husband.
+                      |
+                  LEOFLEDA. === KING OSWIC.
+                             |     Oswic's sister Aedelfleda was
+                             |  adopted by Hilda, Abbess of Whitby.
+                             |   She succeeded Hilda, and died 713.
+                             |      She was a great embroiderer.
+                  ___________|___________
+                  |          |          |
+               AELFWIN.   AELSWITH.   LEOFWED.
+                                        |
+                                      AELSWITH.
+
+Leofwed made her will in the time of King Cnut; dividing her revenue
+between her daughter Aelswith and the Abbey of Ely. Aelswith accepted
+the residence of Coveney, a small property belonging to the convent,
+and there she embroidered with her maidens. See Liber Eliensis, ed. D.
+J. Stewart, "Anglia Christiana," vol. i., 1848.
+
+
+APPENDIX XI., TO PAGE 377.
+
+In the Statutes at Large there is the following in vol. i. p. 526 (in
+old French):--
+
+2 Henry VI.
+
+A penalty on deceitful workers of gold and silver embroidery.
+
+Item. pur ceo que diverses defautes sont trovez en loveraigne de
+diverses persons occupiantz le mestier de brouderie. Ordonnez est &
+assentiez, que tout loveraigne & stuff de brouderie d'or ou d'argent
+de Cipre ou d'or de Luke melle avec laton de Spayne & mys a vent en
+deceit des lieges du Roi sont forfait au Roi ou as Seigneurs et autres
+accenz franchises d'autielx forfaitures ein quy franchise autiel
+overaigne soit trouvee et durera c'est ordinance longue parlement
+prochainement avenir.
+
+33 Henry VI.
+
+That if any Lombard or any other person, Stranger or Denizen, bring or
+cause to be brought by way of merchandize any wrought silk thrown,
+Ribbands, Laces, Corses of Silk, or any other thing wrought, touching
+or concerning the mystery of Silk women, the corses which come from
+Genoa only excepted, into any part or place of the Realm from beyond
+the Sea, that the same ... be forfeit.
+
+3 Edward IV.
+
+Whereby the importation of any wrought silk thrown, Ribbands, Laces,
+Corses of Silk, or other things wrought, concerning the craft of Silk
+women is prohibited or restrained.
+
+22 Edward IV.
+
+That no Marchant, Stranger, nor other person shall bring into the
+Realm to be sold, any Corses, Girdles, Ribbands, Laces, Coll. Silk or
+Colein Silk, thrown or wrought, upon pain of forfeiture of the same.
+
+Also Richard III. "An Act touching the bringing in of Silk Laces,
+Ribbands, &c."
+
+Also 19 Henry VII. "An Act for Silk Women."
+
+These acts appear to have been partially repealed, 3 and 5 George III.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX.
+
+
+  Achilles, shield of, 33, 103.
+
+  Aelgitha, wife of Canute, embroideries by, 366.
+
+  AEsthetic, 17, 90, 339.
+
+  Agrippina, golden garment of, 143.
+
+  Alessandri Palace, Florence, 284.
+
+  Alexander the Great, 142, 299;
+    wedding tent of, 263-4;
+    pall of, 142.
+
+  Alkisthenes, mantle of, 298.
+
+  Altar, 42, 346;
+    altar-piece, 328;
+    altar-cloths, 340, 346;
+    by Queen Emma, 366.
+
+  Amasis, corselet of, 20, 308;
+    Bishop of, 299.
+
+  Anne of Brittany, 331.
+
+  Apollo of Branchidae, 296.
+
+  Arabesque, 43, 80.
+
+  Arachne, 237.
+
+  Aragon, Catherine of, embroideries by, 383.
+
+  Aristophanes, 98.
+
+  Arras, 238, 243, 255-6, 274.
+
+  Arrazzi, 245;
+    Prince of, 249;
+    trade with, 250, 252.
+
+  Art of dress, 298;
+    of needlework, 396.
+
+  Art, Greek, 18, 35, 59, 306;
+    Egyptian, 20, 25, 34, 56-7;
+    Scandinavian, 29, 40;
+    Roman, 37, 60, 310;
+    Romanesque, 36, 323;
+    Christian, 37, 39, 300, 306, 311, 315, 317;
+    Chinese, 38, 73, 153, 155;
+    Japanese, 38, 64, 65, 393;
+    Gothic, 42, 52, 68, 307, 324;
+    Italian, 43, 311;
+    French, 46;
+    Ecclesiastical, 41, 78, 303, 305;
+    Aryan, 69, 70;
+    Celtic, 96, 273;
+    decorative, 289;
+    Lombardic, 310;
+    Pagan, 338.
+
+  Asbestos linen, 123.
+
+  Atrebates, 136, 246.
+
+  Attalus II., 142.
+
+  Auxerre, Bishop of, 242.
+
+
+  Balawat, bronze gates from, 271.
+
+  Baldachino, 170, 268, 283, 312.
+
+  Banner, 215;
+    of St. Cuthbert, 349.
+
+  Bas-relief, Assyrian, 287.
+
+  Bayeux tapestries, 367.
+
+  Beads, 332.
+
+  Bede, mention of worked palls by, 160.
+
+  Bedsteads, 282;
+    at Kenilworth, 283-4;
+    at Hampton Court, 395.
+
+  Bellini, portrait of Mahomet II., 147.
+
+  Black, 187.
+
+  Blode-bendes, or silk arm-bindings, 374.
+
+  Blue, 184, 187.
+
+  Boadicea, dress of, 87, 359.
+
+  Bombacinum or cotton, 138.
+
+  Book-coverings in library of Charles V., 289.
+
+  Borghese Palace, Rome, 277.
+
+  British Museum, sculptures in, 22;
+    vases, 31, 114;
+    frieze of Parthenon, 31;
+    mantle of Demeter, 93;
+    Egyptian dress, 93;
+    glass bowls, 101;
+    carpets from Nineveh, 105;
+    Egyptian woollen embroidery, 130;
+    fine linen printed, 134;
+    garment with gold ornaments, 144;
+    "opus pectineum" from Egypt, 236;
+    pavements, 272;
+    bronze statuette of Minerva, 297;
+    specimen of "opus Anglicanum," 376.
+
+  Brocade, 141.
+
+  Bronze age, 358;
+    statues, 359.
+
+  Brown, 187.
+
+  Buckram, 139.
+
+  Burleigh House arras, 256.
+
+  Byrri, 238.
+
+  Byssus, 134-5.
+
+  Byzantium, 306, 314.
+
+
+  Carpets, 261, 285;
+    Persian, 23, 73, 132, 188, 241, 271, 371.
+
+  Cashmere, 133.
+
+  Castle Ashby, tapestries at, 277.
+
+  Catacombs, 304.
+
+  Chair, 285;
+    chair-backs, 286.
+
+  Chaldean house, 281.
+
+  Charles I., 255, 390.
+
+  Charles V., library of, 289, 295.
+
+  Chasuble, 164;
+    by Isabella of Spain, 147;
+    at Coire, 328;
+    of St. Oswald, 362;
+    at Valencia, 381;
+    for Henry III., 374.
+
+  Chaucer, 251.
+
+  Chemmis, city of Pan, woollen trade in, 127.
+
+  Chenille, 395.
+
+  Church historical embroideries, 316.
+
+  Ciclatoun, 145.
+
+  Cinnabar, 183.
+
+  Clavus latus, 309, 337.
+
+  Cleves, Anne of, 384.
+
+  Cochineal, 184.
+
+  Code of Manu, 89.
+
+  Colour, 175-193;
+    prismatic, 177;
+    purple, 180;
+    crimson, 184;
+    copper, 184;
+    yellow, 185;
+    pure, 189, 192;
+    iodine, 190;
+    chromatic, 190;
+    Oriental, 191;
+    gas, 191;
+    foundation, 289;
+    green, 289;
+    liturgical, 305;
+    mystical, 335.
+
+  Complication, 67.
+
+  Confusion, 65.
+
+  Constantine, 306, 316.
+
+  Consutum, 214.
+
+  Contrast, 66.
+
+  Conventional, 71, 97.
+
+  Cope of St. Andrew, 144;
+    Syon, 206, 326;
+    of Boniface VIII., 320;
+    at Rheims, 321-2;
+    Daroca, 320, 376;
+    at Stoneyhurst, 348, 379;
+    of Innocent III., 369;
+    at Durham, 390.
+
+  Copper, 184.
+
+  Coral, 88, 124, 332.
+
+  Coronation robes, 295, 318, 362;
+    of St. Stephen of Hungary, 322;
+    of Charles X., 339;
+    of Edward the Confessor, 366;
+    of James II., 393.
+
+  Corselet of Amasis in temple at Lindos, in Rhodes, 20, 308.
+
+  Cotton, 137;
+    cotton trees, 138;
+    woven, 139;
+    cotton plush, 139.
+
+  Counterpane worked by Queen Catherine, 384.
+
+  Coverlets, 393.
+
+  Crewels, 133, 229, 345, 398;
+    work in, 390, 392.
+
+  Crimson, 184.
+
+  Cross, 103;
+    of St. Andrew, 144;
+    Greek, 165;
+    emblem of, 308;
+    prehistoric, 335-6.
+
+  Croyland Abbey embroideries, 366.
+
+  Crusaders, 307, 371.
+
+  Curtains, 261, 270, 272, 281, 288;
+    ordered by Sergius, 312;
+    by Pope John, 312;
+    by Stephen IV., 312.
+
+  Cushion at Hatfield, of James I.'s reign, 390.
+
+  Cuthbert, St., 144;
+    silk garments in tomb of, 163, 165, 364-5.
+
+  Cyprus bowls, 109.
+
+
+  Dado, 271.
+
+  Dais, the chamber of, 282.
+
+  Dalmatic of Charlemagne, 53, 317-18;
+    at Valencia, 381.
+
+  Damascus, 127.
+
+  Decoration, 5, 50, 70, 290, 355;
+    art of, 273.
+
+  Decorative, 81, 273.
+
+  Design, 54-81;
+    floral, 71, 345, 348;
+    English, 377;
+    by St. Dunstan, 365.
+
+  Detail, 71.
+
+  Dress, 70, 294, 301, 373;
+    Greek, 297-8;
+    Roman, 299;
+    early Christian, 300;
+    of Claudius, 360;
+    of Duke and Duchess of Buckingham, 393.
+
+  Durham Cathedral, 348.
+
+  Dyes, 183, 185, 358;
+    Indian, 187.
+
+
+  East India Company, monopoly of trade by, 388.
+
+  Ecclesiastical embroidery, 303, 327, 330, 353;
+    for images, 305;
+    priests' robes, 306;
+    materials used in, 311;
+    names of garments in, 313, 316;
+    at Durham, 316;
+    English, 332.
+
+  Edward II., 250.
+
+  Edward III., 377.
+
+  Eighteenth century decorations, 112;
+    embroidery, 393, 395.
+
+  Eleanor, Queen, crosses of, 372.
+
+  Emare, mantle of, 372.
+
+  Embroiderers' Guild, 388;
+    list of names, 373;
+    Company in Elizabeth's reign, 387, 394.
+
+  Embroideries, Babylonian and Ninevite, 22, 44, 105, 127, 132, 271,
+      299, 311, 350;
+    Greek, 31-2, 93, 103, 142;
+    German, 43, 149;
+    Italian, 43, 116, 147;
+    Spanish, 45, 150, 331, 383;
+    Portuguese, 45;
+    Scandinavian and Celtic, 68, 91, 104, 116, 131, 136, 306;
+    Egyptian, 93, 114, 130, 134, 209, 236, 271;
+    Assyrian, 93, 127, 262, 357;
+    Roman, 129, 143, 153, 313;
+    Chinese, 97, 113, 127, 151, 208;
+    Persian, 99, 266, 299;
+    Japanese, 109, 214;
+    Russian, 201, 206, 313;
+    Delphic, 272;
+    English, 319, 321, 325, 356-396;
+    spurious, in Henry VI.'s reign, 377.
+
+  Embroidery, art of, 16, 136, 173, 195, 289, 378;
+    white, 200;
+    in churches, 313, 341.
+
+  Emma, Queen, embroideries by, 366.
+
+  Enamel, 146.
+
+  Etruscan borders, 47;
+    tombs, 357.
+
+
+  Fashion, 301.
+
+  Fayoum, 39;
+    ancient Egyptian textile fabrics from, 139, 300.
+
+  Fictile vases, 31, 32, 93, 103.
+
+  Field of Cloth of Gold, 381-2.
+
+  Filatorium, 222.
+
+  Fitness, 81.
+
+  Flat, drawing on, 69-70;
+    stitches, 345.
+
+  Flavius Vopiscus, 158.
+
+  Flax, 133, 135.
+
+  Flemish work, 329.
+
+  Floral patterns, 71.
+
+  Floss silk, 374.
+
+  Flowers, 291.
+
+  Footstools, 285.
+
+  Frames, 292, 299, 371, 389.
+
+  Frescoes, 373.
+
+  Fringes, 271, 351.
+
+  Fulham, tapestry works at, 257.
+
+  Furniture, 280-293.
+
+
+  Gammadion, 104.
+
+  Gaudry, Bishop, tapestry of, 242.
+
+  Geoffrey, Abbot, 249.
+
+  Gisela, Queen, 323.
+
+  Giustini Palace, Florence, 277.
+
+  Gobelins, 131, 237, 247-8, 275, 277.
+
+  Gold, 140, 143;
+    threads, 346;
+    Gothic design in, 75, 377;
+    embroideries, 202;
+    needlework for Elinor of Aquitaine, 369;
+    Spanish lace, 381;
+    caskets, 389.
+
+  Gradation, 67.
+
+  Green, 187.
+
+  Gregory Nazianzen, 160.
+
+  Grey, 187.
+
+  Grotesque, 43.
+
+  Guimp, 163, 223.
+
+
+  Hair, 133.
+
+  Hampton Court, 288, 384;
+    bed at, worked by Mrs. Pawsey, 395.
+
+  Hand-looms, 374.
+
+  Hangings, 243, 260-274;
+    of the Hebrew Sanctuary, 262;
+    of Alexander's tent, 263;
+    portraits on, 265;
+    in Kosroes' "white palace," 268;
+    on Greek vases, 269;
+    in Pompeii, 269;
+    saffron, mentioned by Euripides, 272;
+    French, sixteenth century, 274;
+    modern French, 275;
+    in Holland House, 276;
+    in Florence, 277;
+    in Rome, 277;
+    English, from time of Harold to Edward IV., and others, 370, 384,
+        392-3.
+
+  Harmonies, 66.
+
+  Hawaiian royal mantle, 209.
+
+  Helen, 33.
+
+  Helena, Empress, 316, 360.
+
+  Hemp, 121.
+
+  Henry II., mantle of, 203, 323.
+
+  Henry VIII., manufacture of tapestry in reign of, 252;
+    embroidery, 302, 369, 384-5.
+
+  Hephaestion, catafalque of, 267.
+
+  Hexameron work of St. Ambrose and St. Basil, 333.
+
+  Holland House, 276.
+
+  Homer, 11, 19, 33, 130.
+
+  Hom, the sacred, 99, 334.
+
+
+  Icelandic Sagas, 273, 362.
+
+  Illumination, 273, 305, 310, 363.
+
+  Imperial, a silk tissue, 161.
+
+  India, arts of, 7, 27, 75, 83, 311;
+    Museum, 89, 285.
+
+  Indian carving, 75;
+    shawls, 133;
+    cotton fabrics, 138;
+    dyes, 187;
+    embroideries, 284, 299;
+    manufactures, 389, 391, 394.
+
+  Inscriptions, 105, 146, 341;
+    woven in, 168;
+    in tapestry, 242, 375.
+
+  Isabella of France, 331;
+    of Spain, 384.
+
+
+  Jacket in Lady Waterford's collection, 386.
+
+  James I., manufacture of tapestry in reign of, 254;
+    portrait of, 255;
+    work in reign of, 387, 388.
+
+  Josephus, 9.
+
+  Juno, toilet of, 297.
+
+  Jute, 121.
+
+
+  Kells, Book of, 30.
+
+  Khotan, Prince of, 156.
+
+  Kosroes' hangings, 261, 268.
+
+  Kunigunda, Empress, 203, 323.
+
+
+  Lace, 222-235;
+    bone, 225;
+    yak, 225;
+    needle-made, 227;
+    ancient lace-books, 228;
+    stitches, 229;
+    Venetian, 229;
+    Burano, 230;
+    list of, 231;
+    blond, 232;
+    schools in France, 233;
+    for ecclesiastical purposes, 233;
+    bobbin, 234;
+    Limerick, 234;
+    Irish, 234;
+    Honiton, 234;
+    Spanish, 383.
+
+  Lambeth tapestry works, 257;
+    missal at, 30.
+
+  Lares, 291.
+
+  Leather, 123.
+
+  Lilac, 187.
+
+  Linen, 357-8.
+
+  Lombardic, 310, 323.
+
+  Lotus, 89, 102, 105.
+
+  Louis XIV., 46, 247, 276, 332, 393.
+
+  Louis XV., 47, 110, 247, 276, 332.
+
+  Louis XVI., 332.
+
+  Lyons, 151, 167, 345.
+
+
+  Maniple of St. Cuthbert, 144;
+    in Durham library, 364.
+
+  Mantle of Demeter, 93;
+    of Ajax, 103;
+    of Servius Tullius, 129;
+    of Alkisthenes, 299;
+    of Gisela, 323;
+    of King Wiglaf, 363-4.
+
+  Manu, Code of, 314.
+
+  Manufactures of Nineveh and Babylon, 127;
+    at Lyons, 151;
+    of silk, 160;
+    at Palermo, 161.
+
+  Marcus Aurelius, 158.
+
+  Mark's, St., Venice, 346.
+
+  Mary, Queen of Scots, 387.
+
+  Mary's, St., Hall, Coventry, 250, 379.
+
+  Melito, Bishop of Sardis, book on Symbolism by, 333.
+
+  Middle Ages, 12, 23, 42, 73, 125, 137, 145, 168, 183, 202, 239, 242,
+      249, 273, 307, 315.
+
+  Mitre at Milan, 211;
+    of St. Thomas a Becket, 321, 369.
+
+  Monks of St. Florent, Saumur, 242;
+    of Cluny, 242;
+    of Fleury, 242;
+    in England, 249;
+    of St. Alban's, 251.
+
+  Monuments, 373.
+
+  Morris, William, 290.
+
+  Mosaics, 40, 300, 314;
+    Empress Theodora's dress figured in, 41, 93;
+    of Sta. Pudenziana, 306, 317;
+    early Christian, 314;
+    in Sta. Maria Maggiore, 117, 322.
+
+  Mummy-wrappings, 21.
+
+  Museum, Cluny, 247, 275, 277;
+    at Boulac, 56.
+
+  Muslin, 139.
+
+  Mycenae, tomb of Agamemnon at, 19;
+    lion's gate of, 304.
+
+
+  Needle, the first, 14, 357;
+    bronze, steel, 195, 213;
+    bone, 358.
+
+  Nimroud, 24.
+
+  Nineteenth century, style of, 49, 339.
+
+  Normans, 366.
+
+  Northumberland House, tapestries at, 257.
+
+  Nunneries, 10.
+
+
+  Opus Alexandrinum, 117.
+
+  Opus Anglicanum, 325, 376.
+
+  Orange, 187.
+
+  Order, 59.
+
+  Oriental work, 392.
+
+  Orphrey, 368-9.
+
+  Oudenarde "hallings" or "salles," 252.
+
+
+  Painting, 4.
+
+  Palermo, silk-weaving at, 165, 307.
+
+  Pall of Alexander, 142;
+    at Dunstable, 251, 378;
+    of London Companies, 329, 379.
+
+  Pamphile silk-weaver, 152.
+
+  Panels, 69, 79.
+
+  Patchwork, 117;
+    applique, 214, 325, 392.
+
+  Patterns, 82-117;
+    wave, 62, 114;
+    key, 63, 97;
+    Oriental, 84, 99;
+    lotus, 89, 102;
+    animal, 93;
+    lily, 95;
+    rose, 95;
+    palm leaf on shawl, 96;
+    sacred hom, 99;
+    pine-apple, 100;
+    honeysuckle, 101;
+    egg and tongue, 102;
+    cross, 103;
+    crenelated, 104;
+    Renaissance, 108;
+    cloud, 109, 338;
+    fundata or netted, 109;
+    wheel, 110;
+    Moorish, 110;
+    Sicilian, 111;
+    shell, 112;
+    Indian balcony, 112;
+    chrysoclavus or palmated, 113;
+    wicker and lattice-work, 113;
+    bead, 114;
+    daisy, 114;
+    geometrical, 115;
+    German and Venetian books of, 206;
+    feather, 208;
+    Persian, 241;
+    check, 270;
+    metal-work, 325;
+    Roes, or wheel and plate, 336-7;
+    Indian dimity, 394.
+
+  Peacocks, 163, 211;
+    feathers, 376.
+
+  Pearls, 332, 362, 383, 389.
+
+  Pectineum, 235.
+
+  Penates, 291.
+
+  Penelope, bridal couch of, 281.
+
+  Peplos of Athene, 32.
+
+  Pere Labbe, 242.
+
+  Persian carpets, 23, 73, 98, 132, 241, 266, 271;
+    rugs, 94;
+    silks, 153.
+
+  Perspective, 70.
+
+  Peter's, St., Rome, 346.
+
+  Pheidias, 59.
+
+  Phoenicians, 7, 21, 125, 176, 357;
+    bowls from Cyprus, 109.
+
+  Phrygium, 202.
+
+  Pictorial art, 79, 331.
+
+  Plateresque, 45.
+
+  Plumarii, 207, 212.
+
+  Plush, 221.
+
+  Pluvial of St. Silvester, 319;
+    at Bologna, 320;
+    at Aix, 351;
+    Daroca, 376.
+
+  Polymita, 87.
+
+  Pompeii, 269.
+
+  Portraits of Charles V., 295;
+    of Richard II. at Wilton House, 372;
+    of fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 379;
+    in needlework in reign of James I., 388.
+
+  Portuguese silks, 394.
+
+  Progression, 64.
+
+  Proportion, 64, 291.
+
+  Pulvinarium, 204.
+
+  Purl, 387.
+
+  Purple, 187.
+
+
+  Queen Anne, style in reign of, 46, 49, 88, 391, 394.
+
+  Queen Elizabeth, embroidery of, 385-6;
+    style in reign of, 389.
+
+  Queen Mary of Hungary, 330.
+
+  Queen Matilda, 367.
+
+
+  Radiation, 67.
+
+  Raphael, 44, 245;
+    cartoons of, 255.
+
+  Renaissance, 26, 43, 45, 75, 108, 308, 329, 380, 383.
+
+  Repetition, 62.
+
+  Reredos at St. Alban's, 249, 347;
+    of Vintners' Company, 251.
+
+  Richard Coeur de Lion, 374.
+
+  Robes of Julius Caesar, 153;
+    of Childeric, 144;
+    of Bishop Adhelme, 361;
+    of St. Thomas a Becket, 369.
+
+  Roger, King of Sicily, transports silk-weavers from Greece, 161.
+
+  Roman silks, 160;
+    fashions, 299.
+
+  Romanesque, 36, 306, 323, 362, 364.
+
+  Roses, Wars of, 371, 372-3, 378.
+
+  Rugs, 285.
+
+  Runic art, 29, 306.
+
+
+  Samit, 145.
+
+  Sampler of Henry VII.'s reign, 379-80.
+
+  Saracenicum, 240.
+
+  Satin, 161, 170;
+    of Bruges, 171.
+
+  Scarlet, 182, 187, 189.
+
+  School of Art Needlework, South Kensington, 219, 288, 392;
+    rise of, 396-7;
+    list of work executed at, 398;
+    designs for, 398.
+
+  Schools, branch of Art Needlework, 397.
+
+  Screens, 261, 287.
+
+  Sculptures, 4, 353.
+
+  Seam, 198.
+
+  Seres, 154, 160.
+
+  Seventh century work, 361-2.
+
+  Sewing, plain, 197.
+
+  Shells, 88, 124, 190.
+
+  Sicilian patterns, 111;
+    embroideries, 124;
+    textile designs, 162, 341;
+    silk manufactures, 168;
+    fabrics, 315;
+    ecclesiastical designs, 331.
+
+  Sicily, textile art in, 41, 307.
+
+  Si-ling-chi, Empress, inventor of unwinding the cocoon, 156.
+
+  Silk, origin of, 151;
+    first woven by Pamphile at Cos, 300 B.C., 152;
+    Roman and Chinese, 153, 160;
+    trade in, 153;
+    in cocoon, 153, 156;
+    wild silk in China, 154-5;
+    attire mentioned in Latin poets, 157;
+    silken robes sold by Marcus Aurelius, 158;
+    garments given by Emperor Carinus, 158;
+    edict of Diocletian, with prices of articles, 159;
+    silk mentioned by poets and historians from first to sixth century,
+        159;
+    silkworm, 159;
+    monopoly of silk manufactures in Constantinople, 159;
+    first allusion to use of silk in Christian Church, 160;
+    palls of silk brought from Rome, A.D. 685, 160;
+    Bede's remains wrapped in silk, 160;
+    specimens of silk in Auberville's "Tissus," silk tissues called
+        "Imperial," 161.
+
+  Silk-weavers, Jewish, at Thebes in 1161, 161;
+    transported by Roger, King of Sicily, from Greece to Palermo, 161,
+        165;
+    description of Royal manufactory at Palermo, by Hugh Falcandus,
+        twelfth century, 161;
+    three periods in Sicily, 162-3;
+    Saracenic, in India, 166-7;
+    Italian, in Lyons, 1450, 167, 169;
+    Spanish at Malaga and Almeria, 168;
+    in Hungary under Queen Gisela, 169;
+    in the Flemish towns, 170;
+    Asiatic, 170.
+
+  Smock of Mary Tudor, 385.
+
+  Society of Arts, Birmingham, 292.
+
+  Sofas, 285.
+
+  Spangles, 146.
+
+  Spanish Armada, hangings, 253.
+
+  Sphinx, 265.
+
+  Spinning, 357.
+
+  Stamford, Arras woven at, 256, 257.
+
+  Stitches, 194-259;
+    lists of, 196;
+    gold, 203;
+    mosaic, 204;
+    cushion, 204;
+    plumage, 207;
+    satin, 214;
+    sampler, 234;
+    ecclesiastical, 345;
+    stem, 214.
+
+  Stole, 308;
+    at Durham, 364;
+    of Aelfled, Queen of Edward II., 364.
+
+  Style, 14-53.
+
+  Sun-cross, Egyptian, 337.
+
+  Sunflower, 91;
+    radiated pattern of, 111.
+
+  Surcoat of Black Prince, 373.
+
+  Swastika, 103.
+
+  Symbolism, 59, 95, 98, 307, 333, 334-5, 352.
+
+  Symmetry, 63-4.
+
+
+  Table covers, 287.
+
+  Tanaquil, robes worked by, 129.
+
+  Tapestry, 235-259;
+    in British Museum, 236;
+    woven, 237;
+    of Charles, Duke of Burgundy, 243;
+    Gobelins, 237;
+    Arras, 238;
+    Saracenic, 240;
+    at Brussels, 245;
+    French, 245;
+    Italian, 245;
+    English, 248, 277;
+    revival of, at Windsor, 257;
+    in Cluny Museum, 277.
+
+  Taste, 52;
+    Oriental, 388.
+
+  Tau, 335.
+
+  Tent, funeral, of an Egyptian queen, 25, 215;
+    of Antar, 263;
+    of Nadir Shah, 263;
+    of Alexander, 264;
+    of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 264-5;
+    Persian, 265.
+
+  Textile art, 45, 59, 74, 77, 93, 104, 107, 174, 176, 187, 205, 307, 310.
+
+  Thebes, silk-weavers of, 161.
+
+  "Tissus" of Auberville, 160.
+
+  Titian, 178.
+
+  Toga, 338.
+
+  Tomb of Agamemnon, 19;
+    of Rameses, 20;
+    of warrior at Kuban, 129;
+    in Crimea, 130, 217;
+    Anglo-Saxon, 144;
+    of St. Cuthbert at Durham, 163.
+
+  Trabea, 309, 337.
+
+  Tree of Life, 336.
+
+  Triptych in Cluny Museum, 211;
+    at Zurich, 328.
+
+  Tyrian purple, 180, 289.
+
+
+  Ulysses, 281.
+
+
+  Vatican, Etruscan gold ornament, 21, 295, 300.
+
+  Veil of Temple, 22;
+    classical, 261, 265, 311, 312;
+    for pyx, 350;
+    of Hebrew sanctuary, 311, 351.
+
+  Velvet, 76, 345, 347;
+    stoles, 161, 172, 221;
+    pall, 378.
+
+  Venetian red, 289;
+    style, 306.
+
+  Vestments, 313, 326;
+    Italian, 329;
+    Spanish, 331;
+    modern, 343;
+    set presented to Romsey and Croyland by Canute, 366, 370;
+    set bequeathed to Westminster Abbey by Henry VII., 379.
+
+
+  Watteau, school of, 248.
+
+  Welby, Lady, founder of School of Art Needlework, South Kensington, 396.
+
+  Wiglaf, King, 362.
+
+  William and Mary, 393.
+
+  Wilton carpet works, 190.
+
+  Windsor, 257, 398.
+
+  Wool, 125, 127, 130;
+    Berlin, 395.
+
+  Worcester, dress in tomb of Walter de Cantilupe, 320;
+    cope of William of Blois, 322;
+    tomb of King John, 373.
+
+  Workhouse sheeting, 140.
+
+  Wroxton House, Arras at, 256.
+
+
+  York, Archbishop of, Arras with design of the Four Seasons, 255.
+
+
+  Zoroaster, 101.
+
+
+
+
+ERRATA.
+
+
+  Page xv, line 27, _for_ Albert Castet _read_ Albert Castel.
+    "  10,   "  24, _read_ as that of an important factor.
+    "  17,   "  22, _for_ slow _read_ swift.
+    "  26,   "  16, _for_ art _read_ artistic.
+    "  42,   "  16, _for_ are _read_ were.
+    "  56,   "   5, _read_ advance of them, in the earliest.
+    "  66,   "  21, _for_ we _read_ I.
+    "  75,   "  20, _for_ These _read_ Those.
+    " 101,   "  18, _for_ from Cervetri, in Southern Italy, _read_ from
+                      a tomb at Chiusi, in Etruria.
+    " 156,   "   8, _for_ Chin _read_ Chan.
+    " 195,   "  20, _for_ 6, 7. Bone needles from Neolithic cave-man's
+                      grave, _read_ 6. Cave-man's needle from the
+                      Pinhole, Churchfield, Ereswell Crag. 7. Bone
+                      needle from La Madeleine, Dordogne.
+    " 198,   "   5, footnote, _for_ act _read_ art.
+    " 208,   "   3, footnote, _for_ "Arte Plumarii" _read_ "Arte
+                      Plumaria."
+    " 237,   "   8, _for_ which prove _read_ proving.
+    " 239,   "  17, _delete_ " _after_ of art."
+    "  "     "  18, _insert_ " _after_ backwards.
+    " 242,   "   9, _for_ in the Crimea _read_ at Chiusi.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+Page 202--the marker for footnote 2 was missing in the original. The
+transcriber has estimated where it should have been, based on the text
+and reference material therein.
+
+Page 303 includes an excerpt from Psalm 45, with quoted verse numbers
+of 10, 14 and 15. These should be verses 9, 13 and 14.
+
+Archaic spelling is preserved as printed. Variable spelling,
+hyphenation and use of accents has been made consistent where there
+was a clear prevalence of one form over the other, or with reference
+to reliable sources; otherwise, these are preserved as printed.
+Typographic errors, e.g. omitted, superfluous or transposed letters,
+and punctuation errors have been repaired. Other amendments are as
+follows:
+
+    Plate 71--precipit amended to precepit and omitted word
+    'pio' added--"... Aelfled fieri precepit pio Episcopo
+    Fridestano."
+
+    Page xx--3 amended to 9--"From Layard's "Monuments,"
+    Series i. pl. 9."
+
+    Page xxi--Edward amended to Richard--"6. Badge of
+    Richard II."
+
+    Page xxii--John amended to Mark--"ST. MARK. Anglo-Saxon
+    Book of the Gospels."
+
+    Page 115--5. removed from beginning of section title,
+    for consistency with others in that chapter, "GEOMETRICAL."
+
+    Page 197--Encyclopedia amended to Cyclopaedia--"The
+    second list is from Rees' "Cyclopaedia" (Stitches), 1819
+    ..."
+
+    Page 311--des Antiquites amended to Royale des
+    Antiquaires--""... par la Societe Royale des Antiquaires
+    du Nord" ..."
+
+    Page 316--Lwewelig amended to Wledig--"... and in the
+    Welsh ballad of "The Dream of Maxen Wledig" ..."
+
+    Page 316, footnote 502--Pallison's amended to
+    Palliser's--"See Mrs. Palliser's "Lace," p. 4."
+
+    Page 320--T. amended to I.--"... (see Hon. and Rev. I.
+    Clifford's list of embroideries in Appendix 5)."
+
+    Page 331--Riario amended to Riano--"Don Juan F. Riano[533]
+    says that Toledo is a perfect museum ..."
+
+    Page 331, footnote 533--Riario amended to Riano--"See "The
+    Industrial Arts of Spain," pp. 250-264, by Don Juan F.
+    Riano, ..."
+
+    Page 417--350 amended to 348--"Design, ... floral, 71, 345,
+    348; ..."
+
+    Page 417--210 amended to 109--"Embroideries, ... Egyptian,
+    93, 114, 130, 134, 209, 236, 271; ..."
+
+    Page 419--47 amended to 46 and 308 amended to 276--"Louis
+    XIV., 46, 247, 276, 332, 393."
+
+    Page 419--167 amended to 93--"Mosaics, ... Empress Theodora's
+    dress figured in, 41, 93; ..."
+
+    Page 419--306 amended to 117--"Mosaics, ... in Sta. Maria
+    Maggiore, 117, 322."
+
+    Page 420--index entries for 'Pall' and 'Pamphile,' which
+    originally followed the entry for 'Pattern,' have been moved
+    to their correct places.
+
+    Page 421--399 amended to 345--"Stitches, ... ecclesiastical,
+    345; ..."
+
+There are a number of discrepancies between the information in the
+list of illustrations (LOI) and the information on the plates
+themselves. Some of these are simple omission, others involve
+conflicting information. The transcriber has resolved and repaired
+some of these differences with reference to alternative sources. In
+general, it seems that the information on the plate is correct. Those
+that could not be resolved are as follows:
+
+    Pl. 5--LOI has "Journal Asiatique,
+    Syro-Egyptien-Phoenicien." Plate has "Journal
+    Asiatique, Coupe de Palestrina."
+
+    Pl. 9--LOI has "sixteenth century." Plate has
+    "seventeenth century."
+
+    Pl. 10--LOI has "5, 6, 7. Egyptian smooth and rippling
+    wave pattern." Plate has "5, 6, 7. Egyptian Smooth and
+    Rippling Water Patterns."
+
+    Pl. 10--LOI has "10, 11, 14. Babylonian and Chaldean."
+    Plate has "10, 11, 14. Assyrian."
+
+    Pl. 11--LOI omits Assyrian references.
+
+    Pl. 12--LOI has "2, 3. Egyptian. 4, 5. Greek." Plate has
+    "2, 3. Indian Lotus Patterns. 4, 5. Egyptian Lotus
+    Patterns."
+
+    Pl. 15--LOI has "Book of Kells." Plate has "Lindisfarne
+    Gospels."
+
+    Pl. 20--LOI has "1, 2, 3. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian Silk. 5.
+    Mediaeval." Plate has "1, 2, 3, 5. Assyrian. 4.
+    Sicilian Silk."
+
+    Pl. 28--LOI has "1. Dress patterns from old MS. 2, 3.
+    Old English tiles." Plate has "1, 2. Gothic tiles. 3.
+    Gothic Border of a Dress. 4. Gothic Vine."
+
+    Pl. 31--LOI omits mention of a third Egyptian fundata
+    pattern.
+
+    Pl. 32--LOI references "Bock's Lit. Gew. ii. p. 246."
+    Plate references "Vol i. taf. xi."
+
+    Pl. 35--LOI omits mention of a peacock pattern. Plate
+    omits mention of Persian type.
+
+    Pl. 41--The source of the examples are either omitted or
+    different on the LOI to those given on the plate.
+
+    Pl. 68--LOI has "sixteenth century." Plate has
+    "fifteenth century."
+
+    Pl. 70--LOI has "A.D. 434." Plate has "sixth century."
+
+    Pl. 72--LOI "ST. GREGORY AND ST. JOHN (PROPHET)." Plate
+    has "St. John" and "St. Roger."
+
+    Pl. 74--LOI gives different title for Strutt's book to
+    that given on the plate. From research, it seems that
+    the short title is actually "The Regal and
+    Ecclesiastical Antiqities of England."
+
+    Pl. 76--LOI has "twelfth century." Plate has "XIII.
+    century."
+
+Illustrations have been moved where necessary so that they are not in
+the middle of a paragraph. Some of the plates do not have numbers on
+the plate themselves.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Needlework As Art, by Marian Alford
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NEEDLEWORK AS ART ***
+
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