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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:53:51 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:53:51 -0700 |
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diff --git a/30472-0.txt b/30472-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..151fad7 --- /dev/null +++ b/30472-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17701 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30472 *** + +Transcriber's Note + +A carat (^) is used to indicate superscripted characters. + +The original text contained an errata list. The corrections have been +made to this text, and the list moved to the end of the book for +reference purposes only. + +Other notes may be found at the end of the book. + + + + + NEEDLEWORK AS ART + + BY + + LADY M. ALFORD + + + [Illustration] + + + London: + SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, AND RIVINGTON, + CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET. + 1886. + + [_All rights reserved._] + + + + + LONDON: + PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED, + ST. JOHN'S SQUARE. + + + + + [Illustration: TELEMACHUS PENELOPE] + + + + +DEDICATED BY PERMISSION + +TO + +THE QUEEN. + + + + +TO + +THE QUEEN. + + +_Your Majesty's most gracious acceptance of the Dedication of my book +on "Needlework as Art" casts a light upon the subject that shows its +worthiness, and my inability to do it justice. Still, I hope I may +fill a gap in the artistic literature of our day, and I venture to lay +my work at your Majesty's feet with loyal devotion._ + + MARIAN M. ALFORD. + + + + +PREFACE. + + +In the Preface to the "Handbook of Art Needlework," which I edited for +the Royal School at South Kensington in 1880, I undertook to write a +second part, to be devoted to design, colour, and the common-sense +modes of treating decorative art, as applied especially to embroidered +hangings, furniture, dress, and the smaller objects of luxury. + +Circumstances have, since then, obliged me to reconsider this +intention; and I have found it more practicable to cast the +information which I have collected from Eastern and Western sources +into the form of a separate work, which in no way supersedes or +interferes with the technical instruction supposed to be conveyed in a +handbook. I have found so much amusement in learning for myself the +history of the art of embroidery, and in tracing the beginnings and +the interchanges of national schools, that I cannot but hope that I +may excite a similar interest in some of my readers, and so induce +those who are capable, to help and lift it to a higher place than it +has been allowed in these latter days to occupy. If I have given too +important a position to the art of needlework, I would observe that +while I have been writing, decorative embroidery has come to the +front, and is at this moment one of the hobbies of the day; and I +would point out that it contains in itself all the necessary elements +of art; it may exercise the imagination and the fancy; it needs +education in form, colour, and composition, as well as the craft of a +practised hand, to express its language and perfect its beauty. + +I confess that when I undertook this task, I did not anticipate the +time I have had to spend in collecting and epitomizing the many +notices to be found in German, French, and English authors, on what +has been considered among us, at least in this century, as merely a +secondary art, and therefore, as such, of little importance. Cursory +notices of needlework are scattered through almost every book on art; +and under the head of textiles it is usual to find embroidery +acknowledged as being worthy of notice, though not to be named in +company with sculpture, architecture, or painting, however beautifully +or thoughtfully its works may be carried out. I have tried to show +that it deserves higher estimation. + +My first intention was simply to consider STYLE, good or bad, as it +influences our embroidery of to-day, and to find some rules by which +to guide that of the future in its next phase. But when we search into +the fluctuations of style, and their causes, we find they have an +historical succession, and that we must begin at the beginning and +trace them through the life of mankind. + +This led me to attempt a sketch of consecutive styles, their overlap +and variations. + +I then found that DESIGN, PATTERNS, STITCHES, MATERIALS, each require +a separate study. + +COLOUR, as applied to dyes, claims to be regarded as differing from +pigments on the painter's palette. + +HANGINGS, DRESS, and ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERIES each require +different rules, and the study of the best examples of past centuries. +Finally, it seems natural to dwell on our own proficiency in +decorative work. ENGLISH EMBROIDERY has always excelled; and, as we +have again returned to this occupation, it is worth while to recollect +what we have done of old. + +In writing chapters on these subjects, I have found it most convenient +to separate the historical and æsthetic questions from the technical +rules, and the instruction which naturally belongs to a handbook, of +which the purpose should be to teach the easiest and most orthodox +manner of executing the simplest, and elaborating the finest works. +Such questions ought not to be overlaid with archæological inquiries, +or with the information which only profits the designer; though of +course it is best that the knowledge of design should be part of the +education of the craft. + +Perhaps I may be found to have written a book too shallow for the +learned, too deep for the frivolous, too technical for the general +public, and too diffuse for the specialist of the craft.[1] + +I must deprecate these criticisms by saying that I have written it for +the benefit of those who know nothing of the art, and are too much +engaged to seek information here and there; who yet, being women, have +to select and to execute ornamental needlework; or, being artists, are +vexed at the incongruities and want of intention in the decorations in +daily domestic use; I have also sought to help the designer, that he +or she may know something of the history of patterns and stitches. + +If my readers should be aware of repetitions, they must forgive them; +remembering that the same idea has to be looked at sometimes from a +different point of view, according to the use to which it is to be +fitted. The same material may be employed for wall-hangings and dress, +and then the principles which have been formulated have to be varied. +I do not shrink from repetitions if they make my meaning clear, +remembering the Duke of Wellington's direction to his private +secretary, "Never mind repetitions; and _dot_ your i's." + +Portions of these chapters have been already published in No. 49 of +the _Nineteenth Century_,[2] in 1881; and more was delivered in three +unpublished lectures the same year. + +I have acknowledged and noted on each page my authorities for the +facts I have quoted. The illustrations that are not original, have +been copied from other works by permission of authors and publishers. +To all of these I wish to express my obligations and thanks, +especially to Mr. Villiers Stuart, Dr. Anderson, Sir G. Birdwood, and +Sir H. Layard, for their courtesy in allowing me the use of their +plates. To my old and valued friend, Mr. Newton, I wish to express my +gratitude for his unstinted gifts of time and trouble, bestowed in +criticizing and correcting my book, encouraging me to give it to the +public, and making it more worthy of publication. + +I have largely quoted Charles Blanc ("Ornament in Dress," English +translation), Von Bock ("Liturgische Gewänder"), Dr. Rock ("The Church +of our Fathers" and "Introduction to Textiles"), Semper ("Der Stil"), +Yates ("Textrinum Antiquorum"), and Yule ("Marco Polo"), besides many +others. But these authorities often differ, and, after weighing their +arguments, I have ventured to select for my use the facts and +theories which accord with my own views. Facts are often so +interdependent and closely linked, that it requires great care to +distinguish where they have been shaped or coloured (however +unintentionally) to fit each other or the writer's preconceived ideas. +Certain it is that facts are but useless heaps till the thread of a +theory is found on which to hang them. This process, like that of +stringing pearls, has to be often repeated, till each occupies its +right place. Only those who have adopted and cherished a theory can +appreciate the pain of cutting the thread, to displace what appeared +to be a pearl, but which, from its false position as to date or place, +or its doubtful origin, has proved only an empty manufactured glass +bead of error. + +This has happened to me more than once; and since I read my lectures I +have had to change my opinions in several instances. If, therefore, +any of my readers should observe such changes, I hope they will give +me credit for trying to convey _now_ what appears to me on each +subject a correct impression. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Besides the art, I have sought to give something of + the archæology of needlework. Now the qualifications for + being a teacher on such subjects are rarely to be met + with, all combined. Mr. Newton, in his "Essays on Art + and Archæology," p. 37, says that "the archæologist + should combine with the æsthetic culture of the artist, + and the trained judgment of the historian and the + philologist, that critical acumen, required for + classification and interpretation; nor should that + habitual suspicion which must ever attend the scrutiny + and precede the warranty of evidence, give too sceptical + a bias to his mind." Such authorities have been + interrogated on each part of my subject. + + [2] Quoted by permission of the Editor. + + + + +CONTENTS. + + + PAGE + INTRODUCTION. 1 + + CHAPTER I.--STYLE. + + Definition of style--Development of style--Primitive-- + Archaic--Egyptian--Babylonian--Phœnician influences + on early Greek style--Decoration of hangings of the + Tabernacle in the wilderness--Aryan ideas--The Code of + Manu--Indian art--Celtic style--Greek art in dress and + embroideries--Homer's descriptions of embroideries--Pallas + Athene--Shield of Achilles--Roman art--Byzantine art--Art + of Central Asia--Its arrival in Europe--Art of China, + Japan, and Java--Christian art--Scandinavian art--The Dark + Ages--Sicilian textile art--Renaissance--Arabesque-- + Grotesque--Spanish Plâteresque--Style of Queen Anne and the + Chippendales--Louis XV. style--Classical revival--Young + England's style--Nineteenth century style 14 + + CHAPTER II.--DESIGN. + + Artist and artisan--Prehistoric design--Naturalistic + design--Egyptian immutability--Slow evolution of + design--Greek perfection--Necessity of following rules--M. + Blanc's laws of ornamentation--Laws of composition-- + Repetition--Alternation--Symmetry--Progression--Confusion-- + Designs for hangings and dress materials--Floral design--Design + for carpets--The conventional--First principles 54 + + CHAPTER III.--PATTERNS. + + Ancestry of patterns--Classification--Their historical + value--Primitive patterns--The wave--Tartan--Prehistoric + African patterns--The naturalistic--Flowers--Shells--Indian + forms of naturalistic patterns--Egyptian--The lotus-- + Sunflower--Celtic Zoomorphic patterns--The human figure on + Greek textiles--Animal forms in Oriental patterns--Symbolical + and conventional patterns--The wave patterns--The palm leaf-- + The cone--Gothic--Arab--Moresque--The Sacred Hom--Egg and + tongue--The cross--Swastika--Fylfote--Gammadion--The + crenelated pattern--The Ninevite daisy--Emblematic + patterns--Bestiaria--Volucraria--Lapidaria--Byzantine + patterns--Gothic--Renaissance--The cloud pattern--The + fundata--Italian--French patterns--Radiated patterns--The + shell--Patterns by repetition--Balcony pattern--Chinese + wicker-work--Survival of a pattern--Opus + Alexandrinum--Quilting patterns 82 + + CHAPTER IV.--MATERIALS. + + Raw materials--Revelations of the microscope--Hemp--Jute-- + Honduras grass--Spartum--Pinna silk--Hair--Leather-- + Feathers--Asbestos--Coral--Pearls--Beads--Wool--Classical + notices of wool--Careful improvement of wool by the + ancients--Tanaquil--Homeric woollen carpets--Crimson + textile fragments--Scandinavian woollen garments--Qualities + of wool--English wool--Goats' hair--Flax--Lake cities-- + Byssus--Fine linen of Egypt--The Atrebates--Embroidery on + linen--Cotton--Indian origin--Carbasa--Buckram--Cotton + fabrics--Gold--Silver--Gold brocades--Jewish--Indian-- + Chinese--Dress of Darius--Attalus--Attalic textiles-- + Agrippina's golden garments--St. Cecilia's mantle--Roman + tombs--Gold wire--Anglo-Saxon tomb--Childeric's tomb--Proba's + gold thread--Golden wrappings from tombs of Henry I. and Henry + III.--Gold embroideries and jewellers' work of Middle + Ages--Spangles--Enamels--Purl--Modern schools of gold + embroidery--Silk--Pamphile of Cos--Early specimens of silk + stuffs--Chinese silks--The Seres--Mela--Seneca--M. Terrien + de la Couperie--Empress Si-ling-chi--Princess of + Khotan--Euripides--Lucan--Pliny--Silk in Rome--Ælius + Lampridius--Flavius Vopiscus--Tailor's bill--Justinian's + codex--Imperial monopoly--Paul the Silentiary--Bede--King + John's apparition--Greek and Sicilian manufactories of + silk--Distinctive marks of different periods--Lyons--Spain-- + Italy--Flemish towns--Marco Polo--Satin--Welsh poem, "Lady of + the Fountain"--Chaucer--Velvet--Transference of work to new + materials 118 + + CHAPTER V.--COLOUR. + + Harmony and dissonance--Names of tints--Authorities for + theories--Art of colouring--Expression of colouring-- + Purple--Red--Crimson--Blue--Yellow--Pliny--Renouf--Chinese + colours--Indian dyes--Persian colours--Dyes of the + Gauls--Romans--Scotch--Scales of colour--MM. Charton and + Chevreul on tones of colour--Gas colours 175 + + CHAPTER VI.--STITCHES. + + Stitches--Part I.: The needle--Gammer Gurton's needle--Art + of needlework--Lists of stitches--Part II.: Plain work-- + The seam--Mrs. Floyer--White embroidery--Nuns' work-- + Greek--German--Spanish--Italian white work--Semper's + rules for white work--Part III.: Opus Phrygium--Gold + embroideries--Part IV.: Opus pulvinarium--Cushion stitches-- + Mosaic stitches--Traditional decorations from Chaldea and + Assyria--German and Italian pattern-books--Part V.: Opus + plumarium--The Plumarii--Feather-work of India--Islands of + the Pacific--African work--Mexican and Peruvian--Cluny + triptych--Mitre of St. Charles Borromeo--Essay by + Denis--Chinese and Japanese feather-stitches--Part VI.: + Opus consutum or cut work--Patchwork--Egyptian and Greek + examples--Irish cut work--Chaucer--Francis I.'s hangings + at Cluny--Lord Beauchamp's curtains--Spanish examples-- + Remarks--Art of application--Part VII.: Lace--Opus + filatorium--Mrs. Palliser--M. Blanc--Guipure--Sir Gardiner + Wilkinson--Netted lace--Homer--Solomon's Temple--Bobbin + laces--Yak--Coloured laces--Venetian sumptuary laws--Golden + laces--Point d'Alençon--Mr. A. Cole's lectures--M. Urbani + de Gheltof on Venice laces--Lace stitches--Revival of lace + school at Burano--English laces--Part VIII.: Tapestry--Opus + pectineum--Modes of weaving tapestry--Its great antiquity-- + Egyptian looms--Albert Castel on tapestries--Homeric + picture-weaving--Arachne--A paraphrase by Lord Houghton-- + Nomenticum--Sidonius Apollinaris--Saracenic weaving--Arras-- + Brussels--Italian tapestries from Florence, Milan, and + Mantua--French tapestries--Cluny Museum collection--Gobelins-- + Beauvais--English tapestry--Comnenus--Matthew Paris--Early + trade with Arras--Coventry tapestries--Chaucer--Tapestry + "of verd"--Hatfield tapestries--Armada tapestries--Sir F. + Crane--Mortlake manufactory--Francis Cleyne--Raphael + cartoons--Percy tapestry from Lambeth 194 + + CHAPTER VII.--HANGINGS. + + Classical hangings--Babylonian and Persian--Semper's + theory--Sanctuary in the wilderness--St. Peter's at + Rome--Abulfeda--Akbar's tent--Nadir Shah's tent--Tent + of Khan of Persia--Tents of Alexander the Great at + Alexandria--Roman hangings--Funeral pyres--Kosroes' + tent--Semper's rules for hanging decorations--Ancient + carpets--English and French hangings--Rules for designs + of hangings 260 + + CHAPTER VIII.--FURNITURE. + + Penelope's couch--Chaldean furnished house--The bed--Earl + of Leicester's inventories--State apartment of Alessandri + Palace--Indian embroideries for furniture--The sofa and + chair--The footstool--Furniture stitches--The table + cover--The screen--Book covers--Morris on furniture 280 + + CHAPTER IX.--DRESS. + + Art of dress--Ancient splendour--Persian, Greek, and + Roman--Indian--Homeric--Early Christian--Charlemagne's + mantle and robe--Objects of dress--Embroidered garments 294 + + CHAPTER X.--ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERY. + + Christian art--Dark ages--Greek and Roman ecclesiastical + dress--Northern influence--Continuity of ecclesiastical + art--Authorities--Anglo-Saxon orthodox colours--Veils of + the Temple--Hangings in Pagan temples and Christian + churches--Russian use of veils--Art in the early Church-- + Rare examples--Destruction by the iconoclasts--Early + embroiderers--Empress Helena--Bertha, mother of + Charlemagne--His dalmatic--Pluvial of St. Silvester--Pluvial + of museum at Bologna--Daroca cope--Cope of Boniface VIII.-- + Style of the twelfth century--Mantle of St. Stephen of + Hungary--Kunigunda's work for Henry II.--The Romanesque-- + Movement perfecting Gothic art, thirteenth century--Opus + Anglicanum--Syon cope--Embroidery on the stamp--Pictures in + flat stitches--Flemish work--Renaissance--Work of some royal + ladies--French--Spanish--Sicilian and Neapolitan--German + work--Sacred symbolism--Melito's "The Key"--Mystical + colours--Prehistoric cross--Many forms of the cross--The + roës--The chrysoclavus--Modern decoration--Principles and + motives for church embroideries--The altar-cloth--The + reredos--The pulpit and reading-desk--The ancient + Paschal--The banner of St. Cuthbert--The fringe--Lay + heraldry of the Church--South Kensington Museum 303 + + CHAPTER XI.--ENGLISH EMBROIDERY. + + First glimpse of art in England--Dyeing and weaving in + Britain in early times--Cæsar's invasion--Roman + civilization--Anglo-Saxon times and art--Adhelme's + poem--Icelandic Sagas--Saga or story of Thorgunna--English + work in the eighth century--The Benedictines--Durham + embroideries--Aelfled--St. Dunstan--Queen Emma's + work--William of Poitou--The Bayeux tapestry--Abbess of + Markgate--Gifts to Pope Adrian IV.--Robes of Thomas à + Becket at Sens--Innocent III.--English pre-eminence in + needlework from the Conquest to the Reformation--John + Garland on hand-looms--Blode-bendes and lacs d'amour--Opus + Anglicanum--English peculiarities in ecclesiastical + design--Penalties against luxury in dress--Protection the + bane of art--Dunstable pall--Stoneyhurst cope--Destruction + of fine works at the Reformation--Much on the Continent, + much collected in our old Catholic houses--Field of the + Cloth of Gold--Mary Tudor's Spanish stitches--Queen + Elizabeth's embroideries--Institution of Embroiderers' + Company--East India Company--Oriental taste discouraged on + Protectionist grounds--Decay of the art in England--Style + of James I.--Dutch style--Cushion stitches--Miss Linwood-- + Miss Moritt--Mrs. Delany--Mrs. Pawsey--Postscript--Revival + of the art of needlework--"Royal School of Art Needlework" 356 + + + APPENDIX + + I. Charles T. Newton on Votive Dresses 400 + + II. The Moritzburg Feather Hangings 401 + + III. The Story of Arachne, translated by Earl Cowper 402 + + IV. Charlemagne's Dalmatic, by Lord Lindsay 405 + + V. Notices of various Mediæval Embroideries by the Hon. + and Rev. W. Ignatius Clifford 407 + + VI. Syon Cope, Rock's Introduction, "Textile Fabrics" 408 + + VII. Assyrian Fringes 412 + + VIII. Hrothgar's House Furniture: Poem of Beowulf 412 + + IX. Thorgunna, by Sir G. Dasent 413 + + X. Pedigree of Aelswith 414 + + XI. Statutes at Large 414 + + + + +LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. + + +CUTS. + + Fig.|Page.| + ----+-----+ + 1 | 20 | Egyptian corselet. Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," p. + | | 332. + 2 | 25 | Tabernacle of Balawat. Temp. Shalmaneser. British + | | Museum. + 3 | 30 | Zoomorphic Celtic pattern. + 4 | 32 | Pallas Athene attired in the sacred peplos. Panathenaic + | | vase, British Museum. + 5 | 62 | Wave pattern. + 6 | 63 | Key pattern. + 7 | 63 | Metopes and triglyphs. + 8 | 73 | Persian carpet. Egyptian symbolic patterns. + 9 | 91 | Gothic sunflower. R. S. A. N. + 10 | 98 | Wave. + 11 | 104 | Egyptian ally and enemy. Temp. Rameses II. Wilkinson's + | | "Ancient Egyptians," iii. p. 364. + 12 | 105 | Assyrian crenelated pattern. + 13 | 107 | Gothic type of trees, Bayeux tapestry. + 14 | 111 | Radiated pattern. + 15 | 111 | Radiated sunflower. + 16 | 112 | Shell pattern. + 17 | 112 | Balcony pattern. + 18 | 115 | Varied adjustments of square and circle. + 19 | 146 | Spangles. + 20 | 195 | Needles. + 21 | 208 | Feather patterns. Egyptian. + 22 | 216 | Application. Egyptian. Auberville's "Tissus." + 23 | 217 | Embroidered border on mantle. Crimea. "Compte Rendu." + 24 | 281 | Babylonian or Chaldean house and furniture. + 25 | 311 | Italian fifteenth-century pattern. Celtic type. + 26 | 377 | Barbed quatrefoil. + 27 | 380 | Holbein pattern. Sampler. + 28 | 388 | Arms of Embroiderers' Guild; given by Queen Elizabeth. + 29 | 393 | Portion of James II.'s coronation dress; from an old + | | print. + + +PLATES. + + Plate|Page.| Ref.| + -----+-----+-----| + | | | TITLE-PAGE. Penelope at her loom, reproached by her + | | | son Telemachus. From vase found at Chiusi, in + | | | Etruria. "Monum. d. Inst. Arch. Rom." ix. Pl. 42. + 1 | 22 | 93 | ASSURBANIPAL (Sardanapalus). Sculptures from Nineveh. + | | | British Museum. + 2 | 22 | 93 | Portion of royal Babylonian mantle. From Layard's + | | | "Monuments," Series i. pl. 9. + 3 | 29 | | ST. JOHN. From King Alfred's Celtic Book of the + | | | Gospels. Lambeth Palace Library. + 4 | 30 | | A PAGE of the Book of St. Cuthbert, or Book of + | | | Lindisfarne. + 5 | 33 | | SILVER BOWL from Palestrina. From Clermont Ganneau's + | | | "Journal Asiatique, Syro-Egyptien-Phœnicien." + 6 | 40 | 93 | EMPRESS THEODORA. Ravenna Mosaic. + 7 | 42 | | ITALIAN EMBROIDERY, fifteenth century. South + | | | Kensington Museum. + 8 | 43 | | ITALIAN and SPANISH orphrey, sixteenth century. + 9 | 45 | | PLÂTERESQUE DESIGN. Spanish coverlet, green velvet + | | | and gold, sixteenth century. Goa work. + 10 | 87 | | WAVE PATTERN. 1, 4, 9, 12, 13. Greek wave pattern. + | | | 2. Key or Mæander Greek wave. 3. Greek broken wave. + | | | 5, 6, 7. Egyptian smooth and rippling wave pattern. + | | | 8. Mediæval wave. 10, 11, 14. Babylonian and + | | | Chaldean. 15. Persian or Greek, from glass bowl, + | | | British Museum. 16. English wave (or cloud). Durham + | | | embroideries, tenth century. + 11 | 88 | | SIMPLE PATTERNS. 1. Persian. 2. Lotus border, + | | | Egyptian. + 12 | 90 | | LOTUS BORDERS. 1. Indian. 2, 3. Egyptian. 4, 5, Greek. + | | | 6. Indian. + 13 | 95 | 102 | INDIAN LOTUS. 1. With Assyrian daisy. 2. Lotus. 3. The + | | | egg and tongue, or Vitruvian scroll from Vignola. + | | | "Regole di Ordine di Architettura." + 14 | 91 | | SUNFLOWER PATTERN. R. S. A. N. Nineteenth century. + 15 | 92 | | PORTION OF A PAGE of the Book of Kells. Dublin + | | | University Library. + 16 | 93 | 114 | DEMETER. Greek fictile vase. British Museum. + 17 | 93 | 217 | 1. GREEK EMBROIDERY, 300 B.C. From tomb of the Seven + | | | Brothers, Crimea. + | | | 2. EGYPTIAN painted or embroidered linen. The cone, + | | | bead, daisy, wave. Lotus-under-water patterns are + | | | represented on this fragment. + 18 | 93 | | EGYPTIAN Tapestry weaving finished with the needle. + | | | British Museum. + 19 | 97 | 114 | EGYPTIAN key patterns. Wilkinson's "Ancient + | | | Egyptians," p. 125. + 20 | 99 | 101 | TREES OF LIFE. 1, 2, 3. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian silk. + | | | 5. Mediæval. Birdwood's "Indian Arts." + 21 | 101 | | TREES OF LIFE. 1. Sculpture over gate of Mycenæ. + | | | 2. Sicilian silks; Persian type. + 22 | 101 | | LOTUS MERGED INTO TREE OF LIFE. 1. Split Chinese + | | | Lotus. 2. Split Persian Lotus, from a frieze by + | | | Benozzo Gozzoli. Ricardi Palace, Florence. 3. Petal + | | | of flower. Greek glass bowl from tomb in Southern + | | | Italy. + 23 | 101 | | TREES OF LIFE. Sicilian silks. Auberville. 1, 2, 3, + | | | 4, 5, 10. Persian type. 6, 7, 8, 9, 11. Indian type. + 24 | 101 | | TREE OF LIFE transformed into vine. Modern pattern of + | | | work from the Principalities. + 25 | 103 | | TYPICAL CROSSES. 1. Swastika fire-stick cross. 2. + | | | From Greek vase, British Museum, 765 B.C. 3. + | | | Sectarial mark of Sakti race. India. 4. Sectarial + | | | mark of Buddhists and Jainis. 5. On early Rhodian + | | | pottery. 6. Egyptian prehistoric cross. 7. Tau + | | | cross. 8. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite. + | | | 9. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite. 10. Clavus, + | | | "nail" or "button," or sun-cross. 11, 12, 13. + | | | Scandinavian sun and moon crosses. 14, 15, 16. + | | | Celtic. 17. Chrysoclavus. 18, 19. Stauracin + | | | patterns. 20. Norwegian. 21. Runic. 22. Cross in + | | | Temple of the Sun, Palenque. 23. Scotch Celtic + | | | cross. 24. Cross at Iona. 25, 26. Runic and + | | | Scandinavian crosses. 27. Cross diapered on + | | | Charlemagne's dalmatic. 28. From mantle of Henry + | | | II., Emperor of Germany. + 26 | 103 | | PREHISTORIC CROSSES. 1. Greek. Pallas, with plaited + | | | tunic worked with Swastika. 2. Greek. Ajax playing + | | | at dice with Achilles. Cloak embroidered with + | | | Swastika and other prehistoric patterns. Fictile + | | | vase, Vatican Museum. + 27 | 105 | | ASSYRIAN CARPET carved in stone, British Museum. + 28 | 107 | | GOTHIC. 1. Dress patterns from old MS. 2, 3. Old + | | | English tiles. + 29 | 109 | | CLOUD PATTERNS. 1, 2, 3, 7. Japanese. 5, 8, 9. + | | | Mediæval. 4. Chinese. 6. Badge of Richard II. + 30 | 109 | | INDO-CHINESE COVERLET. Hatfield. Supposed to have + | | | belonged to Oliver Cromwell. + 31 | 109 | | FUNDATA PATTERNS. 1. On Phœnician silver bowl. + | | | ("L'Imagerie Phénicienne.") 2, 3. From tomb at + | | | Essiout, Egypt. Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," + | | | ii. p. 125. 1600 B.C. + 32 | 124 | | PART OF BORDER of silk, gold, and pearls. Worked by + | | | Blanche, wife of Charles IV. of Bohemia. Bock's + | | | "Lit. Gew." ii. p. 246. + 33 | 147 | | EMBROIDERED WINDOW HANGING from portrait of Mahomet + | | | II., by Gentil Bellini; belonging to Sir Henry + | | | Layard. + 34 | 153 | 110 | CLASSICAL SILKS. 1. Greek. 2. Roman. + 35 | 163 | | DURHAM RELICS. Persian type of silk weaving. + 36 | 164 | | DURHAM RELICS. Norman and Persian types mixed. + 37 | 164 | | DURHAM RELICS. Græco-Egyptian type. + 38 | 164 | | EGYPTIAN BOAT with embroidered and fringed sails, + | | | and floating scarves. Wilkinson's "Ancient + | | | Egyptians," iii. p. 211. + 39 | 200 | | WHITE EMBROIDERY from sculptured tomb of a knight, + | | | fifteenth century. Ara Cœli, Rome. + 40 | 201 | | PROCESSIONAL CLOAK, Spanish work, temp. Henry VIII., + | | | belonging to Lord Arundel of Wardour. + 41 | 204 | | OPUS PULVINARIUM. Counted stitches. 1. Italian. 2. + | | | Scandinavian. 3. Ancient Egyptian. Turin Museum. + 42 | 206 | | ITALIAN MOSAIC STITCH work, sixteenth century. + | | | Alford House. + 43 | 214 | | JAPANESE OPUS PLUMARIUM. White silk. + 44 | 216 | 25 | OPUS CONSUTUM. Funeral tent of an Egyptian queen. + 45 | 219 | 123 | OPUS CONSUTUM. "Inlaid" and "onlaid." Italian, + | | | seventeenth century. + 46 | 235 | | EGYPTIAN GOBELINS finished with the needle. + 47 | 236 | | RHEIMS CATHEDRAL TAPESTRY. The Virgin weaving and + | | | embroidering on frame a "basse-lisse." + 48 | 243 | | TENT OF CHARLES THE BOLD, taken at Grandson, now in + | | | museum at Berne. The badge is that of the Golden + | | | Fleece. + 49 | 252 | | ENGLISH TAPESTRY belonging to Lord Salisbury, at + | | | Hatfield House, temp. Henry VIII. + 50 | 294 | | ITALIAN KNIGHT of fifteenth century armed for + | | | conquest. Gentile da Fabriano. Academia, Florence. + 51 | 309 | | ST. MARK. Anglo-Saxon Book of the Gospels. York + | | | Minster Library. + 52 | 312 | | CLASSICAL PATTERN adapted into Christian art. + 53 | 318 | | CHARLEMAGNE'S DALMATIC. Vatican Treasury. + 54 | 318 | | CHARLEMAGNE'S DALMATIC. Vatican Treasury. + 55 | 318 | | PORTION OF CHARLEMAGNE'S DALMATIC. Half-size. + 56 | 319 | | ST. SILVESTER'S PLUVIAL. Treasury of St. John + | | | Lateran, Rome. Opus Anglicanum, thirteenth + | | | century. + 57 | 319 | | PORTION OF ST. SILVESTER'S PLUVIAL, showing its + | | | condition. + 58 | 319 | | BOLOGNA COPE. Museo del Municipio. Opus Anglicanum. + 59 | 319 | | DAROCA COPE. Archæological Museum at Madrid. Opus + | | | Anglicanum. + 60 | 319 | | BONIFACE VIII.'S COPE from Anagni, his native place; + | | | now in Vatican Treasury; twelfth century. + 61 | 319 | | ALTAR FRONTAL at Anagni, Italy. Italian work, + | | | fourteenth century. + 62 | 320 | | WORCESTER RELICS of the tenth century. 1. From tomb + | | | of Walter de Cantilupe. 2. From Aix, in Switzerland. + | | | Same type. + 63 | 320 | | 1. MITRE OF THOMAS À BECKET. 2. The cross with twelve + | | | leaves, "for the healing of the nations." Coronation + | | | vestments at Rheims. + 64 | 321 | | ANGLO-SAXON WORK, purple and gold, from tomb of + | | | William de Blois, Worcester. He died Bishop in 1236. + 65 | 321 | | A PORTION OF ST. STEPHEN OF HUNGARY'S MANTLE, worked + | | | by his Queen Gisela. From Bock's "Kleinodien." + 66 | 322 | | PORTION OF MANTLE OF HENRY II., worked by his Empress + | | | Kunigunda. From Bock's "Kleinodien." + 67 | 325 | | THE SYON COPE. South Kensington Museum. + 68 | 329 | | ITALIAN EMBROIDERIES designed by Pollaiolo; worked by + | | | Paolo da Verona. Sixteenth century. + 69 | 330 | | SPANISH ALTAR FRONTAL. THE ARMS OF CASTILE embroidered + | | | in gold with pearls. Ashridge. Plâteresque style, + | | | seventeenth century. + 70 | 337 | 113 | CONSULAR IVORIES. Two diptychs. 1. Zurich, + | | | Wasser-Kirche. Inscribed to Consul Areobindus, + | | | A.D. 434. 2. At Halberstadt. No date. From Bock's + | | | "Lit. Gew." + 71 | 363 | | AELFLED'S ORPHREY, signed by her. Durham Cathedral + | | | Library. + 72 | 363 | | ST. GREGORY AND ST. JOHN (PROPHET), from Aelfled's + | | | orphrey. Durham. English work, tenth century. + 73 | 365 | | ST. DUNSTAN in adoration, drawn by himself. Bodleian + | | | Library, Oxford. Tenth century. + 74 | 369 | | SMALL PARSEMÉ PATTERNS from Strutt's "Royal and + | | | Ecclesiastical Antiquities of the English from + | | | 1100 to 1530." + 75 | 369 | | ENGLISH PATTERNS of embroidery. 1. Panel of a screen + | | | in Hornby Church, Yorkshire. 2. Dress on a painted + | | | window in St. Michael's Church, York. 3. Woven + | | | material of the Towneley Copes. + 76 | 375 | | OPUS ANGLICANUM, twelfth century. British Museum. + 77 | 376 | | TYPICAL ENGLISH ORNAMENTS for ecclesiastical + | | | embroideries, twelfth century. + 78 | 377 | | DUNSTABLE PALL. Temp. Henry VII. + 79 | 378 | | VINTNERS' COMPANY PALL. Henry VII. + 80 | 378 | | HENRY VII.'S COPE, from Stoneyhurst; designed by + | | | Torrigiano, the sculptor of his tomb. + 81 | 382 | | SPANISH WORK. Temp. Henry VIII. + 82 | 383 | | ENGLISH "SPANISH WORK." Temp. Henry VIII. + 83 | 389 | | CUSHION COVER, Hatfield House. Temp. Elizabeth. + 84 | 390 | | ORIENTAL "TREE AND BEAST" PATTERN. Cockayne-Hatley. + | | | Temp. James I. + 85 | 391 | | ENGLISH CREWEL WORK. Indian design. Temp. James I. + + + + +NEEDLEWORK AS ART. + + + + +INTRODUCTION. + + +The book of the Science of Art has yet to be written. Art has been +called the Flower of Life, and also the Consoler;--adorning the +existence of the strong and bright,--sheltering and comforting the sad +and solitary ones of the earth. But, rather, it resembles a +wide-spreading tree, covered with varied blossoms--bearing many +fruits. + +To point out the history and the possibilities in the future of each +branch that shades, refreshes, and gives wholesome fruit to the world, +would be a task worthy of a master-hand and a pen of gold. But less +ambitious labourers in the field of investigation which is only as yet +partly cultivated, may each assist, by carefully collecting a little +heap of ascertained facts; and it is, indeed, the duty of each as he +passes to add his pebble to the slowly accumulating cairn of recorded +human knowledge. + +Some one has said, "Build your house of little bricks of facts, and +you will soon find it inhabited by a body of truth; and that truth +will ally itself with other houses of facts, and in time a +well-ordered, cosmical city will arise." + +My pebble is not yet polished. It is neither a diamond nor a ruby, but +I think there are a few streaks of golden light in it, which I may +venture to add to the daily accumulating treasure in the house of +human artistic knowledge. + +My object in writing this volume is to fill up an empty space in the +English library of art. + +The great exponents of poetic thought--verse, sculpture, painting, and +architecture--have long since been well interpreted and appreciated. +Men and women have written much and well on these large subjects, and +we may hope for more ere long. The secondary or smaller arts have been +hitherto neglected by us,--either treated merely as crafts, to which +artistic education may give help, or as the natural or inferior +outcome of the primal arts, having no claim to the possession of +special laws and history. And yet, when Moses wrote and Homer sang, +needlework was no new thing. It was already consecrated by legendary +and traditionary custom to the highest uses. The gods themselves were +honoured by its service, and it preceded written history in recording +heroic deeds and national triumphs. + +It may be said that ivory carving is sculpture, and illuminated +manuscripts and coloured glass windows are painting. But for metal +work, whether in iron or gold, a place must be kept apart; and the +same privileges are due to embroidery and to metallurgy. All arts must +of necessity have their own laws and rules, which ensure their beauty +of execution and their special forms of design; these two last, from +the nature of their materials, and the modes of working them, must be +studied independently of any connection with painting, architecture, +or sculpture. + +Yet, if the unity of nature is an accepted fact,[3] then the +acceptance of the unity of art must follow. Art must be considered as +the selection of natural phenomena by individual minds capable of +assimilating and reproducing them in certain forms and with certain +materials adapted to the national taste, needs, and power of +appreciation. If man cannot originate materials, he can invent +combinations;--and this is Art. + +If proportion, colour, and sound alike depend on certain mathematical +measurements, and on rhythmical vibrations, there must be a real and +tangible relation between these elements, though applied to obtain +different results. In music, as in all art, harmony is, or ought to +be, a first consideration. We have seen by experiment how a note of +our scale can by touch form geometrical figures with sand on a sheet +of glass,--here form obeys the force of harmony. But what is harmony? + +By analogy we may argue from the art of music. We who believe that we +have acquired the knowledge of music as a science, beyond all +preceding knowledge of the subject, have in Europe been able to enjoy +only our own musical scales; whereas throughout the East, those +accepted by the human ear are very various, and appear to depart from +what to our senses is harmony. Those Oriental musics have either been +adapted to the Oriental ear, or the ear has been adapted to appreciate +the forms and laws of harmony with which it came in contact. + +The same questions occur to us while examining into the different +forms of decorative art; and we are constantly reminded that the laws +which should govern them, are perhaps, infinitely larger and wider +than we with our limited human capacities and experience, have +hitherto been able to appreciate. + +"Ars longa--vita brevis" has been so often said, that from a proverb +it has become a truism; but it must continue to be the refrain of +those who write upon art. The subject is so long, and its +ramifications are so intricate, that it is difficult to include them +all under one category. + +My furthest aim here is to trace back the art of needlework to its +beginning, without turning my eyes to the right or the left, though I +cannot help feeling myself drawn aside almost irresistibly by casual +glimpses of architecture, sculpture, and painting, which here and +there touch very nearly the history of needlework. + +Except where they visibly influence each other, I avoid dealing with +the greater arts, leaving them to the study of the learned in each +special branch. + +All art, however, throws reflected lights, and gleaning in the track +of those authors who have preceded us, we often pick up valuable hints +which we accept, and make use of them gladly. + +Some writers have thought it incumbent on them to give a local +habitation and an abiding place to needlework, and they have regarded +it as a branch of painting. But I cannot endorse this classification. +According to Semper, indeed, it is the mother-art of sculpture and +painting, instead of being the offspring of either or both, as others +have maintained.[4] They have, indeed, such distinct functions that +each may justly boast its own original sources. Painting is the art of +colour; sculpture is that of form; embroidery is the art of clothing +forms. They are all so ancient, that in seeking to ascertain their +beginnings and dates. It is difficult to fix the precedence of one +over another. We may compare, distinguish, and yet again change our +opinions as fresh facts come under our observation. + +The art of needlework reached its climax long ago, and is now very +old. History and faded rags are the only witnesses to its fabulous +glories, in Classical, Oriental, and early Mediæval days. It would +appear that nothing new remains to be invented. Copies of past styles, +and selections from the scraps we retain and value as models, are all +that we can boast of now. + +Dr. Rock truly says that few persons of the present day have the +faintest idea of the labour, the money, the time, often bestowed of +old upon embroideries which had been designed as well as wrought by +the hands of men and women, each in their own craft the best and +ablest of their day. + +Time is too short, our life too densely crowded, to allow leisure for +the extravagance of what is, after all, only a luxury of art--no +longer a civilizer, as of old, but just an efflorescence of our +culture. + +Embroidery is now essentially "decoration," and nothing more. It is +intended to appeal to the sense of beauty of the eye, rather than to +the imagination. The designer for needlework should be an artist, but +he need not be a poet. You may omit this art altogether, and you need +be none the less sumptuously clothed and lodged. Yet it is worthy of +careful study as historical evidence, and that in the present and +future, as in the past, it may be an _art_, and not merely a _craft_. + +For the great web of history is composed of many threads of divers +colours, and the warp and the woof are often exchanged, yet so +connected and knotted together that the continuity is never broken. On +this web, Time has drawn the picture of the past--sometimes faintly, +sometimes with indelible tints and pronounced forms. By poetry; by +architecture and its decorations; by dress, which represents and +distinguishes nationalities; by customs, such as the different forms +of burial; or even by such details as painting the eyes; also by the +tradition and outcome of the laws of the tribes that flowed +consecutively over Europe from the East; by the institutions which +remained immutably fixed on their native soil, such as those of the +Code of Manu, and those of Babylon, inscribed on bricks or clay; or by +the words, their form and lettering, in which these are handed down to +us;--out of all these the history of man is being reconstructed. + +How valuable is every witness to the ancient records, which were +fading into myths in the memories of men. How joyfully is each little +fact hailed as a landmark, in the general fog of doubt! + +Now embroidery may boast that it is a source of landmarks for all +time. + +Without presuming to fix a date for its first beginning, that which I +wish to impress on the mind of the reader is the long continuity of +the art of needlework. + +The sense of antiquity induces reverence, and I claim for the needle +an older and more illustrious age than can be accorded to the brush. +While the great pendulum of Time has swung art in sculpture, painting, +and architecture, from its cradle as in Mycenæ, to its throne in +Athens in the days of Pericles, and then back again to the basest +poverty of decaying Rome--needle work, continually refreshed from +Eastern inspiration, never has fallen so low, though it had never +aspired as high as its greater sister arts. + +The stuffs and fabrics of various materials of the Egyptians, Chinese, +Assyrians, and Chaldeans are named in the earliest records of the +human race. How much these decorations depended on weaving, and how +much on embroidery with the needle, may in each case be disputed. The +products of the Babylonian looms are alluded to in the Book of Joshua. +Their beauty tempted Achan to rescue them when Jericho fell;[5] and +Ezekiel speaks of the embroideries of Canneh, Haran, and Eden, as well +as of their cloths of purple and blue, and their chests of garments of +divers colours[6]. + +All these fabrics are named as merchandise, and were carried to the +sea-coast, and thence over the ancient world, by the Phœnicians, +the great shipowners and dealers of the East. + +Indian needlework and design is 4000 years old; and the long +perspective of Egyptian art, while leading us still further back into +unlimited periods, shows it changing so slowly, that we feel as if it +had been all but stationary from the beginning. + +The Chinese claim 5000 years as the life of their history; but if, as +is now suggested, their civilization is Accadian or Proto-Babylonian, +their wonderful artistic and scientific knowledge may have been +fragments of the great dispersal, secreted and preserved behind the +wonderful wall[7] of stone, silence, and law, where it has lain +fossilized ever since. One cannot but wonder at the perfection of the +textile manufactures of the Chinese, their marvellous embroideries, +and the peculiar modes of construction and design throughout their +arts, which have shown but few moments of change in growth--scarcely a +sign of evolution. And we may fairly surmise that this Accadian +culture (if such it be) is reflected from antediluvian tradition. + +The archæology of Oriental art is most interesting. We contemplate +with awe the vast splendours of the consecutive civilizations of the +East; the ancient richness and fertility of the whole of the Asiatic +continent; the genius for empire and for commerce; the creative power +which seemed to pour itself forth, unchecked by wars and conquests; +the great dynasties which rose and fell, leaving behind them gigantic +works, and the records of fabulous luxury in the empires of China, +Assyria, India, and Persia, of which the remains have been of late +years excavated, deciphered, and confronted with the historical texts +which we have inherited, and had only partly believed. And studying +these new aspects of history, we are saddened, thinking that the +sunrise comes to us from shining over desert sands or the mounds of +empty cities, where the lion and the jackal "reassert their primeval +possession," or where the European and the Tartar, from the West and +from the East, dispute their rights to suzerainty. We are dazzled and +confused when we look back to those great days when the over-peopled +kingdoms sent forth whole tribes, eastward to the confines of Asia, +southward over India, and westward over Europe; and we bow reverently +before the mighty Power that led the Jews, by a promise and a hope, +across the seething nationalities, through the long passage of time +from Abraham to Solomon; and which is again giving into the hands of +those Oriental-looking men, so much power in shaping the destiny of +mankind through their great riches. + +Moses commanded the Hebrew people to lend and never to borrow. They +have obeyed his precept, except in art; to that they have lent or +given nothing. There is no national Jewish art. For music only do they +show artistic genius, and that is European and not Oriental. As +illustrating their lack of intuitive decorative art, one need only +refer to the architecture of the first, second, and third Temple +buildings, which apparently reflected Babylonian and Semitic +influences on an early Chaldean type. The embroideries mentioned by +different writers, from Moses to Josephus, appear to have had always a +Babylonian, or later a Persian inspiration. + +This absence of artistic genius is very remarkable in a people that +had its origin in the Eastern centre from whence all art has radiated. + +The reason that so little survives of ancient embroidery is evident. +Woollen stuffs and threads decay quickly--the moth and rust do corrupt +them--and the very few ancient bits that remain, have been preserved +by the embalming process, which has kept the contents of tombs from +becoming dust. + +As to more modern embroideries, we ought to be thankful that the art +has had its fashions; otherwise, the world would be overwhelmed with +shabby rags. Human nature has a tendency to dislike the +"old-fashioned"--i.e. the fashion of the last generation. That which +our mothers worked or wore, is an object for affectionate sentiment, +and the best specimens alone are preserved. That which belonged to our +grandfathers and grandmothers has receded into the rococo; and a few +more generations take us back to the antique, of which so little +survives, from wear and tear, carelessness and theft, that we put away +and preserve it as being curious and precious. We may hope that the +general law of the survival of the fittest has guarded what is most +remarkable. + +Certain works have been consecrated by the hands that executed them, +or by that of the donor, or by the purpose for which they were +bestowed, and are mostly preserved in churches or national museums. Of +these there are vestments and altar decorations worked by royal and +noble ladies; and coronation garments given by Queens and Empresses, +such as Queen Gisela's and the Empress Kunigunda's at Prague and +Bamberg, and Charlemagne's dalmatic at the Vatican, described in the +chapter on ecclesiastical embroideries. Sculptured effigies help us as +to embroidered patterns; for our forefathers often actually copied in +bronze or stone the patterns of the garments in which the body was +buried, or at any rate, those the man had worn in his life. Of these, +King John's monument at Worcester, and the surcoat of the Black Prince +at Canterbury, are remarkable examples.[8] + +The succeeding chapters will contain sketches of the history of the +different stitches, and of the best examples of stitch and style +remaining to us; and I shall try to extract from both the best +suggestions for guidance in design and handicraft. + +Embroidery from its nature is essentially the woman's art.[9] It needs +a sedentary life, industry and patience. It does not require a room to +itself, and the worker may leave it at any moment between two stitches +when called to other duties. Nunneries produced the finest work of the +dark and middle ages; and their teaching inaugurated the workrooms in +the palaces and castles, where young girls, whether royal, noble, or +gentle, were trained in embroidery as an accomplishment and a +household duty. + +The history of domestic embroidery ought to be looked upon as that of +an important factor in the humanizing effect of æsthetic culture. + +The woman of the house has always been strong to fulfil her part in +this civilizing influence with the implement which custom has awarded +to her. Every man in the ancient East began his life under the tent or +in the palace adorned by the hands of his mother and her maidens, and +his home was made beautiful by his wife and his sisters and their +slaves. There, as in mediæval homes, lessons of morality and religion, +and the love and fame of noble deeds, were taught by the painting of +the needle to the minds of the young men, who would have scorned more +direct teaching; and the children felt the influence, as the women +wove what the bards sang. + +Alas! we have but few specimens of embroideries of which we know the +history, earlier than the tenth and eleventh centuries.[10] Yet from +the days of the books of the Old Testament and the song of the siege +of Troy, down to the present time, the woman of the house has adorned +not only herself and her dear lord, but she has hung the walls, the +seats, the bed, and the tables with her beautiful creations. + +Homer's women were all artists with the needle. Venus seeking Helen,-- + + "Like fair Laodice in form and face, + The loveliest nymph of Priam's royal race, + Here in the palace at her loom she found: + The golden web her own sad story crown'd. + The Trojan wars she weaved (herself the prize), + And the dire triumph of her fatal eyes."[11] + +This must have been intended for hangings. + +Hecuba's wardrobe is thus described:-- + + "The Phrygian queen to her rich wardrobe went, + Where treasured odours breathed a costly scent; + There lay the vestures of no vulgar art, + Sidonian maids embroider'd every part. + Here, as the queen revolved with careful eyes + The various textures and the various dyes + She chose a web that shone superior far, + And glow'd refulgent as the morning star."[12] + +The women of the Middle Ages were great at the loom and frame. From +the Kleine Heldenbuch of the thirteenth century, Rock quotes these +lines:-- + + "Who taught me to embroider in a frame with silk, + And to sketch and design the wild and tame + Beasts of the forest and field? + Also to picture on plain surfaces; + Round about to place golden borders-- + narrow and a broad one-- + With stags and hinds, lifelike." + +Gudrun, like the women of Homer, embroidered history--that of the +ancestors of Siegfried. + +But in the Middle Ages the embroiderers were ambitious artists. The +deeds of Roland and the siege of Troy, all romantic and classical +lore, provided subjects for the needle. + +Shakespeare gives a pretty picture of the graceful weaver and +embroiderer:-- + + * * * "Would ever with Marina be:-- + Be't when she weaves the sleided silk, + With fingers long, small, white as milk; + Or when she would with sharp neeld wound + The cambric, which she makes more sound + By hurting it.... + Deep clerks she dumbs; and with her neeld composes + Nature's own shape, of bud, bird, branch, or berry, + That even her art sisters the natural roses."[13] + +Before closing this Introduction, I will take the opportunity to +protest against the abuse of the phrase "High Art." It is generally +appropriated by that which is the lowest and most feeble. + +An old design for a chair or table, by no means remarkable originally, +but cheaply copied, and covered with a quaint and dismal cretonne or +poorly worked pattern, of which the design is neither new nor +artistic, is introduced by the upholsterer as belonging to "High Art +furniture." The epithet has succeeded to what was once "fashionable" +and "elegant." To get rid of carpets, and put down rugs, to hang up +rows of plates instead of family portraits--this also is "high art." +Likewise gowns lumped upon the shoulders, with all the folds drawn +across, instead of hanging draperies. The term is never used when we +speak of the great arts--painting, sculpture, and architecture. It is, +in fact, only the slang of the cabinet-maker, the upholsterer, and +milliner. + +All true Art is very high indeed and apparent; and needs not to be +introduced with a puff. It sits enthroned between Poetry and History. +Even those who are ignorant of its laws feel its influence, and the +soothing grace which it sheds, falling like the rain, equally upon the +just and the unjust. Man's nature always responds to the truly high +and beautiful; only the most degraded are deprived of this source of +happiness. And there are but few women, till debased by cruelty, +misery, or drink, that do not try in some humble way (but especially +with their needle) to adorn their own persons, their children, and +their homes; and if their art is not high, it yet has the power to +elevate them.[14] While the most ambitious women try a higher flight, +into the regions of poetry, literature, painting, and even sculpture +(why has no woman ever been an architect?), millions have enjoyed the +art of the needle for thousands of years, and it will continue to be a +solace and a delight as long as the world lasts, for, like all art, it +gives the ever new joy of creation. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [3] See Duke of Argyll's "Unity of Nature." + + [4] Walls, pillars, and roofs were certainly hung with + textile ornament before they were carved or painted. + This is Semper's theory, and though Woltmann and + Woermann ("History of Painting," Eng. Trans., Sidney + Colvin, p. 38) hardly accept this view, they do not + gainsay it. The women who wove hangings for the grove, + or more literally, "coverings for the houses" of the + grove, were probably the priestesses of Astarte, and + wove and worked the hangings of various colours. 2 Kings + xxii.; Ezek. xvi. 16-18. + + "It is probable that the earliest kind of pictures were + either woven or embroidered upon figured stuffs of + various colours; and that in these decorations the + Greeks in the first instance imitated the Semitic races, + who had practised them from time immemorial." See + Woltmann and Woermann's "History of Painting" (Eng. + Trans.), p. 38. + + [5] Joshua vii. + + [6] Ezek. xxvii. 23. + + [7] The wall of China, which, both figuratively and + literally, enclosed its civilization, and fenced off + that of the outer world, for thousands of years. + + [8] When the tomb of King John was opened, the body was + found wrapped in the same dress as that sculptured on + his effigy. The surcoat of the Black Prince, of + embroidered velvet, still hangs above his monument, on + which it is exactly reproduced. + + [9] Yet men, too, have wielded the embroidering needle. + + [10] These remnants are not, like the straws in amber, + only precious because they are curious; they are most + suggestive as works of art. + + [11] Pope's Homer, Iliad, book iii. + + [12] Ibid. book vi. + + [13] Shakespeare, "Pericles, Prince of Tyre," act iv. + 20; v. 5. + + [14] Surely it is a humanizing and Christian principle + which in Italy permits artistic work to be done in the + prisons where criminals are confined for life. Sisters + of Mercy teach lace-making to the wretched women who, + having committed great crimes, may never be seen again. + The produce of the work helps to pay the expense of the + prison, and at the same time a very small percentage is + given to the prisoners to send to their friends, or to + spend on little comforts, thus encouraging the poor + human creatures to exercise their best powers. We + believe this is sometimes allowed also in England and + France. + + + + +CHAPTER I. + +STYLE. + + +In venturing to approach so great a subject as the history of style, I +would beg my readers to believe how well I am aware that on each point +much more has been already carefully treated by previous writers, than +will fall within the limits of a chapter that is intended only to +throw light on textile art, and especially on embroidery. + +I suppose it is the same in all subjects of human speculation which +are worthy of serious study; and therefore I ought not to have been +surprised to find how much has already been written on needlework and +embroidery, and how unconsciously I, at least, have passed by and +ignored these notices, till it struck me that I ought to know +something of the history and principles of the art which with others, +I was striving to revive and improve. + +Then new and old facts crowded round me, and became significant and +interesting. I longed to know something of the first worker and the +first needle; and behold the needle has been found!--among the débris +of the life of the Neolithic cave-man, made of bone and very neatly +fashioned. + +Alas! the workwoman and her work are gone to dust; but _there_ is the +needle!--proof positive that the craft existed before the last glacial +period in Britain.[15] How long ago this was, we may conjecture, but +can never finally ascertain. Then I find embroidery named by the +earliest historians, by every poet of antiquity, and by the first +travellers in the East; and it has been the subject of laws and +enactments from the date of the Code of Manu in India, to the present +century. One becomes eager to systematize all this information, and to +share with the workers and thinkers of the craft, the pleasure found +in its study. + +Perhaps what is here collected may appear somewhat bald and +disjointed; but antiquity, both human and historical, is apt to be +bald; and its dislocation and disjointed condition are owing to the +frequent cataclysms, physical, political, and social, which needlework +has survived, bringing down to us the same stitches which served the +same purposes for decoration under the Code of Manu, and adorned the +Sanctuary in the wilderness; and those stitches probably were not new +then. + +I propose to give a slight sketch of the origin of the styles[16] that +have followed each other, noting the national influences that have +displaced or altered them, and the overlap of style caused by outside +events. + +First, I would define what "STYLE" means. + +Style is the mark impressed on art by a national period, short or +long. It fades, it wanes, and then some historical element enters on +the scene, which carries with it new materials, needs, and tastes +(either imported or springing up under the new conditions). The style +of the day in art and literature alters so perceptibly, that all who +have had any artistic training are at once aware of the difference. + +Of late years, the science of history has been greatly assisted by the +science of language. When the mute language of art shall have been +patiently deciphered, the historian will be furnished with new powers +in his researches after truth. + +The first "ineffaceable" is a _word_; the second a _pattern_. This is +proved by the history of needlework. + +As the world grows old, its youth becomes more interesting. Alas! the +childhood of mankind is so distant, and it was so long before it +learned its letters, that but few facts have come down to us, on which +we may firmly build our theories; yet we must acknowledge the great +stride that has been made in the last few years, in the scientific +mode of extracting history from the ruins and tombs, and even the +dust-heaps, of the past. Whole epochs, which fifty years ago were as +blank as the then maps of Central Africa, are being now gradually +covered with landmarks. + +Layard, Rawlinson, C. T. Newton, Botta, Rassam, Schliemann, Birch, G. +Smith, and a crowd of archæologists, and even unscientific explorers, +are collecting the materials from which the history of mankind is +being reconstructed. + +From them I have sought information about the art of embroidery, and I +find that Semper gives it a high pre-eminence as to its antiquity, +making it the foundation and starting-point of all art. He clothes not +only man, but architecture, with the products of the loom and the +needle; and derives from them in succession, painting, bas-relief, and +sculpture.[17] + + * * * * * + +Style has to be considered in two different aspects, from two +different standpoints. First, historically and archæologically, +distinguishing and dating the forms which follow upon each other; and +tracing them back in the order of their natural sequence; so as to +guide us to the root, nay, to the seed[18] of each and all art. + +The subsidiary art of embroidery, in its highest form the handmaid of +architecture, is full of suggestion, and may assist us greatly in the +search which culminates in the text of "In the beginning." + +The other point of view from which style should be considered is the +æsthetic. This enables us to criticize the works of different periods; +extracting, as far as we may, rules for the beautiful and the +commendable, and seeking to find the "why?" also observing the +operation of the law by which decay follows too soon after the best +and highest efforts of genius, thought, and invention in art. + +My present object is the history of consecutive styles, in so far as +they concern needlework. + +Alas! nothing endures. This law is acknowledged by Goethe, when he +makes Jove answer Venus, who bewailed that all that is beautiful must +die,--that he had only bestowed beauty on the evanescent. + +It seems as if the moment the best is attained, men, ceasing to +struggle for the better, fall back at once hopelessly and become mere +imitators. They no longer follow a type, but copy a model, and then +copy the copy. Imitation is a precipice, a swift descent through +poverty of thought into the chaos of mannerism, in the place of style. + +The imitative tendency, as existing in all human minds, cannot be +ignored or despised. In individuals it accompanies enthusiasm for the +beautiful, and the graceful charm of sympathy. It maintains continuity +between specimen and specimen, between artist and artist, between +century and century; and it is this which enables an adept to say with +certainty of consecutive styles, "This is Spanish work of the +sixteenth century; that is Flemish or German work of the seventeenth +century." + +The theory of development and of the survival of the fittest has been +worked so hard, that it sometimes breaks down under the task imposed +upon it. It would need to include Death in its procedure. In our +creed, Death, means the moment of entrance into a higher existence; +but in art it means extinction, leaving behind neither a history nor +an artisan--only, perhaps, an infinitely small tradition, like the +grain of corn preserved in the wrappings of a mummy, from which at +first accident, and then care and culture, may evoke a future life. + +The various ways in which art has appeared at the beginning cannot +here be discussed; nor how the Chinese and Hindu may have leapt into a +perfection which has stood still for thousands of years, protected +alike from expansion as from destruction, by the swaddling bands of +codified custom; while Greek art rose like the sun, shone over the +civilized world, and set--never again to see another epoch of glory. +These subjects must be left for the study of the anthropological +philosopher, who is working for the assistance and guidance of the +future historian of art. + +Style in needlework has passed through many phases since the +aboriginal, prehistoric woman, with the bone needle, drew together the +edges of the skins of the animals she had prepared for food. + +For absolute necessity, in forming the garments and covering the tent, +needlework need go no further than the seam. This, however, in the +woven or plaited material, must fray where it is shaped, and become +fringed at the edges. Every long seam is a suggestion, and every +shaped edge a snare. + +The fringe lends itself to the tassel, and the shaped seam suggests a +pattern; up-stitches are needed for binding the web, and before she is +aware of it, the worker finds herself adorning, _embroidering_; and +the craft enters the outskirts of the region of art. + +The humble early efforts at decoration, called by the French +"primitif," are the first we know and class, and are found in all +savage attempts at ornament. This style consists mainly of straight +lines, zigzags, wavy lines, dots, and little discs.[19] + +Gold discs of many sizes, and worked with a variety of patterns, are +found equally in the tomb of the warrior at Mycenæ, and in Ashantee, +accompanied in both cases with gold masks covering the faces of the +dead. The discs or buttons remind us of those found in Etruscan tombs, +though the execution of these last is more advanced. They appear to be +the origin of the "clavus" or nail-headed pattern woven into silks in +the Palace of the Cæsars. The last recorded survival of this pattern +is in woven materials for ecclesiastical purposes in the Middle Ages. + +Of very early needlework we only find here and there a fragment, +illustrated occasionally by passing allusions in poetry and history. + +The ornamental art of Hissarlik[20] is so primitive that we cannot +feel that it has any resemblance to that described as Trojan by Homer, +who probably adorned his song with the art he had known elsewhere.[21] + +We know not what the actual heroes of the Iliad and Odyssey wore; but +we do know that what Homer describes, he must have seen. Was Homer, +therefore, the contemporary of the siege of Troy?--or does he not +rather speak of the customs and costumes of his own time, and apply +them to the traditions of the heroic ages of Greece? Whatever be the +date of Homer himself, we can, with the help of contemporary +survivals, reconstruct the house and the hall, and even furnish them, +and clothe the women and the princes, the beggars and the herdsmen. + +From the remains of Egyptian, Babylonian, and Assyrian art we can +perceive their differences and their affinities. It is from textile +fragments, found mostly in tombs, that we obtain dates, and can +suggest them for other specimens. + +The funeral tent of Shishak's mother-in-law, at Boulac, is most +valuable as showing what was the textile art of that early period.[22] + + [Illustration: Fig. 1. + Egyptian corselet. (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians.")] + +The corselet which, according to Herodotus, was given by Amasis, King +of Egypt, to the Temple of Minerva at Lindos, in Rhodes, was possibly +worked in this style; for Babylonian embroidery was greatly prized in +Egypt, and imitated. + +The second corselet given by Amasis to the Lacædemonians was worked in +gold and colours, with animals and other decorations. This was of the +seventh century B.C.[23] + +Amongst the arms painted on the wall of the tomb of Rameses, at Thebes +(in Egypt), is a corselet, apparently of rich stuff,[24] embroidered +with lions and other devices. (Fig. 1.) + +The Phœnicians imbibed and reproduced the styles they met with in +their voyages. The bowls found in Cyprus described and engraved in the +September number of the "Magazine of Art" (1883), are most interesting +illustrations of the meeting of two national styles, the Assyrian and +the Egyptian.[25] + +Homer's "Shield of Achilles"[26] must, in general design, have +resembled these bowls (see Pl. 5). They also recall the description by +Josephus of the Temple veils at Jerusalem, which were Babylonian.[27] + +Phœnicia, which was the carrier of all art, dropped specimens here +and there, for many hundred years, along the borders of the +Mediterranean and the coasts of Spain. We fancy we can trace her +ocean-path by the western shores of Africa, and even to America; +otherwise, how could it happen that a mummy-wrapping in Peru should so +nearly resemble some of those wrappings found at Saccarah,[28] in +Egypt, woven in precisely the same tapestry fashion? + +Among the puzzling phenomena due probably to Phœnician commerce, is +the complete suite of the sacerdotal ornaments of a High Priest, found +in his tomb,[29] now in the Vatican Museum. This reminds us of other +specimens of archaic art from distant sources, that our attention is +forcibly arrested, and we wonder whence they came, and whether they +were collected from alien civilizations by the Phœnicians before +they dispersed them.[30] + +Certain Egyptian sculptures of deformed and repulsive +divinities--idols of the baser sort--are most interesting and puzzling +by their affinity in style to the Indo-Dravidian and the art of +Mexico, while they are entirely unlike that of Egypt. If Atlantis and +its arts never existed, it may be suggested that it was the eastern +coast of America that was spoken of under that name by the Egyptian +priest with whom Herodotus conversed. + +The Babylonian and Ninevite embroideries, carefully executed on their +bas-reliefs, have a masculine look, which suggests the design of an +artist and the work of slaves. There is no following out of graceful +fancies; one set of selected forms (each probably with a symbolical +intention) following another. The effect, as seen on the sculptures in +the British Museum, is royally gorgeous; and one feels that creatures +inferior to monarchs or satraps could never have aspired to such +splendours. Probably the embroidery on their corselets was executed in +gold wire, treated as thread, and taken through the material; and the +same system was carried out in adorning the trappings of the horses +and the chariots. The solid masses of embroidery may have been +afterwards subjected to the action of the hammer, which would account +for their appearing like jeweller's work in the bas-reliefs (Pl. 1 and +2). + + [Illustration: Pl. 1. + Assurbanipal fighting lions. + British Museum.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 2. + Portion of a Babylonian Royal Mantle. Layard's "Monuments," series + i., pl. 9.] + +The style of the Babylonian embroideries appears to have been +naturalistic though conventionalized. We may judge of their styles for +different purposes by the reliefs in the British Museum. From their +veils and curtains at a later date, when they had crossed their +art with that of India, we may imagine the mystical design of the +Temple curtain as described by Josephus; in fact, as much as possible +embracing all things on the earth and above it, excepting the images +of the heavenly bodies.[31] + +Small carpets from Persia of the Middle Ages, as well as those woven +and embroidered even to the present day, are echoes of the ancient +Babylonian style, and most interesting as historical records of the +traditions of human taste. Our artistic interests are stirred when we +read in Ezekiel lists of the fabrics and materials of which Tyre had +become the central depôt, and we enjoy tracing them to the various +looms, named in verse and history, where they were adorned with +embroidery, and then either became articles of commerce, or were +stored away to be kept religiously as heirlooms, or presented as gifts +to the temples or to honoured guests. + +Mr. G. Smith, after saying that the Babylonian is without doubt the +oldest of civilizations, continues thus:--"To us the history of +Babylonia has an interest beyond that of Egypt, on account of its more +intimate connection with our own civilization.[32] Babylon was the +centre from which it spread into Assyria, thence to Asia Minor and +Phœnicia, then to Greece and Rome, and so to all Europe. The Jews +brought the traditions of the creation and of early religion from Ur +of the Chaldees,[33] and thus preserved they became the heritage of +all mankind; while the science and civilization of that wonderful +people (the Babylonians) became the basis of modern research and +advancement."[34] + +The hangings of the Tabernacle are so carefully described in the book +of Exodus, that we can see in fancy the linen curtains, blue or white, +embroidered in scarlet, purple, blue, and gold; the cherubim in the +woven material; the fringes enriched with flowers, buds, fruit, and +golden bells: and we can appreciate how little of Egyptian art and +style the children of Israel brought back from their long captivity, +and how soon they reverted to their ancient Chaldean proclivities, +after returning to their wandering life of the tent. + +On the bronze gates from the mound of Balawat, near Nimroud, set up by +Shalmaneser to celebrate his conquest of Tyre and Sidon,[35] we find a +portable tabernacle, evidently meant to accompany the army on a march. +It is not much larger than a four-post bed, with transverse poles for +drawing the curtains, all fringed with bells and fruit. This is an +illustration of the motive for the Tabernacle of the forty years' +wandering in the desert. (Fig. 2.) + + [Illustration: Fig. 2. + Tabernacle on gates of Balawat, time of Shalmaneser II. (British + Museum).] + +Egyptian textile art is, perhaps, that of which we have the most early +specimens. These are to be seen at Boulac, at Vienna, Turin, and the +British Museum.[36] The Hieroglyphic, the Archaic, and the +Græco-Egyptian are all unmistakably the consecutive outcome of the +national original style, which had totally disappeared in the +beginning of our era. Few of the embroideries are more than two +thousand five hundred years old. But the great piece of patchwork in +leather, "the funeral tent of an Egyptian queen," as it covered the +remains of a contemporary of Solomon,[37] absolutely exhibits the +proficiency of the designer and the needlework of the eleventh century +B.C. (Pl. 44.) + +The connection between Indian and Egyptian early art appears to have +existed only in their use of the lotus as an emblem and a constant +decoration; but their manner of employing it was characteristically +different. (Pl. 12 and 13.) + +The Phœnicians carried with them the seeds of the Egyptian style +over the ancient world; but these seeds only took root and flourished +on the soil of Greece. The imitations of Egyptian style reappeared in +Rome, and again in France "under the two Empires." In both cases they +were only imitations, and neither had any permanent influence on the +art of their day. + +I shall have to allude very often to our Eastern sources of artistic +culture. + +Our own Aryan ancestors were so impregnated with beautiful ideas, that +we must believe that we inherit from them all our graceful +appreciation of naturalistic ornament. But even Aryan art met with +reverses on its Eastern soil, from which it constantly rose again and +renewed itself. + +The Mongols crushed for a time the element of beauty in India. They +introduced a barbarous and hideous style which has its only +counterpart in that of Central America. It was the produce of a +religion, superstitious, cruel, and devilish. + +The Aryan art of India, which was elegant and spiritual, was revived +by the kindred influence of Persia, and by the Renaissance in Europe. +Italian and other artists were employed in India, and "the spirit of +aerial grace, and the delicate sense of beauty in natural forms, +blossomed afresh and flourished for 300 years. Birds, flowers, fruit, +butterflies, became once more the legitimate ornament of every +material."[38] + +I continue to quote from Sir G. Birdwood's "Arts of India." "The Code +of Manu, from 900 to 300 B.C., has secured to the village system of +India a permanent class of hereditary artistic workmen and artisans, +who have through these 2500 years, at least, been trained to the same +manipulations, and who therefore translate any foreign work which is +placed before them to copy, into something characteristically +Indian."[39] Indian art has borrowed freely from all sources without +losing its own individuality. It has been said, "There is nothing +newer in it than of the sixteenth century; and even then nothing was +original, especially in the minor arts." But this is owing to the +Hindu being equally endowed with assimilative and receptive +capacity,[40] so that in the hands of the Indian craftsman everything +assumes the distinctive expression of ancient Indian art. + +In India everything is hand-wrought; but as the spirit of its +decorative art "is that of a crystallized tradition, its type has +remained almost unaltered since the Aryan genius culminated in the +Ramâyana and Mahabhârata--and yet each artisan in India is a true +artist."[41] In art, unfortunately, "the letter killeth;" and true +artists as they are, the ancient traditions bind and cramp them, +while the ancient materials, the dyes, and the absolute command of +time are failing: so that the beauty of Indian embroideries and other +decorations is gradually reducing itself to mannerism, which is more +dangerous to art than even had been the vicissitudes of war; for when +peaceful days returned, and the waves of conquest had subsided, the +ancient arts were found again deeply embedded in the traditions of the +people. They gradually returned to their old ways, which are so +indelible in the Hindu mind, that they will perhaps survive even the +fashions of to-day.[42] + +From Yates' account it would appear that Europe had been fertilized +with taste in art and manufactures from the East by three different +routes. + +The Egyptian civilization, with all its Eastern antecedents and +traditions, came to us by the Mediterranean and the Adriatic; the +Phœnicians being the merchants who brought it through those +channels. The Etruscans, who were the pedlars of Europe, travelled +north, conveying golden ornaments and coral, and bringing back jet and +amber. Their commercial track is to be traced by the contents of tombs +on their path.[43] + + [Illustration: Pl. 3. + St. John. From King Alfred's Celtic Book of the Gospels. Lambeth + Palace Library.] + +Secondly, there was also a Slavonian route from Eastern Asia, which +conveyed Oriental art to the north of Europe. Celtic art, which +certainly has something of the Indo-Chinese style, came to us probably +by this route. Another branch of the Celtic family was settled on the +north-eastern shores of the Adriatic. Celtic ideas and forms in art +probably crossed Europe from this point,[44] and came to us meeting a +cognate influence,[45] arriving from the north.[46] (Pl. 3.) + +Thirdly, Oriental taste and textiles came from the Byzantine Empire in +the early days of Christianity, spreading to Sicily, Italy, Spain, and +finally to France, Germany, and Britain. + +Runic art, whether Scandinavian or our own purer Celtic, is so +remarkable for its independence of all other European national and +traditional design, that I cannot omit a brief notice of it, though we +have no ascertained relics of any of its embroideries.[47] It appears +to have received, in addition to its own universal stamp--evidently +derived from one original source--certain influences impressed on it +like a seal by each country through which it flowed.[48] Wherever the +Runes are carved in stone, or worked on bronze, gold, silver, ivory, +or wood, or painted in their splendid illuminations (pl. 4), the +involved serpent, which was the sign of their faith, appears, +sometimes covered with Runic inscriptions; and this inscribed serpent, +later, is twined round or heaped at the foot of the peculiar +Scandinavian-shaped cross, the type of conversion. The serpent was +sometimes altered into the partial semblance of a four-footed animal, +the body and tail being lengthened and twined, and sometimes split, to +give a new turn to the pattern. (Fig. 3.) All these zoomorphic +patterns, as well as the human figures seen in the Book of Kells, the +missal at Lambeth, and the Lindisfarne Book (which is, however, more +English in its style), are yet of an Indo-Chinese type; the +wicker-work motives often replacing the involved serpent design. + + [Illustration: Fig. 3. + Celtic Zoomorphic pattern.] + +The Paganism of our own Celtic art, when it appears, is an +interpolation between our first and second Christian conversions, and +was brought to us in the incursions of the Vikings over Scotland and +into England. + + [Illustration: Page from the Lindisfarne MSS. British Museum] + + [Illustration: Pl. 5. + Silver bowl from Palestrina. Ganneau. "Journal Asiatique, Coupe de + Palestrina." 1880.] + +Our knowledge of their advanced and most singular art comes out +of their tombs, in which the warrior was laid with all his arms and +his horse and his precious possessions, splendidly clothed according +to his degree--in the belief that he would need them again in a future +world. + +This northern tradition was so long-lived, that Frederick Casimir, a +knight of the Teutonic Order, was buried with his sword and his horse +at Treves, in 1781.[49] + +Greek embroideries we can perfectly appreciate, by studying Hope's +"Costumes of the Ancients," and the works of Millingen and others; +also the fictile vases in the British Museum and elsewhere. On these +are depicted the Hellenic gods, the wars, and the home life of the +Greeks. The worked or woven patterns on their draperies are infinitely +varied, and range over many centuries of design, and they are almost +always beautiful. It is melancholy to have to confess that in this, as +in all their art, the Greek taste is inimitable; yet we may profit by +the lessons it teaches us. These are: variety without redundancy; +grace without affectation; simplicity without poverty; the +appropriate, the harmonious, and the serene, rather than that which is +astonishing, painful, or awe-inspiring. These principles were carried +into the smallest arts, and we can trace them in the shaping of a cup +or the decoration of a mantle, as in the frieze of the Parthenon. + +Homer makes constant mention of the women's work. Penelope's web is +oftenest quoted. This was a shroud for her Father-in-law. Ulysses +brought home a large collection of fine embroidered garments, +contributed by his fair hostesses during his travels. + +Pallas Athene patronized the craft of the embroiderers; and the sacred +peplos which robed her statue, and was renewed every year, was +embroidered by noble maidens, under the superintendence of a +priestess of her temple. It represented the battles of the gods and +the giants (fig. 4), till the portraits of living men were profanely +introduced into the design. The new peplos was carried to the temple, +floating like a flag, in procession through the city. + +The goddess to whom the Greeks gave the protection of this art was +wise as well as accomplished, and knew that it was good for women +reverently to approach art by painting with their needles. She always +was seen in embroidered garments, and worked as well as wove them +herself. She appeared to Ulysses in the steading of Eumœus, the +swineherd, as a "woman tall and fair, and skilful in splendid +handiwork."[50] + + [Illustration: Fig. 4. + Pallas Athene attired in the sacred peplos. + (Panathenaic Vase, British Museum.)] + +Homer never tires of praising the women's work, and the chests of +splendid garments laid up in the treasure-houses.[51] Helen gave of +her work to Telemachus: "Helen, the fair lady, stood by the coffer +wherein were her robes of curious needlework which she herself had +wrought. Then Helen, the fair lady, lifted it out, the widest and most +beautifully embroidered of all--and it shone like a star; and this she +sent as a gift to his future wife."[52] + +Semper's theory is, that the one chief import of Oriental style being +embroideries, therefore the hangings and dresses arriving from Asia +gave the poetic Greek the motives for his art, his civilization, his +legends, and his gods.[53] This may or may not be; there is no doubt +that they influenced them.[54] + +Böttiger accordingly believes that Homer's descriptions of beautiful +dress and furnishings are derived from, or at least influenced by, +what he had learnt of the Babylonian and Chaldean embroideries. This +is very probable, and would account for his poetical design on the +shield of Achilles, in which his own inspiration dictated the +possibilities of the then practised arts of Asia, of which the fame +and occasional glimpses were already drifting westward. (Plate 5.) + +The description of the shield of Achilles is as follows: Hephaistos, +"the lame god," "threw bronze that weareth not, into the fire; and +tin, and precious gold and silver." "He fashioned the shield great and +strong, with five folds (or circles) in the shield itself." "Then +wrought he the earth and the sea, and the unwearying sun, and the moon +waxing to its full, and the signs, every one wherewith the heavens are +crowned." "Also he fashioned therein two cities of mortal men; and +here were marriage feasts, and brides led home by the blaze of +torches--young men whirling in the dance, and the women standing each +at her door marvelling." Then a street fight, and the elders sitting +in judgment. The other city was being besieged; and there is a +wonderful description of the battle fought on the river banks, and +"Strife, Tumult, and Death" personified, and mingling in the fight. +Then he set in the shield the labours of the husbandman. This is so +exquisitely beautiful that with difficulty I refrain from quoting it +all. "He wrought thereon a herd of kine with upright horns, and the +kine were fashioned of gold and tin," "and herdsmen of gold were +following after them." "Also did the glorious lame god devise a +dancing-place like unto that which once, in wide Knosos, Daidalos +wrought for Ariadne of the lovely tresses. There were youths dancing +and maidens of costly wooing, their hands upon their waists." "And now +would they run round with deft feet exceedingly lightly"--"and now +would they run in lines to meet each other." "And a great company +stood round the lovely dance in joy; and among them a divine minstrel +was making music on his lyre; and through the midst of them, as he +began his strain, two tumblers whirled. Also he set therein the great +might of the River of Ocean, around the utmost rim of the +cunningly-fashioned shield."[55] + +There is, indeed, every proof that Greek art was the joint product of +the Egyptian and Assyrian civilizations. Their amalgamation gave birth +to the archaic style, struggling to express the strength and the +beauty of man--half heroic, half divine. Gradually, all the +surrounding decorations of life assumed as a governing principle and +motive, the worth of noble beauty. + +The Greeks were the first artists. They broke away from the ancient +trammels of customary forms, and replaced law with liberty of thought, +and tradition with poetry. + +They destroyed no old ideas, but they selected, appropriated, and +evoked beauty from every source. From the great days of Athens we may +date the moment when materials became entirely subservient to art, and +the minds of individual men were stamped on their works and dated +them. Phases indeed followed each other, showing the links of +tradition which still bound men's minds together to a certain extent, +and formed the general style of the day. Yet there was in art from +that time--life, sometimes death,--but then a resurrection. + +It appears from classical writers that about 300 B.C. Greek art had +thrown itself into many new forms. Painting, for example, had tried +all themes excepting landscapes. We are told that within the space of +150 years the art had passed through every technical stage; from the +tinted profile system of Polygnotus to the proper pictorial system of +natural scenes, composed with natural backgrounds; and Peiraiïkos is +named as an artist of genre--a painter of barbers and cobblers, +booths, asses, eatables, and such-like realistic subjects.[56] + +I suppose there is no doubt that all the Romans knew or felt of art +was borrowed directly or indirectly from Greece,[57] first through +Phœnician and perhaps Etruscan sources, and finally by conquest. +Everything we have of their art shows their imitation of Grecian +models. Their embroideries would certainly have shown the same +impress. + +Greece--herself crushed and demoralized--even as late as the Eastern +Empire gave to Rome the fashion of the Byzantine taste, which she at +once adopted, and it was called the Romanesque. This style, which was +partly Arab, still prevails in Eastern Europe, having clung to the +Greek Church. In her best days, Roman poetry, architecture, and +decorative arts were Greek of Greece, imitating its highest types, but +never creating. + +It is surely allowable to quote here one of Virgil's Homeric echoes, +which touches upon our especial subject,-- + + "Mournful at heart at that supreme farewell, + Andromache brings robes of border'd gold; + A Phrygian cloak, too, for Ascanius. + And yielding not the palm in courtesy, + Loads him with woven treasures, and thus speaks: + 'Take these gifts, too, to serve as monuments + Of my hand-labour, boy; so may they bear + Their witness to Andromache's long love, + The wife of Hector:--take them, these last gifts + Thy kindred can bestow; in this sad world + Sole image left of my Astyanax!'"[58] + +It is sad to mark how not only the refinements of taste, but even the +guiding principles of art, were gradually lost in the humiliation of a +conquered people, the dulness and discouragement which followed on the +expatriation or destruction of their accumulated treasures, and the +deterioration of the Greek artist and artisan, carried prisoners to +Rome, and settled there because it was the seat of luxury and empire. +As the captive Jews hung their harps on the willow-trees by the waters +of Babylon, and refused to sing, so Greek genius succumbed, weighed +down by Roman chains. It sickened and died in exile. + +Late Roman art reminds us of the art of Etruria in its archaic days, +except that the freshness and promise are wanting, and that the one +was in its first, the other its second childhood. + +Before entering on the subject of Christian art, I must again refer, +however briefly, to the Eastern origin of all art. It is evident that +this had always flowed in streams of many types from that high +watershed of Central Asia, where our human race is said to have been +created, and whence all wisdom and knowledge have emanated. In the +image of the Creator, man issued from thence, endowed with the gift of +the creative power. Wave after wave of fresh and apparently differing +nationalities followed each other; partially submerging those that had +gone before, and spreading till it had reached the furthest shores of +the Northern seas and the Atlantic, and encircled the Mediterranean. +They all followed the same course from east to west. The Greek +civilization was indeed so dazzling and strong, that it lighted the +world all around; and India, Persia, and Assyria felt its influence +reflected back on its old Asian cradle. + +But from the same high watershed[59] flowed other tribal types towards +China, Java, and Japan, that had no affinity with any western +civilization; and while the Assyrian, Persian, Indian, and Mongolian +styles mixed and overlapped so near their sources, that it is +sometimes hardly possible to reason out and classify their +resemblances and their differences, the tribes flowing Eastward turned +aside and went their own way, and have remained till now perfectly +distinct.[60] + +In spite of their matchless dexterity in the manipulation of their +materials, the infinite variety of their stitches, and exquisite +finish in execution, carrying out to the utmost point the intended +effect, yet Chinese and Japanese textile art differs in its inner +principles from all our accepted canons of taste; so that their want +of harmony, and sometimes their absurdity, is a puzzle of which we +cannot find the key. This I have already alluded to (p. 3). + +I purposely avoid the questions suggested by Chinese art. The immense +antiquity it claims cannot be allowed without hesitation. M. Terrien +de la Couperie, however, believes that he has found the actual point +of departure of Chinese civilization, and he considers it to be an +early offshoot from Babylon.[61] He supports his theory on linguistic +grounds, and we must anxiously wait to see if it is corroborated by +further researches into the earliest records of the archaic Chinese +literature. But immobility in art is a Chinese characteristic, and no +national cataclysms seem to have disturbed it. The oldest specimens +known are very like the most modern. Yet an adept, learned in Chinese +art, can detect the signs which mark its different epochs. + +In this they differ from the Japanese, who, added to their inherited +exquisite appreciation of natural beauty, have a power of assimilation +that might lead in time to their possessing a school of art which, +being really original, might become the style of the future. The +civilization of Japan is not older than the fifth century A.D., and +was probably then imported from Corea. Some of the earliest specimens +we know of their art are embroidered religious pictures by the son of +a Mikado Sholokutaiski, who was in the seventh century the great +apostle of Buddhism in Japan; and the next earliest works are by the +first nun, Honi, in the eighth century. We have European work as old, +and it is most interesting to compare the differences of their styles +and stitches. + +We must now return to the beginning of our era, when we find Greek +taste, such as it was, still influencing and colouring art in Italy, +and throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa, wherever Roman colonies were +founded, till the eighth century. It died hard; but by that time the +barbarians had poured from the east and north in successive waves, and +conquered and suppressed the classical civilization. + +Nothing is so puzzling in textile art as the mixture of styles during +the first 1000 years A.D. The Græco-Roman, the Byzantine, and the +Egyptian, crossed by the Arabian, Persian, and Indian styles, were +reproduced in the Sicilian looms. Certain stock patterns, such as the +reclining hares or fawns, as we find them on the Shishak pall, or that +of the Tree of Life, approached by worshipping men or animals, +originating in Assyrian art, are employed as borders, and fill up +vacant spaces. The information collected from the tombs in the Crimea +immediately preceding our era, is supplemented by the variety in style +and materials from the Fayoum, now placed by Herr Graf'schen in the +Museum at Vienna. + +Christian art, which began in Byzantium, gradually grew, and formed +itself into the Gothic,[62] which in time overcame the general chaos +of style. + +Eastern art continued to flow westward, modifying and suggesting. +When the Phœnicians and Carthaginians had laid down their ancient +commercial sceptre, it was taken up by the Greeks, and later by the +Venetians and Genoese, always trading with Asiatic goods. Then the +arts of the Scandinavians[63] and of the Celts (who were the weavers), +though barbaric, still retained and spread certain Oriental +traditions. Luxury was born in Babylon, and Persia became its nurse, +whence all its glories and refinements spread over the world. But if +luxury was Babylonian, art was Greek. Alas! the love of luxury +survived in Rome the taste for art. + + [Illustration: Pl. 6. + The Empress Theodora. Mosaic at Ravenna. Church of San. Vitale.] + +At Ravenna we learn much of the early Christian period from the +mosaics in the churches. The Empress Theodora and her ladies appear to +be clothed in Indian shawl stuffs. (Plate 6.) These, of course, had +drifted into Rome, as they had long done into the Greek islands, by +the Red Sea or by land through Tyre. Ezekiel (590 B.C.) mentions the +Indian trade through Aden. Theodora's dress has a deep border of gold, +embroidered with classical warriors pursuing each other with +swords.[64] Works enriched with precious stones and pearls now appear +for the first time in European art, and testify to its Oriental +impress. + +The Byzantine Christian style was essentially the art of mosaic. Its +patterns for architecture or dress, easily square themselves into +little compartments, suggesting the stitches of "counted" embroideries +("opus pulvinarium"). + +In the beginning of the fourth century, when Greek influence was still +languishing, we may date the commencement of ecclesiastical art. It +was a new birth, and had to struggle through an infancy of nearly 800 +years, ignoring, or unconscious of all rules of drawing, colouring, +and design. Outlines filled in with flat surfaces of colours +represented again the art of painting, which had returned to archaic +types, and in no way differed from the essential properties of the art +of "acu pingere" or needlework, which was in the same phase--being, +fortunately for it, that to which it was best suited. + +Therefore fine works of art were then executed by the needle, of which +a very few survive, either in description or copied into more lasting +materials; and showing that, with the minor arts of mosaic and +illumination, it was in a state of higher perfection than the greater +arts, which till the twelfth century were all but in abeyance. + +In discussing textile art, I am obliged to pass over a part of the +dark ages, and to approach the period when it must be studied chiefly +in Sicily, which became the half-way house on the high road to the +East, and later the resting-place of the Crusaders to and from the +Holy Land. + +Sicily, which had succeeded to Constantinople as being the great +manufacturing mart during the Middle Ages, was in the hands of the +Moors, the origin and source of all European Gothic textile art. Yet +even at Palermo and Messina this art was long controlled by the +traditions of Greece, ancient and modern, while fertilized by Persian +and Indian forms and traditional symbolisms. + +The next European phase was the Gothic.[65] This was Arab and Moresque +steeped in northern ideas; and finding its congenial soil, it grew +into the most splendid, thoughtful, and finished style, far +transcending anything that it had borrowed from eastern or southern +sources. + +All its traditions were carried out in the smaller decorative +arts--mosaics, ivories, and metal works; and, last and not least, +beautiful embroideries, to adorn the altars and the dresses of +monarchs and nobles. (Plate 7.) + +When taste was imperfect or declined, then the decorations were all +rude, and the embroideries shared in the general rudeness or poverty; +but as these crafts rose again, adding to themselves grace and beauty +by study and experience, then needlework in England, Germany, France, +Italy, and Spain grew and flourished.[66] + + [Illustration: Italian embroidery XV. Century + Kensington Museum] + + [Illustration: Italian orphreys XVI. Century + South Kensington Museum] + + [Illustration: Orphreys French and Spanish + XVI. Century] + +Then came the Reformation, which, in Germany and England especially, +gave a blow to the arts which had reserved their best efforts for the +Church; and the change of style effected by the Renaissance was not +suited to the solemnity of ecclesiastical decoration. + +The styles of the fifteenth and sixteenth century embroideries are +better adapted for secular purposes; though their extreme beauty as +architectural ornament in Italy, reconciles one to their want of +religious character, on the principle that it was allowable to +dedicate to the Church all that in its day was brightest and best. +(Plate 8.) + +We possess much domestic embroidery of the Renaissance which is +exceedingly beautiful--Italian, Spanish, and German. English +needlework had lost its prestige from the time of the Reformation.[67] + +The best efforts of the German schools of embroidery preceded the +Reformation, while those of Belgium never lost their excellence,[68] +and still hold their high position among the workers of golden +orphreys. In Italy they always retained much of the classical element. +Probably the ancient frescoes which served as models were originally +painted by Greek artists and their Roman imitators. This style +flourished for a hundred years. The French adopted and modified it. + +The decorative style of that period is sometimes called the Arabesque, +and sometimes the Grotesque. The fashion was really copied from the +excavated palaces and tombs of the best Roman era. Raphael admired, +and caused his pupils to imitate and copy them; and they influenced +all decorative art for a considerable period. As long as beautiful +forms of flowers, fruit, birds, and animals were adhered to, the +Arabesque was a charming decoration, gay and brilliant; but when the +beautiful was set aside, and the ugly ideas were reproduced, the style +became the Grotesque, which word only means the grotto, cave, or tomb +style, and is as undescriptive to us as the word Arabesque, which has +nothing to do with the Arabs or their arts. + +It would appear that if the beautiful only is permissible in +decorative art, and that if without beauty there is no reason that it +should exist at all, then the Grotesque should not be allowed, except +as a scherzo of the pencil; to be relegated, like all other +caricatures, to the portfolio. + +A grotesque is something startling, laughable, perhaps ridiculous. A +woman with the head of a goose and a flowery tail may be a symbolical, +but it never can be an agreeable object. When the idea conveyed is a +great one, then it is excusable. The Ninevite bull, with a human head +and five legs, is a grotesque, but it is also a symbol of majesty and +might. A Satyr is a grotesque, but he has been so long recorded and +accepted that he has ceased to surprise us; and the Greeks spent so +much genius in making him a graceful creature, that he has become +picturesque, if not beautiful. + +Arabesques and Grotesques have now so long prevailed in decoration, +that we have ceased to criticize them on principle, and accept them +gratefully, in proportion to the gay fancy and reticent genius of the +designer. Most Arabesques are, in fact, only graceful nonsense. + + [Illustration: Pl. 9. + Spanish Coverlet, from Goa. Velvet and gold, Plâteresque style, + seventeenth century.] + +Vitruvius (writing first century B.C.) says, that "in his time, on the +covering of the walls were painted rather monstrosities than images +of known things. Thus, instead of columns you will see reeds with +crisp foliage, and candlesticks supporting temples; and on the top of +these there are rods and twisted ornaments, and in the volutes +senseless little figures sitting there; likewise flowers with figures +growing out of their calyxes. Here a human head, there an +animal's."[69] Evidently Vitruvius did not approve of grotesques, and +his contemporary criticism is most valuable and amusing. + +In the Louis Quatorze period, a species of vegetable grotesque was the +fashion, from which we suffer even now, and it deserves censure. +Leaves and flowers of different plants were made to grow from the same +stem, as only artificial flowers could do. The Greeks introduced into +their decorations sprays and wreaths of bay, olive, oak, ivy, and +vine, with their fruits; which are exquisitely composed and carefully +studied from nature. It is true that they sometimes invented flowers +of different shapes, following each other on the same stem, and +untrammelled by any natural laws. These classical freaks of fancy are +so graceful that their want of truth does not shock us, but they are +more safely copied than imitated. + +The Renaissance was particularly marked in Spain and Portugal by the +embroideries which the latter drew from their Indian possessions in +Goa, whilst we in England were sedulously thrusting from our shores +any beautiful Indian textiles that we imagined could injure our own +home manufactures. It was, consequently, the worst phase of needlework +with us, while Spanish and Portuguese embroideries of the sixteenth +and seventeenth centuries are especially fine, their designs being +European, and their needlework Oriental. Their Renaissance, which went +by the name of the Plâteresque, is a style apart. (Pl. 9.) The reason +of its name is that it seems to have been originally intended for, and +is best suited to, the shapes and decorations of gold and silver +plate. It is extremely rich and ornate; not so appropriate to +architecture as to the smaller arts, and wanting, perhaps, the +simplicity which gives dignity. The style called Louis Quatorze +following on the Renaissance in Germany, England, Spain, Italy, and +France, assumed in each of these countries distinguishing +characteristics, into which we have not time to enter now. In this +style France took the lead and appropriated it, and rightly named it +after the magnificent monarch who fostered it. This was a splendid +era; and its furniture and wall decorations, dress, plate, and books +shine in all the fertile richness and grace of French artistic +ingenuity.[70] The new style asserted itself everywhere, and +remodelled every art; but the long reign of Louis Quatorze gave the +fashion time to wane and change. Under Louis XV. the defects increased +and the beauties diminished. The fine heavy borders were broken up +into fragmentary forms; all flow and strength were eliminated; and +what remained of the Louis Quatorze style became, under its next +phase, only remarkable for the sparkling prettiness which is inherent +in all French art. + +In Italy this very ornate style was distinguished as the +"Sette-cento," and was a chastened imitation or appropriation of the +Spanish Plâteresque and the French Louis Quatorze. In Germany it was a +decided heavy copy of both, of which there are splendid examples in +the adornment of the German palaces, royal and episcopal. In England +the Continental taste was faintly reflected during the reign of Queen +Anne and the first Georges; but except in the characteristic +upholstery of the Chippendales, and one or two palaces, such as +Blenheim and Castle Howard, we did not produce much that was original +in the style of that day. + +Under Louis XV., Boucher and Watteau, in France, produced designs that +were well suited to tapestries and embroideries. All the heathen gods, +with Cupids, garlands, floating ribbons, crowns, and cyphers were +everywhere carved, gilded, and worked. It was the visible tide of the +frivolity in which poor Marie Antoinette was drowned; though before +the Revolution she had somewhat simplified the forms of decoration, +and straight lines instead of curves, and delicacy rather than +splendour, had superseded, at least at court, the extravagant richness +of palatial furniture. + +This was followed by the Revolution; and then came the attempt at +classical severity (so contrary to the French nature) which the +Republic affected.[71] Dress was adorned with embroidered spots and +Etruscan borders, and the ladies wore diadems, and tried to be as like +as possible to the Greek women painted in fictile art. Napoleon +attempted a dress which was supposed to be Roman at his coronation. +Trophies were woven and embroidered, and the "honeysuckle," "key," and +"egg and anchor" patterns were everywhere. With the fall of the Empire +the classical taste collapsed, and the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman +furniture were handed over to hotels and lodging-houses. In most of +the palaces on the Continent an apartment is still to be seen, +furnished in this style. It was the necessary tribute of flattery to +the great conqueror, who in that character inhabited so many of them +for a short time. But there was no sign of the style being taken up +enthusiastically anywhere out of France. + +After the fall of the Empire, all pretence of style was in abeyance, +and it was then gradually replaced by a general craving for the +"antique," the "rococo," and finally the "baroc," as the outcome of +that part of a gentleman's education called the "grand tour." Every +one bought up old furniture; Italy and Spain were ransacked; and +foreign works of all ages were added to the hereditary house +furnishings. Every wealthy home became a museum. Now the numerous +exhibitions of the last few years, bringing together the works of all +Europe and other continents, have enabled us to continue to collect +and compare and furnish, without any reference to a particular style. + +Meantime "Young England" had become æsthetic. Bohemianism was the +fashion, and the studio had to be furnished as a picturesque +lounge:--ragged tapestries for backgrounds; antique chairs and bits of +colour as cushions and draperies; shiny earthenware pots to hold a +flower and to catch a high light. All these bridged the space between +the new æstheticism and the old family museums; and from their +combination arose the style called by courtesy the "Queen Anne"--a +style which can be brought within the reach of the most moderate +fortunes. In humble mansions you will be aware of the grouping of the +old pieces of furniture, culminating perhaps in "my grandmother's +cabinet," and her portrait by Hogarth; or "my great-grandfather's +sword and pistols, which he carried at Culloden;" and his father's +clock, a relic perhaps of the Scotch Dutch. + +The English style of to-day is really a conglomerate of the preceding +two hundred years, and it is formed from the débris of our family +life. It belongs mostly to the period of the pigtail; but it +stretches back, and includes all that followed the Protectorate, and +is therefore coeval with the wig. The name of "Queen Anne" would +really do as well as any other, only that the style of her reign, +which was heavy Louis Quatorze, is looked upon with suspicion, and +never admitted for imitation. The "Nineteenth Century" would be a +better name, for it has formed itself only within the last thirty +years, in the very heart of the century, and is, in fact, a fortunate +result of preceding conditions. It owes its existence, as I have said, +partly to the archæological tendencies of the day. + +The maimed tables and chairs, which had painfully ascended from saloon +to bedroom, nursery, and attic, till they reposed in the garret (the +Bedlam of crazy furniture), now have descended in all the prestige of +antiquarian and family interest. Their history is recorded; the old +embroideries are restored, named, and honoured. What is not beautiful, +is credited with being "quaint"--the "quaint" is more easily imitated +than the beautiful; and we have elected this for the characteristic of +our new decorations. To be quaint, is really to be funny without +intending it, and its claim to prettiness is its _naïveté_, which is +sometimes touching as well as amusing: this was the special +characteristic of the revival in the Middle Ages. To imitate +quaintness must be a mistake in art; as in life it is absurd to +imitate innocence. + +The nineteenth century "Queen Anne" has its merits.[72] It combines +simplicity, roominess and comfort, colour, light and shade. Soft +colouring to harmonize the new furniture with the tender tints of the +faded quaintnesses just restored to society; care in grouping even the +commonest objects, so as to give pleasure to the eye; a revived taste +for embroidered instead of woven materials, giving scope to the +talents of the women of the house;--all these are so much gained in +every-day domestic decoration. The poorest and most trivial +arrangements are striving to attain to a something artistic and +agreeable. This is still confined to the educated classes; but as good +and bad alike have to begin on the surface, and gradually filter +through to the dregs of society, we may hope that the women who wore +the last chignon and the last crinoline may yet solace their sordid +lives in flowing or tight woollen garments, adorned with their own +needlework; and that the dark-stained floor of the cottage or humble +lodging will set off the shining brass kettle, and the flower in a +brown or blue pot, consciously selected with a view to the +picturesque, and enjoyed accordingly. + +From what we know, it would seem that a vital change in a national +style is never produced by the inspiration of one individual genius or +great original inventor. It invariably evolves itself slowly, by the +patient, persistent efforts of generations, polishing and touching up +the same motive, and at last reaching human perfection. + +The annihilation of a style is oftenest caused by war passing over the +land, or revolution breaking up the fountains of social life, and +swamping the art and the artist. + +But another cause of such an extinction--perhaps the saddest--is that +having reached perfection as far as it may, it deteriorates, sickens, +corrupts, and finally is thrown aside--superseded, hidden, and +overlapped by a newer fashion; and the worst and latest effort +discredits in the eyes of men, the splendid successes that preceded +its fall. Though the next succeeding phase may be less worthy to live +than the last, yet, carrying with it the freshness of a new spring, it +is acceptable for the time being. + +The moral I should draw from this is, that you cannot force style; you +may prune, direct, and polish it, but you must accept that of your +day, and only in accordance with that taste can your work be useful. +Not accepting it idly or wearily, but cheerfully, on principle, +seeking to raise it; refusing by word or deed to truckle to the false, +the base, or the lawless in your art, or to act against the +acknowledged canons of good taste. Not for a moment should ambition be +checked, but it should always be accompanied by the grace of modesty. + +To the young decorator or artist who feels the glow of original design +prompting him to reject old lines, and follow his own new and perhaps +crude ideas, a few words of warning, and encouragement also, may be of +use. + +In art, as in poetry, we may recognize the Psalmist's experience: "My +heart burned within me, and at the last I spake with my tongue." + +In small as in great things, crude ideas should not be brought to the +front. No one should give his thoughts to the world till his heart has +_burned_ within him, and he has been _forced_ to express himself. + +Another wise saying, "Read yourself full, and then write yourself +empty," also applies to art. Knowledge must first be accumulated +before you can originate. + +Wait till your experience and your thoughts insist on expression; +then subject the expressed idea to cultivated criticism, and profit by +the opinion you would respect if another's work, and not your own, +were under discussion. + +It is true that taste is surprisingly various. Some will dislike your +design, because its style is a reflection of the Gothic; another may +be objected to as being frivolously Oriental-looking and brilliant, +whereas the critic likes only the sober and the dull. Few are +sufficiently educated to appreciate style: and we cannot rule our own +by anybody's opinion; but we can generalize and find something that +shall be agreeable to all--something approaching to a golden mean. The +artist for decoration should be sensitively alive to any suggestion +from the style of that which he is to adorn, remembering the +antecedent motives of its form, its history, and its date. He should +try to make his new work harmonize with the old; but of one thing he +may be certain--unless he absolutely copies an old design, his own +will carry the visible and unmistakable stamp of his day. + +Even while suggesting copies this difficulty arises--how can a perfect +facsimile be obtained? No reproduction is ever really exact, unless +cast off by the hundred, stamped or printed by a machine. + +It has been said that the translator of a poem adds to, or takes from +the original, that which he has or has not of the same poetical power; +and in art the copy requires the same qualities to guide the hand that +transmits the original motive to another material. An artist usually +carries out his own ideas from the first sketch blocked out on the +canvas, or scribbled on the bit of waste paper, to the last finishing +touch. It is, as far as it can be in human art, the visible transcript +of his own thought. In needlework this can hardly ever be. The +designer, whether he be St. Dunstan, Pollaiolo, Torrigiano, or Walter +Crane, only executes a drawing which leaves his hands for good, and is +translated into embroidery by the patient needlewoman who simply fills +in an outline, ignorant of art, unappreciative of its subtleties, and +incapable of giving life and expression, even when she is aware that +they are indicated in the original design. This is almost always the +case; but there are exceptions. Charlemagne's dalmatic, for instance, +shows signs of having been either the work of the artist himself, or +else carried out under his immediate supervision. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [15] Boyd Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain," p. 285. See + also chapter on stitches (_post_), p. 195. + + [16] Some of these styles survive; some are still + perceptible as traditions or echoes; some have totally + disappeared in our modern art, such as the Primitive or + the Egyptian. + + [17] See Semper, "Der Stil." + + [18] The history of Gaul begins in the 7th, and that of + Britain in the 1st century B.C., while the civilization + of Egypt dates back to more than 4000 B.C.; therefore + the historical overlap is very great. It is probable + that a large portion of Europe was in its neolithic age, + while the scribes were composing their records of war + and commerce in the great cities on the Nile, and that + the neolithic civilization lingered in remote regions + while the voice of Pericles was heard in Athens, and the + name of Hannibal was a terror in Italy.--See Boyd + Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain," p. 481. + + [19] See chapter on patterns. + + [20] In the Troad. + + [21] Some of the Egyptian arts we know are pre-Homeric + (if Homer really sang 800 B.C.), and Asiatic art was + then in its highest development. + + [22] See chapter on stitches, cut work (_post_). This + funeral tent is a monumental work, inasmuch as the + inscription inwrought on it gives us the name and title + of her in whose honour it was made, and whose remains it + covered. See Villiers Stewart's "Funeral Tent of an + Egyptian Queen." + + [23] Herodotus, book ii. c. 182; book iii. c. 47 + (Rawlinson's Trans.). See Rock's Introduction, p. xiv. + + [24] Homer mentions "Sidonian stuffs and Phœnician + skill" (Iliad, v. 170); also "Sidonian Embroidery." + Ibid. vi. 287-295. + + [25] The Assyrian designs are such as are now still + worked at Benares, and being full of animals, they are + called Shikurgah, or "happy hunting-grounds." See Sir G. + Birdwood's "Industrial Arts of India," p. 236. See also + Plate 4. + + [26] See Perrot and Chipiez (pp. 737-757); also Clermont + Ganneau's Histoire de l'Art, "L'Imagerie Phénicienne," + Plate 1, pt. 1. Coupe de Palestrina. He says that + certain scenes from the "Shield of Achilles" are + literally to be found on Phœnician vases that have + come down to us--vases of which Homer himself must have + seen some of analogous design. + + [27] Homer speaks of Sidonian embroideries, "Iliad," + vi., 287-295. + + [28] See Egyptian fragments in the British Museum, and + the specimens of Peruvian textiles; and Reiss and + Stübel's "Necropolis of Ancon in Peru." + + [29] At Cervetri, Dennis' "Etruria," ed. 1878, i. p. + 268. + + [30] The restless activity of the Phœnicians has + often helped to confuse our æsthetic knowledge, and has + caused the waste of much speculation in ascertaining how + certain objects of luxury, belonging to distant + civilizations, can possibly have arrived at the places + where we find them. + + [31] "The Beautiful Gate of the Temple was covered all + over with gold. It had also golden vines above it, from + which hung clusters of grapes as tall as a man's + height.... It had golden doors of 55 cubits altitude, + and 16 in breadth: but before these doors there was a + veil of equal largeness with the doors. It was a + Babylonian curtain of blue, fine linen, and scarlet and + purple; of an admixture that was truly wonderful. Nor + was the mixture without its mystical interpretation; but + was a kind of image of the universe. For by the scarlet + was to be enigmatically signified fire; by the fine + flax, the earth; by the blue, the air, and by the + purple, the sea;--two of them having their colours for + the foundation of this resemblance; but the fine flax + and the purple have their own origin for this + foundation, the earth producing the one, and the sea the + other. This curtain had also embroidered upon it all + that was mystical in the heavens excepting the twelve + signs of the zodiac, representing living creatures." + Josephus (Trans. by Whiston), p. 895. + + [32] See also M. E. Harkness and Stuart Poole, "Assyrian + Life and History," p. 66. + + [33] The visions of Ezekiel and St. John remind us of + the composite figures and animals in Ninevite + sculptures, and the prophetic poetry helps us to + interpret their symbolism. + + [34] G. Smith's "Ancient History of the Monuments," + Babylonia, p. 33. Edited by Sayce. + + [35] In the British Museum. See "Bronze Ornaments of + Palace Gates, Balawat," pl. E 5. + + [36] See Auberville's "Ornement des Tissus," pl. 1. + + [37] The Egyptian queen in question was mother-in-law to + Shishak, whose daughter married Solomon. After his + son-in-law's death, Shishak plundered the "King's + House," and carried to Egypt the golden shields or + panels (1 Kings xiv. 26). The golden vessels went to + Babylon later, and the golden candlesticks to Rome. + + [38] Sir G. Birdwood repeatedly points out that the + Vedic was the art that worshipped and served nature. The + Puranic is the ideal and distorted. The Moguls, about + 700 B.C., introduced their ugly Dravidian art. Through + the Sassanian art of Persia, that of India was + influenced. Possibly the very forms which in India are + copied from Assyrian temples and palaces, may have + travelled first to Assyria upon Indian stuffs and + jewellery (Sir G. Birdwood's "Industrial Arts of India," + i. p. 236). + + [39] Ibid., p. 130 (ed. 1884). + + [40] Nearchus (Strabo, XV. i. 67) says that the people + of India had such a genius for imitation that they + counterfeited sponges, which they saw used by the + Macedonians, and produced perfect imitations of the real + object. See Sir G. Birdwood's "Industrial Arts of + India," ii. p. 133 (ed. 1884). + + [41] Ibid., ii. p. 131 (ed. 1884). + + [42] See Sir G. Birdwood, p. 129 (ed. 1884). If + Fergusson is right in suggesting that the art of Central + America was planted there in the third or fourth century + of our era, it would, perhaps, appear to have taken + refuge in America when it was driven out of India by the + Sassanians, and was really Dravidian. He gives to the + Turanian races all the mound buildings, as well as the + fylfot or mystic cross, and he looks in Central India + for the discovery of some remains that will give us the + secret of the origin of the Indo-Aryan style. He thinks + the Archaic Dravidian is allied with the Chinese. See + Fergusson's "Architecture." + + [43] Etruscan and Indian golden ornaments, including the + "Bolla" and the "Trichinopoly" chains and coral, are to + be found throughout Scandinavia and in Ireland. See + "Atlas de l'Archéologie du Nord," par la Société Royale + des Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1857. + + [44] Arrian tells us of the Celts, "a people near the + Great Ionian Bay," who sent an embassy to Alexander + before the battle of the Granicus--"a people strong and + of a haughty spirit." Alexander asked them if they + feared anything. They answered that they feared the "sky + might fall upon their heads." He dismissed them, + observing that the Celts were an arrogant nation + (Arrian, i. 4, 10). + + [45] According to Yates, the merchandise of Eastern Asia + passed through Slavonia to the north of Europe in the + Middle Ages, without the intervention of Greece or + Italy. This may account for certain terms of + nomenclature which evidently came with goods transported + straight to the north. Yates' "Textrinum Antiquorum," + vol. i. p. 225-246. + + [46] These northern ideas, spreading over Germany, + England, and France, flourished especially on German + soil; and Oriental-patterned embroideries for hangings + and dress were worked in every stitch, on every + material, as may be seen in the museums and printed + catalogues of Vienna, Berlin, Munich, &c. + + [47] Except, perhaps, the Serpent and Tree cope in + Bock's Kleinodien. + + [48] The different Celtic nationalities are always + recognizable. There was found in a grave-mound at Hof, + in Norway, a brooch, showing at a glance that it was + Christian and Celtic, though taken from the grave of a + pagan Viking. Another at Berdal, in Norway, was at once + recognized by M. Lorange as being undoubtedly Irish. + There are many other instances of evident Celtic + Christian art found on the west coast of Norway under + similar conditions--probably spoil from the British + Islands, which were subject to the descents of the pagan + Vikings for centuries after the time of St. Columba's + preaching of Christianity in Scotland. For information + on the subject, see G. Stephen's "Monuments of Runic + Art," and F. Anderson's "Pagan Art in Scotland." + + [49] "Scotland in Pagan Times," by J. Anderson, pp. 3-7. + + [50] On a vase in the British Museum, Minerva appears + with her ægis on her breast, and clothed in a petticoat + and upper tunic worked in sprays, and a border of + kneeling lions. On another Panathenaic vase she has a + gown bordered with fighting men, evidently the sacred + peplos. (Fig. 4.) + + [51] See the account of the veil of Herè in the Iliad, + and that of the mantle of Ulysses in the Odyssey. + + [52] See Butcher and Lang's Odyssey. + + [53] "Der Stil." + + [54] The Greeks collected into one focus all that they + found of beauty in art from many distant + sources--Egyptian, Indian, Assyrian--and thus fired + their inborn genius, which thenceforth radiated its + splendour over the whole civilized world. + + [55] Homer's Iliad, xviii. 480-617 (Butcher and Lang). + + [56] See "Woltmann and Woermann." Trans. Sidney Colvin, + p. 64. + + [57] Except, perhaps, the keystone arch. + + [58] Virg. Æneid iii. Trans. G.L.G. + + [59] The Indian Cush. + + [60] Except in the art of the Celts, whose Indo-Chinese + style shows evidence of Mongolian importation, and later + we find traces of a similar influence: for instance, + "Yarkand rugs are semi-Chinese, semi-Tartar, resembling + also the works of India and Persia. It is easy to + distinguish from what source each comes, as one + perceives the influence of the neighbouring native art" + ("On Japan," by Dresser, p. 322). + + [61] See a paper by M. Terrien de la Couperie in the + Journal of the Society of Arts, 1881. + + [62] "Rome had to be overthrown that the new religion + and the new civilization might be established. + Christianity did its work in winning to it those + Teutonic conquerors, but how vast was the cost to the + world, occasioned by the necessity of casting into the + boiling cauldron of barbarous warfare, that noble + civilization and the treasures which Rome had gathered + in the spoil of a conquered universe! Had any old Roman, + or Christian father been gifted with Jeremiah's + prescience, he might have seen the fire blazing amidst + the forests of Germany, and the cauldron settling down + with its mouth turned towards the south, and would have + uttered his lamentation in plaintive tones, such as + Jeremiah's, and in the same melancholy key" ("Holy + Bible," with Commentary by Canon Cook, Introduction to + Jeremiah, vol. i. p. 319). + + [63] Scandinavian art became strongly tinctured with + that of Byzantium. The Varangian Guards were, probably, + answerable for this, by their intercourse between Greece + and their native land, which lasted so many centuries. + There have come down to us, as witnesses of this + intercourse, many coins and much jewellery, in which all + that is Oriental in its style has been leavened by its + passage through Byzantine and Romanesque channels. + Gibbon, writing of this period, says: "The habits of + pilgrimage and piracy had approximated the countries of + the earth" (see Gibbon's "Decline and Fall," chap. lv.). + + Greek embroidered patterns and Greek forms of dress + still linger in Iceland. There was lately brought to + England a bride's dress, which might have belonged to + the Greek wife of a Varangian guardsman. It is + embroidered with a border in gold of the classical + honeysuckle pattern; and the bridal wreath of gilt metal + flowers might, from its style, be supposed to have been + taken from a Greek tomb. + + [64] Evidently an imitation of the peplos of Minerva + (see fig. 4, p. 32). + + [65] The descent from the Persian of Arab or Moorish + art, as we generally call it when speaking of its + Spanish development, is to be accounted for by the + presence of a considerable colony of Persians in Spain + in the time of the Moors, as attested by numerous + documents still in existence. See Col. Murdoch Smith's + "Preface to Persian Art," Series of Art Handbooks of the + Kensington Museum. + + [66] Ronsard, poet, politician, and diplomatist, + compares the Queen of Navarre to Pallas Athene:-- + + "Elle adonnait son courage + A mainte bel ouvrage + Dessus la toile, et encor + A joindre la soie et l'or. + Vous d'un pareil exercise + Mariez par artifice + Dessus la toile en mainte traits + L'or et la soie en pourtraict." + + [67] Mary de Medici brought back with her from Italy + Federigo Vinciolo as her designer for embroideries. + + [68] See "Art Needlework," by E. Maxse, and "Manuel de + la Broderie," by Madame E. F. Celnart. + + [69] From the Italian translation by Signor Minghetti. + + [70] Gaston, Duke of Orleans (died 1660), kept hothouses + on purpose to supply models for floral textile designs. + Le Brun often drew the embroideries for the hangings in + rooms he had himself designed and decorated. + + [71] We have all seen the dining-room wine-coolers + modelled in imitation of Roman tombs; and there is a + drawing-room in a splendid mansion still furnished with + cinerary urns covering the walls, while curule chairs + most uncomfortably furnish the seats. + + [72] In his designs for papers and textiles, Mr. Morris' + poetical and artistic feeling--his admiration and + sensitiveness for all that is beautiful and graceful (as + well as quaint)--his respect for precedent, added to his + own fanciful originality,--have given a colour and seal + to the whole decorative art of England of to-day. It is + a step towards a new school. The sobriety and tenderness + of his colouring gives a sense of harmony, and + reconciles us to his repetitions of large vegetable + forms, which remind us sometimes of a kitchen-garden in + a tornado. For domestic decoration we should, as far as + possible, adhere to reposing forms and colours. Our + flowers should lie in their allotted spaces, quiet and + undisturbed by elemental struggles, which have no + business in our windowed and glass-protected rooms. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +DESIGN. + + _Gorgo._ Behold these 'broideries! Finer saw you never. + + _Praxinoè._ Ye gods! What artists work'd these pictures in? + What kind of painter could these clear lines limn? + How true they stand! nay, lifelike, moving ever; + Not worked--_created!_ Woman, thou art clever! + + (Scene at a Festival) _Theocritus_, Idyll xv. line 78. + + +The word design, as applied to needlework, includes the principles and +laws of the art: the motives and their hereditary outcome; the art +creating the principles; the laws controlling the art. + +Design means intention, motive, and should as such be applied to the +smallest as to the greatest efforts of art. That which results from +it, either as picture or pattern, is a record of the thoughts which +produced it, and by its style fixes the date, of its production. + +I will first consider the principles of design, and afterwards, in +another chapter, inquire into the origin of patterns; investigating +their motives, and using them as examples, and also as warnings. + +The individual genius of the artist works first in design, though his +work is for the use of the craftsman or artisan, his collaborator; for +the two, head and hands, must work together, or else will render each +other inoperative or ineffective. + +The artisan, by right of his title, claims a part in the art itself; +the craftsman, by his name, points out that he, too, has to work out +the craft, the mystery, the inner meaning, of the design or intention. + +The designer himself is subject to the prejudices called the taste of +his day. He is necessarily under the influence which that taste has +imposed upon him, and from which no spontaneous efforts of genius can +entirely emancipate him. Whether he is conceiving a temple for the +worship of a national faith, or the edging for the robe of a fair +votaress, or the pattern on the border of a cup of gold or brass, he +cannot avoid the force of tradition and of custom, which comes from +afar, weighted with the power of long descent, and which crushes +individuality, unless it is of the most robust nature. + +Of very early design we have most curious and mysterious glimpses. The +cave man was an artist. The few scratches on a bone, cleverly showing +the forms of a dog or a stag, a whale or a seal, nay, the figure of a +man, have enabled us to ascertain and to classify the Palæolithic cave +man; from whom his less civilized successor, the Neolithic man, may be +distinguished by his absence of all animal design.[73] + +These fragmentary scraps of information, pieced together only in these +later years, teach us the value of very small facts which time and +care are now accumulating, and which, being the remains of lives and +nations passed away, still serve as the soil in which history can be +fertilized. + +We have no means of judging whether the cave man was an artist on a +greater or more advanced scale than is actually shown by the +bone-scratchings; the only other relic of his handiwork is the +needle.[74] + +It is evident that a direct imitation of nature, such as is seen in +these "graffiti," and at an immense distance in advance of them, in +the earliest known Egyptian sculptures, preceded all conventional art. +Some of the earliest portrait statues in the Museum at Boulac exhibit +a high degree of naturalistic design before it became subservient to +the expression of the faith of the people. As soon as art was found to +be the fittest conveyance of symbolism, it became the consecrated +medium for transmitting language, thought, and history, and was +reduced to forms in which it was contented to remain petrified for +many centuries, entirely foregoing the study or imitation of +nature.[75] It recorded customs, historical events, and religious +beliefs; receiving from the last the impress of the unchangeable and +the absolute, which it gave to the other subjects on which it touched. +It ceased to be a creative art (if it had ever aspired to such a +function), and was never the embodiment of individual thought. This +phase prevailed under different manifestations in Assyria and China. +Pictorial art had, in fact, become merely the nursing mother of the +alphabet, guiding its first steps--the hieroglyphic delineation or +expression of thoughts and facts.[76] + +In Egypt, the change from the first period of actual imitation of +nature was succeeded by many centuries of the very slowest progress. +Renouf speaks,[77] however, of "the astonishing identity that is +visible through all the periods of Egyptian art" (for you could never +mistake anything Egyptian for the produce of any other country). "This +identity and slow movement," he says, "are not inconsistent with an +immense amount of change, which must exist if there is any real life." +In fact, there were periods of relative progress, repose, and decay, +and every age had its peculiar character. Birch, Lepsius, or Marriette +could at once tell you the age of a statue, inscription, or +manuscript, by the characteristic signs which actually fix[78] the +date. + +Design, unconsciously has a slowly altering and persistently onward +movement, which but seldom repeats itself. It is one of the most +remarkable instances of evolution. But it also has its cataclysms +(however we may account for them), of which the Greek apotheosis of +all art is a shining example, and the total disappearance of classical +influence in Europe before the Renaissance is another. + +I will instance one prevailing habit of Egyptian art.[79] In the long +processional subjects, and in individual separate figures, it was +usual to draw the head in perfect profile, the body facing you, but +not completely--a sort of compromise with a three-quarter view of +it--and the feet following each other, on the same line as the +profile. This mode of representing the human figure was only effaced +gradually by the introduction of Greek art, and continued to be the +conventional and decorative method even in the latest days of Egyptian +art; and it is curious to observe, that in the Dark ages European +design fell into the same habit. We cannot imagine that this distorted +way of drawing the human figure could have any intentional meaning, +and therefore may simply believe that it had become a custom; and that +when art has so stiffened and consolidated itself by precedent and +long tradition, as in Egypt and in India, certain errors as well as +certain truths become, as it were, ingrained into it. Plato remarked +of Egyptian art, that "the pictures and statues they made ten thousand +years ago were in no particular better than those they make now."[80] + +One day, however, the Greek broke away from the ancient bonds of +custom. The body was made to accompany the head, and the feet followed +suit. But the strange fact remains that for several thousand years men +walked in profile, all out of drawing. Evidently originality was not +in much estimation among the Egyptian patrons of art. Design seemed to +have restricted itself to effective adaptations in a few permitted +forms in architecture and painting, and the illumination of the +papyrus MSS. + +Egyptian elasticity of design found some scope in its domestic +ornamentation, in jewellery and hangings, but especially in its +embroideries for dress. Here much ingenuity was shown, and the +patterns on walls and the ceilings of tombs give us the designs which +Semper considers as having been originally intended for textile +purposes. He strains to a point to which I can hardly follow him, the +theory that all decorations were originally textile (except such as +proceeded in China from the lattice-work motive); though I willingly +accept the idea that textile decoration was one of the first and most +active promoters of design. + +It is not possible for us to trace systematically the different points +at which Egyptian and Asiatic art touch, but we can see that they were +always acting and reacting on each other in the later centuries before +our era, and that Greece profited by them. The first efforts of both +to break through this chrysalis stage, resulted in the early Greek +archaic style. Its strongly marked, muscular humanity reminds one of +all the conflicting impressions struggling in the conception of the +great artist who first embodied them. They appear to be breaking out +from the trammels of Egyptian and Assyrian styles, which by meeting +had engendered life; and Greek art was the child of their union. Then +art, having shaken off symbolism as its only purpose, and seeking to +represent the forms of men, yet possessed by a guiding spirit, first +sought to convey the idea of expression. The worship of humanity, +mingling with that of their gods, produced the Heroic ideal; and all +the attributes of their heroes--majesty, beauty, grace, and +passion--had to be depicted; as well as rage, sorrow, despair, and +revenge. These were soon to be surrounded with all the splendours of +the arts of decoration. + +Greece had prepared for this outburst of excellence and the perfect +science of art, by collecting the traditions, the symbols, the +experience in colouring, and the knowledge of beautiful forms, human +and ideal. All that was needed for the advent of the man who could +design and create types of beauty for all ages was thus accumulated, +and the man came, and his name was Pheidias. A crowd followed him, all +steeped in the same flood of poetry and art; and for several +centuries they filled the world with the sense and science of beauty. +Then the function of the designer--the artist--was changed and +elevated, and he became, through the great days of Greek and Roman +Pagan art, and afterwards through the rise of that of Christianity, +the exponent of all that was poetical and ennobling in the life of +man. + +But though the Greek artist had broken the chains of prescribed form, +he still adhered to the "motive"--the inner symbolical thought--and +strove to express it as it had never been expressed before.[81] New +principles were evoked, and the artist, while revelling in the +"sweetness and light" of freedom, framed for himself standards of +taste and refinement, which he left as a heritage to all succeeding +generations. + +I fear that I am repeating a platitude when insisting that freedom in +all design, but especially that employed in decoration, must be kept +within certain boundaries; otherwise it becomes lawless. Rules, like +all other controlling circumstances, are of the greatest service to +the artist, as they suggest what he can do, as well as decide what he +ought not to attempt. All boundaries are highly suggestive; the size +of a sheet of paper--the form of a panel--the colours in the box of +pigments--even the touch of the brush which comes to hand,--all these +help to shape the idea to our ends, and assist us in giving to the +original motive the form which is most suitable. These restrictions +are often regarded as impediments by the impatient artist; whereas he +ought to look on them as hints and suggestions, and claim their +assistance, instead of struggling against them. Let us accept the +principle that it is good for each of our efforts at decoration that +we are controlled by the space allotted to its composition. The +relative size (small, perhaps, for a table-cover, but large for that +of a book) and the shape to which we are limited, alter all the +conditions of a design. Whether it is square or oblong, or lengthened +into a frieze; whether it must be divided into parts, including more +than one motive, or be grouped round one centre; whether it is to be +repeated more than once within the range of the eye, or whether it is +to disappear into space upwards or horizontally; and whether it is to +stand alone, or be framed with lines or a border,--all these +restrictions must govern the design, or, in its highest phase, the +composition. + +The composition must consist of supporting lines well balanced, and +"values" filling up the whole surface of the space, which is to +contain it, and beyond which it must not seek to extend. As we have in +embroidery no distances--only a foreground--the design must be placed +all on one plane. The title of "composition" cannot be granted to a +bouquet or a bird cast on one corner of a square of linen, however +gracefully it may be drawn. It does not cover the space allotted to +it. + +If we carefully study the great and guiding principles that have been +distinctly formulated by some of the Continental authorities on +decorative art, we shall find much help in composing our designs. +Nothing is more interesting than to search for the foundation of the +structure which centuries have helped to raise, and to dig out, as it +were, the original plan or thought of the founder. So it is most +instructive to learn the fundamental rules by which such results are +secured. + +M. Blanc[82] says of the general laws of ornamentation: "There can be +no nobler satisfaction to the mind, than to be able to unravel what is +beyond measure complicated, to diminish what is apparently immense, +and to reduce to a few clear points what has been till now involved in +a haze of obscurity. Just as the twenty-six letters of the alphabet +have been, and always will be sufficient to form the expression of the +words necessary for all human thought, so certain elements susceptible +of combination among themselves have sufficed, and will suffice, to +create ornament, whose variety may be indefinitely multiplied." + +He reduces ornamental design to five principles, Repetition, +Alternation, Symmetry, Progression, and Confusion. + + [Illustration: Fig. 5. + Wave Pattern.] + +First, Repetition. "You may act on the mind, through sight, by the +same means as those that will excite physical sensations. A single +prick of a pin is nothing, but a hundred such will be intolerably +painful. Repetition produces pleasurable sensations, as well as +painful ones." An insignificant form can become interesting by +repetition, and by the suggestion which, singly, it could not +originate. For example, the rolling of the Greek scroll or wave +pattern awakens in us the idea of one object following another. "It +also suggests the waves of the ocean; or the poet may see in it a +troop of maidens pursuing each other in space, not frivolously, but in +cadence, as if executing a mystic dance." Change the curves into +angular forms, as making the key pattern, and it will no longer flow, +but become as severe as the other was graceful. No principle gives +greater pleasure than repetition, and next to it, _alternation_. + + [Illustration: Fig. 6. + Key Pattern.] + +Variety is here added to the law of repetition. "There can be +repetition without alternation, but no alternation without +repetition." Alternation is, then, a succession of two objects +recurring regularly in turn; and the cadence of appearance and +disappearance gives pleasure to the senses, whether it be addressed to +taste, hearing, or sight. Alternate rhymes, and even short and long +lines, soothe the ear in verse. In form, the alternations are the more +agreeable, the more they differ. Such are, in architecture, a +succession of metopes and triglyphs on a Doric frieze, where the +circle and the straight lines relieve each other. + + [Illustration: Fig. 7. + Metopes and Triglyphs.] + +Symmetry. The correspondence of two parts opposite to each other is +symmetrical. "A living being, man or animal, is composed of two parts, +which appear to have been united down one central line. Without being +identical, if you folded them down the line, they would overlap and +perfectly cover each other. Man is born with the sense of symmetry, to +match his outward form; and he appreciates its existence, and +instinctively feels the want of it. Symmetry is another word for +justness of proportion. The Greeks understood by symmetry, the +condition of a body of which the members have a common measure among +themselves. We expect the two sides of a living being to correspond, +and we look for these proportions in the living body to balance each +other, which we do not expect to find in any other natural object. A +large leaf at the end of a slender stem may be as appropriate, and +give as much pleasure, as a small leaf in the same position; but a +huge hand at the end of an arm is not so agreeable to our sense of +symmetry as one of the size and outline which we naturally expect to +see. + +"The mind of man expects to find, outside of himself and his own +proportions, something which he feels is proportionate and +symmetrical; in fact, he at once detects the want of it. The Japanese, +with delicacy and taste, often substitute for symmetry its +corollary--balance. The Chinese or Japanese vase will often have an +appreciable affinity and resemblance to a Greek one, each preserving a +secret balance, even in the extremest whimsicality of its composition. +Proportion is another corollary to symmetry, if it is not another word +for some of its qualities." + +"Progression. In this principle are included long perspectives, +pyramidal forms in architecture, and certain processional +compositions." + +"For pyramidal surfaces, such as pediments, a progressive ornament is +the fittest. All the buildings in the East, and in the ancient cities +of Central America, which are raised on pyramids of steps, show the +tendency to this species of effect in giving dignity to the buildings +placed on such platforms." + +"Perspectives are highly attractive specimens of progression, which, +when made use of in the decorations of a theatre, produce delightful +illusions." + +M. Blanc quotes Bernardin de St. Pierre, who says: "When the +branches of a plant are disposed in a uniform plan of diminishing +size, as in the pyramidal shape of a pine, there is progression; and +if these trees be planted in long avenues, diminishing in height and +colour, as each tree does in itself, our pleasure is redoubled, +because progression here becomes infinite. It is owing to this +feeling of infinity that we take pleasure in looking at anything that +presents progression, such as nurseries in different stages of +growth, the slopes of hills retreating to the horizon at different +levels--interminable perspectives." + +All floral compositions which give the effect or impression of growth +may be included in the progressive principle. A composition which, +beginning as it were with a stem, spreads and floreates equally on +each side; thrusting outwards and upwards, and ending in a topmost +twig or bud, is governed by this principle. + +Confusion. Boileau is quoted by M. Blanc as saying, "A fine disorder +is often the effect of art;" and he adds, "But before he said it, +nature had shown it." Here we must observe that the confusions or +disorders of nature are all subject to certain laws; and it is in +adopting this idea, that an artistic confusion may give us the sense +of its being ordered by, and subject to definite rules. These rules +act as the frame affects the picture, circumscribing its +irregularities, and restricting them to a certain area. "The +artist-painter is, in a small space, permitted to employ confusion, +because the art of the cabinet-maker will keep the geometrical effect +in view." When the Japanese throw their ornaments, apparently without +rule, here and there on the japanned box, they reckon on the square +shape being sufficiently marked to the eye by its shining surface and +sharp corners. + +The confusion in a Japanese landscape is so beautiful that one +appreciates the innate sense of balance, which modifies the +confusion--rules and orders it. + +"In the hands of the designer, confusion is only a method of rendering +order visible in a happy disorder. Here contraries meet and touch.... +Admit these as the principles of all decoration, and you will find +that, by following and combining them, you may produce varieties as +numberless as the sands of the sea, and that a latent equilibrium will +reduce nearly every complication and confusion to perfect harmony." + +Each of the five principles we have discussed has its corollary, which +adds to the resources of the decorative artist. These are as +follows:--To Repetition belongs harmony, or consonance; to +Alternation, contrast; to Symmetry, radiation; to Progression, +gradation; to balanced Confusion, deliberate complication.[83] + +_Harmonies_ in form and in colour are produced in different +ways--sometimes by repetition with variation; sometimes by the +different parts being rather reflected on each than repeated. This +explains the harmony that may be called consonance, if I rightly +understand M. Blanc's theory. + +_Contrast_ is most generally understood as a common resource in the +hands of the artist for producing strong effects; but M. Blanc +cleverly expresses the reticence needed to ensure contrast being +pleasurable, not painful. "To adorn persons or things," he says, "is +not simply for the purpose of causing them to be conspicuous; it is +that they may be admired. It is not simply to draw attention to them, +but that they may be regarded with feelings of pleasure.... If +contrast be needed, let it be used as the means of rendering the whole +more powerful, brilliant, and striking. For instance, if orange is +intended to predominate in a decoration, let blue be mingled with it, +but sparingly. Let the complementary colour be its auxiliary, and not +its rival." Contrasts are always unpleasant, if the two forces +struggle with each other for pre-eminence, whether it be in form or in +colour. The rule to be observed in all ornamental design is this: +"that contrasting objects, instead of disturbing unity, should assist +it by giving most effect to that we wish to bring forward and +display." + +_Radiation_ belongs to the principle of symmetry, starting from a +centre from which all lines diverge, and to which all lines point. +This is to be found throughout nature, from the rays of the sun to the +petals of the daisy. All decorative art employs and illustrates it. + +"_Gradation_ in colour, as in form, is not quite synonymous with +progression, but expresses a series of adroitly managed transitions. +The English intermingle in their decoration, colours very finely +blended; nor do they find any transition too delicate. This, as in all +principles of ornament, has to be employed according to the feelings +intended to be produced on the mind of the spectator--whether for +absolute contrast or for imperceptible progression, when the tenderest +colours are needed." + +_Complication_ is illustrated by M. Blanc, by a quotation from +"Ziegler."[84] "Complication is another aspect of the art which owns +the same sentiment as that expressed by Dædalus in his labyrinth, +Solomon in his mysterious seal, the Greeks in their interlacing and +winding ornaments, the Byzantines, the Moors, and the architects of +our cathedrals in their finest works. Intertwined mosaics, and +intersection of arches and ribs, all spring from complication." + +To follow the interlacing line of an ornament, gives the mind the +pleasure of untying the Gordian knot, without cutting it. It gives the +excitement of curiosity, pursuit, and discovery. "When we see these +traceries so skilfully plaited, in which straight lines and curves +intermingle, cross, branch out, disappear and recur, we experience a +high pleasure in unravelling a puzzle which at first, perhaps, +appeared to be undecipherable; and in acknowledging that a latent +arrangement may be recognized in what at first, and at a distance, +seems an inextricable confusion." The Celtic, Moorish, and Gothic +styles illustrate and are explained by these remarks; and they are +well worthy the attention of the designer. + +Having so freely borrowed from M. Blanc's chapter on the general laws +of ornamentation, I will finish my quotations with the words with +which he concludes: "There is no decoration in the works of nature or +the inventions of men which does not owe its birth to one of the +original principles here enumerated, viz. Repetition, Alternation, +Symmetry, Progression, and Balanced Confusion; or else to one of their +secondary causes, consonance, contrast, radiation, gradation, and +complication; or lastly, to a combination of these different elements, +which all finally lose themselves in a primordial cause--the origin of +the movements of the universe--ORDER."[85] + +The extracts from M. Blanc's works I have carefully placed between +commas, being most anxious to express my obligation to him for his +carefully formulated epitome of the laws of design. But though I have +largely quoted, there remains still much most interesting and +suggestive matter, which I recommend the reader to seek in his book. + +Though we should call to our aid the general laws of design for all +art, we must select from them what is specially appropriate for the +needs of our craft. From the art of needlework we should eliminate +as much as possible all ideas of _roundness_, all variety of surface +and effects of light and shadow and contrasting colours. Unity, +softness, grace, refinement, brightness, cheerfulness, pleasant +suggestions,--these should be the objects in view when we design the +panels for the drawing-room or boudoir, the hangings for the bed, or +the cover for the table--harmony which will satisfy the eye, thoughts +that shall please the mind. + +The objects in nature that give us the most unalloyed pleasure--birds +and flowers--are those that from all time have served as the materials +for decorative design, and therefore have been moulded into the +traditional patterns which have descended to us from the earliest +times. Design must follow the scientific laws of art, and shape the +variations of traditional forms from which we cannot escape. In our +present search after these inner truths, I repeat that we have nothing +to do with the rules of painting, sculpture, and architecture, or any +other of the secondary arts, such as wood carving, metal work, &c.; +these having each their own intrinsic principles, which must be worked +out as corollaries from the general laws of composition which govern +all Aryan art.[86] + +It is curious that in drawing on the flat, in ancient frescoes, there +appear to be no acknowledged rules of perspective--hardly more in +Pompeii, than on early Chinese screens and plates; or than later in +the Bayeux tapestries. And yet the Greeks, with their unerring +instinct, actually made use of false architectural perspectives to add +to the effects of height and depth in their colonnaded buildings.[87] +They sensibly diminished the circumference of the columns, and used +other means in their designs for this purpose. They understood the +principle, but they did not carry it into flat decorative art. They +did not attempt, when they painted a landscape on the wall, to do more +than recall the idea they were sketching; and never thought of vying +in scientific or naturalistic imitation with the real landscape they +saw through the window; they did not wish to interfere with the effect +of the statue, or the human figures grouped in front of it, to which +the wall served as a background. Those threw shadows and cast lights; +but in the flat there were no shadows, no perspective--all was +flat.[88] We must draw from this the deduction that the Greeks held +that flatness was an essential quality of wall decoration (except in +friezes) as well as of all textile ornament; and for every reason we +must accept this flatness as a general law for designs in embroidery. + +In hangings and dress materials, flatness is more agreeable than a +complicated shaded design, especially when it is further confused by +folds, disturbing and interrupting the flow of the lines of the +pattern. + +The reader will perceive that the laws of composition for textiles +quoted from M. Blanc, apply perfectly to designs on the flat, and to +outlined sketches in black and white, as well as to the most +elaborate compositions for pictures, either historical or "genre." +They are rules which should be understood and employed by the man who +draws for a wall-paper or an area railing; and certainly by him who +makes patterns for our schools of design. + +It may therefore be laid down as a general rule, that all designs for +embroidery should be considered first as outlined drawings, covering a +flat surface, and then filled in with colour. The outlines should as +little as possible overlap one another, as flatness is one of the +first objects to be remembered; and this, of course, will be disturbed +by the parts passing over or under each other. Indian designs in +flowers have invariably a wonderful flatness, in the absence of all +light and shadow; joined to a naturalistic suggestion of detail, which +is accounted for by their traditional mode of copying from nature. The +branch or blossom to be copied, is laid on the ground and pegged down +with care, to eliminate every variety of surface, and every branch and +twig so arranged that they may not cross or touch each other. This +conventional composition is then drawn, and every natural distinction +in the form carefully copied. I would suggest that this idea should be +accepted as useful for imitation among ourselves in certain +conventional compositions of vegetable forms. Perhaps it is our Aryan +ancestry that has given us a prevailing taste for such decorations; +and it is worth while to consider how best to manipulate them.[89] + +Clinging as we do to these floral designs, we can see that they are +the only ones that bear repetition, whether covering the surface of +the material in the rich irregularity of the flowers in a field, or +conventionalized into a form or a pattern. + +The eye is never shocked or fatigued by such repetitions in orderly +confusion, or trained by the hand into artistic shapes or meanderings +of tracery. But when embroidery or weaving attempts to represent +animals or typical human figures, repetition immediately becomes +tiresome. A Madonna surrounded by angels, comes in badly, repeated +over and over again as a pattern, broken up by folds, cut up by a +seam, dislocated in the joining, and repeated in tiers. Such a design +is figured in Auberville's book.[90] The drawing is beautiful, but by +repetition it becomes ridiculous. I therefore deprecate this kind of +ornament in textile work. For this reason embroidery, which can be +fitted to each space that is to be covered, is preferable to woven +designs, however richly or perfectly they may be carried out. + +Another class of design, which must be considered apart, is the +conventional-geometrical, of which the special distinction appears to +be that it consists of echoes or fragments of what we have seen +elsewhere. These conventional patterns are often merely the _detritus_ +of past styles or motives crushed and placed by time in a sort of +kaleidoscope. They remind one of the little wreaths of broken shells +and coloured sea-weeds left on the sands by the retiring waves after a +storm, and are sometimes full of beauty and suggestion. (Pl. 17.) We +trace in these fragmentary patterns forgotten links with different +civilizations; and we ponder on the historical events which have +brought them into juxtaposition. These kaleidoscope patterns are to be +seen in Persian and Turkish carpets of the present day, and we find, +on examination, little bits which can only be the remnants of a +broken-up motive, probably as much lost now to the designer who +inherits the traditional form, as to us who can only see the vague +results. + +I illustrate this remark by giving the border of a modern Persian +carpet which has certainly had Egyptian ancestry. The boat, the +beetle, and the prehistoric cross are to be found in it. + + [Illustration: Fig. 8. + Persian Carpet.] + +Many conventional patterns of to-day are descendants of the +lattice-work of Chinese art, and of the zigzags, lines, and discs of +barbarous primitive ornamentation. + +The traceries in Indian stone windows show some of the most charming +geometrical forms, and are akin to the Persian and Russian modes of +composing conventional patterns. They appear on very ancient metal +work, and are the motives of all the embroideries in the Greek islands +and the principalities, and of the linen embroideries of Russia. Their +Byzantine origin gave its impress to the European schools of the +Middle Ages, and the pattern-books of Germany and Venice of the +sixteenth century are full of them. They are best suited for the +mosaic stitches, and, kept in their places as decoration, they are +useful for carpets and borders. + +It should be impressed on our young artists, that, in composing their +designs, they must be influenced by the materials to be employed, and +the purpose for which the decoration is intended. Thus in textile +design for dress and hangings (excepting for tapestries) the fact must +never be lost sight of that they will be subject to disturbance by +crossing folds and crumplings, which will break up the lines of the +pattern. It is therefore evident that a design fitted for a rigid +material in a fixed place, such as an architectural decoration in +wood, stone, or stucco, must be subject to a treatment different from +that which befits an embroidered curtain or panel. + +Stone and wood, being materials of uniform colour, require all the +help of recessed shadows and projections to catch the light; whereas +in textiles, form is assisted by colour, and smoothness of surface is +a primary consideration. The strongly accentuated design for +wood-carving becomes poor and lifeless when deprived of its essential +conditions and _raison d'être_, and the pattern which looks charming, +outlined and filled in with colour, could be hardly seen incised on a +flat stone surface. This seems a truism, but the neglect of these +plain axioms causes many mistakes in decorative art. Mr. Redgrave +says: "A design must be bad which applies the same treatment to +different materials." He further says: "The position of the ornament +requires special consideration. The varied quantities, bolder relief, +and coarser execution are not only allowable, but absolutely +necessary, at heights considerably above the eye. Moreover, each +fabric has its own peculiar lustre, texture, &c. Thus, in the use of +hangings, curtains, &c., the design might be suitable in silk, and +coarse or dull in woollen."[91] + +Here I venture to differ from Mr. Redgrave. Perspective is as much to +be respected in decoration as in pictures, near to the eye; and the +gradation in size and colour, as the ornament travels up into height +or fades into distance, is a phase of pleasure which should not be +checked by enlargement of form or reinforcement of colouring. + +It is hardly necessary to warn our artists against a sort of design +which is conventional, yet had its own meaning in the beginning. This +is to be found in Indian carvings and embroideries of a certain date, +or imitating the works of that distant period. It proceeded from a +hideous worship of monstrous Dravidian divinities. Their statues are +to be found, surrounded by coarsely designed patterns, in the temple +architecture of the first and second centuries. Its characteristics +are idols in niches or shrines, distorted in form or attitude; foliage +of unnatural, twisted plants, added to the recurring of the lotus and +tree of life; or animals destroying each other, or kneeling in worship +to the idols. These ugly designs are purely conventional. Fergusson +suggests that they were introduced into Mexico in the fourth or fifth +centuries A.D. by Buddhism.[92] + +Those many-armed, sometimes many-faced divinities drove out the +beautiful Aryan types, which, however, resumed their sway when the +wave of the Renaissance flowed back to India, and was remodelled by +Oriental taste to the lovely designs we find in the Taj Mahal. + +In M. Blanc's classification of ornament, he has placed Gothic design +under the head of deliberate complication. The whole of the Gothic +decorations, which are a gradual growth in one direction, arose from +the study of interlacing boughs and stems, employed as the enrichment +of the newly-grown forms of the vaulted roofs. The possibilities of +great size and height covered these designs and inspired all their +decoration; and the effect of reiteration and long recurring lines in +perspective was essentially the motive of these avenues in stone.[93] + +Here enter the principles of repetition and progression, and you will +find how carefully the designers of the twelfth, thirteenth, and +fourteenth centuries worked up to these ideas. You will see in their +embroideries, shining figures or pictures in gold, silver, and +coloured silks, shimmering on dark velvet backgrounds, each design +terminating a perspective of architectural forms which enhances their +brilliancy. The most effective, probably, were generally employed for +the adornment of the high altar, so as to be seen from a great +distance. The smaller and less distinct and more delicate ornaments +were reserved for the side chapels or for smaller churches, where such +distant effects were inappropriate. But the motives of ecclesiastical +embroidery will be discussed in a future chapter. + +All attempts at pictorial art are a mistake in textiles. It does not +enter into such designs; and when by chance it is allowed to be so +used, it is an error of judgment, and only exhibits a laborious and +useless ingenuity. It is no longer an artistic delineation of a +natural object, but becomes an imitation of another way of rendering +such objects. + +Mr. Redgrave says that pictorial art in our manufactures is one of our +great mistakes. "The picture must be independent of the material, the +thought alone should govern it; whereas in decoration the material +must be one of the suggestors of the thought, its use must govern the +design." + +Perhaps it will appear to my readers that here I repeat, in different +forms, what has been said in a previous chapter on the history of +style. I think that it is better to do so, than to omit to show where +style and design must accompany each other. Style, without any +reference to design, would be but a barren subject; and design, +without reference to style, would become lawless, and soon be lost in +the mazes of bad taste and mannerism. Both subjects are of so large +and important a nature that I do not attempt to do more than point out +how, in their history and their influence, they belong to the craft of +embroidery. + +Such influences belong to all art; and though I am anxious to confine +myself to only one section of it, I find it difficult to resist the +temptation to generalize and stray from the prescribed path, when +large and important views are opened on every side, as I travel on +from point to point. + +In sketching the history of design, as well as I may in so short a +space, it is only considered in the light in which it illustrates our +craft. + +I repeat that the design should be informed by the motive which +suggested it, and by the need which has called it forth; and it must +be moulded to the space it has to fill, and the position it will +occupy. The design must be modified into different outward forms, +according to whether it is to be fitted to the edge of a building +against the sky; to a high panelled wall; to be applied as a frieze, +or round the capital of a pillar; to the embroidered cover of an +altar, or the silken hangings of a bed, or the framed flat spaces on +the walls of a saloon. In fact, "intention," "place," and "shape" are +necessary motives and limits to a flat design. + +Leaving aside all architectural ornamentation, and adhering only to my +own subject, embroidery, I will limit my observations to the three +purposes here suggested. Firstly, as the central effect of the holiest +part of a church; secondly, in the domestic and comfortable room, to +be adorned and made cheerful; and thirdly, as decking the refined and +gay saloon or banqueting-hall. + +To the church we should devote the most splendid and effective +contrasts, to blaze unframed against dark empty backgrounds, or amidst +stone and marble decorations; something set apart from its +surroundings, and asserting that separation, is the desirable effect +to be attained. + +A totally different set of rules come into play when we have to select +the decorations of a bedroom. Here a background does not exist. We are +surrounded by four walls very near to the eye, so that perspectives +are a secondary interest, if indeed they can claim any consideration; +severe and magnificent ornamentation is out of place, except perhaps +in that time-honoured institution--to be found in every great house +possessing a suite of reception-rooms--the State bedroom, where the +display of hangings and embroideries was the first motive of the +decoration of the past, clothing and garnishing the bare spaces on the +lofty walls. Space and separateness are not the object or aim of the +bedroom of to-day; but lightness, snugness, and cheerful comfort, with +which the design of the textile ornaments have much to do. This will +in a later chapter come under the head of furniture. + +For the saloon we may accept any splendour of rich and costly design, +and the variously shaped panels assist in suggesting the form of the +decoration. The plain or moulded panels, called in Italian "targhe," +or shields, seem to be descended from the actual shields of gold which +Solomon hung on the walls of the king's house in the Forest of +Lebanon.[94] The motive was apparently Tyrian, and traces of it are +also to be found in Assyrian sculpture.[95] + +The practice of framing the design gives opportunities for change of +materials, colour, and pattern, permitting the employment of different +flat surfaces laid on each other, and scope for endless enrichment; +the framed picture being, perhaps, the central culminating attraction, +crowning, as it were, the textile ornamentation. + +I merely give these instances as illustrating the rule that we have +more than once laid down, that a design cannot fitly be employed +except in the position for which the artist has composed it. I will, +however, add that though it is right to give due consideration to the +preparation of each work for its intended use, yet we often have +charming suggestions offered to us, by the chance acquisition of a +beautiful artistic specimen, which finds its own place and +accommodates itself to the surrounding colours and forms. These are +the happy accidents of which the cultivated artistic eye takes +advantage, adding them to the experience which may help those who are +seeking for the rules of harmony and contrast in design. + +Research into the mysteries and principles of design applies to woven +arabesques and patterns, and must include machine-made textile +ornament, and all decorative needlework. It is, in fact, the fabric +for the million which most especially needs the careful study of +guiding rules. When a plant sends forth hundreds of winged, wind-blown +seeds, like the thistle, it spreads itself over wide fields, and is +more mischievous than a more noxious growth, such as the deadly +nightshade, which only drops an occasional berry into the earth. So a +common cheap chintz or carpet, with a poor, gaudy, motiveless design, +carries a bad style into thousands of homes wherever our commerce +extends; disgracing us, while it corrupts the taste of other nations. + +In addressing our young designers, I would remind them that in art the +race is not always to the strong. Prudence and educated powers, +thoughtfulness and study, often carry us where unassisted and +uncultivated genius has signally failed. Even such facilities as are +afforded by the acquirement of freehand drawing, as taught in our +schools of art, are not to be despised. The workman should thoroughly +master his tools, or they will hamper him. The first step towards +design is that you should learn to draw. After this, appreciation and +observation are necessary, and due balance in outline and colour +should be studied; and all this is as much needed in drawing a +pattern as in composing a picture. The difference lies in our art +being only decorative, wherein beauty and fitness are to be +remembered, and nothing else; whereas the picture may have to record +historical facts, or to inspire poetical thoughts--to awe or to touch +the beholder. A decorative design is only asked to delight him. +Intelligent delight, however, can only be evoked by intelligent art, +and to this, decoration must be subjected. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [73] The earliest art we know (the bone-scratching) is + naturalistic and imitative. We are unaware of any + attempt at a pattern of the prehistoric period. The lake + cities are of so vague a date that their ornaments on + pottery are puzzling rather than instructive. The + earliest Hellenic pottery was scratched or painted. + Cuttle-fish, repeated over and over again, are among the + earliest attempts at a pattern, by repetition of a + natural object. Naturalism soon fell into symbolism, + which appropriated it and all art, and the upheaval of a + new culture was needed to lift it once more into the + region of individual creation. See Boyd Dawkins' "Early + Man in Britain;" also General Pitt Rivers's Museum of + Prehistoric Art, lately presented to the University of + Oxford. + + [74] See Boyd Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain." + + [75] "I hope, indeed, to enable them" (the members of + his class) "to read, above all, the minds of + semi-barbarous nations in the only language by which + their feelings were capable of expression; and those + whose temper inclines them to take a pleasure in mythic + symbols, will not probably be induced to quit the + profound fields of investigation which early art will + open to them, and which belong to it alone. For this is + a general law, that supposing the intellect of the + workman the same, the more imitatively complete his art, + the less he will mean by it, and the ruder the symbol, + the deeper the intention."--Ruskin's "Oxford Lectures on + Art," 1870, p. 19. + + [76] See Isaac Taylor's "History of the Alphabet." + + [77] Renouf's Hibbert Lectures, 1879, p. 67. + + [78] Now there is a point of view in which we may regard + the imitative art of all races, the most civilized as + well as the most barbarous--in reference to the power of + correctly representing animal and vegetable forms, such + as they exist in nature. The perfection of such + imitation depends not so much on the manual dexterity of + the artist as on his intelligence and comprehension of + the type of the essential qualities of the form he + desires to represent. See Ch. T. Newton's "Essays on Art + and Archæology," p. 17. + + [79] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians." + + [80] Plato's Second Book of Laws, p. 656. + + [81] "The religion of the Greeks penetrated into their + institutions and daily life. The myth was not only + embodied in the sculptures of Pheidias on the Parthenon, + and portrayed in the paintings of Polygnotus in the Stoa + Poikile; it was repeated in a more compendious and + abbreviated form on the fictile vase of the Athenian + household, on the coin circulated in the market-place, + on the mirror in which the Aspasia of the day beheld her + charms. Every domestic implement was made the vehicle of + figurative language, or fashioned into a + symbol."--Newton's "Essays on Art and Archæology," p. + 23. + + [82] "Art in Ornament and Dress," by M. Charles Blanc, + formerly Director of the French Institute. Eng. Trans., + Chapman and Hall, London. + + [83] See Charles Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress," p. + 31. + + [84] Charles Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress," p. 43. + + [85] Charles Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress," pp. + 43, 45, 46. + + [86] Chinese design shows naturalistic art arrested and + perpetuated on totally different principles. Their + representations are all equally allied to their art of + picture-painting, whether on china with the brush, or on + textiles with the needle. The flatness of the picture is + still preserved by their ignorance of perspective. When + they attempted to express different distances, they did + so by placing them one above another, so that in reading + the composition the eye first takes in the distant + horizon; next below it, the middle distance; and being + thus prepared, it comes down to the actual living + foreground, on which rests the dramatic action and + interest addressed to the spectator. The Chinese + understood many of the secrets of art, yet never + achieved perspective. + + [87] See Mr. Penrose's work on the measurements of the + Parthenon at Athens. Published by the Society of the + Dilettanti. + + [88] Marked outlines in embroidery add to the flatness, + and enable us to omit cast shadows. In this it differs + entirely from pictorial art, where one of the great + objects is to avoid flatness. + + [89] Semper's theory, already mentioned, is that textile + design was certainly flat; that it was the first form of + decoration, and was followed by bas-relief, which could + not at once rid itself of the original motive. + + [90] Auberville's "Ornamentation des Tissus" (eleventh + century). + + [91] Redgrave's "Manual of Design," pp. 43-45. + + [92] This idolatrous type was introduced into England by + the Buccaneers, and reflected on our carvings and + embroideries of the time of James I., slightly modified + by the Italian Renaissance of that period. As this sort + of vulgar ornamentation has once prevailed, let us + protect ourselves against its possible recurrence. + + [93] While making this passing allusion to the theory + that the origin of all Gothic decoration is mainly + founded on the motive of interlacing stems and foliage, + I wish to guard myself against being supposed in any way + to argue against other beginnings, whenever they can be + proved. I have said before that most decorations have a + mixed ancestry. But when I see single or clustered + columns starting from the ground--spreading at the base + like the gnarled root, and growing till they culminate + in crowns of foliage, forming symmetrical capitals, like + the first clusters of leaves on a strong young + sapling--then the branches spreading and interlacing, + only checked at equal intervals by a lovely leaf or + burgeon, till they meet in blossoms on the highest point + of the arch,--I cannot but adhere to the old idea that + rows of trees meeting overhead suggested Gothic ornament + as well as Gothic Architecture. The Spanish or Moresque + Gothic was overloaded with leaves and flowers, and the + German Gothic was enriched with fantastic trees and + flowers, each according to its national taste and + fashion. A Gothic tree is a very conventional plant; and + generally carries only one leaf on each branch. I have + given a specimen of archaic trees from the Bayeux + tapestry. They are typical of the Gothic botanical idea + and style down to the fourteenth century. (Fig. 13.) + + Nor is this interpretation of Gothic design other than a + result of its descent from the Egyptian ancestral + motive, where the temple columns represented the single + stem of the lotus with one large blossom for its + capital, or else a bundle of stems of the lotus, palm, + and convolvulus flowering together into a beautiful + cluster. Even the gigantic columns of the great + hypæthral hall at Karnac are only a stupendous + exaggeration of the same stalk and flower motive. From + these were derived the forms of the early Greek + column--soon enriched by substituting the Acanthus for + the Lotus, but often retaining the convolvulus. + + [94] 1 Kings x.; Ezek. xxvii. 10, 11. See Stanley's + "Lectures on the Jewish Church." + + [95] Layard's "Nineveh and its Remains," vol. ii. p. + 388; Rawlinson's "Ancient Monarchies," vol. ii. p. 2. + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +PATTERNS. + + +In the last chapter on design I have described patterns as the +examples or illustrations of the art of decoration, and as being the +records of the motives which produced them in different eras. My +present object is to class and define patterns as decorative art. + +It is argued by some archæologists that the recurrence of a pattern, +for instance the "wave," over the whole world, proves that it really +came from many sources, under the same conditions of life and art; +showing also that a pattern is a thing that, like a flower, must grow, +if the culture of the race be equal. I do not believe this. We can +nearly always trace the family history of a pattern to its original +motive; and in the very few cases where we are unable to do so, it is +hardly necessary to cover our ignorance by stretching the fashionable +theory of development over the few instances that are as yet +unaccountable. + +I have been repeatedly asked to procure or to invent a new pattern. +Such is my respect for the decorative achievement called a "pattern," +that I cannot hope for the moment of inspiration in which I might +create such a thing. If any one has in his lifetime invented a +pattern, he has done something truly remarkable, and as rare as is a +really original thought on any subject. Patterns are commonly, like +men, the result of many centuries of long descent from ancestors of +remote antiquity. + +Individuals differ from their ancestors through inherited and +surrounding conditions, and through the modifying powers of evolution, +climate, and education. So also a pattern has, besides its ancestry +and descent, the unconscious mark or seal of its day; and it is easy +to trace whence it comes, if we set ourselves to examine the style of +it seriously. + +The patterns of which we can nearly always name at once the +nationality, are the Assyrian, the Chinese, the Egyptian, the Hindu +(Aryan and Turanian), the Persian, the Archaic and the highly +developed Grecian; the Roman, the Celtic, the Byzantine, the Arabian, +the Gothic, the Renaissance, the Spanish Plâteresque, the Louis +Quatorze, and those of the art of Central America. + +The pattern cannot exist without design. Design means intention and +motive. Many of the motives in Oriental textile decorations are +suggestive of intention, as is shown by their names. Among Indian +patterns we meet with "ripples of silver," "sunshine and shade," +"pigeon's eye," "peacock's neck," &c.[96] + +Patterns must be classed either by their dates, when ascertained, or +according to their style, which must generally be allowed to cover +vast areas and periods irregularly drifting down, overlapping, or +being absorbed or effaced by the circumstances they have encountered. + +Only when a national style has been obstinately fixed, as in China, +and bound down by strict laws and religious formulas, suited exactly +to the people for whom they were evolved out of the national life, and +imprinted on it by their own lawgivers, philosophers, and priests; and +neither imposed by conquerors, nor swept over by the waves of a new +civilization;--only in such cases can we find a continuity of +decorative art which leads us far back on its traces. Then, on this +long track, we learn how little, man, the decorating animal, has +really advanced in his powers of creation. He has gone more than once +to a certain point, and has then either been petrified by law and +custom--turned into a pillar of salt, like Lot's wife, because he has +looked back instead of striving to advance, or else through poverty or +satiety has fallen into the last stage of the Seven Ages, "_sans_ +eyes, _sans_ teeth--_sans_ everything." When what is good is neither +perceived nor desired, then the arts, small and great, dwindle and +disappear, and nothing remains to show that they have been, but a +name, and perhaps a pattern. + +Chinese design is the most striking example of the first of these +phases; and the extinction of all classical art with the fall of +Paganism in Rome is an instance of the second. + +In the chapter on style it is said that a pattern is as ineffaceable +as a word. But one will occasionally disappear for a time, till the +ruin that covers it is cleared away, and the lost design recovered and +employed simply as a decoration, if it is beautiful; or perhaps fitted +with a new meaning, and so it makes a fresh start. + +The importance of patterns, when traceable to their origin, as a means +of investigating historical influences cannot be too much insisted on, +and their history is full of suggestion as a guide to the decorator. +Much has been argued and much ascertained from the evidence of these +fragments of national civilizations, showing how an idea or a myth has +been, as it were, engrafted into the essence of another national idea, +partly altering what it finds, and changing to fit itself to its new +surroundings. Eastern patterns have travelled far, and lasted long; +and continue still to hold the fancy, and exercise the ingenuity, of +the artist and decorator. When we find a pattern of which the +nationality is strongly marked, it is worth our while to ascertain its +date and history, which will help us to recognize cognate design +wherever we may meet it. However, this is often not to be done; and +then it is best to set these puzzling examples aside, and to await +patiently the elucidation, which may come from some source of which we +are as yet ignorant. + +In very early art we have little remaining but patterns, on which we +may found theories by tracing them home to their original source. The +oldest patterns had each a meaning and an intention. When a pattern +has been enduring and far spread, it is because it was originally the +expression of an idea or a symbol. + +In the earliest dawn of civilization, the arts were the repositories +of the myths and mysteries of national faiths. Embroidery was one of +these arts, and the border which edged the garment of a divinity, the +veil which covered the grave of a loved one, or the flower-buds and +fruit which fringed the hangings and curtains in the sanctuary, each +had a meaning, and therefore a use. These symbolical designs and forms +were constantly reproduced; and all human ingenuity was exercised in +reforming, remodelling, and adding perfect grace to the expression of +the same idea. + + * * * * * + +Patterns may be ranged under four heads--the Primitive, the +Naturalistic, the Conventional, and the Geometrical. + +The primitive are those of which we know not the ancestry, and rarely +can guess the motive. To us they are, in general, simply rude +decorations. The naturalistic are those which are borrowed from +natural forms, and are either only imitative, or else convey some +hidden meaning. The conventional are those which, by long descent, +have come to be accepted simply as ornamental art, with or without +reference to an original motive, now lost. The geometrical or +symmetrical are founded on form only, and in so far resemble our +experience of the primitive; they express no meaning, and only serve +to satisfy the eye by their balance and their ingenuity. + + +PRIMITIVE. + +The first patterned forms with which we are acquainted are the +primitive. They are found in all parts of the inhabited world. In our +present ignorance as to the beginnings of the scattered tribes of men, +we cannot judge if these are the remains of an earlier art or the +first germs of a new one. Of one thing there is no doubt: this +primitive decoration consists entirely of pattern; that is to say, of +the repetition of certain (to us) inexpressive forms, which by +reiteration assume importance and in some degree express beauty--the +beauty of what Monsieur Blanc calls "cadence." + +After these first unintelligible forms, which simply by repetition +become accepted patterns, come those called the Prehistoric, of which +we know or guess something as to their original meaning, and which, +having been reduced from the hieroglyphic-symbolical to the +conventional, have thus crystallized themselves, by constant use, into +a pattern. Such, for instance, is the simplest form of the "wave" +pattern, which in very early art was a representation of water. + +The prehistoric water or wave patterns had other forms; for instance, +zigzags, upright or horizontal, and undulating lines which are +intelligible as expressing smooth or rough water. In general, however, +the primitive and prehistoric patterns convey no idea, and consist, as +we have said elsewhere, of lines, straight or wavy, sometimes +intersected; of angles, zigzags, groups of dots, rings and little +discs, and crosses of the Swastika shape. (Plate 10.) + + [Illustration: Pl. 10. + WAVE PATTERNS. + 1, 4, 9, 12, 13. Greek Wave Patterns. 2. Key or Mæander, Greek + Wave. 3. Greek Broken Wave. 5, 6, 7. Egyptian Smooth and + Rippling Water Patterns. 8. Mediæval Wave. 10, 11, 14. + Assyrian. 15. Persian or Greek (from Glass Bowl, British + Museum). 16. English Waves (Durham Embroideries.)] + +Where shall the tartan be placed? It is certainly primitive, and +apparently had no intention beyond that of employing as many coloured +threads as there were dyes, so as to form the brightest contrasts, or +else to be as invisible as possible either in the sunshine or in the +shade. The Gauls brought this kind of weaving with them from the East, +and probably invented the pattern, if such a motiveless design can be +so called. It had its classical name, "Polymita," and was admired in +Rome when newly imported, as being something original and barbaric. +The Romans found it in Britain, and Boadicea wore a tartan dress on +the day of her defeat. Perhaps even then fashions came from France, +and it may have been her best tunic from across the Channel. This +fabric may have been imported by the Belgic Gauls, and was so easily +woven on house looms, that it became in time the feudal dress of the +Scottish tribes and clans, and the colours were ingeniously arranged +to show the most different effects. The tartan has always been a +resource for the woollen trade, and the fashion constantly recurs in +France, either from sentiment or the actually inherited Gallic taste; +but it remains a primitive pattern, and nothing can make it artistic. +No embroidery can soften the constantly recurring angles, and only +fringes can be employed to decorate a tartan costume. Pliny tells us +of the ingenuity of Zeuxis, who, to show his wealth, had his name +embroidered in gold in the squared compartments of his outer +garment.[97] + +Primitive patterns still linger in many savage nations, but especially +throughout uncivilized Africa. Curious to say, the very ancient +fossilized early art of Egypt does not assist us to trace it back to +a prehistoric style, though it may lead us into prehistoric times. + + +NATURALISTIC. + +The phases of the naturalistic patterns are constantly recurring. Art +is always tending to realism, in the laudable effort to reach the +motive without the shackles of rules. Each phase has fallen a prey to +symbolism, to conventionalism, or to mannerism, which last symptom +marks the decline and fall of art. We shall find these phases +everywhere in the design of patterns. + +Naturalism has always striven, by simple repetition, to reduce to +patterns the forms of flowers, fruits, animals, birds, insects, +reptiles, and other natural objects. + +In flower patterns the simplest forms by repetition make sometimes the +richest patterns, and the most effective. (Plate 11, Nos. 1 and 2.) + +It is remarkable that one very beautiful class of natural objects is +rarely employed in ancient decoration[98]--shells and corals. The +barbarous tribes of the West Coast of Africa alone seem to have +appreciated their forms, and added them to their small repertory of +naturalistic patterns. They do not appear in any European or Asiatic +textiles till the seventeenth century, when shells were much used in +the decorations of the reigns of Queen Anne and Louis Quatorze. + +The first change from naturalism into the conventional was through +symbolism, and belonged to the time when unwritten thought was first +recorded by pictured signs, which then ceased to be merely decoration. +We find that the naturalism of the earliest Egyptians and Asiatics was +soon entirely absorbed by the effort to express some hidden meaning or +mystery, and then to fit the representation to a special place and +purpose, and to restore it, as it were, to decorative art. + + [Illustration: Pl. 11. + 1. Persian Flower Border. + 2. Egyptian Border, composed of Head-dress of the god Nile + (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians"). + 3. Assyrian. + 4. Assyrian.] + +The lotus and the patterns founded on its forms, and the many +emblematic meanings attached to them, are notable examples of these +transmutations in style and intention, and of the value given to their +intention and use in Egypt and India, where each development was +immediately crystallized into a recognized pattern, and given its +place and language. It received its "_mot d'ordre_," and continued to +act upon it long after the meaning was forgotten or out of date. + +The rolling pattern which had so long represented only the "wave," was +given to the really straight stem of the lotus, and its blossom, +substituted for the wave's crest, now filled many a frieze in Indian +temple architecture; whereas the lotus stems in Egypt were still bound +in sheaves to form columns, and the flowers, buds, and leaves spread +and blossomed into capitals. Here we have symbolism and +conventionalized naturalism, all combined, showing how their +principles, though quite distinct, can mix and unite. The conventional +form often superseded and effaced the naturalistic, and became the +sign of an idea, or the hieroglyphic picture of a thing; immovable and +unalterable in Egypt, where every effort was made to secure eternity +on earth, but continually returning to naturalism in India, where the +Aryan tendency, with the assistance of the "Code of Manu," always +recurred to the restoration of the ancient naturalistic motive. + +In the India Museum we may see the "wave" motive converted into a +lotus pattern by rolling the long stems, and filling up the spaces +between with the full-faced blossom. Sometimes the pattern is started +by the figure of an elephant, from whose mouth the stem of the flower +of the sun proceeds. This occurs so often that it must originally +have had a meaning. Sometimes the sacred convolvulus takes the place +of the lotus. (Plate 12.) + +On an Egyptian mural painting are seen parties of men snaring ducks +among papyrus and lotus plants. These are entirely conventional, and +are, in fact, a sort of recognized hieroglyphic representing the idea +of a lotus.[99] + +The lotus was the accepted emblem of the sun, and reduced to a +many-leaved radiating pattern may be found as an architectural +ornament on the outside of the Buddhist "topes," of which the models +are on the staircase of the British Museum.[100] (Plate 13.) + +We have Sir G. Birdwood's authority for believing that, though the +actual lotus was a native of India, and carried thence to Egypt, its +decorative use as a pattern was Egyptian, and so returned to India. +Both accepted it as their "sunflower."[101] + + [Illustration: Pl. 12. + 1. Indian Rolling Lotus Pattern. + 2, 3. Indian Lotus Patterns. + 4, 5. Egyptian Lotus Patterns. + 6. Sacred Convolvulus. Indian (seventeenth century).] + + [Illustration: Pl. 13. + 1, 2. Indian Designs of Assyrian Daisy and Egyptian Lotus. + 3. Vitruvian Scroll. Vignola. Architecture.] + +Can it be our Aryan descent which induces in us the earnest adoration, +in our art of to-day, of our northern prototype of the sun's emblem? I +fear that we must acknowledge that our æsthetic worship of our +sunflowers is somewhat false and affected. Æstheticism is not art. +Sunflowers, painted or embroidered as decoration, do not "take" if +they are ordered and ranged, and reduced to a pattern like those of +Egypt. They must be naturalistic, and, if possible, remind us of a +disorderly cottage garden; whereas in India they were adapted +from nature on fixed principles, which immediately reduced them to +the conventional. + + [Illustration: Sunflower pattern, R. S. A. N. + XIX. Century] + +I give an illustration of a Gothic sunflower resembling a transfigured +rose; and another of an ordered naturalistic sunflower pattern, from a +design of the Royal School of Art Needlework. (Plate 14.) + + [Illustration: Fig. 9. + Gothic Sunflower. From Christ's College Chapel, Cambridge.] + +I have given this account of the patterns founded on the lotus, as we +can almost from this distance of time take a bird's-eye view of its +rise in naturalism, its spread, dispersion, and its crystallization +into conventional forms; also we can trace how the lotus patterns of +Indian art have resulted, when accepted in Europe, in nothing but the +rolling wave, carrying flower forms which no longer represent a lotus; +and how the lotus bud and flower pattern has become in time the +classical "egg and tongue;" which, however, may have resulted also +from a combination of other motives. + +Representations of animal forms are sometimes very remarkable in +phases of naturalism. The few remains of Celtic art that have survived +are entirely animal, or very nearly so. In their stone, gold, silver, +and bronze work, and in illuminated MSS., we meet with only animal +forms; never a flower or a leaf. + +Besides the Indo-Chinese patterns in Celtic art, which suggest the +Chinese lattice-work (so strongly insisted on by Semper as a constant +motive), we also find in all their decorations compartments containing +involved patterns of cords or strings knitted or plaited, suggesting +the entrails of animals, which by these hunting people were consulted +as being mysteriously prophetic of approaching events, especially +success or failure in the chase, and impending warlike raids.[102] +There is no other way of accounting for these designs, which are +peculiar to the race, unless we believe they always represent snakes. +(Pl. 15.) + +In England much that was characteristic of the style was lost as soon +as the Saxons drove out the Celts, who carried it to Ireland, as may +be seen in the Book of Kells, and the carving of the Harp of Tara, and +the Celtic jewels in the Irish museums; but the interlacing patterns +survived throughout Anglo-Saxon art, and were marvellously ingenious +and beautiful; witness the Durham Book of St. Cuthbert. + +We have no Celtic textiles remaining to us, unless some embroidery in +the Marien-Kirche collection at Dantzic may be of that style and time. +This is suggested by its altogether Indo-Chinese and very barbarous +character;[103] and one of the coronation mantles in Bock's +"Kleinodien" is Runic in its peculiar serpent design. + + [Illustration: Illumination from the Lindisfarne Gospels, about A.D. + 700] + + [Illustration: Pl. 16. + Demeter. From a Greek Vase in the British Museum.] + +"Judging from their illuminated MSS.," it is said, "the elements +borrowed from textile art by the Celts are plaits, bows, zigzags, +knots, geometrical figures in various symmetrically developed +combinations, crosses, whorls, and lattice-work; next, those taken from +metal work, such as spirals and nail-heads let into borders; thirdly, +simple or composite zoomorphic forms, such as bodies of snakes, birds' +heads on long necks, lizards, dogs, dragons, and the like."[104] They +well understood how to make a pattern by the repetition of objects of +any class. + + [Illustration: Pl. 17. + 1. Embroidery on a Greek Mantle, third century B.C., from the Tomb + of the Seven Brothers, Crimea. + 2. Egyptian Painted and Embroidered Linen. The cone, the bead, the + daisy, the wave, the lotus under water, are all shown on this + fragment.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 18. + EGYPTIAN TAPESTRY. + 1. Woven and embroidered on a Sleeve. 2. Woven and embroidered. 3. + Painted and embroidered.] + +Representations of human figures in embroideries probably originated +in hangings for the wall; but have been treated as decorative forms, +both by the Indians and the Greeks, for wearing apparel. The peplos of +Minerva was bordered with fighting gods and giants, and the Empress +Theodora's dress in the Ravenna mosaic repeats exactly the same +motive. (See Fig. 4, and Pl. 6.) + +There are two other examples of such Greek patterns. The mantle of +Demeter on a Greek vase in the British Museum, of the best period (Pl. +16), is embroidered with flying genii and victorious chariots; and the +embroidered mantle lately found in a Crimean tomb, is of precisely the +same style of design, and the one illustrates the other. These +instances are so exceptional, that it is curious that here, as in the +case of the peplos, in each case there should happen to be a +duplicate. (Plates 16 and 17, No. 1.) + +In Babylonian, Assyrian, and Chaldean art we constantly find animal +forms in patterns. The lion and the hare, birds and insects, are the +commonest; and there are some instances of human figures reduced to a +pattern in these sculptured representations of textiles. (Plate 2.) + +There are curiously woven little human figures finished with the +needle on the sleeve of an Egyptian dress in the British Museum, from +Saccarah (Pl. 18), and, of course, when such a design is small, it +ceases to be very objectionable. On the whole, however, naturalistic +designs for embroideries are more safely confined to floral +decorations, excepting always flat tapestries for walls, which, +representing pictures, may be as naturalistic as their purpose and +style will admit. + +Animal forms are often reduced to patterns by repetition in Indian +and Persian embroidery.[105] The drawing is naturalistic, but the +colouring is fanciful. We may see any day, on Persian rugs, scarlet +lions pursuing and capturing blue or yellow hares. The flatness and +want of all shadows tends to the conventional. Lions, bulls, cats, +beetles, and serpents abound especially in Egyptian design; insects, +reptiles, and fish in Asiatic patterns, where animals are sometimes +made to walk in pairs, with their heads and tails twisted into a +pattern. + +Though landscapes are so rarely worked that the subject is, perhaps, +hardly worthy of notice, yet such mistaken specimens of ingenuity have +occurred. An altar frontal was exhibited at Zurich, in 1883, +containing some really exquisitely worked landscapes, which were quite +out of place, both as art and as decoration, for an ecclesiastical +purpose. This was of the beginning of the last century.[106] + +While we appreciate and should take advantage of our national tendency +to naturalistic design, we must beware of looking on fixed rules as +bonds which cramp our liberty, and of thinking that nature should be +our only guide to an otherwise unassisted and unfettered inspiration. +Without the wholesome checks of experience and educated taste, and the +knowledge which teaches us what to avoid, as well as what to imitate, +founded on the successes and failures of others, we fall into weak +imitations of natural objects. + +Mr. Redgrave points out how unpleasant and jarring to our sense of +what is appropriate, and therefore how offensive to good taste and +common sense, it is to tread on a carpet of water-lilies swimming in +blue pools, or on fruits and flowers heaped up and casting shadows +probably towards the light.[107] Woollen lions and tigers, as large as +life, basking before the fire in a wreath of roses, are alarming +rather than agreeable, and are of the nature of a practical joke in +art. It is the search for novelty in naturalism that leads to such +astonishing compositions; and these, being successively rejected in +the heart of our civilization and culture, are drifted away to +vulgarize our colonies, or to be sold cheap to furnish Continental +hotels, and make the English traveller blush for his home +manufactures. + + +SYMBOLICAL AND CONVENTIONAL. + +Though it is true that the highest art, pictorial and sculptural, is +always struggling towards naturalism, the art of decoration is, by its +nature, constantly tending to conventionalism. Patterns, if not +absolutely geometrical or naturalistic, must be classed under this +principle. Let us examine what is meant by a conventional pattern. + +It may be said that the conventional includes every form--the +symbolic, the naturalistic, or even the hieroglyphic--that is selected +and consecrated to convey a certain idea. The lily of Florence, which +is something between a lily and an iris, but unlike either, is a +conventional form; likewise the lily of France, which it is said was +once a conventional frog. The rose of England, the shamrock, and the +thistle have always been more naturalistic than is usual in such +heraldic designs; but the parti-coloured rose of York and Lancaster +was decidedly conventional, and heraldic. + +Conventional patterns now are those which, having been originally +naturalistic in style, but perhaps emblematic as to their motive, have +been repeated till the meaning and form have been lost; or else, as in +the case of the lotus, the emblem is forgotten, and nothing remains +but the recognized conventional form. + +One conventional pattern which, having commenced by being a symbol, +has been repeated and varied till it has allowed the original +essential meaning to escape, is the "palm-leaf" or "cone" pattern on +French or Paisley shawls, which, having been a sacred emblem--the tree +of life--in Persia, became in Europe, when the religious myth was +lost, only a shawl pattern--merely a leaf, with plant painted within +its outlines. (Plate 23, Nos. 10, 11.) + +Decorative designs become conventional in spite of the intention of +the designer. He is overruled by the spaces to be covered and the +materials to be employed. His design must produce a flat pattern; he +must repeat it again and again; he must give it a strong outline; he +must distribute it regularly at certain intervals. Repetition at once +conventionalizes the most naturalistic drawing, and the most sacred +and mysterious emblem. Alternation is equally a source of +conventionalism. There is no motive that cannot be conventionalized +into a pattern by repetition. A Gothic crown and a true lily, +repeated, will make an ecclesiastical conventional pattern. Then come +all the Arabian and Moresque forms (which are mostly geometric), and +also the Gothic (which are partly geometric and partly naturalistic, +especially those in German and debased Spanish and Portuguese Gothic +design). + + [Illustration: Pl. 19. + 1. Key Pattern. + 2. Broken-up Key. + 3. Beads. + 4. Key and sign of Land. + 5. Wave and Babylonian Daisy. + 6. Key and Fundata. + 7. Wave and Bead. + 8. Wave and Daisy. + 9. Key and Sun Cross. + These Key Patterns from Ceiling of a Tomb at Saccarah, in Egypt. + (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians.")] + +Then we must accept as conventional all those which may be called +kaleidoscope patterns, which are broken fragments of old motives, +repeated or "radiated" so as to become partly geometrical, wholly +conventional. (See Pl. 17, No. 2.) + +Conventional patterns may be reduced into three kinds. + +First, the naturalistic, which have by repetition been adapted for +decorative art. + +Secondly, the symbolical--Pagan or Christian, religious or historical, +including the Heraldic. + +Thirdly, those conventional forms which may never have had any inner +meaning, or else, having originally had one, have lost it. + +All these exist, sometimes apart and sometimes mingled; so that some +thought must be expended in seeking the motive which has brought them +together, and finding in each the internal evidence of its descent. + +It is evident that patterns, conventionalized and brought from distant +sources, sometimes meet and amalgamate. When the origin of a +conventional pattern is disputed, it is worth while to examine if it +has a double parentage. Let me give, as an instance, the key pattern. +It may have been, as Semper believes, originally Chinese, and derived +from wicker-work design. It represents also the broken or dislocated +"wave," the symbol of the River Mæander,[108] and for water generally. +We find it everywhere in company with the wave, which never could have +had any connection with wicker-work, not only in China, but in Persia, +India, Egypt, Arabia, Greece, Rome, and Central America. (Pl. 19.) + +Can any invention of man show a more symbolical intention than the +wave pattern? The airy leap drawn downwards by the force of +gravitation; controlled, and again made to return, but strong to +insist on its own curve of predilection, rushing back under the same +circle; strengthened by the downward movement to spring again from its +original plane; beginning afresh its Sisyphus labour, and facing the +next effort with the same grace and agility. Undying force, and +eternal flowing unrest--these are the evident intention and symbol of +the wave pattern. Though I believe the key pattern to be a +modification of the wave form, yet the locking and unlocking movement +suggests a repetition of the Tau, or key of life. + + [Illustration: Fig. 10.] + +When we admire the friezes of garlands hung between the skulls of oxen +and goats, we cannot for a moment doubt the sacrificial idea on which +the design was founded. When the wreaths are carried by dancing +children, we recognize the impersonation of the rejoicing of the dædal +earth. + +The Greeks, however strongly they exerted themselves to throw off the +shackles of conventionality in sculpture, painting, and architecture, +yet yielded to the traditional force of the symbolical pattern, and +accepted most of the Oriental forms, merely remodelling them for their +own use, and adding to their significance what their culture required; +at the same time giving infinite variety, as their perfect taste +dictated. + + [Illustration: Pl. 20. + TREES OF LIFE. + 1, 2, 3, 5. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian Silk. (Birdwood's "Indian Arts," + pp. 331, 335, 336, 337.)] + +Aristophanes, in "The Frogs," laughs at the Persian carpet +patterns--their unnatural birds and beasts and flowers--whilst he +claims for his own frogs, that they at least have the merit of being +natural.[109] This little touch of art throws a gleam of inner +light on the struggle towards originality and truth which +characterized the Greek principles of beauty and fitness in literature +and art, in direct contrast to that which was always turning back to +those fossil forms which were only respectable on account of their age +and their mystery, but of which the tradition and intention were +already lost. + +Roman patterns were merely Greek adaptations with an Etruscan flavour, +which was a survival of the earliest Italian art. Perhaps the +indigenous element had been already modified by Phœnician +influence. + +In taking stock of Oriental symbolical patterns, we find that one of +those of the widest ancestry and longest continuity is the "Sacred +Hom."[110] (Pl. 20-24.) This is to be found in Babylonian, +Persian,[111] Indian, Greek, and Roman art; and consequently it +prevails in all European decoration (except the Gothic), where it was +reduced to unrecognizable forms. + +Sir George Birdwood says the Hom or Homa was the Sanskrit Soma, used +as an intoxicating drink by the early Brahmins, and was extracted from +the plant of that name, an almost leafless succulent Asclepiad. It +appears to have changed its conventional form as other plants by +fermentation came to the front, containing what appeared to be the +"spirit of life"--the _aqua vitæ_. + +The palm, with its wonderful fruit, which is convertible into +intoxicating drinks, and afterwards the vine itself, were each of them +moulded into analogous conventional fruit forms, which keep as much as +possible within the limits of the original cone shape. (Pl. 21.) + + [Illustration: Pl. 21. + 1. Tree of Life and Lions. Gate of Mycenæ. 2. Persian or Sicilian + Silk. Tree of Life and Leopards.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 22. + 1. Split Lotus Fruit on Chinese Bowl. 2. Split Lotus resembling + Tree of Life. Frieze by Benozzo Gozzoli, Ricardi Palace, + Florence. 3. Petal of Flower on Glass Bowl from Southern + Italy. British Museum.] + +There is a palm-tree which absolutely carries a cone in the heart of +its crown of fronds.[112] This may have helped to preserve the +original motive of the sacred tree of life. The cone form in classical +art was drawn from the pine cone and the artichoke; and in mediæval +art these were sometimes replaced by the pomegranate, and in the late +Renaissance by the pine-apple, newly arrived from the West +Indies.[113] It is a good example of the blending of one vegetable +form into another, making the sequence, of which each phase in the +East had an historical cause or a symbolical meaning,[114] but which +in Europe had gradually lost all motive, and was simply an +acknowledged decorative form.[115] In architectural ornament it is +called the honeysuckle,[116] which it had grown to resemble in the +days of Greece. + + [Illustration: Pl. 23. + Different forms of Tree of Life, from Sicilian Silks.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 24. + Modern Embroidery from the Principalities, in which the cone-shaped + tree grows into a vine, and the two animals at the foot have + lost their shape and intention.] + +This sacred tree, the Homa of Zoroaster and of the later Persians, has +so early a beginning that we find it on Assyrian monuments.[117] Rock +says "that, perhaps, it stood for the tree of life, which grew in +Paradise." It is represented as a subject of homage to men and +animals, and it invariably stands between priests and kings, or beasts +kneeling to it. It is figured on the small bucket for religious rites, +carried in the hands, or embroidered in the upper sleeve of the +monarch's tunic. It always represents a shrub, sometimes bearing a +series of umbels of seven flowers each. (Pl. 2, 20.) + +Sometimes the expression of the symbol is reduced to the cone-fruit of +the homa alone; or even to a blossom, as in the two glass bowls in the +Slade collection in the British Museum, from a tomb at Chiusi, in +Etruria. Here the design is a flower, of which each petal contains the +essential emblem--a plant within a plant. These bowls, pronounced to +be Greek of the fourth century B.C., have yet to me a strong Oriental +character. (Pl. 22, No. 3.) + +I have spoken of the lotus as a naturalistic pattern. One mode of +drawing and embroidering its flower in India, is to cut it in two; +half the blossom is then carefully and almost botanically copied, thus +conveying the inner meaning of the sacred flower. (Pl. 22, No. 3.) + +Another conventional pattern, common to all times of art and all +nations, is that called in architecture the "egg and tongue" pattern. +(Pl. 13.) This, as I have already said, is supposed to be derived +directly from the lotus. The Egyptians formed it from the bud and +blossom; and the pattern is found in India, Greece, and Rome, changing +continually and yet retaining its identity. Vitruvius claimed to have +given it the last touch and finish, so that in Italy it was called the +Vitruvian scroll; and it is common to all decoration, even in +textiles, though it is hardly suited for weaving or embroidery. This +is one of the earliest patterns which, having ceased long ago to be a +religious emblem or sign, still survives by its decorative fitness, +and perpetuates the echoes of its origin. + + [Illustration: Pl. 25. + TYPICAL CROSSES. + 1. Swastika. 2. From a Greek Vase, 765 B.C. 3. Indian Sectarial + Mark of Sakti race. 4. Buddhist and Jainis mark. 5. Early + Rhodian Pottery. 6. Egyptian prehistoric Cross. 7. Tau Cross. + 8. Mark of land, Egyptian and Ninevite. 9. Ditto. 10. Clavus. + 11, 12, 13. Scandinavian Sun and Moon Crosses. 14, 15, 16. + Celtic. 17. Chrysoclavus. 18, 19. Stauracin patterns. 20. + Scandinavian, from Norway. 21. Runic Cross. 22. Cross at + Palenque, in Temple of the Sun. 23. Scotch Celtic Cross. 24. + Cross from Iona. 25, 26. Runic Crosses. 27. Cross on the + Dalmatic of Charlemagne. 28. From the Mantle of Henry II., + Emperor of Germany.] + +Of the conventional symbolical forms of the early Christian Church I +shall speak more fully in the chapter on ecclesiastical art, and +therefore would only point out here, while touching on symbolical +decoration, how that phase of Christian art is a great historical +instance of the deep ancient meanings it illustrates; showing the +motive to be often in accordance with the inherited pagan symbol, and +yet differing from it. Pre-eminent among these is the emblem of the +Cross, so early and universally used, full of mysterious secret +allusions to the groping faiths of idolatrous nations, before the +great fundamental idea of the "Word" was attached to it. This was one +of the old signs used as a pattern, and transfigured into a fresh +type, of which the radiance reflected back light upon all that +preceded it, even as Chinese ancestors are ennobled by the deeds +of their descendants. + + [Illustration: Pl. 26. + 1. Pallas Athene, from a vase in Lord Northampton's Collection. + 2. Ajax in a cloak embroidered with swastika, sun cross, and + prehistoric water patterns. Etruscan Museum. Vatican.] + +The cross (Pl. 25), was a sign and a pattern in prehistoric art. It +was the double of the Tau, the Egyptian emblem of life; and while the +Jews reject the Christian cross, they still claim to have warned off +the destroying angel by this sign in blood over the lintels of their +doors in the first Passover. + +But the most ancient and universal form of the cross is that of the +Swastika, or Fylfote. This "prehistoric cross" is said to be formed of +two fire-sticks, belonging to the ancient worship of the sun, laid +across each other ready for friction; but losing that meaning, from an +emblem they fell into a pattern, and this you will still find, utterly +meaningless, on Persian carpets of to-day. + +Sir G. Birdwood gives the Swastika as the sectarial mark of the Sakti +sects in India. Fergusson names it with the mound buildings, as +belonging to all Buddhist art; and examples of the Swastika are to be +found on Rhodian pottery from the Necropolis of Kamiros, where we find +also the key pattern. + +In early Greek art the Swastika and Gammadion are everywhere, +especially as embroidery on dress. Minerva's petticoats are sometimes +worked all over with the latter. On an early Greek vase in the Museo +Gregoriano, are painted Ajax and Achilles playing at dice; and the +mantle of Ajax is squared into an embroidered pattern that alternately +represents a sun or star and a Gammadion (Pl. 26, No. 2). But it is +unnecessary to multiply classical examples, which are endless. + +The Christian Cross was often formed by converting the Tau into the +Gamma, the sacred letter of the Greeks. It is said to have been the +emblem of the corner-stone, and as a pattern, was called, down to the +thirteenth century, the "Gammadion;" and though it had lost its +original motive, it continued to preserve the idea of a secret and +mystical meaning. + +The Gammadion, as well as the Swastika, enters largely into the +illuminations of the Celtic Book of Kells and those of the Lindisfarne +MSS.; also it is to be found on the Celtic shields in the British +Museum, together with the Swastika. Both appear in the Persian carpets +of to-day, and as patterns were, in ecclesiastical decoration, +employed down to the fifteenth century, both for European and British +textiles. The Swastika, as well as the wave pattern, is of mysterious +and universal antiquity, and has certainly traversed four thousand +years,--how much more we dare not say. It is to be found throughout +Egyptian and Indian art--never in that of Assyria. + +Of the time of Rameses the Second we have two figures in a mural +painting, an ally and an enemy, a guest and a prisoner, both clothed +in embroidered garments, _parsemés_ with the prehistoric cross. + + [Illustration: Fig. 11. + Egyptian Enemy and Ally.] + +In the chapter on ecclesiastical art I shall again refer to this +immemorial symbolical and conventional pattern. I much regret that, in +the absence of a translation, I am prevented from availing myself of +the accumulated learning on the subject of "The Prehistoric Cross," by +Baron Ernest de Bunsen. + + [Illustration: Pl. 27. + Imitation of a Carpet carved in stone, from Nineveh, showing the + Indian Lotus and the Assyrian Daisy. (In the British Museum.)] + +There was a pattern called the "crenelated" which apparently was +derived from the Assyrian battlement, and is found throughout classic +art, somewhat conventionalized.[118] It is named as an embroidered +pattern in the inscription recording votive offerings of dresses in +the temple of Athene at Athens.[119] + + [Illustration: Fig. 12. + Crenelated Pattern.] + +We know something of the conventional and symbolical embroideries of +Nineveh, which are quite unlike those of India, except in the adoption +of the lotus for decoration.[120] These are best understood by +illustrations; and, therefore, I give one of the beautiful sculptured +carpets from Nineveh, in the British Museum (Pl. 27), showing the +Assyrian use of the lotus and cone, and the embroidered garment of a +king from one of the sculptures in low relief (Plate 1). These are +very stately--perfectly conventional and decorative; and we feel that +they have grown where we find them, and are not borrowed from another +civilization. What strikes us most, is the constant repetition and the +little variety of ornament in these patterns. The forms are strongly +marked--wheels or whorls, or daisies, often repeated. (The daisy +belongs to Assyria as the lotus to Egypt.) The flowers are simply +leafless blossoms. Splendid embroideries of sacred emblematical +designs are, however, occasionally found, such as those from Layard's +"Monuments" (Plate 2). + +Much has been written on the early symbolism of plants and flowers. +The sun-myths have enlisted all floral legendary lore, and +conventional ornament was largely drawn from them. + +Many symbols are present to us when we name certain plants. The lily +is the acknowledged sign of purity, the rose of love, the honeysuckle +of enduring faith, the laurel of poetry, and the palm of victory; the +oak of strength, the olive of peace. Some plants have accumulated more +than one meaning. The vine has many attributes. It is an emblem of the +mysteries of the Christian Church. It symbolizes plenty, joy, the +family. Ivy means friendship, conviviality, remembrance. + +The symbolism of beasts (_bestiaria_),[121] of birds (_volucraria_), +and of stones (_lapidaria_) filled many volumes in the mediæval ages, +and are well worthy of the study of the decorative artist. The +symbolism of animals and birds especially, constantly attracts our +attention in the Oriental and Sicilian textiles of the early Christian +times, and to the end of the thirteenth century. Later, in European +textile decoration, most animals were accepted as emblematic in +Christian art, beginning with the symbols of the four Evangelists. All +the virtues and all the vices found their animal emblems +conventionalized, and were thus woven, embroidered, and painted.[122] + +Reptiles and insects are included under the head of "beasts," and +perhaps fishes also. Each was dowered with a symbolical meaning; and +thus admitted into art, they were conventionalized by being strongly +outlined, coloured flat; and by repetition without variation, were +converted into patterns. + + [Illustration: Pl. 28. + 1, 2. Gothic Tiles. 3. Gothic Border of a Dress. 4. Gothic Vine. + Westminster Abbey.] + +When the use of heraldic illustration was added to the already +accepted symbolism, animal decoration became very common, and soon +forgot its symbolical motives, which were succeeded by Renaissance +fanciful patterns; and then the conventionalized beast and its +symbolism disappeared from European decoration, except when it was +a direct copy of an Oriental design. + +Certain symbolical forms have, however, survived. The eagle has always +meant empire, and the double-headed eagle, a double royalty.[123] +Ezekiel represents Babylon and Egypt, symbolically, as two +eagles.[124] But here we approach the subject of heraldry, which +became a science in mediæval days; and every man and woman in any way +remarkable, every chivalrous action and national event, became a +subject for textile art, and was woven or worked with the needle on +banner, hanging, or dress. The altar decorations received a new +stimulus as historical records, as well as religious symbols, and +pride and piety were equally enlisted in these gifts to the Church. + +Byzantine patterns have a barbaric stamp, and yet have much of the +grandiose about them; but they are to the last degree conventional. In +the early mosaics, both in Constantinople and Rome, every face and +head, every flower and animal, represents a type and not an +individual. + + [Illustration: Fig. 13. + Gothic Trees, from Bayeux tapestry.] + +Gothic foliage patterns, in England and elsewhere, are a struggle +between the naturalistic and the conventional. The Norman style and +the Romanesque, which preceded it, and from which it was modified and +elevated, show their vegetable forms thick-stemmed and few-leaved, +whereas the Gothic aspired to a developed gracefulness; and the +Renaissance, which succeeded it, assumed all the freedom of natural +flowers and plants, floating in the breeze, on their delicate stems. +(Pl. 28.) + +All the Renaissance patterns, which, as their name denotes, were born +again, like butterflies to frolic for a day of gay enjoyment, are +purely decorative. Their generally charming, graceful forms group +together to cover empty spaces with every regard to the rules of +design and composition, but without any inner meaning. If we take +these arabesques to pieces, we generally find the parts come from +various sources; and having served last in pagan Rome for pagan +purposes, had been slightly refashioned for Christian decorative +art,[125] before the Byzantine inartistic taste, and barbaric +splendour of metal-work patterns, had extinguished all the gay fancy +of the arts of Southern Europe. + +The mediæval revival was a return to the light and fantastic, and a +protest against the solemnity of all Gothic art, which had had its +great day, had culminated, and died out. The patterns of the +Renaissance are all guided by the principles of repetition and +duplication, or that of doubling the pattern, which repeats itself to +right and left, as if folded down the middle. + +The principal lines thus echoed one another; but the artist was +permitted to vary the conventionalism of the general forms of figures, +flowers, fruit, or butterflies, so as to balance and yet differ in +every detail. + + [Illustration: Pl. 29. + CLOUD PATTERNS. + 1, 2, 3, 7. Japanese. + 4. Chinese. + 5, 8, 9. Mediæval. + 6. Badge of Richard II.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 30. + Indo-Chinese Coverlet, supposed to have belonged to Oliver + Cromwell. Hatfield House.] + +Amongst the conventional patterns which have descended to us, and are +in general use without any particular symbolical meaning being +attached to them, we must instance those derived from the Cloud +pattern. This is to be found in early Chinese and Indian art, but I do +not recognize it in Egyptian or Greek decoration. It came through +Byzantium, and took its place amongst early Christian patterns. (Pl. +29.) + + [Illustration: Pl. 31. + THE FUNDATA OR NETTED PATTERN. + Portion of a Phœnician Bowl from Cyprus. + Egyptian. + Egyptian. + Egyptian.] + +The cloud pattern is also Japanese, and is supposed to have been +originally derived from Central Asia. It varies in shape, and is found +as an ornament on the head of the sceptre in the collection at Nara, +in Japan, which is twelve or thirteen hundred years old. There is an +example of the cloud pattern in Aelfled's embroidery at Durham; and it +is often found under the feet of saints in painted glass and +embroideries before the fourteenth century. A curious Indian example +exists in a coverlet belonging to the Marquis of Salisbury, said to +have been the property of Oliver Cromwell, on which the central +medallion is filled with white horses careering amidst the cloud +pattern.[126] (Pl. 30.) + +The _netted_ pattern called Fundata is extremely ancient. We find it +in Egyptian mural paintings, as well as in the centre of a +Phœnician bowl from Cyprus, now in the Louvre. The mediæval Fundata +was a silk material, covered with what appeared to be a gold network +covering the stuff. It is supposed to be the same as that worn by +Constantine,[127] and is named in ecclesiastical inventories as late +as the fifteenth century. (Pl. 31.) + +All the wheel patterns are very ancient, and appear to be simply +conventional wheels. In France they were called _roés_. There is a +fine instance of this wheel pattern in Auberville's "Tissus." The +wheels sometime enclose triumphal cars and other pictorial subjects. +(Pl. 34.) + +The patterns which are apparently composed with the intention of +avoiding all meaning, are the Moorish. They are neither animal, +vegetable, nor anything else. They show no motive in their complicated +domes, their honeycombing, and their ingenious conventional forms; but +cover equally textile fabrics or stucco ceilings without suggesting +any idea, religious or symbolical. + +All the splendid Italian brocades and velvet damasks were of +conventional patterns, and like their Arab and Sicilian models, and +also like their Spanish contemporaries, represented, and sought to +represent nothing on earth. It was all floreated and meandering +design; the motive reminding one of the pine-apple and the acanthus, +or of vine stems meeting or parting, but never anything naturalistic +for a moment. When animals were introduced it was always as a pattern +doubled face to face, as if folded down a straight line. + +We may say the same of the succeeding Louis Quatorze and the Louis +Quinze styles, which were of the culminating period of clever and +fantastic conventional decoration. + +Our modern designs have phases of imitation, and the patterns of rich +brocades which our great-grandmothers wore, came into fashion again +about the third decade of this century. Now we have been trying to +find our inspirations further back, and some of our copies of the +simpler Sicilian patterns, with an occasional pair of birds, or a +conventional plant, imitating the motive of the tree of life, have +been very pretty. The only defect is the poverty which results from +the absence of any active and informing motive. It is, however, easier +to criticize than to create. + + [Illustration: Fig. 14. + Radiated Pattern.] + +I would venture here to find fault with a very common method of +converting a natural object into a conventional pattern, by radiation. +Certain modes of repetition are very objectionable. A pattern, for +instance, repeated four times round a centre, or a natural flower +repeated exactly, but lying north, south, east, and west, are more or +less inartistic, we may say vulgar. (Fig. 14.) + + [Illustration: Fig. 15. + Radiated Sunflower.] + +A natural flower may be conventionalized and radiated by placing it in +the centre of the composition facing you; and the leaves arranged +surrounding it, so as to formalize the design, though there is nothing +really unnatural in the way in which they are made to grow. The +illustration of a radiated sunflower explains my meaning. + +It has been already observed that by repetition almost any object may +be reduced to a pattern, but taste must be exercised in the selection +of what is appropriate and beautiful. Radiation is also really a +useful factor in conventional art, but common sense must guide the +artist here as well as taste. In radiating the forms of a flower, +nature gives endless hints of beauty; but a radiating pattern of human +figures would be ridiculous, and even the branches of a tree cannot be +so treated. + +The awning of the classic hypæthral hall or court was often reproduced +in Roman arabesques. Sometimes we find it in a classical tomb, painted +over the ceiling, and recalling its original use. This was revived in +the Cinque-cento Renaissance; and again in Adams' "Eighteenth Century +Decorations," it became an accepted pattern, called "the shell," +losing its original motive, and descending to fill up the panels of +tea-caddies and surround keyholes. When thus reduced to the appearance +of a little ruff, it needs some thought to recognize it, and give it +credit for its first motive. + + [Illustration: Fig. 16.] + +It is amusing to find how a form which it seems impossible to reduce +to a pattern, will yet fall into one by a judicious arrangement of +light and shadow, and by repetition. There is a little frieze in one +of the Indian cases on the staircase in the British Museum, which is +extremely pretty and effective. It consists of a repetition of little +balconies with recesses and pillars and figures in pairs. I give it as +illustrating the way conventional patterns grow. This balcony pattern +is of the sixth century, A.D. + + [Illustration: Fig. 17. + Indian Balcony Pattern, from steps of tope of Jamal-Zartri, + Afghanistan. British Museum.] + +The ancient palmated pattern called Chrysoclavus, from the beginning +of our era to the thirteenth century was partly a nail-headed design, +and had become a Christian symbol. It was, probably, originally the +primitive spot pattern; afterwards promoted to being an ornament of +discs in colour or metal: this was Assyrian, Etruscan, and +Mycenæan.[128] (Pl. 70.) + +Among the conventional patterns which have apparently no hidden +meaning, but which clearly show their descent, are the Chinese and +Japanese wicker and lattice-work designs. The beauty of these is +wonderful. + +Semper shows that wicker (including bamboo work) was the foundation of +all Chinese civilized life, for constructing houses, bridges, +utensils, and for decoration. He gives this wicker-work origin to the +universal key pattern, which may, however, have a double source--the +wave, and the wicker-work. + +We find the Key pattern in a tomb at Essiout, in Egypt, painted +perhaps about 1600 B.C., in company with some other very old +friends,[129] the Tuscan border, the Egg and Tongue, and the Bead, the +Daisy, and the Wave. (Pl. 17, No. 2.) We meet it everywhere in ancient +and modern decoration. There are several forms of it on a large +terra-cotta vase in the British Museum from Kameiros in Rhodes, and on +Chinese fictiles and embroideries. It is found also on garments in +Iceland, whither the Greek patterns must have drifted through Norway, +and, as they could go no further, there they remained. + +I have often spoken of the extraordinary survival of a pattern. This +is easy to account for when fashion, "the disturber," had not yet +existed. Then the ancient motive told its own tale, and its great age +was its claim to perpetual youth; but it is more remarkable where we +meet with revivals at distant periods, and apparently without any +connecting link of ancestry or style. + +For instance, the women of Genoa wore large cotton veils, printed with +the Indian conventional tree and beast pattern, down to thirty years +ago, when the fashion changed, and winter bonnets and summer muslin +veils displaced the old costume. These patterns are now being printed +in England on scores of cotton curtains for beds and windows. + + +GEOMETRICAL. + +Geometrical patterns may be reduced to a very few primitive elements. + + [Illustration: Fig. 18. + Varied adjustments of Square and Circle.] + +1. The Line, including straight and wavy lines. + +2. The Angular Forms, including squares, oblongs, cubes, &c. + +3. The Triangular, including zigzags, diamonds, &c. + +4. The Circular, including all spots, discs, and radiations. + +All these can be blended or mixed so as to form endless varieties. For +instance, the square and the circle can intersect each other in +different proportions, so as to give an entirely new effect to the +pattern, each time the balance is altered or the phase of the +repetition varied. The illustration will explain this. (Fig. 18.) + +Right angles may intersect each other so as to produce the whole gamut +of Chinese lattice-work decoration, and all the Celtic and +Scandinavian entwined patterns, from which so many of the embroideries +in the Italian pictures of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are +probably descended. + +The Moorish patterns are geometrical, and are created on the principle +of avoiding in art the representation of any created thing. They show +much ingenuity in keeping clear of any possible meaning. Most of these +conventional patterns are founded on the ogee-arch and a kind of +honeycomb pattern, involved and inverted. Their tiles, which nearest +approach textile design, have, indeed, certain vegetable forms added +to the others, but always geometrically arranged as no vegetables ever +grew. + +Geometrical patterns begin with primitive forms, and come down to the +floor-cloth designs of to-day. They can be extracted in endless +variety from the combinations of the kaleidoscope. This style is well +suited for pavements in mosaic--either secular or ecclesiastical. + +The Opus Alexandrinum furnishes us with most beautiful examples and +adaptations for large or small spaces, so as to form the richest or +the simplest floor decorations. How worthily a church may be thus +adorned may be seen on the vast area of the floor of Santa Maria +Maggiore in Rome, or that of the Church of St. Mark in Venice. + +The nearest approach to the Opus Alexandrinum in textiles has been in +Patchwork, of which a more artistic use may yet be made. We might +exercise ingenuity in this direction, giving really fine and effective +designs to our workers in patches, whose productions are, in general, +simply alarming. + +The fine quilting patterns of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries +are almost always geometrical, and make the best background to more +resplendent embroideries overlying them, which is partly owing to +their being only forms, and conveying no idea or inherited meaning. +These expressionless designs are well fitted for spaces and borders in +which the centres are elaborated, and require enclosing or framing; +likewise, they are suited for large areas, which must not be perfectly +plain, and yet not too disturbing to the eye, so as to distract it +from the more important ornaments on the wall or ceiling. They suit +carpets in passages or on staircases much better than any other kind +of design, and form the best figured backgrounds for pictures. Both +eye and mind often need repose, and therefore the simpler the +geometrical pattern is, the better. Complicated and too ingenious +combinations are painfully fatiguing. Simplicity and flatness are the +greatest merits in such forms, as in shadowless patterns for textiles, +and especially for embroideries. + +If we turn to nature to assist us with new geometrical patterns, we +shall find the most exquisite forms in the crystals of every +newly-fallen snowflake, and in the nodal-points on a plate of metal or +glass, covered with sand, and struck by sound. We shall hardly ever +find in these a repetition of exactly the same combination, and their +variety is only equalled by their beauty. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [96] Sir G. Birdwood tells us of patterns of an Indian + brocade called "Chundtara" (moon and stars), figured all + over with representations of heavenly bodies. + + [97] Pliny, "Natural History," lib. xxx. c. 8, § 34. + + [98] There is a shell pattern in gold on a twelfth + century fragment of a Bishop's garment at Worcester. + + [99] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," vol. iii. pp. + 132, 133, 350, 553. + + [100] Bötticher, in his "Tektonik," will allow of but + one origin for the "egg and tongue" pattern. I cannot + give up the evident descent from the lotus flower and + bud; but I have said before that a pattern has sometimes + a double parentage, and it may be so in this case. + + [101] The lotus is almost entirely lost as a native + growth in India, and is fast disappearing in Egypt. The + lotus blossom in Egypt was not only a sacred emblem, but + also an _objet de luxe_. At their feasts, the honoured + guests were presented with the flowers, and as they + faded, slaves carried round baskets of fresh blossoms. + See Wilkinson's "Manners and Customs of the Ancient + Egyptians." + + [102] See the Book of Lindisfarne, and the two Celtic + bronze shields in the British Museum. These last are + very curious. The long involved lines show their origin, + and the shields are enriched with enamel and corals, in + repetitions of the prehistoric cross. + + [103] See "Album of Photographs of the Marien-Kirche, + Dantzic," Taf. 31. + + [104] Woltmann and Woermann, Eng. Trans., p. 202. + + [105] Charlemagne's dress, in his tomb, was covered with + golden elephants. This must have been Indian. His mantle + was "_parsemé_" with golden bees. + + [106] Elsewhere there is a notice of Miss Morritt's + really beautifully embroidered landscapes at Rokeby; and + all who saw them will remember the extremely clever and + effective pictures in crewels by an accomplished + American lady, Mrs. Oliver Wendell Holmes, exhibited in + London a few years ago. These exceptional cases do not, + however, disprove the objections against employing the + most unfit and unmanageable materials for producing + subjects alien to the art of embroidery. + + [107] See Redgrave's "Manual of Design," pp. 50-61. + + [108] See Appendix 21, by Ch. T. Newton, to the first + edition of Ruskin's "Stones of Venice." He gives, as + instances of this pattern, certain coins from Prienè, + where the River Mæander is symbolized by the angular key + pattern. Appendix, No. 1. + + [109] "(Euripides _loquitur_) Not horse-cocks, nor yet + goat-stags, such as they depict on Persian carpets" + (Aristophanes, "The Frogs," v. 939-944). The Persian + carpets, which are the legitimate descendants of + Babylonian art, are curiously fragmentary. In a modern + design are to be seen birds, indicated by a head, bill, + and eyes; little coffee-pots, and flowers broken off at + the stalks, and small quadrupeds without any particular + form; also the prehistoric cross, the Tau, and bits of + broken-up wave and key patterns. All these, repeated + into a pattern, remind us of scraps in a kaleidoscope, + thrown together accidentally, or else taken up by chance + where history and art have dropped them. + + [110] "Soma" or "Homa" ("Sarcostemma Viminale vel + Brevistigma"), from Cashmere and the Hindu Cush, still + used by the Brahmins, and the juice of which was the + first intoxicant of the human race. See Birdwood's + "Indian Art," vol. ii. pp. 336, 337. + + [111] "The Hom, the sacred Persian tree, is constantly + placed between two animals, chained to it." See Pl. 23, + Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. + + [112] The Hom or Homa, the sacred tree of Assyrian and + Persian sculpture and textiles, is accounted for as a + pattern by Dr. Rock, who says: "From the earliest + antiquity a tradition came down through middle Asia, of + some holy tree, perhaps the tree of life spoken of as + growing in Paradise." It is always represented as + something like a shrub, and is a conventional portrait + of a palm; but Rock says it has every look of having + belonged to the family of the Asclepiadeæ. For its last + transformation into a vine, see Pl. 24. + + [113] Rock's "Introduction," p. cxxxi. + + [114] Sir George Birdwood says: "The intimate absorption + of Hindu life in the unseen realities of man's spiritual + consciousness is seldom sufficiently acknowledged by + Europeans, and, indeed, cannot be fully comprehended by + men whose belief in the supernatural has been destroyed + by the prevailing material ideas of modern society. + Every thought, wish, and deed of the Hindu belongs to + the world of the unseen as well as the seen; and nothing + shows this more strikingly than the traditionary works + of India. Everything that is made has a direct religious + use, or some religious symbolism. The materials of which + different articles are fashioned, their weight, and the + colours with which they are painted, are fixed by + religious rule. An obscured symbolism of material and + colour is to be traced also in the forms of things, even + for the most domestic uses. Every detail of Indian + decoration, Aryan or Turanian, has a religious meaning, + and the arts of India will never be rightly understood + until there are brought to their study, a familiar + acquaintance with the character and subjects of the + religious poetry, national legends, and mythological + scriptures that have always been their inspiration, and + of which they are the perfected imagery." See Sir George + Birdwood's "Indian Arts," part i. p. 2. + + [115] The Persian tree of life was not alien to the + worship of the Zoroastrian religion of the Sassanides, + and is said to have been the origin of the worship of + Bacchus. It was introduced by Oriental weavers into + Sicilian and Spanish stuffs. + + [116] Sir G. Birdwood suggests that the honeysuckle + pattern is derived from the Tree of Life, cone, and + palm, refashioned and combined with the graceful + ingenuity of Greek art, and covering a mixture of sacred + traditional emblems. + + [117] Haug, in his "Essays on the Sacred Writings of the + Parsees" (pp. 132, 239), tells us that these people + still hold the homa to be sacred, and from it squeeze a + juice used by them in their religious ceremonies. + + [118] See Perrot et Chipiez, "Histoire de l'Art," vol. + ii. pp. 260, 267, Pl. xiv. + + [119] See Appendix, No. 1. + + [120] India, in return, afterwards influenced Persia, + the successor of Babylon. + + [121] In India, the elephant is a very common element in + a pattern; in Egypt, the serpent; in Persia, the lion. + In animal patterns, certain emblems were grouped + together. The lion and the goose represent strength and + prudence; the lion and eagle, strength and dominion; the + lion and dove, strength and gentleness. We may see these + double emblems on Sicilian textiles. + + [122] Chinese art is crowded with symbolisms. + + [123] The double-headed eagle was the badge of Saladin, + as well as that of the Holy Roman Empire. + + [124] Ezekiel xvii. + + [125] In the earliest days of Christianity. + + [126] "A cloud pattern from which issue two clasped + hands is the device of Guizot Marchand or Guido + Mercator, printer, in 1498. He lived at the College of + Navarre."--Dibdin's "Decameron," ii. pp. 33-36. + + [127] See Gori (tom. iii. pp. 20, 84), as cited by Rock, + Introduction, p. liii. The same netted pattern was found + in the grave of an Archbishop of York of about the end + of the thirteenth century. Its name, _fundata_, is + derived from _funda_, the fisherman's net; also, in + later times, it was called _laqueata_. See Rock's + Introduction (p. liv.). See also M. Ch. Clermont + Ganneau's "L'Imagerie Phénicienne," Coupe de Palestrina; + and Chaldée et Assyrie, in Perrot and Chipiez, ii. p. + 736. Another instance is shown here of the fundata + occurring in the bronze flat bowl copied from Layard's + "Monuments," 2nd series, plate 62. The whole design of + the bowl is Babylonian, consisting of a rich border of + repetitions of the tree of life; each has the peculiar + ornament of little knobs often seen on their + head-dresses. + + [128] See Bock's "L. Gewänder," p. 129; Gori, "Thes. + Dipt." ii. pp. 20, 275; Marquardt, "Handbuch Röm. Alt." + vii. pp. 527-31 (Eng. Trans.). Authorities differ in + describing the Chrysoclavus. Sir G. Birdwood calls it a + button pattern ("Indian Arts," vol. ii. p. 241). The + "Chrysoclavus" was the name given to the palmated or + triumphal pattern with which the consular robes are + invariably embroidered in the Roman Consular ivories at + Zurich, Halberstadt, and in the South Kensington Museum. + The tenacious life of this pattern is curiously shown in + the way it appears in the fifteenth century on Italian + playing-cards. (See "Cartes à Jouer," an anonymous + French book in the print-room of the British Museum.) + The kings and knaves wear the Byzantine humeral, and the + Chrysoclavus pattern is carved on their chairs. Till + lately English playing-cards showed the same + dress-pattern. I shall discuss the Latin Clavus and the + Chrysoclavus amongst ecclesiastical embroideries, pp. + 308, 336 (_post_). + + [129] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," i. p. 125. + The date of these mural paintings may, however, be even + as late as the time of Alexander the Great. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +MATERIALS. + + +1. RAW MATERIALS. + +The history of an art must, more or less, include that of its raw +material. + +This is too true to be disputed, but in the art of embroidery it opens +out such endless avenues, through such vast regions of technical +study, that we must acknowledge the difficulty, or rather the +impossibility, of including in one volume even a tithe of the +information already collected. + +I shall, therefore, only dedicate a few pages to the history of those +fibres which have always been most important in the different phases +of our civilization. + +Among books on textile materials, I must again name the "Textrinum +Antiquorum," by Yates. His premature death, and the loss that the +world of art and manufacture has sustained by the chain of his +invaluable researches being broken, cannot be appreciated but through +the study of the first and only volume of this already rare book, from +which I venture to quote largely. + +Semper's "Der Stil" is a work of reference on this subject, so +valuable that it should, by a good translation, be placed within the +reach of non-German scholars. + +From Colonel Yule's "Marco Polo," and his abundant notes, we learn +much of Asiatic textile art in the thirteenth century, and its early +traditions in the immutable East, and Sir G. Birdwood's books on this +Indian art are most instructive. + +Egyptian textiles are splendidly illustrated by Sir Gardiner +Wilkinson. All these modern writers quote Pliny and the Periplus;[130] +and Pliny quotes all the classic authors, from Homer to his day. Here +is a wide field for gathering information regarding the materials for +embroidery in past ages. + +When we use the phrase "raw material" so glibly, with an æsthetic +contempt for that which the art of man has neither manipulated nor +reorganized, we show our own coarse appreciation, if not ignorance, of +the wonderful inherent beauty and microscopic delicacy of form, +colour, and substance of those materials which we fashion for our own +uses. + +Few know the structure of the tender filaments of wool, flax, cotton, +and silk; or that each has its peculiar form and attributes, and its +individual capabilities for the purposes for which they appear to us +to have been created, i.e. the clothing and adornment of man's dress +and his home. + +I should like to draw attention to these well-attested facts. + +Seen through a microscope, the forms of these raw materials differ +greatly. + +Flax is difficult to describe, as it varies according to the soil and +climate it comes from. Its fibre, however, has always a shiny outer +surface, and is transparent, cylindrical, and pipe-like; apparently +with breaks or joints like those of a cane. + +Cotton also varies so much in its own kind, that every description is +different and somewhat puzzling. Semper says that it approaches the +ribbon form, with thickened edges, and is like a half-cylinder twisted +spirally; but when wetted with oil, it swells into a complete +cylinder.[131] + +Wool and hair are hollow pipes without joints. Woollen fibres look +like cylindrical snakes with a scaly surface. This roughness gives +wool a clinging power which exceeds that of any other material, except +the hair of some few animals.[132] + +Silk threads consist of twin pipes laid parallel, and held together by +the varnish with which they are glazed. Silk is tough and elastic. + +The qualities needed for textile materials may be thus enumerated: +Pliability, toughness (i.e. tensile strength), and intrinsic +durability. + +Of course, the material must to a certain degree influence the style +of the fabric, and its selection must be according to the effect +intended to be produced.[133] The fashions of the day, and the needs +of the special manufacture, must greatly modify the choice of +materials, which fluctuate, often disappear, and sometimes revive +again. + +Certain materials which have been, at one period, much admired, have +been entirely lost; and indeed we may say that the only permanently +employed textiles are wool, flax, cotton, and silk, which apparently +never can be superseded. With them, all domestic requirements can be +satisfied, and all artistic and decorative fabrics produced, varied, +and perfected; and these, from all time recorded in history, have been +enriched and glorified with gold, either inwoven or embroidered. + +The game of "animal, vegetable, or mineral" might well be played with +textiles only. Nothing has been alien to the crafts which from time +immemorial have spun, woven, felted, netted, and embroidered. + +The materials now in general use, and which, once known, have never +been abandoned, I have already named, and shall discuss their history +separately; they are wool, flax, cotton, and silk. To these I must add +hemp, both wild and cultivated. + +Hemp is a kind of nettle. It was grown in Colchis, and in those cool +regions which did not produce flax. Hemp is hardly grown in India, +except to extract from it the narcotic, Cannabis Indica. It was a +northern production used throughout Scandinavia. Herodotus (iv. 14) +says, "Hemp grows in the land of the Scythians, in a wild state, but +it is now cultivated." From its Latin name, _cannabis_, comes our +canvas, which has always been much used as a ground for counted +stitches and backing for embroidery, its stiffness being its +qualification for such purposes.[134] + +Jute (a rough sort of hemp) has been long an article of commercial +importance for the manufacture of coarse-figured fabrics, dyed and +woven, sometimes embroidered. + +The fibre of the Aloe has been used in the Riviera for laces and +"macrami" (knotted fringes). + +The fibres of grasses, such as the "Honduras silk grass" (Rhea or +Ramie), valuable for beauty, fineness, and toughness, have been worked +or woven into stuffs.[135] This material is now coming into notice. + +Spartum is often named for coarse weaving;[136] also the fibres of +barks, especially those of palm branches.[137] + +Another substance of classic use, and even now employed, though rather +as a curiosity than as an article of commerce, is the silky filament +produced by the shell-fish pinna; and also the fibres of certain +sea-weeds. + +Fur and hair, especially that of camels and goats, has always been +much prized.[138] We have seen both African and Indian striped or +primitively decorated rugs of wool, touched here and there with scraps +of cotton or silk, or some other odd material; and amongst them, tufts +of human hair. The sentiment that motived the use of human hair has +been either love or hate--the votive or the triumphal. We know that +Delilah was not a stranger to this art. She wove into her web Samson's +seven locks of strength, and "fastened them with a pin" (Judges xvi.). + +In the thirteenth century it was the custom for ladies to weave their +own hair into their gifts to favoured knights. King Ris, if he had +received any such token from his lady-love, returned it with +interest; for he sent her a mantle in which were inwoven the beards of +nine conquered kings, a tenth space being left for that of King +Arthur, which he promised to add in course of time.[139] + +Leather has been from the remotest antiquity employed for the art of +embroidery, either for the ground, as in the mantle of Boadicea, made +of skins with the fur turned inwards and the leather outside, dressed, +and embroidered on the seams;[140] or else as fine inlaid and onlaid +application, as in the "funeral tent of an Egyptian queen" in the +museum at Boulac, which is certainly the earliest specimen of +needlework decoration that exists.[141] (Pl. 44.) The old Indian +embroideries in leather are generally applied one on another. The +North American Indians also embroider on leather.[142] + +Feather work will be discussed under the heading of "Opus +Plumarium."[143] + +On the surface of textiles many substances have been fastened down, in +order to give brilliancy to the general effect--skins of insects, +beetles' wings, the claws and teeth of various animals.[144] + +Asbestos linen is the only mineral substance, besides gold, silver, +and tin,[145] that has been employed in embroidery. It has the +remarkable quality of indestructibility by fire. Asbestos linen can be +cleansed by fire instead of water.[146] It is a soapy crystal, found +in veins of serpentine and cipolino in Cyprus, and other Greek +islands. Pliny says it was woven for the funeral obsequies of +monarchs, as it preserved the ashes apart, being itself unharmed by +the fires of cremation. There are several fragments existing, found in +tombs. One of these is in the British Museum.[147] + +Marco Polo speaks of a stone fibre found at Chinchin, which answers in +description to asbestos. It was spun by mixing it with threads of flax +soaked in oil; and when woven, was passed through the fire to remove +the flax and the oil.[148] + +A miraculous napkin of asbestos was long kept at Monte Casino. + +Coral, pearls, and beads of many forms have been used for the +enrichment of embroideries, and for decorating textiles. The whole +surface of the original fabric has often been entirely covered with +them, or the pattern itself has been worked in nothing else. Pearls +are constantly seen worked on dress, coats-of-arms, and embroidered +portraits. Seed pearls, large coarse pearls, and sometimes fine and +precious ones, were surrounded with gold thread embroidery. Coral was +so much used in Sicilian embroideries, and so little elsewhere, that +one gives the name of "Sicilian" to all such work; but occasionally we +find coral embroideries in Spain and elsewhere (Pl. 32). + + [Illustration: Pl. 32. + Portion of Dalmatic embroidered by Blanche, Queen of Charles IV. + of Bohemia (fifteenth century). The figures in pearls, on a + background of beaten gold. Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder." + Vol. i. taf. xi.] + +Beads of glass were common in Egypt from the earliest times, strung +together by threads so as to form breastplates rather than necklaces. +Whence beads originally came we cannot tell, but it seems that the +Phœnicians dropped them on all the shores of the world. Then, as +now, savages had a passion for beads, and civilized men and women +still admire them as trimmings. In the Middle Ages they were sometimes +worked into pictures.[149] + +In as far as materials are essential to the art of embroidery, I must +restrict myself to the history of silk, wool, flax, cotton, and gold. +With these all the finest works have been executed for the artistic +adornment of dress and hangings. All other materials have been +occasional experiments, or else were resorted to in the absence or +ignorance of the above five most important factors in our domestic +civilization. The history of wool must take precedence as being that +of the original, if not the first, of textile materials. + + +2. WOOL. + +The wool of sheep and the hair of goats were used very early in the +world's history for clothing, and probably also for hangings. The +earliest civilizations plaited, span,[150] wove, and felted them. + +There is no reason to suppose that goats and sheep preceded the +creation of man. No early fossils record them. Our sheep are supposed +by zoologists to be descended from the Argali or Ovis Ammon of +Linnæus, inhabiting the central regions of Asia.[151] + +It is possible that plaited grasses may have preceded wool. But though +certain prehistoric specimens are supposed to have been found in +Spain, yet of this there is but imperfect proof. + +The pastoral tribes wandering over those fair regions that extend from +Khotan to Arabia, following their flocks and herds, and studying where +best to feed, increase, and multiply them, and obtain from them the +finest texture of wool, are spoken of nowhere more than in the +collected books of the Old Testament, open to us all; and there we +learn how important a place these shepherds held in the world's +civilization. "Watching their flocks by night," they watched the stars +also, and they were astronomers; seeking the best pastures and fodder, +they learned to be botanists, florists, and agriculturalists. They +became also philosophers, poets, prophets, and kings.[152] Job and his +country were enriched through the breeding of sheep. The seven +daughters of Jethro, the High-priest, tended their father's flocks. + +The Arabians were always great breeders of sheep. The Greeks and +Romans, from Homer to Virgil, sang of the herdsman's life. Our Lord +Himself did not disdain to be called "the Good Shepherd."[153] + +The merchants who traded from the Arabian Gulf to Egypt, and across +thence to the shores of the Mediterranean, and the Phœnicians of +Sidon who brought overland their bales of raw material and +manufactured Oriental fabrics, knew well where to find the best goods +for their customers; and we hear frequently whence came this or that +coloured wool. Chemmis, the city of Pan, retained its celebrity in the +woollen trade down to the conquest of Egypt by the Romans. Nineveh and +Babylon encouraged the manufactures and commerce in woollen tents, +wall-hangings, and carpets. Nowhere were they so richly +embroidered.[154] + +Solomon purchased woollens from Egypt. Damascus supplied the Tyrians +with wool for their rugs. The stuffs and textile fabrics of wool, of +the Chinese, Assyrians, and Chaldeans, are recorded in the earliest +writings of the human race. How much their decoration depended on +weaving, and how much on embroidery, we cannot tell. The products of +the Babylonian looms are alluded to in the Book of Joshua,[155] and +also by Ezekiel.[156] + +Assyrian stuffs were always celebrated for their splendid colours and +various designs; among which were hunting scenes, battles, and special +emblematic adornments.[157] + +From Miletus came the wool valued most highly by the Greeks. Spain +produced the best black, and the north of Italy the best white wool. +The Narbonensian and Egyptian wools were supposed to be the most +durable, and when they became shabby, were dipped again and served +another generation. + +From Yates' account of the great variety of wools, remarkable for +their fine texture, their whiteness,[158] their blackness,[159] or +their redness, their cool or their warm tints, it is evident that the +ancients valued highly these different qualities.[160] The cloths that +were of greatest account were of the finest or the warmest kinds. The +sheep of Miletus, Attica, Megaris, and Tarentum were clothed in +jackets, in order to preserve the fineness and whiteness of their own +coats, and to protect them from being torn by the thorny bushes in +their pastures. Columella calls them the "covered" and the "soft," and +says they were often kept in the house. + +We find notices of the peculiarities of the various national breeds, +caused by the soil on which their pasture grew, and the rivers and +streams at which they drank, and these peculiarities were, if +possible, encouraged. There is evidence also that some improvement of +the breeds by crossing was practised in early times. + +As in all the life of the Greeks, the religious element had much +influence in perfecting their flocks of sheep--only the most beautiful +animals were considered worthy of sacrifice to the gods. + +A few of the rare specimens of stuffs which have been rescued from +tombs, especially in the Crimea, and in the Fayoum, in Egypt, show a +wool so fine and shining that it might be taken for silk, and the +beauty of the weaving is marvellous, and much varied in style. + +A warrior's tomb in the district of Kuban contained a funeral pall, +covering the sarcophagus, measuring at least three metres and a half +each way, woven of brown wool, in twelve narrow strips sewn together +and afterwards painted. The ground is yellowish, the design brown. The +figures repeat mythical subjects, and alternate with patterns, and +there is a border. One strip contains a scene from the story of Peleus +and Thetis. Apparently this is Attic design. The coloured dresses worn +by women of rank, and hung on the statues of the gods, were sometimes +painted, sometimes stamped, and often embroidered, and they were +nearly all of woollen fabrics. + +One of the great advantages of wool is its power of absorbing colour, +as the pigment sinks into its very fibre, instead of clinging to the +surface. It can be dyed of deeper colours than flax, cotton, or silk. + +Pliny tells us that Tanaquil combed, span, and wove her wool, and she +herself made the royal mantle which Servius Tullius used to wear, and +it was covered with a wavy pattern (undulata). Thence came the custom +that when a maiden became a bride, her attendants carried a distaff +trimmed with combed wool, and a spindle with yarn upon it. The robes +worked by Tanaquil were dedicated by Servius Tullius to the statue of +Fortune in her temple at Rome, and were still hanging there in the +days of Tiberius.[161] Pliny remarks that it was a wonder that it +neither fell from the image, nor was eaten by the moths, during five +hundred and sixty years. + +He gives us interesting details of the weaving of woollen cloths, and +speaks of the thick coarse wool with "great thick hair," used for +carpets from the time of Homer. The same passage mentions felt. He +tells us of the cloths with a curly nap, used in the days of Augustus; +of the "papaverata" woven with flowers resembling poppies; and we hear +from him of the cloth of divers colours woven in Babylon, and called +thence Babylonica; and the Alexandrian webs, with many-coloured +threads (polymita)[162], comparing them with those made in Gaul; and +those woven by the Parthians.[163] + +We have already said that the wool of Miletus was a proverbial +favourite with the Greeks. Eustathius speaks of the excellence of the +Milesian carpets and hangings. Virgil represents the virgins of Cyrene +spinning Milesian wool dyed of a deep sea-green.[164] + +In the British Museum is a fragment of Egyptian woollen or worsted +embroidery on white linen, discoloured by its use as mummy wrapping; +but the stitches of worsted remain a perfectly clear bright crimson +and indigo blue. This shows how wool absorbs the colour and retains +it. Even when the surface is faded, it can be made to emit it again by +chemical processes. + +In tombs in the Crimea have been found variously woven and adorned +woollen fabrics. There are fragments resembling in their texture a +fine rep--a sort of corded stuff; another material resembling a +woollen crêpe, or fine "nun's gauze." This veiled a golden wreath. +Then there is a stuff like what is now called "atlas"--a kind of +woollen satin. Some woollens are woven simply like linen; some are +wide, some very narrow, sewn together in strips, woven in meandering +designs. One, like a piece of Gobelin tapestry, has a border of ducks +with yellow wings and dark green heads and throats,[165] and then +another with a pattern of stags' heads. This description recalls the +specimens on plate 16 and plate 39. + +From these tombs are collected stuffs of wool, woven and embroidered +in gold with combinations of many colours; and, in fact, through this +collection, now placed in the Museum at St. Petersburg, we become +aware that 300 B.C. the Greeks had learned all the secrets of the art +of weaving wool. They, however, lost it, and it is only in India that +its continuity was never broken. Indian looms still weave, of the +finest fleeces, such shawls of Babylonian design as repeat the texture +of the ancient Greek garments. But were they Greek? or did those +beautiful woven fabrics come from Persia or India?[166] + +The first we know of Scandinavian wool for dress, is a fragment from a +Celtic barrow in Yorkshire--a woollen plaited shroud. This fabric was +an advance upon the original northern savage costume--a sheep-skin +fashioned and sewn with a fish-bone for a needle, sinews for thread, +and a thorn for a pin. But we must imagine that some use was made, +besides plaiting, of the spun wool, of which the early northern women +have left us evidence, in the whorls of their spindles, from +prehistoric times. + +Wool has always appeared to be a natural material for dress. It is +warm in winter, light in summer, and is always beautiful as it hangs +in lovely soft draperies, heavy enough to draw the fabric into +graceful curved lines, and yet capable of yielding to each movement +in little rippling folds, covering, but not concealing the forms to +which they cling. Classical draperies are explained by it. What the +Italians call the "eyes of the folds," are particularly beautiful in +woollens, and lend themselves to sculpturesque art. + +The other natural use of wool is for carpets. We have the evidence of +the imitations, in mosaic, of carpets from the stone floors in Nineveh +(now in the British Museum), that the art of weaving large and small +rugs, and the principles of composition for such purposes was at that +date well understood. The carpet-weaving traditions of Babylon appear +to have been inherited by the occupiers of the soil, as it is supposed +that the Saracens learned from Persia the art of weaving pile carpets, +and imported thence craftsmen into Spain. We can trace Persian carpet +patterns in Indian floor coverings. The Greeks called them _tapetes_; +and the Latins adopted the name; and hence the Italian _tapeti_, +French _tapis_, and our word tapestry. + +As artistic material, to which the world owes much beauty and comfort, +woollens have always played a great part in the decorations of our +houses, as of our garments. Fabrics have been made of them of every +description, from the cheapest and commonest to the most refined; but +if woollen stuffs are to be beautiful, they must be _fine_, and worked +or embroidered by hand. + +Woollens brocaded or figured are not so effective as silken hangings. +Woollen velvets are without light, dull and heavy. Still, even amongst +our English fabrics, there have always been varieties of texture[167] +and adaptations to different effects, and some are beautiful. + +Worsted thread, so called from Worsted, in Norfolk, where the +materials for weaving and embroidering are manufactured, has always +been very important in embroidery. Worsteds after a time gave way to a +very beautiful material, called "German wool," which again has yielded +the supremacy to "crewels"[168] (resembling the old worsteds). These +crewels are nearly the same in substance and in their loose texture as +the threads prepared from wool for tapestry weaving. + +We may claim, in England, the superiority in this manufacture, though +we are constantly receiving from France novelties which give us good +hints, and urge us to keep pace with the science of the Gobelins in +their woollen dyes. The French, in return, employ our wools, +especially those of Lincolnshire, in their tapestry workshops. + +The wool and hair of goats should be a study by itself. They have from +the earliest times been used in India for the finest and softest +fabrics, such as the lovely shawls of Cashmere and the neighbouring +provinces. Cloth of Tars in the Middle Ages is supposed to be what is +now called Cashmere. + + +3. FLAX. + +Boyd Dawkins tells us that "The art of spinning and the manufacture of +linen were introduced into Europe in the Neolithic age, and have been +preserved with little variation from that period to the present day, +in certain remote parts of Europe, having only been superseded in +modern times by the complicated machinery so familiar to us. The +spindle and distaff, or perforated spindle whorls, are of stone, +pottery, or bone, such as are constantly found in Neolithic tombs and +habitations. Thread from the Swiss lake cities is proved to be of +flax, and there is evidence of weaving in some sort of loom."[169] + +The meaning of the word Byssus has been disputed; some authorities +asserting that it includes both flax and cotton fabrics. Without the +aid of the microscope, the dispute as to whether the material of the +Egyptian mummy wrappings was cotton or flax, or a mixture of the two, +would never have been settled; but now that the difference of the +structure of each has been clearly ascertained, we know that cotton +was never employed in Egypt, except for certain domestic uses. The +mummy wrappings are entirely linen. Cotton was forbidden for the +priests' dress in the temple, though they might wear it when not on +duty.[170] + +There are specimens of Egyptian painted or printed patterns on fine +linen in the British Museum;[171] and it is curious to see in Egyptian +mural paintings the same patterned chintzes on furniture that were +common a hundred years ago in England. Both must have come from India, +and therefore were certainly cotton fabrics. + +Herodotus says the mummy cloths were of "byssine sindon," which may be +translated "linen cloth."[172] Cotton he calls "tree wool." + +Yates has carefully argued the whole question, and, we think, has +proved that byssus was flax, and not cotton.[173] He quotes Philo, +who certainly must have believed that it was made of flax, from the +description he gives of its appearance and qualities, which in no way +apply to cotton or hemp. He says that "The Jewish high priests wore a +linen garment of the purest byssus--which was a symbol of firmness, +incorruption, and of the clearest splendour, for fine linen is very +difficult to tear. It is made of nothing mortal, and becomes brighter +and more resembling light, the more it is cleansed by washing."[174] + +Here is another quotation: "Cloth of byssus symbolizes firm faith. Its +threads surpass even ropes of broom in firmness and strength."[175] +Pliny says the flax grown in Egypt was superior to any other, and it +was exported to Arabia and India.[176] The first known existing +fragment of flax linen in Europe was taken from the tomb of the Seven +Brothers in the Crimea. Its date is 300 B.C. + +In Solomon's time the Jews evidently depended upon Egypt for their +fine linen. Herodotus describes the corselet of Amasis, the fineness +of the linen, and the embroidered decorations of men and animals, +partly gold and partly tree wool (i.e. cotton).[177] + +All the finest linen certainly came then from Egypt, and was much +finer than any that is now made. That we call cambric, was woven there +many centuries before it was made in Cambray.[178] + +Through the Phœnicians the fine linen came to Rome, as appears +from the following notice of embroidery on linen by Flavius Vopiscus, +in his "Life of the Emperor Carinus:" "Why should I mention the linen +cloths brought from Tyre and Sidon, which are so thin as to be +transparent, which glow with purple, or are prized on account of their +laborious embroideries?"[179] + +The history of a fine embroidered linen curtain for a Roman house +might have been this:--Grown in Egypt; carried to Nomenticum (Artois), +and there woven; taken to India to be embroidered, and thence as +merchandise to Rome. + +While flax was making its way northward, the Celts must also have +taken it across Europe from their resting-place, after emigrating from +the East. The word _linen_--_lin-white_--is a Celtic epithet, whereas +_flax_ is an Anglo-Saxon word.[180] + +The Atrebates wove linen in Artois, 1800 years ago. Jerome speaks of +their "indumenta," or shirts of fine linen; and the great weavers of +to-day are still the Flemish descendants of the Atrebates. Their +Celtic descent is witnessed in the Irish by their superiority in the +crafts of the loom. + +The fine laces of Venice, France, and Belgium are all of linen, i.e. +flaxen thread. Clearness and strength in these delicate fabrics cannot +be obtained with cotton, which, especially when it is washed, swells +and fluffs, and never has the radiant appearance and purity of flax. + +Embroidery is always a natural accompaniment of fine linen. Those that +are still preserved to us from early and Middle-Age times are nearly +all on linen, if not on silk. The woollen fragments are very few and +imperfect. They have been invariably "fretted" by the moth. + +White needle embroidery is mostly worked in linen-thread, though +cotton-thread has been used a great deal, and is very fit for the +purpose. + + +4. COTTON. + +Cotton was native to India,[181] as flax was to Egypt. It not only was +grown, woven, and printed there from the remotest antiquity, but was +cultivated nowhere else. The Egyptians do not appear to have grown it +till the fourteenth century A.D., though they had long imported it as +raw material, and as plain and printed webs.[182] It was called +tree-wool. + +It was first woven in Italy in the thirteenth century, and used for +making paper; and in the sixteenth, the plant was grown in the south +of Europe. From Italy it was carried into the Low Countries, and only +reached England in the seventeenth century,[183] so lately has the +great staple of our manufactures first belonged to us. + +The fibre of cotton has neither the strength nor the durability of +flax or silk, but it is the third in the group of the most universally +qualified materials for all purposes of domestic textile art, ranging +from carpets and sails, to fine chintzes for dress, and filmy muslins. +The cloudy effect of these delicate fabrics is their own peculiar +beauty. Muslins for hangings, printed or embroidered, have always +been a luxury from India; they were called "carbasa," and were much +esteemed in Rome as a protection against the sun.[184] + +But we have much earlier notice of them, as being the curtains +described in the Book of Esther, hung with silver rings to the pillars +of marble in the banqueting hall at Susa or Shushan: "blue and white +muslin" (i.e. carpas,[185] mistranslated "green" in the Authorized +Version), "fastened with cords of fine linen and purple." + +The word "carbasina" occurs in a play by Statius, evidently translated +from a writer of the new Greek comedy period. It may be inferred, +therefore, that the Greeks used cotton 200 B.C.[186] A century before, +Nearchus (one of Alexander's admirals) speaks of the cotton-trees in +India as if they were a new discovery. Yates gives us many quotations +from Latin classical authors, proving the common use of cotton. Its +Latin name was _bambacinum_, from _bombax_, hence the Italian +_bambagio_, _bambagino_, _bambasino_. + +The variety of cotton fabrics in India is very numerous, each having +its distinctive beauties and qualities inherited by tradition from +early times. They are enumerated and described in Sir G. Birdwood's +"Arts of India." Almost all of them have been made to carry +embroideries--the transparent muslins,[187] as well as the fine +cloths, and the stronger and thicker fabrics.[188] + +Most old English houses contain some hangings of thickly woven cotton, +probably Indian, worked in crewel or worsted, of the time of James I., +or a little earlier; and beautiful patterns wrought in silk or thread, +on fine cotton linen, reminding one of the arabesques of the Taj +Mahal, succeeded those of the Jacobean style. + +Transparent muslins were often embroidered in gold and silver, or +spangled and embossed with beetles' wings; and gold, silver, and silk +were lavished on Indian cotton grounds, as well as on silken stuffs. +Linen was not much embroidered in India, but often printed like +chintz. + +Buckram, or plush of cotton, was certainly imported from the East to +England, from the thirteenth century to the time of Elizabeth. There +is at Ashridge, in Hertfordshire, a small jacket of very fine +cotton-plush amongst the baby linen prepared by Elizabeth for the +expected heir of Philip and Mary, and there are other small dresses of +this material of the date of James I. A similar material called +fustian is also named by Marco Polo as a cotton fabric; it is supposed +to have been made in Egypt by the Arabs. This sort of cotton-plush, +variously manipulated, is repeatedly mentioned by Herr Graf'schen in +his "Catalogue of Egyptian Textiles from the Fayoum." + +Plano Carpini says the tunics of the Tartars were "bacramo," or else +of baudichin (cloth of gold). Falstaff's "men in buckram" may be thus +explained.[189] + +I have already said that cotton is inferior in its qualities to silk +and flax, except in the production of transparent muslins. Its +peculiarity is its tendency to "crinkle" or crumple in wearing, +therefore it does not present a smooth flat surface, except by means +of dressing, which unfits it for clinging effects but suits printed +patterns. Such stuffs as workhouse sheeting, imitating certain fabrics +of the sixteenth century, and which it has been the fashion of late to +cover with embroidery, do not repay, by effective beauty, the trouble +bestowed upon them. + + +5. GOLD. + +A somewhat profane French writer, giving his ideas on the Creation, +says that gold, the latest metal, was expressly created for the +demoralization of mankind. This is an ugly version of the fact that it +is found on the surface of the earth's crust, and that its beauty and +worth makes it a desirable possession for which men will ever contend. + +Gold adorns every work of the artistic animal--man. It is the most +becoming setting to all other beautiful things, the most gorgeous +reflection of light and colour, the richest and softest background, +the most harmonious medium for high lights. In all works of decoration +it represents sunshine where it is not, and doubles it where it is. +The word "illumination" in books belongs to the gilded illustrations +of immortal thoughts. + +In embroideries, as grounding or as pattern, gold gives the glory: +"Her clothing is of wrought gold." The raiment of needlework is +comparatively ineffective without golden lights or background. As +colour, it never can offend the eye, except when used to accentuate +aggressively a vulgar pattern, or when it flashes and dazzles from +over-polish and too lavish expenditure. + +Silver follows gold as a splendid element in decoration,[190] but it +is not of such universal application and use; and when employed +together, the proportion of gold should preponderate. Golden tissues +belong to the earliest civilizations. + +Sir G. Birdwood says that "The art of gold brocades is older than the +Code of Manu.... The excellence of the art passed in the long course +of ages, from one place to another; and Babylon, Tarsus, Alexandria, +Baghdad, Damascus, Antioch, Tabriz, Sicily, and Tripoli successively +became celebrated for their gold and silver-wrought tissues, silks, +and brocades.... Through every disguise (and mingling of style) it is +not impossible to infer the essential identity of the brocades with +the fabrics of blue, purple, and scarlet, worked in gold, of ancient +Babylonian art."[191] + +The Israelites wove gold with their coloured woollens for the use of +the sanctuary, and probably brought the art from Egypt; though I am +not aware of any gold-woven stuffs from Egyptian tombs.[192] + +Indian and Chinese stuffs were from time immemorial woven with gold. + +The historians of Alexander the Great continually name gold as a +material in dress.[193] Arrian, Justin, and Quintus Curtius, all speak +of golden tissues as part of the luxury of the East. + +We hear of Darius' dress woven with golden hawks; and of the golden +spoils of Persepolis; the dresses worn by Alexander's generals, and +all his attendants clothed in purple and gold. Then, perhaps, the +Babylonian tradition was brought to Europe; and ever after, purple and +gold became the state apparel for courtiers as well as kings.[194] + +The hangings of scarlet, purple, and gold used at the nuptials of +Alexander, and at his funeral, and his pall of the same material, point +to the fact that gold was a recognized element in splendid textile +weaving, as well as in the earliest ornamental embroideries.[195] + +Attalus II., king of Pergamus, was credited with being the inventor of +gold weaving, but this must have been a mistake, as it was practised +long before his time; but he may have devised some splendid golden +tissues, which were called "Attalic," in honour of the king's +patronage.[196] As, however, the gold flat plate or wire was probably +that woven before his time,[197] it is possible that he may have +invented or patronized the making of thread of gold, by twining it +round flax or cotton.[198] + +Pliny says gold may be woven or spun like wool without any admixture +of wool or flax,[199] and he quotes as examples the golden garment of +Agrippina, and that worn by Tarquinius Priscus, mentioned by Verrius. + +It appears that the Egyptians knew the art of drawing gold wire, as +some pieces have been found in their jewellery;[200] but we know not +by what process it was worked, either then, or in the dark ages. + +A mechanic of Nuremberg, in the fourteenth century, invented a machine +for the purpose; and this art of drawing wire was introduced into +England 200 years later, in 1560. + +The pure cut gold was in use in Rome to a late date.[201] St. Cecilia, +martyred 230 A.D., was buried with her golden mantle lying at her +feet; and in 821, when Pope Pascal opened her grave, he found the +evidence of her martyrdom in that splendid garment, showing that it +had been soaked in blood.[202] + +There were found under the foundations of the new Basilica of St. +Peter's, the bodies of Probus Anicius and his wife, Proba Faltonia, in +a wrapping of gold. + +Dr. Rock gives us more examples,[203] but we will only add that of the +wife of the Emperor Honorius, who in the year 400 A.D. was buried in +a golden dress, which in 1544 was removed from her grave, and being +melted, weighed 36 lbs.[204] + +The Anglo-Saxon tomb opened at Chessell Down, in the Isle of Wight, +contained fragments of a garment or wrapping woven with flat gold +"plate." These remains are now in the British Museum. + +Childeric was buried at Tournai, 485 A.D., and his dress of strips of +pure gold was discovered and melted in 1653. But gold _thread_ also +was then very generally used in weaving gold tissues. + +Claudian describes a Christian lady, Proba, in the fourth century, +preparing the consular robes for her two sons on their being raised to +the consulate:[205]-- + + "The joyful mother plies her knowing hands, + And works on all the trabea golden bands; + Draws the thin strips to all the length of gold, + _To make the metal meaner threads enfold_." + +Pure gold was woven in the dark ages in England. St. Cuthbert's +maniple at Durham is of pure gold thread. John Garland says the ladies +wove golden cingulæ in the thirteenth century; and Henry I., according +to Hoveden, was clothed in a robe of state of woven gold and gems of +almost "divine splendour."[206] + +A wrapping of beautiful gold brocade covered the coffin of Henry III. +when his tomb was opened in 1871.[207] + +The cope of St. Andrew at Aix, in Switzerland, is embroidered in a +very simple pattern, with large circles containing St. Andrew's +crosses.[208] This is worked in silver wire gilt, and is Byzantine of +the twelfth century. + +In the writings of the Middle Ages we find constant reference to +different golden fabrics. Among them are "samit" or "examitur" (a +six-thread silk stuff, preciously inwoven with gold threads);[209] and +"ciclatoun,"[210] which was remarkable for the lightness of its +texture, and was woven with shining gold threads--but though light, it +was stiff enough to carry heavy embroidery. We hear also of +"baudekin," "nak," and cloth of pall. "Camoca" is "kincob." + +There appears to be a link between embroidery in gold and the +jewellers' work which in the Dark and Middle Ages was so often applied +to ecclesiastical and royal dress and hangings. This link was beaten +gold work, "aurobacutos," "beaten work," or "batony."[211] Beauchamp, +Earl of Warwick in the time of Henry VI., went over to France, having +a "coat for my lord's body, beat with fine gold (probably heraldic +designs). For his ship, a streamer forty yards long and eight broad, +with a great bear and griffin, and 400 'pencils' with the 'ragged +staff' in silver." This mode lasted some time; for in 1538, Barbara +Mason bequeathed to a church a "vestment of green silk beaten with +gold." Probably this beaten gold was really very thick gold-leaf laid +on the silk or linen ground, as we see still in some Sicilian and Arab +tissues. The embroidered banners taken from Charles le Téméraire, at +Grandson, are finished with broad borders of gilded inscriptions, such +as might be called beaten gold work.[212] + +But besides this thick gold-leaf, there was another mode of enriching +embroideries. Laminæ of gold were cut into shapes, and finished the +work by accentuating the design in Eastern embroideries; They are +found also in Greek tombs, and in the Middle Ages they varied from the +little golden spangle to many other forms--circular rings, stars, +crescents, moons, leaves, and solid pendant wedges of gold, all which +approached the art of the goldsmith. + + [Illustration: Fig. 19. + Spangles.] + +Enamel was soon added to the enrichment of these golden spangles, +plates, or discs, which were enlarged to receive a design.[213] Of +this style of embellishment we know none so striking as the saddle in +the Museum at Munich, said to have been taken from a Turkish general +in the fifteenth century. This is Italian of the finest cinque-cento +style: blue velvet, covered with beautiful gold embroidery, and +every vacant space filled with spangles of endless forms, and of +precious goldsmiths' and enamellers' work. The Persian stirrups +attached to it are of a totally different style of enamelling and +jewellery, and speak for themselves, and for the school they came +from.[214] + + [Illustration: Pl. 33. + Window Hanging, by Gentil Bellini, from a Portrait of Mahomet II., + property of Sir H. Layard.] + +Dr. Rock describes part of a chasuble wrought by Isabella of Spain and +her maids of honour, in which the flowing design is worked out in +small moulded spangles of gold and silver, set so as to overlap each +other and give the effect of scales. + +To a late period, gold and silver embroideries, enriched with +spangles, have been lavished on the head-dresses and stomachers of the +peasantry throughout the north of Europe and Switzerland.[215] + +Pearls and gems, either threaded like beads, or in golden settings, +are to be studied in the early pictures of the German and French +schools; and the Anglo-Saxons excelled in such enrichments. + +Sir Henry Layard has a portrait of the fifteenth century, of the +Sultan Mahomet II., by Gentil Bellini, from which has been copied the +accompanying beautiful embroidered design of a window-hanging.[216] +The grace of the lines, and the delicate taste with which the gems are +set in the work, are a lesson in art (pl. 33). + +India sent to Europe more art in gold thread than has ever been +produced amongst us from our own workshops.[217] + +The people of Goa, mostly Arabs, embroidered for the Portuguese those +wonderful fabrics, glittering with gold and radiant with colours, +which cover the beds and hang the rooms throughout Portugal and +Spain.[218] The precious metals (often forming the whole grounding) +were employed without stint; the patterns being either embroidered in +coloured silks and gold; or on velvets or satins, with gold alone or +mixed with silver. + +The fine gold threads for embroidery, which have preserved their +brilliancy for so many centuries, such as we find worked in +Charlemagne's dalmatic, in Aelfled's maniple, and in the mitres of +Thomas à Becket, are certainly Oriental. To England they came in the +bales of the merchants who brought us our silk, and even our needles, +from India. Later we imported and copied the different ways of giving +effect to inferior metals, and the Spaniard's gilt parchment thread +reached us from their Moorish manufactories.[219] + +Designs were sometimes, in the sixteenth century, worked in gold +twisted with coloured silks, sometimes only stitched down with them. +The badges of the Order of the Dragon, instituted by the Emperor +Sigismund, were thus embroidered, and placed on the cloaks of the +knights. The work was so perfect that it resembled jewels of enamelled +gold. Two ancient ones are in the Museum at Munich. + +Gold or silver or base metal wire was, in the later Middle Ages and +down to our own times, much employed in the form of what is called +"purl," i.e. coiled wire cut into short lengths, threaded on silk, and +sewn down. German, Italian, and English embroideries were often +enriched with this fabric. Sometimes the wire was twisted with +coloured silks before it was coiled. There are beautiful specimens of +this work of the days of Queen Elizabeth. + +Still, throughout Europe the best works were carried out with the best +materials, and these always came from the East. But we sometimes find +that the pressure of circumstances has for a time caused the +employment of adulterated metals that have perished; and thus many +fine works of art have been spoiled.[220] + +The use of bad materials has therefore been as unfortunate for art as +that of pure gold, which has tempted so many ignorant persons to burn +golden embroideries and tapestries, and melt down the ore they +contain. How little of all that human skill and invention have +carefully elaborated is now preserved to us! To gold and silver +textiles their materials have been often a fatal dower. + +It has sometimes puzzled any but the most experienced embroiderers to +distinguish between the stuffs woven with the golden threads on the +surface, and finely brocaded or patterned in the loom; and those other +cloths, embroidered by hand, which have been so manipulated that +hardly an atom of the gold can be detected at the back. This is done +by a technical mode of treating the surface, which is more easily +shown than described. The gold is really drawn into the spaces between +the threads of the canvas or linen grounding, but never pulled +through. For many reasons this is an advantage, and when executed +cunningly, as it was in England in the twelfth century, it is rich, +beautiful, lasting, and economical. It is a peculiar mark of the "opus +Anglicanum," and it is to be seen in the mitre at Munich, where this +stitch is employed on a white satin ground;[221] also in the working +of the two pluvials at San Giovanni Laterano at Rome, and at the +Museum at Bologna, as well as that at Madrid, which are all three +English of the thirteenth century, by design as well as by stitches. + +I cannot close this chapter without naming the many schools of gold +embroidery in Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain. The King of +Bavaria has an establishment for gold work, and this is very finely +carried out, highly raised, and richly designed.[222] In Spain there +is also a Royal School, where stately works are executed. + +It is to be regretted that the modern designs are motiveless, and not +so beautiful as the old ones, and it is very difficult to have any +ancient piece of work copied exactly. Little modernisms creep in +wherever the pattern has to be fitted into a new shape; for the +accomplished needlewoman is seldom an artist. + +All honour is due to certain manufacturers at Lyons who are working in +the spirit of the old masters, and have been seriously considering how +best to reproduce the beautiful soft surface of the gold thread of +which the secret was lost in the fifteenth century.[223] + +The old Chinese flat gold was, about the sixteenth century, superseded +by what was manufactured in Spain, and is no longer imported or, +perhaps, even made. + + +6. SILK. + +The origin and history of silk is learnedly and elaborately discussed +in Yates' "Textrinum Antiquorum." He gives us his authorities, and +literal translations for the benefit of the unlearned, who cannot read +the original texts. I have availed myself without hesitation of his +quotations, and of the carefully considered opinions he has drawn from +them. + +It has been already said that wool and flax preceded silk in Egyptian, +Greek, and Roman manufactures. There is no certain mention of silk in +the Books of the Old Testament.[224] Silk is, however, named in the +Code of Manu.[225] + +No shred of silk has been found in any Egyptian tomb, nor till +lately, and with one exception only, in those of the Greeks. + +Auberville says, "La soie ne fit son apparition en Europe que 300 ans +avant notre ère."[226] + +Pamphile, daughter of Plates, of Cos, is said by Aristotle to have +there first woven silk (300 B.C.). Probably raw silk was brought to +Cos from the interior of Asia, and Pamphile is by some supposed to +have "effilèd" the solid manufactured silks, and woven them again into +gauzy webs. Yates suggests that it is possible that Pamphile obtained +cocoons and unwound them, as the passage in Aristotle may be so +interpreted. + +The specimen of early silk-weaving which we have above alluded to, was +taken out of the "Tomb of the Seven Brothers" at Kertch, in the +Crimea, and is of the third century B.C. It consists of several bits +of very transparent painted silk. These fragments are an actual and +yet a contemporary witness to the truth of the tradition of Pamphile's +Coan webs, which are of the same date: possibly they were her +handiwork. + + [Illustration: Pl. 34. + 1. Classical Silk. Greek. (Semper's "Der Stil," p. 192.) 2. + Classical Silk. Roman. (Auberville, pl. 4.)] + +Whether Pamphile's silk gauzes were the only fine webs of Cos,[227] is +a disputed question. She has the credit of being the first to clothe +victorious generals in triumphal garments, and she has been +immortalized by her cleverness and industry. Both Aristotle and Pliny +assert that she first invented the Coan webs, and that some of them +were of silk is undoubted. The question is, How came it there? +whence and by what route? and what country was its original home and +birthplace? + +After stating the _pros_ and _cons_ of the question, how and where did +silk first make its appearance, Sir G. Birdwood concludes that both +the worm and the cocoon were known to the Greeks and Romans, by report +and rare specimens, from the time of Alexander's return from his +Indian campaign.[228] + +Of course the remains of these fabrics are extremely scarce; and, in +fact, only two are at present known to me besides the Kertch specimen. +The first is given in Semper's "Der Stil," and is evidently classical +Greek or Roman; but the silk material might have been effilèd from an +Oriental stuff (pl. 34, No. 1). The second must have been originally a +Roman pattern, modified by the Persian loom in which it was woven. +This may have been a Roman triumphal robe of the date of Julius Cæsar +(pl. 34, No. 2). + +It is clear that Chinese silken stuffs were not generally known in +Southern Europe till the time of Julius Cæsar, who displayed a +profusion of silks in some of his splendid theatrical representations. + +How silk first arrived from the East is disputed; some say it came by +the Red Sea, and other authorities believe it was brought from China, +_viâ_ Persia, by land. + +But it is not necessary that it should have entered our civilization +by only one gate. The Periplus Maris Erythræi makes frequent mention +of the trade in silks, through India, by the Indus to the coasts of +the Erythrean Sea. They were also brought through Bactria to Barygaza, +near Surat, from a city called Thina (China?). The author of the +Periplus, of course, refers to some place in the country vaguely +called Serica.[229] + +That the trade which brought it into Europe was difficult and +limited, is proved by the fact that silk continued, even as late as +the third century of our era, to be an article of luxury, of which the +manufacture and use continued to be the subject of legal enactments +and restrictions, for 600 years after Pamphile's first essay in +silk-weaving in Cos. + +"The Seres" was the name given by the ancients to the nation which +produced silk; and it was undoubtedly that accepted for the distant +region now called China, including Corea, and later, the kingdom of +Khotan. The first mention of these people as a distinct nation is by +Mela (iii. 7), who speaks of them as an "honest people, who bring what +they have to sell, and return for their payments."[230] + +The prevailing idea amongst the Greeks was that silk was combed from +the trees. Seneca says:-- + + "Nor with Mæonian needle mark the web, + Gathered by Eastern Seres from the trees." + + Seneca the Tragedian, "Herc. Ætæus," 644.[231] + +This was, till lately, believed to be only a fiction, intended to hide +the truth and enhance the value of the new Coan material. But it is +now ascertained that some of the wild silk in China is carried by the +silkworm round the trees, wrapping them up, as it were, in large, +untidy cocoons; so that, as usual, tradition had truth for its +foundation. + +There was always much mysterious report about the new material. +Dionysius Periegetes tells of a barbarous people called the Seres, +who "renounce the care of sheep and oxen, but who comb the coloured +flowers of the desert, and with them produce woven precious stuffs, of +which they make figured garments, resembling the flowers of the field +in beauty, and in texture the web of the spider."[232] + +There is no doubt that as Egypt was the first to weave linen, and +India to produce cotton textiles, so in China originated the material +of silk and its manufacture. + +M. Terrien de la Couperie, who has deciphered the Archaic books of the +Chinese Records, sees there excellent linguistic proofs that the +Chinese nation was originally a fragment of the first Babylonian +civilization. He there finds that when these Accadians arrived on the +furthest eastern coast of Asia, they met with and enslaved an +aboriginal race, who already cultivated the silkworm, and wove and +worked its produce, and were called by them "the Embroiderers."[233] + +This is supposed to have been an historical event contemporary with +the life of Abraham, and, therefore, 5000 years old. + +The Chinese say that Tekin or Sin, the son of Japhet, instructed his +children in painting, sculpture, and embroidery, and in the art of +preparing _silk_ for different woven fabrics.[234] + +Whether we are justified or not in believing in so very early a date, +at any rate we must remember that it is now ascertained that silk was +used in China 2600 years before our era. + +Auberville says there is a legend that the Empress Si-ling-chi[235] +(2600 B.C.) had the happy inspiration to invent the unwinding of the +cocoon before the insect cut the threads; and for this discovery she +was placed among the divinities. + +Before her time, they had certainly for more than 300 years used the +precious material in its mutilated condition.[236] + +Some centuries later the Emperor Chan received tribute in linens and +silken stuffs. Tissues of many colours were painted or richly +embroidered.[237] + +In the second century A.D., a prince of Khotan,[238] Kiu-sa-tan-na, +was desirous of obtaining from China the eggs of the silkworm, but his +request was refused; and it was prohibited that either eggs of the +silkworm or seed of mulberry-trees should cross the border. + +Then the King of Khotan asked for a Chinese princess in marriage, and +this favour being granted, he found means to inform the lady privately +that in her future kingdom she would find no silk to weave or work. +The dread of such an aimless life roused all her womanly instincts. +Defiance of the law, love of smuggling, and the wish to please her +husband and benefit her future people, gave her courage to conceal the +eggs and seeds in the folds of her dress and the meshes of her +beautiful hair, and so she carried a most precious dower into her +adopted country.[239] Thus was broken the spell which for more than +3000 years had confined the secret of China within the fence of its +wonderful wall; and later on, A.D. 530, the eggs were brought to +Byzantium.[240] + +From China, therefore, comes our silk.[241] We may say it is traced to +the beginning; but how far back had the archæologist to grope before +he could find it! + +I transcribe a few more quotations from Yates' translations and +authorities.[242] + +In the Hippolytus of Euripides, 383, Phædra _loquitur_:-- + + "Remove, ye maids, the vests whose tissue glares + With purple and with gold; far be the red + Of Syrian murex; this the shining thread + Which furthest Seres gathers from the boughs." + +Lucan describes the transparent material which veiled Cleopatra's +form:-- + + "Her snowy breast shines through Sidonian threads, + First by the comb of distant Seres struck; + Divided then by Egypt's skilful hand, + And with embroidery transparent made." + +Pliny's account of silk and its manufacture is mostly fanciful, though +founded on half-known facts. + +The Latin poets of the Augustan age speak of silk attire with other +luxurious customs from the East.[243] The Roman senate, in the reign +of Tiberius, decreed that only women should wear silk, on account of +its effeminacy. + +Silk was accumulated for the wardrobes of the empresses till A.D. +176, when Marcus Aurelius, "the Philosopher," sold all the imperial +ornaments and the silken robes of his empress by auction in the Forum +of Trajan.[244] + +We learn that silk was precious and fabulously esteemed to the end of +the second century A.D.; but it is seldom mentioned in the third +century. + +Ælius Lampridius speaks of a silken cord with which to hang himself, +as an imperial extravagance on the part of Heliogabalus (and of this +only one strand was silk); and he mentions that Alexander Severus +rarely allowed himself a dress of silk (holosericum), and only gave +away robes of partly silken substance. + +Flavius Vopiscus says that Aurelian had no dress wholly of silk +(holosericum).[245] His wife begged him to allow her a shawl of purple +silk, and he replied, "Far be it from me to permit thread to be +reckoned worth its weight in gold!"--for a pound of gold was then +worth a pound of silk. + +Flavius Vopiscus further states that the Emperor Carinus, however, +gave away silken garments, as well as dresses of gold and silver, to +Greek artificers, players, wrestlers, and musicians.[246] + +Yates gives us a translation of an edict of Diocletian, giving a +maximum of prices for articles in common use in the Roman empire. It +reads like a tailor's or a dress-maker's bill of to-day:-- + + DENARII. + To the tailor, for lining a fine vest 6 + To the same, for an opening of an edging of silk 50 + To the same, for an opening and an edging of a mixed + tissue of silk and flax 30 + For an edging of a coarser vest 4[247] + +A monument at Tivoli is erected to the memory of his estimable wife, +Valeria Chrysis, by "M. N. Poculus, silk manufacturer." This was +probably an imperial office in the fourth century.[248] + +From the first to the sixth centuries, poets and historians +continually speak of silk,[249] praising its beauty or blaming it as +extravagance or luxury; but according to Yates, all the information we +collect from these sources requires to be tested as to accuracy, and +is often erroneous. + +I have spoken of the first silk-weaving in Cos, 300 B.C. The first +arrival of the silkworm in Europe was in the sixth century, 900 years +later. Cosmas Indicopleustes and another monk brought eggs from China +in the hollow staves they carried in their hands. This was a great +event in European commerce. The eggs were solemnly presented to the +Emperor Justinian, and the monopoly of their cultivation is to be +found in his law-ordaining codex.[250] + +The monopoly of the silk manufactures was confined to the area of the +imperial palace of Constantinople, but the cultivation of the worm +gradually spread over Greece, Asia Minor, and India. + +The first allusion to the use of silk in the Christian Church is by +Gregory Nazianzen (A.D. 370), "Ad Hellenium pro Monarchis Carmen:" +"Silver and gold some bring to God, or the fine thread by Seres +spun."[251] Basil illustrates the idea of the resurrection by the +birth of the butterfly from the cocoon.[252] + +Paul the Silentiary (A.D. 562) alludes to the frequent use of silk in +the priests' vestments at the Church of St. Sophia at Constantinople. + +Bede relates that the first Abbot of Wearmouth went to Rome for the +fifth time in A.D. 685, and brought back with him two scarves or palls +of incomparable workmanship, and entirely of silk, with which he +purchased land of three families at the mouth of the Wear. Bede's own +remains were wrapped in silk. + +Auberville gives us, in his "Tissus," specimens of Roman silks between +the first and seventh centuries, but he cannot fix their exact +date.[253] + +The finest webs of Holosericum from the imperial looms were generally +bestowed upon the Church, and thus consecrated, the earliest +ascertained specimens that have survived have been preserved; and of +these, most have been found in the tombs of saints, bishops, and kings +who were buried in priestly as well as in royal garments.[254] + +Among the silk and satin fabrics, the tissue called "Imperial" is +mentioned by several early English authors. Roger de Wendover and +Matthew Paris describe the apparition of King John as clad in "royal +robes of Imperial."[255] William de Magna Villa brought from Greece, +in 1170, a stuff called Imperial, "marbled" or variegated, and covered +with lions woven in gold. + +In the Eastern Empire, this industry after a time fell into the hands +of the Jews; and in 1161, Benjamin of Tudela says the city of Thebes +contained about 2000 Jewish silk-weavers. + +The breeding of the worm in Europe seems to have been confined to +Greece from the time of Justinian to the twelfth century; but in 1148, +Roger, King of Sicily, brought as prisoners of war, from Corinth, +Thebes, and Athens, many silk-weavers, and settled them at Palermo. +"Then might be seen Corinthians and Thebans of both sexes, employed in +weaving velvet stoles interwoven with gold, and serving like the +Eretrians of old among the Persians."[256] + +Hugh Falcandus[257] has left a description of the Royal manufactory at +Palermo, and the Hotel de Tiraz which absorbed all the smaller +Saracenic factories already started. The Hotel de Tiraz had four +great workshops, in which were separately carried on the weaving of +plain tissues, velvets, examits and satins, and flowered stuffs +(damasks), and lastly, gold brocades and embroideries. It was from the +last that proceeded the real works of art, and the embroideries with +pearls and precious stones.[258] The highest efforts of the loom were +apparently finished with the needle,[259] as in the figured textiles +of Egypt. + +The continuity of Sicilian textile designs from the sixth to the +sixteenth centuries (a thousand years) is very remarkable. Owing to +its originally strongly stamped Oriental character, great knowledge of +the arts of weaving, spinning, and dyeing silk is required to enable +any one to assign an exact date to materials which only remodelled +their style three times. + +Dr. Rock's rules for deciphering these three dates may, however, be +easily learned, as they are broad and simple. In his comprehensive +"Introduction to the Textiles in the Kensington Museum" (p. lxvii) he +says that the three defined periods of silk-weaving in Sicily are: +First, from the time of Justinian to the Hohenstaufen (from the sixth +to the twelfth century); secondly, from the accession of Frederick I. +(Barbarossa), 1152, to Charles IV., 1347 (twelfth to fourteenth +centuries); the third period is of one century only, from 1347 to +1456. + +The first period especially shows African animals, such as the giraffe +and the different kinds of antelopes, mixed with Arabian mottoes; and +the patterns are generally woven with gold. This is merely gilt +parchment, the silk being mingled with cotton. + + [Illustration: Pl. 35. + Peacock Pattern. Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.] + +The second period, beginning in the twelfth century, shows the arrival +of Count Roger's Persian and Greek workmen, captives from Thebes, +Corinth, and Athens. The fresh designs show fragments of Greek taste, +such as masks and foliage, and give one a slight foretaste of the +Renaissance.[260] + +These semi-classical echoes are contemporary in the Sicilian looms +with such Norman motives as a crowned sovereign riding with a hawk +upon his wrist. + +This description singularly applies to the relics removed from the +tomb of St. Cuthbert, at Durham, in 1827; among which are fragments of +three wrappings, or garments of silk, so suggestive of the artistic +traditions of many nationalities, and the long descent of patterns, +recognizable after the lapse of centuries, that a description of them, +accompanied by illustrations, can hardly fail to be interesting. They +are all now reduced by time to a rich golden brown, though there are +indications that blue, green, and red have been woven into their +fabric, and there are also on one of them traces of gilding. The first +(plate 35) shows Oriental conventional peacocks, double-headed and +collared, framed within circles which slightly intersect each other, +thus giving the opportunity for varying the original motive by +breaking up the rolling arabesqued pattern, and uniting the stems and +flowers contained in the border. The spaces between the circles are +filled in with gryphons in pairs, of the Babylonian stamp, thick +limbed with strongly-marked muscles. There is a border or guimp, +Persian in character, in which are small crosses surmounting +repetitions of the crenelated pattern found in Assyrian ornament. + +The second piece of silk contains a large rosace. Scattered about it +are repetitions of the Persian leaf or tree of life, and the border +consists of kneeling hares or fawns between a Persian arabesque and a +corded line. The mixture of Egyptian and Assyrian styles is remarkable +throughout, till we come to the centre of the rosace, where we find a +most incongruous man in armour on horseback with a hawk on his wrist, +giving the Norman stamp of the reigning house and influence in Sicily. +The central subject is exactly repeated on an embroidered twelfth +century chasuble in the treasury of the Cathedral of Bamberg, only +that a royal crown and robes are worn by the horseman (pl. 36).[261] + +The third specimen is the most noteworthy (plate 37). There is nothing +of Assyrian here, but it reminds one of Egyptian and Greek art, and at +once suggests Count Roger's Greek slaves at the Sicilian looms, but +the design is probably of a much earlier date, and the subject is +puzzling. A piece of drapery resembling an Egyptian sail with its +fringes[262] (pl. 38) is looped up on each side to the head of a +thyrsus, and above it hangs a large cluster of fruits. The lower part +of the drapery rests upon water, and is somewhat like a boat, with +ducks swimming towards it, and fish disporting themselves in the +rippling waves. Between the circles the ducks are repeated, facing a +shield enriched with rows of the crenelated pattern surmounted by a +vine. + +These fragments have belonged each to a very large and freely woven +silk shawl or mantle. The circles are about two feet across. There is +a different arrangement of the threads in each web, giving different +fine diapers, and the last described has a raised pattern which might +have been intended to represent water. + + [Illustration: Pl. 36. + NORMAN AND PERSIAN TYPE. + A Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 37. + GRÆCO-EGYPTIAN STYLE. + A Silk Wrapping on the body of St. Cuthbert. Durham.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 38. + Boat with coloured sail, from the tomb of Rameses III. at Thebes. + (Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," iii. p. 211.) Explanatory of + the design on St. Cuthbert's silk shroud, pl. 37.] + +It is most likely that in the twelfth century, or even a little +later, the body of St. Cuthbert was wrapped in these shawls, and so +left when at the Reformation, his shrine was destroyed, and the coffer +containing his remains buried in the same place, and piously concealed +till our own day. I shall describe the beautiful embroideries in which +the body had been clothed in the tenth century when I come to the +subject of English work. + +The third period of silk-weaving art is unmistakably Sicilian. At the +end of the thirteenth century and beginning of the fourteenth, Palermo +struck out her own line. The Greek cross appears in various forms. The +designs are of a wonderful richness and capricious ingenuity. They +show alike Asiatic, African, and European animals, and every kind of +mythological creature--griffins, dragons, dogs, and harts, with large +wings; swans, pheasants, and eagles, single or double-headed, often +pecking at the sun's rays; beautifully drawn foliage and flowers, and +heraldic emblems and coats-of-arms. One peculiarity of the third +period is the frequent use of green patterns on "murrey"-coloured +grounds. + +All this splendour of design was commonly lavished on poor material. +The silks continued to be mixed with cotton, and the gold, or rather +the gilding, was so base that it has almost always become black on the +foundation strips of parchment or paper.[263] + +The heraldic silks are mostly of the time of the Crusades, when the +distinguished pilgrims and warriors, especially the English, made +Sicily their half-way house to the Holy Land, and brought from thence +fabrics woven to suit their tastes. In Auberville's book we find, +under the dates of many centuries, the most remarkable fragments now +known. On portrait-tombs and in some very ancient pictures are figured +beautiful silks woven in gold, which are recognizable at once by their +Arab-Sicilian style. Of this type, the remarkable fragment of the +dress of Richard II., in the Kensington Museum, dates itself, by +carrying the cognizances of his grandfather and his mother, and the +portrait of his dog Math.[264] + +The last period of the Sicilian silks is especially marked by the +inscriptions being mostly nonsense, and only woven in as ornament, +with the forms of Arab lettering.[265] + +Sir G. Birdwood says that whether the Saracens found the manufacture +of silk already established in India or not, they certainly influenced +the decorative designs. He adds that kincobs are now woven at +Ahmedabad and Benares, identical in design with the old Sicilian +brocades; while the Saracenic Sicilian silks abound in patterns which +prove their origin in Assyrian, Sassanian, or Indian art. + +We know that the Saracens introduced colonies of Persian, and probably +Indian workmen into Spain, after the beginning of the ninth century, +to assist them in their architecture and textile manufactures, and in +return the Mogul emperors of Delhi invited many Italian and French +designers into India. + +The Taj and other buildings in Rajpootana are decorated with exquisite +mosaics coeval with those of Austin of Bordeaux. Their styles of art +in textiles, and in other materials, have acted and reacted upon each +other; and nothing throws more light on the affinities and the +development of the modern decorative arts of Europe than the history +of the introduction, under Justinian, of the silk manufactures from +the East into the West.[266] + +From Palermo, all the stages of the manufacture of silk spread +themselves over Italy and into Spain. According to Nicolo Tegrini, the +flourishing silk-weavers of Lucca having been ejected from the city in +the early part of the fourteenth century, carried their art elsewhere, +and even to Germany, France, and Britain.[267] + +Italian weavers went to Lyons in 1450, and so started the silk +industry that it has steadily increased till now. It gives employment +to about 31,000 looms and 240,000 workpeople of both sexes. + +The Moors, when they overflowed into Iberia, carried with them all +their Orientalisms, traditions, manufactures, and designs; thus +disobeying their prophet, who forbade the use of silk except to women. + +Senhor F. de Riano tells us that from the ninth to the eleventh +centuries, Spain was producing fine silk tissues. The Moorish +Cordovese writer, Ash-Shakandi, who lived in the beginning of the +thirteenth century, says, "Malaga is famous for its manufactures of +silks of all colours and patterns, some of which are so rich that a +suit made of them will cost many thousands. Such are the brocades with +beautiful designs and the names of the Caliphs, Ameers, and other +wealthy people woven into them."[268] + +The same author, speaking of the manufactures of silk at Almeria, says +that thence came the brightest colours; and Al-Makhari adds a list of +precious silk tissues, naming the "Tiraz," the "Iscalaton," and the +robes called each by its own special name.[269] Ash-Shakandi also +mentions the looms of Murcia, and its carpets.[270] + +When the Moors were driven from Spain, the silk works of Malaga and +Almeria were ruined. But those of Valencia became famous, and flourish +to this day. Talavera della Reina also produces fine ecclesiastical +fabrics, and at Toledo the ancient traditions are preserved, and they +still weave sixteenth-century designs. + +In Italy, Genoa, Florence, and Milan followed the Sicilian silk +manufactures, and each has left specimens of the craft, of which Rock +has pointed out the marked individualities. + +The rich stuffs with inscriptions inwoven in gold, in the Middle Ages, +were called "literatis." + +The designs of Lucca at first imitated the Moorish Sicilian type; and +introduced as their speciality, white figures, such as angels in white +garments, and exchanged the Oriental intricate patterns for a bolder +and simpler style. + +Venice, of course, also showed at first the Oriental impress; but she +soon struck out a line of her own; and her especial invention was +shown in weaving, from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, +square pieces of silken tissue, representing sacred subjects. + +Florentine tissues, especially their velvet and gold brocades, were +particularly splendid, and can be recognized by the loops of gold +thread drawn to the surface and left there. Of these early Florentine +gold brocades we have still beautiful examples in the palls of our +City companies and in ancient ecclesiastical vestments. The loops of +gold have been the custom since the thirteenth century, and still +prevail in certain traditional fabrics, for instance, in the banners +woven annually for the prizes at the horse races in Florence. The +Corsini family, who have for many generations and for hundreds of +years competed in these races, had, in their princely palace at Rome, +a room entirely hung with the silk of these gorgeous banners. + +In Hungary, Queen Gisela, in the eleventh century, established looms +for weaving silk; and many convents throughout Europe and in England +wove silken tissues for the service of the Church, till the great +manufactures absorbed these partially private enterprises.[271] + +Individual exertion produced copies, or motives that are taken from +Eastern, Southern, or Northern inspirations; but it is only in large +national schools of arts or crafts that an absolutely recognizable +style becomes apparent. For example, the early French silks from +monastic establishments are not remarkable for either style or texture +till the sixteenth century, when they came to the front as a national +manufacture, and have held the highest place in silk-weaving ever +since. + +The Flemish towns of Ypres, Ghent, and Mechlin were known for their +silken webs in the thirteenth century, and at that time innumerable +small schools of the craft seem to have covered Europe. They are +constantly named in the lists of fine furnishings in Germany. In +England, France, and Germany, as well as in the Low Countries, each +convent had, besides its silk-weaving looms, its workshops for +embroideries on silk, woollens, and linens, borrowing from the +Byzantine Empire, Sicily, and Spain, their designs and patterns. + +About this time (the thirteenth century), Marco Polo resided and +travelled in Asia. He visited the principal cities of Syria, Persia, +Khotan, and Cathay, and from him we have information of the different +Asiatic textiles, generally bearing the name of the city where they +were woven. He names, for instance, the mediæval "baudas" and +"baudakin" (with endless modifications in the spelling), from Baghdad. +This afterwards gave the word baldachino to the awning or canopy over +the altar, which it retained even when textiles had given place to +marbles and mosaics.[272] + +Satin is only found named in catalogues about the fourteenth century. +But the dalmatic of Charlemagne, at Rome, is embroidered on a stout +blue satin, and has never been transferred; and at Constantinople, +Baldwin II., at his coronation in 1204, was shod and clothed in +vermilion satin embroidered with jewels; while all the Venetian and +French barons present were clad in satin.[273] Semper and Bock believe +that it had been a Chinese material long before it reached Europe. + +Satin was often called "blattin," in connection with the colour of the +cochineal insect (blatta), whose dye was invariably used for satin. We +cannot tell, however, which was certainly named from the other.[274] + +In the poem of "The Lady of the Fountain," translated by Lady +Charlotte Guest from the Welsh ballads of the thirteenth century, silk +and satin are often named. At the opening of the poem, King Arthur is +described seated on a throne of rushes, covered with a flame-coloured +satin cloth, and with a red satin cushion under his elbow. + +Fiery red was the orthodox colour for satin. In old German poems we +find it described as "pfellat," always as being fiery. One kind of +pfellat was called salamander.[275] Bruges satins were the most +esteemed in the Middle Ages. Chaucer speaks of "satin riche and +newe."[276] + +Satin and velvet are the contrasting silken materials. In satin the +threads are laid along so that the shining surface ripples with every +ray of sunshine, and the shadows are melted into half-lights by the +reflections from every fold. It makes a dazzling garment, splendid in +its radiant sheen; whereas in velvet, where each thread is placed +upright and shorn smoothly, all light is absorbed and there are no +reflections, and the whole effects are solemn, rich, and deep.[277] +Some of the oldest velvets resemble plush in the length of their pile, +and have not the dignity of velvet. + +Semper, from the different derivations that have been suggested, +selects the connection of the word "velvet" (German, _Felbert_) with +"welf," the skin or fur of an animal.[278] + +Among the gifts to Charlemagne (ninth century) from Haroun el Raschid +were velvets; and the earliest existing specimen we know of is named +by Bock as being in the Pergament Codex at Le Puy, in Vendôme, where, +amongst other curious interleaved specimens of weaving, is a fine +piece of shorn silk velvet.[279] + +Marco Polo, in the thirteenth century, frequently speaks of velvet as +an Asiatic fabric. It is first known as a European textile in Lucca, +about 1295, and we may therefore say that it was imported from the +East.[280] + +In the next chapter on colour I have noticed the curious fact that the +word purple was sometimes used to mean colour, and sometimes to +express the texture of velvet, thus confounding the two; but I have +also pointed out that it had other meanings, and had become a very +comprehensive word for everything that expressed richness and warmth. + +While examining and judging embroideries, we must be careful not to +be deceived by the different dates often occurring in the grounding +and the applied materials. Much embroidery was worked on fabrics that +were already old and even worn out; and others have been transferred +centuries ago, and perhaps more than once, to fresh grounds.[281] + +This sometimes causes a good deal of difficulty in dating specimens. +One should begin by ascertaining whether the needlework was originally +intended to be cut out (_opus consutum_), and so laid on a ground of +another material, and worked down and finished there. + +Of course it is always evident and easily ascertained, whether the +work has been transferred at all. If so--and from each succeeding +transference--small fragments may be found showing on the cut edges. +You will often see remains of two or more of these layers, reminding +you of the three Trojan cities dug up at different depths under each +other at Hissarlik. + +In judging each specimen the acumen of the expert is needed to obtain +a correct opinion, and he should not only be an archæologist, but a +botanist and a herald besides;[282] and, in fact, no kind of knowledge +is useless in deciphering the secrets of human art. But even when so +armed, he is often checked and puzzled by some accidental caprice of +design or mode of weaving, and after wasting trouble and time, has to +cast it aside as defying classification. + +It is, however, as well to note these exceptions, as, when compared, +they sometimes explain each other. + +What I have said regards, of course, the historical and archæological +side of the study of textiles, and I have treated of them as being +either the origin or the imitations of different styles of embroidery, +and so inseparably connected with the art which is the subject and +motive of this book; and not only in this does the connection between +them exist, but in the fact that as embroideries always need a ground, +silken and other textiles are an absolute necessity to their +existence. + +For these reasons alone I have given this chapter on materials, short +and imperfect, but suggesting further research into the writings of +the authors I have quoted, and, I hope, exciting the interest of the +reader. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [130] Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. + + [131] It is described by Yates as having the appearance + of a flat ribbon, with the edges thickened like a hem. + + [132] This rough bark is probably the reason that it + absorbs colour into its substance (perhaps under the + scales); and it may also account for its being capable + of felting. + + [133] It may be laid down as a fundamental rule in + technical style, that the product shall preserve the + peculiar characteristics of the raw material. + Unfortunately, the artist is often ignorant of the + qualities of the fabric for which he is designing, and + the workman who has to carry it out is a mechanic, in + these days, instead of a craftsman. + + [134] Molochinus, or malva silvestris (wild hemp), + Yates, pp. 292-317, is sometimes spoken of as a mallow, + sometimes as a nettle. In the Vocabulary of Papias (A.D. + 1050) it is said that the cloth called molocina is made + from thread of mallow, and used for dress in Egypt. + Garments of molochinus were brought from India, + according to the Periplus (see Pliny, 146, 166, 170, + 171). It was seldom used by the ancients, but both + Greeks and Romans made it serve for mats and ropes. The + Thracians wove of it garments and sheets. It is not + named in the Scriptures. + + [135] See Gibbs' "British Honduras." + + [136] Spartum was a rush. Pliny says it was used for the + rigging of ships. + + [137] The bark of trees such as the Hybiscus Tiliaceus, + and that of the Birch (see Yates, p. 305-6). Birch bark + was embroidered, till latterly, by the Indian women in + North America with porcupines' quills. Pigafetta says + (writing in the sixteenth century) that in the kingdom + of Congo many different kinds of stuff were manufactured + from the palm-tree fibre. He instances cloths on which + patterns were wrought, and likewise a material + resembling "velvet on both sides." + + [138] "Camoca" or caman in the Middle Ages is supposed + to have been of camels' hair, mixed with silk. Edward + the Black Prince left to his confessor his bed of red + caman, with his arms embroidered on each corner. Rock + (p. xliv) gives us information about the tents and + garments of camels' hair found throughout the East, + wherever the camel flourishes and has a fine hairy + winter coat, which it sheds in the heat. The coarser + parts are used for common purposes, and the finest serve + for beautiful fabrics, especially shawls. Marco Polo + tells of beautiful camelots manufactured from the hair + of camels; and of the Egyptian coarse and very fine + fabrics woven of the same materials. + + [139] "Le Chevalier à Deux Epées" (quoted by Dr. Rock), + and Lady Wilton, "Art of Needlework," p. 128. + + [140] See p. 359, _post_, for Boadicea's dress. + + [141] See Mr. Villiers Stuart's "Funeral Tent of an + Egyptian Queen." + + [142] The Moors in Spain excelled in leather-work and + embroidery upon it; and Marco Polo describes the + beautiful productions of the province of Guzerat, of + leather inlaid and embroidered with gold and silver + wire. Yule's "Marco Polo," p. 383. + + [143] See chapter on Stitches. + + [144] See Chardin, vol. i. p. 31. + + [145] Tin, called "laton," was used to debase the metal + threads in the Middle Ages. It is also named as a + legitimate material for metal embroideries. + + [146] For all information about asbestos, see Yates, pp. + 356, 565. + + [147] There is one at the Barberini Palace at Rome. A + sheet, woven of asbestos, found in a tomb outside the + Porta Maggiore, is described by Sir J. E. Smith in his + "Tour on the Continent" (vol. ii. p. 201) as being + coarsely spun, but as soft and pliant as silk. "We set + fire to it, and the same part being repeatedly burnt, + was not at all injured." + + [148] See Yule's "Marco Polo," vol. i. pp. 215, 218, and + Yates, p. 361. + + [149] There are specimens of bead-work pictures at St. + Stephen's at Coire, in the Marien-Kirche at Dantzic, and + elsewhere. See Rock, p. cv. This is, in fact, mosaic in + textiles, without cement. + + [150] Witness the stone whorls for the spindles in our + prehistoric barrows, and the "heaps" of the lake cities. + + [151] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 129. + + [152] An Egyptian Dynasty called themselves the Shepherd + Kings. + + [153] Yates gives endless quotations to show how ancient + and how honourable an occupation was that of tending + sheep. + + [154] Semper, i. p. 139. The cover of the bed on which + was laid the golden coffin in the tomb of Cyrus was of + Babylonian tapestry of wool; the carpet beneath it was + woven of the finest wrought purple. Plautus mentions + Babylonian hangings and embroidered tapestries. See + Birdwood's "Indian Arts," i. p. 286. + + [155] Joshua vii. + + [156] Ezekiel xxvii. 22. + + [157] Semper, "Der Stil," i. p. 138. + + [158] Yates, pp. 79, 91, 93, 99, 102, 445. Lanæ Albæ. + + "The first, Apulia's; next is Parma's boast; + And the third fleece Altinum has engrossed." + + Martial, xiv. Ep. 155. + + Martial also speaks of the matchless Tarentine togæ, a + present from Parthenius:-- + + "With thee the lily and the privet pale + Compared, and Tibur's whitest ivory fail; + The Spartan swan, the Paphian doves deplore + Their hue, and pearls on the Erythrean shore." + + Martial, viii. Ep. 28. + + [159] The sheep of Tarentum, from the days of the Greek + colonists, were famed, as they are still, for the warm + brown tints on their black wool. Pliny says that this is + caused by the weed _fumio_, on which they browsed. + Swinburne says, in his "Travels in the Two Sicilies," + that there the wool is so tinged by the plant now called + _fumolo_, which grows on the coast. + + [160] See Blümner's "Technologie," p. 92; also "Comptes + Rendus de la Commission Impériale Archéologique" of St. + Petersburg, 1881; also the Catalogue Raisonnée of Herr + Graf'schen's Egyptian Collection of Textiles at Vienna. + + [161] See Pliny's "Natural History," viii. 74, § 191. + Tanaquil is credited with the first invention of the + seamless coat or cassock. + + [162] The Gauls in Britain wove plaids or tartans. See + Rock, p. xii; Blümner, pp. 152-54; Birdwood, p. 286. + + [163] Pliny, "Natural History," book viii., 73, 74. + + [164] "Georgics," iv. 334; Yates, p. 35. + + [165] "Comptes Rendus de la Commission Impériale + Archéologique," St. Petersburg, 1881. Much of this + Gobelin weaving has lately been found in Egypt. See + "Katalog der Teodor Graf'schen Fünde in Ægypten," von + Dr. J. Karabacek. + + [166] Semper considers that the famous Babylonian and + Phrygian stuffs were all woollen, and that gold was + woven or embroidered on them. See "Der Stil," i. p. 138. + + [167] Worcester cloth was forbidden to the Benedictines + by a Chapter of that Order at Westminster Abbey in 1422, + as being fine enough for soldiers, and therefore too + good for monks. See Rock's Introduction, p. lxxviii. + + [168] Both these fabrics are represented in Egyptian and + Greek fragments, and are equally well preserved. + + [169] Boyd Dawkins, "Early Man in Britain," pp. 268, + 275. + + [170] See Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," vol. iii. p. + 116; Yates, p. 23. + + [171] It appears that the art of printing textiles was + known in Egypt in the time of Pliny. See Yates, p. 272, + quoting Apuleius, Met. l. xi.; also see Wilkinson, + "Ancient Egyptians," vol. ii. p. 196, pl. xii. + + [172] See Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 268, 335; + Herodotus, ii. 86. Herodotus and Strabo speak of + Babylonian linen, cited by Yates, p. 281. + + [173] "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 267-80. A peculiarity + of Egyptian linen is that it was often woven with more + threads in the warp than in the woof. A specimen in the + Indian Museum, South Kensington, shows in its delicate + texture 140 threads in the inch to the warp, and 64 to + the woof. Another piece of fine linen has 270 to the + warp, and 110 to the woof. Generally there are twice or + three times as many threads, but sometimes even four + times the number. Wilkinson gives a probable reason for + this peculiarity. See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," + vol. i. chap. ix. pp. 121-226. See Rock's Introduction, + p. xiv. + + [174] De Somniis, vol. i. p. 653. Yates, p. 271. + + [175] Philo, cited by Yates, p. 271. + + [176] Paulinus ad Cytherium, cited by Yates, p. 273. + + [177] Herodotus, l. ii. c. 182, l. iii. c. 47. + Rawlinson's Trans. + + [178] Proverbs vii. 16. + + [179] Yates, p. 291. Denon describes a tunic found in a + sarcophagus, which he examined, and says: "The weaving + was extremely loose, of thread as fine as a hair, of two + strands of twisted flax fibre."--Auberville's "Ornement + des Tissus," p. 4. Some marvellously fine specimens of + such cambric may be seen at the South Kensington Museum + and the British Museum. + + [180] Not that we have any remains of flax linen from + their tombs. + + [181] It was carried thence, at a prehistoric date, to + Assyria and Egypt. + + [182] There is no proof that it was grown in Egypt till + the fourteenth century A.D., when it is mentioned for + the first time in a MS. of that date of the "Codex + Antwerpianus." See Yates, Appendix E, p. 470. + + [183] Birdwood, p. 241. + + [184] Puggaree. Yates says that cotton has always been + supposed to be the best preserver against sunstroke, p. + 341. + + [185] _Carpas_, the proper Oriental name for cotton, is + found in the same sense in the Sanskrit, Arabic, and + Persian languages. Yates, p. 341. + + [186] In the Æneid, the garment of Chloreus the Phrygian + is thus described:-- + + "His saffron chlamys, and each rustling fold + Of muslin (_carpas_), was confined with glittering gold." + + Æneid, xi. 775. + + [187] Dakka muslins are the most esteemed. Their poetic + names, "running water," "woven air," "evening dew," are + more descriptive than pages of prose. See Birdwood, ii. + p. 259. + + [188] Chintzes, calicoes, fine cloths, and strong + tent-cloths, cotton carpets, &c., &c. Forbes Watson + classifies the calicoes as being white, bleached and + unbleached, striped, &c., printed chintzes, or + pintadoes. See Birdwood, p. 260. + + [189] For Buckram and Fustian, see Rock, pp. lxxxv, + lxxxvi. In Lady Burgeweny's (Abergavenny) will, 1434, + she leaves as part of the furnishings of her bed "of + gold of swan," two pairs of sheets of Raine (Rennes), + and a pair of fustian. Anne Boleyn's list of clothes + contains "Bokerams, for lining and taynting," gowns, + sleeves, cloaks, and beds. Rock, lxxxvi. Renouard, in + his "Romaunce Dictionary," quotes the following: "Vestæ + de Polpia e de Bisso qui est bacaram." For the antiquity + of this fabric, see Herr Graf'schen's Catalogue of + Textiles from the Fayoum. + + [190] See Yates, p. 300, citing "Herod's silver + apparel." + + [191] "Indian Arts," ii. p. 237. + + [192] Rock, p. xxv. Yates (p. 3) says they cut their + gold for wearing apparel into thin plates, and did not + draw it into wire, as it is translated in the Vulgate + (Exodus xxxix.). The ephod made by Bezaleel was of fine + linen, gold, violet, purple, and scarlet, twice dyed, + with embroidered work. This tradition must have guided + the artist who designed the ephod in the National Museum + at Munich, in the seventeenth century, for a prince + boy-bishop. + + [193] Quintus Curtius says that many thousands, clothed + in these costly materials, crowded out of Damascus to + meet Alexander. + + [194] There is a very ancient local tradition at Shŭsh, + that A.D. 640, in the reign of the Kaliph Omar, the body + of the prophet Daniel was found, wrapped in cloth of + gold, in a stone coffin; and, by order of the victorious + general, it was placed in one of glass, and moored to + the bridge which spanned the branch of the Euphrates + flowing between the two halves of the city, so that the + waters flowed over it. See "Chaldea and Susiana," by + Loftus, and Sir G. W. Gore Ouseley's translation of a + Persian version of "The Book of Victories." Alexander is + said to have been buried in a glass coffin. (See + Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," ii. p. 102, note †.) + + [195] Yates, pp. 367-70; Rock, p. xxvi. + + [196] "Aura intexere eadem Asiâ invenit Attalus Rex unde + nomen Attalicis."--Pliny, viii. c. 48, and Yates, p. + 371. The reign of Attalus II. was B.C. 159-188. + + [197] "And they did beat the gold into plates, and cut + it into wires, and work it into the blue, and the + purple, and the fine linen."--Exod. xxxix. + + [198] See Yates, p. 371; and Bock, xxxiii. + + [199] Pliny, xxxiii. In the Museum at Leyden there is a + shred of gold cloth found in a tomb at Tarquinia, in + Etruria. This is a compactly woven covering over bright + yellow silk. + + [200] Gold wire is still worked through leather at + Guzerat. See Birdwood, p. 284, Ed. 1880. Marco Polo + mentions this embroidery 600 years ago. Bk. iii. chap. + xxvi. (Yule). The hunting cuirass of Assurbanipal (pl. + 1) appears to be so worked, and of such materials. Also + see Wilkinson, "Ancient Egyptians," vol. iii. p. 130. + This gold for weaving was beaten into shape with + hammers. + + [201] Pope Eutichinus, in the third century, buried many + martyrs in golden robes. + + [202] "Liber Pontificalis," t. ii. p. 332. + + [203] See Rock, pp. xxvii, xxxv; and Parker's "Use of + the Levitical Colours," p. 49. + + [204] See Yates, p. 376. + + [205] Rock, p. xxxv. The toga picta, or trabea, part of + the official dress of her sons. + + [206] Hoveden's "Annal." p. 481, Ed. Savile; Rock, p. + xxx. + + [207] See "Archæologia," 1880, pp. 317, 322; also Pl. + 74, No. 20 (_post_). + + [208] Bock, "L. Gewänder," taf. ix. vol. i. + + [209] Rock, p. xxxvii. + + [210] Ciclatoun, according to Rock, p. xxxix, is a + common Persian name for such tissues in the East. This, + in common with nasick, nak, and many other beautiful + tissues, was wrought in gold with figures of birds and + beasts.--Yule's "Marco Polo," ed. 1875, i. p. 65. + + Dr. Rock quotes the old ballad,-- + + "In a robe right royall bowne, + Of a red ciclatoune, + Be her fader's syde; + A coronall on her hede sett, + Her clothes with byrdes of gold were bette + All about for pryde." + + [211] In St. Paul's in London there was formerly an + amice adorned with the figures of two bishops and a + king, hammered out of silver, and gilt. Dugdale, ed. + 1818, p. 318. See also Rock, pp. xxix-xxxii. + + [212] Museum at Berne. + + [213] A piece of Venetian work to be seen at the South + Kensington Museum is an altar frontal, worked in coral, + gold beads, seed pearls, and spangles. All jewellers' + work, including enamel, was much admired and introduced + into their embroideries. (See Rock's Introduction to + Catalogue of the Kensington Museum, pp. civ-cviii, ed. + 1870.) + + [214] On this gorgeous piece of Italian art there are + added a number of buttons (for we can give them no other + name), with crosses and hearts under crystal, which seem + to have belonged to another period and workmanship, or + else are to be attributed to a superstitious feeling on + the part of the maker, who placed these Christian signs, + perhaps, surreptitiously, and for the good of his own + soul. + + [215] The Museum of National Art at Munich has a fine + collection of gold and silver, spangled, and black bead + head-dresses, now mostly antiquated, though in peasant + dress it yet survives. + + [216] It is embroidered in gold, with red silk and gems; + and I have elsewhere said that it probably issued from + the Hotel de Tiraz at Messina. + + [217] Terry, in his "Voyage to the East Indies," speaks + of the rich carpets (p. 128): "The ground of some of + these is silver or gold, about which such arabesques in + flowers and figures as I have before named are most + excellently disposed." + + [218] These of late years have been the most gorgeous + objects at exhibitions of old needlework, and the + ambition and despair of collectors. + + [219] Gold thread was also made of gilt paper, equally + by the Moors and the Japanese. + + [220] In Aikin's "Life of James I.," p. 205, we have a + curious account of the monopoly of gold thread, that had + been granted, with others, to George Villiers, Duke of + Buckingham. The thread was so scandalously debased with + copper as to corrode the hands of the artificers, and + even the flesh of those who wore it. This adulterated + article they sold at an exorbitant price, and if they + detected any one making a cheaper or better article, + they were empowered to fine or imprison them, while a + clause in their patent protected themselves. The + manufacturers of this base metal thread were two + Frenchmen, Mompesson and Michel, and Edward Villiers, + the Marquis' brother, was one of the firm. Doubtless + they drove for a time a roaring trade, as gold + embroideries were then universally worn, both by men and + women; but the House of Commons interfered, and the + monopoly was abolished. + + [221] Mitre of white satin, with two figure subjects in + flat gold--the martyrdom of St. Stephen, and that of St. + Thomas of Canterbury. + + [222] The School of Gold Embroidery at Munich produces + work of a richness and precision which has, perhaps, + never been excelled. The raised parts of the design are + first cast in soft hollow "carton," and the gold is + worked on it and into the recesses with the help of a + fine stiletto, which pioneers the needle for each + stitch. This is embroidery "on the stamp," but without + padding. + + [223] Bock, "L. Gewänder," vol. i. p. 48. Prizes are + offered at Lyons for the best mode of manufacturing gold + and silver thread that will not tarnish. + + [224] Yates says, pp. 160-162: "Whether silk was + mentioned in the Old Testament cannot, perhaps, be + determined. After fully considering the subject, + Braunius decides against silk being known to the Hebrews + in ancient times ('De Vestitu Heb. Sacerdotum,' i. c. + viii.)." The contrary opinion is founded on the passage, + "I clothed thee with broidered work, and shod thee with + badger-skins. I girded thee about with fine linen, and + covered thee with silk" (_meshi_).--Ezekiel xvi. But the + translation is disputed. + + [225] "Code of Manu," xi. 168; xii. 64. Yates, + "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 204. + + [226] Auberville, "Ornement des Tissus," p. ii. + + [227] Yates (pp. 173, 174) believes that "Cos" should + always be read for Cios, about which there seems to be + some confusion. Chios has also been substituted for the + name of "Cos," the island. + + There is no doubt that the Roman ladies obtained their + most splendid garments from Cos--perhaps of wool as well + as of silk. + + [228] Birdwood, "Textile Arts of India," ii. p. 269. + + [229] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 204. + + [230] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," note (*), p. 184. + Aristotle (fourth century B.C.), however, had already + given evidence respecting the use of silk, which was + adopted and repeated by Pliny, Clemens Alexandrinus, and + Basil. Aristotle tells the story of Pamphile. One + thousand years later Procopius (sixth century A.D.) says + the raw material was then brought from the East, and + woven in the Phœnician cities of Tyre and Berytus. + See Yates, pp. 163, 164. + + [231] Ibid., note (*), p. 184. + + [232] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 181. + + [233] I have mentioned this already, to prove the + antiquity of the art of embroidery. Here I repeat it in + reference to the first mention of silk. (See p. 38 + _ante_.) + + [234] "Bibliothèque Orientale de M. Herbelot," ed. 1778, + vol. iii. p. 19. + + [235] Auberville, p. 2; Yates (pp. 172, 173) calls her + Si-ling, wife of Hoang-ti, and quotes the "Resumé des + Principaux Tractes Chinois," traduits par Stanislas + Julien, 1837, pp. 67, 68. + + [236] Auberville, "Histoire des Tissus," pp. 2-4; "Du + Halde," vol. ii. pp. 355, 356 (8vo edition, London, + 1736). + + [237] Related by Klaproth, the Russian Orientalist. + + [238] Yates, p. 238. "History of Khotan," translated by + M. Abel Rémusat, pp. 55, 56. + + [239] Khotan or Little Bucharia would, in common + parlance, be included in Serica; and therefore silk + exported thence to Europe would have been perfectly + described as coming from the Seres. Yates, p. 231, 232. + + [240] Yates, p. 231. + + [241] While in Europe the arts of daily use and + decoration were struggling for life after many + interruptions and revolutions, the civilization of + Japan, which is nearly contemporary with Christianity, + spent itself in perfecting to the most exquisite finish + the arts which had been imported from China and Corea. + Japan also inherited the power and the tradition of + concealment, and so Europe remained unconscious, until + the last century, of the miraculous arts which a + semi-barbarous people were cultivating--_not_ for + commercial purposes. Auberville, "Tissus," pp. 2-4. + + [242] Yates, pp. 175-184. + + [243] Yates, p. 176. The silken flags attached to the + gilt standards of the Parthians inflamed the cupidity of + the army of Crassus. The conflict between them took + place 54 B.C. About thirty years after this date, Roman + luxury had reached its zenith-- + + "The insatiate Roman spreads his conquering arm + O'er land and sea, where'er heaven's light extends." + + "Petronius Arbiter," c. cxix. + + After these words he says that among the richest + productions of distant climes, the Seres sent their "new + fleeces." + + [244] Yates, p. 183. + + [245] "Holosericum," whole silk; "subsericum," partly + cotton, hemp, or flax. The longitudinal threads or warp, + cotton; the cross threads, silk. Rock, "Textile + Fabrics," p. xxxvii (ed. 1870). + + [246] Yates, p. 195. + + [247] Yates, p. 198. For the value of the denarius, see + Waddington, "Edit. de Diocletien," p. 3. + + [248] Gruter, tom. iii. p. 645; Yates, p. 205. + + [249] Yates, p. 246. The words "silk" and "satin" are + spoken of by Yates as having two derivations--the one + imported to us through Greece and Italy, the other from + Eastern Asia, through Slavonia, by the north of Europe. + + [250] Yates, p. 231; who remarks, p. 203, that the laws + of Justinian are not directed against the use of silk as + a luxury, but rather as appropriating it as an imperial + monopoly and source of revenue. + + [251] Tom. ii. p. 106 (ed. 1630). See Yates, p. 213. + + [252] Yates, p. 214. + + [253] Auberville, Plate 4. Amongst these are what he + calls "Consular silks." These are, or may be, included + in the palmated class, as they are evidently woven for + triumphal occasions. One of the most remarkable has + every mark of Oriental design. It represents a picture + in a circle, repeated over and over again, of a warrior + in his quadriga. Black or coloured slaves drive the + horses, either running beside them or standing upon + them; and other slaves carry beasts on their shoulders, + and are stooping to give them drink at a trough. The + space between the circles is filled in with the tree of + life, growing out of its two horns. The colours are + purple and gold. He places this between the first and + seventh centuries (see pl. 34). + + [254] There are, however, a few that have not had the + security of the tomb, and yet have survived, such as the + chasuble and maniple at Bayeux, of the seventh century, + and Charlemagne's dalmatic. + + [255] Roger de Wendover, "Chronica," t. iv. p. 127, ed. + Coxe. Quoted by Rock from Ralph, Dean of St. Paul's. See + Rock, Introduction, p. lv. + + [256] Roger de Wendover, "Chronica," t. iv., ed. Coxe; + also Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 243, 244. + + [257] In the twelfth century. Semper, i. p. 38. + + [258] See illustration from the portrait of Sultan + Mahomet II., by Gentil Bellini. _Ante_, p. 146, Plate + 33. + + [259] See Semper, p. 157. + + [260] The Sicilian type of design in silk-weaving was + carried into Germany about the end of the second period. + We are informed by Auberville that there existed at that + time a manufacture of ecclesiastical stuffs at Leipzig, + from which he gives us fine examples. + + [261] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," vol. ii. Taf. + xxxiii. The pattern is twelfth century "metal work," + embroidered in gold. + + [262] See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," iii., pl. + xvi.; v., pl. xxxiv. In general, a scarf floats from the + prow or from the oars. + + [263] The Crusaders carried away splendid booty from the + towns they took and ransacked. As it was the great + gathering-place of all Eastern and Western nations, + Jerusalem was a mart for rich merchandise from Persia, + Arabia, Syria, and Phœnicia, till the times of the + Latin kings. Antioch, as well as Jerusalem, yielded the + richest plunder. Matthew Paris (a contemporary + historian), speaking of what was taken at Antioch, 1098, + says, "At the division of costly vessels, crosses, + weavings, and silken stuffs, every beggar in the + crusading army was enriched." Alexandria, as early as + the middle of the sixth century, A.D., had been the + depôt for the silken stuffs of Libya and Morocco. Here + is a wide area opened to us for suggestions as to the + origin and traditions of patterns in silk textile art. + See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," vol. i. pp. 29, 30. + + [264] Rock, Introduction, p. ccxlviii, and p. 268, No. + 8710. + + [265] The weaving of inscriptions in textiles is not a + Saracenic invention. Pliny says it was a custom among + the Parthians. See Rock's "Textile Fabrics," p. lxi. + + "In allusion to lettered garments, Ausonius thus + celebrates Sabina, of whom we otherwise know nothing:-- + + "'They who both webs and verses weave, + The first to thee, oh chaste Minerva, leave; + The latter to the Muses they devote. + To me, Sabina, it appears a sin + To separate two things so near akin; + So I have writ these verses on my coat.'" + + See Lady Wilton on "Needlework," p. 53. + + [266] Birdwood, "Indian Arts," p. 274. + + [267] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 244; Tegrini, + "Vita Castruccii," in Muratore, "Ital. Script.," t. xi. + p. 1320. + + [268] Riano, "Cat. of Loan Exhibition of Spanish Art in + South Kensington Museum," 1882, p. 46. + + [269] In Hoveden's account of the fleet of Richard I. + coasting the shores of Spain, he speaks of the delicate + and valuable textures of the silks of Almeria. Rog. + Hoveden, Ann., ed. Savile, p. 382. Rock, p. xx. + + [270] Bock, pp. 39, 40, quotes from Anastasius and the + Abbot of Fontenelle, proving that silken rugs were + manufactured in Spain by the Moors. + + [271] Auberville, "Histoire des Tissus," p. 14. + + [272] Yule's "Marco Polo," p. 224. "Baudakin" from + Baghdad, "damask" from Damascus. "Baudakin" was woven + with beasts, birds, and flowers in gold. + + [273] "Récit de Robert Clari." He was one of the + companions of Ville d'Hardouin, and a witness to the + coronation of Baldwin II. See Auberville's "Histoire des + Tissus," p. 21. + + [274] Satin is called by Marco Polo "zettani," and he + says it came from Syria. The French called it "zatony;" + the Spaniards named it "aceytuni," which is probably + derived from "zaituniah," the product of Zaiton. Yates + (p. 246) gives the derivations of the words satin and + silk; the one imported to us through Greece and Italy, + the other from Eastern Asia, through Slavonia and + Northern Europe. + + [275] Ibid. In the Wigalois, a story is told of a cavern + in Asia full of everlasting flames, where costly fellat + was made by the Salamanders, which was fireproof and + indestructible. + + [276] "Man of Lawe's Tale: Canterbury Pilgrims." + + [277] "Ohitos terciopelos" (three-piled-velvet eyes) is + a pretty Spanish phrase, describing the soft, dark, + shadowy eyes of the Spanish girls. + + [278] The Italian word _velluto_ means "shaggy." + + [279] Bock, i. pp. 99-101. + + [280] Buckram was sometimes a silken plush, but + generally was woven with cotton. This was also Asiatic, + and named by travellers of the twelfth and thirteenth + centuries. I have already mentioned it as a textile in + the chapter on cotton. When woven of silk it belongs to + the class of velvets. + + [281] Elsewhere I have spoken of the embroideries of the + early Christian times found in the Fayoum, in Egypt. + These afford notable examples of the ancient method in + putting in patches on a worn or frayed garment. They + invariably embroidered them, and so added a grace to the + old and honoured vestment, and justified the classical + appellation, "Healer of clothes" for a darner. The + comparatively modern additions of the restorer, are in + ancient as in later specimens, often a puzzle to the + archæologist. + + [282] The specimens in the South Kensington Museum, + where Dr. Rock gives their approximate dates, are most + useful to the student of this subject. + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +COLOUR. + + "My soul, what gracious glorious powers + To hue and radiance God has given!" + + Cautley, "Emblems," p. 21. + + +It is my intention to confine myself to the discussion of colour, in +as far as it belongs to the dyes of textiles and the materials for +embroidery. I will adhere as closely as I can to this part of what is +a great and most interesting subject--one which the science of to-day +has opened out, and by the test of experiment, cleared of erroneous +theories; revealing to us all its beauty and fitness for the use and +delight of man. + +As through all ages the eye has been gradually educated to appreciate +_harmony_ in colour, so _dissonance_--that is, what errs against +harmony--hurts us, without apparently a sufficient reason; and we have +to seek the causes of our sensations in the scientific works and +lectures of Professor Tyndall and others. + +There is no doubt that the appreciation of colour has belonged in +different degrees to the eye of every animal, but especially to that +of man, ever since light first painted the flowers of the field. The +eye is created to see colour, as well as form. But we know that men, +being accustomed to acquiesce in the powers with which they find +themselves gifted by nature, enjoy and use them, long before they +begin to study, classify, and name them. + +When we recollect that the circulation of the blood was not known +within the last three hundred years, and that Albert Dürer painted +the skeleton Death on the bridge of Lucerne, with one bone in the +upper and one in the lower arm, we shall be surprised to find that the +ancients had named the colours they saw, with some degree of +descriptive and scientific precision. The word "purple," for instance, +covered a multitude of tints, which had not as yet been +differentiated, either in common parlance or in poetry,[283] though as +articles of commerce the purple tints had been early distinguished. + +What names have we now, in this present advanced day, for defining +tastes or smells? We say that something smells like a violet, or a +rose, or a sea breeze, or a frosted cabbage. We say a smell is nice or +nasty, that a taste is delicious or nauseous; but beyond calling it +sweet or sour, we have no descriptive words for either smells or +tastes, whereas the nations who traded in the materials for dyes +exchanged their nomenclatures, which we can recognize from the +descriptive remarks of different authors. + +Colour, as an art, was born in those lands which cluster round the +eastern shores of the Mediterranean--the northern coasts of Syria and +Arabia, and the isles of Greece. All art grew in that area, and all +its adjuncts and materials there came to perfection, though often +imported from more southern and eastern sources.[284] + +E. Curtius says that the science of colour came into Europe with the +Phœnicians and accompanied the worship of Astarte. This, of course, +applies to artistic textiles, as the Greeks had already acquired the +art of dyeing for plain weaving. Numa, in his regulations for +necessary weaving, refers also to colour. The Italians therefore +must at that time have made some advance in the art, especially the +Etruscans.[285] + +The infinity of variation in colour is difficult to imagine. The +chemists of the Gobelins have fixed and catalogued 4480 tones. +Besides, we must not forget that it is now all but ascertained that +the same colour is probably appreciated differently by nearly every +eye.[286] + +How the eye accepts colours and conveys them to the mind is still a +question in dispute, though the theories of Tyndall, Helmholz, Hering, +Charpentier, and others, aided by experiments, are drawing ascertained +facts into a circle, which will ere long be complete, and the +mysteries of colour may be ascertained. + +Probably the effects of colour on educated minds are as various as the +tints and shades of tones of the many substances which receive +them,--reflected from all surrounding objects, blazing in light, or +softened by shadow,--fresh and glowing, or permanently faded--shining +with modern varnish, or sobered by the dust of ages. + +It is the art of the colourist, whether he paints pictures, or dyes +textiles, or embroiders them, to reduce the tints of the prism to an +endurable and delightful lowness of tone, while preserving as far as +possible all their light and purity. + +Prismatic colours are so radiantly glorious, that when we see the +rainbow in the sky it is each time a joyful surprise. The most stolid +natures are moved by it; we have even seen our dog staring at it. + +When, in experiments on light, the shafts of colour are thrown on the +wall, they are greeted with shouts of admiration; but these glories +are veiled to us by the fact that the eye cannot dissect the prismatic +ray without the assistance of the instrument that has revealed it. +This is a merciful arrangement; for we are not fitted to live in a +prismatic display, any more than in a continuity of lightning flashes. +We should go mad or blind if exposed to either. + +Science has shown us the perfect beauty of colour without form, the +soothing pleasures of its harmonies, and the delightful surprises of +its contrasts. From the glimpses we have of its nature and laws, we +may hope for fresh inspiration for the art of the colourist. + +Though it is true that each eye, even when educated, retains its own +special appreciation of the colours that gratify its seeing nerve, yet +there are certain standards which give almost universal pleasure.[287] + +The blind and the colour-blind must remain exceptions for all time; +and there are many gradations in colour-blindness, till we come to the +normal class of seeing eyes; and passing them by, reach to those few +men, gifted beyond all others with that fund of sensitive eye-nerve +and mental power, which enables them to create new thoughts in +colour.[288] Titian and his school arose from the inherited science +and tradition, and carefully prepared pigments of his immediate +predecessors, acting on an exceptional eye and mind, imbued with the +splendours of the early mornings and the sunsets in the glowing +atmosphere of Venice. + +Colour has long been supposed to convey certain impressions to the +mind. The absence of all colour, which we call "black," symbolizes in +dress, grief, pride, or dignity; according as it drapes the mourner, +the Spanish grandee, or the priest.[289] Yellow being the colour of +the sun and of corn and gold, represents riches, generosity, and +light. Red stands between the dark and the lively colours, and +represents warmth and animation, dignity, splendour, life, love, and +joy. + +The expression of blue is that of purity. It recalls the distant sky, +the calm ocean, and has an immortal and celestial character. It +ascends to the highest and descends to the lowest tones of +_chiaro-oscuro_. Nothing so nearly approaches pure white as the palest +blue; nothing is so nearly black as the darkest. + +Green has been assigned by nature the place of the universal +background. It is the complementary colour of red, softening and +assimilating it by reflected shadows, and setting off the glory of +every flower and fruit. The expression of green is gaiety and modesty, +light and tenderness, shadow and repose, to both the eye and the +mind.[290] + +It must be allowed that it is by the earliest associations of the +individual, or by those derived from the family, the tribe or the +nation, that colours are connected with such attributes welded by art +and time into traditional meanings, which they absolutely +possess,[291] and from which fashion cannot disconnect them; such, +for instance, is the royalty of purple. + +The word purple is so indiscriminately used as a poetic epithet, +rather than as a distinctive appellation, that much confusion has been +caused by it. Historically, among the Persians, Greeks, and Romans it +appears to have been simply the royal colour, varying from the purest +blue, through every shade of violet, down to the deepest crimson. +Sometimes, poetically, "purple" seems to have described only a +surface. The breezy or stormy sea was purple; the sky was purple; the +hyacinthine locks of Narcissus, the rosy lips of Venus were purple. As +a textile, velvet was purple, even when it was white.[292] + +The epithets "purple" and "wine-coloured" are often bestowed on the +Mediterranean Sea, and are justified by its occasional hue:-- + + "As from the clouds, deep-bosom'd, swell'd with showers, + A sudden storm the purple ocean sweeps, + Drives the wild waves, and tosses all the deeps." + + Pope's Homer, "Iliad," b. xi. v. 383. + +Professor Tyndall suggests that the soft green of the sea, shadowed by +clouds, assumes a subjective purple hue. Homer must have observed this +before he became blind. + +Pliny gives us much information about this colour; he enumerates the +different sea-shores and coasts, Egyptian, Asiatic, and European, +whence came the shell-fish (the murex and pelagia) that produced the +so-called Tyrian purple dyes.[293] + +He says that Romulus wore the purple, and that the dyed garments, all +purple, were sacred to the gods in those days. After saying that it +was still a colour of distinction, he continues: "Let us be prepared +to excuse the frantic passion for purple, though we are impelled to +inquire why such a high value is placed on the produce of this fish, +seeing that in the dye the smell of it is offensive, and the colour, +of a greenish hue, resembles the sea when tempestuous." He describes +purples[294] as being differently coloured according as to whether +these "conchylia" inhabited the sea mud, the reefs, or the pebbly +shores, the last being the most valuable.[295] This purple, said to +have been imported from the coasts of Tyre, was till lately sold in +Rome for its weight in gold; it gave the burning rosy red dye of the +Cardinal's robes, and was called "Porpora encarnadina," purple +incarnadine. It is full of light and freshness, and never fades; in +fact, it has all the qualities ascribed to it by Pliny. It intensifies +in the light.[296] + +After purple, scarlet was the colour most esteemed by the ancients. +The Israelites must have carried with them the dyes which coloured the +hangings, woven or embroidered, belonging to the sanctuary in the +wilderness, of which the outer covering of rams' skins was dyed +scarlet, and was probably of the nature of red morocco.[297] + +There was the mineral dye, (cinnabar or red sulphate of mercury), and +the insect dye; the first was probably used in mural painting. It is +translated in our Bible as vermilion, in the account given by Jeremiah +of a "house, ceiled with cedar, and painted with vermilion."[298] Also +Ezekiel gives us another instance of house-painting in vermilion.[299] +Homer, who as a rule does not describe colouring, says the Greek ships +were painted red. + +It is probable that cinnabar was tempered, by admixture of white or +other colours, for the monochrome painting of the Egyptians and +Greeks. It was called by the Greeks miltos, by the Romans minium. + +The dye of the red portions of the funeral tent of Queen Isi-em-Kheb, +Shishak's mother-in-law, is found by analysis to be composed of +hematite (peroxyde of iron) tempered with lime. This is a beautiful +pink red.[300] + +The mineral red now called vermilion must have borrowed its name from +the insect dye which the Greeks and Romans called "kermes." In the +Middle Ages the dye from the kermes was still called "vermiculata," of +which the word vermilion is a literal translation. + +We should be fortunate if we could find how the Greeks and Romans +prepared the cinnabar for mural painting, of which we find remnants in +ruins and tombs--a lovely and pure red, with a tender bloom on it like +a fragment of the rainbow, and not the slightest shade of yellow. + +One of the most beautiful specimens of this scarlet that I am +acquainted with, is a small drinking-cup (a "rhyton") at the British +Museum, in the form of a sphinx, with a white face, gilded hair, and a +little cap of pure cinnabar, which is so soft in tone that it suggests +the texture of scarlet velvet. + +Cochineal, which was first brought from America in the sixteenth +century, has now replaced almost every other scarlet dye for textiles. + +Crimson is once mentioned in Chronicles as karmel,[301] which may mean +the dye of the kermes insect;[302] and from this the word crimson is +legitimately derived. Whether the scarlet coupled with it is a +vegetable, mineral, or insect colour, we have no means of +ascertaining. "Though your sins be as scarlet, they shall be as white +as snow; though they be red as crimson, they shall be as wool."[303] + +From what Pliny says, it appears that some green dyes were produced +from a green clay; others from metals. Copper furnished the most +beautiful shades. + +Blue has always been extracted from indigo. Pliny tells us that the +Phœnicians brought it from Barbarike, in the Indies, to Egypt; and +he quotes the "Periplus" on this subject. He gives an amusing report +that indigo is a froth collected round the stems of certain reeds; but +he was aware of its characteristic property, that of emitting a +beautiful purple vapour when submitted to great heat; and he says it +smells like the sea. The Egyptians likewise extracted blues from +copper. + +Yellow was anciently, in Egypt, sometimes a vegetable and sometimes a +mineral dye. Browns and blacks were prepared from several substances, +especially pine wood and the contents of tombs burned into a kind of +charcoal. + +We find that lime, chalk, white lead, and other mineral substances +were employed by the ancients for the different approaches to dazzling +whiteness. That of the lily, the emblem of purity, can only be +emulated in textile or pictorial art by opaque substances reduced as +much as possible by bleaching to the last expression of the colour of +the raw material. Nothing that is transparent can be really white, as +colours are seen through it, as well as the reflected lights on the +two surfaces. + +In painting, we can produce the effect of whiteness in different ways, +leading by the gradation of tender colours and shadows up to a high +light. But in textile art, which is essentially flat, it is necessary +to pursue a different method, and that of isolation is the most simple +and effective, and was well understood in Egypt, Greece, and India. +The white pattern, or flower, is surrounded with a fine dark line +(black is the best), which effectually separates it from all the +surrounding colours, and gives it the effect of light, even when the +whiteness retains enough of the natural colour of the raw material to +tone it down very perceptibly. The eye accepts it as white, and +ignores the tint that pervades it, and is hardly to be expelled from +silk or wool. Linen and cotton are the whitest of materials, after +passing through the hands of the chemist or the bleacher. + +It is amusing to observe that Pliny regarded colours, whether +vegetable or mineral, rather as useful for the pharmacopeia of his +day, than as dyes or artistic pigments. He speaks contemptuously of +the art of his time, and yet he gives some curious hints that are well +worth collecting for experiment. His fragmentary information, though +often inaccurate, is most valuable to those who are seeking once more +to find lasting colours, and despair of discovering mordants that will +fix the aniline tints. From him we learn more of the Egyptian +colouring materials than of any others, as he named their sources, +European, Asiatic, or African; and there is no doubt of the perfection +of their mural pigments and textile dyes, which have remained +unimpaired to the present time. + +Renouf says that "painting, as it is now understood, was totally +unknown to the Egyptians; but they understood harmony of colour,[304] +and formulated in it certain principles for decorative uses. They made +the primary colours predominate over the secondary by quantity and +position. They introduced fillets of white or yellow in their +embroideries, as well as in their paintings, between reds and greens, +to isolate them; and they balanced masses of yellow with a due +proportion of black." They never blended their colours, and had no +sense of the harmony of prismatic gradations, or the melting of one +tint into another; each was worked up to a hard and fast edge line. If +in one part of a building, one set of colours predominated, they +placed a greater proportion of other colours elsewhere, within the +range of sight, so as to readjust the balance. Those they employed +were mostly earthy mineral colours (used alike for frescoes and for +painting cotton cloths, though vegetable dyes were needed for woollens +and linens). These were: for _white_, pure chalk; for _black_, +bone-black mixed with gum; for _yellow_, yellow ochre; for _green_, a +mixture of yellow ochre and powdered blue glass; for _blue_, this same +blue glass mixed with white chalk; for _red_, an earthy pigment +containing iron and aluminium.[305] They understood the chemistry of +bleaching, and the use of mordants in dyeing.[306] + +The statistical records of China of the time of Hias (2205 B.C.), +according to Semper, mention colours as being of five tints, and all +the produce of the Chinese Empire.[307] + +In the unchanging art of India, the ancient colours are used now. +Therefore, when we give the following list, we must suppose that it +embraces all that have been known from the beginning. + +Indian dyes are mostly vegetable. For _yellow_, akalbir, the root of +the Datiscus Canabinus; also yellow is dyed with asbarg, the flower of +the Cabul larkspur (_Delphinium sp._). + +_Orange._ Soneri dyed with narsingar, the honey-scented flower of +nyclanthes (_Arbor Tristis_). + +_Scarlet_ is first dyed with cochineal (formerly with kermes), which +gives a crimson colour; next with narsingar, which turns it vermilion. + +_Purple_ is dyed first with cochineal (formerly kermes), afterwards +with indigo. + +_Lilac._ Ditto, only paler. + +_Blue._ All shades of indigo. + +_Green._ With indigo first, and next the various yellow dyes. + +_Brown._ Sandal-wood, called "sandali;" almond colour (Badami). + +_Grey._ Sulphate of iron and gold. + +_Black._ Deepest shade of indigo.[308] + +Speaking of Indian coloured textiles, Sir G. Birdwood says: "All +violent contrasts are avoided. The richest colours are used, but are +so arranged as to produce the effect of a neutral bloom, which tones +down every detail almost to the softness and transparency of the +atmosphere." He says that in their apparel both the colouring and the +ornaments are adapted to the effect which the fabrics will produce +when worn and in motion. "It is only through generations of patient +practice that men attain to the mystery of such subtleties." + +An outline, in black or some dark colour that harmonizes with the +ground, or else worked in gold, is common in Indian work, not only for +the purpose of isolating the colours of the design, but also to give a +uniform tone to the whole surface of the texture. Their traditional +arrangements of tints were thoroughly satisfying to the eye. But +degenerated by European commerce, the artistic sense of beauty itself +is disappearing throughout our Indian Empire. + +Persian carpets (the fine old ones of the fourteenth to the +seventeenth centuries) give us lessons in the art of isolating +colours. In these, a flower will lie upon a surface which contains two +or more other tints, and as the design passes over them, the outline +colour is changed, so as to isolate the flower equally on the +different grounds. This is done with such art that the eye ignores the +transition till it is called to remark it. For instance, as a white, +or no-coloured pattern, wanders over a green and red ground, the +outline changes suddenly from green to red, and again to green as it +leaves the opposite colour on the ground pattern. + +Mr. Floyer speaks of the brilliancy and lasting qualities of the dyes +which the Persians, by slow and tedious processes, extract from +plants; from the "runaschk" (madder), a fine red; from the "zarili" +(the golden), which is a yellow flower from Khorasan, and also from +the leaves of the vine, a bright yellow.[309] They import indigo from +Shastra (or from India), by the Khurum river. He says these dyes are +perfectly fast, leaving no trace on a wetted rubber, whereas the +European dyes they sometimes use come off freely. + +Pliny says the Gauls had invented dyes counterfeiting the purple of +Tyre; also scarlet, violet, and green, all of these were dipped in the +juices of herbs.[310] + +Vitruvius says the Romans extracted dyes from flowers and fruits, but +he neither specifies nor describes them. + +The ancient Highland tartans were dyed with bark of alder for black, +bark of willow for flesh colour. A lichen growing on stones supplied +their violets and crimson.[311] The lichen on the birch-tree gives a +good brown; heather gives red, purple, and green.[312] + +Thus we see that pure colours for dyeing textiles have been extracted +from vegetable substances--herbs, wood, seeds, flowers and fruits, +mosses and sea-weeds;[313] mineral substances--earths, sands, ores, +metals, rusts, and stones; animal substances--both of land, water, and +air; beasts, fishes, shells, birds, and insects. + +It is evident, from the derivation of the word, that there were +chromatic scales in colour before the phrase was ever applied to +music. + +The Greeks and Romans are supposed to have understood chromatic scales +of tints--animal, vegetable, and mineral--and except with the +intention of producing startling effects, they did not mix them. They +felt that each was harmonious as a whole, and, unlike the Egyptians, +they studied harmony. They arranged their scales according to the +materials from which they were extracted, and kept those from +different chemical sources apart, as being discordant.[314] One scale +was that of the iodine colours, of and from the sea. Marine products +are mostly iridescent. To comprehend this, think of the harmonious +interchange of delicate tints, called by the ancients "purple," on a +string of pearls. Shells and shell-fish, sea-weeds and fish, furnished +these dyes. They were called "conchiliata." + +The chemistry of the arts of bleaching was not unknown to the +ancients; but they reserved and regulated it for certain purposes, +preferring to retain at least a part of the original colouring, as +shades of grounding which served, as a surface glaze does in painting, +to connect and harmonize the superinduced tints. + +Experiments with the object of reviving this mode of producing +harmonious combinations, have been made lately at the Wilton Carpet +Works, by dyeing shades of colour on unbleached goat's and camel's +hair, and sheep's wool; and the tones produced are beautifully soft +and rich. + +M. Edouard Charton ascribes the great change in the modern scales of +colours to the discovery by the French, in the Gobelins, of a pure +scarlet dye, the use of which made it necessary to raise the tone of +all other colours. He says that scarlet was formerly represented by +the dye called kermes, which indeed was not scarlet, but altered from +crimson to something approaching it by the addition of narsingar, of +which the bright yellow gave the scarlet effect. + +M. Chevreul, director of the dyeing department of the Gobelins, has +succeeded in composing the chromatic prism, to which I have already +alluded, containing 4420 different tones. We may take it for granted, +that from these may be selected any possible scale of tints required +for decorative work. This vast area for choice of our material will +impose on the artist of the future fresh responsibilities. + +In the typical Oriental colouring, the whole arrangement was +traditional, and it was irreligious to depart from what had been fixed +by statute many centuries before, and only perfected by the experience +of many generations of men; and this veneration for traditional custom +has hitherto been prevalent in European art to a certain point. But +the old conservative perfection of unadulterated colour has already +been done away with. The freedom of experimental art is chartered, and +mercantile interests now, as ever, govern the supply of materials. + +Our normal bad taste and carelessness has been cast back on the lands +which were the cradle of art, and we receive, to our surprise, gaudy, +vulgar, and discordant combinations from the East, whence we drew our +first inspirations. For the future we shall have to study ancient +specimens, and correct our errors by the help of their teaching to the +eye and mind. + +Gas colours are at present our worst snares. They are in general very +beautiful; but they are so evanescent, and fade into such unexpected +and contradictory tones, that we cannot reckon upon them. When +embroidering with the coloured materials of the day, we are in +constant dread of what disastrous effect may be produced by the first +shaft of sunshine that may fall from our moderately illuminated sky, +through the uncurtained window. + +The trade in colours can hardly be an honest one, till the means of +fixing each tint permanently is ascertained.[315] At any rate, +something should be done towards grouping them, with respect to their +enduring qualities, so that when they fade, if fade they must, they +may do so harmoniously, and in sympathy with each other; and while +they are in their first glow they should be selected, as much as +possible, from what Pliny calls natural colours,[316] which recall the +exquisite effects of nature, searched out and displayed by every sunny +gleam, reflected on each other in lovely tones, and subdued and veiled +by passing shadows. It is said that Mr. Wardle, of Leek, is now +seeking for dyes of pure unadulterated colours, and mordants to fix +them. He deserves all success. + +The reason I have entered, in even so cursory a manner, into the +history of colours is my desire to point out the great value placed, +long ago, on the careful preparation of those used in ancient textile +art; and to show how our forefathers sought them out in many lands +and waters; how they noted their varieties; how they classed and +prized them for their endurance as well as for their pristine beauty; +how they paid their weight in gold or silver for certain culminating +tints; and how they, therefore, produced works which became matters of +history and landmarks in civilization. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [283] "Seeing, they saw not, neither did they + understand." + + [284] See Pliny's "Natural History," which gives much + information on the subject. + + [285] E. Curtius, "Greek History;" Engl. Trans., i. p. + 438; Blümner's "Technologie," p. 216. + + [286] Charpentier "differentiates in every normal eye a + sensibility for light, a sensibility for colour, and a + sensibility for form (a visual sensibility)."--See + "Modern Theories of Colour," _The Lancet_, August 19th, + 1882, p. 276. We can perceive, by studying works of art, + how variously these gifts are distributed, or, at any + rate, how differently they are received and acted upon + by individual minds. + + [287] The effect of colour on the brain is a subject + only just now beginning to attract attention. + Experiments on the insane have been made in Italy, + especially, I believe, at Venice; and it is said to be + ascertained that red and green are irritants, whereas + windows glazed with blue glass alternating with white + have sensibly calmed the nerves of the patients. + + [288] Let us compare the beautiful creations of the + Venetian school with the demoralizing brightness of + aniline colours, or the opaque, earthy tints which some + call beautiful, mistaking their dulness for softness and + sobriety of colouring. But they, too, have their uses. + + [289] Black and red are, in ecclesiastical work, the + emblems of mourning. + + [290] The Bardic rules in early Britain enjoined three + simple colours: sky blue, the emblem of peace, for the + bard and poet; green, for the master of natural history + and woodcraft; spotless white (the symbol of holiness), + for the priest and Druid. + + [291] The blind man said that red was like the sound of + a trumpet, which shows what a soul-stirring colour it + was in his mind's eye. + + [292] "Purpura" is supposed to mean crimson velvet. It + came, like "cramoisi," to be a name for a tissue. Fr. + Michell quotes velvet of Vermeil-cramoisi, "violet and + blue cramoisi, and pourpre of divers colours," but he + says he never met with "pourpre blanche." Yule, ed. + 1875, i. p. 67. Plano Carpini (p. 755) says the + courtiers of Karakorum were clad in "white purpura;" and + that on the first day of the great festival in honour of + the inauguration of Kuyuk Khan, all the Mogul nobles + were clad in pourpre blanche, the second day in ruby + purple, and the third in blue purple: on the fourth day + they appeared in Baudichin (cloth of gold). (Yule, + "Marco Polo," vol. i. p. 376.) White purple is also + named in the inventories of Sta. Maria Maggiore at Rome, + and those of Notre Dame in Paris. "Histoire du Tissu + Ancien, à l'Exposition de l'Union Générale des Arts + Décoratifs." + + [293] François Le Normant, in his "Grande Grèce," tells + of the dye of the purple of Tarentum from the murex, + found in the Mare Piccolo. He says that Tarentine + muslins, woven from the filaments of the pinna dipped in + the dye of the murex, rivalled those of Cos. Le Normant + laments the total neglect of the murex in these days + (could its trade be revived?) Plutarch says that + Alexander the Great, having made himself master of Susa + (Shushan), found, amongst other riches of marvellous + value, "purple of Hermione" worth forty thousand talents + (Quintus Curtius says fifty thousand), which, though it + had been stored 190 years, retained all its freshness + and beauty. See Plutarch's "Lives," edited by J. and W. + Langhorne, vol. ii. p. 739; Blümner, i. p. 224-240. The + reason assigned for their dye being so perfect was that + the Susanians knew how to comb the wool to be dipped, + and prepare it with honey. According to Aristotle the + dress of Alcisthenes, the Sybarite, was dyed with this + purple from Shushan (Ciampini, Vet. Mon.). + + [294] Semper gives us an account of iodine colours. + Some, he says, were extracted from sea-weeds, green and + yellow; the purples, when finest, from the shell-fish. + The Phœnician coasts gave the best purples; those of + the Atlantic the best blacks and browns. And thus he + completes the scale of iodine colours. See Semper, "Der + Stil," i. p. 206. + + [295] Heaps of the shells of this "murex trunculus" have + been found at Pompeii, near the dyers' works. Hardouin + says that in his time they were found at Otranto, and + similar remains have been noticed at Sidon. Sir James + Lacaita informs me that the living shells are still + found along the shores of the Adriatic, as well as on + the wash near Argos. No doubt the Phœnicians traded + first in the produce of the Sidonian and Tyrian coasts, + though they afterwards went farther afield in collecting + their dyes. Auberville says that the purple of the + Romans was a deep violet (double dyed, purpuræ dibaphæ), + and that this colour was Asiatic. The Phœnicians + traded in it, and sold it for its weight in silver. + Instead of fading in the sunshine, its colour + intensified. The enduring nature of this colour is + proved by the purple fragments from a Greek tomb in the + Crimea of about 300 B.C., described in chapter on + stitches, p. 217. See "Histoire du Tissu Ancien, à + l'Exposition de l'Union Générale des Arts Décoratifs." + + [296] Though really red of the purest colour, it + doubtless received its name of Tyrian purple as being + one of the materials of the amethystine double dye. The + web or fleece was first dipped in the dye of Purpura, + and then in that of the Buccinum, or they reversed the + process to give a different tint. This is Pliny's + account of the process of dyeing, which is very simple, + and gives no details. Semper says that the ancients + called black and white the two extremes of purple--white + the thinnest, and black the thickest or most solid layer + of colour. Both were thus considered as colour. (Semper, + i. pp. 205-7.) As long as there is light, black always + appears to be either blue, or brown, or green, till with + darkness all colour disappears. + + [297] Exod. xxv. Semper (i. p. 103) suggests that these + rams' skins were dyed with the periploca secamone--a + plant still used for this purpose in Egypt. + + [298] Jeremiah xxii. 14. + + [299] Ezekiel xxiii. 14: "The images of the Chaldeans." + "The men portrayed in vermilion on the wall." + + [300] Villiers Stuart, "Funeral Tent of an Egyptian + Queen." See Appendix. + + [301] 2 Chron. ii. 7. + + [302] The Arabs received the kermis from Armenia, and + the name was originally "Quer-més," "oak-apple." Sardis + was famed for its kermes dye. See Birdwood, "Indian + Arts," p. 238, ed. 1880, and Yule's "Marco Polo," i. p. + 67. + + [303] Isa. ii. 18. + + [304] Renouf's Hibbert Lectures, p. 67-69. It may be + called balance, rather than harmony. + + [305] Wilkinson, "Manners of the Ancient Egyptians," + vol. iii. pp. 301-3. + + [306] Blümner, p. 220. See Pliny, "Natural History," + xxxv. 42. + + [307] Semper, i. p. 248. + + [308] See Birdwood's "Indian Arts," p. 272. In the Code + of Manu, black garments are sacred to the Indian Saturn, + yellow to Venus, and red to Mars. See Birdwood, p. 235. + + [309] See Floyer's "Unexplored Baluchistan," pp. 278, + 373, 406. The Persians produce their deep yellow from + the skin of the pomegranate, by boiling it in alum. + Major Murdoch Smith describes the Persian processes for + dyeing patterns red and black in textiles. The Italian + women dye their own dresses in the pomegranate yellow; + also in turmeric yellow, and other vegetable dyes. + + [310] Pliny, "Natural History," xxii. 3. Unfortunately, + Pliny seldom condescends to give us the recipes for + dyeing processes. + + [311] Logan's "Scottish Garb." + + [312] See Elton's "Origins of English History." + + [313] The Cretan tincture was extracted from a plant + which Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny respectively + name. The last calls it the _Phycos thalassion_. This + was not a sea-weed, but a lichen--probably the same from + which the orchid purple of modern art is prepared. See + Birdwood, "Indian Arts," i. p. 238. + + [314] The same scale of colour varies as much on the + different textiles employed, as it does from the colours + extracted from other chemicals. Silk, wool, cotton, + flax, give very different results. The colouring matter + may be identical, yet you cannot place them side by side + without being aware that they may be repellant, instead + of harmonious in tone. The scale is sometimes removed to + another pitch, and they will no more harmonize than + instruments that have not been attuned to the same + diapason. See Redgrave's Report on Textile Fabrics. + + [315] With the changes in colouring materials has arisen + the necessity for discovering new mordants. The gas + colour of madder is exactly the same chemically as that + extracted from the vegetable, but the old mordant does + not fix it, and it changes very soon to a dull + blackish-purple hue. + + [316] Pliny, "Natural History," ix. 12. The most + unnatural, and the most disagreeable dyes, are the + magentas. Sir G. Birdwood tells us that the Maharajah of + Cashmere has adopted a most efficient plan for the + suppression of magenta dyes within his dominions--first, + a duty of 45 per cent. on entering the country, and at a + certain distance within the frontier, they are + confiscated and destroyed. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + + +_Part 1._ + +STITCHES. + +Stitches in needlework correspond to the touches of the pencil or +brush in drawing or painting, or to the strokes of the chisel in +sculpture. The needle is the one implement of the craft by which +endless forms of surface-work are executed. With a thread through its +one eye, it blindly follows each effort of its pointed foot, urged by +the intelligent or mechanical hand grouping the stitches, which, being +long or short, single or mixed, slanting, upright, or crossed, are +selected as the best fitted for the design and purpose in hand. The +word "stitches" does not, however, in this chapter represent merely +the plural of one particular process of needle insertion, but the +produce and effect of each different kind of stitch by grouping and +repetition, according to its most ancient nomenclature. That which is +astonishing is the endless variety of surface, of design, of hints and +suggestions, of startling effects, and of lovely combinations, +resulting from the direction of the needle and manipulation of the +materials, and differing from each other according to the power or the +caprice of the worker. But the machine is always the same--the +threaded needle strikes the same interval, forming the "stitch." + +This venerable implement, _the needle_, has, through the ages, varied +but little in form. The attenuated body, the sharp foot, the rounded +head, and the eye to hold the thread, are the same in principle, +whether it is found in the cave-man's grave, formed of a fish's bone +or shaped from that of a larger animal; hammered of the finest bronze, +as from Egypt, or of gold, like those found in Scandinavia. A bronze +needle was lately discovered in the tomb of a woman of the Vikings in +Scotland, and its value is shown by its being placed in a silver case. +Steel needles were first made in England in 1545, by a native of +India. His successor, Christopher Greening, established a workshop in +1560 at Long Crendon, in Bucks, which existed there as a needle +factory till quite lately. The rustic poetic drama, entitled "Gammer +Gurton's Needle," performed at Ch. Coll., Cambridge, in 1566, was a +regular comedy, of which a lost needle was the hero. In those days the +village needle was evidently still a rare and precious possession. + + [Illustration: Fig. 20. + 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Bronze needles from Egyptian tombs now in British + Museum. 6. Cave-man's needle from the Pinhole, Churchfield, + Ereswell Crag. 7. Bone needle from La Madeleine, Dordogne.] + +The art of embroidery consists of a design, which includes the +pattern, and the handicraft or stitches--the "motive" and the +"needlework." + +In painting, as in sculpture, the first idea, as well as the last +touch, must come from the same head and hand. But in needlework it is +not so. The pattern is the result of tradition. It is almost always +simply a variation of old forms, altered and renewed by surrounding +circumstances and sudden or gradual periods of change. + +However much the design may alter, rising often to the highest point +of decorative art, and as often falling back to the lowest and most +meaningless repetitions and imitations, the _stitches_ themselves vary +but little. The same are to be found in Egyptian and Greek specimens, +and the classical names are those used by mediæval writers, and have +come down to us, "floating like bubbles on the waves of time." + +Sir George Birdwood[317] thinks that every kind of stitch is found in +traditional Indian work. I confess that I have not been able hitherto +to trace any of the "mosaic" stitches to India, nor do we ever see +them in Chinese or Japanese embroidery, which shows every other +variety. They are, however, occasionally found in Egyptian work. + +The following is a list of stitches, under the nomenclature of +classical, Roman and mediæval authors:-- + + Opus Phrygionium or Phrygium. Passing or metal thread work. + Opus Pulvinarium. Shrine or cushion work. + Opus Plumarium. Plumage or feather work. + Opus Consutum. Cut work. + Opus Araneum or Filatorium. Net or lace work. + Opus Pectineum. Tapestry or combed work. + +Here are two English lists of stitches; their quaintness must be my +excuse for copying them. The first is from Taylor, the water-poet's +"Praise of the Needle" (sixteenth century):-- + + "Tent work, raised work, laid work, prest work, + Net work, most curious pearl or rare Italian cut work, + Fine fern stitch, finny stitch, new stitch, and chain stitch, + Brave bred stitch, fisher stitch, Irish stitch, and queen's stitch, + The Spanish stitch, rosemary stitch, and maw stitch, + The smarting whip stitch, back stitch, and the cross stitch.-- + All these are good, and these we must allow, + And these are everywhere in practice now." + +The second list is from Rees' "Cyclopædia" (Stitches), 1819:-- + + "Spanish stitch, + Tent stitch on the finger, + Tent stitch in the tent or frame, + Irish stitch, + Fore stitch, + Gold stitch, + Twist stitch, + Fern stitch, + Broad stitch, + Rosemary stitch, + Chip stitch, + Raised work, + Geneva work, + Cut work, + Laid work, + Back stitch, + Queen's stitch, + Satin stitch, + Finny stitch, + Chain stitch, + Fisher's stitch, + Bow stitch, + Cross stitch, + Needlework purl, + Virgin's device, + Open cut work, + Stitch work, + Through stitch, + Rock work, + Net work, and + Lent work. + + "All which are swete manners of work wroughte by the + needle with silke of all natures, purls, wyres, and weft + or foreign bread ('braid'), etc., etc." + + +_Part 2._ + +PLAIN WORK AND WHITE WORK. + +We are told that the primal man and woman sewed in Paradise. + +To "sew," in contradistinction to the word to "embroider," is derived +from the Sanskrit _su_, _suchi_, and thence imported into Latin, +_suo_.[318] To prove how highly esteemed needlework was among the +Romans, I may mention that the equivalent of the phrase "to hit the +right nail on the head" was _rem acu tangere_, "to touch the question +with the point of the needle." + +"Plain work" is that which is necessary. As soon as textiles are +needed for covering and clothing, the means are invented for drawing +the cut edges together, and for preventing the fraying where the +material is lacerated by the shaping process. Hence the "seam," the +"hem," and all the forms of stitches that bind and plait. These +necessary stitches constitute plain needlework, and are closely +followed by decorative stitches, which in gradation cover the space +between plain needlework and embroidery. + +Semper has given us his archæological theories for the origin of +needlework and its stitches. + +These are his arguments, if not always his words. He says: "The seam +is one of the first human successful efforts to conquer +difficulties."[319] + +A string, a ribbon, a band, may serve to keep together several loose +things; but by means of the seam, small things actually become large +ones. For example: a full-grown man can, by its help, cover himself +with a garment made of the skins of many small animals. When Eve sewed +fig-leaves together, she made of these small pieces a garment of +patchwork. + +Acting on the principle of making a virtue of necessity, accepting and +adorning the severe facts of life, seams came to be an important +vehicle of ornament. The Gauls and Britons embroidered the seams of +their fur garments. "We may judge of the antiquity of the seam by its +universal and mythological meaning. The seam, the tie, the knot, the +plait, and the mesh are the earliest symbols of fate uniting +events."[320] + +We find but little mention of plain work in mediæval writings. When +linen was worked for some honourable purpose, such as a gift to a +friend or a royal personage, it was generally embroidered or stitched +in some fancy fashion. Queen Elizabeth presented Edward VI., on his +second birthday, with a smock made by herself. Fine linen was about +this time constantly edged with bone laces. + +Mrs. Floyer has written so well, and given us so much practical +information on plain needlework, that I feel it unnecessary to enter +at any length into the principles of plain sewing, as my theme is +needlework as decorative art. + +Mrs. Floyer has, as it were, unpicked and unravelled every stitch in +plain work, till she has discovered and laid bare its intention, its +construction, and effect. She, has also given us rules made clear to +the dullest understanding, instructing us how to teach the young and +ignorant. She shows us the quickest and most perfect way of working +different materials for different purposes, and tells us how to select +them. I will, therefore, refer my readers to her most useful and +instructive books,[321] and pass on at once from the craft of plain +needlework, to stitches as the art of embroidery. + +The link between plain and decorative work deserves attention. This +link is "white embroidery." I imagine it was not a very ancient form +of the art, and was practised first in mediæval days; when we begin to +have constant notices of it. The first white laces appear to have +followed close upon the first white embroideries. + +There is a tomb of the fourteenth century in the Church of the Ara +Cœli at Rome, where the effigy of a knight lies on his bed, draped +with a sheet and a coverlet, both embroidered. These are evidently of +linen worked in white.[322] I give a drawing of them in illustration +(pl. 39). + +From that date we find continually mention of such work by nuns and +ladies.[323] In England it was especially called "nuns' work" (plate +42). There is a great survival of this stitchery in Italy amongst the +peasantry. They have always adorned their smocks and aprons, and their +linen head-coverings, and the borders of sheets for great occasions, +with patterns in "flat stitches," "cut stitches," and "drawn work." +The Greek peasants do the same. In Germany will be found much curious +white embroidery, of designs which show their antiquity; and from +Spain we get "Spanish work" in black, on white linen, which is nearly +allied to the stitches of white work. + + [Illustration: Pl. 39. + Embroidery imitated in marble on the tomb of a knight, in the Church + of the Ara Cœli, Rome.] + +Lord Arundel of Wardour possesses a linen cover for a tabernacle (or +else it is a processional cloak) which is of the purest +Hispano-Moorish design, and unrivalled in beauty. It is +embroidered in Spanish stitches in white thread, on the finest linen, +and is intersected with fine lace insertion (pl. 40). It is said to +have been found in the time of Elizabeth with some other articles in a +dry well; among them a little satin shoe, of which the shape proves +its date to be of the end of Henry VIII.'s reign. Russian embroidery, +consisting of geometrical patterns in red, blue, and black thread, is +of this class. + + [Illustration: Pl. 40. + Processional Cloak, time of Henry VIII., belonging to Lord Arundel + of Wardour.] + +In England alone, the peasantry do no white work for home use, and we +must suppose it has never been a domestic occupation. Indeed, the love +of the needle is by no means an English national tendency, in the +lower classes. Nothing but the plainest work is taught in our schools. +Anything approaching to decorative art, with us, has been the +accomplishment of educated women, and not the employment of leisure +moments in the houses of the poor. + +Semper, in "Der Stil,"[324] gives rules for white embroidery, and the +reasons from which he deduces them are good. He says, that allowing it +as a maxim that each textile has its own uses and its own beauties, we +should place nothing on linen which would militate against its +inherent qualities and merits; and that, as the great beauty of flax +is its smoothness and purity, all projections and roughnesses should +be avoided which would catch dust or throw a shadow. Carrying out this +idea, it would appear that satin, and not lace stitches are therefore, +the most suitable for this kind of decoration. The accepted rule for +selecting the stitch for each piece of work is this: on stout grounds +the thread should be round and rich, whereas delicate materials carry +best the most refined and shining thread work; and in embroidering the +smooth surface of linen fabrics, the flattest stitches are the most +appropriate. + + +_Part 3._ + +OPUS PHRYGIUM (_or gold work_). + +Gold embroideries were by the Romans attributed to the Phrygians. All +gold work was vaguely supposed to be theirs, as all other embroidery +was included in the craft of the Plumarii in Rome. + +It has been disputed whether needlework in gold preceded the weaving +of flat gold or thread into stuffs, or whether it was an +after-thought, and an enrichment of such textiles. I imagine that the +embroidery was the first, and that the after-thought was the art of +weaving gold. Babylonian embroideries appear to be of gold wire, as we +see them in the Ninevite marbles. + +An instance of the way golden embroideries were displayed among the +Greeks is that of the Athenian peplos, which, as I have already said +(p. 32), was worked by embroideresses under the superintendence of two +Arrhephoræ of noble birth. It was either scarlet or saffron colour, +and blazed with golden representations of the battles of the giants, +or local myths and events in the history of Athens.[325] + +The art of the Phrygians, who gave their name in Rome to all golden +thread-work, has come down to us through the classic "auriphrygium" +and the "orphreys" of the Middle Ages. Semper thinks that the flat +gold embroidery was the first invented.[326] + +The Phrygians had attained to the utmost perfection in tissue ornament +when the Romans conquered them, and finding their art congenial to the +growing luxury of Rome, they imported and domesticated it; both the +people and their work retaining their national designation. Pliny, +ignorant of the claims of the Chinese, gave to the Phrygians the +credit of being the inventors of all embroidery.[327] The garments +they thus decorated were called "phrygionæ," and the work itself "opus +Phrygium." The term "auriphrygium," at first given to work in gold +only, was in time applied to all embroidery that admitted gold into +its composition; and hence the English mediæval term, "orphreys." + +All the gold stitches now called "passing" came from Phrygia; Semper +attributes all the "mosaic stitches" to the Phrygians, calling them +"opus Phrygionium."[328] Gold stitches are splendidly exemplified in +the embroidered mantle of St. Stephen, of the ninth century. The only +somewhat earlier piece of mediæval gold embroidery with which I am +acquainted is the dalmatic of Charlemagne in the Vatican, richly +embroidered in fine gold thread; and the mantle of the Emperor Henry +II. in the Museum at Munich, worked by his Empress Kunigunda, who +appears to have been somewhat parsimonious in her use of the precious +material. + +Almost all ecclesiastical and royal ancient embroideries were +illuminated with golden grounds--golden outlines or golden flat +embroideries. Later still, raised gold thread work has imitated gilt +carvings or goldsmiths' jewellery; and we feel that it was at once +removed from its place as embroidery, and became an elaborate +imitation of what should belong to another craft.[329] Such +deviations from the proper office and motive of needlework are so +dangerously near to bad style and bad taste, that they always and +inevitably have fallen into disrepute. + + +_Part 4._ + +OPUS PULVINARIUM (_or cushion work_). + +This "opus pulvinarium" is not only to be found in Oriental work, but +it has also survived in a very few fragments from Egypt.[330] One of +these, in the British Museum, is worked on canvas, in wool and flax; +another in a white shining thread, resembling asbestos, on linen or +fine canvas. They are regular "canvas" or "cross" stitches, and +therefore, under mediæval nomenclature, would be classed as "opus +pulvinarium." This name must include all stitches in gold, silk, and +wool, whether Phrygian, Egyptian, or Babylonian in their origin, +excepting the flat and lace stitches (plate 41). + + [Illustration: Pl. 41. + MOSAIC STITCHES. + 1. Italian Pattern, sixteenth century. From Frida Lipperheide's + Musterbuch. 2. Scandinavian. Bock, i. taf. xi. 3. Egyptian. + From Auberville's "Tissus," p. 1.] + +Semper's term, "mosaic" stitches, is a good one, as it covers all that +are relegated into patterns in small square spaces, counted by the +threads of the textile on which they are laid.[331] He believes that +the mosaic patterns and cross stitches in needlework preceded the +tesselated pavements, and formed their first motive, though the stitch +now refers itself back to the mosaic, at least in name. + +It is remarkable that in Chaldea and Assyria there still exist some +ruined walls, which are adorned with pilasters, panels, and other +architectural forms, covered with some sort of encaustic, imitating +textile patterns.[332] The effect is produced by means of a kind of +mosaic work of small nails or wedges of baked clay, with china or +glazed coloured heads. These are inlaid into the unbaked clay or +earth, of which the walls are constructed, and while binding it +together, give the effect of the surface being hung with a material +which has a pattern worked all over in cross stitch. + +The Chinese, the Chaldeans, and the Assyrians long continued to show +in their buildings the tradition of this style of decoration. In Egypt +there has been found some unfinished mural painting where the plaster +has been previously prepared by dividing it into small rectangular +spaces, apparently on the principle of the canvas ground for cross +stitches. + +The name "mosaic" stitch does not interfere with, or militate against +the classical appellation of _opus pulvinarium_, which means "shrine +work" or "cushion stitches." These appear to have been from the first +considered as the best suited for adorning cushions, chairs, +footstools, and the beds on which men reclined at their feasts, as +they are firmly-set stitches which will stand friction. + +Most of the work now done in Syria, Turkey, Greece, and the +Principalities, shows different forms of the mosaic stitches; so also +does the national Russian work, which is Byzantine. All these designs +are conventional and mostly geometrical. + +This work, in the East, is generally the same on both sides. We may +infer that the spoil anticipated by Sisera's mother, "the garments +embroidered on both sides, fit for the necks of those who divide the +spoil," was of this kind. + +Thus we see that the "opus pulvinarium" has a very respectable +ancestry; and though it had somewhat degenerated in the early part of +our century, and had languished and almost died out under the name of +Berlin wool work, yet it has done good service through the days of +mediæval art down to the present time, both in England and throughout +Europe (pl. 42); and it will probably revive and continue to be +generally used. + +Though the least available for historical or pictorial work, and not +by any means the best for flower-pieces (as the squareness of the +stitches refuses to lend itself to flowing lines or gradations of +colour, unless the stitches are extremely fine, and the work, in +consequence, very laborious), yet it finds its especial fitness in all +geometrical designs. It is also particularly well suited to heraldic +subjects. + +A remarkable example of the use of cross stitches exists in the +borders of the Syon cope, in which the coats-of-arms are so executed. +This is of the thirteenth century; and besides these cushion stitches, +it exhibits all those which are grouped in the style called opus +Anglicum or Anglicanum. + + [Illustration: Pl. 42. + Italian "Nun's Work," from a pyx cloth, sixteenth century.] + +Many charming designs for this kind of stitch may be found in the old +German pattern-books of the Renaissance (Spitzen Musterbücher), and +also in those Venetian "Corone di Vertuose Donne" lately reprinted by +the Venetian publisher Organia. These are worthy of a place in every +library of art. + +It would seem best to place the chain stitch named "tambour" in this +class, as it naturally assimilates with the plaited and cross +stitches. It is so called from the drum-shaped frame of the last +century in which it was usually worked. + + +_Part 5._ + +OPUS PLUMARIUM (_or plumage work_). + +The "Opus Plumarium" is one of the most ancient groups, and includes +all flat stitches, of which the distinguishing mark is, that they +_pass_ each other, overlap, and blend together. "Stem," "twist," +"Japanese stitch," and "long and short" or "embroidery stitch," belong +to this class, to which I propose to restore its original title of +plumage work. + +The origin of the name is much disputed, but it is supposed to have +pointed to a decoration of plumage work, and we find that feathers +have been an element in artistic design from the earliest times. There +were patterns in Egyptian painting which certainly had feathers for +their motive (fig. 21, p. 208). + +Semper, finding that birds'-skins were a recognized article for trade +in China, 2205 B.C.,[333] believes that they were used as onlaid +application for architectural decoration; and this is possible, for we +still obtain from thence specimens of work in different materials +partly onlaid in whole feathers, whereas sometimes the longer threads +of the feathers are woven by the needle into the ground web. In Her +Majesty's collection there are some specimens from Burmah--creatures +resembling sphinxes or deformed cherubim, executed in feathers, +applied on silk and outlined in gold. We have likewise from Burmah, in +the Indian Museum, two peacocks[334] similarly worked; the legs and +beaks are solidly raised in gold thread; and the outlines also are +raised in gold, giving the appearance of enamelling. The _cloisonné_ +effect of brilliant colours, contrasted and enhanced by the separation +of the gold outlines, can be seen to perfection in specimens of the +beautiful Pekin jewellers' work, where the feathers are inlaid in gold +ornaments for the head and in the handles of fans. Nothing but gems +can be more resplendent. + + [Illustration: Fig. 21. + Feather patterns, Egyptian.] + +These survivals help us to understand the casual mention we find in +classical authors, of the works of the Plumarii, which appellation was +given at last to all embroiderers who were not Phrygians.[335] + +We have other glimpses of Oriental feather-work in different parts of +India.[336] + +The use of feathers is common in the islands of the Pacific. It is +native to the Sandwich islanders; and M. Jules Remy describes the +Hawaiian royal mantle, which was being constructed of yellow birds' +feathers through seven consecutive reigns, and was valued in Hawaii at +5,000,000 francs. A mantle of this description is the property of Lady +Brassey. + +In Africa, ancient Egyptian art furnishes us with traditional feather +patterns and head-dresses; and Pigafetta tells us of costumes of +birds' skins, worn in the kingdom of Congo in the sixteenth century +for their warmth; sea-birds' feathers being highly esteemed.[337] + +In America, where birds are most splendid, the art of the feather +worker was carried to the greatest perfection. It was found there by +the Spaniards, and recorded in all their writings for its beauty of +design and execution, and for its great value, equal to that of gold +and precious stones. + +Though now looked down upon, as being a semi-barbarous style of +decoration, because it exists no longer except in semi-barbarous +countries, we must consider feather work as a relic of a past higher +civilization which has died out, rather than simply as the effort of +the savage to deck himself in the brightest colours attainable. + +Feather-work is a lost art, but the name of "opus plumarium" remains, +and proves that it was still recognized as such in the days of Roman +luxury. The name survived when the practice was all but forgotten in +Europe,[338] and the art itself disused, probably, because the birds +of our continent rarely have any lovely plumage to tempt the eye. + +But the glory of feather-work was found again in Mexico and Peru, and +the surrounding nations, in the sixteenth century--praised, exalted, +demoralized, and crushed out by the cruelties of conquest. The +Spaniards at first brought home beautiful garments and hangings, +representing gods and heroes, all worked in feathers.[339] Under their +rule the natives produced pictures agreeable to the taste of their +masters. Pope Sixtus V. accepted a head of St. Francis, which had been +executed by one of the ablest of the "amantecas" (the name for an +artist in feathers). Sixtus was struck with surprise and admiration at +the beauty and artistic cleverness of the work, and, until he had +touched and examined it closely, would not believe that plumage was +the only material used. + +There are beautiful hangings and bed furniture at Moritzburg, near +Dresden, said to have belonged to Montezuma. They were given to +Augustus the Strong, King of Poland, by a king of Spain. + +In the seventeenth century, and later, feather work was still an art +in Mexico, the convents continuing to preserve its traditions. +Bustamente says that this industry was still in operation in the +beginning of our century. The Mexican Museum preserves specimens of +the last three hundred years, from the time of the conquest of Mexico. + +There is in the Cluny Museum, in Paris, a beautiful triptych, +evidently of the sixteenth century. It is worked in feathers, with +delicate outlines in fine gold thread. Nothing can exceed the +tenderness and harmony of the colouring in shades of blue, and warm +and cool brown tints. This is probably a survival of that lost art of +Mexico which was carried on in their convents, and may have been a +copy of a treasured relic of European art. + +Among the few noteworthy specimens that have survived, is the mitre of +St. Carlo Borromeo at Milan, described by M. F. Denis as being both +artistic and beautiful. He tells us in his Appendix that even now, a +tissue of feathers is woven in France, as soft and flexible as a silk +damask; and rivalling the Mexican scarlet feather fabric, which the +Spaniards admired so greatly. He also speaks of the inlaid feather +work, invented by M. Le Normant of Rouen, in the last century, and +afterwards continued in Paris by his English pupil, Mr. Levet, who +sold two of his works to the then Duke of Leeds, in 1735. The first is +a vase of flowers, the second a peacock, designed by M. Oudry (peintre +du Roi). Both of these, framed as screens, are now at Hornby Castle. + +Unfortunately feathers are, by their nature, most attractive to that +greatest destroyer, next to Attila--the moth. Ghirlandajo called +mosaic in marble and glass, "painting for eternity;" we may call +feather work, "painting for a day." + +From the essays of M. Ferdinand Denis,[340] much may be learned of the +_arte plumaria_ of the Mexicans and their neighbours of Brazil, +Guatemala, Peru, and Yucatan, and the land of the Zapotecas, &c., +where it was also cultivated. He says that their civilization is so +mysterious that we have as yet no means of judging whence came their +art. + +Fergusson suggests the similarity between Central Asian and Central +American art, both in architectural forms and plastic and sculptured +remains. He thinks that its tradition was transmitted from Asia to +America in the third and fourth centuries of our era. If so, it was an +unlucky moment for the recipients, as the art of Asia, as well as that +of Europe, was then at its lowest and most debased phase; perhaps, +however, the more fit for the fertilization of that of a perfectly +barbarous people. There is something fascinating in the suggestions on +this subject in Mr. Donelly's "Atlantis;" but when conjecture is only +founded on tradition, and without proof, we must not take it into +serious consideration. + +Having proved the universal use of feathers, it is not difficult to +appreciate the causes which suggested everywhere the transfer of this +decorative art to another craft, employing less perishable materials. +Embroidery probably followed it closely and absorbed it throughout +Asia and in Egypt; and the survivals now are only an accidental +specimen, a tradition, and a name.[341] + +The name "Plumarii," for the embroideries, is thus fully accounted +for, and we need seek no further elucidation. It was commonly used in +classical Roman times. "Opus plumarium" seems to have become the +legitimate term for all needlework. The Plumarii were the +embroiderers, whether their work was in wool, or thread, or in silk +(at a later period),[342] with or without admixture of gold or silver +(as the Argentarii were the jewellers). + +The article on the word "plumarius" in Hoffman's Lexicon,[343] after +describing two kinds of Plumarii, Phrygians and Babylonians, proceeds +to say, "These latter, who wove garments and hangings of various +colours, were called 'Plumarii;' but though this name was at first +confined to craftsmen who wove patterns in the shape of feathers, in +course of time the name was extended to those artists who, with the +needle or by painting, embellished robes."[344] + +The "opus plumarium" included, as I before said, all flat stitches; +and I repeat that "feather application" was certainly its first +motive; and next came the stitches that conveyed the same desired +effect, though a new material was employed, fitted for the needle, +which, having served its apprenticeship in "plain work," now came to +the front as a decorative agent. + +Painting with the needle began with an attempt to model with it; the +lay of stitches being so arranged as to give the whole effect of +light and shadow, so as to delineate the forms without changing the +shades of the material used. I give on the opposite page some Japanese +birds, which will explain what I mean. The stitches are so +intelligently placed as absolutely to give the forms of the birds +imitated. They represent plumage, and a more artistic representation +cannot be imagined. (Pl. 43.) + +The same stitch which we find prevailing in China and Japan as plumage +work, is employed in embroidering flowers. Here satin, stem, and +plumage stitches are blended together, and excellent decorative +effects are produced; but the texture of flowers is not to be +imitated, as is that of the plumage of birds. "Satin" stitch is a more +restricted form of plumage stitch; and "stem" is another variety of +these flat stitches, very useful in its place. I therefore have +assigned the name of "plumage stitch" to that hitherto called +"embroidery" or "long and short" stitches; and I give the term +"plumage work" to include all the "flat" stitches. + +Practically, it is allowed that these flat stitches, especially the +plumage stitch, give most scope for freedom in needlework, as they are +laid on at once, and according to the inspiration of the worker, and +may cover the outline and efface it. The stitches are not counted, and +have more of the nature of touch than any others, as their length, +thickness, and closeness may be varied at will. The artist's design +thus admits of interpretation according to the taste and feeling of +the needlewoman. + + [Illustration: Pl. 43. + Japanese Opus Plumarium.] + + +_Part 6._ + +OPUS CONSUTUM (_or cut work_). + +This is "Patchwork," or "Appliqué" ("inlaid" and "onlaid"). Vasari +calls it "Di commesso," and says that Botticelli invented it for the +use of Church banners, as being much more effective than any other +style of work, or even than painting, as the outlines remained firm +(non si stinguano), and were not affected by the weather (as in +painted cloths) and were visible on both sides of the banner. +Botticelli drew with his own hand the baldachino of Or San Michele, +and the embroideries on a frieze carried in procession by the monks of +Santa Maria Novella; he died 1515. Perhaps he may have revived the art +of application in his own day. + +There are, however, much earlier examples of patchwork, of which the +first and most remarkable is the Egyptian funeral tent of Queen +Isi-em-Kheb, mother-in-law of Shishak, who besieged and took Jerusalem +three or four years after the death of Solomon, B.C. 980. It may be +described as a mosaic, or patchwork of prodigious size, made of +thousands of pieces of gazelles' skins, dyed, and neatly sewn together +with threads of colour to match, resembling the stitching of a glove, +the outer edges bound with a cord of twisted pink leather, sewn on +with stout pink thread (pl. 44). The colours are described as being +wonderfully preserved, when it is remembered that they are nearly as +old as the Trojan War; though perhaps their preservation is less +surprising than that the flowers wreathed about several royal mummies +of the same period should have shown their colours and forms when the +cases were first opened, so as to be recognized as blue larkspur, +yellow mimosa, and a red Abyssinian flower, massed closely together on +the foundation of a strong leaf cut in zigzags. Among the flowers lay +a dead wasp, whose worthless little form and identity were as +perfectly preserved as those of the mighty monarch on whose bosom it +had completed its short existence. The tent itself consists of a +centre or flat top, divided down the middle, and covered over one +half with pink and yellow rosettes on a blue ground; on the other half +are six large vultures, each surrounded with a hieroglyphic text which +is really an epitaph. The side flaps are adorned first with some +narrow bands of colour; then with a fringe pattern; then with a row of +broad panels, red, green, and yellow, with a device or picture and +inscription in the two other colours; on this border there are +kneeling gazelles, each with a pink Abyssinian lotus blossom hanging +to its collar. The rest of the side flaps and the whole of the front +and back flaps are composed of large squares, alternately pink and +green. This, for its antiquity, its style, its stitchery, materials, +and colours, is a most interesting work of early art, and an example +of the perfection to which it had attained. It is remarkable how much +variety of effect has been produced with only four colours, by the +artistic manner of placing and contrasting them. To our more advanced +taste, however, the whole effect of the contrasting colours is +inharmonious and gaudy, though certainly striking and typical.[345] + +Another piece of Egyptian application, from the Museum at Turin, is a +pretty leaf pattern cut out in red stuff, laid on a white ground, and +worked down with a darker outline of the same colour.[346] + + [Illustration: Fig. 22. + Piece of appliqué in red stuff and red outlines from Egypt.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 44. + Funeral Tent of Isi-em-Kheb. From Villiers Stuart's "Funeral Tent + of an Egyptian Queen."] + +We have an instance of ancient "application" of about 600 years +later, Greek in its beauty of design and execution. Alas! we can only +ascertain, from tattered fragments taken out of a tomb in the Crimea, +that it was parsemé with figures on horseback or in chariots. The +border is very beautiful. Compare the fragments of which we have +obtained a copy with the mantle of Demeter, from a Greek vase, and you +will perceive how the styles correspond (Pl. 16, Fig. 23). The ground +material is of the finest woven wool, of a deep violet or purple +colour, enriched with application of another fine woollen fabric of a +most brilliant green, worked down, outlined and embroidered in white, +black, and gold-coloured wool, apparently in stem stitches.[347] The +accompanying illustration gives the effect and general design of the +outer border only, in which the applied leaf is worked down in red, +gold, and white. + +It is much to be regretted that the centre of the mantle is so +tattered and discoloured that it is impossible to do more than +ascertain that the design that is embroidered on it consists of +figures on horseback or in chariots, in spirited attitudes. The second +and broader border is to be found (pl. 17). + + [Illustration: Fig. 23. + Narrow border of a Greek mantle.] + +"Opus consutum" cannot in any sense perhaps be the name of a stitch or +stitches. But it applies to a peculiar style of embroidery employing +certain stitches. It is the term given to all work cut out of plain or +embroidered materials, and applied by "working down" to another +material as grounding. It includes all raised and stuffed application +in silk, woollen, and metal thread work. It has been given to all work +in which the scissors are active agents, whether in cutting out the +outlines or in incising the pattern, as in much of the linen and +muslin embroideries of our day, now called "Madeira work," of which a +great deal was made in the first part of the century by English ladies +who designed and collected patterns from each other, and gave the +produce of their industry as gifts to their friends for collars, +cuffs, and trimmings.[348] + +"Cut work" is named by Chaucer, and is constantly to be found in +inventories from his time to the beginning of the last century. At +Coire, in the Grisons, is a very beautiful chasuble, of which the +orphrey is of the school of the elder Holbein or Lucas Cranach, +applied and raised so as to form a high relief. The figures are +covered with satin and embroidered. The chasuble itself is of fine +Saracenic silk, woven with golden inscriptions in broad stripes. The +colours are brown, crimson, and gold. + + [Illustration: Wall Pilasters + Appliqué Cut work, Italian XVI. Cent^ry + Property of Countess Somers] + +In the later Middle Ages, a good deal of this work was executed in +Germany for wall hangings; figures were cut out in different +materials, and embroidered down and finished by putting in the details +in various stitches. As art they are generally a failure, being more +gaudy than beautiful. This, however, is not necessarily the case, for +there is at the Hotel Cluny a complete suite of hangings of the time +of Francis the First, partly applied and partly embroidered, which +are beautiful in design and colouring, especially the fruit and +trophies in the borders. + +In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries cut work was much employed +in Italy for large flowered arabesque designs, commonly in velvet or +silk, making columnar wall hangings, which are often very effective; +giving the rooms an architectural decoration, without interfering with +the arrangement of works of art, pictures, statues and cabinets, +placed in front of them. Besides, it was supposed that the utmost +effect of richness was thus accomplished with the least labour, and +very large spaces and very high walls covered, without losing anything +of beauty by distance, as must be the case when the work's highest +merit is in the delicacy of the stitches and the details of form. (Pl. +45.) + +The Earl of Beauchamp has inherited a most beautiful suite of hangings +of "appliqué work;" silks of many kinds are laid on a white brocade +ground with every possible variety of stitch, forming richly and +gracefully designed patterns; and showing to what cut work can aspire. + +A great deal of "opus consutum" has been done in the School of Art +Needlework, in the way of restoration of old embroideries. Here may be +seen copies of different models of many periods; amongst other British +specimens, part of a bed at Drumlanrig, in which James I. slept. In +this work the application is cut out, raised and stuffed, and +"couched" with cords, and the whole thing is as stiff, strong, +conventional, and enduring as if it were a piece of upholstery that +was carpentered yesterday, instead of being needlework of at least 250 +years ago. + +One of the most remarkable large works of this style that exists was +shown in 1881, at the South Kensington Museum, during the Spanish +Exhibition.[349] It was of the kind called "on the stamp." This was a +landscape seen between columns wreathed with flowers and creepers. In +the foreground couched a stag, the size of life--a wonderful +reproduction of the hide of the creature in stitches. The relief is so +high that the columns appear to be circular by the shadows they throw; +and the stag is stuffed so as to be raised about six inches. The work +is superb, and causes pleasure as well as wonder; and yet, in spite of +the beauty of the design, and the richness of the materials--gold, +silver, silk, and wool profusely used--it is a divergence from the +legitimate art of embroidery, and is simply the attempt of the +needlewoman to combine again the arts of sculpture and painting with +the help of so inadequate an implement as the needle. Therefore, +except as being a marvellous and beautiful curiosity, it is a failure; +it is not art.[350] + +Practically, cut work is the best mode of arriving at splendid effects +by uniting rich and varied tissues.[351] The Italian curiosity vendors +know this well, and often cut up the remnants and rags of rich stuffs, +old faded silks, and scraps of gold and silver tissues, and with them +copy fine old designs, and sell them as authentic specimens of such +and such a date. + +I was once requested to give an opinion as to the date of a curtain +border bought in Italy, and on consideration I gave the following +verdict: "The design is of the sixteenth century; the applied velvet +and gold cord, of the seventeenth century; the brocaded silk ground, +eighteenth century; the thread with which the whole was +worked--machine-made silk thread (English)--middle of nineteenth +century." The whole effect was excellent, and very antique. + +This art of "application" is the distinctive part of the "opus +consutum," and it is the best and most economical method for +restoration of old embroideries, of which the grounding material is +generally worn out long before the stitches laid upon it. Much +beautiful work has thus been rescued from annihilation, and restored +to use from its long imprisonment in the boxes and drawers of the +garret and store-room. But it is cruel to transfer historical or +typical works, and so puzzle the artist and the historian. + +It is so troublesome to embroider on velvet or plush, or gold tissues, +that application is the easiest and most effective mode of dealing +with these fabrics.[352] The outlines laid down in cord have the best +effect, while binding the edges and securing them from fraying, and it +is almost certain that the eye receives most pleasure, in flat art, +from a defined outline, which satisfies it; where there are no cast +shadows, it lifts the work from the background, and separating the +colours, it enhances their beauty. It would appear, however, as a +rule, that either black or gold metal should invariably be employed, +because they do not interfere with any colour they approach. White is +distracting and aggressive. The Greeks sometimes used gold colour +instead of gold, as we see in the mantle from the Crimea already +referred to; but this is not nearly so agreeable to the eye as pure +gold. + +A great deal of modern "opus consutum," or application cut work, has +been done in Constantinople of late years. The designs in general, are +not artistic; nor are the colouring and materials very commendable. +The onlaid material is, in general, sewn down with chain stitches, and +cut out afterwards. + + +_Part 7._ + +LACE.--OPUS FILATORIUM OR ARANEUM. + +Mrs. Palliser says that from the earliest times the art of lace-making +has been so mixed up with that of needlework, that it is impossible to +enter upon the one without naming the other. This is, in fact, what +she has done, showing the intimate connection between the two in her +charming work on lace, where much information about embroideries in +general, may be found in the introduction.[353] + +M. Blanc also considers that there is but a slight transition between +embroidery and guipure, which he says was the first lace.[354] As all +the earliest specimens and designs for guipure were Venetian, the art +was, therefore, probably an Italian invention, though an Oriental +origin has sometimes been attributed to it. The objection to this last +theory is that we find no ancient specimens, and no modern +continuation of such work in the East. + +The word "guipure" is a stumbling-block. It has been applied to many +forms in the varying art of lace-making; which same variableness has +caused its nomenclature to assume the terms belonging to other textile +arts where they approach or touch each other, (as in netting, fringes, +or embroideries). The nearest approach to laces before the thirteenth +century was more in the nature of what we now call guimp.[355] + +Embroidery differs from lace, in that it is worked on already woven +tissues; whereas lace is manufactured at once, both ground and +design.[356] But the link between the two is not missing. + +In the twelfth century they worked "opus filatorium," which consisted +of embroidery with the needle on linen, of which half the threads had +been drawn out, and the remainder were worked into a net by knotting +them into groups, then dividing, and knotting them again.[357] There +is a piece of work described in an old catalogue quoted by Rock. "St. +Paul's, London, had a cushion covered with knotted thread: Pulvinar +copertum de albo filo nodato." Here lace and embroidery touch each +other.[358] Sir Gardiner Wilkinson notices some early Egyptian work in +the Louvre as "a piece of white network pattern, each mesh containing +an irregular cubic figure." This sounds much like lace-work. + +It may be fairly asserted that the term "embroidery" embraces the +craft of lace-making, as almost all ancient and much modern lace is +simple embroidery, and formed entirely by the needle. + +Some kinds of lace, however, are made by plaiting and twisting the +threads attached to bobbins round pins which are previously arranged +in the holes of a pattern, pricked on parchment or glazed paper.[359] +The original motive and idea of lace is a net. The patterns called by +the ancients "de fundata," are netted designs meshed. You will see +them constantly in Egyptian and Greek art, both in wall painting and +textile decoration. Homer speaks of golden cauls, and so does +Isaiah,[360] as adorning women's heads. They also mention nets of +flax. + +The capitals of the brazen columns adorned with "nets of chequer work" +in Solomon's Temple are very curious.[361] And the author of "Letters +from Italy, 1776," tells of the garment of a statue at Portici, edged +with a border resembling fine netting. Egyptian robes of state appear +to have been sometimes trimmed with an edging of a texture between +lace and fringe.[362] + +Lace has been made of many materials in many ways. We may instance +"passementerie," made with bobbins (bone lace), with or without pins, +or with the needle only, by hand. The materials have been gold, +silver, silk, thread (these two last white or coloured), the fibres of +plants, and human hair.[363] A lace called "yak" is made of wool or +hair. + +Bone laces in gold and silver, or the two mixed and interchanged, are +continually mentioned in the inventories of the fifteenth, sixteenth, +and seventeenth centuries. Bed hangings, chair and cushion covers, and +table cloths were constantly trimmed with gold and silver bone lace, +and fringes of the same.[364] Laces in coloured silks were made in +Spain and the Balearic Isles late in the last century.[365] + +In 1542, a sumptuary law was passed in Venice, forbidding the metal +laces embroidered in silk to be wider than "due dita," i.e. about two +inches. This paternal interference in the details of life is truly +Venetian. It was intended to "protect the nobles and citizens from +injuring themselves and setting a bad example." + +Perhaps this strict rule was relaxed in favour of crowned heads and +royal personages; for there is at Ashridge, among the relics of Queen +Elizabeth's enforced visit, a toilet-cover of red and gold striped +silk, with a trimming of lace, four inches broad, of Venice gold and +silver lace embroidered in coloured silk. Specimens of these laces are +rare, owing to the intrinsic value of the metal. We must suppose the +origin of these golden trimmings to belong to a very early period. A +piece of gold wire lace guimp was lately found in a tomb near Wareham, +and is supposed, with reason, to be Scandinavian.[366] + +M. Blanc describes lace as a "treillage" or network, and says it is +made in three ways. You may complete the ground first, and then work +the pattern with the needle. This he calls lace "pure et simple;" and +he considers that it differs from guipure in that the latter consists +of flowers and arabesques worked separately, and then connected with +bars, lines, or meshes. This guipure is the second mode of +lace-making.[367] The third is by machinery; but this has the inherent +defect of all machine-made fabrics, to a practised eye; i.e. a certain +rigidity and coldness in the exactly repeated forms, in which the +human touch is wanting. It is curious how in art, even a "pentimento" +is valuable, recalling the hand that erred as well as created; the +attention that strayed, or reconsidered the design.[368] + +M. Blanc, speaking of the beauty of point d'Alençon, praises it +especially as being entirely needlework. He names the different modes +of lace-making, and judges their merits. Of needle-made lace he says: +"And the value of this lace not only arises from its representing a +considerable amount of labour, but also because nothing can replace in +human estimation the fabrics produced by a man's, and still less by a +woman's handicraft. However the hand may have been restrained by the +necessity of faithfully following, on green parchment, the designs +imagined and traced by another person, there is always, even in +copying an outline, an individuality, an imperceptible deviation to +the right or to the left, above or below the tracing, which impresses +on the design the accent of strength or weakness, of indecision or +determination."[369] I would add, of intelligence or stupidity; of +knowledge or ignorance. + +This is not the first time, and will certainly not be the last, that I +shall have sought to impress on the needlewoman the fact that her +individuality cannot fail to be strongly marked in her work; and I +would urge her to carry out the suggestions that her experience and +her taste afford her, while seeking to render faithfully the original +motive of the designer. In lace-making, as in all art, the interest +and the life, as it were, is imparted to each specimen by the +attention and thought bestowed upon it. + +Mrs. Palliser shows us, by her beautiful illustrations, how much +variety may be given to designs for lace-making, which have changed +with each period of contemporary art, and are markedly distinctive of +their nationalities. + +Mr. A. Cole's lectures on lace, his volume of photographs, and M. +Seguin's valuable work, are full of information. + +M. Urbani de Gheltof's "Technical History of Venetian Laces," +translated into English by Lady Layard, is a beautiful little book and +a worthy imitation of the ancient lace-books of the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries.[370] + +The subject has been so thoroughly discussed by adepts in connection +with its revival as a local industry in its original cradle, that I +will confine myself to a few observations on its history and its place +in decorative art. + +Fringes, Knotting, Netting, Knitting, Crochet, Tatting, and +Lace-making, are all parts of the same branch of ornamental +needlework. They are all "trimmings," in the sense of being decorative +edges to more solid materials. They are not available as coverings for +warmth or decency; but they serve to give the grace of mystery to the +object they drape or veil. They soften the outlines and the colours +beneath them, while they permit them to peep through their meshes. +They are hardly to be included in what is called high art, having more +affinity with grace, refinement and coquetry, than with æsthetic +culture or noble thought. + +This tendency in lace work may be the reason that the masculine mind +does not, in general, appreciate these lovely textures, but rather +despises them (even when the designs are beautiful and ingenious), as +being flimsy and deficient in honest intention; whereas women have +always greatly prized them for their delicacy and refinement, and +their great value, on account of the time, trouble, and eyesight +expended upon them. Their knowledge of stitches also enables them to +appreciate their variety, and the taste shown in their selection and +arrangement for carrying out each design. + +Lace stitches are almost innumerable.[371] Upwards of a hundred are +named, and their variations are endless. But a volume would not +suffice us for entering into the details of the craft; many of its +stitches have been imported into embroideries in gold, silk, and +crewels; and such adaptations are always allowable, provided the +effect is good. + +We have every reason to believe that the claims of Venice as the first +and original school of lace-making have been satisfactorily +proved.[372] Genoa, Florence, Milan, especially the last,[373] +followed suit. Germany, France,[374] and Spain soon started their +schools; but Lady Layard believes that Spain received all her +inspiration and the greater part of her laces from Venice, which +likewise sent teachers to France and to Brussels--or rather, we may +say, had many first-class workwomen decoyed from her manufactories to +assist in starting rival industries in other countries.[375] + +The first pattern-books were printed in Venice in the sixteenth +century; and these "Corone di belle e virtuose donne," as they are +sometimes entitled,[376] were imitated in France and Germany. + +Venice was proud of her industry, and of the noble ladies who fostered +it. It is recorded in the "Virtù in Giocco of Giovanna Palazzi" that +Giovanna Dandolo, or "la Dandola," (wife of the Doge Malapiero,) was +the first patroness of Venice laces. She also fostered the art of +printing in Venice, and is spoken of as a "principessa di gran' +spirito, ne di private fortune," and her memory is cherished in +connection with these proofs of her patriotism. We hear also that +Morosin or Marosin, wife of the Doge Marin Grimani, patronized +Venetian lace-making. Her forewoman, or _maestra_, was a certain +Cattina Gardin, and through her the art was settled at Burano, where +it has been so lately revived. + +At the Cathedral of Burano, is kept in the sacristy, perhaps the +finest existing piece of artistic lace of the sixteenth century. It +contains many groups of figures from the history of our Lord, +beautiful both in design and execution, worked in "Punti Fogliami," +and filled in with exquisite tracery. This was the border of an +antipendium. + +Mrs. Palliser laments the extinction of the art in Venice, and says +that but one woman of the old craft had survived; but her elegy was +premature, as that old woman, by name Cencia Scarpariola, has lived to +see hundreds of girls at Burano reviving all the old traditions, +having learnt from her the secrets of the "mestiere," or "mystery." +Under the patronage of the Princess Margherita, now Queen of Italy, +and with the active help and superintendence of Countess Adriana +Marcello and Princess Giovanelli, most beautiful laces are now made in +every old point, French and Flemish, as well as Venetian. Pezzi, +merli, and merletti are executed in the different styles which include +all lace-making, and of which we here give a list from M. de Gheltof's +book:-- + + Net lace. + Cut lace. + Open lace. + Flowered lace. + Knotted lace. + Darning or square netting. + Venice point. + Burano point. + Drawn lace.[377] + Embroidered linen.[378] + +The price of these laces is very high, but not beyond their value when +we consider the vast amount of skilled labour bestowed on them. We are +often told that old lace is cheaper than new, as an absurd fact, +because the antiquity of lace is supposed to add to its value. Yes, +but principally as an object of archæological interest; whereas that +which is being made now is supporting by its daily wage the +needlewoman and her family, and perhaps providing for her old age; +and as the strain on the eye is very heavy, many lace-workers early in +life lose their sight, at least for all the purposes of their +craft.[379] For these reasons we cannot say that the prices required +for such luxurious trimmings are unreasonable. Zanon da Udine gives us +an idea of how costly they were in old times. He says that Giuseppe +Berardi, a lace merchant in Venice, made a profit of 75,000 francs on +a commission for a set of lace bed-hangings for the wedding of Joseph +II., Emperor of Germany, which proves the high prices paid for the new +laces of their day. + +Blond laces, which take their turn occasionally as fashionable +trimmings, veils, and Spanish mantillas, are so called from their +original Venetian name, "merletti biondi," pale laces. De Gheltof +derives this appellation from the celebrated collar of Louis Quatorze, +and fancies it was made of the fair hair of the workers; but this is +only vague conjecture. The term was applied in the seventeenth century +to laces in silk, gold, and silver--never to thread laces. I confess I +do not find the reason for the name, but accept De Gheltof's +information that it was given by the authority of the magistrates of +Mercanzia in 1759. + +This is but a very slight sketch of the history of lace. Venice being +its birthplace, and likewise the busy scene of its rehabilitation, I +have lingered over its school, and left but little space for the +discussion of those of Spain, Flanders, Belgium, and France. But these +have been thoroughly investigated, and their individual merits are +well appreciated, both as antique and modern dress decoration. + +I have already said that the lace schools in France were instituted by +Colbert, who placed one at Auxerre, under the especial care of his +brother, the bishop of that city. Louis Quatorze made it one of his +splendid caprices, and not only set the example, but forced the +fashion into this luxurious and extravagant channel. + +In Spain, lace was made to look its best by being worn stretched over +the great hoops of the "Guard-Infante;" and the fashion spread all +over Europe. The white laces, resembling carved ivory or those in gold +and silver, which remind one of solid jewellers' work, when spread +over the surface of these fortified outworks, guarding from all +approach the persons of the Infantas of Spain, assume in the portraits +by Velasquez, a dignity which is in keeping with their value. The +splendid designs show brilliantly on a background of scarlet, rose +colour, or black silk; and that which, hanging loosely, looks only +tawdry and ragged, had a magnificent effect when thus displayed. + +For ecclesiastical purposes, these grand solid laces seem most +appropriate, being effective in large spaces, and easily seen at a +distance, hanging over the edge of the altar, as a border to the linen +cloths, or finishing the white alb of the officiating priest. + +One cannot but agree with M. Blanc, who points out that each piece of +lace had its intention, and that a fashionable ball-dress trimmed with +the edging of an antique altar-cloth in loops, is in false taste, to +say no worse of the misappropriation. + +Though we have had no schools of lace in England (unless we can call +our imitative industries schools), we have samplers of the time of +Queen Elizabeth, and down to the middle of the last century, showing +that drawn lace and cut lace were regularly taught, probably as an +accomplishment, by Italians. The laces of Devonshire and the Isle of +Wight (called Honiton) form a group totally distinct from those of +Northamptonshire, Bedfordshire, and Oxfordshire, which last are very +simple cushion bobbin-laces. + +From the sixteenth century English ladies have, for their amusement, +made cut laces. Still, we must confess we have no national style of +lace, and the only enduring ones have been those of France and +Belgium, which have always kept the lead since their establishment, +though fluctuating in design with the varying fashions of each epoch. +Perhaps the reason of their longevity is that they have followed +always the taste of their day. That of our time being decidedly +archæological, ancient patterns are now the most successful. + +There is a kind of embroidery darned-work, called "Limerick lace," +which is said to be only made in Ireland, and being partly +machine-made, is not pure lace, and therefore little esteemed. Very +fine thread laces have been produced at Irish work schools; but no +commercial result has followed. Clever imitations of Venice point have +come from Ireland lately, called "raised crochet." This is a novelty, +and it is extremely fine and beautiful work. + + [Illustration: Pl. 46. + Egyptian "Gobelins," Woven and Embroidered.] + +The Exhibition of Irish Lace in London (June, 1883), shows how +widespread have been the efforts of Irish ladies to employ the +peculiar genius of the sister island for delicate work with the +needle, which has always been shown in their beautiful embroideries on +muslin and cambric. It appears that every kind of lace, except, +perhaps, Brussels point, has been made in Ireland within the last 180 +years; but as in each case the effort was always that of one +individual woman, the school fell away when she died. + +The names of these ladies are now worthily recorded in the official +catalogue of the exhibition, with photographs of the specimens +produced under their superintendence and care. Perhaps a permanent +industry may crown, however late, their exertions to help the women of +Ireland. + + +_Part 8._ + +TAPESTRY--OPUS PECTINEUM. + +It is necessary to define precisely what is meant by the word +"tapestry."[380] The term has been applied to all hangings, and so +caused confusion between those that are embroidered with a design, on +a plain or brocaded woven material, and those which are inwoven with +the design from the first.[381] This latter was called in classical +language, "opus pectineum," because it was woven with the help of a +comb (the "slay"),[382] to push the threads tight between each row of +stitches; and the individual stitches were put in with a sort of a +needle, or by the fingers only, and laid on the warp. It was thus +practised by the Egyptians, by the Persians, Indians, and Peruvians; +and in Egypt was often finished by embroidery. (Pl. 46.) In Egyptian +tombs we have evidence of their tapestry, from the mural paintings +representing men and women weaving pictures in upright looms. The +comb which served to push the threads together after the stitches were +laid in is sometimes found in the weaver's tomb. + +We have, in the British Museum, pieces of "opus pectineum" from +Saccarah, in Egypt; and also fragments from a Peruvian tomb, of +barbarous design, but the weaving is equal to the Egyptian; and both +resemble the Gobelins weaving of to-day. Whence came the craft of the +Peruvians? + +Tapestry is woven in two ways, by a high or by a low-warp loom +(_haute-lisse_ or _basse-lisse_), vertical or horizontal. The "slay" +is the implement which is peculiar to the craft. I shall not enter +into any description of the mode of working the looms, as this has +been thoroughly well done by masters of the art.[383] But I would call +attention to the Frontispiece, copied from a Greek vase, where +Penelope is portrayed sitting by her _haute-lisse_ frame. I also refer +the reader to the illustration from the Rheims tapestries, in which a +mediæval artist shows the Blessed Virgin weaving at one that is +horizontal or "basse-lisse." (Pl. 47.) + + [Illustration: Pl. 47. + Portion of a Tapestry Hanging. Cathedral. Rheims. The Virgin weaves + and embroiders at a _basse-lisse_ frame.] + +For the best information I have been able to obtain regarding tapestry +weaving, I must acknowledge my indebtedness to M. Albert Castel's +"Bibliothèque des Merveilles."[384] He has given great care to the +consideration of this subject, and has collected good evidences to +prove his conclusions, which I willingly accept _en bloc_. Of course +he has chiefly dealt with the French branch of the art, and with the +Flemish, from which it immediately descends. He begins, however, by +quoting Pliny, to prove the antiquity of weaving, and gives a verse of +Martial's to this effect: "Thou owest this work to the land of +Memphis, where the slay of the Nile has vanquished the needle of +Babylon."[385] + +Homer makes Helen weave the story of the siege of Troy; this may have +been partly embroidered; and there are some pieces of woven tapestry +introduced most ingeniously into the web of a linen shirt or garment, +of which the sleeve is in the Egyptian department of the British +Museum, proving that figures were pictured by weaving quite as early +as the date of Troy, and unmistakably finished with the needle (Plate +18); at any rate, as early as the days of Homer. Arachne's web was +interwoven with figures. She and Minerva rivalled each other in +ingenious design and perfect execution. The description of the +beautiful hangings they wove, the glorious colours with their +tenderly graduated tints, and the graceful borders, appear to be +almost prophetic of the highest efforts of the looms of the +Gobelins.[386][387] Arachne's name is derived from the Hebrew word +for weaving, "Arag." + +It appears that the town now called Arras, but anciently Nomenticum, +was always a centre of the trade of the weavers;[388] for Flavius +Vopiscus, writing in A.D. 282, says that thence came the Byrri--woven +cloaks with hoods, which were much in vogue amongst all classes in the +later Roman Empire. The craft of weaving, which flourished in the +Flemish and other adjacent countries, seems to have become native to +that soil, and to have clung to it, surviving many historical +cataclysms.[389] + +Though in the fifth century the inhabitants of that country were +transported wholesale to Germany by the Vandals, and among them those +of the town of Arras, yet, thanks to the monasteries, there was a +survival and a revival; the craftsmen grouping themselves round the +religious houses. Specimens as models were brought from the East. +Aster, Bishop of Amasis (a town in Asiatic Turkey), describes these +Oriental hangings in one of his homilies. He says that animals and +scenes from the Bible were woven on white grounds.[390] + +Sidonius Apollinaris, Bishop of Clermont Ferrand,[391] says that some +foreign tapestries are "pictured" with the summits of Ctesiphon and +Nephates, "wild beasts running rapidly across void canvas, and also by +a miracle of art, the Parthian of wild aspect with his head turned +backwards." This might be a description of a Chinese composition, and +probably it is so.[392] + +Woven tapestry is also called "Arras,"[393] because that town in the +Netherlands was the home and school of the art of picture weaving in +the Middle Ages. It has been hitherto excluded from the domain of +needlework, because of the different use of the needle employed in +it. It has always been woven on a loom, and is, in fact, embroidery +combined with the weaving; for the shuttle, or slay, or comb completes +each row of stitches. It belongs as much to our art as does tambour +work, which is done with a hook instead of a needle. Tapestry weaving +is the intelligent craft of a practised hand guided by artistic skill. +The forms of the painted design must be copied by a person who can +draw; and the colours require as much care in selection, as in +painting with oils or water-colours. Such a thing as a purely +mechanical exact copy is impossible in any art; and the difficulties +are increased a hundredfold when it is a translation into another +material, and another form of art. Besides, in this case, the copies +are worked from the back, and the picture is reversed. The question is +this: Can it be claimed as belonging to the same craft as embroidery? +I answer in the affirmative, and I claim it. + +"When the Saracens began to weave tapestry we cannot tell; but the +workers in woven pictures were called Sarassins, and their craft, the +'opus Saracenicum.'"[394] The French and Flemish artisans who +continued to weave in the old upright frames (_haute-lisse_) were, +whether Christians or not, called "Sarassins." Probably they came +through Spain, possibly from Sicily to Flanders and to France, or else +from Byzantium. Viollet-le-Duc says that the "Saracinois" was a term +applied to the makers of velvety carpets (_tapis veloutés_).[395] This +is possible.[396] Woven carpets of Oriental type were spreading +themselves as articles of luxury through Europe early in the Middle +Ages; and the Persian style of design was much the same then, when the +first models were brought to Spain, and thence to Arras, as it is now +in the carpets we buy just woven in Persia.[397] The oldest specimens +known here have been exhibited in the Indian Museum, and may be of the +thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The perishable nature of the +material makes us dependent on the sculptured records of all artistic +design for our knowledge of carpets and hangings of more than a +thousand years ago; and we must confess that we find nothing really +resembling a Persian pattern in any classical tomb or sculpture of the +Dark Ages.[398] + +I have allowed myself to touch upon carpet weaving, as it is germane +to tapestry; though it is a branch that soon loses itself and leaves +artistic work in the distance. Except the first design, it has become +purely mechanical. + +After what has been quoted from Ovid's "Metamorphoses," and bearing in +mind the pictured webs described by Homer, and likewise the evidence +of the frescoes in Egypt, and the woman weaving on the Greek fictile +vase found at Chiusi, we may be justified in concluding that, like all +other arts, that of tapestry existed in very early days, died out, and +had to begin afresh, and gradually return to life, during the Middle +Ages. + +Bishop Gaudry, about 925, possessing a piece of tapestry with an +inscription in Greek letters surrounded by lions "parsemé," was much +put about till he obtained something to match it, to hang on the +opposite side of his choir at Auxerre.[399] And it is known that the +monks of St. Florent, at Saumur, wove tapestries about 985, and +continued to do so for two centuries. St. Angelme of Norway,[400] +Bishop of Auxerre, who died in 840, caused many tapestries to be +executed for his church. At Poitiers this manufactory was so famous in +the eleventh century, that foreign kings, princes, and prelates sought +to obtain them, "even for Italy." The rules of their order of the +monks of the Abbey of Cluny, dated 1009, were followed by those of St. +Wast and of the Abbey of Fleury, and others in France, who all wove +wool and silk for tapestries. Le Père Labbé, from whom much of this +information is drawn and acknowledged by M. Charton (my authority), +says that in 876, at Ponthièvre, in presence of the Emperor Charles +the Bold, the hall of the council-chamber was hung with pictured +tapestries, and the seats were covered with them.[401] + + [Illustration: Pl. 48. + Order of the Golden Fleece. Tapestry at Berne, taken from Charles + the Bold at the Battle of Grandson, 1476.] + +Sufficient has been said to show that during the dark ages hangings +were woven in France, Germany, and Belgium,[402] and that England was +not behind the rest of the civilized world in this craft. I think, +also, that we have indicated its Oriental origin.[403] + +Arras continued to lead as the great tapestry factory till the end of +the fifteenth century, when the commercial failure of the city began, +at the death of Charles le Téméraire, Duke of Burgundy.[404] Plate 48 +shows a portion of his tent hangings woven with the order of the +golden fleece taken at the battle of Grandson--now in the museum at +Berne. Till then Arras had supplied most of the splendid decorations of +which we find such marvellous lists. Every possible subject--religious, +romantic, historical, and allegorical--was pressed into the service, +and pictured hangings were supposed to instruct, amuse, and edify the +beholders. The dark ages were illuminated, and their barbarity +softened, by these constant appeals to men's highest instincts, and to +the memories of their noblest antecedents and aspirations, which +clothed their walls, and so became a part of their daily lives. The +great Flemish and French workshops became the illustrators of the +history of the world, as it was then read or being enacted. It is a +record of faiths, religious and political; and of national and family +lives and their changes. The Exhibition at Brussels in 1880 showed, by +its "Catalogue Raisonné," how much could be extracted from its storied +tapestries of both archæological and artistic information.[405] + +Though the art continued to be the servant of refined luxury in the +fifteenth century, Arras itself had done its work,[406] and was +superseded as the greatest weaver of artistic tapestry by a neighbour +and rival. Brussels, which had been gradually asserting itself as a +weaving community, from that date absorbed most of the trade of Arras, +and thence forwards, till Henri IV. established the works of the +Savonnerie, Brussels led European taste, and employed the best +artists. Brussels employed Leonardo da Vinci and Mantegna, Giovanni da +Udine, Raphael, and later, Rubens and the great Dutch painters, to +design cartoons for tapestry works. Raphael's pupil, Michael Coxsius, +of Mechlin, superintended the copying of his master's cartoons. +Shortly afterwards, Antwerp, Oudenarde, Lille, Tournai, Valenciennes, +Beauvais, Aubusson, and Bruges all had their schools;[407] and the +adept can trace their differences and peculiarities, and name their +birthplace, without referring to their trade-mark, or to that of the +manufacturer, which is usually to be found in the outer border. +Poitiers, Troyes, Beauvais, Rheims, and St. Quentin likewise had their +schools, and became famous. + +Want of space prevents my entering more fully into this subject of the +northern tapestries, and I must refer my readers to the authorities I +have quoted from so largely. + + +ITALIAN TAPESTRY. + +The word Arrazzi shows us whence the Italians drew their art. +Doubtless there were looms in the Italian cities, and especially under +ecclesiastical patronage, through the dark ages. Rome was in +communication with the Atrebates in the third century, by whom she was +supplied with the Byrri, or hooded cloaks then worn; and as it had +been a centre for weaving commerce, it is probable that Rome received +from Arras the craftsmen as well as the produce of their looms. At the +Renaissance we find factories for pictured webs in Florence, Rome, +Milan, Mantua, and elsewhere. The best artists of the Italian +schools--Mantegna, Leonardo, Raphael and his scholars, &c., &c.--gave +their finest designs to be executed in Italy, before they were sold to +Arras, Brussels, France, or England, and they are accumulated in the +treasure-room of every palace in Italy. But the finest collections are +those of the Vatican, and of the Pitti in Florence. A splendid volume +might be edited of these grand artistic works; such a record would be +invaluable. Vasari[408] and Passevant give us occasional glimpses of +local factories for tapestry, but, as we have before said, this +subject has still to be investigated. + + +FRENCH TAPESTRY. + +In France, as elsewhere, tapestry was probably woven in private looms +and in the religious houses from early days. M. Jubinal believes that +it was made at Poitiers, Troyes, Beauvais, Rheims, and St. Quentin as +early as 1025.[409] Froissart describes the entry of Isabel of +Bavaria as a bride into Paris, when the houses were covered with +hangings and tapestries representing historical scenes.[410] The Cluny +Museum possesses a most curious mediæval suite of hangings from the +Chateau de Boussac, of the early part of the fifteenth century. They +tell the story of the "Dame au Lion," and are brilliantly coloured and +charmingly quaint and gay in design. Hangings designed by Primaticcio +were woven at Fontainebleau, where Francis I. started the manufacture +in 1539. However, the first national school of tapestry weaving was +that at Chaillot, under the experienced teaching of workmen from +Arras; afterwards transferred to the town of Gobelins, 1603, by Henri +Quatre.[411] Louis Quatorze and his minister Colbert splendidly +protected this manufacture by law, privilege, and employment; so did +Louis Quinze. Before the Revolution, other considerable tapestry works +were flourishing at Aubusson in Auvergne, at Felletin in the upper +Marches, and at Beauvais. These two last were especially famed for +velvety tapestries (_veloutés_). + +As usual, the French have surpassed all other nations in this textile +art. The pictorial tapestries of the Gobelins have carried the beauty +of wall hangings to the utmost perfection. Nothing can be more festive +than a brilliantly lighted hall, glowing with these woven pictures or +arabesques, framed in gilded carvings or stuccoes. Still we must +acknowledge that, in choice of worthy subjects, the Flemish ideal, +which had been left far behind, was the highest. The weavers of the +time of Louis Quatorze aspired only to teach the glories of France, +not the moralities of society and civilization, in their historical +compositions, which were then superseded by classical mythology, or +else by scenes from rustic life, of the Watteau School. La Fontaine's +fables gave some of the prettiest and gayest designs, and were +generally the centres of splendid arabesques. The drawing and +execution were perfect. + +It is to be feared that in the future, great works of textile +decoration will be few and far between. It is only when the State, or +the monarch that represents the dignity of the State, protects and +fosters these artistic factories, that they can continue to thrive. +Without such powerful encouragement, fashion, commercial depression, +or a war will stop for a time the orders without which funds fail, +discouragement sets in, and ruin quickly follows; and the best workman +when unemployed, or forced for some years to wield the sword, loses +his practised skill never to be restored. In France, whatever has been +the form of government, the old traditions of protection for the +Gobelins have been acted up to and maintained. The consequence is that +science and art still contribute their efforts in the machinery, the +colouring, and the designing of hangings of which the materials[412] +and the execution are unrivalled. Probably there will never again be a +Tuileries or a Versailles to adorn, but an Hôtel de Ville, especially +if it is occasionally destroyed, may give from time to time +opportunity for such decorations. + + +ENGLISH TAPESTRY. + +When we consider the antiquity and the excellence of the art of +tapestry on the Continent, we cannot pretend that there can be the +same general interest in that of our English looms. But to ourselves +it naturally assumes the greatest importance; and I have tried to +trace the efforts of our ancestors in this direction, by noting every +certain sign of English production, in what must have been an +imitation of Flemish or Oriental weaving. The few facts here collected +may be of service to the future writer of the history of English +tapestries. + +Comnenus, Prince of Arras, fled before the Romans from Nomenticum to +England; and he and his Atrebates settled themselves between +Silchester and Sarum, and the Belgæ and Parisi did the same. The +Romans found them here when they invaded England. Wherever the Belgic +tribes spread themselves, the art of weaving was established. Comnenus +probably brought over, and left to his descendants, the inheritance of +this craft. + +Dr. Rock thinks that pictured tapestry was woven at an early period in +the Middle Ages by the monks in England. The earliest proof of this +that we possess, is the notice by Matthew Paris (thirteenth century) +describing the three reredos for St. Alban's Abbey; the first, a large +one, depicting the finding of the body of the Protomartyr; the others, +"The Prodigal Son" and "The Man who fell among Thieves." All these +were executed by the orders of Abbot Geoffrey.[413] + +While in London in 1316, Simon, Abbot of Ramsay, bought for the use of +his monks, looms, shuttles, and a slay. "Pro weblomes emptes xx^d. Et +pro staves ad eadem vj^d. Item pro iiij Shittles, pro eadem opere +vj^d. Item j sloy pro textoribus viii^d."[414] + +In Edward II.'s time there were hangings woven in England which appear +to have been absolutely tapestries. They were much valued abroad, and +were called "Salles d'Angleterre." Charles V. of France (1364) +possessed among his articles of costly furniture, "Une salle +d'Angleterre vermeille brodée d'azur, et est la bordure a vignettes, +et le dedans de Lyons, d'Aigles, et de Lyopars."[415] + +Our trade with Arras must have improved our tapestries. We are told of +Edward III. selling his wools to that town, and being therefore called +by Philip de Valois, his "Marchant de Laine." Horace Walpole refers to +an act, "De Mysterâ Tapiciarorum," of the time of Edward III., 1327, +"regarding certain malpractices of the craft," which proves its +existence in England at that period.[416] + +Mr. French, in his catalogue of the Exhibition in London, 1851, quotes +the tapestries of St. Mary's Hall at Coventry, to prove that there was +a manufactory in England, _temp._ Henry VI. There were certainly +individual looms, though we doubt whether it had yet become a national +industry, as we have so few specimens remaining. The St. Mary's +tapestries contain portraits of Henry VI., Cardinal Beaufort, &c., and +are probably contemporary works. The subject is the marriage of Henry +VI. + +There is also a piece of tapestry at Bude, in Cornwall, the property +of Mr. Maskell, which came from a royal sale. Here the marriage of +Henry VII. is depicted, and the style resembles that of the Coventry +hangings. The costumes are certainly English, and the original +pictures must have been English, though they might have been wrought +at Arras, reminding one of the groups of figures and the dresses on +the Dunstable Pall (see Plate 78). + +Dr. Rock also quotes the reredos belonging to the Vintners' Company, +representing St. Martin sharing his cloak with a beggar. He thinks +this is executed by the monks of St. Alban's, and attributes to those +of Canterbury the fine tapestries of the legends of the Virgin at Aix, +in Provence, of which we have the history. They were originally given +to Canterbury Cathedral by Prior Godstone, and were called Arras work. +There is no doubt that there were looms and artists in the convents +and monasteries before there was any recognized school of such work in +England. Probably till the Reformation such hangings were being woven +all over Europe, and only then ceased in Germany and England. One +cannot but regret that the weight of the evil which preponderated over +the good in the Houses of the Church, should have caused so much that +was beautiful in art to be crushed by their ruin. + +Chaucer speaks of "tapestry of verd."[417] This green tapestry seems +to have been intended to give a bowery effect to the room it hung; and +one can imagine that it pleased the taste of the poet of the "Flower +and the Leaf." It seems to have been much the fashion in England and +elsewhere about that period, and generally represented landscapes and +woody foregrounds only; but sometimes figures and animals were +portrayed, and always in the same tints of bluish-green. + +Dr. Rock gives us an extract from the wardrobe accounts of Edward II., +containing the following items: "To a mercer of London for a green +hanging of wool, woven with figures of kings and earls upon it; for +the king's service upon solemn feast days in London;" therefore the +"tapestry of verd" was not a novelty even in the time of Chaucer.[418] + +Oudenarde was famous for these "hallings" or "salles." All the +specimens mentioned in the catalogue of tapestries exhibited at +Brussels in 1880, are said to be from thence. But we see no reason why +it should not have been an English style of weaving also. The first +establishment of a permanent manufactory in England, did not, however, +take place until the latter end of the reign of Henry VIII., when +Robert Sheldon "allowed" his manor-house at Barcheston, in +Warwickshire, to "one Hicks," whom he signalizes in his will as "the +author and beginner of all tapestry of Arras in England." This will is +dated 1576.[419] + + [Illustration: SUMMER + English Tapestry, Temp. Henry VIII. at Hatfield] + +There are four pieces of tapestry representing the Seasons, removed +from an old family house and placed by Lord Salisbury at Hatfield +House, where they hang in the great corridor. These were probably +woven in Barcheston. (Plate 49.) The style is English Renaissance, and +the design full of intention; in fact, they have the seal of the time +of Henry VIII. Only one characteristic reminds one of Flemish art, +and that is the mode of drawing the plants and flowers, which might +have been taken out of an old German herbal. The landscapes and +peasantry are unmistakably English. The pictures are worked with +strong black outlines which emphasize every detail and give the effect +of a highly coloured outlined engraving; reminding one of the +children's books by Marcus Ward or by Walter Crane.[420] + +The tapestries called the "Spanish Armada hangings" were probably +woven here late in Elizabeth's reign. In her time we find in +catalogues of household goods, descriptions of splendid hangings, +furnishings of palaces and private houses. The MS. inventory of the +Earl of Leicester's belongings, in the library at Longleat, astonishes +us with the abundance of suites of hangings of tapestry that it +enumerates, as well as those embroidered by hand, and others of +stamped and painted leather. + +It was in the reign of James I. that the manufacture was set up at +Mortlake, in Surrey. Aubrey, in his "History of Surrey, i. p. 82," +however, dates the institution in the subsequent reign; but Lloyd[421] +is not only positive for the former date, but affirms it was "of the +motion of King James himself," who gave £2000 towards the undertaking; +and we have further proofs extant that he spent largely, and +encouraged it in every way. He gave to Sir Francis Crane, who erected +the house at Mortlake, "the making of three Baronets" towards his +project for manufacture of tapestry.[422] + +Another curious item which we quote, shows that the funds for the +enterprise were not easily forthcoming. It is a warrant "to Sir +Francis Crane: £2000 to be employed in buying £1000 per ann. of +pensions or other gifts made of the king, and not yet payable, for +ease of His Majesty's charge of £1000 a year towards the maintenance +of Sir Francis Crane's tapestry manufacture."[423] + +Apparently this little arrangement did not succeed, for there is an +acknowledgment by Charles I., in the first year of his reign,[424] +that he is in debt to Sir F. Crane: "For three suits of gold tapestry +we stand indebted to Sir Francis Crane £6000. Also Sir F. Crane is +allowed £1000 annually for the better maintenance of said works for +ten years to come." The king also granted the estate of Stoke Bruere, +near Stamford, in Northamptonshire, as part payment of £16,400 due to +him on the tapestry works at Mortlake.[425] The great value of these +tapestries is shown by the prices named in the Domestic Papers of the +State Paper Office, and in private inventories; they were woven in +silk, wool, and gold, which last item accounts both for their price +and for their disappearance. + +William, Archbishop of York and Lord Keeper, gave £2500 for four +pieces of Arras representing the four Seasons.[426] Their value, +however, fell during the civil wars, for the tapestries of the five +Senses from the Palace of Oatlands, which were from the Mortlake +looms, were sold in 1649 for £270. The beautiful tapestries at +Houghton were woven at Mortlake: these are all silk, and contain whole +length portraits of James I. and Charles I., and their Queens, with +heads of the royal children in the borders. A similar hanging is at +Knowle, wrought in silk, containing portraits of Vandyke and Sir +Francis Crane.[427] + +Francis Cleyne was a decorator and painter employed in the works at +Mortlake by Charles I., who, while he was still Prince of Wales, +brought him over to England from Rostock, in Mecklenburg (his native +place), while the Prince was in Spain wooing the Infanta. Cleyne was +great in grotesques, and also undertook in historical designs.[428] + +Three of the Raphael cartoons were sent to be copied at Mortlake.[429] +The purchase of these cartoons by the king, showed how high was the +standard to which he tried to raise the art in England. The "Triumph +of Cæsar," by Mantegna, was obtained for the same purpose in 1653; and +certain Dutch prisoners were forwarded to the manufactory to be +employed on the work.[430] It was entrusted to the care of Sir Gilbert +Pickering, who was either an artist or the superintendent of the +works. + +After the death of Sir Francis, his brother, Sir Richard Crane, sold +the premises to Charles I. During the civil wars, the property was +seized upon and confiscated as having belonged to the Crown. It +occupied the site of what is now Queen's Head Court. The old house +opposite was built by the king for the residence of Cleyne the artist. +Gibson, the dwarf, and portrait painter, who had been page to a lady +at Mortlake, was one of his pupils.[431] + +The value of the king's collection of tapestries was well understood +during the Protectorate. The tapestry house remained in the occupation +of John Holliburie, the "master-workman." After the Restoration, +Charles II. appointed Verrio as designer, intending to revive the +manufactory. This was not, however, carried out; but the work still +lingered on, and must have been in some repute, for Evelyn names some +of these hangings as a fit present among those offered by a gallant to +his mistress.[432] + +Arras is said to have been woven at Stamford, but we have no data of +its establishment or its suppression. Burleigh House contains much of +it; and there is a suite of hangings at Belton House, near Grantham, +of which there are duplicates at Wroxton House, in Oxfordshire, all +having the same traditional origin at Stamford. Possibly Sir Francis +and Sir Richard Crane may have received orders at their house at +Stoke Bruere, which lay near enough to Stamford to account for the +magnates of the town and neighbourhood obtaining furnishings of their +tapestries, and, perhaps, vying with each other in decorating their +apartments with them.[433] + +In Northumberland House there was a fine suite of tapestry, woven in +Lambeth, 1758.[434] This is the only sample of that loom of which we +ever find any mention. There were also works at Fulham, where +furniture tapestry in the style of Beauvais was made. This manufactory +was closed in 1755.[435] It may be hoped that the revival of tapestry +weaving at Windsor in our own day may be a success, but without the +royal and noble encouragement it receives, it would probably very soon +fall into disuse. + +Unless it is supported by the State, such an exceptionally expensive +machinery cannot possibly be kept at work. It requires the +superintendence of the best artists, and the weavers themselves must +needs have the highest technical education to enable them to copy +really fine designs. These artistic requirements, besides the extreme +tediousness of the work, make it the most expensive of all luxurious +decorations--even more costly than embroideries by the hand, covering +the same spaces. However, the two styles of hangings never can enter +into competition, except in a financial point of view. Tapestries are +the best fitted for wall coverings, and embroideries for curtains of +all kinds--for beds, for windows, and for portières. + +The old hangings are now again having their day, and we are striving +to save and restore all that remain to us. We must continue to guard +these treasures from the moths, their worst enemies; and science +should be invoked to assist us in the preservation of these precious +works of art, of which the value is now again understood and +appreciated, and which increases with every decade that is added to +their antiquity. + +Tapestry, as art, has its own peculiar beauties, and one of them is +the softening, yet brilliant effect of the alternate lights and +shadows of the ridge-like surface; the separation of each stitch and +thread also casting minute shadows in the opposite direction, and +giving an iridescent effect. It is a mistake to struggle against this +inherent quality, instead of seeking to utilize it. The coarser and +simpler tapestries of our ancestors are really more beautiful and +effective in large spaces--flat in the arrangement of colours, and +sharply outlined--than the imitations of paintings of the last two +centuries, in which every detail of form and colour is sought to be +expressed.[436] + +M. Blanc says that tapestries were intended to cover the bare walls, +but not to make us forget their existence. The wall being intended for +comfort and defence, the mind is solaced with the idea it conveys. It +is a mistake, therefore, to substitute a surface picture, so real that +it at once does away with this impression of security, while a +certain conventional art should amuse the mind with shadowy +representations and suggestions. + +It is, perhaps, fortunate that the possibilities of tapestry weaving +are restricted, and thus its very imperfections become the sources of +its best qualities as decoration and comfort. One element of textile +weaving, the use of gold, both in the backgrounds and in the +draperies, takes it at once out of the region of naturalism, while +giving it light and splendour. + +The designer for tapestry need not be a great genius. Harmony, repose, +grace, and tender colouring are the qualities most valuable to such an +artist. Battle-pieces, and other exciting and awful subjects, are only +bearable in apartments that are used for state occasions, or for +hanging corridors and anterooms. They are painful to live with. + +All tapestries are liable to suffer by the double nature of their +materials--their woollen surface and linen threads which are affected +by both damp and heat crinkling the forms and puckering the faces, and +bringing out unexpected expressions and deformities. For this reason +the design should be as flat and as simple in its outline and shading +as is consistent with beauty. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [317] Birdwood, "Indian Arts," p. 283. + + [318] "The word in Sanskrit for a needle is _suchi_, + from _such_, to sew or pierce. This is the same word as + the Latin _suo_, to sew; so probably the common word + used by the Aryans in their primeval habitations was + _su_, and they clearly knew how to sew at that remote + period. Eve sewed fig-leaves together. Adam sewed also. + The Hebrew word is _tafar_, and clearly meant _sewing_, + not _pinning_ together with thorns. Sewing is the first + recorded art of our forefathers."--Letter from Mr. + Robert Cust. + + [319] Semper, "Der Stil," Textile Kunst, i. pp. 77-90. + + [320] Semper, Textile Kunst, "Der Stil," i. p. 77. The + German word "naht," here literally translated, would be, + uniting, weaving, bringing together. + + [321] "Handbook of Plain Needlework," by Mrs. Floyer. + See also her "Plain Hints for Examiners," &c. + + [322] Dr. Rock, "Introduction," pp. cix, cx, calls it + "thread embroidery," and names some specimens in the + South Kensington Museum. He says it was sometimes done + in darning stitches for ecclesiastical purposes, for + instance, for coverings for the pyx. It is mentioned in + the Exeter inventory of the fourteenth century. There is + notice of white knotted thread-work belonging to St. + Paul's, London, in 1295, by Dugdale (p. 316). + + [323] St. Catherine of Sienna's winding-sheet is + described as being cut work (punto tagliato) on linen. + This sounds like embroidery of the type now sold as + "Madeira work," the pattern being cut out and the edges + overcast. + + [324] Semper, "Der Stil," i. pp. 132, 203. + + [325] See Semper, "Der Stil," i. p. 289. + + [326] Ibid. He cites Athenæus, iv. 64. + + [327] Phrygia in general, and especially Babylon, were + famed for their embroideries. "Colores diversos picturæ + intexere Babylon maxime celebravit et nomen + imposuit."--Pliny, lib. viii. 74. See D'Auberville, + "Ornement des Tissus," p. 7. + + [328] "Der Stil," i. p. 196. "Opus Phrygium," in the + Middle Ages, included all gold work in flat stitches. + The cloak worked by Queen Gisela in the ninth century, + for her husband, St. Stephen, King of Hungary, the + imperial mantle at Bamberg, of the date of 1024, and the + robes of Bishop William de Blois (thirteenth century), + in the library at Worcester Cathedral, are all "opus + Phrygium," and resemble each other in style. + + [329] In the Museum at Munich are two remarkable + examples of these imitations. There is an embroidered + badge of the Order of the Dragon, worked in gold and + woven over with coloured silks, so as to present the + appearance of enamel (sixteenth century). The second is + a dress for a herald of the Order of St. Hubertus, which + is richly embroidered in gold and silver, and the badge + and collar are imitated in the most extraordinary + manner, and laid on entirely in gold needlework. This is + of the seventeenth century. + + [330] In Salt's collection from Saccarah (British + Museum); also at Turin, in the Egyptian Museum; and in + the collections in the Louvre, figured by Auberville in + the "Ornamentation des Tissus." + + [331] Hence the French name, _pointes comptées_. + + [332] See Semper, ii. p. 213, for wood-work at + Panticapæum, Kertch, in the Crimea, which evidently has + descended in style from panelled needlework hangings. + Chaldean wall decoration at Khorsabad and Warka, near + Nimroud, recalls the effect of "opus pulvinarium" + according to Loftus. See Semper, i. p. 327. + + [333] "Der Stil," i. pp. 196, 248. This is known from + the archaic books of imperial commerce. + + [334] Peacocks' feathers, either woven or onlaid, are + those most commonly used in China and Japan. "Ka Moolelo + Hawaii," by M. Jules Remy, Paris, 1861. See Ferdinand + Denis, "Arte Plumaria," p. 66. + + [335] Yates, "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 373, translates + from Publius Syrus the word _plumata_, "feathered." The + word "embroidered" would have here improved the sense, + even though it is a peacock that is described. + + "Thy food the peacock, which displays his spotted train, + As shines a Babylonian shawl with feather'd gold." + + He also quotes Lucan, who is praising the furnishings of + Cleopatra's palace: "Part shines with feathered gold; + part sheds a blaze of scarlet."--Yates, p. 373. + + [336] Sir G. Birdwood, with all his enthusiasm for + Indian art and its forms, yet cannot resist a touch of + humour when he describes a state umbrella, of which the + handle and ribs are pure gold, tipped with rubies and + diamonds, the silken covering bordered with thirty-two + fringed loops of pearls, and "also appropriately + decorated with the feathers of the peacock, heron, + parrot, and goose."--Birdwood, "Indian Arts," ii. p. + 182. + + [337] "History of the Kingdom of Congo," c. viii. p. 55, + by Filippo Pigafetta (translated by Mrs. M. Hutchinson). + + [338] In the Tyrol certain embroideries are called + "Federstickerei." + + [339] For the feather hangings at Moritzburg, see + Appendix 2. + + [340] "Arte Plumaria," by M. Ferdinand Denis. Paris, + 1875. + + [341] The Plumarii mentioned by Pliny were craftsmen in + the art of _acu pingere_, or painting with the needle. + Though Seneca speaks of the "opus plumarium" as if it + were absolutely feather-work, yet it may have been at + that time undergoing its transition into embroidery, + suggested by feathers, and imitating them in gold, + silver, wool, or thread. When Lucan describes the + extraordinary change introduced into Roman habits and + luxury by Cleopatra's splendours, his use of the words, + "pars auro plumata nitet," probably means their + imitation or mixture with gold embroidery, and would, + therefore, come under the head of "opus Phrygium." + + [342] It is said that the work, named "Plumarium," was + made by the needle; and the Greeks, from the variety of + the threads, called it "Polymitum." "Plumarium dicitur + opus acu factum quod Græci a licionum varietate + multiplici polymitarium appellant."--Robert Stephan. + "Thesaurus Linguæ Latinæ," s.v. Plumarius. + + [343] Blümner, i. p. 209. "The Plumarii were a class of + persons mentioned by Vitruvius, and found likewise in + inscriptions. It cannot be decided with certainty what + was their occupation; their name would lead us to + suppose that it has something to do with + feathers."--Becker's "Gallus," ii. p. 288. But see + Marquardt, "Handbuch d. Röm. Altert." vii. pt. 2, p. + 523. + + [344] "Plumarium qui acu aliquod depingit super + culcitris plumeis."--R. Steph., "Thesaur. Lat." + + [345] See "The Funeral Tent of an Egyptian Queen," by + Villiers Stuart. + + [346] See Auberville's "Tissus," Plate i. + + [347] "Compte Rendu de la Commission Archéologique, St. + Petersburg, 1881." Pl. iii. pp. 112,119. + + [348] In the British Museum is the lining of a shield + which shows the arms of Redvers, third Earl of Albemarle + (who died 1260), applied in different coloured silks. + + [349] Lent by the Archæological Museum at Madrid. + + [350] Rees' Cyclopædia speaks of embroideries "on the + stamp or stump," as being so named "when the figures are + high and prominent, supported by cotton, wool, or hair;" + also in "low and plain embroideries, without enrichment + between." He speaks of work "cut and laid on the cloth, + laid down with gold, enriched with tinsel and spangles." + Rees' Cyclopædia, "Embroidery," 1819. + + [351] "Opus consutum." The way in which this applied + work is used in India, for the special adornment of + horse-cloths, saddles, and girths, is very interesting. + + [352] The chapter on "application," in the Handbook of + Embroidery of the Royal School of Art Needlework, will + be useful to those who need instruction in the most + practical, and therefore the quickest way of doing cut + work. + + [353] Mrs. Palliser's "History of Lace." The origin of + needle-made lace-work is attributed by M. de Gheltof to + the necessity for disposing of the frayed edges of + worn-out garments. This I think somewhat fanciful. + _Fringes_ may have been so suggested. + + [354] See M. Blanc's "Art in Ornament and Dress" (p. + 200). + + [355] Mrs. Bayman (late Superintendent in the School of + Art Needlework) writes thus: "I see no reason to doubt + that the word guipure is derived from 'guipa' or + 'guiper,' a ribbon-weaver's term for spinning one thread + round another; and that guipure was originally more like + what we now call 'guimp,' or like 'point de Raguse,' + first being made of thread, of more or less thickness + and commoner material, wound round with a finer flax, + silk, or metal; then they cut shapes, bold scrolls, and + leaves out of cartisane, vellum, or parchment, winding + and covering them over with the more precious thread. + These figures were then connected by brides, only as + close as was required to hold them together, and leaving + large open spaces, thus forming the large scroll + patterns seen in so many old pictures." No doubt the + heavy "Fogliami" and "Rose point" laces developed + themselves from these still older kinds of point. As the + cord and card lace disappeared, the name slid on to all + laces with large, bold patterns and open brides, though + the special method which first created it had been + effaced. Latterly, embroidered netting or laces have + been called "guipure d'art." Littré gives the derivation + of the word; he says it is from the Gothic _Vaipa_, or + German _Weban_ or _Weben_ (_g_ and _p_ replacing the _w_ + and _b_). + + [356] The word lace came from France, where it was + called _lacis_ or _lassis_, derived from the Latin + _laqueus_ (a noose). These words originally applied to + narrow ribbons--their use being to lace or tie. + + [357] The Venetians early made much lace for furniture + or ecclesiastical linen adornment, of what they called + "maglia quadrata," which was usually squared netting, + afterwards filled in with patterns in darned needlework. + This somewhat primitive style of lace trimming was + popular on account of its simplicity, and descended to + the peasantry for their domestic decorations in Spain, + Germany, France, and Italy. There are specimens of this + work believed to be of the thirteenth century. At the + time of the Renaissance the simple geometrical designs + developed into animals, fruits, flowers, and human + figures. + + [358] See Rock, p. cix, cx. He says that a sort of + embroidery was called network, and certain drawn work he + calls "opus filatorium." See Catalogue of Textiles in + the South Kensington Museum, by D. Rock, p. cxxvii. + + [359] Reminding us of the description of a net--"holes + tied together by a string." As a contrast in descriptive + style, we would quote Dr. Johnson on network: "Anything + reticulated or decussated at equal distances, with + interstices between the intersections."--Johnson's + Dictionary. + + [360] Isaiah iii. 18, xix. 9. + + [361] The nets of chequer work which hung round the + capitals, with the wreaths of chain work, were designed + by Hiram of Tyre, at Solomon's desire (1 Kings vii. 17). + + [362] A fringe lace is made on the Riviera, of the + fibres of the aloe, and is called "macramè," which is an + Arabic word. Mrs. Palliser's "History of Lace," p. 64. + + [363] A collar of fine white human hair was made in + point lace stitches at Venice, and worn at his + coronation by Louis Quatorze. It cost 250 pieces of + gold. "Scritti di V. Zanon da Udine" (1829). Cited by + Urbani de Gheltof, "Merletti di Venezia," pp. 22, 23. + + [364] See, for example, the inventory of the household + goods of the great Earl of Leicester at Longleat; also + the lists of the possessions of Ippolito and Angela + Sforza (sixteenth century). + + [365] Coloured thread and silk laces are still made in + Venice. + + [366] In the British Museum. + + [367] M. Blanc's use of the word "guipure" is different + from that found in the notices of the art by other + authorities. + + [368] The first lace-making machine was contemporary, or + nearly so, with the stocking-making frame. About the + year 1768 it was altered, and adapted for making + open-work patterns. In 1808, the Heathcot machine was + started for bobbin net. In 1813, John Leaver improved on + this idea, with machine-woven patterns. The Jacquard + apparatus achieved the flat patterns, and the new + "Dentellière" has perfected the art. Lace-making by + machinery employed by the latest official returns in + 1871, 29,370 women in England, and 24,000 in France. See + Encyclopædia Britannica, 9th edition, p. 183-5. + + [369] M. Charles Blanc, "Art in Ornament and Dress," p. + 211. + + [370] The information contained in these volumes is most + valuable, for the lace-worker as well as the collector. + + [371] Lady Layard suggests that the cut lace work, which + was the earliest made in Venice ("punto tagliato," + "point coupé"), simply consists of button-hole stitch + with purl ornaments. These are varied with geometrical + stitches and needle-weaving in those solid laces called + "punti tagliati Fogliami," and "Rose point de Venise," + of the finest kinds. + + [372] Urbani de Gheltof, in his book, "Merletti di + Venezia," p. 9, says that Venetian laces and fringes + were furnished thence for the coronation of Richard III. + (1483). I fancy that gold guimps or braid, rather than + netted laces, must be here intended, as we have no other + notice of lace so early. See _Ibid._ pp. 10-20. + + [373] Henry VIII. had a pair of hose of purple silk, + edged and trimmed with a lace of purple silk and gold, + of Milanese manufacture. Harl. MSS., 1519. + + [374] The manufacture of point d'Alençon was created + under the special orders of Louis Quatorze, by Colbert, + in 1673. Now more than 200,000 women, besides the + machinists, are employed in lace-making in France. + Colbert imported the teachers from Venice. + + [375] Yriarte says that Alençon, Argenton, Sedan, + Mercourt, Honiton, Bedford, Buckinghamshire, + Oxfordshire, Mechlin, Bruges, Brussels, all followed in + imitation of Venice. Yriarte's "Venise," p. 250. + + [376] Titian drew the designs for one of these books for + "punti tagliati." The laces made in the Greek islands + probably owe their origin to Venice, showing the same + "punti in aria." + + [377] I have already spoken of "lacis" as either darned + netting or drawn work. Of this there is an English + specimen at Prague, said by tradition to be the gift of + Queen Anne of Bohemia, wife of Richard II. It originally + trimmed or bordered an ecclesiastical garment. + + [378] For further information, we refer the reader to M. + Urbani de Gheltof's book on Venice laces already cited + (Organia, Venice, 1876), and Lady Layard's translation + (1882). + + [379] I am assured on the best authority that this is + unknown as yet at Burano; but the workers, as well as + the revived industry, are very young. The modern school + of Burano has only been established eleven years. It is + certainly delightful to see the 320 happy faces, + singing, chattering, and smiling over their graceful + occupation; and the beauty of the Buranese women, which + is celebrated, has not suffered from their occupation. + There is a charming little article of the _Revista di + Torino_, 1883, which describes the improvement in the + social condition of Burano, morally and physically, and + the way it is recognized by the inhabitants. Instead of + signs of miserable poverty, the promoters of the lace + school are greeted by the women leaning from the windows + with, "Siestu benedetta!" ("Be thou blessed!"). + + [380] The word "tapestry" comes from the Greek _tapes_, + which is used equally for hangings or carpets. The + Italians call carpets "tapeti" to this day. It is + believed to have been originally an Egyptian word for + such fabrics. + + [381] For instance, the embroidered hangings of the + eighth century at Gerona, in Spain, have been more than + once quoted as proofs of tapestries having been + manufactured there at that period. + + [382] The "slay" means the "strike." The word had the + same meaning originally: to slay a man was to strike + him. + + [383] See De Champeaux, South Kensington Museum Art + Handbook, 1878. + + [384] "Bibliothèque des Merveilles" (sur les + Tapisseries), publié sous la direction de M. Edouard + Charton, à Paris, 1876. + + [385] Martial, xiv. 150. + + [386] Minerva accepts the challenge of the Mæonian + Arachne, who will not yield to her in the praises of + being first in weaving wool. The girls desert the + vineyards round the little town of Hypæpa, to look at + her admirable workmanship. She boasts that hers is finer + than that of Pallas, and, desiring a vain victory, + rushes upon her own destruction. "... They stretch out + two webs on the loom, with a fine warp. The web is tied + to the beam; the slay separates the warp; the woof is + inserted in the middle with sharp shuttles, while the + fingers hurry along, and being drawn with the warp, the + teeth (notched in the moving slay) strike it. Both + hasten on their labour, and girding up their garments to + their bosoms, they move their skilful arms, their + eagerness beguiling their fatigue. There are being woven + both the purples, which are subjected to the Tyrian + brazen (dyeing) vessel with fine shades of minute + difference; as in the rainbow with its mighty rays + reflected by the shower, where, though a thousand + colours are shining, yet the very transition eludes the + eyes that look upon it; to such a degree is that which + is adjacent the same, and yet the extremes are + different. The pliant gold is mingled with the threads, + and ancient subjects are represented on the webs." Then + follows the list of the subjects. The web of Pallas had + a large central design, and a smaller one on each + corner, surrounded with a border of olive leaves. + Arachne's contained nineteen pictures, of two or more + figures each, and was surrounded by a border of flowers, + interwoven with the twining ivy. Ovid's "Metamorphoses," + book vi. + + Through the kindness of my friend, Lord Houghton, I am + enabled to give the sequel of the story--Arachne's + transformation into the Spider, as-- + A PARAPHRASE AND A PARABLE. + + Lo! how Minerva, recklessly defied, + Struck down the maiden of artistic pride, + Who, all distraught with terror and despair, + Suspended her lithe body in mid-air; + Deeming, if thus she innocently died, + The sacred vengeance would be pacified. + Not so: implacable the goddess cried-- + "Live on! hang on! and from this hour begin + Out of thy loathsome self new threads to spin; + No splendid tapestries for royal rooms, + But sordid webs to clothe the caves and tombs. + Nor blame the Poet's Metamorphoses: + Man's Life has Transformations hard as these; + Thou shall become, as Ages hand thee down, + The drear day-worker of the crowded town, + Who, envying the rough tiller of the soil, + Plies her monotonous unhealthy toil, + Passing through joyless day to sleepless night + With mind enfeebled and decaying sight, + Till some good genius,[437] kindred though apart, + Resolves to raise thee from the vulgar mart, + And once more links thee to the World of Art." + + [387] Appendix 3. + + [388] Guicciardini ascribes the invention of woven + tapestry to Arras, giving no dates; so we do not know + whether he attributes it to the Belgic Atrebates or to + their successors, the Franks. In either case the craft + was probably imported from the East. + + [389] The Atrebates were the inhabitants of that Belgic + region till the fifth century; now it is the province of + Artois, probably a corruption of the name "Atrebates." + Taylor, "Words and Places" (1865), pp. 229-385. + + [390] Castel, "Des Tapisseries," p. 30. + + [391] Sidonius Apollinaris, Epist. ix., 13. Cited in + Yule's "Marco Polo," p. 68. + + [392] Castel, "Des Tapisseries," p. 31. + + [393] The commentators of Vasari, MM. Lechanché and + Jenron, believe that this art was coeval in the Low + Countries with Roman civilization and Christianity; but + it would appear that the weavers had fled to Britain to + escape from the Romans. Ibid. p. 52. Traces of the name + Arras have been found by Bochart and Frahn in Ar-ras, + the Arabian name for the river Araxes and the people who + inhabit its shores; but this may be accidental, and is + at best an uncertain derivation. + + [394] Rock, Introduction, p. cxii. This "Saracenic work" + is really so like what is called by the Germans + "Gobelins" when found in Egyptian tombs that one can + hardly doubt whence the Moors brought their art. There + are several Egyptian specimens in the British Museum. + See also the catalogue of Herr Graf'schen's collection + of Egyptian textiles, from the first to the eighth + century. "Katalog der Teodor Graf'schen Fünde in + Ægypten, von Dr. Karabacek. Wien, 1883." + + [395] Viollet-le-Duc, "Dictionnaire du Mobilier + Français, Tapis," p. cxii; also M. Jubinal, "Tapisserie + Historique." It is difficult absolutely to assign to any + known specimens a date anterior to the fifteenth + century; although M. de Champeaux thinks that the + "Sarazinois" were mostly or entirely carpet-weavers + about the eleventh century. He says there is documentary + authority to prove that these were woven with flowers + and animals. There is a very deep-piled velvety carpet + at Gorhambury (the Earl of Verulam's place). Here Queen + Elizabeth's arms and cypher appear on a Persian or + Moresque ground pattern surrounded with a wreath of oak + leaves. It may have been a gift from Spain,--left after + one of her visits to her Chancellor. + + [396] "Tapisseries des Gobelins," A. L. Lacordaire, p. + 10 (1853). He considers that the Sarazinois were + embroiderers as well as weavers--and this theory is + supported by extracts from an inventory of Charles VI.'s + hangings of 1421. + + Every detail of the art and its materials was carefully + regulated by the French statutes of 1625-27, containing + many laws for the perfecting of the manufacture of new + as well as the restoration of old tapestries--and fines + were imposed for not using materials as nearly as + possible matching the original ones; and likewise for + any other dereliction from the rules of the craft. Ibid. + pp. 9, 10, 14. + + [397] At the Poldi Bezzoli Museum in Milan there are + some very fine carpets; one especially, a Persian, is + supposed to be of the fifteenth century. This is very + finely woven of pure, tender colours, and the whole + composition, flowers and animals (most beautifully drawn + lions, &c.), is delicately outlined in black on a white + ground. The colouring is rich and harmonious, and has + the iridescent effect of mother of pearl. + + [398] In the San Clemente frescoes at Rome there are + hangings which show a semi-Asiatic style. + + [399] "Mémoires Historiques et Ecclesiastiques + d'Auxerre," par M. l'Abbé Lebœuf, i. pp. 178, 231. + + [400] There are very interesting Norwegian tapestries of + the sixteenth century, which show distinctly an Eastern + origin. + + [401] Jubinal, "Tapisseries," pp. 25, 26; + Viollet-le-Duc, "Dic. de Mobilier Français," p. 269. + + [402] There is much splendid tapestry--German, and + especially Bavarian,--to be seen at Munich; and, indeed, + the more one seeks, the more one finds that private + looms were constantly at work in the Middle Ages for + votive offerings. There is a tapestry altar-piece at + Coire, in the Grisons, of the Crucifixion, which is + evidently of the fourteenth century. The colours are + still brilliant, and the whole background is beautifully + composed of growing flowers. No sky is seen. There is at + Munich an altar frontal of tapestry, Gothic of the + fifteenth century, exquisitely beautiful. The weaver has + introduced a little portrait of herself at her loom, + under the folds of the virgin's cloak at her feet. + + [403] M. Albert Castel ("Tapisserie," p. 53) believes + that the taking of Constantinople, when Earl Baldwin was + elected to the throne of Byzantium, had a great effect + on Flemish art, which then received a strong impulse + from Oriental designs and traditions. See M. Jubinal's + very interesting account of the tapisserie de Nancy + which lined the tents of Charles the Bold at the siege + of Nancy (p. 439). These tapestries are an allegory + against gluttony. "Tapisseries Hist.," pp. 1-5. + + [404] Charles the Bold has left us records of his taste + in tent hangings of Arras at Berne, as well as at Nancy. + These are the plunder from his camp equipage after the + battle of Grandson. The whole suite, of many pieces, + represents battles and sieges, and sacred subjects also, + such as the adoration of the Magi. They are finely drawn + and splendidly executed with gold lights, and are of the + most perfect style of the fifteenth century. The + National Museum at Munich contains most valuable + specimens of very early and very fine tapestries; + amongst others, a Virgin, which was certainly designed + in the school of Dürer, and is of the greatest + perfection of its art, both as to colour and drawing and + the general effect, which has a soft, dreamy beauty, + only to be seen in fine woollen tapestries, and + differing from pictorial design and intention. + + [405] See Rock, cxii: Among the remarkable suites of + tapestry of which we find historical mention are the + following: In 1334, John de Croisette, a "Tapissier + Sarazinois, demeurant à Arras vendit au Duc de Touraine + un tapis Sarazinois à or: de l'histoire de Charlemagne" + (Voisin, p. 6). Of the many recorded as belonging to + Philip, Duke of Burgundy and Brabant, one piece, "Haulte + lice sanz or: de l'histoire du Duc de Normandie, comment + il conquit Engleterre."--"Les Ducs de Bourgogne," par le + Comte de Laborde, ii. p. 270, No. 4277. + + [406] M. de Champeaux, the author of the "Handbook of + Art Tapestry" belonging to the series of the Kensington + Museum, 1878, says that the history of Arras has yet to + be written. He, however, gives a great deal of + interesting information, especially about the French + tapestries, on which subject we fancy there is little + more to tell. Their art does not come from such a + distant time as that of the Belgian manufactures. After + Louis IX. had decimated the inhabitants, and dispersed + the remainder, Arras yet made a gallant struggle to + revive her industry and compete with the rising + prosperity of Brussels; but France had decreed against + her. + + [407] "Encyclopædia Britannica" ("Art Tapestry"), pp. + 17, 97. + + [408] Vasari vividly describes the design for a tapestry + for the King of Portugal--the history of Adam--on which + Leonardo da Vinci, then aged twenty, was engaged. He + lingers tenderly over the picture of the flowery field + and the careful study of the bay-trees. Vasari, tom. + vii. p. 15; ed. Firenze, 1851. + + [409] See M. Jubinal's "Tapisseries Historiées," p. 26; + Viollet-le-Duc, "Mobilier Français," i. p. 269. + + [410] Froissart's "Chronicles," iv., chap. 23; Johnes + ed. 1815. + + [411] M. de Champeaux, "Handbook of Art Tapestry," p. + 24; also Rock, "Textiles," p. 122. M. Lacordaire, + "Tapisserie des Gobelins," p. 15, tells us that under + Louis XIII. the statutes of 1625-27 contain many + regulations for the perfection of the materials employed + in weaving new as well as in restoring old tapestries. + Fines were imposed for not matching the colours + carefully. + + [412] English wool is still used for the finest + tapestries at the Gobelins. The wool from Kent is + considered the best. + + [413] "Vitæ St. Alban. Abbatum," p. 40; Rock, p. cxi. + That the walls were covered with tapestry in the + thirteenth century is supposed to be proved by the + description of Hrothgar's house in the Romance of + Beowulf. We are told that the hangings were rich with + gold, and a wondrous sight to behold. "History of + Domestic Manners, &c., in England during the Middle + Ages," by Thomas Wright, p. 2. + + [414] Matthew Paris, in Dugdale Monast., ed. 1819, ii. + p. 185. + + [415] Quoted by Michel from MSS. in the Imperial + Library, Paris. + + [416] This was a writ to the Aldermen and Sheriffs of + the City of London, principally levelled against the + dealings of "certain Frenchmen which were against the + well-being of the trade of the Tapissiarii ... by + petition of Parliament at Westminster." Calend. Rot. + Pat. Edward III., p. 148, "De Mysterâ Tapiciarorum," + Lond. M. 41. + + [417] Called "verdures" in French inventories. + + [418] Rock's Introduction, p. lxxix. + + [419] "The art of weaving tapestry was brought to + England by William Sheldon, Esq., about the end of the + reign of Henry VIII."--See Dugdale's "Warwickshire" + ("Stemmata:" Sheldon), 2nd edition, folio, vol. i. p. + 584; also Lloyd's "State Worthies," p. 953, quoted by + Manning and Bray, "Hist. of Surrey," vol. iii. p. 82. + But we have an earlier notice of a spirited attempt to + make fine tapestries at Kilkenny. Piers, Earl of + Ormonde, married the daughter of Fitzgerald, Earl of + Kildare, "a person of great wisdom and courage." They + brought from Flanders and the neighbouring provinces + artificers and manufacturers, whom they employed at + Kilkenny in working tapestries, diaper, Turkey carpets, + cushions, &c. Piers died 1539. Carte's Introduction to + the "Life of James, Duke of Ormonde," vol. i. p. 93 + (Oxford, 1851). + + [420] William Sheldon at his own expense brought workmen + from Flanders, and employed them in weaving maps of the + different counties of England. Of these, three large + maps, the earliest specimens, were purchased by the Earl + of Orford (Horace Walpole), by whom they were given to + Earl Harcourt. He had them repaired and cleaned, and + made as fresh as when out of the loom, and eventually + gave them to Gough, the antiquary, who bequeathed them + to the University of Oxford. The Armada tapestry, which + is stated to have been designed by Henry Cornelius + Vroom, the Dutch marine painter, and woven by Francis + Spiering, appears to have been, in 1602, in the + possession of Lord Howard, Lord High Admiral and the + hero of the Armada. Fuller particulars are given in + Walpole's "Anecdotes," i. p. 246, under the name of + Vroom, Sandart being the principal authority. Part of + them were in the House of Lords till 1834, when they + perished in the fire. These had been engraved in 1739 by + John Pine, but it appears that at that time there were + in the royal wardrobe other pieces, now lost. + + [421] Lloyd's "Worthies." + + [422] Calendar of State Papers, cx. No. 26, James I., + 1619-23. + + [423] Calendar of State Papers, vol. clxxxi. No. 48. + + [424] Rymer, "Fœdera," vol. viii. p. 66, ed. 1743. + + [425] Brydges, "Northamptonshire," i. p. 323, under the + head of "Stoke Bruere," pt. 1, p. 48. + + [426] Manning and Bray's "History of Surrey," vol. iii. + p. 302. + + [427] Horace Walpole, "Anecdotes of Painting in + England," vol. ii. p. 22. + + [428] Macpherson, "Annals of Commerce." + + [429] There is in Brydges' "Northamptonshire," under the + head of "Stoke Bruere" (the estate which King James gave + to Sir F. Crane as part payment of the deficit of + £16,400 in his tapestry business), mention of the + cartoons of "Raphael of Urbin, ... had from Genoa," and + their cost, £300, besides the transport. M. Blanc says, + with great justness, that Raphael, when he prepared + these cartoons for tapestry, made designs for weaving, + and _did not paint pictures_. If they had been intended + for oil pictures, they would have been very differently + treated. + + [430] Calendar State Papers, Domestic, Sept. 28th, 1653. + + [431] Horace Walpole's "Anecdotes of Painting," vol. + iii. p. 64. + + [432] See Evelyn's very scarce tract, entitled "Mundus + Muliebris," printed 1690, p. 8. + + [433] Lord Tyrconnell, Lord Exeter, and Lord Guildford + had married three of the Brownlow heiresses of Belton, + who had a winter residence at Stamford. + + [434] Designed by Francesco Zuccharelli. Rock, + Introduction, p. cxiv. + + [435] It has been at different periods the crowning + glory of the craft of the weaver to place different + patterns or pictures on the two sides of the web. This + would almost appear to be impossible, but that it has + been done in late years, according to Rock, who tells us + that he saw a banner so woven, with the Austrian eagle + on one side and the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception + on the other. He says that the same manufacturer was + then being employed in producing ecclesiastical garments + with the colours and patterns so varied. + + [436] In old tapestries three tints only were employed + for the complexions of men, women, and children--the + man's reddish, the woman's yellow, and the child's + whiter than either. It is an agreeable economy of + colours, simple and effective, and avoids the pictorial + imitation that one deprecates. See M. Charles Blanc's + "Grammaire des Arts Décoratifs: Tapisserie," p. 112. + + [437] The poet here refers to H.R.H. the Princess + Christian. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +HANGINGS. + + "... Her bedchamber was hang'd + With tapestry of silk and silver...." + + "Cymbeline," Act II., Scene IV. + + +The most important works that have been executed in embroidery, have +been hangings or carpets. We may look upon these as belonging to the +history of the past. Never again will such works be undertaken. Their +_raison d'être_, as well as the means for their production, have +ceased to exist. We have very ancient historical evidence of the use +of hangings (or tapestries), either as curtains to exclude prying +eyes, or as coverings to what was sacred or else unseemly, or as +ornamental backgrounds in public and private buildings. + +There is no doubt that in pillared spaces the enclosures and +subdivisions were completed by hangings from pillar to pillar, from +the earliest times of Asiatic civilization. In Assyria, and afterwards +in Greece and Rome, the open courts and rooms were shaded from the sun +and rain by umbrella-like erections with hangings stretched over them. +From the Coliseum's vast area to that of the smallest atrium in the +Pompeian house, the covering principle was the same. + +Palace-halls and temples alike were furnished in this way, and the +cold splendour of the polished marbles was enhanced by contrast with +the shadowing folds of soft textures richly embroidered in bright +colours and gold. The statues, the gold and silver vessels, the +shrines heaped with votive offerings, were all brought into higher +relief and effect by the screens, the curtains, and the veils which +classical perfect taste would plan so as to carry out the decorator's +intention. Babylonians, Persians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Greeks, and +Jews, each adorned their sacred places in similar fashions.[438] +Clemens Alexandrinus says that behind the hangings of the Egyptian +temples were hidden their "foolish images."[439] + +The word "hangings" was applied to all large curtains and tapestries, +tent coverings, screens dividing empty spaces, or pendant between +pillars; also sails,[440] banners, and decorations for processional +purposes covering walls or hanging from windows; all these have been +embroidered or woven with pictures and patterns. Carpets, from having +originally the same name, "tapete," are to be added to this list, and, +in fact, their uses are often interchanged. Kosroes' famous hangings +were used as a carpet, and Persian and Babylonian carpets have been +hung on the walls. A Babylonian hanging must have resembled, in its +style (of which we have descriptions), the Persian carpet of to-day. + +Semper gives excellent reasons for his theory that, next to dress, +hangings (the clothing of architecture) were the earliest phase of +art.[441] He looks upon the most ancient paintings on architecture as +absolutely representing textile coverings. Some of the earliest +Babylonian decorations show men supporting draperies, which he +believes to be the tradition of the time when the tallest slaves held +up the hangings to their own height; and above them, in tiers, were +men, dwarfs, and even children fastened on brackets, carrying the +hangings up to the roofs. This was an Assyrian custom, and was adopted +by the Romans as a mode of disposing of their prisoners of war. +Woltmann and Woermann appear to lean to the suggestion that permanent +imitations of hangings were carried out in painted or encaustic tiles +covering the masonry of Chaldean buildings at Nimroud and Khorsabad. +The pale ones associated with low reliefs, and really resembling them, +as they were partly raised, and the reliefs in alabaster and stone, +which were partly coloured, were in harmony, and yet in contrast, with +the brilliant tiles of Babylon.[442] + +We know exactly what were the purple, scarlet, and white hangings of +the Sanctuary in the wilderness, designed by Bezaleel, and that the +veil of the Temple was blue, purple, crimson or scarlet, and white, +i.e. worked on white linen; and we know from Josephus, that "the veil +of the Temple, which was rent in twain" sixteen centuries later, was +that dedicated by Herod, and was Babylonian work, representing heaven +and earth[443] (see p. 23 _ante_). Its colouring was scarlet, white, +and blue. Scarlet and white hangings seem indeed to have been an +Oriental fashion; and fashion then was not ephemeral, but lasted +hundreds of years. The embroidered curtains of the Tabernacle are +repeated in the hangings of Alexander's wedding tent, after 1500 +years; and a thousand years later still they reappear in the seventh +century, when Pope Sergius gave curtains to the high altar +(baldachino) in the basilica of St. Peter's at Rome of this same +scarlet and white embroidery. + +In early Oriental art, the enormous expenditure of work is appalling +to think of. Abulfeda describes the palace of the Caliph Moctader, on +the banks of the Tigris, as being adorned with 38,000 pieces of +tapestry, and of these 12,000 were of silk worked in gold. What a +wealth of women had to be wasted in creating such a wealth of +embroideries![444] + +There is a Bedouin romance which describes the tent of Antar, and +shows the taste for large works. Five thousand horsemen could skirmish +under its embroidered shade; and Akbar's largest tent held 10,000 +persons. + +Nadir Shah's gorgeous tent, which was of the end of the seventeenth +and the beginning of the eighteenth century, was of scarlet cloth on +the outside, lined with violet satin embroidered with gold and +precious stones. The peacock throne was placed within it, and was kept +there during the remainder of Nadir Shah's reign. + +Sir John Chardin says that "The Khan of Persia caused a tent to be +made which cost two millions: they called it the house of gold;" and +it was resplendent with embroideries.[445] These are comparatively +modern works, and sound commonplace and vulgar compared to those of +Greece and Egypt. + +The Greeks imitated the tents and temporary buildings of the Eastern +monarchs. This phase of Oriental luxury was imported by Alexander the +Great, and we have the description of two of his gorgeous creations at +Alexandria, where he outrivalled the ancient traditional glories of +Assyria and Persia. His own tent was supported by fifty golden +pillars, carrying a roof of woven gold, embroidered in shimmering +colours, and divided from the surrounding court, filled with guards +and retainers, by scarlet and white curtains of splendid material and +design. + +But more gorgeous is the account of the tent in which he entertained +ninety-one of his companions-in-arms on the occasion of his marriage. +This tent was supported by columns twenty cubits high, plated with +silver and gold, and inlaid with precious stones. The walls of the +court were formed by curtains adorned with figures worked in gold, and +were hung from beams plated with the precious metals, to match the +columns. The outer court was half a mile in circumference.[446] + +Yet Alexander's wedding-tent was exceeded in splendour by that erected +by Ptolemy Philadelphus for his great pomp at Alexandria, described by +Kallixenos, as cited by Athenæus.[447] This tent, crowned with golden +eagles, was supported by pillars fifty cubits high. They upheld an +architrave with cross-beams covered with linen, on which were painted +coffers, to imitate the structure of a solid roof. From the centre was +suspended a veil of scarlet bordered with white. The pillars in the +four angles represented palm-trees of gold, and the intermediate +columns were fashioned as thursi, and were probably wreathed with +golden vines and bunches of grapes made of amethysts, as we know of a +Persian tent so adorned, and the whole idea of the erection was +evidently fresh from the East.[448] A frieze eight cubits high was +composed of niches containing groups of tragic, comic, and Satyric +figures "in their natural garb;" and nymphs and golden tripods from +Delphi. The tent was separated from the outer peristyle by scarlet +hangings, covered with choice skins of wild beasts. Upon these were +hung the celebrated Sikyonian pictures, the heritage of the Ptolemaic +dynasty, alternating with portraits and rich hangings, on which were +embroidered the likenesses of kings, and likewise mythological +subjects. Between these and the frieze hung gold and silver shields. +Opposite the entrance, vessels of the most costly materials and +workmanship, valued at 10,000 talents of silver, were ranged, so as to +strike the eye of all who entered there. Golden couches supported by +Sphinxes were placed along the sides of the tent, furnished with soft +purple woollen mattresses, and coverings gaily and exquisitely +embroidered. The floor was strewn with fresh blossoms, except where a +most costly Persian carpet covered the centre. In the doorways and +against the pillars stood a hundred precious statues by the greatest +artists. + +This description dazzles the imagination! To be an upholsterer (a +vestiarius) in those days was to be an engineer, architect, and +artist! Semper, from whose translation we are quoting, remarks that +the luxurious "motive" of such an erection naturally arose from the +desire to make use of the mass of artistic materials acquired by +conquest, and the effort to reduce them to certain architectural +principles already accepted.[449] + +That Alexander did not purposely destroy the Persian embroideries is +evident from the fact that Lucullus speaks of them 200 years later. + +Rome accepted and adopted all the Oriental uses of hangings, in the +Temple and the house for temporary festive occasions. + +By both Greeks and Romans hangings were used in triumphal processions, +covering immense moving cars or draping the temporary buildings which +lined the avenues of their progress. Also the funeral pyres which +Greece and Rome copied from Assyria were hung with splendid materials +and embroideries. Without describing one of these awful erections, it +is impossible to give any idea of how much artistic treasure was +thrown into the flames which consumed the remains of a great man. The +funeral pyre dedicated by Alexander to his friend Hephæstion recalls +that erected by Sardanapalus in one of the courts of his own palace, +on which he perished, surrounded by his wives and his treasures. +Hephæstion's catafalque was built of inflammable materials, 250 feet +high, raised in many stories, and hung with pictorial tapestries, +painted and embroidered. Each story was adorned with images of ivory +and gold. In the upper story were enormous hollow figures of Sirens, +filled with singers, who chanted the funeral odes.[450] It is to be +hoped that they were released before the conflagration. + +The records of such extravagant funeral ceremonies teach us how much +of human thought, how much of art and beauty which had helped to +civilize the world, were torn from the places they were intelligently +designed to decorate, heaped up by the conquerors, and as ruthlessly +spent and destroyed for the boast of a day.[451] + +Christian Rome adopted the traditions of Pagan decoration, and +introduced them in her worship, processions, and shows. A great +religious procession like that of the "Corpus Domini" in our own +times, has reminded us of a Roman triumph. The baldachini and the +banners; the torches; the streets, festooned with draperies; even the +Pagan emblems, which have been converted into Christian symbolism--all +these were the echoes of classical days; but they are fast +disappearing. Two thousand years will have worn out and effaced these +customs, and our children will not see them. + +I have not space to linger over the many descriptions of Oriental, +Grecian, and Roman work to be gathered from classical authors, but +from them this lesson is to be learned that the first principle which +guided those great decorators was the individuality and +appropriateness of each design to the purpose for which it was +intended and the place it was to fill. But even their peculiar +excellences did not save them from the universal law of destruction. +When the hangings were worn, or became for any reason distasteful, +they were replaced by others, often by gifts or spoils from friendly +allies or conquered kings. The quantity of gold laid upon these great +religious or national works was the cause of their destruction as soon +as they were withdrawn and superseded by something of a newer fashion. +The intrinsic value in precious metals of such works is proved by +Pliny's statement that Nero gave four millions of sesterces for covers +of couches in a banqueting-hall.[452] The hangings or carpets taken by +the Caliph Omar from Kosroes' white palace (A.D. 651) must have been +some of the finest and most valuable embroideries ever known. They +formed a tapestry carpet or hanging, representing all the flowers of +spring, worked in coloured silks, gold, and precious stones. Kosroes +entreated Omar to keep it intact for himself, but he was so virtuous +that he cut it up into little bits and divided it amongst his +generals. Gibbon describes this wonderful piece of work.[453] We have +heard much of a marvellous carpet, given lately by the Guicowar of +Baroda to the tomb of Mahomet at Medina, which, from its description, +recalls the style of Kosroes' hangings; and their history gives us a +notable instance of how works of art in the time of war and conquest +come to be considered only for the value of their materials. War, the +enemy of culture, all but effaces whole phases of art when a country +is overrun and plundered. But there is almost always a residuum, which +has influence whenever there is a revival, beginning with the smaller +arts of luxury in more peaceful and prosperous days.[454] + +To return to the classical veils and hangings. You may see them on +Babylonian bas-reliefs, on Greek fictile vases, or painted in frescoes +on the walls of Egyptian tombs and temples; in the houses in Pompeii +and Herculaneum, and in the remains of Roman villas and tombs +everywhere. From all of these we may learn something. + +The obvious intention of hangings in household decoration is to cover +bare walls, so as to adorn at once that which was rough or common, +without delay or trouble. They were also used as curtains to shut out +the cold or the heat, and to give privacy to rooms without doors or +windows. Hangings on bare walls have always been meant to hang +straight down, undisturbed by folds, whereas curtains and portières +would probably have to be looped up or continually drawn aside. The +designs to be worked upon them should necessarily be regulated by +their shape and use. + +Semper considers that a square is an expressionless form, and that it +should be avoided.[455] If you wish to give dignity to a room, its +hanging decorations should be divided into panels of greater height +than breadth, so as to elevate the spaces they cover. Horizontal +stripes bring down the ceiling, and even in furniture, look ill except +as borders. Nothing can be more ugly or inartistic than the curtains +one finds in old illuminations, covered with bands of the same pattern +throughout the surface, but even this is less unpleasant on the walls +than lines crossing each other at right angles. The Romans looked on +chequers as barbarous national characteristics, and left them to the +Gauls and Britons. Chequers should be avoided unless they express a +meaning, as in Scotch tartans. Semper observes that the striped +stuffs, especially those of Oriental fabrics, were never intended to +be spread out flat, but to be draped in folds and loops, and the lines +only seen broken up. He continues:--"One rule, which cannot be +neglected with impunity, is this: that whether the hanging or screen +is supposed to stand or to hang, there must be an above and a below to +every pattern, and it must, moreover, be upright." All foliage +designs, and those containing animals, must start from below, and grow +upwards. Another of his laws is that the heaviest colours should be +placed below, and the palest and brightest above. This may be +disputed. It must be first determined where contrast is needed. If +the darkest part of the pattern is below, it may be necessary to give +it the lightest background, on the principle of balancing quantities +in colour. The dado, or lowest border, will often give the necessary +weight to the design. Semper goes on to say, "A surface may be made to +appear to stand, or to hang down, according to its decoration. For +instance, a triangle will hang or stand, according as its apex points +downwards or upwards. But in draped curtains all symmetry of design is +lost, and the rich forms and fulness of folds rather tend to destroy +the effect of elaborate patterns, and to take their place." + +Another important difference between standing and hanging tapestries +is their finish or edge, the upper one being an upright continuous +border, and the lower one a fringe. In both cases it is a continuation +of the main threads of the material, and these belong exclusively to +the hanging tapestries and curtains. The fringe is so essential a part +of hanging decoration, that we must pause and give it our best +consideration. In Babylonian art it is most important. The extreme +solidity of the knotted fringes in their dress and hangings show +either the thickness of the woven substance, or that the fringes were +made by enriching the warp and adding to it. They are almost always, +on the Assyrian sculptures, simply knotted fringes; but the little +portable Chaldean temple on the bronze gates from Balawat (near +Nimroud), in the British Museum, shows fringes of bells or fruit like +those of the Jewish tabernacle in the wilderness (fig. 2). On Egyptian +linen we sometimes see, woven or worked, a reticulated pattern which +imitates a fringe. + +The carpets of the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Persians were evidently +used sometimes as hangings, though many of their designs would not +have served both purposes equally well. That the Babylonian weavers, +however, understood that a carpet lying on the ground should be +covered with an even pattern, and be finished with a border all round, +is evident from the exquisitely chiselled designs, imitating carpets, +on two portions of pavements in the British Museum (pl. 27); and we +may compare these with the different treatment of designs for the +veils of the temples, both in Babylon and Egypt, on which were +represented the signs of the zodiac and all the heavenly bodies, and +other symbolical and unconventional forms. The Atrium of the Greek and +Pompeian houses, which was modelled on the same idea, was separated +from the Court by curtains, hung on rods or nails. On festive +occasions these may have been garlanded with natural flowers. If so, +we may be sure that the little wreaths worked on them, as we learn +from frescoes, would combine with the gala day's decorations, and +would be designed with that view. The Greek artist would never have +approved of natural flowers or trees, embroidered as if growing out of +a dado, simulating a garden worked in wool. This would have been +considered a bad attempt at pictorial art. + +M. Louis de Ronchaud, in his "Tapisseries des Anciens," speaks of the +hangings which he supposes to have decked the recess that contained +the chryselephantine statue of Athenè Parthenos in her temple at +Athens. He says these votive hangings dressed the pillars that +surrounded the Hecatompedon, and formed a tent over the head of the +goddess. M. de Ronchaud believes that among the subjects of the +Delphic embroideries, described by Euripides in the tragedy of Ion, +may be recognized some derived from the designs on saffron-coloured +hangings, spoken of by the poet as "the wings of the peplos."[456] + +The downfall of decorative art, domestic as well as national, kept +pace with the downfall of the Roman Empire. During the Dark Ages, of +such art there seems to have been very little; and of that the best +was Celtic or Anglo-Saxon. But the darkness shrouds from our view the +artistic life of the world, and the dawn was very long in breaking. We +must therefore return to the subject of hangings, after a gap of +nearly a thousand years, when the first stirrings of the European +revival came, in the twelfth century.[457] Symonds says: "The arts and +the inventions, the knowledge and the books, which suddenly became +vital at the time of the Renaissance, had long lain neglected on the +shores of that Dead Sea which we call 'The Middle Ages.'"[458] + +There can be no doubt that, during the Dark Ages, hangings woven and +embroidered continued to be the custom throughout Europe. Our own +Anglo-Saxon records prove that such furnishings were employed to +mitigate the cold bareness of our northern homes from the earliest +times. Sir G. Dasent informs me that in Icelandic Sagas, as early as +the eleventh century, there are frequent notices of hangings both in +churches and in the halls of houses; such, for instance, as the Saga +of Charlemagne, i.e. scenes out of Charlemagne's life, worked on +hangings 20 ells long. In Scaldic poetry, a periphrasis for a "lady" +is "the ground of hangings," or "the bridge of hangings," all pointing +to embroidery. + +From illuminated MSS. engraved in Strutt's "Antiquities of the +English," and contemporary European work of the tenth to the +thirteenth centuries, we find that the favourite style of embroidery, +when not representing historical or sacred subjects, was a _parsemé_ +pattern. Armorial bearings were generally reserved for cushions, +chair-backs, and the baldachinos of altars, beds, and thrones.[459] +Richer and more flowing designs were later introduced. + +In the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, splendid +tapestries of Arras, and hangings even of cloth of gold, were common +as palatial decorations. Sometimes we have a glimpse of less ambitious +hangings; for instance, in the London house of Sir Andrew Larkynge, +Knight, in the fifteenth century, the hall was hung with sage-green +panels, bordered with gold "darned work," and the "parler" with +sage-green, bordered with crimson. + +French embroidered hangings were very fine in the sixteenth century. +Jeanne d'Albret, the mother of Henri IV., was a great patroness of +such works. Miss Freer tells us that-- + +"When Jeanne and Antoine took possession of the Castle of Pau, they +found their new abode rich in works of art and splendid decorations. +The refined taste of Marguerite d'Angoulême was visible everywhere. +Jeanne's presence-chamber was adorned with hangings of crimson satin, +embroidered by the hand of Marguerite herself. The embroidery +represented a passage from the history of the Queen's own life." + +"During the hours which the Queen allowed herself for relaxation, she +worked tapestry, and discoursed with some one of the learned men whom +she protected." + +"The Queen daily attended the afternoon sermon, preached by her +chaplains in rotation. Often, however, weary with the excess of her +mental labours, and lulled by the drowsy intonation of some of these +ministers, the Queen slept during part of the discourse. Jeanne always +felt severe reproach of conscience when she had thus involuntarily +yielded to fatigue; and finding the inclination grow upon her, she +demanded permission from the Synod to work tapestry during the sermon. +This request was granted; and from thenceforth, Queen Jeanne, bending +decorously over her tapestry-frame, and busy with her needle, gave due +attention to the rambling addresses of her preachers." + +"Comme elle (Jeanne d'Albret) estoit grandement adonnée aux devises, +elle fit de sa main de belles et grandes tapisseries, entre lesquelles +il y a une tente de douze ou quinze pièces excellente qui s'appelle +_les Prisons brisées_, par lesquelles elle donnoit à connôistre +qu'elle avoit brisé les liens et secoué le joug de la captivité du +Pape. Au milieu de chaque pièce, il y a une histoire du Vieu Testament +qui resent la liberté, comme la délivrance de Suzanne, la sortie du +peuple de la captivité d'Egypte, l'élargissement de Joseph. Et à tous +les coins il y a des chaisnes rompues, des menottes brisées, des +strapades et des gibbets en pièces, et par-dessus en grosses lettres +ce sont ces paroles de la deuxième aux Corinthiens, ch. iii.: _Ubi +spiritus, ibi libertas._"[460] + +Cluny boasts a most curious suite of hangings from the Chateau de +Boussac, of the early part of the fifteenth century, which are +charming, quaint, and gay, and historically and archæologically +interesting. They tell the story of the "Dame au Lion." + +Modern French tapestries, from the manufactories of the Savonnerie, +the Gobelins, and elsewhere, are decorative to the highest degree. +Nothing can be more festive than these works of the time of Louis +XIII., XIV., and XV., framed in white and gold, carved wood, or +stucco, reflected in mirrors, and lighted by crystal or glass +chandeliers and girandoles. Such hangings have nothing in common with +those of early times; they are not temporary coverings of bare spaces, +but panels in decorated walls, where they form an integral part of the +architectural composition and design. They do not merely serve to give +warmth, comfort, and colour to desolate halls, as did those ancient +tapestries belonging to the furniture of the great man who sent them +on before him from palace to palace, carrying them away with his +baggage lest some one else should do so in his absence. These were +probably merely attached by loops and nails, as one sees in country +villas or castles in Italy to this day. + +We find that the Italians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries +often hung their walls with upright strips of work, in the guise of +pilasters. The walls were thus divided into panelled spaces, which +separated pictures, statues, and cabinets, of which the style did not +agree in juxtaposition. These pilasters were generally of "opus +consutum," or "appliqué" in its different forms. Above, next to the +cornice, and below, next to the dado, or even touching the floor, they +were connected by borders of similar work. The spaces between were +mostly filled in with rich brocades or velvets of one colour, so as to +make the best backgrounds for the artistic treasures grouped against +them. Sometimes fine tapestries filled the intervening spaces, and +sometimes splendid embroideries. There is a beautiful example of this +sort of decoration at Holland House, where the dining-room is adorned +with pilasters worked on velvet in gold and coloured silks, with +tapestries between them. This is Florentine work, of the sixteenth or +beginning of the seventeenth century. + +Hangings entirely in needlework, to cover large spaces, are rare, but +a few are to be found all over Europe in museums, palaces, and private +houses, which are interesting as objects of art. The genealogical tree +of the Counts of Kyburg, designed in the sixteenth century, and +carried to France as plunder, and now restored to its home near +Zurich, is a remarkable instance of a piece of needlework that +deserved the value placed on it. Many splendid pieces of embroidered +tapestries are at the Cluny Museum. The beatitudes of St. Catherine, +from the castle at Tarrascon, and the hangings worked in appliqué and +flat stitches with portraits of Henri IV., Jeanne d'Albret, &c., are +monuments of industry, and design; and are very beautiful. + +There, is a large room at Castle Ashby hung with tapestry in cross +stitches, worked by the ladies of the family, and finished 150 years +ago. The industry shown here is indubitable, but the designs are +barbarously bad and funny. In the Palazzo Giustini at Florence there +is a suite of hangings worked also in cross stitches of the same +period, of which the design is very clever and graceful, and the +effect beautiful and artistic. An irregular bank of brown earth is +crowded with grasses and small flowers about a foot above the dado, +and from this grow rose-bushes, covered with blossoms of different +shades, held back to a treillage of delicate "cane colours." The +leafage is brown, against a sky that is not blue, but which rather +reminds one of blue than of grey. It is conventionally treated, and +the effect is singularly rich and harmonious. Had it been a little +more naturalistic, it would have looked too much like a painted +picture; but as it is, the decoration is charming, and so universally +admired that we cannot but wonder it has never been imitated. In the +Borghese Palace at Rome there is a ball-room hung with white satin +embroidered with wreaths of flowers, and a similar one in the Caetani +Palace, on crimson satin. These are about 150 years old, and are so +far above being mere objects of fashion, that they must be placed by +their beauty of design and execution amongst objects of art, and so +will probably survive more centuries of change, holding their own, and +increasing in value and esteem. + +For hangings in church decoration, the reader is referred to the +chapters on ecclesiastical art and on tapestry. + +Having discussed the origin and reason for hangings, and having tried +to draw from what has been accepted as beautiful and perfect in taste, +some guidance in hanging our modern rooms, supposing always that the +spaces are fitted for really fine decorations, I yet would add a few +more words on this subject. There are in general some previous +conditions which will help us to choose the style and design of such +furnishings. In the first place, we should study what is appropriate +to the persons who will first inhabit the rooms. The bride's apartment +may be white and gold, garlanded with roses, and gay with groups of +Cupids; but such prettinesses would not be suitable to the home of a +mourning Queen. Tender or subdued colouring equally sets off groups of +young and lovely faces, and the bent form robed in black. Embroideries +are always agreeable on such backgrounds, and it is as a vehicle for +needlework that I now allude to the design of the artist in hangings. +We are somewhat restricted, or we ought to be, when there are +treasures of art already in the house, by the desire to exhibit them +to the best advantage. The hangings should be of a colour which suits +all pictures, and if the walls are either embroidered or tapestried +with woven designs, they should be very much subdued, both in form and +colour, so as not to prevent the eye from perceiving at once the +precious objects hung against them. A fine brocade or velvet of one +colour suits pictures best; but if our object is to show off our +cabinets, which are generally black, and our statues, which are mostly +white, then richly embroidered backgrounds in brilliant colours are +the best, compensating the eye in variety and splendour. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [438] The "women who wove the hangings for the grove" + were probably priestesses of the worship of Astarte + (2 Kings xxiii. 7). + + [439] He says that within the sacred shrine was revealed + their god--a beast rolling on a purple couch--veiled + with gold embroidered hangings; and he describes the + magnificent temples, gleaming with gold, silver, and + electrum. Quoted from Clemens Alexandrinus, in Renouf's + "Hibbert Lectures," p. 2. + + [440] "Fine linen with broidered work from Egypt was + that which thou spreadest forth to be thy + sail."--Ezekiel xxvii. 7. Egyptian sails were woven and + painted; sometimes they were blazoned with embroidered + patterns. The Phœnix was set there to indicate the + traveller's return. See Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," + vol. iii., ed. 1837, p. 211. + + [441] See Semper, "Der Stil," vol. i. p. 273. + + [442] The figure-painting of the nations we have spoken + of, successful so far as it concerns its special purpose + of exhibiting a clear and comprehensive chronicle of + events, is at the same time no more, so far as it + concerns its artistic effect, than a piece of tapestry + or embroidery done into stone, and can only be estimated + ... as a piece of coloured wall decoration. Woltmann and + Woermann, "History of Painting," Eng. Trans., pp. 23-30. + See also Perrot and Chipiez, "Histoire de l'Art dans + l'Antiquité," for tile decorations at Nimroud; vol. ii. + p. 704. + + [443] Compare this record with Solomon's veil for the + Temple, of blue, and purple, and crimson, and fine linen + (2 Chron. iii. 14), and the hangings designed by + Bezaleel, of scarlet, blue, purple, and embroidered with + gold (Exod. xxxix. 2, 3, 5; see also Josephus, "Wars of + the Jews," Whiston's trans., p. 895). + + [444] As cited from Abulfeda by Gibbon, chap. lii. ix. + p. 37, ed. 1797. When one is moved to pity, thinking of + the enforced labour of thousands of captive women, + fallen, perhaps, from high estate, and only valued for + the toil of their hands, it comforts one to believe that + they would hardly have produced beautiful works without + enjoying some happiness in the creation of that beauty. + + [445] Yule's "Marco Polo," vol. i. p. 394, note 7. + + [446] See Semper, "Der Stil," i. pp. 310, 311; Chares, + ap. Athen. xii. 54, p. 538. + + [447] Semper's "Der Stil," i. p. 311; Athen. v. 25, p. + 196. + + [448] Phylarchus, ap. Athen. xii. 55, describes a + Persian tent in which were golden palm-trees, and vines + fruited with precious stones, under which the Persian + kings held their state. On an Assyrian sculpture at the + British Museum is seen Assurbanipal on a couch, the + queen opposite to him, under an arbour of jewelled + vines; unless it represents a rural entertainment, which + is unlikely. + + [449] The art of the "tapezziere," "tapissier," + "tapestry-hanger," is not a recognized one with us, + though it is in Italy and France, where the hangings for + special occasions in churches and houses are stored + away, treasured for hundreds of years, cleaned and + mended, and hung and placed to the best advantage by men + educated for the purpose. In poor churches which possess + no fine materials for decoration, one has often wondered + at and admired the picturesque effects extracted from + yards of muslin, gold tinsel, and box wreaths, + artistically combined. Our house carpenter is the only + representative we have of the vestiarius, and he is but + a feeble descendant from the ancestors of his craft, who + were expected to study and evolve the adornments of the + building for its completion, the materials of decoration + for special occasions, and lastly, the mechanical means + for hanging and stretching the draperies. These were + sometimes movable frames or posts--"scabella" (whence + "escabeau," échafaudage, scaffolding). + + [450] Semper, "Der Stil," i. pp. 314, 315. + + [451] Never again will such great works be executed with + the needle. In civilized countries, sovereign splendours + are at a discount. The East occasionally produces + something fine, because there they still have harems and + slaves; but even these ancient institutions are losing + their stability and in the interest of humanity, if not + in that of needlework, we may soon hope there will be + neither the one nor the other. We must allow, however, + that the purple and gold embroideries now being executed + for the King of Bavaria in his school at Munich are + royally splendid, and, by their execution, worthy of + past days. + + [452] Pliny, viii. 44, 196. + + [453] Gibbon's "Roman History," ix. c. 51, p. 370, ed. + 1797; also see Crichton's "History of Arabia," i. p. + 383. + + [454] The utter dispersal of accumulated family and + household treasures has had a sad illustration in the + loads of Turkish and Slav embroideries which have + flooded the markets of Europe since the Russo-Turkish + war. Work, treasured for generations, sold for a piece + of bread, robbed from the deserted home or the bazaar, + stolen from the dying or the dead. These are so + suggestive of the horrors of war, and touch us so nearly + in connection with the rights and wrongs of the Eastern + question, that they cause us more pain than pleasure + when we study these beautiful specimens of well-blended + colours and designs, that show their Aryan (Persian or + Indian) origin. Lady Layard's residence in + Constantinople was, perhaps, the "happy accident" which + will have preserved the secrets and practice of this + work for future generations, by her active and generous + institution of a working organization for the poor + exiled and starving women, and for the sale of their + work in England. + + [455] Semper, "Der Stil," i. p. 30, § 10. + + [456] This subject has been ably treated in the + Introduction to "La Tapisserie," by Eug. Müntz; Paris, + 1885. + + [457] I refer to the chapter on "English Embroideries" + for the _parsemé_ patterns of our mediæval hangings, and + to the section on tapestry in the chapter on "Stitches." + + [458] "Renaissance in Italy," J. A. Symonds, p. 4. + + [459] But to this rule there are notable exceptions, of + which Charles the Bold's hangings for his tent (now at + Berne) furnish a brilliant example. Here the Order of + the Golden Fleece is repeated on a field of flowers, + exquisitely designed. + + [460] "Life of Jeanne d'Albret," by Miss Freer, pp. 68, + 123, 330. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +FURNITURE. + + "Jane, I hate æsthetic carpets; + High-art curtains make me swear. + Pray cease hunting for the latest + Queen Anne chair. + I care nothing for improvements, + On the simple style of Snell, + Which will suit both you and me ex- + tremely well." + + ROBERT CUST, "Parody of the Last Ode of the + First Book of Horace." + + "First, as you know, my house within the city + Is richly furnish'd with plate and gold; + Basons and ewers, to lave her dainty hands; + My hangings all of Tyrian tapestry; + In ivory coffers I have stuff'd my crowns; + In cyprus chests my arras, counterpoints, + Fine linen, Turkey cushions boss'd with pearl, + Costly apparel, tents and canopies, + Valance of Venice gold, in needlework; + Pewter and brass, and all things that belong + To house, or housekeeping." + + SHAKESPEARE, "Taming of the Shrew," Act II., Scene I. + + +The last chapter on hangings, their history and uses, and the +preceding account of tapestries, naturally lead to the consideration +of the furniture which may accompany them. + +Homer's description of Penelope's bridal couch is very curious. The +central idea is the bedpost, fashioned out of the stem of an +olive-tree growing in the court, and inlaid by Ulysses himself with +gold, silver, and ivory, and bands of dyed purple ox-hide. The stone +walls and roof were built over to cover it in, as it stood yet rooted +in the ground.[461] + +The illustration is a very quaint delineation of a Chaldean +four-roomed house, where the rooted tree with its stem and branches is +suggestive of the state of the domestic art of the architect and the +upholsterer in those Archaic days.[462] + + [Illustration: Fig. 24. + Assyrian delineation of Chaldean House.] + +Furniture has been the excuse and the vehicle for embroideries, from +the footstool and the cushion to the window curtain and the +bed-hangings.[463] + +Such curtains are the most permanently important features in the +economy, or rather the luxury of the house. Let us begin with the +decorations of the state bedroom. + +Now the shape of the bed must regulate the design. If there is only a +canopy--like that over a throne--one may have fine work for the head +of the bed inside the canopy, and a rich border round its valance; +this should contrast with the walls; and the curtains should marry the +two together, by the embroidered borders belonging to the fashion of +the bed, and accompanying the window curtains; while the plain surface +should match with the wall hangings. Another method is to have the bed +and curtains hung with plain materials, to contrast with embroidered +or tapestried hangings on the walls. + +This style of bed canopy absolutely belongs to the decoration of the +wall to which it is attached. But when we have to deal with a large +four-post bed--"a room within a room," as poor Prince Lee Boo +said--the bed may, in its own decoration, be totally independent of +the wall hangings; and care must be taken that we do not injure the +effect of both by too much contrast or too much similarity. Every room +has its own individuality, and the first beginning of its decoration +must be the key-note to guide the rest of the furnishing and +adornment. I am anxious to point out that the bed and its belongings +are a most important element in the beauty and dignity of style of the +room and the house that contains it. It is a splendid opportunity for +displaying the embroideries of the women of the family, and for +exercising their taste. "The chamber of Dais," as it was called in old +times, was always carefully adorned for the welcome of the honoured +guest. The bed-hangings, and even the linen, were embroidered,[464] +and the greatest care and the most artistic work were lavished on the +coverlet in firm stitches and twisted threads, while on the curtains +the frailest materials and most delicate stitches were freely +bestowed, as they were safe from friction. We may employ floss-silk +and satin-stitch for such works with safety. + +As a rule we should avoid too great a variety of design in the +decoration of a bedroom, and at the same time beware of its becoming +monotonous. + +I should say that a change in the design, though not in the style, of +the different parts of the bed is admissible, and gives opportunities +for rich and graceful work. For instance, a parsemé pattern may be +varied judiciously on the curtains, the valance, and the heading; +provided there is a connecting link (say a cypher) found throughout. +If the back of the Baldachino is embroidered, it admits of totally +different treatment, and the valance must include a border according +to its outline. + +The ingenuity and magnificence of the Elizabethan bedroom furnishings +are proved by the inventories to be found in old houses. Those +describing the property of the Earl of Leicester, in the Library at +Longleat, are so characteristic of a time when each room contained +artistic furniture, that I cannot help making here some extracts, and +pointing out that embroidery was usually employed to individualize +each decoration. + +"At Killingworth (Kenilworth) Lord Leicester's Bedsteads." "A fayre, +rich, standing Square Bedstead of carved walnut-tree wood: painted +with silver hearts, ragged staves and roses. The furniture and teste +crimson velvet embroidered with silver roses, and lined throughout +with Buckram." There was apparently a second set of curtains inside +of striped white satin, trimmed and fringed with silver, and the +velvet curtains were also fringed with silver with long "buttons and +loops." + +Another bedstead is described, with the pillars painted red, and +varnished. The teste and curtains of red silk edged with gold and +silver bone lace, and embroidered "in a border of hops, roses, and +pomegranates." + +Another "Bedstead painted red and gold, and varnished; with crimson +velvet, gold and silver in breadths, embroidered over with red, gold, +and silver,--lined with Milion (Milan) fustian," &c., &c. The +catalogue of the tapestries and embroidered hangings include fifteen +suites at Kenilworth only; and three other houses are equally well +provided. The ground of one of these suites of five pieces of +embroidery, of animals and flowers, is described as being "Stannel +cloth lined with cannevois" (canvas). Each room has chairs, cushions, +carpets (which appear to have covered the floor and the tables), and +"Cabinutts" (cabinets) covered with embroideries. + +In a Florentine Palace (the Alessandri), there is a state +apartment,[465] where the bed, the walls, the curtains, and the +furniture are entirely decorated with the same splendid materials, +i.e. gold brocaded with crimson velvet. The eye longs for some repose +amidst the gorgeous reiterated forms and colours. If the bed and +curtains had been either plain crimson velvet or embroidery, it would +have been much more beautiful. This sort of example is a lesson and a +warning, which is valuable even under less splendid conditions. + +Amongst our fine Indian embroideries, those of Lucknow, Gulbargah, +Aurungabad, and Hyderabad are well fitted for beds and furniture. +These we can study in the Indian Museum, and it seems a pity not to +profit by, and encourage the resources of our own Empire. + +Carpets and rugs were sometimes embroidered as well as woven in +patterns. They were anciently spread on thrones, couches and sofas, at +entertainments;[466] and used for covering the catafalques at funeral +ceremonies, or for laying over tombs, as is still the custom in the +East. We who restrict their use to domestic purposes, are beginning to +understand that these decorations look best when the patterns are +geometrical, and that natural objects, such as rabbits and roses, even +when conventionalized, are unpleasant to tread upon. + +The sofa and chairs are so often the vehicles for embroidery that we +must give them a separate share of our attention. The square shapes of +the chair-backs repeated several times give us an opportunity for +balancing colours and introducing forms of decoration which may be +made to contrast with everything else in the room, and so enhance the +general effect. Say that the carpet is red, and the furniture and +hangings are of tender broken tints, it will be a pleasure to the eye +if the cushions on the sofa and the chairs and seats are panelled with +a deeper or lighter colour than the carpet, but always reposing the +eye by contrasting plain surfaces with richness of design. Then the +footstool or cushion should break away entirely from the carpet on +which it lies, that the poor thing may be spared the kick it +invariably receives, when the master of the house has tripped over its +invisible presence. + +For furniture, the cushion stitches, i.e. canvas and cross stitches, +are certainly the best. They are the most enduring, as they bear +friction without fraying; and are therefore, in this case, preferable +to satin stitches, which are liable to be spoilt by contact, and give +the lady of the house, who is probably the artist, a pang each time an +honoured guest occupies the comfortable chair embroidered in floss +silk, unaware that it is an æsthetic investment, and that a percentage +of its beauty is disappearing every time it is brought into collision +with broadcloth.[467] This brings us to the subject of the covers +called "housses" by French upholsterers, and which may come under the +head of small decorations, or rather, of petty disfigurements. The +things which went by the horrid name of "antimacassars" have, however, +given way to "chair-backs," and crochet has been displaced by linen +veils worked in crewels. This is a step in the right direction. No +well-regulated eye could do otherwise than suffer from the glaring +white patterns of crochet-work, mounted aggressively on the back of +every chair in the room, as a buffer between it and the human head and +shoulders. The suggestion was disagreeable, and the present chair-back +still recalls it. To reconcile us to its use, it must be sparingly +used, and artistically disposed. The "antimacassar" is a remaining +sign of the overlap of dress and manners. Our great-grandmothers +embroidered the chairs, and valued them exceedingly, and never would +have contemplated that they should be soiled by a male or female head +lying back upon them. True, they wore powder and pomatum then--but +they never leant back; such a solace, and solecism in manners, was +reserved for the privacy of the bedroom and the arm-chair covered with +cotton piqué or washing chintz. Under the new manners, and since the +introduction of the graceful lounge, the antimacassar doubtless has +saved many ancestral works, but nowadays we wear neither powder nor +pomatum. On the contrary, we dye, dry, and frizzle our hair till it +might serve as a brush to remove any dust it encountered, and it +spoils nothing. + +The table-cover is a source of endless variety;[468] on the whole I +should recommend here plain surfaces and deep borders. The articles +thrown on the table are best set off by plain grounds. The colour of +the table-cover may be a test of artistic taste, and may make or mar +the whole effect of the furnishings of the room, especially if it is +newly acquired, in order to enliven the fading glories of ancestral +taste. + +The Screen.--This evidently began its existence as a curtain hung on a +movable frame for the purpose of dividing large chambers for separate +uses.[469] The Chinese seem to have been the first to stretch the +curtain tight over the frame, making it a fixture, and often an actual +partition, painted with pictures by brush or needle. + +To our modern home, the screen in a large room, gives a sense of +snugness, and is an actual necessity for keeping off the draughts +drifting in through ill-fitting window-frames and doors; and at the +same time serving æsthetically as a background to high chairs and +tables heaped with objects of art, and tall vases of flowers. The +high screen groups and unites the pictures of active and still life +around it; and meanwhile the little fire-screens are performing the +merciful service of saving the complexions of our daughters from being +sacrificed to Moloch in front of our scorching coal fires. I need not +recommend these as fit surfaces for embroidery--they offer themselves +to it; and the School of Art Needlework is a living witness to how +much they are appreciated and how largely employed. On the screen, +decorative ambition is permitted to rise to pictorial art. Nothing in +furniture is prettier than the screen covered with refined needle +painting, either arabesqued or naturalistic. You may vary the designs +to any extent, either as large pictures covering many folds, or in +small pictures repeated or varied on each. Here design to +individualize the living-room comes into play, and is most conspicuous +for good or for evil effect. + +Amongst the occasional furnishings of the home, we would instance +embroidered curtains to veil pictures, which are perhaps too sacred to +expose to the general eye. We know how often in churches and +sacristies on the Continent, one, or even two veils have to be +withdrawn before the holy and precious picture is displayed. We have +seen these little curtains beautifully worked so as to form by their +design a picture in the space they cover. Crimson silk is perhaps +worked in gold and colours for a gilt frame, and white and silver +within ebony or walnut settings. I would recommend this style of work +to the consideration of our decorators. It is interesting to find in +an old catalogue at Hampton Court, how pictures of sacred subjects +were thus decently veiled, in the profaner moments of court +gaieties.[470] + +Embroidered book coverings were often very beautiful, either as +simply clothing the boards, or when finished with metal-work corners, +backs, and clasps. + +I quote the following lines, said to have been written by Tasso on a +case for a book, embroidered for him by Leonora d'Este:-- + + "Questo prezioso dono, + Ch' ornar coll' ago ad Eleanora piacque, + Lo vidde Aracne, e tacque. + Or se la mano, che la piaga fè al core, + Si bello fè d' amore il dolce laberinto, + Come uscirne potro, se non estinto?" + +In the catalogue of Charles V.'s library, the materials used for +bindings are thus named: Soie veluyau, satin damas, taffetas, camelot, +cendal, and drap d'or; and many were embroidered. + +Tact, discretion, and knowledge are required when we undertake to +adorn the home to be lived in; and while employing the art of +embroidery to embellish it, we must never forget that harmony, and the +absence of anything startling, tends to the grandiose as well as the +comfortable. Bright bits of colouring should be reserved for pictorial +art, or for small objects, such as cushions and stools. If for the +general tint blue be chosen, let it be either pure pale colour, like +the æther, or a soft one, pale or dark, such as indigo; but the +startling aniline blues should be avoided as being offensive to the +nerves of the eye. If red be the foundation colour, let it be Venetian +red, part scarlet, part crimson; or pure crimson (Tyrian purple), or +pure scarlet (cochineal). Never employ scarlet with a yellow tinge; it +may not affect yourself, but it is blinding to many eyes. Avoid +brickdust, which is simply a dirty mixture of earthy colours. Of green +there are few shades that are not beautiful, soothing, and more or +less fitted for a background to needlework. Olive-green, sea-green, +pea-green, emerald-green, and sage-green,--Nature teaches us how +these harmonize together and with all other colours. Only arsenical +green is impracticable and repulsive. Yellow, pale as a primrose, +glowing as gold, or tender as butter, is always beautiful; but one +tint we would exclude from our list, called "buff," which never can +assimilate with any other colour, and is often the refuge of the +weak-minded man that cannot face the responsibility of choosing an +atmosphere in which he will have to spend many hours of his existence, +when the walls, the ceiling, and the hangings will inevitably obtain a +subtle, but real influence on his nerves; which, in the case of buff, +will be that of a yellow fog, while pale primrose will have the effect +of early sunrise, and pure gold that of sunset. + +A rule to be respected is that decoration should be reposing instead +of exciting. The unexpected, which is an element in the enjoyment of +what is new, should be such as to become the more agreeable the longer +we are accustomed to it. Mr. Morris's golden rule is this: "Have +nothing in your houses that you do not know to be useful or believe to +be beautiful."[471] In decorative art, and therefore in embroidery, +the first object to consider is beauty--beauty in conception, +proportion, drawing, and colour. I would not have it thought that I am +placing our secondary art too high, and giving it too much importance, +when I apply to it the first essential rules of art; but one of these +furnishes my excuse. It is that "the simplest and smallest creation +should be as faultless as the greatest and grandest." Now beauty +cannot be obtained, even in little works, without proportion in size, +harmony and balance in colour, and correctness in form, and these +require the careful study of first principles. + +Proportion in size is most important, both as regards ourselves and +our surroundings--objectively and subjectively. When our masters, the +Greeks, wished to express force and majesty, they sculptured their +gods of unearthly size, larger than their heroes, who yet exceeded in +stature their human models. The statue of the god placed in the temple +was the largest object seen, and the delicacy and refinement of the +details in dress, throne, and base only enhanced the effect of +majestic proportion. + +In the temple men were to be reminded of their own nothingness. In the +gymnasium, and on the racecourse, and at the public games, the +surrounding pictures and statues were all intended to excite ambition +by showing men the heroic size to be attained by the awards of fame. +But at home, in the house, man is already supreme, and needs no +incentive to assert himself, and no tall standard by which he may be +measured. The Lares and Penates themselves were very small objects to +look at, whatever may have been the thoughts they suggested. Nothing +is so alarming or unpleasant as gigantic figures worked in tapestry or +embroidery. + +And if even the guardian gods of the house were kept in due subjection +as to size, why not all decorations, and especially those representing +the flowers of the field? Certainly in worked decorations flowers +should be no larger than in nature--perhaps on the whole they are best +rather smaller. Botanical monstrosities on the wall dwarf the flowers +in a bow-pot near them, and nature has her own lovely proportions, +which should be studied and respected. These remarks, of course, apply +exclusively to domestic decoration, which is the special object of our +art, and for the guidance of which the suggestions contained in this +chapter are intended. + +I would strongly advocate the return to the old system for the +production of large embroideries. If ladies would design, or have +designed for them, curtains or tapestries, and let the work-frame be +the permanent occupier of the morning sitting-room, they might at +least commence works that members of the family or friends might +continue and complete at their leisure; and should they at any time +hang fire, a needlewoman or clever professional worker might be called +in to help to finish it. Thus ladies might assist the art of +needlework by their own original ideas, and give individual beauty to +their homes, and an impetus to the occupation which helps to support +so many of our struggling sisters. The frame or métier is always a +pretty object in the drawing-room or boudoir. The French understand +this well; and make it one of their most useful "properties" in their +scenic representations of refined home life. + +I will conclude this chapter with two quotations. The first is part of +Sir Digby Wyatt's advice in a Cambridge Lecture. "You can never hope +(he says) to have the means of supplying yourself with what is +beautiful unless you take pains to add to the production of that +beauty. The colour which the decorative painter" (and the embroiderer +also) "may cast around you is neither more nor less than an atmosphere +in which your eye will be either strengthened or debilitated. If you +accustom your eye only or mainly to contemplate what is satisfactory +in colour and form to the highest tastes, it will gradually become +allured to such delicacy of organization as to reject unintentionally +all that is repugnant to perfect taste." + +Mr. Morris, in a lecture to the "Birmingham Society of Arts and School +of Design," says of ugly furnishings: "Herein the rich people have +defrauded themselves as well as the poor. You will see a refined and +highly educated man nowadays, who has been to Italy and Egypt and +where not, who can talk learnedly enough (and fantastically enough +sometimes) about art and literature of past days, sitting down without +signs of discomfort in a house that, with all its surroundings, is +just brutally vulgar and hideous. All his education has done for him +no more than that." + +"You cannot civilize man unless you give him a share in art." But the +man must be civilized by education to accept that share of art that +his life offers to him. It must be admitted that though a man may be +educated enough to enable him to theorize, he may yet be too poor to +furnish with taste. If he is able to act up to his theories, and to +surround himself with what is refined, and fail to do so, and is +contented not to stir in this matter, he is not truly educated. + +"Now that which breeds art is art. Any piece of work that is well done +is so much help to the cause." "The cause is the Democracy of Art, the +ennobling of daily and common work." + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [461] Odyssey, xxiii., l. 190. + + [462] Layard's "Monuments," 1st series, pl. 77; see + "Histoire de l'Art," ii., Perrot and Chipiez. + + [463] A bed may be absolutely without any hangings or + tester, and yet carry embroidery, as in the curious + funeral couch of a sepulchral monument in painted + terra-cotta in the Campana Museum of the Louvre. Here + the mattress is worked to resemble ticking, striped, and + the cushions have embroidered ends; and are made in the + form of bolsters. There is a similar sepulchral monument + in the British Museum. Both of them were found at + Cervetri, and are quaint examples of early Etruscan art. + See Dennis' "Etruria," 2nd ed., p. 227. + + [464] The thread embroideries in counted stitches were + worked in an endless variety of beautiful designs, of + which the collection in Franz and Frida Lipperheide's + "Musterbücher für Weibliche Handarbeit" is most + interesting and exhaustive; including Italian and German + "Lienenstickerei," Berlin, 1883. + + [465] Of the seventeenth century. + + [466] The carpets used by the Romans were called + Triclinaria Babylonica, for the use of the triclinium, + and Polymata cubicularia, for the cubiculum. These were + dyed crimson, scarlet, and purple. See Horace's Satires, + ii. 6; also Smith's "Dictionary of Greek and Roman + Antiquities," s.v. Tapes., p. 102-106, Triclinium. + + [467] "Marco Polo," p. 92, ed. Yule, speaking of the + ladies of Caramania in the thirteenth century, says they + produced exquisite needlework on silk stuffs of divers + colours, with figures of birds, beasts, trees, and + flowers. They worked hangings for the noblemen's use, as + well as cushions, pillows, quilts, and all sorts of + things. + + [468] Lampridius ("Antonin. Heliogab." cap. xxvi. see + Bock, p. 129) says, in the life of Heliogabalus, that + table-covers were embroidered for the emperor, + representing the dishes which were to be placed upon + them at the festal table of this epicure. + + [469] See the screen on the Assyrian bas-relief in the + British Museum, placed round the back of the throne on + which the king is seated. This is apparently a frame on + which hangings are fixed. + + [470] See inventory Of Henry VIII.'s goods, &c., I. Ed. + VI. (Bib.) Harl. 1419, quoted by Felix Summerley in his + "Handbook of Hampton Court." + + [471] I would add, "except that which is consecrated by + time or sentiment." + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +DRESS. + + "Whatever clothing she displays, + From Tyre or Cos, that clothing praise; + If gold show forth the artist's skill, + Call her than gold more precious still; + Or if she choose a coarse attire, + E'en coarseness, worn by her, admire." + + OVID, "Ars Amat." ii. 297, 300 (Yates, p. 180). + + +Having glanced at the decoration of the house, I must now proceed to +say a few words on Dress. Semper, Labarte, and Sir Digby Wyatt all +take it for granted that the Art of Dress preceded all other arts. + +Every ancient record shows how early decoration of dress by needlework +began, and how far it had gone; and when we read of festal +hospitalities and marriage gifts, embroidered garments are invariably +named. Solomon in all his glory, though he praised the lily, yet shone +in splendid apparel. The Greeks refined the gold, and painted the +lily. + + [Illustration: Pl. 50. + Italian Knight dressed for conquest, by Gentile da Fabriano. + Academia at Florence.] + +As soon as dress became an art, and not merely an acknowledged +necessity for warmth and decency, I see no reason to deny that the +same decorative genius that embroidered the garment might at the same +time have imagined the carving of the chair and the inlaying of the +sword and bow; but as regards the precedence of the arts, we can only +guess at what is probable. Beauty in dress is certainly a universal +instinctive passion. Perhaps the birds (which Mr. Darwin and others +credit with preening their plumage, conscious that their spots are +the brightest, and their feathers the glossiest, and that they are +therefore adored by the hens, and the envy of the shabbier cocks) +suggested to men the same method for securing the preference of the +other sex, who in return willingly helped to adorn the idols of their +hearts and homes. (Plate 50.) This natural state of things still +prevails in Central Africa, where Schweinfürth describes a king +dancing before his 100 wives costumed in the tails of lions and +peacocks, and crowned with the proboscis of an elephant. It appears, +however, that, unlike Cleopatra, "custom had staled his infinite +variety," and the 100 ladies looked on the splendid display with blank +indifference. + +This is only a barbarous illustration of the fact that in the earliest +civilizations magnificent garments were worn by men to dazzle and awe +the beholders by the splendour which represented wealth and conquest. +How glorious a man could appear apparelled to represent majesty and +dominion, may be learned by studying Canon Rock's book on the +coronation dresses of the Emperors of Germany--a book great in every +sense of the word. The portrait of Charles V. robed and crowned is a +dazzling example of the arts of dress, embroidery, and jeweller's +work. These garments have for ages been treasured at Vienna, +Aix-la-Chapelle, and in the Vatican at Rome. + +The coronation garments of the Emperors of Russia are said to be +gorgeously beautiful. + +It seems hardly necessary to assert that embroidery has always been +especially applicable to dress. Each garment, being individualized by +the design depicted on it, was fitted for individual uses and +occasions. The conqueror's palmated mantle, the coronation robe, the +bridal garment, the costume of the peasant for festival days, and the +officiating vestments of the priests for special services of prayer +and praise--these were loyally or piously worked; they descended from +generation to generation as family treasures or as historical +memorials, and sometimes as holy relics,[472] till they and the call +for them, were swept away at once by social changes; yet some still +remain and hold their place. Priestly garments, together with Church +decorations, never laid aside in the Roman and Greek Churches, are +being partially revived in our own; and for secular adornment the +embroiderer is often called upon to work a garland, to enwreathe the +form of a pretty woman, to lie on her shoulders and encircle her +waist. + +The greatest loss to the art is that men as a rule have ceased to +individualize themselves, or their position or office by dress,[473] +and have left entirely to the women the pleasure and duty of making +themselves as lovely and conspicuous as their circumstances will +permit. The same linen and broadcloth are cut in the same shapes, of +which the only merit is that they are said to be comfortable, and +whose highest aim is to be spotless and unwrinkled; these show the +altered conditions of the highly civilized man, and woman too, for he +has long left behind him the idea of dazzling the female eye or heart +by the attraction of colour. This applies only to European costume at +home or in the colonies. The East still retains its pleasure in +gorgeous combinations, in which man enfolds his person, and shows how +beautiful he can make himself when thus clothed, in accordance with +the classical axioms, as to how much of the human form should be +revealed, and how much concealed. + +The principle on which the ancients embroidered their garments was +like that of the Indians, the large surfaces plain, or covered with +quiet diapers or spots, the rich ornaments being reserved for the +borders, the girdles and the scarves. Their garments hung loose from +the shoulders or girdle; whether long or short they clung to the +figure or fluttered in the wind. The long flowing robes to the feet +veiled the form completely, and were only thrown off for the battle or +the chase, or in the struggles for victory in the races and games. +Dress, in the supreme reign of beauty, was intended to flow around, or +to conceal, but never to _disguise_, the human frame it enclosed. + +Homer thus describes Juno's toilet before calling on Jupiter:-- + + "Around her next a heavenly mantle flow'd, + That rich with Pallas' labour'd colours glow'd; + Large clasps of gold the foldings gather'd round; + A golden zone her swelling bosom bound." + + Iliad, xiv. v. 207. + +The Greeks certainly wore delicate and tasteful embroidery on their +garments, frequently finished with splendid borders, while the large +space between was dotted with stars or some simple pattern. We learn +this from the paintings on Greek fictile vases. In the British Museum +there is a little bronze statuette of Minerva (with twinkling diamond +eyes). She has a broad band of embroidered silver foliage from her +throat to her feet. + +As the beauty of Greek forms acted and reacted on the beauty of their +"Art of Dress," so we may be certain that all deformity of dress has +been produced by deformity of race in mind or body, and that climate +is an important factor in both. The cold of the farthest north has +produced people short, fat, and hairy; which natural gifts have been +supplemented by their warm clothes or coverings, in the same way that +a "cosy" covers a teapot. Flowing garments there would be utterly out +of place, petticoats are unknown, and the Lapp hangs out nothing that +can be the vehicle for carrying an icicle. Their dresses, or cases, +are planned to keep out the cold, and to place another atmosphere +between the heart of the breathing mass, and the cruel, cutting, outer +wind. Hence, the materials used are not only woven hair, but the furry +skins themselves. In the south, under the sunshine, dress is for the +greater part of the year only needed for decency and beauty. The +flowing and delicate cottons and silks and fine woollens, are shaped +to cover and adorn the beautiful forms, which for entire isolation +take refuge in the never-failing mantle. The mantle was the great +opportunity for the embroiderer's craft. Alkisthenes, the Sybarite, +had a garment of such magnificence that when it was exhibited in the +Temple of Juno at Lacinium, where all Italy was congregated, it +attracted such universal admiration that it was sold to the +Carthaginians by Dionysius the Elder for 120 talents. The ground was +purple, wrought all over with animals, except the centre, where were +seen Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Minerva, Venus, and Themis. On one border +was the figure of Alkisthenes himself, on the other was depicted the +emblematic figure of his native city, Sybaris. The size of the +garment was Homeric--it was fifteen cubits, or twenty-two feet in +breadth.[474] + +That the ladies of Greece in the fourth century carried down the +historical and Homeric traditions of the embroidery frame, and made it +part of their daily lives, while the Persian women of rank left such +work to their slaves, is evident from the pretty legend told of +Alexander the Great, who desiring to beguile the weariness of his +prisoners, the wife and family of Darius, sent them some of his +garments to embroider. When it was reported to him that these +princesses were much mortified, believing it was a suggestion of their +fallen fortunes, Alexander hastened to reassure them--saying that his +own mother and sisters occupied themselves in embroidering dresses. + +The Persians and Babylonians seem to have preferred subjects for their +embroidered dresses somewhat in the style of the mantle of +Alkisthenes, which was probably Oriental, and suggests the Babylonian +mantle in Jericho, "which tempted Achan to sin." The Egyptian frescoes +on the other hand, sometimes give us women and goddesses dressed in +small flowery patterns that remind one of Indian chintzes. These were +probably woven, painted, and embroidered, and filled in with threads +of gold. The Romans varied their fashions, but they preferred for a +time striped borders on their garments,[475] and called them +"molores," "dilores," "trilores," up to seven. The Greeks but seldom +departed from the rule of plain or quietly patterned surfaces with +rich borders in their delineations of dress, though there are examples +of large designs covering the whole garment. + +The embroidered dresses of early Christian times are to be judged of +by mosaics and frescoes--mostly Italian. Those of the dark ages were +till lately only names and guesses. But a hiatus in our knowledge has +been filled up lately by the store of entombed textiles discovered in +the Fayoum in Egypt, and now at Vienna, in Herr Graf'schen's +Collection. Here we have a variety of shapes, designs, and stitches, +and every kind of subject, sacred and profane, Christian and Pagan, +and the missing links between Indian and Byzantine fabrics are +revealed. They cover nearly 400 years, from the third to the seventh +century, and many of them may be looked upon as apart from any +ecclesiastical or even Christian suggestions. I have spoken of them in +the chapter on Woollen Materials.[476] + +After the seventh century, we again come into the dawning light of +history--and find here and there an illustrative fragment, nearly +always ecclesiastical, taken from the graves of priests and monarchs. +Charlemagne's mantle and robe embroidered with elephants and with +bees, preserved at Aix-la-Chapelle--his dalmatic in the Vatican--the +Durham embroideries, are rare and precious examples of that early +period. + +Semper describes the difference between "the covering" and the +"binding." This seems to be little considered in modern costume, but +it is so essential that I would impress it on my readers. He says that +"the covering seeks to isolate, to enclose, to shelter, to spread +around, over a certain space, and is a collective unit," whereas +binding implies ligature, and represents a "united plurality,"--for +example, a bundle of sticks, the _fasces_ of the lictors, &c. "Binding +is linear, in dress it is either horizontal or spiral." What can the +united plurality be that justifies the binding often bestowed on the +figure in fashionable costumes? more fitted for binding together the +bones of the dead, than for permitting the agility of the muscles of +the living. Semper continues,--"Anything that goes against this +important axiom is wrong."[477] + +I think we must all agree that the objects of dress are decency, +isolation, warmth, grace, and beauty. As long as fashion takes the +place of taste, and extravagant _chic_ supersedes grace and beauty, we +must not hope that fine designs to individualize dress will be called +for. The French machine-made embroideries are so beautiful, and +comparatively cheap, that we cannot compete with them. The best +artists design them, and the only fault to be found is this, that as +they are made by thousands of yards, and can only be varied by +interchange of colours, they become common the day they are produced. +It has been said that "fashion is made for a class, but taste for +mankind."[478] Fashion is the enemy of taste, though she makes use of +her services. The gown, of which the fashion is in every sense +imported from France, will probably never again be the vehicle for +home embroideries. But there are other articles of personal adornment +which will always be available for the fancies of decorative +taste--the fan, the purse or satchel, the apron, the fichu, the point +of the shoe, and the muff--all these are objects on which thought and +ingenuity may well be expended, and which will remain as records of +personal feeling when the workers and givers of such graceful +mementoes are far away. Carriage-rugs and foot-muffs, and embroidered +letter-cases, and book-covers, must be placed somewhere between +furniture and personal ornament. In all these the "_imprévu_," or +"unexpected," is what is valuable, including all that is original and +quaint. + +Embroidery will, however, probably continue occasionally to be +employed in the adornment of dress--and will leave of each phase and +period of art some fine examples on which the archæologist of the +future may pause and reason. + +There are in most old houses some specimens of old secular work--few +earlier than the date of Henry VIII. Gothic dress is very rare, except +the ecclesiastical. But from the fifteenth century till now, there +remains enough to exercise our curiosity, our artistic tastes, and our +power of selection and comparison; and hints for beauty and grace may +often be found and adapted to the style of our own day. + +Planché's "Dictionary of Dress," and Ferrario's "Costumi antichi e +moderni di tutti i Popoli," are great works on dress and costume, and +both are splendidly illustrated and worthy of study. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [472] Elsewhere I have spoken of dress being continually + offered to the images of the pagan gods in the temples. + Herodotus (ii. p. 159) tells us that Pharaoh Necho + offered to the Apollo of Branchidæ the dress he happened + to have worn at both his great successes (the victory of + Magdalus and the taking of Cadytis). In the procession + of Ptolemy Philadelphus the colossal statue of Bacchus + and his nurse Nysa were draped, the former in a shawl, + the latter in a tunic variegated with gold. See Yates, + "Textrinum Antiquorum," p. 369. Old clothes were sent as + votive offerings to temples, and inscriptions recording + lists of such decorations are still extant. See Appendix + 1. The Greeks honoured the menders and darners, and + called them "healers of clothes." Blümner, p. 202. + + [473] Men in former days preferred to show by their + dress their station and the company they belonged to. + Guilds had their ceremonial dresses, and their + "liveries," and their cognizances, and considered it an + honour to wear them. See Rock, "Church of our Fathers," + ii. p. 115. + + [474] Aristotle, De Mirab. Auscult., xcvi. + + [475] Asterius, Bishop of Amasis, in the fourth century, + describes both hangings and dress embroidered with + lions, panthers, huntsmen, woods, and rocks; while the + Church adopted pictorial representations of Christian + subjects. Sidonius alludes to furniture of like + character. See Yule, "Marco Polo," p. 68. + + [476] "Katalog der Theodor Graf'schen Fünde in Ægypten," + von Dr. J. Karabacek, Wien, 1883. + + [477] Semper, "Der Stil," p. 28. + + [478] Unfortunately this axiom may be reversed. Taste + only belongs to a small class, and mankind follows it, + whether good or bad, if it only be the fashion. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +ECCLESIASTICAL EMBROIDERY. + + "And now as I turn these volumes over, + And see what lies between cover and cover, + What treasures of art these pages hold, + All ablaze with crimson and gold.... + Yes, I might almost say to the Lord, + Here is a copy of Thy Word + Written out with much toil and pain; + Take it, O Lord, and let it be + As something I have done for Thee! + How sweet the air is! how fair the scene! + I wish I had as lovely a green + To paint my landscapes and my leaves! + How the swallows twitter under the eaves! + There, now, there is one in her nest; + I can just catch a glimpse of her head and breast, + And will sketch her thus, in her quiet nook, + For the margin of my Gospel-book." + + LONGFELLOW, "The Golden Legend" ("The + Scriptorium"), p. 176. + + "Upon Thy right hand did stand the queen in a vesture of + gold, wrought about with divers colours.... The king's + daughter is all glorious within: her clothing is of + wrought gold. She shall be brought unto the king in + raiment of needlework."--Psalm xlv. 10, 14, 15. + + +If the Bride is the type of the Church, how truly has she been, for +eighteen centuries, throughout Christendom, adorned with gold, and +arrayed in raiment of needlework. + +By ecclesiastical embroideries, we mean, of course, Christian work for +Christian churches. The first pictured decorations of our era, in +early frescoes, mosaics, and illuminated MSS., and the first specimens +that have come down to us of needlework and textiles, testify by their +_naïveté_ to their date.[479] + +The prosperity of the Church's hierarchy was founded on the ruins of +the Empire, over which Attila had boasted that where his horse trod no +grass grew; and truly the cultivated art of those splendid days had +lapsed at once to a poverty of design and barrenness of ideas which +would soon have dwindled into mere primitive forms, had not a fresh +Oriental impulse arrived from Syria, Egypt, and Byzantium,--and then +the arts were born anew.[480] The continuity was broken; yet, being +devoted to the service of the Church, the new arts were by it moulded +and fostered. Little lamps twinkled here and there in monastic houses. +Hangings for the churches, coverings for the altars, robes for the +priests, occupied the artist and the embroiderer. + +The forms, the colours, the uses, were adapting themselves to become +the symbols of orthodoxies and heresies, and thus became a part of the +history of the Church. The links are many between them and the history +of the State; and here ecclesiastical embroideries come in as +landmarks. + +Royal and princely garments, which had served for state occasions, +were constantly dedicated as votive offerings, and converted into +vestments for the officiating priest, and so were recorded and +preserved.[481] + +Royal and noble ladies employed their leisure hours in work for the +adornment of the Minster or the home church or chapel. Gifts of the +best were exchanged between convents, or forwarded to the holy father +at Rome, and were often enriched with jewels. The images of the Virgin +and saints received from wealthy penitents many costly garments,[482] +besides money and lands. + +This dedicatory needlework has preserved to us the records of +classical, Byzantine, and Arab-Gothic design, which otherwise must +have been lost. + +The Church records and illuminated MSS. give us most trustworthy +information of the way in which the altars, the priests, and even the +kings were arrayed; and the catalogues of royal wardrobes are also +very instructive, as we find how often princely gauds became, as gifts +to the Church, commemorative of historical events, such as a victory +or an accession, a marriage or a coronation. + +Woltmann and Woermann say that the efforts of the Christians in the +time of Constantine tended to delay the extinction of classical design +in Rome. Of the fourth century they give as examples the mosaics of +"S^ta. Pudenziana," where we can still find antique beauty of +design. We may also mention the church of "St. Agnese fuori le mura," +which once contained the sarcophagi of Constantine and his mother +Helena, and of which the decorations in the ceilings are entirely +classical, though the motives had been transferred to Christian +symbolism.[483] + +The total disappearance of Greek art did not occur till the eighth +century, when the new blood infused from foreign sources began to +assert itself.[484] + +Rome had succeeded to Greece as being the centre of Christian art, +which assumed the phase commonly called the Romanesque. This was a +conglomerate of Oriental, Byzantine, and Græco-Roman, varied in +different countries. Then there were the Scandinavian, and Runic, and +Celtic styles drifting from the North; the Lombardic, of Central +Italy; the Ostro-Gothic, of Ravenna; the Byzantine, of Venice, all +acting and reacting upon each other. + +All these rough and inchoate attempts at the beautiful, prepared the +world for the acceptance of the Arabic influence, which is said to +have been imported at the end of the eleventh century by the +Crusaders, to whose pious enterprise some attribute the whole of the +splendid Gothic art of the three succeeding centuries. But the marking +characteristic of the Arabic arch is wanting; the ogee shape is seldom +to be found in Christian architecture;[485] and the pointed arch so +naturally results from the intersection of the round arches, that we +cannot but look upon these causes as co-incident. + +I have elsewhere remarked how often in art different causes co-operate +to form a style. The father and mother are of different nationalities, +and the result shows the characteristics of its double parentage. The +learned antiquaries, who draw their arguments mainly from the form of +the arch, must settle whence and how Gothic art in stone came into +Europe. It was doubtless the effect or result of more than one cause. + +But in as far as it influenced textile art, we have come to the period +when it must be studied in Sicily, the half-way house and +resting-place of the Crusaders on their highroad to the Holy Land. + +Sicily, which had succeeded to Constantinople as being the great +manufacturing mart during the Middle Ages, was, in the hands of the +Moors, the origin and source of all European Gothic textile art. Yet +even at Palermo and Messina they were controlled by the traditions of +the schools of Greece, ancient and modern, and by Babylonian, Indian, +and African forms and symbolisms. + +Byzantium furnished many of their designs, which were sometimes of +very remote date, though pressed into the service of the new style and +the Church. + +These and all the streams of ecclesiastical decoration throughout +Europe flowed towards Rome, and were re-issued with the fiat and seal +of the Central Church, which also afterwards presided over the art of +the Renaissance.[486] + +By studying what remains to us of fragments and records we know all +the materials which clothed the primitive and mediæval Church, and we +find that there was but little originality in textile decoration or in +the forms of dress, which either resembled those of the priests in the +Jewish synagogue or those of the heathen temples; and were adapted +from traditional patterns. + +The constant repetition of the cross and the signs of the Passion, +with the emblems of saints and martyrs, were interwoven with the +ancient classical forms, mixed up with the old symbolisms partially +altered to suit their new service of Christian art. Of course such +changes were inevitable, while the old motives were being translated +to the new uses. + +The corselet of Amasis (the Egyptian corselet, p. 20, _ante_) closely +resembles the Jewish ephod, which probably was borrowed from +Egypt.[487] + +In Rock's "Church of Our Fathers," vol. i. p. 409, we find mention of +the consular trabea, profusely worked in gold, as being the origin of +the cope. + + [Illustration: Pl. 51. + St. Mark. Anglo-Saxon Book of the Four Gospels in the Cathedral + Library at York.] + +It has been suggested and disputed that the stole was an adaptation of +the latus clavus; indeed, if we compare the examples given by +Bock[488] we can hardly doubt that the consular trabea and the latus +clavus either served as the models for the Christian Bishop's dress, +or were derived from the same traditional sources. Such is the +intimate chain of design from century to century, from age to age; +from Egypt to the Holy Land, and thence to Rome. + +Bock gives his authorities for saying that the clavus was sometimes an +applied border, sometimes a loose stripe hanging down in front, as may +be seen in two consular diptychs given in plate 70. Much has been +written on this latus clavus, its origin and meaning, and I shall +return to it in reference to the chrysoclavus pattern, p. 337, _post_, +and I refer the reader, who may wish to enter more fully into the +questions raised by conflicting opinions regarding the clavus, to +Marquardt's "Handbuch Röm. Alterthümer," vii. p. 2, pp. 528-533, where +great learning and ingenuity have been expended, without arriving at +any satisfactory conclusions.[489] + +This keeping to the old lines and outward appearance as much as +possible was mainly due to a regard for safety during the +persecutions, and also to the Christian spirit of adoption and +conversion, rather than that of antagonism, which influenced all their +early manifestations. + +This unchanging character of art was also partly owing to the absolute +sterility of the ashes of Roman Imperialism. + +It is true that through the Dark Ages individual genius occasionally +flashed and left a mark here and there; but such phenomena are so +rare, that when they occur we hesitate before we assign them to that +age. + +The Anglo-Saxon art of illumination shows these inspired moments; I +would point to their drawings in the books in the Bodleian at Oxford, +and the "Book of the Four Gospels" (of the tenth century) in the +Minster Library at York, which are original and graceful, and have a +reflection from the classical traditions. To an artistic eye they are +beautiful. (Plate 51.) + +The conscientious colouring of the Anglo-Saxon MSS. is liturgical. Mr. +Clapton Rolfe[490] says that the Levitical traditions in the earlier +system of decoration in the Christian Church had a far stronger hold +on the popular mind than we are willing now to admit; and that the +five Levitical colours, gold, blue, purple, red, and white, were +retained in the Christian ritual. Whenever we come across figures of +Anglo-Saxon bishops, the liturgical vesture entirely agrees with the +Biblical description. + +Embroideries before the twelfth century generally preserve a +semi-Roman, semi-Oriental character, which is nearly related to the +art which is called Lombardic. This differs from what we know of +Scandinavian and Celtic design through illuminated books,[491] carving +on stone crosses throughout the north of Europe, Great Britain, and +Ireland, and the remains we possess of their metal work. I am not +aware of any ecclesiastical embroideries which show a Celtic +origin,[492] unless the intertwined patterns on Italian dresses in +paintings of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries may be supposed +to be derived from that source. (See p. 91, _ante_.) + + [Illustration: Fig. 25.] + +In accounting for the instances of evident Oriental influence on +Christian art, which came through Byzantium, we must not restrict +ourselves to searching out the Arabian traditions, but we must +remember also how much Babylon and Persia, as well as India, had given +to the Empire of the East, and these influences were in full force at +the time that Christian art was being organized. + +We know, for example, that the great veil of the temple at Jerusalem, +given by Herod, was Babylonian. + +The materials--linen, silk, and woollen--on which ecclesiastical +embroideries were worked at Rome and Constantinople were accepted all +over the Christian world. The fabrics were plain, striped, and +figured; and came from Persia and India, Greece, Alexandria, and +Egypt. Even Chinese and Thibetian stuffs are often named. Cloths of +gold and silver also came from the East, as in the days of Attalus. +All these furnished the grounds on which needlework was lavishly +spent. + +The great veils which divided the pagan and Jewish temples were at +first adopted in the Christian churches, but they gradually +disappeared from common use, in spite of occasional survivals and +revivals during the Dark Ages. + +Records exist of the hangings of the ancient basilica of St. Peter at +Rome, spread between the pillars supporting the baldachino over the +high altar and those of the choir; and at the Ostro-Gothic imperial +court of Ravenna, in the fifth century, Maximianus ordered a set of +similar splendid curtains (tetravela) to be worked for the altar. +Anastasius Bibliothecarius (ninth century), in his biographies of the +popes, mentions curtains and embroidered altar-pieces worked in the +sixth and seventh centuries.[493] + +Sergius (A.D. 687) ordered four white and four scarlet curtains, and +Pope John (701) hung white ones between the pillars on either side of +the altar at St. Paul's. St. Zacharias[494] gave similar hangings to +the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul. Stephen IV. placed immense +silver curtains at the entrance of the basilica of St. Peter's, and in +768 gave to it sixty-five curtains of figured Syrian stuffs.[495] The +same hangings prevailed at intervals in England, France, and Germany, +till the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, when the new Gothic style +of high, pointed arches altered the decorative customs. + + [Illustration: Pl. 52. + Fragments of Silk to be seen at Coire in Switzerland, also in the + South Kensington Museum.] + +From Anastasius's mode of speaking of ecclesiastical garments, it +appears that they were named in the treasury catalogues after the +animals represented on them--"the peacock garment," "the elephant +casula," "the lion cope." Evidently these were Oriental gold brocades, +Indian or Persian, or else reproductions of their designs, and from +Auberville's and Bock's books of engravings we can judge how they +repeated and varied their motives. One woven subject, which evidently +started its textile career as one of the labours of Hercules, was +gradually transferred to Samson, or to Daniel in the lions' den. +(Plate 4, Auberville's "L'Ornement des Tissus.") (Plate 52.)[496] + +However, in Russia and throughout the Greek Church the ancient +Byzantine use of hangings still remains in force. + +The art of embroidery has always given its best efforts to these +church draperies. + +Rome was so laden with splendid embroideries by her eastern conquests, +that probably the Christian decorators would have availed themselves +of some of the accumulated stores; but we have no record of such +adaptations, unless the splendid curtains and the silver hangings of +Pope Stephen IV. were taken out of some imperial treasure-house. + +The contrast between early ecclesiastical art and that which +immediately preceded it in the palaces of the Cæsars (at Rome, Tivoli, +and wherever we find their ruined glories) is most remarkable. + +The lovely and the lively had been suddenly abandoned for the heavy +earnest solemnity and inartistic drawing of the frescoes of the +underground church of St. Clemente in Rome, and that of the early +Christian mosaics. + +It is as if the arts which had lent, nay, given themselves to the +glorification of idols, had suddenly died out, leaving behind them +neither an artist, nor a skilled artisan, scarcely a tradition. + +The new Christian ideas had to be painfully recorded on sacred +buildings and their furnishings for more than a thousand years; with +all the patient acquiescence of untaught ignorance, and the struggling +uncertainty of genius pursuing a distant glimmering light, apparently +unconscious of all that had preceded it in Egyptian and classic art. +The great political and religious revolutions in Europe had crushed +and buried the arts under the ruins of the Empire over which Time +himself seemed to have broken his hour-glass, so little was there to +show any memory of their past, or hope for their future. The alternate +progress and destruction of the arts in European civilization strike +the student, in vivid contrast with the immutability of those of the +East, especially in India and China, where the old forms were still +being maintained by the swaddling bands of codified custom[497] that +had restricted their development, but prolonged their existence, and +so they had survived, while Greece conquered and robbed the East and +Egypt, and Rome crushed Greece and was in her turn despoiled by the +Goths and Huns.[498] + +Christian art had to begin at the very beginning, and collect its own +traditions, and organize its own forms. These gradually accumulated, +availing themselves of accepted symbols, and adding to them hidden +meanings. The Reformation checked this development in the north of +Europe, but after 300 years we are now witnessing its revival, which +is not merely owing to a religious impulse, but also to the +archæological tendency of our day and to the historical interest we +attach to the ceremonials of the East. + +As the Reformation in Germany was less sweeping and iconoclastic than +our own, we find there many more remains of ecclesiastical art +collected in the churches to which they have always belonged, or in +museums into which they have drifted;[499] and the Germans have thus +been enabled to do more than even the French, in training the +different schools of work throughout the Continent. + +They have proved the Oriental character of the fabrics employed +through the Dark and Middle Ages, i.e. for about 1400 years, whether +they were Syrian, Indo-Chinese, Indian, Alexandrian, Greek, Sicilian, +or Spanish, or whether they had come from Asia by the north or the +south of Europe. The same traditional forms governed them all. But an +adept is able generally to class and name each specimen by the +texture of the webs, by the way gold or gilt thread is inwoven in +them, whether the metal is pure or alloyed, round or flat; also by the +mode of twisting and dyeing the wool, flax, or silk, and its quality +and colouring matter. + +Among the earliest historical church embroiderers the foremost figure +is that of the Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, claimed in +Wales and in the Welsh ballad of "The Dream of Maxen Wledig" as being +a Welsh princess married to the Emperor Constans. She is said to have +embroidered an image of the Virgin, which Muratori speaks of as +existing in the Church of Vercelli in the seventeenth century. Bock +says it is still there, and he quotes an ancient inventory of the +treasures of Phillip the Good, of Burgundy, which names a "Riche et +ancienne table d'autel de brodeure que on dit que la première +Emperriez Christienne Fist."[500] The Empress Helena died in the +fourth century.[501] + +Then after a long interval comes "Berthe aux grands pieds" the mother +of Charlemagne, who in the eighth century was famed for her +needlework, which is celebrated in a poem by Adhelm in the eighth +century, quoted by Mrs. Palliser,[502] "a ouvrir si com je vous dirai +n'avoit meillior ouvriere de Tours jusqu'a Cambrai," and her +grand-daughter Gisela followed in her footsteps. Nearly contemporary, +is Aelfled's Durham embroidery,[503] described in the chapter on +English work. + +Christian art before the twelfth century is very often rich, usually +picturesque, from its fulness of intention; sometimes beautiful, when +it recalls some echo from the East, or some tradition of Greek +art;[504] but the embroideries of those centuries are almost always +quaint; this is invariably the archaic phase of all early art. Born in +the catacombs of Rome--roused by impulses from the north, by education +in the south, and everywhere encouraged by the fostering hand of the +Church, and the patronage of papal and of royal and imperial +houses,--it evolved its forms, and emancipated itself at last from its +poor and sordid condition; and the Gothic phase of each nation +attained to its own peculiar growth and characteristics; and among +them the foremost in the world's estimation was the English school of +embroidery, to which the next chapter is devoted. + +There has been much controversy as to the date of the dalmatic of +Charlemagne in the Vatican treasury. Like every good early piece of +Gothic work in Italy, it is allotted to the days of Pope Boniface +VIII. (thirteenth century). But when we examine this splendid relic we +cannot doubt that it is of a much earlier time, as there is nothing +Gothic to be found in it. It is full of the lingering traces of Greek +art (not Byzantine). It reminds us most of the mosaics of Santa +Pudenziana, which are always quoted to prove that Greek art still +survived in Rome in the eighth century.[505] The dalmatic has been +much restored, but, I believe, most carefully kept to the old lines. +It is worked on a thick, dark-blue, or purple, satiny silk, which had +entirely fallen into little stripes, but has been skilfully mended, +and the embroidery has never been transferred. On the front is our +Lord in glory, saints below, and angels above, with a border of +children playing, which is truly Greek. The motive of this is the "Ibi +et Ubi." On the back is the Transfiguration, and on the humerals are +the sacraments of bread and wine. The whole, as art, is beautiful; and +it is historically most interesting. Lord Lindsay tells us that in the +dalmatic of Charlemagne, (called that of Leo III.) Cola di Rienzi +robed himself over his armour, and ascended to the Palace of the Popes +after the manner of the Cæsars, with sounding trumpets before him, and +followed by his horsemen--his crown on his head and his truncheon in +his hand--"Terribile e fantastico."[506] + +This dalmatic must be ranked first and highest among ecclesiastical +embroideries. (Plates 53, 54, 55.) + +Some of the details are curious. The whole of the blue satin ground is +worked with crosses "parsemé." Parts of the design are so adorned with +larger and smaller Greek crosses--and others with the starry cross. On +the shoulder is once embroidered the mystic swastika.[507] + + [Illustration: Charlemagne's Dalmatic + The Vatican, Rome] + + [Illustration: Charlemagne's Dalmatic + The Vatican, Rome] + + [Illustration: Pl. 55. + Details of Charlemagne's Dalmatic. Vatican Treasury.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 56. + Cope called "of St. Silvester." Treasury of St. John Lateran, Rome. + English Embroidery, thirteenth century.] + +Rock says, "Those who have seen, in the sacristy of St. Peter's at +Rome, that beautiful light-blue dalmatic said to have been worn by +Charlemagne when he sang the gospel at High Mass, at the altar vested +as a deacon, the day he was crowned Emperor in that church by Pope +Leo III., will remember how plentifully it is sprinkled with crosses +between its exquisite embroideries, so as to make the vestment a real +'stauracin.'"[508] + + [Illustration: Pl. 57. + Portion of the Cope at St. John Lateran, showing its condition.] + + [Illustration: Pluvial, English, XIII. Century + Museum at Bologna] + + [Illustration: Pl. 59. + The Daroca Cope. Museum at Madrid. Opus Anglicanum, fourteenth + century.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 60. + Portion of the Cope of Boniface VIII., twelfth century. From + Anagni. Now in the Vatican Collection.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 61. + Altar Frontal from Anagni, Italy.] + +Signor Galletti, Professor of Embroidery to the Pope, says it is +undoubtedly of the eighth century. It has been suggested that the +design is of the date of the Exarchate. It is, however, something of +infinitely finer style; it is noble, simple Greek. + +Charlemagne's dalmatic is embroidered mostly in gold--the draperies in +basket-work and laid stitches; the faces in white silk split-stitch, +flat, with finely-drawn outlines in black silk. The hair, the shadowy +part of the draperies, and the clouds are worked in fine gold and +silver thread with dark outlines. The hands, feet, and draperies have +a fine bas-relief effect. (Plate 53, 54, 55). + +The "pluvial of St. Silvester," in the church of St. John Lateran at +Rome, is probably, from its Gothic style, of the time of Boniface +VIII. (thirteenth century).[509] It never served St. Silvester, except +as being perhaps dedicated to him. On seeing it, one is convinced that +it is English. It has one peculiarity of English Gothic design in the +canopies being supported by twisted pillars of vine-stems, in this +case intersected by green shoots, and carrying leaves. The angels, the +two cherubim clothed in peacocks' feathers, the fine split-stitch, the +gold grounding, and the drawing are also distinctly English. + +I give an outline of the pluvial from photographs,[510] and a finished +woodcut of the centre to show the style and condition of the work. The +design is most beautiful, and we can only regret the loss of the +border, which has been entirely cut off. This shows how elaborate is +the design, yet how artistically arranged as a whole composition. +(Plate 56, 57.) + +It is difficult to settle the precedence between this splendid piece +of church decoration and the rival pluvial of Bologna in the Museo +Civico, said to have come from the church of San Giacomo. It resembles +in style and execution that of St. Silvester, but its architectural +arrangement contains six circles of subjects, worked like the other in +silk and gold, with gold groundings; and both are embroidered on +linen. On careful examination of this splendid work of art, I have +come to the conclusion that it is English. (Plate 58.) + +The Daroca cope (lately belonging to the Archæological Museum at +Madrid) is undoubtedly English. We can claim it by its peculiar +shrine-work, and the twined columns on the orphreys; by the cherubim, +by the peacock-feathered angels, and by the form of the panels +enclosing the different subjects, from the "Life of Our Lord." (Plate +59.) + +The cope of Boniface VIII. in the Vatican came from the church of his +native place, Anagni (plate 60), where are still very curious old +embroideries (see Hon. and Rev. I. Clifford's list of embroideries in +Appendix 5). Some appear extremely ancient, but there is no sign by +which they may be dated. Some are probably of the thirteenth century, +and are very coarse Italian work, though finely designed (plate 61). +There are doubtless many interesting specimens still to be found in +the sacristies of Italian churches. But they have generally been +transferred to museums. + + [Illustration: Pl. 62. + 1. From Tomb in Worcester Cathedral, of Bishop Walter de Cantilupe, + consecrated 1236. + 2. Embroidered Cope at Aix in Switzerland.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 63. + Mitre of Thomas à Becket at Sens, showing the Scandinavian Fylfot + Cross (thirteenth century). + Jewelled Cross on Rose-coloured Cope at Rheims (twelfth century).] + +In the tomb of Walter de Cantilupe (eighteenth century) at Worcester, +were found the remains of a dress which is decidedly of an earlier +date--evidently of Oriental material, but Anglo-Saxon work--so exactly +resembling in style that at Aix given by Bock,[511] that we +can hardly doubt that they proceeded from the same workshop, or at +least are of coeval design. Both are worked with a dark red outline on +a red silk ground. The faces and hands are in white silk--all the rest +between the outlines is gold thread, flat stitch. Bock places its date +as antecedent to the tenth century, and indeed there is no reason to +doubt that this is correct, though the Worcester fragment was taken +out of a tomb of two centuries later. As these garments were stored in +the church treasuries; and as antiquity (without an historical +interest) was then of no value, these old clothes, holy by their use +and office, yet by their shabbiness unfit for public show, may have +been reverently disposed of in clothing the bodies of departed +priests, who probably had worn those very vestments, when officiating +at the altar near which they were laid to rest. When the date of the +wearer of the garment is ascertained, the dress cannot be of a later +period, but it may have belonged to a much earlier one. The +architectural part of these two embroideries, i.e. the canopy work, +resembles that of the Bayeux tapestry. Both appear to be English. +(Plate 62.) + + [Illustration: Pl. 64. + From Tomb of Bishop William of Blois, died 1236. Worcester + Cathedral Library.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 65. + A portion of the Mantle embroidered by Gisela for her husband, St. + Stephen of Hungary. From Bock's "Kleinodien."] + +In the eleventh century, and for some part of the twelfth, needlework +design in England, France, and Germany first assumed a phase, which +may be called the metal-work style. It is to be found on the robes and +mitres of St. Thomas of Canterbury (Thomas à Becket) at Sens[512]--on +the famous rose-red cope of satin embroidered with gold and pearls at +Rheims (which we should incline to believe is English)[513] (plate +63). The fragment of the cope of William of Blois, found in his tomb, +is in this style. (He died in 1236.) The fragments of this curious +garment, worked in gold on a purple silk material, evidently Oriental, +are also preserved under glass in the Cathedral Library at Worcester +(plate 64). + +Amongst the finest instances of ecclesiastical needlework, and, +indeed, we may say, of ecclesiastical art of the twelfth century, is +the coronation robe of St. Stephen of Hungary, decorated by his queen, +Gisela,[514] which is preserved in the Imperial Treasury at Ofen +(plate 65). + +Of this authentic historical work we have the whole story. The +original design,[515] drawn on linen, carefully coloured, is to be +seen at the Benedictine convent abbey of Martinsburg, near Raab in +Hungary. The care with which the work was carried out shows the value +then placed on such undertakings considered as art, and it has been +justified by its survival of 800 years; time having spared it owing to +its perfect materials and manipulation, till it received cruel +injuries by being carried off and thrown into the bog of Orsava during +the revolution under Kossuth. It was, however, recovered and restored, +and was worn by the present emperor at the splendid and picturesque +ceremonial of his coronation at Pesth. The design reminds us of the +mosaics in the apse of Santa Maria Maggiore and other churches at +Rome, and it is extremely beautiful. It consists of an arrangement of +medallions and inscriptions, with "metal-work" ornaments in bands +alternated with smaller medallions. Yet the figures are not so finely +drawn as those of the Durham relics of the beginning of the tenth +century. The drawing of the figures of the Gisela mantle resembles +those on the garments of Walter de Cantilupe (plate 62), which, from +their design and stitches, seem to be of this period. The +architectural parts are very like in design to those of the Bayeux +tapestry, though they are infinitely better, and they have Lombardic +characteristics. + + [Illustration: Pl. 66. + Portion of the Coronation Mantle of Henry II. of Germany, + embroidered by the Empress Kunigunda. From Bock's + "Kleinodien."] + +It appears that Queen Gisela had personally embroidered this +many-figured, richly-embroidered representation of the "Ibi et +Ubi"--The Saviour in His glory as Victor over death and hell, seated +on the bow of heaven, surrounded by choirs of angels and saints, and +prophets of the Old Testament; below on thrones, are the twelve +Apostles. The figures are worked in Oriental gold thread on Byzantine +crimson silk. + +In contrast to the Ubi, the heavenly hereafter, the queen, in the +lowest broad hem (border) has represented the Present, the then "Ibi," +by the leaders of the Hungarian magnates and the half-figures of the +royal givers in large gold-embroidered medallions. + +The next finest specimen of eleventh century needlework was the gift +of Henry II., Emperor of Germany, and his wife Kunigunda, to the +cathedral of Bamberg, where it still exists[516] (plate 66). + +This, again, consists of medallions great and small, of which the +borders, gracefully intertwined, form a large composition[517] +covering the whole surface of the imperial pallium it once adorned. +But in the fifteenth century it was transferred from its original +purple silk ground to one of dark-blue damask, and altered to the form +of a chasuble, as we see it now. The general design resembles that of +the mantle of Gisela. + +Bock calls the style of these works Romanesque; and he thinks that +they show a Saracenic influence. They appear, however, as I said +before, to be rather Lombardic than anything else. The reader is +referred to Dr. Bock's preface for further lists of Continental works +and workers. + +Abbé Martin considers that in the thirteenth century the opening out +of Gothic art was extended to the laity, and was really the sign of a +great social revolution. Gothic art had till then only served the +Church, and had been by circumstances closed to the people, who were +yet unfitted, by their want of education, for artistic life.[518] + +Art was till then almost exclusively produced by the monastic orders, +into which all talent had drifted. But about this time it fell into +the hands of architects and other originators of design, who presently +banded themselves together into brotherhoods and guilds.[519] + +Embroidery till the thirteenth century had been entirely in the hands +of cloistered women, and the ladies who practised it learned their +craft with the rest of their education in convents, and their work was +simply ecclesiastical and dedicatory. At that period social burgher +life in the towns had first begun to develope its love of luxury,[520] +and to follow the fashions of other countries, and the changes of +forms in dress and furnishing which came from foreign parts, though +frequently checked by sumptuary laws. This social movement preceded +everywhere political and religious revolutions. Embroidery then became +customary in lay dress, and lost its religious character, or rather +its religious monopoly. + + [Illustration: Pl. 67. + The Syon Cope, South Kensington Museum (thirteenth century).] + +We find that about this time throughout the Church the forms of +ecclesiastical garments were considerably modified, and made more +comfortable for the officiating priest; and the old traditional trabea +was cut down to the mediæval chasuble. + +English needlework of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries had its own +peculiar style of metal-work pattern, resembling the hinges and +spreading central ornament branching across the wood-work on our +church doors.[521] + +When we meet with this kind of design on foreign church vestments, we +feel inclined always to claim the merit of them for the English +school. The foreign metal-work patterns are much lighter and more +geometrical, and have not the firmness and at the same time the fancy +that we find in our own of the twelfth century; and they remind us +rather of the goldsmiths' than of the blacksmiths' craft. The English +embroidery of this style has the character of "appliqué," i.e. one +material laid upon another and fastened down. + +There are differences of opinion as to the accepted characteristics of +the "opus Anglicanum," which in the twelfth century began to be +celebrated.[522] Some say that it was principally remarkable for its +admixture of jewellers' work in the borders, or the imitation of it in +gold thread. Some give the attempt to reproduce the effect of +bas-reliefs in the embroidered groups of figures; others, again, point +out the peculiarities of the "laid stitches" in gold, which so +permeated the linen grounding, as to give the look of a material woven +with gold thread. We may fairly say that _all_ these, which were then +ingenious novelties, combined to give this opus Anglicanum its value, +as well for its beauty as for its ingenuity.[523] + +The Syon cope, (now one of the treasures of art in the Kensington +Museum), is a perfect example of this work; and is also, according to +Bock, "one of the most beautiful among the liturgical vestments of the +olden period anywhere to be found in Christendom." Dr. Rock's study of +this piece of thirteenth century work in his "Catalogue of the +Embroideries in the South Kensington Museum" is most interesting, as +exemplifying all the characteristics of the Gothic art of the period, +in its historical, æsthetic, heraldic, liturgical, emblematical, and +textile aspects. I have ventured to transcribe the whole of this +notice in the Appendix.[524] I will only add here that the one error +into which I think he has fallen, is in naming the stitches. The +"diapers" are not opus plumarium, but opus pulvinarium, of the class +of "laid stitches." This was ascertained by examining the back of the +material under the ancient lining by a most competent judge[525] in my +presence, and so a long-disputed point is set at rest (plate 67). + +Ciampini says that in the twelfth century, the arts went hand in hand, +each lending something to the design of the others. This, however, +has always been the case.[526] (Whether they greatly profited by such +exchanges is another question.) I cannot but agree with Semper's +often-reiterated theory, that textile art was a leading influence and +constant suggestion to _all_ art from the beginning. And the way that +ecclesiastical decoration was so led in the twelfth century is very +apparent. In the new art of stained mosaic glass in church windows we +see the reflex of the flat illuminations and embroideries of that +period; and while these were being influenced by metal-work, painting +was being transferred again to textile art, pictures being woven as +well as embroidered,[527] while textiles were seeking to emulate +reliefs in a forced and unnatural manner, more ingenious than +artistic. + +While England in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries was exciting the +admiration of all European artists by the imitation of bas-reliefs in +needlework, by the arrangement of the light and shadows in the "lay" +of the stitches, and by a little help from the pressure of hot irons, +to accentuate its apparent indentations, a similar inroad into the +sister art of sculpture, or, perhaps, we should say a similar +adaptation from the sister art, was going on in Switzerland and +Germany, especially in Bavaria. + +There was a clever and artistic mode of stuffing and raising of the +important parts of the embroidered design, such as the figures, the +coats-of-arms, or the emblems of the Passion, &c., in sacred subjects +in imitation of high-relief. There are some beautiful specimens that +have been evidently designed in the School of Cranach. I will only +mention the orphrey, of which the subject is the "Tree of Jesse," +exhibited at Zurich, 1883, the chasuble at Coire in the Grisons, and +the little triptych in the museum of the Wasser-Kirche in Zurich. This +last is exquisitely pretty. The finest, however, is the altar-piece +belonging to Prince Borghese at Rome, which is certainly German in its +design.[528] + +Beautiful as these few examples are, they yet show the mistake of +mixing different forms of art. The designs are reduced to a compromise +between painting, sculpture, and needlework, which excites interest +and perhaps amusement rather than admiration. + +Glass painting, of which we have no notice till the tenth century, +shares many of the rules which hitherto had applied only to +embroideries. It was intended to give colour and interest to those +parts of a building which otherwise were cold and lifeless. _Flatness_ +in the composition, and the avoidance of pictorial effects (especially +any perspectives) show that it was intended for conventional +decoration, rather than as a rival to mural painting. There is no +doubt that it generally superseded textile hangings, because it +supplied the want of colour for the large traceried windows just +coming into architectural design, toning down the crudeness of the +masses of light, and tinting the walls and pavements on which it was +cast. + +When coloured glass came into general use, embroidered hangings mostly +disappeared. Whatever may have been the cause, there is no doubt of +the coincidence. + + [Illustration: Pl. 68. + An embroidered Panel, designed by Pollaiolo, and worked by Paulo + da Verona. In the Church of St. Giovanni at Florence (fifteenth + century).] + +The applied embroideries of the north of Germany were evidently +inspired by the newly-discovered art of glass-painting, and +resemble its designs, both in the compositions of figures and heraldic +subjects. Of this we may remember examples in the Scandinavian +Exhibition at South Kensington in 1881.[529] + +All the most beautiful and picturesque needlework that we possess of +the true ecclesiastical Gothic type, and which belongs to the perfect +flowering of the art, is of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, +just before the spirit of the Renaissance crept northward over Europe, +preceding the Reformation and its iconoclastic effacements. This +remark especially applies to England.[530] The art of representing +Scriptural subjects in flat stitches, as medallions accompanied by +beautiful foliage, and heraldic designs, is illustrated to us by the +palls belonging to several London companies--and by those belonging to +churches, especially that of the church at Dunstable, in which court +ladies, knights, and saints form a most artistic border--the costumes +being of the date of Henry VII. (see p. 378, _post_). + +The perfection of the embroideries of Flanders of that period has +never been exceeded, and it continues still to produce the most +splendidly executed compositions in gold and silken needlework, of +every variety of stitches. The Flemish work and its peculiar mode of +laying golden grounds with flat-laid thread stitched down in patterns +was carried into Italy, where great artists did not disdain to design +for textiles. I give, as an instance, Vasari's account of the +embroidered set of vestments designed by Antonio Pollaiolo for the +church of San Giovanni at Florence. These were carried out by Paolo da +Verona, and took twenty-six years for their completion; and they were +only one set of vestments, "embroidered by the most subtle master of +the art, Paolo da Verona, a man most eminent in his calling, and of +incomparable ingenuity (_ingenio_). The figures are no less admirably +executed with the needle than drawn by Pollaiolo with the pencil,--and +thus we are largely indebted to one master for his design, and to the +other for his patience" (plate 68). + +Towards the end of the fifteenth century the Gothic styles were +replaced by the Renaissance, but the technical part of the art of +embroidery for the churches lost none of its value. All the talent of +the artist and the ingenuity of the craft continued to be lavished on +altar decoration and priestly garments, in Flanders, Spain, France, +and Italy. But the solemnity of these works was certainly impaired by +their being emancipated from the traditional ecclesiastical forms and +their accompanying symbolism, to which the old designers had so +faithfully adhered. Ecclesiastical decorative art became, so to speak, +unorthodox. + +As a proof of this secular, I might almost say irreverent spirit, I +quote Bock's accusation against Queen Mary of Hungary, who in her +embroideries, preserved at Aix-la-Chapelle, is said to have +represented herself as the Queen of Heaven, surrounded by her adorers +on their knees. + +There is no doubt, however, that needlework aspired in the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries to the highest place in art, and was +enthusiastically cultivated by women of rank and position, of artistic +taste, who still gave themselves to the productions of beautiful +decorations, though they no longer confined themselves to +ecclesiastical motives. + + [Illustration: Spanish Altar Frontal, Gold Embroidery + XVII. Cen^y] + +Gabrielle of Bourbon and Isabella, sister of Louis XI., spent their +lives in preparing and overlooking fine works in their own apartments, +and assembled around them noble damsels for this purpose. Anne of +Brittany, who lived in an artistic atmosphere, had her own workshop of +embroidery. Pictorial design now asserted its dominion over +needlework, which accepted it, just as it had been influenced in the +eleventh and twelfth centuries by metal-work motives, and, before +then, by the art of mosaic. + +In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the Spanish plâteresque +embroideries (adopted and modified in Flanders and in France), +consisting of heavy gold and silver arabesques of mutilated vegetable +forms, superseded the graceful Renaissance of the classical +taste.[531] These Spanish embroideries forced their way by their +gorgeousness, in spite of their want of real beauty. They varied their +effects with pearls, corals, and precious stones[532] (plate 69). + +Spain, though she was much despoiled during the Peninsular War by her +French invaders, yet still possesses some of the finest ecclesiastical +work in the sacristies of Seville, Granada, Burgos, Toledo, Segovia, +and Barcelona. Don Juan F. Riano[533] says that Toledo is a perfect +museum of the work of the sixteenth century. + +Sicilian and Neapolitan ecclesiastical needlework showed the Spanish +taste of their masters, but not its perfection. The use of pearls, +coral, and beads[534] prevailed, and we may in general affix its date +and its origin to each specimen by the silver largely used in the two +kingdoms of Sicily and rarely elsewhere; also by the extreme +brilliancy or rather the gaudiness of its colouring. + +English ecclesiastical work came suddenly to an end at the +Reformation. What was not destroyed is to be found in the possession +of the old Roman Catholic families who have religiously collected the +residue, preserved by concealment or by being overlooked; and in the +wardrobes of Continental sacristies.[535] + +But the church decorations of France, Germany, Flanders, Spain, and +Italy have meantime, for the last 300 years, gone through all the +variations of lay styles, emanating from anything but ecclesiastical +motives. First, the Renaissance's semi-pagan (so-called) arabesques; +then the Spanish plâteresque, which was a revolt against their own +bastard Moorish-Gothic; next, the "Louis Quatorze," followed by the +"Louis Quinze" and the "Louis Seize," light, frivolous, and elegant, +essentially social, and not serious.[536] Then a return to the +classical of the Empire; and finally, since the beginning of this +century, to a conglomerate, lawless imitation of forms and styles, +utterly meaningless and uninteresting, as well as wanting in +ecclesiastical dignity and decorum. We are glad to believe that we are +ourselves striving to reconstruct some sort of style that shall be +able to express poetical and religious ideas, especially in our church +decorations. At any rate, it must be of some use to understand the +hidden springs which once raised ecclesiastical embroideries, and +especially those of England, so high as objects of beauty, worthy to +adorn the house of God, and to be for centuries valued as monuments of +pious industry and thoughtful art. + +One of these hidden springs and ancient underlying motives was the +symbolism which gave a religious intention to the smallest design for +the humblest use, provided that its purpose was the service of the +Church. + +Sacred symbolism is a subject to which I have alluded more than once; +and it has played such an important part in the construction and +growth of ecclesiastical art, that I cannot but give a short notice to +the subject under this aspect. + +Symbolism in art is what metaphor is in speech. It is the +representation to the eye of an object which suggests something else +besides itself. + +Dr. Rock tells us that the symbolism of Scripture texts was given to +the world in a book by St. Melito, Bishop of Sardis, A.D. 170. Its +title is "The Key."[537] In the fourth century were produced two great +works on Scriptural symbols, that of St. Basil in his homilies on the +six days of the creation, and that by St. Ambrose; both entitled +Hexameron. + +We meet this subject at every turn in the succeeding centuries, +till in the twelfth we find it formulated and divided into +branches--Bestiaria, Volucraria, and Lapidaria--and each type had +frequently more than one meaning. Thus a lion represented power, +sovereignty, dominion; also the "House of Judah;" a hare the emblem +of man's soul; a peacock that of wisdom (many-eyed). The ruby +represents love. The pearl, innocence. The twelve stones in a +breastplate, the twelve tribes of Israel.[538] Trees and flowers had +also their symbolical meanings, though we are not aware of their +being recorded in any mediæval book. We know that the vine is the +tree of life; the stem of Jesse, the sacramental emblem; that the +lily stands for purity, the woodbine for chastity, and the rose for +religious ecstasy. The crowned lily was always the special emblem of +the Virgin. + +These symbols had many of them a distant source, and had been, as I +have already indicated, emblematic of other inner meanings in the +expression of pagan faiths. The tree of life was Babylonian; the horn, +Persian; the fire-sticks of the prehistoric cross, Egyptian or Indian; +and the composite animals representing many qualities, Ninevite +(probably Accadian).[539] + +All these were utilized, so that their already accepted uses should be +helps and adjuncts, instead of impediments to the appreciation of +divine truths; in the same way that "all that was lovely and of good +repute" in the belief and morals of the ancient peoples, reasserted +and purified, was claimed by the new teachers as types and antitypes. +The symbolism of colours has been always considered very important in +liturgical decoration,[540] and their meanings are discussed in the +chapter on colour. + +The mystical colours, as has been already stated, are five--red, blue, +purple, white, and gold. These the Christian Church inherited from the +Levitical law, and continued faithful to them till the modern Roman +use introduced green and black. The Church of England before the +Reformation never allowed any but the original five mystic colours. + +The symbolism of ecclesiastical embroideries, as well as that of all +Christian art, being intended to illustrate the truths of Christianity +by the teaching of the eye, the great symbol of our faith, the +_Cross_, naturally drew to itself all its prehistoric forms as being +the prophetic types of the "true cross." + +The earliest form of the prehistoric cross, [Illustration], is supposed +to refer to the worship of the sun, and is said to be formed of two +fire-sticks (for producing fire by friction) laid across each other. +This is almost universal in prehistoric, archaic, classical, and +Christian art to the thirteenth century. The next most ancient form is +a broken cross, thus, [Illustration], said to be the double of the Tau, +or Egyptian sign of life, and claimed by the Rabbins as having been the +sign in blood, which stopped the hand of the angel of death, over the +doors of the Israelites at the first Passover. This afterwards was +called the "Gammadion," from its likeness to a doubled Greek gamma, +and it was also said to symbolize the "corner-stone."[541] The third +commonest form, apparently a modification of that of the fire-sticks, +[Illustration], is to be found throughout Celtic and Scandinavian art, +and was called in England "the fylfote" (from its likeness to the arms +of the Isle of Man), and likewise "the Gammadion," though it shows +another source than the Greek letter. + +From these three forms already in use, added to that of the +Crucifixion, endless varieties were composed to suit the +ecclesiastical taste and requirements of different national styles of +symbolical decoration. I refer my readers to plate 26 in the chapter +on patterns for a few of these from different sources. They are +extremely suggestive. I have there entered more fully into the +subject, regarding it as a fertile pattern motive in textile art.[542] + +The cross "bearing twelve fruits for the saving of the nations"[543] +is so like some of the representations of the Persian or Indian Tree +of Life, that the transmission and adoption of the symbolic form is +evident. The cross (plate 63) is a good mediæval example, and is taken +from the celebrated rose-coloured cope at Rheims, embroidered with +gold and pearls on a rose-coloured satin ground. + + [Illustration: Pl. 70. + IVORY CONSULAR DIPTYCH. + 1. In the Wasser-Kirche Museum, Zurich. Sixth century. 2. Of an + earlier period, and finer workmanship, at Halberstadt. No + date given.] + +The Roës is an ecclesiastical pattern of wide use and of very long +descent, often named in ancient Church inventories. It is sometimes +called the "Wheel and Plate." Its origin is probably Oriental, but it +certainly was adopted by the Romans as the motive of their triumphal +garments, the _togæ pictæ_, worn in the processional return of a +conqueror, whether he were a general or a sovereign. The first motive +was a surface covered with circles, closely touching each other, and +containing figures which had a reference to their purpose. In +Christian times the heads of saints were sometimes inserted, +especially in that form of the Roës called the chrysoclavus, from the +intersticial ornament between the circles. + +I have written (p. 308-9) about the Trabea, which on the Roman +consular ivory diptychs of several centuries is so invariably +embroidered with this same clavus pattern (plate 70) that we must +conclude that it had a meaning and a tradition. + +The very ancient superstition that driving in a nail is a fortunate +rite, may have been connected with the pattern called the clavus; and +the chrysoclavus, from being merely a nail pattern, became consecrated +in Christian art as representing the heads of the nails of the +Crucifixion, and hence its early Christian name.[544] It was +originally filled in with a radiated ornament like the sun; (probably +the first motive of this pattern, which seems to be the same as the +Egyptian sun-cross,) and its peculiar decoration remained in +possession of the descriptive name "palmated," though it is difficult +to discover in it any likeness to the palm branch or tree, unless it +is supposed to resemble it as seen from above. + +The toga triumphalis was also called the toga picta, because its +precious purple fabric was covered with gorgeous embroideries. After +it had been worn at the triumph or festival, by the victorious +general, the distinguished noble, or the Emperor, it was laid by and +dedicated in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Thus these palmated +triumphal patterns, and their traditional decorations, having by their +dedication to the gods assumed a religious character, were woven for +Christian ecclesiastical use during the dark ages, and were repeated +in Sicily and Spain down to the beginning of the fifteenth +century.[545] + +I have elsewhere spoken of the "cloud pattern," which is very ancient, +Chinese, Indian, and mediæval. Its use has always been for celestial +subjects in embroidery, either isolating or supporting spiritual +figures. This was appropriated by ecclesiastical art, and we find it +nowhere else in Europe. + +This sketch of the history of ecclesiastical needlework, (necessarily +incomplete from want of space), is founded on the works of Semper, +Bock, Rock, and the comparison of many specimens in collections and +exhibitions in London and elsewhere. Auberville absolutely places +before us the materials as well as the patterns of the weaving of the +Christian era, as well as fragments of Egyptian textiles, in his +beautiful book on Tissues. + +For forms and patterns we cannot do better than study Bock's +liturgical chapters and their illustrations, as well as Dr. Rock's +"Church of our Fathers." + +The stitchery of Christian art has been discussed in the chapter on +stitches, and I repeat that there is nothing new in the treatment of +solid embroideries, (lace stitches having been the only innovation of +the last 400 years), though many of the ancient stitches have lost +their distinctiveness, and fallen into a pitiful style by gradual +descent which reached its lowest point in the early part of this +century, as is shown by the robes embroidered for the coronation of +Charles X. in the museum of the Louvre. + +In the commencement of this our nineteenth century, there was a total +cessation of embroidery, which had, for nearly 2000 years held its own +as an art, apart from all others; perhaps a secondary one--yet mixed +up with every refinement and luxury of civilization. + +Its revival in England, especially, is owing to many causes. As +ecclesiastical decoration I have already attributed it to the +archæological tendencies of our day, as well as to the æsthetic +sentiment which protests, after so long a period of abstention, +against the puritanical bareness and coldness of our national forms of +worship. The obliteration of embroidery from the list of the arts was +more complete in England than elsewhere; as the church of Rome still +continued to be adorned with beautiful work on altar-cloths and +frontals, and priest's dresses, which, though too much regulated in +design by the lay tastes and fashions of the time, have combined to +keep up a traditional school of needlework throughout the Continent. + +Exhibitions abroad and at home have shown us what a latent power in +art embroidery still preserves, and architects have employed the +women's needles to give colour and beauty to the decaying churches, +which have been restored to their original architectural effects by +careful copies of what remained in wood, stone, and glass. + +The number of new churches has also given rise to the production, in +more than one semi-conventual establishment, of beautiful and +effective works, such as the altar-cloth at Durham, and those at +Canterbury and Worcester. Such works have revived the impulse of +artistic and ecclesiastical taste, and in many small churches we have +seen beautifully embroidered altar decorations.[546] + +There are, however, many amateurs who are perhaps mistresses of the +craft of needlework, and who are yet not educated sufficiently to +design a really thoughtful and beautiful work of art, and to these a +few remarks may be addressed, which may help the struggling aspirants, +and show them how they fail, and where to seek for assistance. + +I shall begin by pleading for more careful design, and less parsimony +in expenditure upon the usual church adornments. It is once more a +received dogma in ecclesiastical art, one in which all religious +opinions agree, that the building in the parish which is set apart for +the first public duty, that of worship, should show as much beauty as +the means and taste of the community can command. + +Perhaps the little church has just been restored, or completely +rebuilt from the foundations; the consecration is imminent. The white +stone, carved or plain, shines fresh and cold, and the whole space +looks poor and bare. + +The rich woman of the neighbourhood sees and feels that colour is +wanting (for the windows must wait till their use as pious memorials +fills them with glowing tints). The central point of the whole +edifice, the altar, calls for the first key-note in colour to be +struck, and a splendid altar-cloth is the fitting instrument. + +She consults the architect, who probably is also an artist, and the +design is agreed upon, and hurriedly drawn and carried out; for there +is not a moment to lose if it is to be ready for the opening day. It +may be beautiful, and it sometimes is so, but the mere want of time +for due consideration often results in the commonplace ornamentation, +which neither satisfies the eye nor the mind. It is often only a mere +bit of colour and a mediæval pattern, and has no apparent motive or +meaning to give it value. + +One sometimes finds that a conventional form has been selected, of +which the emblematic intention it originally expressed has been +forgotten or overlooked. Therefore, while to the unlearned it conveys +no meaning, it is read as absolute nonsense by the ecclesiastical +archæologist, simply because it is worked in a language of +undeciphered hieroglyphics--unknown to the worker--meaningless, +reminding us of the Græco-Egyptian inscriptions, of which the pictured +words seem to have been copied at random for their prettiness, or the +Arabian lettering on some of the ancient Sicilian textiles, which is +nonsense. The sense and the emblematic meaning are forgotten, and the +conventional form--an empty shell--is alone retained, conveying no +idea, and reduced to the low purpose of being a pretty pattern, vague +and unintelligent. + +I have so often said that a pattern always originally possessed, and +should always retain a meaning, that I fear to become tiresome; but I +repeat it here, as in ecclesiastical design it is more important than +elsewhere; the meanings are deeper, and convey more essentially solemn +traditions and allusions. If the motive of the designer is evident, +and is conscientiously worked out, its value receives an enduring +quality, and its present interest is enhanced. + +Embroidery is not less eloquent than her sister-arts in the teaching +of divine lessons, and appealing through the beauty of form and +colour to the poetical instincts of the congregation, of which the +least educated members almost unconsciously feel the influence; and +besides, the people are always alive to the charms of symbolism, when +it is placed within their reach. As a proof of this, among our own +peasantry and mechanics, I would point to their universal enjoyment of +the "Pilgrim's Progress." + +In the symbolism of art, the thoughts which are individual to the +artist can only be expressed by known forms and colours, even as the +poet must employ the words and the metres already accepted by the +literature of his language. + +Hurry is fatal to art. But another and very serious cause of its +deterioration is its costliness. + +In the dark and mediæval ages, time was of no account. Skilled labour, +such as was needed for carving, illuminations, and embroideries, was +freely given as the duty of a life, for one particular object, the +good of a man's soul. The cloistered men and women worked for no +wages; neither to benefit themselves nor their descendants; hardly for +fame,--that was given to the convent which had the credit of +patronizing and producing art,[547] while the very name of the artist +was forgotten. + +It was from pure love of the art as a craft, and the belief that it +was a good work in which they were engaged, and from their abundant +leisure, that they were enabled to evolve the lovely creations which +delight and astonish us when shown in the sacristies and treasuries of +foreign religious houses and churches, where they have been cherished +for centuries. Like the silkworm they spent themselves; and by their +industrious lives were surrounded in their living graves by the +elaborated essence of their own natures, a joy and consolation to +themselves, and a legacy to all time. To them, also, art appeared as +the consoler. + +But to return to the grievances of to-day--cheapness and hurry, +economy of pence and hours--these often are the bane of the work which +we give to the Church, sometimes as a memorial, sometimes as a +thank-offering. The colours are bad, because cheap dyes fade, and none +others can be had without much trouble, and we have only time to +select among those that are for sale. The work is poor because it must +be done quickly, and we cannot afford to delay and pay for the extra +hours necessary to make the stitches worthy and capable of lasting. +Possibly we cannot give the time ourselves, nor can find any one +effectually to organize and overlook the work. + +Though the design, the motive, the colours and materials, as well as +the stitches, need to be each carefully studied, yet we perhaps accept +an ancient drawing intended for a different place and use; and thus we +fail to produce any effect, with uncongenial surroundings. Sometimes +we feel obliged to take the design forced upon us by a shopwoman as +ignorant as ourselves, with the submissive hope "that it will do." + +Now to a truly artistic mind it would appear that each little church, +however simple and devoid of ornament, requires its own special +colours and design, besides the individual motive of the giver; and +people forget that the whole effect in any such compositions must be +comprehensive, and that one careless mistake spoils all. + +The High Church, in its love of ritualistic vestments, has sometimes +been prejudicial to the general adoption of properly studied altar +decorations; as there is a common suspicion that a clergyman's +personal wish for ornament, akin to a woman's addiction to fine +clothes, governs all his attempts to adorn the altar; whereas there +should be, and there often is, a real artistic feeling for the fitness +of things, in the furnishings of the most beautiful building set aside +by the community for the glory of God. But it is not necessary for +beautiful effects that there should be any coloured vestments. When +the clergy are duly robed in the orthodox surplice and scarves, there +is, perhaps, something funereal in the white linens and black Geneva +silk, but yet the traditional white and black have their own value +against a background of altar-cloth and reredos splendidly coloured. + +Now that, in spite of prejudice, church decoration is so much the +custom of our day, it is worth our while to consider seriously how +best to carry it out, and search into the principles which may apply +to all ecclesiastical embroideries, whether they are to be dedicated +in the Minster, the village Church, or the home Chapel. + +We must begin by remembering that in these days, if we cannot do the +work ourselves, it must be highly paid for. The skilled artisan who is +no artist, receives enough to feed his family, according to the higher +wages of the time. The woman's slow stitchery has to support probably +as many claims, and yet it is always grudged as being too costly. The +sculptor or the painter who succeeds in obtaining employment, is +highly paid, but the designer for metal-work or embroideries occupies +an unrecognized place in art, and barely earns enough to live by. The +illuminator has ceased to exist; he would starve--probably has been +starved out long ago. + +The decorative designer, having, therefore, no status, has no +education; and it is almost impossible to find in England an artist to +accept orders for thoughtful ecclesiastical designs. Hundreds of boys +and girls are taught "freehand drawing," and having copied some casts +and lithographs and drawn some flower-pieces, without any particular +aim, find a precarious living by designing frightful wall-papers for +the million. These poor creatures, from whose lives all ambition and +originality have been effaced, are our decorative artists. + +Still a beautiful original design can sometimes be obtained, and if +that is beyond our reach, we may courageously copy from ancient +models, selecting judiciously what is most suitable for our purpose. + +The ecclesiastical artist should be well informed in the modes of +working a design. The stitch if selected without experience may mar +the effect of the whole composition, as some stitches of themselves +convey the meaning of shadow, and others that of light. + +In ecclesiastical work which is intended to be effective in the +distance, as well as perfect in detail, it is worth while to weigh the +claims of the architectural low-relief motive, i.e. a flat raised +surface, with an edge sufficiently accentuated to catch a light on one +side, and cast a sharp shadow on the other. All flat _raised_ stitches +conduce also to this effect, especially if edged with a cord, and it +is much more striking than in stuffed work (on the stamp), which has +not the incisive effect that is given by the tool to the sharp edge of +stone or wood carvings. + +If we can afford to give to our church without stint, let us seek for +the most beautiful textiles, such as are again woven in imitation of +the old fabrics; gratefully acknowledging all that Pugin, Ruskin, and +the foreign manufacturers, especially those at Lyons, have done in the +revival of woven designs. Let us avoid those materials which are +easily spoiled by sunshine, dust, and smoke, and all those that fray +easily. Woollens are not long lived. Crewels, beautiful as they are, +are not salient in their effect. Silks, satins and velvet, and gold +brocades,[548] or groundings worked in with gold thread, are the only +materials worthy of bearing fine embroidery, fit to receive them, and +capable of keeping them for centuries. Plushes and worsted velvets are +unworthy, indeed they are worthless. + +The gold we employ must be either pure "passing," or else the Chinese +or Japanese gold threads which differ in colour, but have each their +own value, and never tarnish, even in the coal smoke of London. Pure +silver, too, is beautiful, and if it is really pure, can be kept +bright with bread crumbs. + +In composing the altar decoration for the cathedral or the village +church, we ought to take into consideration what is suitable for the +surrounding architecture. In great spaces, the majestic altar-cloth or +frontal, shining with gold and silver, and glowing with silken +embroideries, recalls the splendid altar "palli" encrusted with gems +in St. Mark's, St. Peter's, and other ancient churches; and is in +perfect keeping with the high and gorgeous reredos, the rich screen, +the fretted roof and clustered ornaments of a great cathedral choir. +Such glories are unattainable in the modest village church. + +But though we may subdue the brilliancy of our decoration, we should +try to make it yet a work of art. The design may have as much +intention, the work be as refined and individual, and the gold as +pure, as in larger works. The precious metals may be confined to small +spaces in the parts we desire to accentuate, such as the cross in the +centre, or the edges of the orphreys, or they may be entirely replaced +with fine silk work. + +The altar-cloth we desire to present, may be simply a gift, so that we +may choose any design that will agree with the date of the building. +We may prefer any subsequent style, but not one anterior to that of +the architecture. It would be a mistake to imitate Anglo-Saxon +ornaments in a church of the flamboyant style. + +Perhaps the altar-cloth we are discussing may be intended as a sort of +votive offering, a memorial of a baptism, a wedding, or a funeral. + +For the first, white silk worked in gold and silver, or gold-coloured +silk, or parsemé with conventional spring flowers would be +appropriate. For a marriage, crimson, rose-colour, blue and gold, or a +mixture of all these, to produce a festive and gorgeous effect. For a +funeral, purple or violet silk or velvet, with palms and the crown of +thorns in gold or silver.[549] These would serve at the festivals of +the Church: the purple for Good Friday,[550] the crimson for Saints' +days, the white for Christmas and Easter Sunday. + +The reredos, or the screen curtain behind the altar, should be made +available for enhancing its effect, as well as for enlarging the area +of textile coloured decoration. + +As this is intended for a background, it should be either subdued or +else contrasting, in juxtaposition with that which it is intended to +supplement. Woollen embroideries or tapestries are the most usually +selected for this purpose. The softness of fine crewels is well shown +near the more glowing tints of silk, velvet, and gold of the altar +frontal. If this is white, or light coloured, the reredos hanging +should be of dark or richly worked material; if the frontal is dark, +the contrast should be preserved by hangings of tender shades. + +The pulpit and reading-desk, with their small cushions and veils, and +beautiful worked covers for the books, give opportunities for +repetition of colour which is often required for picturesque effect. + +I should recommend the young ecclesiastical designer to study the +principles which guided the authors of some of the fine Gothic +examples remaining to us, such as the great Stoneyhurst cope, and the +palls of the different London companies, as well as the very few fine +altar-cloths still existing. All these have their brilliant and +effective treatment; they are intended to be glorious, and either +represent massive jewellers' work or tissues of wrought gold. + +Anciently, the ornaments for the different church services, which we +timidly reduce to floral decorations (often, however, very beautifully +planned and executed), gave the opportunity for displaying costly +embroidered hangings. + +The paschal of the choir of Durham, for example, was a marvellous +construction of wood and gilding, metal-work, and (probably) hangings. +It was as wide as the "lateral" of the choir, and as high as the +building, so that the central and seventh candlestick (that from which +the new fire for the year was kindled) was so near the roof that there +was a "fine convenience through the said roof of the church for the +help of lighting it." I quote from a rare book printed by G. S. Ross +for Mrs. Waghorn, 1733. + +This little book is full of interesting matter regarding Durham +Cathedral, though the author is most concerned in relating the +vandalisms committed by the dean's wife, Mrs. Whittinghame, who +evidently had "no culture," and a strong turn for appropriating odds +and ends, such as tombstones, embroidered silk, and other curiosities +which she deemed valueless except for her own purposes,--such a woman +is a real archæological misfortune! + +The corporax used in celebrating the mass by St. Cuthbert in the +seventh century (he died and was buried at Holy Isle in 657) was +supposed to be endowed with miraculous powers and was carried into +battle on many occasions as a banner. + +This banner was of crimson velvet on both sides, wrought with flowers +in green silk and gold, and fringed with red silk and gold. The +corporax cloth was inserted in the centre, and covered with a square +of white velvet, having on it a cross of red velvet, "most +artificially worked and fringed, with little silver bells in the +fringe." This was carried into battle, till Dame Whittinghame "did +most injuriously destroy the same in her fire." + +One feels as if this woman were spiteful, as well as stupid. But for +her punishment, her memory is kept quite the contrary to green by Mrs. +Waghorn's careful record of her iniquities; which has at the same time +fortunately preserved to us the description of the banner of St. +Cuthbert, and gives also an idea of "the good and sumptuous furniture +of changeable suits," and of "the divers vestments wrought and set +round about with pearls, both stoles and flannels, &c." + +Looking at it from a distance, it appears that the "fair white linen" +for the communion service always requires the softening of the edges +by fringes, by cut work embroidery, or by thick lace edgings. If a +white ground for embroidery is required, nothing is more beautiful +than linen, especially if it is not over-bleached. White, in art, +should be represented by the nearest approach to no colour; but it is +more agreeable to the eye by its being tempered with a suggestion of +the natural tint, of which all textile substances possess something +(excepting cotton) before they have passed through the hands of the +fuller or the chemist. + +Corporals and veils for the pyx used to be of white linen, embroidered +with white silk or linen thread; the silk gives a beautiful, varied, +shining brightness. + +I think a few words should be said about the fringe.[551] Its motive +and _raison d'être_ is the disposal of the threads of the warp when it +is cut out of the frame; these being tied and knotted symmetrically, +become an artistic decoration instead of an untidy tangle of threads +and thrums. Edging the material and finishing it with its own loose +ends is a very ancient custom; and we can see from the sculptures of +Nineveh that they were great in that city in the art of fringe-making, +and the Israelites, when they made their hangings for the sanctuary, +trimmed them with fringes. It stands to reason that an added fringe +should be arranged with reference to the origin of the decoration, and +the moment we think of it, the eye is annoyed by seeing a deep fringe +of one or two colours traversing the whole widths of the frontal and +super-frontal, quite irrelevantly, and without any reference to the +masses of colours, woven or embroidered, above them; and the +consequence of this carelessness is, that it makes it look as if this +part of the decoration, came from another source, independent of the +composition which it ought to supplement. The fringe should belong to +the whole design, and be carefully fitted to the spaces occupied by +the colours above it, each of its compartments or divisions being +filled in with those tints which are most conspicuous in the general +design and would show effectively in the warp. It is not necessary to +account for all the colours, as the threads employed to form the woof +would naturally disappear at the sides of the web. The sections of the +fringe should be skilfully arranged so as to reappear at equal +distances, or at least they should be so balanced as to produce that +effect. If this is impossible, the fringe should be all of one shade, +matching exactly the ground of the textile. It may be relieved by +clustered knobs, or hanging beads or cups of different colours and +gold. The celebrated pluvial at Aix-la-Chapelle has a fringe of gold +bells hanging to a gold cord, which amalgamates with the pattern.[552] +The veils of the Sanctuary in the wilderness were fringed with +attached ornaments, bells, blossoms, knops, flowers, and fruit, which +sounds extremely pretty. + +To resume, let me once more urge that in church work neither time nor +trouble be spared; nor yet money grudged, if possible. The design +should be full of intention, the stitching perfect, and the materials +most carefully chosen for tints, for endurance and smoothness. +Remember that no inferior substitute will serve to give present +effect, nor will it last into the future. + +Design, as I have elsewhere said, is all the better for being to a +certain degree circumscribed, relegated, and regulated by the laws of +traditional usage, as well as those of good taste, and this applies +especially to ecclesiastical design. + +These laws serve as the frame which encloses the motive thought, and +makes it a complete whole, that can admit of no amplifications. + +New symbols should not be adopted except for the expression of new +facts or altered circumstances, and these can but seldom enter into +liturgical art. + +There is so much already formulated and admitted, and the area in +which we may gather our materials is so large, that we need not seek +for more than we find under our hand, ready for use. + +Besides the symbolism of dogma, we have all the heraldry of the +Saints; and can repeat and vary the emblems of those to whom the +church we are working for is dedicated. The keys of St. Peter, the +sword of St. Paul, the lilies of the Virgin, the cross of St. Andrew, +the eagle of St. John,--I need hardly enumerate all these legitimate +sources of decoration. Then there is the lay heraldry which belongs to +the history of each church, and which memorializes the reign of the +monarch when it was begun, finished, or restored, and the pious work +and care of the founder and benefactor, the architect, and sometimes +that of the sculptor. + +Now as our forefathers accepted all this material for ecclesiastical +design, remodelling it to their own uses in different centuries, so we +cannot ourselves do better than imitate them, and profit by their +experience; never missing an opportunity of studying ancient +embroideries; and while we admire in them all that is admirable, and +appreciate their historical and archæological value, we may yet +extract greater benefit for ourselves, by criticizing what is +imperfect, as well as what is possibly a descent and failure from a +higher type. + +We must make a judicious selection of what to imitate and what to +avoid. + +As a general rule, I should warn the young artist against the +imitation of "naïveté" and so-called "quaintness;" especially in our +designs for Church embroidery as it is hardly a noble quality in art, +though we look on it with a tender pity, half-way between admiration +and contempt, when we find it inevitably in mediæval work; struggling +to overcome the expression of something difficult, and expressing a +difficulty only partly overcome. We find ourselves putting our minds +into the attitude of the artist who conceived those figures with arms +conventionally growing out of the encasing garment; conventionally +holding a book, and giving a blessing with a conventional twist, not +entirely ungraceful, nor devoid of a certain dignity, rather felt than +perceived. Yet we contemplate them with a smile of conscious +superiority, appreciating our own refined sense of their merits and +infantine progress towards something good, that time--a long +time--would, and did evolve. But those efforts at last culminated in a +Christian art, such as is seen in the splendid forms and adornments in +stone, gold, silver, glass, and embroideries of the thirteenth and +fourteenth centuries. Such splendours as the windows of Bourges, the +Sainte-Chapelle at Paris, or those of the Cathedral of Toledo, or +King's College Chapel at Cambridge. Such sculptures and traceries as +those of the Puits de Moise at Dijon, and the Chapter House at +Southwell in Nottinghamshire. Such embroideries as the Syon cope, and +the Borghese triptych. These are types worthy of all praise, and they +are full of instruction to the student of ecclesiastical art. + +The Kensington Museum offers us endless help and suggestions in its +very interesting collection of liturgical vestments of every date and +school; and its textiles, illustrated by the inventory of their +learned collector, Dr. Rock, are most instructive.[553] + +In the library of that museum are to be found many of the learned +works on these subjects by French and German _savants_. The +exhibitions in the English counties are never without a case or a room +full of embroideries, collected from the treasure-chests of the +neighbouring churches and country houses, and especially from those of +the ancient Roman Catholic families. The colleges of Oscott and +Stoneyhurst have collected, by purchase or by gift, many fine relics +of the craft, which are most liberally granted for exhibition. + +For those who can go further afield there is instruction in almost +every Continental town. Rome, Florence, Milan, Toledo, Sens, Rheims, +Aix-la-Chapelle, Berne, Vienna, Halberstadt, Berlin, and Munich--each +and all have stores of beautiful liturgical objects carefully +preserved; of many dates, and many styles, and showing endless +varieties of design, which can be employed on new works by careful +selection and adaptation. Most of these belong to the eleventh and +succeeding centuries; any earlier examples are fragmentary, and have +generally been taken from the tombs of kings and bishops. + +It seems to savour of desecration, this opening of shrines and +disturbing the ashes of the illustrious dead, if only for the +satisfaction of archæological curiosity. But except where it has +hitherto been protected by the sanctity of the tomb, there is so +little that remains to us,--so few textiles have survived the friction +of use, or even that of the air, through as many as a thousand years +or more, that we may plead the hunger for truth, and the eager desire +for proofs of identity and verification of historical legends, which +are to be extracted from the shape of a garment, from the pattern on +the border, or the lettering on the web of which it is composed; +whence we reverently cut a fragment, and preserve it under glass. + + "If studious, copie fair what time hath blurr'd, + Redeem truth from his jawes."[554] + +Before closing this chapter, I would wish to observe that I have +entered into the subject of church decoration in no ritualistic +spirit; I do not treat it theologically, but as art; and if these +decorations are to be carried out at all, I feel that I am rendering a +service to those whose duty or pleasure it is to provide them, by +pointing out where they may find the principles which have been the +spring and life of mediæval art, and the survivals which are now the +best exponents of those principles to guide us in the works of our +day. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [479] Figure-drawing in early Christian art was for + nearly a thousand years primitively barbarous, with + occasional exceptions. The rapid decline in Europe, + through the art of the Catacombs and St. Clemente at + Rome, and the frescoes and mosaics of Ravenna, down to + the Bayeux tapestries, is very remarkable. In those + inartistic compositions during the early Middle Ages, + the figures were drawn facing the spectator, the head + and feet in profile, differing in nothing from the + Egyptian and Assyrian modes of representation. We can + hardly account for this return to childish ways, from + which Greece and Rome had so long been emancipated, + except by supposing that they came from the imitations + of Oriental textiles, which still retained very ancient + forms; for instance, the motive of the sculptured lions + over the gate of Mycenæ. We cannot say that Greek art in + Rome was quite extinct till the eighth century. About + that time there was a remarkable revival in England. + + [480] Till very lately we have been entirely dependent + on the frescoes in the Catacombs and in the underground + Church of St. Clemente at Rome, and on monumental art + and illuminations, for our knowledge of the textiles of + the earliest days of Christianity. But Herr Graf'schen's + discoveries in Egypt will, when published, add greatly + to our information on this subject. + + [481] The book by Parker on the "Liturgical Use" says + that only the five liturgical colours were permitted in + the use of the Church of England. Before the Reformation + the Norman and English liturgical colours were + different. (Rock, "Church of our Fathers," ii. p. 268.) + Perhaps nothing was originally worked departing from + this rule, but votive offerings are inventoried as being + of all colours, having been accepted and used as + decoration and for vestments. + + [482] I have already spoken of the custom of clothing + the images of the gods as a classical tradition. The + Greeks draped their statues in precious garments, often + the spoils of subjugated nations, offerings from the + conquerors, or obsequious tribute from the conquered. + Newton (Appendix 1) tells us of inscriptions containing + inventories of old clothes offered in the Greek Temples. + Ezekiel (xvi.) speaks of silk and linen embroideries + given for covering the idols. The images of the saints + in Roman Catholic churches are, we know, constantly + draped in splendid embroideries, and hung with jewels. + + [483] There is here an overlap of several centuries. + + [484] Charlemagne's dalmatic, described hereafter, of + which the pedigree is well ascertained, justifies + Woltmann and Woermann's theory; as this eighth-century + embroidery shows, by its design, that Greek art was + still a living power. + + [485] Of which we have yet examples on the Continent, + here and there; for instance, in the Cathedral at Coire + in the Grisons, and in the Romanesque church at Clermont + in Auvergne (not the cathedral). I do not include in + this statement of the rare occurrence of the ogee, the + European countries which were subject to Moorish rule, + i.e. Spain and Portugal. + + [486] This, slightly modified, continued to prevail till + the time of Louis XIV., when France took the lead, and + gave a style to the world which entirely broke away from + all mediæval tradition. + + [487] Rock's "Church of our Fathers," i. p. 409. Compare + Wilkinson's "Ancient Egyptians," i. p. 332 (see fig. 1); + and Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," taf. i., i. p. 130, + fig. 6. Bock does not give his authority for the pattern + on the ephod. + + [488] Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. i., iii., + vi. + + [489] Yates' "Textrinum Antiquorum," pp. 203, 376, § + 103. He quotes from Claudian the description of a + trabea, said to have been woven by the goddess Roma + herself, for the consul Stilicho. I give this as showing + how forms and patterns become sacred by their being + attributed to the inspiration of the gods. The name of + Stilicho marks his tomb in Sant' Ambrogio's Church at + Milan, on which is a curious moulding, carved with + alternate roses and mystic crosses. + + [490] Clapton Rolfe, "Ancient Use of Liturgical + Colours." + + [491] See the Book of Kells, Library, Dublin; also St. + Cuthbert's Durham Book, British Museum, and the Celtic + MSS. in the Lambeth Palace Library. + + [492] Celtic and Scandinavian designs are characterized + by meandering, interlaced, and knotted lines, which are + described and discussed in the chapter on patterns. The + forms of the Celtic stone crosses are very beautiful. + See "L'Atlas de l'Archéologie du Nord, par la Société + Royale des Antiquaires du Nord" (Copenhagen, 1857), + where the metal remains are shown by careful engravings; + also George Stephen's "Old Northern Runic Monuments." + + [493] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. p. 126, + quoting Anastasius Bibliothecarius, pp. 153, 156, 189. + + [494] Ibid. p. 189. + + [495] The information here collected proves that these + sovereign gifts to the great basilicas were by no means + of costly materials, especially as compared with the + preceding splendours of Rome, or the still more + astounding luxury of Alexandria through the Greek + conquests of the Eastern nations. To these rules of + economical decoration, however, we find occasionally + exceptions. We gather also from later lists that the + embroideries of the Papal See were culled, in the + thirteenth century, from France, Spain, Germany, and + England. + + [496] See also Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," vol. i. + pp. 9, 18, 56, 86, plate 2. At a later period the lion + motive is supposed to have represented a Christian in + the arena, and it certainly in time was symbolical of + man struggling with the dominion of sin. However, Bock + considers the design to have been originally classical + Greek, and it survived to the seventh and eighth + centuries, and was reproduced as late as the sixteenth. + + [497] The Code of Manu in India, which 2500 years ago + regulated all the crafts and ruled their decorations, is + still in full force, and Chinese art was crystallized in + the reigns of the first emperors of the Hia dynasty, + 2197 B.C. + + [498] We cannot but respect the memory of Attila, who + checked the spoliation of Rome by his troops. + + [499] The collections of needlework in Germany are very + rich. The treasury of the cathedral at Halberstadt, the + Markt-Kirche of Brunswick, the sacristy of the + Marien-Kirche of Dantzic, and that of the Kaland + Brethren at Strahlsund are especially quoted by Bock. At + Quedlinburg are the tapestries of its famous abbess; at + the Pilgrim Church of Marie at Zell are fine remains of + stuffs and embroideries by the ladies of the imperial + house of Hapsburg, of the thirteenth century; at the + Abbey of Göss (near Lieben, Steiermark) is to be seen + the remarkable needlework of the Abbess Kunigunda, and + in the cathedral treasury of Heidelberg the antipendium + of the fourteenth century, made for the church at Tirna. + The museums of Berlin, Munich, and Vienna are very rich + in textiles. + + [500] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," p. 133. + + [501] Helen Lwyddawc. See "Mabinogion," by Lady C. + Guest, pp. 279-284. This beautiful story is told in the + language of the romance period, and yet has a certain + Celtic colouring in it, which shows its origin. The + ballad opens with a description of Helen watching a game + of chess, clothed in white and gold, seated on a chair + of gold, when Maxentius finds her in her father's + palace. + + [502] See Mrs. Palliser's "Lace," p. 4. + + [503] See chapter on English embroidery, _post_. + + [504] Early decorations of ecclesiastical dress are so + thoroughly illustrated by the ancient frescoes and + mosaics in Italy, that we can form an idea of the + embroidered vestments of each period by studying them, + and the early illuminated books that are scattered over + Europe. Dr. Bock gives authentic illustrations as well + as information about the finest Continental specimens. + + [505] For the mosaics of Santa Pudenziana, see Woltmann + and Woermann, i. p. 167, "History of Painting." + Translated by Sidney Colvin. + + [506] Appendix 4. Lord Lindsay's "History of + Ecclesiastical Art," i. p. 136. These gorgeous vestments + are engraved by Sulpiz Boisserée in his "Kaiser + Dalmatika in der St. Peterskirche," and far better by + Dr. Rock, in his splendid work on the "Coronation Robes + of the German Emperors." + + [507] It is singular that we find the starry cross and + the swastika filling alternate square spaces on the + mantle of Achilles--playing at dice with Ajax--on a + celebrated Greek vase in the Etruscan Museum at the + Vatican. I have referred to this design elsewhere. + (Plate 26.) + + [508] Rock's "Introduction," p. liii. + + [509] This date is assigned to it by Monsignor Clifford. + + [510] Kindly supplied to me by the Father Superior of + San Clemente in Rome. + + [511] In the cathedral of Aix, Switzerland. Bock's + "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. ii. + + [512] One of these mitres has, it is said, been brought + to England. + + [513] Bock, "Liturgische Gewänder," ii. taf. xii. This + is dyed in Tyrian purple (rosy red), and is simply the + cross, representing the tree with twelve leaves, "for + the healing of the nations." + + [514] Bock, "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. iii. pp. + 157-160. + + [515] Bock, _ibid._, p. 158, quotes the Jesuit Erasmus + Fröhlich, (1754). + + [516] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. iv. pp. + 165, 166. "One of three costly garments." + + [517] Modifications of the "wheel pattern" ("wheel and + plate"). Of these works of the tenth and eleventh + centuries the fine Roman lettering in the borders is a + marking characteristic. + + [518] See Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. p. 214. + + [519] There was no guild of embroiderers in England that + we know of till that incorporated in the reign of + Elizabeth. See chapter on English embroidery. + + [520] Bock, i. 214, says that the splendid stuffs and + embroideries were entirely consecrated to the use of the + Church, till the luxurious arts invaded European + domestic life from the seventh to the twelfth century. + + [521] See the cross on the Rheims cope (plate 63). + + [522] There is no doubt it was only used for church + work. + + [523] At Aachen, in Switzerland, there is a very + remarkable pluvial of one kind of opus Anglicanum, which + has been already alluded to. The border, of splendid + gold embroidery, has the pattern completed in fine + flowers of jewellers' work. (See Bock, "Liturgische + Gewänder," ii. p. 297, taf. xli.-xliv.) Rock, "Textile + Fabrics," Introduction, p. xxxi, cites from Mon. Angl. + (ii. 222), the vestments given to St. Alban's Abbey by + Margaret, Duchess of Clarence, A.D. 1429, as being + remarkable for pure gold in its texture and the + splendour of the jewels and precious stones set into it, + as well as for the exquisite beauty of its embroideries. + These are some of the characteristics of the opus + Anglicanum. + + [524] Appendix 6. + + [525] Mrs. Bayman, of the Royal School of Art + Needlework. + + [526] If it is true that in the days of the Greeks and + Romans the art of acupictura or needle-painting copied + pictorial art, so likewise in the Egyptian early times, + painted linens imitated embroideries. This we learn by + specimens from the tombs. Painted hangings and + embroideries appear to have been equally used for + processional decorations. In the Middle Ages painted + hangings imitated embroideries and woven hangings, and + were considered as legitimate art. + + [527] See Bock, vol. i. p. 10. + + [528] Exhibited in the "Esposizione Romana" in 1869, in + the cloisters of Santa Maria degli Angeli. + + [529] See Woltmann and Woermann, who quote evidence as + to works in painted glass as early as the ninth and + tenth centuries in France and Germany ("History of + Painting," vol. i. pp. 316-339). They remark that the + character of painted glass is nearly akin to textile + decoration, that it is essentially flat and unpictorial. + And doubtless there is an analogy between the two, but + rather suggesting patchwork or cut work than legitimate + embroidery. + + [530] "Vasari," ed. Monce, taf. v. p. 101. + + [531] See plate 69, which is a fine altar-frontal of the + plâteresque Spanish. + + [532] The dress of the "Virgin del Sagrario" at Toledo, + embroidered with pearls, and the chasuble of Valencia, + worked with corals, show how profusely these costly + materials were employed. + + [533] See "The Industrial Arts of Spain," pp. 250-264, + by Don Juan F. Riano, and catalogues of Loan Exhibition + by him for the South Kensington Museum series, 1881. The + works of Spanish Queens and Infantas are to be seen at + the Atocha, the church of the Virgin del Pilar at + Madrid. + + [534] There are most interesting examples of Scriptural + subjects in Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. x. + pp. 207, 208; taf. xi. pp. 239-278. These are of the + thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; and we have some + good fifteenth century bead-work in the South Kensington + Museum. + + [535] The splendid embroideries from Westminster Abbey, + sold to Spanish merchants at the Reformation, now at + Valencia, and the cope in the Museum at Madrid, are + instances of these exportations. The Syon cope also was + returned to England, after its long wanderings, about + sixty years ago. I give its history by Dr. Rock in the + Appendix 6. + + [536] For examples of this ornate and graceful, but + frivolous style, we may remember the mosaic altar + frontals throughout the basilica of St. Peter's at Rome. + + [537] See Dr. Rock's "Catalogue of Textile Fabrics," + South Kensington Museum, Introduction, p. cxxxvi. + + [538] Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. taf. vi., vii., + pp. 385-392. The emblematic meanings of stones is + constantly alluded to in the Old Testament. Their + symbolism has, therefore, a high authority and most + ancient descent. In the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford is an + illuminated copy of Philip de Than's Bestiarium, + composed for Adelais, second wife of Henry I. + + [539] "Cyclopædia of Bible Literature," vol. vii. p. + 477. + + [540] See Clapton Rolfe, "The Ancient Use of Liturgical + Colours." (Parker, 1879.) + + [541] See "Indian Arts," by Sir G. Birdwood, i. p. 97. + He says this [Illustration] form is the sign of the + Buddhist or Jainis, and that the [Illustration] + fire-stick form was that of the Sakti race in India. + + [542] See chapter on patterns, p. 103-4, _ante_. + + [543] Revelations chap. xxii. v. 2. + + [544] In mediæval times the cross in a circle was + sometimes called the "clavus" [Illustration]. It was + the same as an Egyptian sign, meaning "land" (plate 25). + Donelly fancifully claims the sign as being that of the + garden of Eden, and of the four rivers flowing from it + (see "Atlantis"). + + [545] See plate 70, No. 1. In the upper part of the + Halberstadt diptych, No. 1, the "gens togata" are + sitting on Olympus, clothed in such purple garments + embroidered with the chrysoclavus. + + [546] I would instance the little church of St. Mary, + built and adorned by the late W. E. Street, at Feldy, in + Surrey. + + [547] The art of illumination had in general kept a + little in front of that of the painter, and illumination + and embroidery went hand in hand. + + [548] The fine brocades of velvet and gold, of which we + find examples in the centres of palls, and a notable one + in the celebrated Stoneyhurst cope, are still reproduced + to order at Lyons, Genoa, Florence, and in Spain. The + Florentine is distinguished by the little loops of gold + thread which pervade it. + + [549] In the English ritual gold was permitted wherever + white was enjoined. This shows a true appreciation of + the effect of the metal, separating and isolating all + colours, and being of none. + + [550] The purple is not one of the five mystic colours + named; it is included in blue, and therefore the most + ritualistic critic need not object to it. + + [551] Under the Carlovingians, priestly garments were + often enriched with splendid fringes, trimmed with + bells. A Bishop of Elne, who died in 915, left to his + church a stole embroidered with gold and garnished with + bells. So rich were the fringes at that epoch, that King + Robert, praying one day in the church, became aware that + while he was lost in meditation a thief had ripped off + part of the fringes of his mantle. He interrupted his + proceedings by saying, "My friend, suppose you content + yourself with what you have taken, and leave the rest + for some other member of your guild." See "Histoire du + Tissu Ancien," Union Central des Arts Décoratifs. For a + fringe with bells, see the beautiful example in Bock's + "Liturgische Gewänder" (plates xli. xlii. xliii. vol. + ii. p. 297), already quoted. + + [552] Resembling the fringe of St. Cuthbert's corporax, + with its silver bells. + + [553] This valuable collection of textiles is so ancient + and therefore so frail, that it seems a pity to send + portions of it continually travelling about the country + for loan exhibitions. Change of climate--cold, heat, and + damp--carelessness in packing and unpacking--above all, + the reckless exposure to floods of sunshine even when + they are protected from dust by glass,--all these + endanger the preservation of what can never be replaced, + and has only survived till now because of the quiet and + darkness in which it has lain for centuries. + + [554] George Herbert, "The Churchyard Porch," v. 15. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +ENGLISH EMBROIDERY. + + +Through the preceding chapters I have tried to moderate my predominant +interest in our national school of needlework, seeking to place it in +its just position alongside of the coeval Continental schools. +However, the more I have seen of specimens at home and abroad, the +more I have become convinced of the great superiority of our +needlework in the Middle Ages. As information about our own art must +be valuable to us, I give a short account of English embroidery. + +In England our art, like our language, is mixed. Our early history is +one of repeated conquest, and we can only observe where style has +flowed in from outside, or has formed itself by grafting upon the stem +full of vitality already planted and growing. It is interesting to +seek its root. + +There is every reason to believe, from the evidence of the animal +remains of the Neolithic Age (including those of sheep), that they +came with their masters from the central plateau of Asia. + +The overlap of the Asiatic civilizations over the barbarism of +Northern Europe shows that Assyria[555] as well as Egypt was a highly +organized empire, and the Mediterranean peoples far advanced in the +arts of life, while the Neolithic man survived and lingered in +Britain, France, and Scandinavia. Yet, even at that early period, the +craft of spinning and the use of the needle were practised by the +women of Britain.[556] + +Our first glimpses of art may have come to us by Phœnician traders, +touching at the Scilly Islands and thence sailing to the coasts of +Cornwall and Ireland. From Ireland we have curious relics as witnesses +of their presence--amongst others, jewellery connected by, or pendant +from, "Trichinopoly" chains, similar to those dug out of Etruscan +tombs, and which were probably imported into Ireland as early as the +sixth century B.C.[557] + +In the Bronze Age the chiefs and the rich men wore linen or woollen +homespun. Fragments of these have been found in the Scale House barrow +at Rylston, in Yorkshire. Dr. Rock says that an ancient Celtic barrow +was opened not long ago in Yorkshire, in which the body was wrapped in +plaited (not woven) woollen material.[558] Before this time the Cymri +in Britain probably wore plaited grass garments; they also sewed +together the skins of animals with bone needles. + +Dyeing and weaving were well understood in Britain before the advent +of the Romans. Hemp and flax, however, though native to the soil, were +not employed by the early Britons. Linen perhaps came to us first +through the Phœnicians, and afterwards through the Celts, and was +naturalized here by the Romans. + +Anderson ("Scotland in Early Christian Times") gives a high place to +the forms of pagan art which prevailed in the British Isles, before +the Roman civilization; and differing from and influencing that which +came from Scandinavia. We must certainly allow that it was art, and +that it contained no Greek or other classical element. His +illustrations explain and give great weight to his theories. + +Cæsar invaded England forty-five years B.C.[559] The Romans gave us +Christianity and the rudiments of civilization, but their attempts to +Romanize us met with little success. Probably they imported their +luxuries, and removed all they valued at the time of their exodus. +From them we know what they found and what they left in Britain. +Boadicea, Queen of the Iceni, the day of her defeat wore a tartan +dress (polymita) and an "embroidered" or "fur" mantle; probably the +fur was inside, and the skins embroidered outside. Dion Cassius,[560] +who describes Boadicea's motley tunic, says that the bulk of the +people wore what was apparently a chequered tartan. Semper says that +the early tribes of Northern Europe, like the North American Indians +of the present time, embroidered their fur wraps. The Emperor +Honorius, in the fourth century, made it illegal for Roman nobles to +wear extravagantly-worked fur robes; perhaps the report of Boadicea's +dress had set the fashion in Rome. + +During the first four centuries of our era, all art in Britain must +have come from our Roman masters; and owing to their neglect of the +people they conquered, we benefited little by their civilization. + +All that we know of their decorative art in Britain, is that it was, +with few exceptions, chiefly of small bronze statues, somewhat crude +and colonial, as appears from the remains of their architecture, +sculpture, mosaics, and tombs.[561] Of their textiles we have no +relics, and hardly know of any recorded, if we except the works of the +Empress Helena. See p. 316, _ante_. We must remember that, as she was +a British princess, it is likely that she had learnt her art at home, +and therefore that the women of England were already embroiderers as +early as the beginning of the fourth century.[562] + +On the departure of the Romans, chaos ensued, till the Britons, who +had called in the Saxons to help them, were by them driven into Wales, +Brittany, and Ireland, which last they Christianized; and mingled the +art of the Germans and Celts with that of the Danes and Norsemen[563]; +all which may be traced in the Irish remains to be seen in the +College Museum at Dublin and elsewhere. From the time that England +became Anglo-Saxon, literature, law, and art began to crystallize; and +when, under Egbert, one kingdom was formed out of the heptarchy, order +and a sense of beauty were in the course of development. Then came the +invasion of the Danes (ninth century), who robbed, destroyed, and +arrested all artistic improvement, till Alfred got rid of them for a +time. Early in the seventh century the women of England had attained +great perfection in needlework. This appears from a passage in a poem +by Adhelme, Bishop of Sherborne. He speaks of their shuttles, "filled +not with purple only, but with various colours, moved here and there +among the thick spreading threads."[564] He had himself a robe "of a +most delicate thread of purple, adorned with black circles and +peacocks." This may or may not have been woven in England, but at that +time weaving, as well as needlework, was the delight and occupation of +the ladies of the court and of the cloistered nuns.[565] The thralls +(slaves or serfs) were employed in weaving in the houses of the +nobles, probably they embroidered also. + +Mrs. Lawrence sees reason to believe that in the seventh century, silk +and fine linen were the materials for altar decorations, vestments, +and dress; whereas the hangings of the house were of coarse canvas +adorned with embroidery in thick worsted.[566] She says the term +"broiderie" was reserved for the delicate works on fine grounds, in +silk and gold and silver thread, and enrichments in metal work. +Precious stones and pearls had already been introduced into the +Byzantine and Romanesque designs imported from Greece and Rome. + +The English Dominican Friar, Th. Stubbs, writing in the thirteenth +century, describes in his notice of St. Oswald a chasuble of +Anglo-Saxon work, which exactly resembles that of Aix.[567] This is +splendidly engraved in Von Bock's "Kleinodien" amongst the coronation +robes of the Emperors of Germany, and is adorned with the richest +golden orphreys, imitating jewellers' work, enriched with pearls and +silver bells. + +There is an Icelandic Saga of the thirteenth century which relates the +history of Thorgunna, a woman from the Hebrides, who was taken to +Iceland on the first settlement of the country by Norway, A.D. 1000. +She employed witchery in her needlework, and her embroidered hangings +were coveted by, and proved fatal to, many persons after her death, +till one of her inheritors burned them.[568] + + [Illustration: Pl. 71. + One of the ends of the Stole of St. Cuthbert at Durham, which + together bear the inscription, "Aelfled fieri precepit pio + Episcopo Fridestano."] + +English ecclesiastical art did not necessarily keep to Christian +subjects; for it is recorded that King Wiglaf, of Mercia, gave to +Croyland Abbey his splendid coronation mantle and "velum;" and that +the latter was embroidered with scenes from the siege of Troy.[569] + + [Illustration: Pl. 72. + St. John. + St. Roger. + Durham Embroideries, tenth century.] + +It was probably on account of such derelictions from orthodox subjects +of design that in the eighth century the Council of Cloveshoe +admonished the convents for their frivolous embroideries.[570] + +In the eighth century our English work in illuminations and +embroideries was finer than that of any Continental school; and +therefore, in view of the great advance of these secondary arts, we +may claim that we were then no longer outer barbarians, though our +only acknowledged superiority over Continental artists was in the +workrooms of our women and the cells of our religious houses. + +During the terrible incursions of the Danes, and the many troubles +that accrued from these barbarous and idolatrous invaders, the +convents and monasteries, especially those of the order of St. +Benedict, kept the sacred flame of art burning.[571] Both monks and +nuns wrote, illuminated, painted, and embroidered. They evidently +continued their relations with foreign art, for it is difficult to say +at what period the Norman style began to be introduced into England. +It was the outcome of the Romanesque, and of this, different phases +must have come to us through the Danes and the Saxons. + +I cannot but dwell on the early life and springtide of our Anglican +Christian art, which in many points preceded and surpassed that of +other northern nations, as we arose from that period commonly called +the Dark Ages. Ours was a gradual development, adding to itself from +outer sources new strength and grace. The better perfection of details +and patterns was succeeded by Anglo-Saxon ingenuity and refinement in +drawing the human figure. The art, which was native to England, may be +judged by the rare examples that we possess, and of which we may well +be proud; though we must remember with shame how much was destroyed at +the Reformation. Enough however, remains to prove that our English art +of illumination of the ninth, tenth and eleventh centuries was very +beautiful, and we are not surprised therefore to find in the +embroideries of that period grace and artistic feeling. + +The stole and maniple of the Durham cathedral library, which bear the +inscription "Aelfled fieri precepit pio Episcopo Fridestano," are of +the most perfect style of Anglo-Saxon design; and the stitching of the +silk embroidery and of the gold grounding are of the utmost perfection +of needlework art (plates 71, 72). + +The history of this embroidery is carefully elucidated by Dr. Raine in +his "Saint Cuthbert." He says that Frithestan was consecrated bishop +in 905, by command of Edward the Elder, son of Alfred the Great. +Aelfled was Edward the Second's queen. She ordered and gave an +embroidered stole and maniple to Frithestan. After her death, and that +of Edward, and of the Bishop of Winchester, Athelstan, then king, made +a progress to the north, and visiting the shrine of St. Cuthbert, at +Chester-le-Street, he bestowed on it many rich gifts, which are +solemnly enumerated in the MSS. Cott. Brit. Mus. Claud. D. iv. fol. +21-6. Among these are "one stole, with a maniple; one girdle, and two +bracelets of gold." That the stole and maniple are those worked for +Frithestan by the command of his mother-in-law, Aelfled, may fairly be +said to be proved. These embroideries, worked with her name and the +record of her act, were taken from the body of St. Cuthbert in +1827.[572] + + [Illustration: Pl. 73. + St. Dunstan's Portrait of himself in adoration. From his Missal in + the Bodleian Library, Oxford.] + +Another and earlier Aelfled was the widow of Brithnod, a famous +Northumbrian chieftain. She gave to the cathedral of Ely, where his +headless body lay buried, a large cloth, or hanging, on which she had +embroidered the heroic deeds of her husband. She was the ancestress of +a race of embroiderers, and their pedigree will be found in the +Appendix.[573] At this time a lady of the Queen of Scotland was famed +for her perfect skill in needlework, and the four daughters of Edward +the Elder were likewise celebrated embroiderers. + +St. Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, is said to have designed +needlework for a noble and pious lady, Aedelwyrme, to execute in gold +thread, A.D. 924.[574] He prepared and painted a drawing, and directed +her work.[575] I here give the portrait of our celebrated early +designer from the MS. in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, said to be +by his own hand, and which represents him kneeling at the feet of the +Saviour (plate 73). + +Shortly before the Norman conquest, in the beginning of the eleventh +century, we have notices of sundry other very remarkable pieces of +work. + +The Danish Queen Emma, daughter of Richard, Duke of Normandy, when she +was wife to Ethelred the Unready, and again during her second marriage +to Canute, gave the finest embroideries to various abbeys and +monasteries. Canute, being then a Christian, joined her in these +splendid votive offerings. To Romsey and Croyland they gave +altar-cloths which had been embroidered by his first queen, +Aelgitha,[576] and vestments covered with golden eagles. She worked +one altar-cloth on shot blood-red and green silk,[577] with golden +orphreys at the side and across the top. When one considers what the +life of poor Queen Emma was, one hopes that "Art the Consoler" came to +her in the form of her favourite craft, and that she did find +consolation in it. + +Croyland Abbey seems to have been most splendidly endowed by the +Anglo-Saxon monarchs. There is continual mention in the records of +those times of offerings of embroideries and other Church apparels. +Queen Editha, the wife of the Confessor, dispensed beautiful works +from her own workrooms, and herself embroidered King Edward's +coronation mantle. + +When in the eleventh century the Normans became our masters, they +found cathedrals, churches, and palaces which almost vied with their +own; likewise sculptures, illuminated books, embroidered hangings, +and vestments of surpassing beauty. + +William of Poitou, Chaplain to William the Conqueror,[578] relates +that the Normans were as much struck on the Conqueror's return into +Normandy with the splendid embroidered garments of the Saxon nobles, +as with the beauty of the Saxon youth. Queen Matilda, who evidently +appreciated Anglo-Saxon work, left in her will, to the Abbey of the +Holy Trinity, "My tunic worked by Alderet's wife, and the mantle which +is in my chamber, to make a cope. Of my two golden girdles, I give the +one which is adorned with emblems to suspend the lamp before the great +altar." + +I come now to the earliest large work remaining to us of the +period--the Bayeux tapestry. We must claim it as English, both on +account of the reputed worker, and the history it commemorates, though +the childish style of which it is a type is indeed inferior in every +way to the beautiful specimens which have been rescued from tombs in +Durham, Worcester, and elsewhere. They seem hardly to belong to the +same period, so weak are the designs and the composition of the +groups. Though Mr. Rede Fowke gives the Abbé de la Rue's doubts as to +the accepted period of the Bayeux tapestry, which he assigns to the +Empress Matilda, he yet leans to other equally good authorities who +consider the work as being coeval with the events it records.[579] + +Mr. Collingwood Bruce is of the same opinion, and for this +reason--the furniture, buildings, &c., are all of the eleventh +century, and our ancestors were no archæologists, and always drew what +they saw around them. Mr. Bruce fancies the design to be Italian, +"because of the energetic action of the figures;" this seems hardly +justified when we look at the simple poverty of the style. Miss A. +Strickland suggests that the artist was perhaps Turold the Dwarf, who +has cunningly introduced his effigy and name. That the tapestry is not +found in any catalogue before 1369, is only a piece of presumptive +evidence against the earlier date, and cannot compete with the +internal evidence in its favour. On 227 feet of canvas-linen, twenty +inches wide, are delineated the events of English history from the +time of Edward the Confessor to the landing of the Conqueror at +Hastings. The Bayeux tapestry is worked in worsted on linen; the +design is perfectly flat and shadowless. The outlines are firmly drawn +with cords on thickly set stem-stitches. The surfaces are laid in flat +stitch. Though coarsely worked, there is a certain "maestria" in the +execution. + +The word "orphrey" (English for auriphrigium or Phrygian gold +embroidery) is first found in Domesday Book, where "Alvide the maiden" +receives from Godric the Sheriff, for her life, half a hide of land, +"If she might teach his daughters to make orphreys."[580] + +In the end of the eleventh century, Christina, Abbess of Markgate, +worked a pair of sandals and three mitres of surpassing beauty, sent +through the Abbot of St. Alban's to Pope Adrian IV., who doubtless +valued them the more because they came from his native England.[581] + + [Illustration: Pl. 74. + English Patterns, chiefly from Strutt's "Royal and Ecclesiastical + Antiquities of England." + 1. 1066. 2. 1092. 3. 1100. 4. 1171. 5. 1171. 6. 1189. 7. 1189. 8. + 1361. 9, 10. 1377. 11. 1399. 12. 1422. 13. 1426. 14. 1440. 15. + 1445. 16. 1416. 17. 1445. 18. 1477. 19. 1530. 20. 1272.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 75. + 1. Panel of a Screen in Hornby Church. Painted fifteenth century. + 2. Dress pattern from painted glass. St. Michael's Church, York. + Fourteenth century. + 3. A portion of the material of the Towneley Copes. Fifteenth + century.] + +Of the twelfth century (1170) we have the robes and mitres of Thomas +à Becket at Sens; and another mitre of the period, white and gold, is +in the museum at Munich, with his martyrdom embroidered on one side, +and that of St. Stephen on the other. The gold needlework is so +perfect that it resembles weaving. It is recorded that a splendid +dress was embroidered in London for Elinor of Aquitaine, which cost +£80, equal to £1400 of the value of to-day.[582] + +Rock ("Church of our Fathers," t. ii. p. 279) truly says that it is +shown by plentiful records and written documents, from the days of St. +Osmond to the time of Henry VIII., that the materials employed in +English ecclesiastical embroideries were the best that could be found +in our own country or in far-off lands, and the art bestowed on them +was the best we could learn and give. Various fabrics came from +Byzantine or Saracenic looms, which are described as damasked, rayed, +marbled, &c. The few surviving specimens fully justify the admiration +bestowed on them throughout Christendom. + +Matthew Paris, in the reign of Henry III., says that Innocent III. +(1246), seeing certain copes and infulæ with desirable orphreys, was +informed they were English work. He exclaimed, "Surely England is a +garden of delight! In sooth this is a well inexhaustible! And where +there is so much abundance, from thence much may be extracted!"[583] + +From the Conquest to the Reformation the catalogues of Church +vestments which are to be found in the libraries of York, Lincoln, and +Peterborough, show the luxury of ecclesiastical decoration. In Lincoln +alone there were upwards of 600 vestments wrought with divers kinds of +needlework, jewellery, and gold, upon "Indian baudichyn," samite, +tartarin, velvet, and silk. Even in reading the dry descriptions of a +common inventory, we are amazed by the lists of "orphreys of goodly +needlework," copes embroidered with armorial bearings, and knights +jousting, lions fighting, and amices "barred with amethysts and +pearls, &c. &c." The few I have named will give an idea of the +accumulation of riches in the churches, and the gorgeousness of +English embroideries.[584] + +I have collected from Strutt's "Illustrations"[585] and other sources +a number of patterns for domestic hangings, copied from MSS. of +contemporary dates, covering about 400 years, from the time of Harold +to Edward IV. The hangings may have been more effective than appears +at first sight, if the materials were rich and enlivened with gold. I +give two textile designs which in their style are peculiarly English +(plates 74, 75). + +Now we enter on the age of romance and chivalry, when all domestic +decorations began to assume greater refinement. Carpets from the East +covered the rushes strewn on the floors, and splendid tents were +brought home by crusading knights; and the decorative arts of northern +Europe were once more permeated with Oriental taste and design. + +We know that in the so-called "days of chivalry," i.e. from the +Conquest till the beginning of Henry VIII.'s reign, needlework was the +occupation of the women left in their castles, while the men were away +fighting for the cross, for the king, for their liberties, or for +booty. + +This period included the Crusades, the Wars of the Roses, wars with +France, and rebellions at home; and yet there was a taste for art, +luxury, and show spreading everywhere.[586] + +The women were expected to provide, with their looms and their +needles, the heraldic surcoats, the scarves and banners, and the +mantles for state occasions.[587] They also worked the hangings for +the hall and chapel, and adorned the altars and the priests' +vestments. Alas! time, taste, and the moth have shared in the +destruction of these gauds. The taste for the "baroc" is a new +acquisition; no one cared for what was old, merely because it was old. +The rich replaced their hangings and their clothes when they became +shabby; the poor let them go to pieces, and probably burned the old +stuff and the embroideries for the sake of the gold thread, which was +of intrinsic value. But both in prose and poetry we read descriptions +of beautiful works in the loom, or on the frame, executed by fair +ladies for the gallant knights whose lives and prowess these poems +have preserved to us. I will give one quotation from that of Emare, +in Ritson's collection: "Her mantle was wroughte by a faire Paynim, +the Amarayle's daughter." This occupied her seven long years. In each +corner is depicted a pair of lovers, "Sir Tristram and Iseult--Sir +Amadis and Ydoine, &c., &c. These pictures were adorned with precious +stones." The figures were portrayed-- + + "With stonès bright and pure, + With carbuncle and sapphire, + Kalsèdonys and onyx clere, + Sette in golde newe; + Diamondes and rubies, + And other stones of mychel pryse." + +The lady who owns this mantle is herself great in "workes of +broderie." + +From the Conquest to the Wars of the Roses, England may claim to have +gradually acquired a higher place in art. Our architecture, sculpture, +manuscripts, and paintings were not surpassed on the Continent: +witness Queen Eleanor's crosses, and her tomb in Westminster Abbey; +and the portrait of Richard II., surrounded by saints and angels, at +Wilton House,[588] a picture which, preceding Fra Beato Angelico's +works by at least a quarter of a century, yet suggests his style, +refined drawing, and tender colouring. All who saw the frescoes found +in the Chapel at Eton College when it was restored, will remember +their extreme beauty, and regret that they were effaced, instead of +being preserved and restored. They were a lesson in what English art +was in the end of the thirteenth, during the fourteenth, and into the +beginning of the fifteenth centuries. + +During the Wars of the Roses, when a duke of the blood-royal is said +to have begged his bread in the streets of the rich Flemish towns, +ladies of rank, more fortunate, were able to earn theirs by the work +of their needle.[589] + +The monuments of the eleventh and twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries, are our best authorities for the embroideries then worn. +The surcoat of the Black Prince in Canterbury Cathedral is a +noteworthy example. The sculptured effigy on the tomb over which it is +suspended is absolutely clothed in the same surcoat, with the same +accidents of embroidery, as if it had been modelled from it. + +In Worcester, when the archæologists opened King John's tomb in 1797, +they found him in the same dress and attitude as that portrayed on the +recumbent statue.[590] Dress was then extravagantly expensive, and +embroidered dresses were worn with borders richly set with precious +stones and pearls. + +The Librate Roll of Henry III. gives us a list of embroiderers' names: +Alain de Basinge, Adam de Bakeryne, John de Colonia, &c.; and in the +wardrobe accompts of Richard II., William Sanstoune and Robert de +Ashmede are called the "Broudatores Domini Regis." These may have +been the artists to whom the orders were delivered, for in the Librate +Roll of Henry III. we find Adam de Baskeryne receiving 6_s._ 8_d._ for +a "cloth of silk, and fringe, purchased by our commands to embroider a +certain chasuble which Mabilia of St. Edmunds made for us." There were +certainly then purveyors and masters of the craft. Stephen Vigner, in +the fourteenth century, is so warmly commended by the Duke of Berri +and Auvergne to Edward III., that Richard II. appointed him his chief +embroiderer, and Henry IV. pensioned him for his skilful services. + +John Garland, in the beginning of the thirteenth century, is a good +authority for the use by our women of small hand-looms. In these they +wove, in flax or silk (often mixed with gold), the "cingulæ" or +"blode-bendes" so often mentioned, supposed to be gifts between +friends for binding the arm, when blood-letting was so much in fashion +that the operation was allowed to assume a certain air of coquetry. +But the idea suggests itself that this was oftener the gift of the +fair weaver to her favoured lover, to fold round his arm as a scarf in +battle or tourney, to be ready in case it was needed for binding up a +wound, and had possibly served as a snood to bind her own fair hair. +There is an account of a specimen of this kind of weaving by M. +Léopold Delisle.[591] He describes the attachment of a seal to a grant +from Richard Cœur de Lion to Richard Hommet and Gille his wife, +preserved in the archives of the Abbey of Aunai, in the department of +Calvados. He considers it to be either French or English, and says it +was a "lac d'amour," or "tie of love," cut up to serve its present +purpose. It is woven with an inscription in white on a ground of +green, backed with pale blue, and the material is silk. The woven +legend is thus translated from the old French--"Let him perish who +would part us." + + [Illustration: Opus Anglicanum, XIII. Century + British Museum] + +The term "opus Anglicanum" is first recorded in the thirteenth +century, and is supposed simply to mean "English work." But there is +also good authority for its having been applied, on the Continent +especially, to a particular style of stitchery, of which the Syon cope +in the Kensington Museum is the best preserved great example known. +Its peculiarity consists in its fine split-stitch being moulded so as +to give the effect of a bas-relief; and this appears to have been +generally reserved for the medallions representing sacred subjects, +and especially employed in modelling the faces and the nude parts of +the figures delineated. The effect of this work has often been +destroyed, as time has frayed and discoloured the parts that are +raised, exhibiting the canvas ground, reversing the high lights, and +causing dark spots in their stead. This reversal of the intended +effect is an additional practical argument for the flatness of +embroidery.[592] + +From the Librate Roll of Henry III. one can form an estimate of the +value of the "opus Anglicanum" in its day.[593] In 1241 the king gave +Peter de Agua Blanca a mitre so worked, costing £82. This would be, +according to the present value, £230. + +The finest specimens of this English work are to be found on the +Continent, or have been returned from it.[594] They had either been +gifts to popes or bishops before the Reformation, or they had been +sold at that time of general persecution and pillage. Among the most +remarkable are the pluvial (called) of St. Silvester at Rome, the +Daroca pluvial at Madrid, the great pluvial at Bologna, and the Syon +cope, of which I have already spoken. The general idea and prevailing +design of these three great works are so singular, and yet so alike, +that they must have issued from the same workshop, and that was +certainly English. + +In the Daroca cope the cherubim, with their feet on wheels, which are +peculiar to English design, and the angels (in the vacant spaces +between the framed subjects from the life of our Lord) have their +wings carefully done in chain split-stitch representing peacocks' +feathers, of which the silken eyes are stitched in circles, and then +raised with an iron by pressure, so as to catch a light and throw a +shadow. The ground is entirely English gold-laid work. This cope, so +markedly national in design and stitches, probably drifted to the +Continent at the time of the Reformation.[595] + + [Illustration: Pl. 77. + Characteristic English Parsemé Patterns for Ecclesiastical + Embroideries.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 78. + Dunstable Pall. Property of the Vicar of Dunstable _ex officio_.] + +A wonderfully preserved specimen of the "opus Anglicanum," of which a +photogravure is here given, was lately presented by Mr. Franks to the +Mediæval Department of the British Museum (plate 76). In this may be +seen most of the characteristics of this work in the thirteenth +century; such as the angels with peacock feather wings, moulded by hot +irons; the features of all the figures similarly manipulated; the +beautiful gold groundwork, which in this instance is covered with +double-headed eagles; and lastly, the fashion of the beard on the face +of our Lord and of all the men delineated--the upper lip and round the +mouth being invariably shaven; whereas, in Continental work, the +beard is allowed to grow into the moustache, closely surrounding the +mouth. There are other peculiarities belonging to English design--such +as the angels rising between the shrine-work on the pillars out of a +flame or cloud pattern, and the pillars very often formed of twined +stems bearing vine-leaves or else oak-leaves and acorns. The +compartments which frame the groups, when they are not placed in +niches, are usually variations of the intersected circle and square. +Plate 77 shows the cherubim which from the thirteenth to the sixteenth +centuries are found on English ecclesiastical embroideries--also the +vase of lilies (emblematic of the Virgin), and the Gothic flowers +which are so commonly _parsemé_ over our mediæval altar frontals and +vestments. + + [Illustration: Fig. 26.] + +It appears that in the reign of Edward III. the people ingeniously +evaded the penalties against the excess of luxury in dress, by wearing +something that looked as gay, but was less expensive than the +forbidden materials; and which did not come under the letter of the +law. They invented a spurious kind of embroidery which was, perhaps, +partly painted (such examples are recorded). In the 2nd Henry VI. +(1422) it was enacted that all such work should be forfeited to the +king. The accusation was that "divers persons belonging to the craft +of Brouderie make divers works of Brouderie of insufficient stuffe and +unduly wroughte with gold and silver of Cyprus, and gold of Lucca, and +Spanish laton (or tin); and that they sell these at the fairs of +Stereberg, Oxford, and Salisbury, to the great deceit of our Sovereign +Lord and all his people." In those days any dishonest work or material +was illegal and punishable.[596] + +This was, in fact, a protectionist measure in favour of the chartered +embroiderers, and gave them a slight taste of the advantages of +protection. For a time it was doubtless useful in keeping up the +standard of national work. Then followed further measures for the +benefit of the established monopolies. First, a statute in 1453 (Henry +VI.), forbidding the importation of foreign embroideries for five +years. This is re-enacted under Edward IV., Richard III., and Henry +VII.; and was partially repealed in the 3rd and 5th George III. While +we are on this subject, we may remark that in 1707, the importation of +embroidery was forbidden to the East India Company, and we closed our +ports to all manufactured Indian goods. The only artistic trade _now_ +protected is that of the silversmith; no plate from foreign workshops +being permitted to enter England--not even do we allow Indian plate to +come in, except under certain conditions. This may be the reason that +our own plate is so very bad in design and execution, for want of +competition and example. + +Protection is always more or less fatal to art. The Wars of the Roses +had injured our own best schools, and we needed refined imported ideas +to raise our standard once again. Perhaps, since embroidery had become +a regular industry, our markets were overstocked by home productions +which were outrivalled by the works from the Continent, and it was +distress that caused the plea for protection. + + [Illustration: Pl. 79. + Pall of the Vintners' Company (sixteenth century).] + +It is fair to say that some of the English works of that time, of +which we have specimens, are as good as possible. In the Dunstable +pall, for instance, the figures of which are perfectly drawn and +beautifully executed, the style is excellent and pure English (plate +78). The pall itself is of Florentine crimson velvet and gold brocade, +with the little loops of gold drawn through the velvet, showing the +loom from whence it came. The white satin border carries the +embroidery. It is a more perfect specimen of the later fourteenth +century work than the famous pall of the Fishmongers' Company, which +shows the impress of the Flemish taste, which was at its perfection in +the fifteenth. The style reminds us of that of the fine tapestries +from the St. Mary's Hall, Coventry, of which the subject is King Henry +VI. and Cardinal Beaufort praying. The Vintners' Company's pall is +also very fine (plate 79). + + [Illustration: Henry VII.'s Cope from Stoneyhurst] + +Of the time of Henry VII. we have the celebrated cope of Stoneyhurst, +woven in Florence, of a gold tissue, the design raised in crimson +velvet. It is without seam, and the composition which covers the whole +surface is the crown of England lying on the portcullis; and the Tudor +rose fills up the space with a magnificent scroll. The design is +evidently English, as well as the embroidery, which is, however, much +restored[597] (plate 80). + +This is one of the "whole suite of vestments and copes of cloth of +gold tissue wrought with our badges of red roses and portcullises, the +which we of late caused to be made at Florence in Italy ... which our +king, Henry VII., in his will bequeathed to God and St. Peter, and to +the Abbot and Prior of our Monastery at Westminster,"[598] which were +designed for him by Torrigiano. + +From the portraits of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries we can +judge of the prevailing taste in dress embroideries of that period, +which consisted mostly of delicate patterns of gold or silver on the +borders of dresses, and the linen collars and sleeves. Of this style I +give a small sampler, from Lord Middleton's collection. We have a good +many specimens of the work of these centuries, both ecclesiastical and +secular. They had still a Gothic stamp, which totally disappeared in +the beginning of the sixteenth century in the new style of the +Renaissance. + + [Illustration: Fig. 27. + Sampler, from Lord Middleton's collection. + Time, Henry VIII.] + +The next great change throughout northern Europe affecting all the +conditions of life, most especially in England, was caused by the +Reformation, which swept away both the art and the artist of the +Gothic era. The monasteries which had fostered painting, illumination, +and embroidery, and the arts which had been so passionately devoted to +the Church, were doomed. George Gifford, writing to Cromwell of the +suppression of a religious house at Woolstrope, in Lincolnshire, after +praising that establishment says, "There is not one religious person +there, but what _can_ and _doth_ use either embrotheryng, wryting +bookes with a fayre hand, making garments, karvynge, &c."[599] + +In the general clearance the churches and shrines were swept, though +never again garnished, and the survivals have to be painfully sought +for, and are so few that a short catalogue will tell them all. + +The greater part of the fine embroideries which escaped the +"iconoclastic rage" of the Reformation, and the final sweep of the +Puritans, are to be seen now in the houses and chapels of the old +Roman Catholic families, who have either preserved or collected them; +also in the museums of our cathedrals, and spread about the Continent. +For instance, at Sens are the vestments of Thomas à Becket, and at +Valencia, in Spain, there are yet in the chapter-house a chasuble and +two dalmatics, brought from London by two merchants of Valencia, whose +names are preserved--Andrew and Pedro de Medina. They purchased them +at the sale of the Roman Catholic ornaments of Westminster Abbey in +the time of Henry VIII. They are embroidered in gold, and represent +scenes from the life of our Lord. The background of one is a +representation of the Tower of London. + +In 1520 was held the famous tournament of the Field of the Cloth of +Gold.[600] Here came all England's chivalry surrounding their splendid +young king; followed by squires and men-at-arms, and carrying with +them tents, banners, and hangings covered with devices and mottoes. +Their own dresses, of rich materials and adorned with embroidery (as +well as the housings of their horses), vied in ingenuity and splendour +with those of the still more luxurious court and following of Francis +I., the French king. The tradesmen and workmen and workwomen in +England were driven crazy in their efforts to carry out the ideas and +commands of their employers. It is recorded that several committed +suicide in their despair. It was worse than the miseries caused by a +Court Drawing-Room now. Ingenuity in devices was the order of the day. +Francis and his "Partners of Challenge" illustrated one sentimental +motto throughout the three days' tourney. The first day they were +apparelled in purple satin, "broched" with gold, and covered with +black-ravens' feathers, buckled into a circle. The first syllable of +"corbyn" (a raven) is _cor_, a "hart" (heart). A feather in French is +_pennac_. "And so it stode." The feather in a circle was endless, and +"betokened sothe fastnesse." Then was the device "Hart fastened in +pain endlesse." + +The next day the "Hardy Kings" met armed at all points. The French +king and his followers were arrayed in purple satin, broched with gold +and purple velvet, embroidered with little rolls of white satin, on +which was written "Quando;" all the rest was powdered with the letter +L--"Quando Elle" (when she). The third day the motto was laboriously +brought to a conclusion. Francis appeared dressed in purple velvet +embroidered with little white open books; "Liber" being a book, the +motto on it was, "A me." These books were connected with worked blue +chains; thus we have the whole motto: "Hart, fastened in pain +endlesse, when she delivereth me not of bondes." Could painful +ingenuity go further? On the English side we have similar devices. +Brandon, Duke of Suffolk, the bridegroom of the Dowager Queen of +France, Henry's sister, was clothed on one side in cloth of frise +(grey woollen), on which appeared embroidered in gold the motto,-- + + "Cloth of frise, be not too bold + That thou be match'd with cloth of gold." + +This parti-coloured garment was on the other side of gold, with the +motto,-- + + "Cloth of gold, do not despise + That thou be match'd with cloth of frise." + +Besides mottoes, cyphers and monograms were the fashion, embroidered +with heraldic devices. These particulars we find in Hall's account of +the tournament, with a detailed description of the golden tent in +which the monarchs met, and which gave its name ever after to the +plain near Guisnes, where the jousts were held. What we read of its +construction recalls the Alexandrian erections, of which I have spoken +already, as well as their hangings and embroideries. + + [Illustration: Pl. 81. + English Specimens of Spanish Work. Time of Henry VIII. Lord + Middleton's Collection.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 82. + English Specimen. Spanish Work. Henry VIII. Louisa, Lady Waterford's + Collection.] + +Incrustations of pearls and precious stones gave a dazzling brilliancy +to the tent, divided into many rooms, and adapted to the climate of +the north. It covered a space of 328 feet. Hall describes the tent, +the jousts, and the splendid apparel belonging to this last chapter of +the magnificence of chivalry. Brewer remarks that magnificence was, in +those days, often supposed to be synonymous with magnanimity (at any +rate, it was erected into a royal virtue). "The Mediæval Age," he +says, "had gathered up its departing energies for this last display of +its favourite pastime, henceforth to be consigned without regret to +the mouldering lodges of the past."[601] + +We cannot say how much of French taste was imported from this meeting +of French and English luxury. The spirit of the Renaissance, fresh +from Italy, was reigning in France, but we had also in Italy our own +emissaries. John of Padua was probably only one of many Englishmen who +travelled to learn and improve themselves in their special crafts. + +Catherine of Aragon introduced the Spanish taste in embroidery, which +was then white or black silk and gold "lace stitches" on fine linen +(plate 81). This went by the name of "Spanish work," and continued to +be the fashion down to and through the reign of Mary Tudor, who +remained faithful to the traditions of her mother's and her +grandmother's work[602] (plate 82). Catherine of Aragon had learned +her craft from her mother, Queen Isabella, who always made her +husband's shirts. To make and adorn a shirt was then an artistic feat, +not unworthy of a queen. Isabella instituted trials of needlework +amongst her ladies. In the days of her disgrace and solitude, +Catherine turned to her embroidery for solace and occupation. She came +forth to meet the Cardinals Wolsey and Campeggio with a skein of red +silk round her neck.[603] Taylor, the water poet, says,-- + + "Virtuously, + Although a queen, her days did pass + In working with her needle curiously." + +At Silbergh Castle, in Westmoreland, was a counterpane and toilet +embroidered by Queen Catherine. + +Anne of Cleves brought with her the taste for Flemish and German +Renaissance designs; and all the cushion stitches were in vogue. The +Renaissance borders for dress were mostly worked in gold on coloured +silk on the linen collars and cuffs. Holbein's and other contemporary +portraits illustrate this peculiarity of the costumes of the time. The +women's head-dresses also carried much fine, beautifully designed, and +delicate work. + +In the reign of Henry VIII. fine hangings were worked and woven in +England; the royal inventories give us an idea to what extent. +Cardinal Wolsey's walls were covered with splendid embroideries, +besides the suites of tapestries still adorning the hall at Hampton +Court. One room was hung with embroidered cloth of gold. + +Mary Tudor, as I have said, was Spanish in all her tastes, and we +have lists of her "smocks" all worked in Spanish stitches, black and +gold, or black silk only.[604] This taste, following the political +tendencies of the time, entirely disappeared under Elizabeth. It +survives, however, in peasant dress in the Low Countries. + +Queen Elizabeth spent much of her time in needlework. She herself had +received the education of a man, as well as her cousin, Lady Jane +Grey; and doubtless many women were taught at that time Greek and +Latin, and to study philosophy, mathematics, and the science of music, +as a training for serious life. Elizabeth studied and embroidered too; +at any rate, she stood godmother to many pieces of embroidery, which +are to be seen still in the houses she visited or occupied. + +While at Ashridge, and afterwards as a prisoner at Hatfield, she so +employed herself; and among the specimens of work of the sixteenth +century exhibited at South Kensington in 1873, were her shoes and cap, +worked in purl, a semainière in the same stitch, also cushion-covers +in divers cushion stitches, and a portmonnaie in exquisitely fine +satin-stitch; all of which articles, and many more, were left by her +at Ashridge when she was hurried away in the dead of night to +Hatfield.[605] + +The character of the Renaissance of the sixteenth century, just +released from the trammels of Gothic traditions, was somewhat lawless +in England, being unchastened by the classical element which entirely +controlled the movement in Italy. + +The queen's dress soon departed from the severe simplicity which she +at first affected, and every part of her costume was covered with +flowers, fruit, and symbolical designs; while serpents, crowns, +chains, roses, eyes and ears crowded the surfaces of the fine +materials of her dresses. These symbolical designs were rich without +grace, and ingenious rather than artistic, although their workmanship +was perfect. In Louisa, Lady Waterford's collection we find a jacket +for a slight girl's figure, of white linen, covered with flowers, +fruit, and berries, all carried out in satin and lace stitches. There +are butterflies with their wings disengaged from the ground; pods +bursting open and showing the round seeds or peas; caterpillars +stuffed and raised; all these astonish us by their quaint perfection, +and shock us by their naturalistic crudeness of design, and the utter +want of beauty or taste in the whole effect. The impression left on +the mind is, how dear it must have cost the pocket of the purchaser +and the eyes of the workers. There are, however, exceptions to these +defective poor designs; and in the same collection is a cushion-cover +worked in gold and silver plate, purl and silk, on a red satin ground, +which is as good as possible in every respect, and is purely English +in style. The stitches and materials are most refined and varied. +Purl, which was a newly made material imported from Italy and Germany, +was then in much vogue, and we have seen a few fine specimens of it, +that have been imitated from the Italian cinque-cento raised and +stuffed needlework, which are very curious and almost very +beautiful,--only one feels that the same effect could have been +produced by simpler means. This work is characteristic of the reigns +of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and James I. We have needlework of another +most unhappy queen of this date. Poor Mary, Queen of Scots, tried to +soften Elizabeth's heart towards her prisoner by little gifts of her +own embroideries.[606] + +We have no account of the cause of the incorporation of the +Embroiderers' Company by Queen Elizabeth,[607] in the third year of +her reign, Oct. 25th, 1561, confirmed by James II., April 12th, 1686, +which is still a London guild. It received the lions of England as a +special favour. The arms are thus blazoned: "Palée of six argent and +azure on a fess gules, between three lions of England pass. gardant +or. Three broches in saltire between as many trundles (i.e. quills of +gold thread), or. Crest: on a wreath a heart; the holy dove displayed +argent, radiated or. Supporters: two lions or (guttée de sang). Motto: +'Omnia Desuper.' Hall, 20, Gutter Lane." There were branches, +incorporated and bearing the arms, at Bristol and Chester, in 1780. +(See Appendix.) + + [Illustration: Fig. 28. + Arms of Embroiderers' Guild.] + +In the reign of James I. it was the fashion to do portraits in +needlework, stitched flat or raised. Some are artistic in design and +execution, but they are mostly ridiculously bad. + +The East India Company was founded in 1560, under Elizabeth, and +obtained the monopoly of the Anglo-Indian trade, under Cromwell, in +1634. This would have been the moment for encouraging a fresh +importation of Oriental taste into our degenerate art. Cromwell's own +service of plate was scratched over ("graffito") with a childish and +weak semi-Indian, semi-Chinese design; and we must accept this as +typical of the artistic Oriental knowledge of that day. Grafted on the +style of James I., it shows, however, that Indian ideas were creeping +in and sought for, if not understood in high places, under the +auspices of the East India Company. Needlework alone was excluded from +all benefit. From that date, for 150 years, Indian manufactures +were imported, _with the exception of embroidery_, which was +contraband by the ancient statutes. This accounts for our faint and +ignorant imitations of Indian work, and the extreme rarity of the true +specimens to be met with in England, unless of a later period. + + [Illustration: Cushion cover Temp. Queen Elizabeth + XVI. Century] + +But our Aryan instincts have always led our English tastes towards +conventional naturalism. Although we have lost the rules and +traditions which converted natural objects into patterns, we are +continually, in our style, leaning and groping in their direction, and +twining flowers, those of the field by preference, into +semi-conventional garlands and posies. + +In the seventeenth century, when James I. was king, protection had +done its worst. The style of work called "embroidery on the stamp" was +then the fashion. This sort of work in Italy continued to be artistic, +but the English specimens that have survived from this reign are +mostly very ugly. Continental art had ceased to influence us, and bad +taste reigned supreme, except in our architecture, which had +crystallized into a picturesque style of our own called "James I.," +and was the outcome of the last Gothic of Henry VIII. and the Italian +style of Edward VI. and Elizabeth. But the carvings of that phase of +architecture were semi-barbarous. Nothing could have been poorer than +their composition, or coarser than their execution, and the needlework +of the day followed suit. Infinite trouble and ingenuity were wasted +on looking-glass frames, picture frames, and caskets worked in purl, +gold, and silver. The subjects were ambitious Solomon and the Queen of +Sheba, and James and Anne of Denmark,[608] and other historical +figures were stuffed with cotton or wool, and raised into high +relief; and then dressed and "garnished" with pearls; the faces either +in painted satin or fine satin stitch; the hair and wigs in purl or +complicated knotting. Windsor Castle as a background for King James +and King Solomon alike, pointed the clumsy allegory, and the lion of +England gambolling in the foreground, amid flowers and coats-of-arms, +filled up the composition. + +The drawing and design were childish, and show us how high art can in +a century or less slip back into no art at all. Any one comparing the +Dunstable or the Fishmongers' pall with one of the best caskets of +this period would say that the latter should have preceded the former +by centuries. In James I.'s time, ignorance of all rules of +composition was added to the absence of any sort of style.[609] I give +the illustrations of the time of James I. Plate 83 is a cushion from +Hatfield House, rich and rather foolish, with tiny men filling in the +corners left vacant by large flowers, caterpillars, &c. + +Charles I. gave a raised embroidered cope to the Chapter of Durham, of +this description of work.[610] + + [Illustration: Pl. 84. + English embroidered curtain (James I.), at Cockayne Hatley, Beds.] + + [Illustration: Pl. 85. + Embroidered Hangings. Crewels on Linen. Hardwicke Hall.] + +The other fashionable work of that day had its merits. It was the +custom to embroider hangings or linen in crewels. Considering how +often in this book and my preceding lectures I have said that this +style of work was common (even in the early days of Egypt and +Assyria), it may well be said, when was it _not_ the fashion? and I +must answer, "only since the days of Queen Anne." It seems as if +before that time our designs for work were partially influenced by the +fine Indian specimens which had surreptitiously crept into England. +Some of these are very cleverly executed. Huge conventional trees grow +from a green strip of earth carrying every variety of leaf and flower +done in many stitches. The individual leaf or flower is often very +beautiful. On the bank below, small deer and lions disport themselves, +and birds twice their size perch on the branches (plate 84).[611] But +even where the work is finest, the incongruities are too annoying. The +modern excuse for it, "that it is quaint," does not reconcile us to +its extravagant effect. To be quaint in art is, as I have said before, +to be funny without intending it; and these curtains are funny by +their absence of all intention or perspective, and when hung they +make everything in the room look disproportionate to the unnatural +size of the foliage. (Plate 85.) Specimens of this work are to be +found in most English country houses. It has lasted till now, partly +because the crewels first manufactured in the sixteenth century were +of an excellent quality, and secondly, because there was no gold to +make it worth any one's while to destroy them; so the old hangings +went up into the attics in all the disgrace of shabbiness, and have +come down again as family relics. Even the moths have been deprived of +their prey, by these curtains having served for the beds of the +household, so that they have been kept for their nearly 300 years of +existence, aired and dusted. Much of this work has been recovered from +farmhouses and cottages in tolerable preservation. In many cases the +flowers have survived the stout linen grounds on which they were +worked. The Royal School of Needlework has often been commissioned to +restore and transfer the crewel trees on to a new backing. The +hangings and the curtains I have described, prevailed from the end of +Elizabeth's reign to that of Queen Anne, and gradually deteriorated. +The stitches, of which the variety at first was infinite, had given +place to a coarse uniform stem stitch--"gobble stitch." The materials +also were of inferior quality, and less durable, so that the latest +specimens are in general in the worst condition. + +It is remarkable how little the beautiful Continental work influenced +our English school. We were enjoying perfect protection, and were +clumsily taking advantage of our security from all competition. In the +Italian palaces this was the moment of the finest secular embroideries +in satin stitches, gold and silver, and "inlaid" and "onlaid" +appliqués. Likewise in Spain and Portugal the Oriental work, +especially that executed at Goa, filled the palaces and the convents +with gorgeous hangings, carpets, table-covers, and bed furniture. We +feel it painful to contrast with these our own shortcomings in art, +and our faded glories. + +The fact is, that, owing to our art-killing protectionist laws, +embroidery had the misfortune to be treated at that time as textile +manufacture, and not as art at all. + +In the reign of William and Mary, Dutch taste had naturally been +brought to the front.[612] This included Japanese art, or imitations +of it, and also had something of late Spanish. The Georges brought +into England, and naturalized a rather heavy work, in gold and +silver--the design being decidedly a German "Louis Quatorze"--richly +stitched and heavily fringed, and much employed on court dresses and +on state furniture. We have seen royal beds and court suits which show +very little difference in style. It does not appear that this was +worked by ladies. It has, somehow, a professional look. + + [Illustration: Fig. 29. + Part of James II.'s Coronation Dress. + From an old Print.] + +Occasionally, however, we meet with pieces of exceptionally beautiful +work of the end of the seventeenth and early part of the eighteenth +centuries. The style is the most refined Louis Quatorze, but the work +is actually English. The white satin coverlets belonging to the +Marquis of Bath and the Duke of Leeds are not to be exceeded in +delicacy and splendour. The embroidered dresses of the Duke and +Duchess of Buckingham, in Westminster Abbey (early eighteenth +century) are of this description. + +From Queen Anne to George III., a great deal of furniture was covered +with the different cushion stitches, either in geometrical or +kaleidoscope patterns, or else displaying groups of flowers or +figures, quaint and sometimes pretty. These designs are generally, +however, wanting in grace, and their German feeling shows them to be +the precursors of the Berlin wool patterns. + +When the crewel-work hangings ceased to be the fashion, home work took +another direction. All the ladies imitated Indian dimity patterns, on +muslin, in coloured silks or thread, with the tambour-frame and +needle;[613] but in 1707 the "Broiderers' Company," we presume, found +that the Indian manufactures were engrossing the market, and a fresh +statute was obtained, forbidding the importation from India of any +wrought material. This cruel prohibition carried its own punishment. +The Indian trade was ours, and we might have adapted and assimilated +the Indian taste for design. We might have brought over men and women +great in their most ancient craft, and so produced the most splendid +Indo-English School. The Portuguese at least sent out their own silks +and satins to be worked at Goa; _we_ threw away our chance, and signed +the death-warrant of our art. + +About the middle of the last century, several ladies, notably Miss +Linwood, Miss Moritt, of Rokeby, and Mrs. Delany, copied pictures in +worsteds. Some of these are wonderfully clever and even very pretty, +but they are rather a painful effort of pictorial art under +difficulties, than legitimate embroideries. These pictures would have +served the purpose of decoration better as medallions in the centres +of arabesque panels, than framed and glazed in imitation of oil +paintings. Some of the followers of this school produced works that +are shocking to all artistic sense, especially as seen now, when the +moths have spoiled them. They can only be classed with such abortive +attempts at decoration as glass cases filled with decayed stuffed +birds, and vases of faded and broken wax flowers. + +I may record with praise the efforts of Mrs. Pawsey,[614] a lady who +started a school of needlework at Aylesbury. She was patronized by +Queen Charlotte; and for her she worked the beautiful bed at Hampton +Court, of purple satin, with wreaths of flowers in crewels touched up +with silk, which look as if they might have been copied from the +flower-pieces of a Dutch master. The execution is very fine, and +reminds one of the best French work of the same period. Mrs. Pawsey +taught and helped ladies to embroider in silk and chenille, as well as +crewels, and in many country houses we can recognize specimens of her +style; usually on screens worked in silk and chenille, with bunches of +flowers in vases or baskets, artistically designed. + +This was our last attempt at excellence, immediately followed by the +total collapse of our decorative needlework, and the advent of the +Berlin wool patterns. + + +POSTSCRIPT. + +A postscript to this chapter will perhaps be acceptable to those who +have taken an interest in the "History of English Embroidery," and who +will therefore care to know about the revival which has filled so many +workshops with what is now called "Art Needlework." + +There was a public demand for something better than the worsted +patterns in the trade, and the Royal School of Art Needlework rose and +tried to respond to that call by stimulating original ideas and +designs, and imitating old ones in conformity with modern +requirements. The difficulties to be overcome were at first very +great. The old stitches had all to be learned and then taught, and the +best methods to be selected; the proper materials had to be studied +and obtained--sometimes they had to be manufactured. Lastly, beautiful +tints had to be dyed; avoiding, as much as possible, the gaudy and the +evanescent. + +The project of such a school was first conceived in the autumn of +1872. + +Lady Welby, herself an accomplished embroideress, had the courage to +face all the difficulties of such an undertaking. A small apartment +was hired in Sloane Street, and Mrs. Dolby, who was already an +authority on ecclesiastical work, gave her help. Twenty young ladies +were selected, and several friends joined heartily in fostering the +movement. + +H.R.H. the Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein gave her name as +President, and her active co-operation.[615] + +The school grew so fast, that for want of space for the work-frames, +it had to remove into a larger house, No. 31, Sloane Street, and +finally in the year 1875 it found its present home in Exhibition Road, +when the Queen became its Patron. In 1878 the Association was +incorporated under the Board of Trade, with a Managing and a Finance +Committee, and a salaried manager to overlook the whole concern. + +From 100 to 150 ladies at a time have there received employment. Their +claims were poverty, gentle birth, and sufficient capacity to enable +them to support themselves and be educated to teach others. + +Branch schools have been started throughout the United Kingdom and in +America.[616] + +The education of the school has been much assisted by the easy access +to the fine collections of ancient embroideries in the Kensington +Museum, and by the loan exhibition of old artistic work, which was +there organized in 1875, at the suggestion of H.R.H. the President; +and since then there have been three very interesting loan exhibitions +in the rooms of the Royal School. + +It was, indeed, necessary that the acting members should avail +themselves of every means of instruction, in order to fit themselves +for the task they had undertaken. They were expected at once to be +competent to judge all old work, to name its style and date, and even +sometimes its market value. They were to be able to repair and add to +all old work; to know and teach every stitch, ancient and modern; and +produce designs for any period, Gothic, Renaissance, Elizabethan, +James I., or Queen Anne; besides contemporary European work,--all +different, and each requiring separate study. + +Some important works have been produced which will illustrate what has +been said:-- + + 1. A suite of window curtains for her Majesty, at + Windsor (style, nineteenth century; sunflowers). + + 2. Curtains for a drawing-room for the Duchess of + Buccleuch: crimson velvet and gold appliqué (Louis + Quatorze). + + 3. Curtain for Louisa, Lady Ashburton: coloured silk + embroidery on white satin (Venetian, sixteenth century). + + 4. Curtain, also for Louisa, Lady Ashburton: brown + velvet and gold appliqué (_Italian_). + + 5. Dado for the Hon. Mrs. Percy Wyndham: linen and + crewels. Peacocks and vines (_Mediæval_). + + 6. Furnishings and hangings for state bedroom for + Countess Cowper, Panshanger: crimson satin, embroidered + and coloured silks (_Chinese_). + + 7. Curtains for music gallery for Mr. Arthur Balfour: + blue silk, appliqué, velvet, and gold (_Italian_). + +The earnest attempt to produce an artistic school of embroidery met +with recognition and help from the highest authorities. Sir F. +Leighton granted permission for appeals to his judgment. Mr. Burne +Jones, Mr. Morris, Mr. Walter Crane, and Mr. Wade gave original +designs. + +We cannot guess whether the taste which has sprung up again so +suddenly will last. Perhaps its catholicity may prolong its +popularity, and something absolutely new in style may be evolved, +which shall revive the credit of the "opus Anglicanum." Of one thing +we may be sure--that it is inherent in the nature of Englishwomen to +employ their fingers. And the busy as well as the ignorant need a +guide to the principles of design, as well as the technical details of +the art of embroidery. This should be supplied by the Royal School of +Art Needlework, which by inculcating careful drawing, by reviving old +traditions and criticizing fresh ideas, becomes a guarantee for the +improvement of domestic decorative design. + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [555] "The people of Babylon, the Accadians, had a + written literature and a civilization superior to that + of the conquering Assyrians, who borrowed their art of + writing, and probably their culture, which may have been + the centre and starting-point of the western + civilization of Asia, and therefore the origin of our + own. Accadian civilization was anterior to that of the + Phœnicians and the Greeks, and is now received in + these later years as the original form, and become again + the heritage of mankind. It has been said that Assyrian + art was destitute of originality, and to that of the + Accadians, which they adopted, we ourselves owe our + first customs and ideas. Four thousand years ago these + people possessed a culture which in many of its details + resembles that of our country and time."--"Assyrian Life + and History," p. 66, by M. Harkness and Stuart Poole. + + [556] "The arts of spinning and the manufacture of linen + were introduced into Europe and drifted into Britain in + the Neolithic Age. They have been preserved with but + little variation from that period down to the present + day in certain remote parts of Europe, and have only + been superseded in modern times by the complicated + machinery so familiar to us.... The spindle and distaff + are proved by the perforated spindle-whorls, made of + stone, pottery, or bone, commonly met with in Neolithic + habitations or tombs. The thread is proved, by + discoveries in the Swiss lakes, to have been made of + flax; and the combs that have been found for pushing the + threads of the warp on the weft show that it was woven + into linen on some sort of loom."--Boyd Dawkins' "Early + Man in Britain," p. 275. + + [557] I am aware that the presence of the Phœnicians + (or Carthaginians) on our coasts has been disputed; but + I think that the evidence of the Etruscan ornaments I + have mentioned gives more than probability to the truth + of Pliny's account of the expedition of Himilco from + Gades, 500 B.C. By some he is supposed to have been a + contemporary of Hanno, and of the third century B.C. + There is some confusion in the imperfect record of the + voyage; but it is difficult to interpret it otherwise + than that he touched at several points north of Gaul. + (See Boyd Dawkins' "Early Man in Britain," pp. 457-461; + see also Perrot and Chipiez, "L'Histoire de l'Art dans + l'Antiquité," t. iii.; "Phénicie et Cypre," p. 48.) For + a contrary opinion, see Elton's "Origins of English + History." Elton ascribes the first knowledge of the + British islands to the voyage of Pytheas in the fourth + century B.C.; he acknowledges that the geography of + Britain was well known to the Greeks in the time of + Alexander the Great. We owe to Pliny and Strabo the few + fragments from Pytheas that have been rescued from + oblivion, and to Pliny the notices of Himilco. (See + Bouillet's "Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Géographie.") + + [558] See Rock's Introduction to "Textile Fabrics," p. + xii. + + [559] I give the following amusing tradition, which was + probably founded on the celebrity of the English pearl + embroidery of the Anglo-Saxon times, of which much went + to Rome:-- + + "Then Cæsar, like a conqueror, with a great number of + prisoners sailed into France, and so to Rome, where + after his return out of Brytaine, hee consecrated to + Venus a surcote of Brytaine pearles, the desire whereof + partly moved him to invade this country."--(Stow's + "Annales," p. 14, ed. 1634.) Tacitus, in the Agricola + 12, says that British pearls are grey and livid. + + [560] See Rock's Introduction to "Textile Fabrics," p. + xii. + + [561] These are the poor results of the Roman invasion + and neglect of Britain during their occupation. The + second invasion of Britain by the Romans, under + Claudius, was caused by the squabbles between the chiefs + of the different tribes. Comnenus, the prince of the + Atrebates, was at war with the sons of Cunobelinus + (Cymbeline). He took his grievances to Rome, and the + Roman legions were despatched to settle the matter, and + to dazzle the world by the echoes rather than the facts + of the triumphant victories in the land of the "wintry + pole." Claudius marched with elephants clad in mail, and + bearing turrets filled with slingers and bowmen, + accompanied by Belgic pikemen and Batavians from the + islands in the Rhine, A.D. 44. The dress of Claudius on + his return from Britain was purple, with an ivory + sceptre and crown of gold oak leaves. One officer alone + was entitled to wear a tunic embroidered with golden + palms, in token of a former victory. The Celts, the + Gauls, the Gaels, the Picts, the Scots, and the + Saxons,--all crowded and settled in Britain when the + Romans left it in 410, after nearly four hundred years + of misgovernment. (See Elton's "Origins of English + History," pp. 306-308.) + + [562] Semper, "Der Stil," pp. 133, 134. See Louis + Viardot, "Des Origines Traditionnelles de la Peinture en + Italie" (Paris, 1840), p. 53, note. Also see "Les Ducs + de Bourgogne," part ii. vol. ii. p. 243, No. 4092. + Muratori was born in 1672; and he says the Empress + Helena's work was in existence in the beginning of the + eighteenth century. (See p. 316, _ante_.) + + [563] When St. Augustine (546) came to preach to the + Anglo-Saxons, he had a banner, fastened to a cross, + carried before him, on which was embroidered the image + of our Lord. (See Mrs. Lawrence's "Woman in England," + pp. 296, 297.) Probably this was Roman work. + + [564] Quoted by Mrs. Lawrence, "Woman in England," p. + 49, from one of Adhelme's Latin poems. Adhelme, Bishop + of Sherborne, died in 709, having been thirty years a + bishop. He wrote Latin poems, of which the most + important, in praise of virginity, is in the Lambeth + Library, No. 200. The MS. contains his portrait. See + Strutt's "English Dresses," ed. Planché. + + [565] An Anglo-Saxon lady named Aedelswitha, living near + Whitby, in the sixth century, collected a number of + girls and taught them to produce admirable embroideries + for the benefit of the monastery. (See Rock's "Church of + our Fathers," p. 273; also his Introduction to + "Textiles," p. xxvii.) Bock speaks of Hrothgar's + tapestries, embroidered with gold, of the thirteenth + century. See Appendix 8. But the earliest English + tapestry I have seen is that in York Minster, in which + are inwoven the arms of Scrope, 1390. Wright says of the + Anglo-Saxon women, "In their chamber, besides spinning + and weaving, the ladies were employed in needlework and + embroidery, and the Saxon ladies were so skilful in this + art, that their works were celebrated on the + Continent."--"History of Manners in England during the + Middle Ages," by Thomas Wright, p. 52. + + [566] See Mrs. Lawrence's "Woman in England," i. p. + 296-7. + + [567] See Rock's "Church of our Fathers," ii. p. 272, + quoting Th. Stubbs. "Acta Pontif. Th. ed. Twysden," 1. + ii. p. 1699; also Bock's "Liturgische Gewänder," i. p. + 212, and p. 325 _ante_. + + [568] Appendix 9. + + [569] This could hardly have been intended originally + for an ecclesiastical purpose. It sounds as if it were a + stray fragment from Græco-Roman art, rather than a + survival of the classical legend employed as a pretty + motive for decoration. Wiglaf's veil is named by + Ingulphus. See Strutt's "English Dresses," pp. 3, 7. See + also "Historia Eliensis," l. 2, ed. Stewart, p. 183. + + [570] See Rock's "Textile Fabrics," p. xxi.; also for + Council of Cloveshoe, see his "Church of Our Fathers," + p. 14. + + [571] The Benedictines drained the marshes of + Lincolnshire and Somersetshire to employ the poor in the + eighth century. St. Bennet travelled to France and + Italy, and brought back from his seven journeys cunning + artificers in _glass_ and stone, besides costly books + and copies of the Scriptures, in order (as is expressly + said by Bede) that the ignorant might learn from them, + as others learned from books. See Mrs. Jameson's + "Legends of the Monastic Orders," pp. 56, 57. + + [572] See Raine's "St. Cuthbert," pp. 50-209. Mr. Raine + describes it as being "of woven gold, with spaces left + vacant for needlework embroidery." Beautifully drawn + majestic figures stand in niches on rainbow-coloured + clouds, and the effect is that of an illumination of the + ninth century. The style is rather Greek or Byzantine + than Anglo-Saxon. For further notices of St. Cuthbert's + relics, see chapter on Materials, _ante_; also see + Rock's "Introduction," p. cxvii. + + [573] Appendix 10. + + [574] See "Calendar of the Anglican Church," by J. H. + Parker (1851): "St. Dunstan was not only a patron of the + useful and fine arts, but also a great proficient in + them himself; and his almost contemporary biographers + speak of him as a poet, painter, and musician, and so + skilled a worker in metals that he made many of the + church vessels in use at Glastonbury." + + [575] See Rock's "Church of our Fathers," p. 270. + + [576] Strutt's "English Dresses," p. 70, quoted from + Ingulphus' "History of Croyland Abbey." + + [577] Shot, or iridescent materials, were then and had + been some time manufactured at Tinnis in Egypt, a city + now effaced. It was called "bouqualemoun," and employed + for dresses and hangings for the Khalifs. See Schefer's + "Relations du Voyage de Nassiri Khosrau," p. cxi. The + original was written in the middle of the eleventh + century. + + [578] See Duchêsne's "Historiæ Normanorum." Fol. Paris, + 1519. + + [579] Queen Matilda was not the originator of the idea + that a hero's deeds might be recorded by his wife's + needle. Penelope wove the deeds of Ulysses on her loom, + and it is suggested by Aristarchus that her peplos + served as an historical document for Homer's "Iliad." + See Rossignol's "Les Artistes Homériques," pp. 72, 73, + cited by Louis de Ronchaud in his "La Tapisserie," p. + 32. Gudrun, like the Homeric woman, embroidered the + history of Siegfried and his ancestors, and Aelfled that + of the achievements of her husband, Duke Brithnod. The + Saga of Charlemagne is said to have been embroidered on + twenty-six ells of linen, and hung in a church in + Iceland. + + [580] Domesday ed. Record Commission, under head of + Roberte de Oilgi, in co. Buckingham. See also another + entry under Wilts, where "Leivede" is spoken of as + working auriphrigium for King Edward and his Queen. + + [581] Canon Jackson, writing of embroidery, says: "That + this was cared for in the great monasteries at this + early date appears from a MS. register of Glastonbury + Abbey in the possession of the Marquis of Bath. It is + called the Liber Henrici de Soliaco, and gives an + account of the affairs of that abbey in A.D. 1189 + (Richard I.)." There was a special official whose + business it was to provide the monastery with church + ornaments generally, and specially with "aurifrigium," + or gold embroidery, on vestments. For this a house and + land, with an annual allowance of food, was set apart. + Another tenant also held some land, to which was + attached the obligation to find a "worker in + gold."--Letter from Canon Jackson to the Author. + + [582] See Mrs. Lawrence's "Woman in England," vol. i. p. + 360. She quotes an entry from Madox, a sum of £80 (equal + to £1400 of to-day) for an embroidered robe for the + Queen, paid by the Sheriffs of London. + + [583] Matthew Paris, "Vit. Abb. St. Albani." p. 46; + Rock, "Church of our Fathers," vol ii. p. 278. + + [584] See Mrs. Dolby's Introduction to "Church + Vestments." + + [585] Strutt's "Royal and Ecclesiastical Antiquities of + England," ed. mdcclxxiii. + + [586] Though the work was domestic, the materials came + from the East and the South; and while the woven gold of + Sicily and Spain was merely base metal on gilded + parchment, our laws were directed to the preservation of + pure metals for textile purposes. + + [587] Matthew Paris, "Hist. Angl.," p. 473, ed. Paris, + 1644. See Hartshorne's "Mediæval Embroideries," pp. 23, + 24. + + [588] The reproduction by the Arundel Society of this + picture will familiarize those who care for English art + with what is, perhaps, its finest example, next to the + crosses of Queen Eleanor. It has been erroneously + attributed to Van Eyk, but it is undoubtedly English. + That its art is contemporary with the time of Richard + II., is shown by the design and motives of the woven + materials and embroidery in which the king and his + attendant saints are clothed. They remind us of the + piece of silk in the Kensington Museum, into which are + woven (probably in Sicilian looms) the cognizance of the + King's grandfather, the sun with rays; that of his + mother Joan, the white hart; and his own, his dog Math. + This is a good example of the value of an individual + pattern. It helps us to affix dates to other specimens + of similar style. + + [589] See Miss Strickland's mention of the Countess of + Oxford in her "Life of Queen Elizabeth of York," p. 46. + + [590] From the fragments found, it appeared that King + John's mantle was of a strong red silk. Till lately, + when it was effaced by being completely gilt, the mantle + on the recumbent effigy was of a bright red, bordered + with gold and gems. See Greene's "Worcester," p. 3, + quoted in the "Report of the Archæological Association + of Worcester," p. 53. + + [591] "Notice sur les Attaches d'un Sceau," par M. + Léopold Delisle (Paris, 1854); and also Rock's + Introduction to "Textile Fabrics," p. xxii. + + [592] The opus Anglicanum often included borders and + orphreys set with jewellers' work (or its imitation, + worked in gold thread), gems, and pearls. + + [593] Edward III. had from William de Courtenay an + embroidered garment, "inwrought with pelicans, images, + and tabernacles of gold. The tabernacles were like + niches, with pinnacles and roofs." + + [594] Bock, "Liturgische Gewänder," i. p. 211, says + there is a piece of opus Anglicanum in the treasury of + Aix-la-Chapelle, called the Cope of Leo III. + + [595] For further notice of the "opus Anglicanum," see + chapter (_ante_) on ecclesiastical embroideries. + + [596] Appendix 11. + + [597] The orphreys are probably not the original work. + + [598] "Testamenta Vetusta," ed. Nicholas, t. i. p. 33. + + [599] Woolstrope, Lincolnshire. Collier's + "Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain," v. p. 3 (ed. + Lothbury). This proves that the monks sometimes plied + the needle. + + [600] See Hall's "Union of the Houses of York and + Lancaster," pp. lxxv-lxxxiii. + + [601] See Brewer's "Reign of Henry VIII.," vol. i. pp. + 347-376. + + [602] In the Public Record Office is an inventory of + Lord Monteagle's property, 1523 A.D.; amongst other + things, is named a piece of Spanish work, "eight + partletts garnished with gold and black silk work." This + Spanish work is rare, but the description reminds us of + a specimen belonging to Louisa, Marchioness of Waterford + (Plate 82)--a square of linen, worked with ostriches, + turkeys, and eagles in gold and black silk stitches. See + Mrs. Palliser's "History of Lace," pp. 6, 12. + + [603] Quoted from Cavendish by Miss Strickland, "Queens + of England," iv. p. 132. + + [604] "The invalid queen, in her moments of + convalescence, soothed her cares and miseries at the + embroidery frame. Many specimens of her needlework were + extant in the reign of James I., and are thus celebrated + by Taylor, the poet of the needle:-- + + "'Mary here the sceptre sway'd; + And though she were no queen of mighty power, + Her memory will never be decay'd, + Nor yet her works forgotten. In the Tower, + In Windsor Castle, and in Hampton Court,-- + In that most pompous room called Paradise,-- + Whoever pleases thither to resort, + May see some works of hers of wondrous price. + Her greatness held it no disreputation + To hold the needle in her royal hand, + Which was a good example to our nation + To banish idleness throughout the land. + And thus this queen in wisdom thought it fit; + The needle's work pleased her, and she graced it.' + + "According to Taylor, Mary finished the splendid and + elaborate tapestry begun by her mother."--Miss + Strickland's "Life of Mary Tudor," v. p. 417. + + [605] "After the action at D'Arbre de Guise, Elizabeth + (of England) sent to Henri IV. a scarf embroidered by + her own hand. 'Monsieur mon bon frère,' wrote the queen, + 'its value is naught in comparison to the dignity of the + personage for whom it is destined; but I supplicate you + to hide its defects under the wings of your good + charity, and to accept my little present in remembrance + of me.'"--"Henri IV.," by Miss Freer, p. 311. + + [606] In the year 1683 the Marchese Luca Casimiero degl' + Albizzi visited England, and his travels were recorded + in manuscript by Dr. A. Forzoni. At Windsor he observed + over a chimney-piece a finely wrought piece of + embroidery--"un educazione di fanciulli"--by the hands + of Mary Queen of Scots.--Loftie's "History of Old + London;" also article on "Royal Picture Galleries," by + George Scharf, p. 361 (1867). + + [607] "The Company of the Embroiderers can make appear + by their worthy and famous pieces of art that they have + been of ancient use and eminence, as is to be seen in + divers places at this day; but in the matter of their + incorporation, it hath relation to the fourth year of + Queen Elizabeth."--Stow's "Survey of London and + Westminster," part ii. p. 216; also see Edmonson's + "Heraldry," vol. i. (1780). "The Keepers, Wardens, and + Company of the Broiderie of London.... 2 keepers and 40 + assistants, and the livery consists of 115 members. They + have a small but convenient hall in Gutter + Lane."--Maitland's "History of London," book iii. p. + 602. + + [608] The fashion of this work began much earlier, for + we find in the inventory of "St. James's House, nigh + Westminster," 1549: "42 Item. A table wherein is a man + holding a sword in his one hand and a sceptre in his + other hand of needlework, partly garnished with seed + pearl" (p. 307). + + [609] The merit or blame of this rounded padded work (a + caricature of the raised embroidery of the opus + Anglicanum) is often erroneously awarded to the "nuns of + Little Gidding." The earliest specimens we know of this + "embroidery on the stamp" are German. At Coire in the + Grisons, at Zurich (see chapter on ecclesiastical art), + and in the National Museum at Munich are some very + beautiful examples. The Italians also executed elaborate + little pictures in this manner; but I cannot praise it + however refined in execution or beautiful the design. I + have seen no English specimens that are not beneath + criticism; they are only funny. + + [610] In the Calendar of the State Papers Office + (Domestic, Charles I., vol. clxix. p. 12), Mrs. H. + Senior sues the Earl of Thomond for £200 per annum, her + pay for teaching his daughter needlework. Mrs. + Hutchinson, in her Memoir, says she had eight tutors + when she was seven years old, and one of them taught her + needlework. This shows how highly this accomplishment + was still considered in the days of Charles I. and the + Commonwealth. Later, Evelyn speaks of the "new bed of + Charles II.'s queen, the embroidery of which cost £3000" + (Evelyn's Memoirs, January 24, 1687). Evelyn says of his + own daughter Susanna, who married William Draper: "She + had a peculiar talent in designe, as painting in oil and + miniature, and an extraordinary genius for whatever + hands can do with a needle." See Evelyn's "Memoirs," + April 27, 1693; also see Mrs. Palliser's "History of + Lace," pp. 7, 8. + + [611] The tree-pattern, already common in the latter + days of Elizabeth, reappeared on a dress worn by the + Duchess of Queensberry, and described by Mrs. Delany; + she says, "A white satin embroidered at the bottom with + brown hills, covered with all sorts of weeds, and with a + brown stump, broken and worked in chenille, and + garlanded nasturtiums, honeysuckles, periwinkles, + convolvuluses, and weeds, many of the leaves finished + with gold." Mrs. Delany does not appreciate this ancient + pattern. + + [612] Queen Mary only knotted fringes. Bishop Burnett + says: "It was strange to see a queen work so many hours + a day." Sir E. Sedley, in his epigram on the "Royal + Knotter," says,-- + + "Who, when she rides in coach abroad, + Is always knotting threads." + + Probably it was the fashion, as Madame de Maintenon + always worked during her drives with the king, which + doubtless prevented her dying of _ennui_! + + [613] I quote from the _Spectator_, No. 606: "Let no + virgin receive her lover, except in a suit of her own + embroidery." + + [614] Her style was really legitimate to the art. It was + flower-painting with the needle. Miss Moritt copied both + figures and landscapes, with wonderful taste and + knowledge of drawing. Miss Linwood's and Mrs. Delany's + productions are justly celebrated as _tours de force_, + but they caused the downfall of the art by leading it on + the wrong track. + + [615] Lord Houghton alludes to H.R.H.'s patronage of the + revival of embroidery in his paraphrase of the "Story of + Arachne," p. 238, _ante_. + + [616] "Opposed to the 'utility stitches' are the art + needlework schools that have branched out in many + directions from New York.... The impulse that led to + their formation was derived from South Kensington + (England), and affords a striking instance of the + ramifications of an organization."--_Atlantic Monthly_ + ("Women in Organization"), Sept., 1880. + + +FINIS. + + + + +APPENDICES. + + +APPENDIX I., TO PAGE 105. + +_By Ch. T. Newton._ + +Though the embroidered and richly decorated textile fabrics of the +ancients have perished, all but a few scraps, we may form some idea of +the richness and variety of Greek female attire from the evidence of +the inventories of dedicated articles of dress which have been +preserved for us in Greek inscriptions. + +In the Acropolis at Athens have been found a number of fragments of +marble on which are inscribed lists of various female garments +dedicated, for the most part, in the Temple of Artemis Brauronia, in +the Archonship of Lykurgos, B.C. 338-35. These articles were thus +carefully registered because they formed part of the treasures +dedicated to the gods of the Acropolis, which it was the duty of the +state to guard, and to commit to the custody of officers specially +selected for that duty. One of these fragments is in the Elgin +Collection at the British Museum, and has been published by Mr. Hicks +in the "Collection of Ancient Greek Inscriptions in the British +Museum," Part 1, No 34; and the entire series has since been given to +the world in the "Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum" of the Academy of +Berlin, ii., Part 2., Nos. 751-65. + +The material of these garments seems to have been either linen or fine +woollen; the colours white, purple, or some shade of red, mostly used +as a border or in stripes; or a shade of green, the tint of which is +described as "frog colour," saffron, or sea-green. + +The borders and patterns noted remind us of those represented on the +garments of figures in vase pictures, such as the embattled border, +the wave pattern, and certain patterns in rectangular compartments. A +group of Dionysos pouring out a libation while a female serves him +with wine, and a row of animals, are also noted among the ornaments. + +The inscription, "Sacred to Artemis," woven into the fabric of the +garment, occurs twice. Gold, as an ornament fixed on the dress, is +mentioned in these entries. It is noted that some of these dresses +served to deck the statue of the goddess herself. Most of the garments +are the _chiton_ or tunic, flowing to the feet; the _chitoniskos_, a +shorter and more ornamental garment worn over it; and the mantle, +_himation_. Pieces of cloth or rags are also mentioned among the +entries; these were probably the remnants of cast-off garments +dedicated by their wearers. Some of the dresses are described as +embroidered with the needle. + +In the worship of the Artemis Brauronia, certain Athenian girls +between the ages of five and ten were solemnly dedicated to the +goddess every five years. In publishing the inventory in the British +Museum already referred to, Mr. Hicks remarks, "It may have been the +custom sometimes to dedicate to the goddess the garments worn by +children at their presentation, just as we know that the garments in +which persons had been initiated at the Greater Eleusinia were worn by +them until threadbare, and then dedicated to some god. If so, the +number of children's clothes mentioned in our inventory is easily +explained. Or were these the clothes of children cut off by Artemis in +infancy, such as bereaved mothers nowadays often treasure for years, +having no temple wherein to dedicate them?" Mr. Hicks further remarks +that it was usual for the bride before marriage to dedicate her girdle +to Artemis; and at Athens the garments of women who died in childbirth +were likewise in like manner so dedicated. It is probably on account +of such dedications that Artemis was styled Chitonè--the goddess of +the _chiton_. + +Another list of vestments is preserved in an inscription found at +Samos, and published by Carl Curtius in his "Inschriften u. Studien +zur Geschichte von Samos," pp. 17-21. The garments in this list were +dedicated to the goddess Herè (Juno) in her celebrated temple at +Samos. The entries relate chiefly to articles of female attire, but +some few are dedicated to the god Hermes. Some of these articles were +doubtless worn by the deities themselves on festive occasions, when +their statues were decked out. The toilet, _kosmos_, of goddesses was +superintended by a priestess specially chosen for that purpose. She +was called _kosmeteira_, or "Mistress of the Robes." + +In the Samian list of garments, those which are embroidered or +ornamented with gold are specially noted. Some of the tunics are +described as Lydian. Curtains or hangings are also mentioned in this +list. These must have been used to ornament the interior of the +temple, or to screen off the statue of the goddess on the days when +she was withdrawn from the gaze of the profane. Such hangings were, +probably, a main cause of the conflagrations by which Greek temples +were from time to time destroyed in spite of the solidity of their +walls. + + +APPENDIX II., TO PAGE 210. + +In the Castle of Moritzburg, built by Augustus the Strong, Elector of +Saxony and King of Poland, is a quaint apartment, on the walls of +which are hung rugs of feather-work, of which the borders are adorned +with set patterns of fruit and flowers, and the colouring is as soft +as a Gobelins tapestry. The feathers are woven tightly into the warp, +in the same manner as the tufts are set in a velvety carpet; forming a +surface as delicate as silk to the touch. There are four high-backed +chairs covered with the same work in smaller patterns. But what is +especially remarkable is an immense canopy, like that of a state bed, +with urn-shaped ornaments of stiff feathers at the corners; and a +pretty bell-shaped fringe of scarlet feathers. The same ornament edged +a large rug like those on the wall, thrown over what at first appeared +to be a bed; but on examination it was found to be a rough wooden +platform, said to be the throne of Montezuma. The story is that +Augustus the Strong went to Spain incognito at the age of eighteen, in +search of adventures, and distinguished himself at a bull-fight. When +the king (Charles II.) heard the name of the young hero, he gave him a +hospitable reception, and afterwards sent these Mexican treasures to +him as a token of friendship. + + +APPENDIX III., TO PAGE 237. + +_Story of Arachne, abridged by Earl Cowper from Ovid's Metamorphoses._ + + Arachne's tale of grief is full: + Her father was of low degree; + No thought beyond his crimson'd wool, + His daughter and his wife had he. + + The wife had fill'd an early tomb, + The daughter lived--and all the land + Of Lydia boasted of her loom, + Her needle, and her dexterous hand. + + To watch her task the nymphs repair + From fair Timolus' vine-clad hill; + They deem the work divinely fair, + The maid when working fairer still. + + The softness of the fleecy ball, + By skilful fingers taught to flow + In lengthening lines--they watch'd it all-- + And round and round the spindle go. + + Wondering, they view the rich design: + Ah, luckless gift! ah, foolish pride! + 'Twas Pallas taught the art divine, + But this the haughty maid denied. + + "Me taught," she cried, "by Pallas! Me + By Pallas! Let the goddess first + Accept my challenge. Then, should she + Surpass me, let her do her worst." + + Vain, impious words! The goddess came + In likeness of an ancient crone, + With grizzled locks and tottering frame, + And spoke with warning in her tone. + + "Though matchless in thine art," she cried, + "Though first of mortals, tempt not fate. + Age makes me wise. Thou hast defied + A goddess. It is not too late." + + The unhappy maid, with madness blind, + Replied, and scarce restrain'd the blow. + "'Tis plain, old woman, that your mind + Is drivelling to address me so. + + "Some daughter or some slave may want + Your counsel. Let her but appear, + This mighty Pallas whom you vaunt!" + The goddess answer'd, "She is here." + + She spoke, and lo! that ancient crone + Was young and fair, and tall and proud: + --The nymphs fell prostrate. She alone-- + Arachne--neither shrank nor bow'd. + + One blush quick came and pass'd away, + Hovering as clouds, when night is done, + Grow rosy at the dawn of day, + Then whiten with the rising sun. + + She did not shrink--she did not pause-- + But headlong to destruction ran; + And thus the strife ordain'd to cause + Such dark calamity began. + + Each for the contest takes her stand-- + The goddess here, the mortal there-- + And each proceeds with skilful hand + The means of victory to prepare. + + The beam each loom supports full well, + And to the loom the warp is tied; + Nor will I now forget to tell + The reed that doth the warp divide. + + The woof the shuttle in doth bring, + The nimble fingers guide its way; + And still from either work-frame ring + The blows inflicted by the slay. + + Each to her bosom binds her vest: + The arms of each, quick moving, feel + No sense of toil, no need of rest, + For weariness is quench'd by zeal. + + And all the gorgeous tints of Tyre + In varying shades are mingled there; + And every hue the sun's bright fire + Can kindle in the showery air,-- + + When the wide rainbow spans the sky; + The bow whose colours, in the end + So different, yet so like when nigh, + In harmony's own concord blend,-- + + And precious threads of glittering gold + Enrich the growing web. But say! + What ancient tale by each was told? + What legend of an earlier day? + + Pallas her well-known triumph drew; + The gods assembled in their force, + And Neptune with his trident, too, + Exulting in the fiery horse,-- + + Which from the rock he made to bound: + But she herself, more deeply wise, + A greater blessing from the ground + The olive brought, and gain'd the prize. + + The border of this main design + With Rhodope's sad tale was set; + And all who dared the gods divine + To rival--and the fate they met. + + Meanwhile Arachne wove the wool: + The web with many a picture shone. + She drew Europa with her bull, + And Leda with her snow-white swan. + + Deois with her snake display'd, + And Danäe with her shower of gold; + And many a tale besides the maid, + Had fate permitted, would have told. + + But the dread goddess now no more + To check her rising envy strove; + The half-completed task she tore, + And all the pictured crimes of Jove. + + The shuttle thrice the air did rend, + Thrice did the heaven-directed blow + Full on Arachne's head descend, + And made her purple blood to flow. + + Arachne's soul was proud and high: + She drew a cruel cord around + Her tender neck--and, driven to die, + Was from a beam suspended found. + + Her death the unpitying goddess stay'd; + "Henceforth, vain fool! for such a crime + For ever shall thou hang," she said; + "A warning to the end of time." + + In scorn she spoke, and over all + Her rival's face and form she smear'd + A deadly drug. The head grew small, + And each fair feature disappear'd. + + And off the beauteous tresses fell; + The tender waist that was so slim, + In loathly sort was seen to swell, + Shrivell'd and shrank each comely limb. + + The spider's fingers still remain + To spin for ever.--We may vie + With fellow mortals, but 'tis vain + To struggle with the gods on high. + + _January, 1885._ COWPER. + + +APPENDIX IV., TO PAGE 318. + +_Extract from "History of Christian Art." By Lord Lindsay. Vol. i. pp. +136-139._ + +"But perhaps the noblest testimony to the revival under the Comneni is +afforded by the designs on the Dalmatic or sacerdotal robe, commonly +styled 'Di Papa San Leone,' preserved in the sacristy of St. +Peter's--said to have been embroidered at Constantinople for the +coronation of Charlemagne as Emperor of the West, but fixed by German +criticism as a production of the twelfth, or the early part of the +thirteenth century. The Emperors wore it ever after, when serving as +deacons at the Pope's altar during their coronation-mass. You will +think little of it at first sight, and lay it aside as a piece of +darned and faded tapestry, yet I would stake on it, alone, the +reputation of Byzantine art. And you must recollect, too, that +embroidery is but a poor substitute for the informing hand and the +lightning stroke of genius. + +It is a large robe of stiff brocade, falling in broad and unbroken +folds in front and behind,--broad and deep enough for the Goliath-like +stature and the Herculean chest of Charlemagne himself. On the breast, +the Saviour is represented in glory, on the back the Transfiguration, +and on the two shoulders Christ administering the Eucharist to the +Apostles. + +The composition on the breast is an amplification of No. V. (as above +enumerated) of the Personal traditional compositions.--In the centre +of a golden circle of glory, 'Jesus Christ, the Resurrection and the +Life,' robed in white, with the youthful and beardless face, his eyes +directly looking into yours, sits upon the rainbow, his feet resting +on the winged wheels[617] of Ezekiel, his left hand holding an open +book, inscribed with the invitation, 'Come, ye blessed of My +Father,'--his right raised in benediction. At the four corners of the +circular glory, resting on them, half within it, half without, float +the emblems of the four Evangelists; the Virgin and the Baptist stand +to the right and left of our Saviour, the Baptist without, the Virgin +entirely within the glory, the only figure that is so placed; she is +sweet in feature and graceful in attitude, in her long white robe. + +Above Our Saviour's head, and from the top of the golden circle, rises +the Cross, with the crown of thorns suspended upon it, the spear +resting on one side, the reed with the sponge on the other, and the +sun and moon looking down upon it from the sky. + +The heavenly host and the company of the blessed form a circle of +adoration around this central glory; angels occupying the upper part, +emperors, patriarchs, monks and nuns the lower; at the extremity, on +the left side, appears Mary Magdalen, in her penitence--a thin +emaciated figure, imperfectly clothed, and with dishevelled hair. + +In the corners, below this grand composition, appear, to the right, +St. John the Baptist, holding the cross, and pointing upwards to Our +Saviour; to the left, Abraham seated, a child on his lap, and resting +his hand on another by his side. + +The background and scene of the whole composition is of blue, to +represent heaven,--studded with stars, shaped like the Greek cross. + +The Transfiguration, which corresponds to this subject on the back of +the robe, is the traditional composition, only varied by the unusual +shape of the vesica piscis which encloses Our Saviour. The two +compositions representing the Institution of the Eucharist, on the +shoulders, are better executed and more original. In each of them, Our +Saviour, a stiff but majestic figure, stands behind the altar, on +which are deposited a chalice and a paten or basket containing crossed +wafers. He gives, in the one case, the cup to St. Paul, in the other +the bread to St. Peter,--they do not kneel, but bend reverently to +receive it; five other disciples await their turn in each +instance,--all are standing. + +I do not apprehend your being disappointed with the 'Dalmatica di San +Leone,' or your dissenting from my conclusion, that a master, a +Michael Angelo I might almost say, then flourished at Byzantium. + +It was in this Dalmatic--then _semée_ all over with pearls and +glittering in freshness--that Cola di Rienzi robed himself over his +armour in the sacristy of St. Peter's, and thence ascended to the +Palace of the Popes, after the manner of the Cæsars, with sounding +trumpets and his horsemen following him--his truncheon in his hand and +his crown on his head--'terribile e fantastico,' as his biographer +describes him--to wait upon the legate.[618]" + +FOOTNOTES: + + [617] In the 'Manual of Dionysius,' recently published + by M. Didron (p. 71, &c.), these winged wheels are + interpreted as signifying the order of angels commonly + distinguished as Thrones. Their interpretation as the + Covenants of the Law and Gospel, sanctioned by St. + Gregory the Great in his Homilies, is certainly more + sublime and instructive. + + [618] Cited from the original life, printed in + Muratori's 'Antiquit. Ital. Medii Ævi,' tom. viii., by + M. Sulpice Boisserée, in his essay, 'Ueber die + Kaiser-Dalmatica,' &c. + + +APPENDIX V., TO PAGE 320. + +The Hon. and Rev. Ignatius Clifford has permitted me to make extracts +from his "Memoranda of some remarkable Specimens of Ancient Church +Embroidery." First on his list is the Cope now in the possession of +Colonel Butler Bowden, of Pleasington, near Blackburn, Lancashire. I +give his account of the mutilated condition, from which he has made +his beautifully drawn restoration. "Formerly," he says, "portions of +this cope, some made up into chasuble, stole, maniple, and some scraps +detached, were at Mount St. Mary's College, Spink Hill, near +Chesterfield, Derbyshire." + +The well-known architect, the late Augustus Welby Pugin, having seen +them (or at least the chasuble), wrote on the 20th April, 1849, to the +Rector of the College, "I found it to be of English work of the time +of Edward I., and have no hesitation in pronouncing it to be the most +interesting and beautiful specimen of church embroidery I have ever +seen." + +Other portions of the cope had been made up into an altar-frontal, and +were in the possession of Henry Bowden, Esq., of Southgate House, +Derbyshire, some four or five miles from the college. + +The ground is crimson velvet. The designs are wrought in gold, silver, +silk, and seed pearls. The silks are worked in chain, or rather in +split stitch. It contains between seventy and eighty figures. + +Only two small fragments remain of the quasi-hood. + +In the orphrey are kings, queens, archbishops, and bishops. In the +body of the cope are the Annunciation--Adoration of the Magi--Our Lady +enthroned at the right of her Divine Son. _Lowest row_ of single +figures--St. Simon, St. Jude, St. James, St. Thomas, St. Andrew, St. +Peter, St. Paul, St. Barnabas, St. Matthew, St. Philip, St. James, St. +Bartholomew. _Middle row_--St. Edward the Confessor--a Bishop--St. +Margaret, St. John the Evangelist, St. John the Baptist, St. +Catherine, an Archbishop, St. Edmund king and martyr. _Top row_--St. +Lawrence, St. Mary Magdalene, St. Martha (or St. Helen?), St. Stephen. +In the intervals, angels seated on faldstool thrones, and bearing +stars; also two popinjays. + +Mr. Clifford describes the Steeple Aston Cope. The ground is of a +richly ribbed faded silk. The design worked in gold and silks is +enclosed in quatrefoils of oak and ivy. The Syon Cope he refers to +Rock's "Textile Fabrics." See Appendix. + +The Dalmatic from Anagni, exhibited at Rome in 1870, he thinks is +probably English. + +The Pluvial in the Basilica of St. John Lateran at Rome, he speaks of +as "having much the appearance of the celebrated Opus Anglicanum." + +He describes the subjects embroidered on it thus: "No border round the +curved edge. The orphrey is divided into tabernacles containing an +archbishop, two bishops, and three kings and queens. Between the +tabernacles are four angels, each accompanied by one of the +evangelistic symbols. The body of the cope is cut into a most +elaborate system of tabernacles, with a centre compartment of a +different form for the group of the Crucifixion. The subjects are +chiefly from the life of our Lord and the Blessed Virgin. The small +quasi-hood is embroidered with two wyverns or griffin-like creatures. +The pelican and the phœnix are introduced over the top central +group of the enthronement of our Lady." + +Mr. Clifford gives the history of the Cope of Pius II. (Bartolomeo +Piccolomini, "Æneas Silvius") fifteenth century. It is a masterpiece +of Italian embroidery of the early Renaissance. The material was gold +brocade, covered with wonderful designs carried out in needlework, +representing saints and angels, trees and birds, and arabesques. The +whole was adorned with pearls and precious stones valued at £80,000. +At his death the pope bequeathed this vestment to the cathedral of his +native town. The cope was stolen in March, 1884, from the treasury at +Pienza; and shortly afterwards discovered in the shop of a dealer in +antiquities at Florence, but completely stripped of its precious +stones and of some of its more valuable embroidery. After magisterial +investigation, the cope was restored to Pienza. + +The cope at Bologna is thus described: "Subjects from the New +Testament contained in two rows of tabernacle compartments, twelve in +lower, seven in upper row. Spandrils occupied by angels playing on +various musical instruments. After each row, a border containing +medallions with heads (of angels, prophets, &c.), twenty-three in +lower, nine in upper row. No orphrey; no border or outside curve; +quasi-hood very small." + + +APPENDIX VI., TO PAGE 326. + +_From Rock's "Textiles," p. 275._ + +"The Syon Monastery Cope; ground green, with crimson interlacing +barbed quatrefoils, enclosing figure of our Lord, the Blessed Virgin +Mary, the Apostles, with winged cherubim standing on wheels in the +intervening spaces, and the orphreys, morse, and hem wrought with +armorial bearings; the whole done in gold, silver, and various +coloured silks. English needlework, thirteenth century; 9 feet 7 +inches by 4 feet 8 inches. + +"This handsome cope, so very remarkable on account of its +comparatively perfect preservation, is one of the most beautiful among +the several liturgical vestments of the olden period anywhere to be +now found in Christendom. If by all lovers of mediæval antiquity it +will be looked upon as so valuable a specimen of art of its kind and +time, for every Englishman it ought to have a double interest, +showing, as it does, such a splendid and instructive example of the +opus 'Anglicum,' or English work, which won itself so wide a fame, and +was so eagerly sought after throughout the whole of Europe during the +Middle Ages." + +Dr. Rock gives a list of the subjects. St. Michael overcoming Satan +(from Rev. xii. 7, 9). The next quatrefoil above this is filled with +the Crucifixion. Here the Blessed Virgin is arrayed in a green tunic, +and a golden mantle lined with vair; her head is kerchiefed, and her +uplifted hands sorrowfully clasped. St. John--whose dress is all of +gold--is on the left, at the foot of the cross, upon which the +Saviour, wrought all in silver--a most unusual thing--with a cloth of +gold wrapped about His loins, is fastened by three (not four) +nails.... In the highest quatrefoil is figured the Redeemer in glory, +crowned as a king, and seated on a cushioned throne. Resting upon His +knee and steadied by His hand is the Mund, or ball representing the +earth.... This is divided into three parts, of which the largest, an +upper horizontal hemicycle, is coloured crimson (now faded to a +brownish tint), but the lower hemicycle is divided vertically in two, +of which one portion is coloured green, and the other white or +silvered.... + +The next two subjects to be described are--one on the right hand, the +death of the Blessed Virgin Mary; the other, on the left, her +burial.... + +Below the burial we have our Lord in the garden, signified by two +trees; still wearing the crown of thorns; our Lord in His left hand +holds the banner of the Resurrection, and with His right bestows His +benediction on the kneeling Magdalene, who is wimpled, and wears a +mantle of green, shot yellow, over a light purple tunic. + +Below, but outside the quatrefoil, is a layman clad in gold, upon his +knees, and holding a long, narrow scroll bearing words which cannot +now be satisfactorily read. + +Lowermost of all we see the Apostle St. Philip, with a book in one +hand, in the other the flaying knife. + +A little above him St. Peter, with his two keys, one gold, the other +silver; and somewhat under him is St. Andrew with his cross. On the +other side of St. Michael and the Dragon is St. James the +Greater--sometimes called of Compostella, because he lies buried in +that Spanish city--with a book in one hand and in the other a staff, +and slung from his wrist a wallet, both emblems of pilgrimage to his +shrine in Galicia.... In the next quatrefoil above is St. Paul with +his sword, and over to the right St. Thomas; still further to the +right St. James the Less. Just above is our Saviour, clad in a golden +tunic, and carrying a staff, overcoming the unbelief of St. Thomas. +Upon his knees that Apostle feels, with his right hand held by the +Redeemer, the spear wound in His side. + +As at the left side, so here, quite outside the sacred history on the +cope, we have the figure of an individual probably living at the time +the vestment was wrought. The dress of the other shows him to be a +layman; by the shaven crown of his head, this person must have been a +cleric of some sort; but we cannot tell ... for the canvas is worn +quite bare, so that we see nothing now but the lines drawn in black to +guide the embroiderer.... This Churchman holds up another scroll +bearing words which can no longer be read. + +"When this cope was new, it showed, written in tall gold letters more +than an inch high, an inscription now cut up and lost ... the word +_ne_, and a V on some of the shreds are all that remains of it. + +"In its original state it could give us the whole of the twelve +Apostles. Portions can still be seen.... The lower part of the +vestment has been sadly cut away, and reshaped with the fragments; +perhaps at that time were added the present heraldic orphrey, morse, +and border, probably fifty years later than the other portions of this +matchless specimen of the far-famed 'Opus Anglicum.'" "Of angels," +the "nine choirs," and the three great hierarchies, Cherubim, +Seraphim, and Thrones, are figured here. Led a good way by Ezekiel, +but not following that prophet step by step, our mediæval draughtsmen +found out for themselves a certain angel form. To this they gave a +human shape, that of a comely youth; clothing him with six wings, with +human feet; instead of the body being full of eyes, the wings are +often composed of the bright-eyed feathers of the peacock. On this +cope the eight angels standing upon wheels are so placed that they are +everywhere nearest to those quatrefoils wherein our Lord's Person +comes, and may therefore be taken as representing the upper hierarchy +of the angelic host. The other angels, not upon wheels, no doubt +belong to the second hierarchy; while those that have but one pair of +wings (not three) represent the lowest hierarchy. "All, like our Lord, +are barefoot. All of them have their hands lifted in prayer.... For +every lover of English heraldry this cope, so plentifully blazoned +with armorial bearings, will have a special value, equal to that +belonging to many an ancient roll of arms." The orphrey, morse and hem +contain the arms of Warwick, Castile and Leon, Ferrars, Geneville +Everard, the badge of the Knights Templars, Clifford, Spencer, Lemisi +or Lindsey, Le Botiler, Sheldon, Monteney of Essex, Champernoun, +England, Tyddeswall, Grandeson, FitzAlan, Hampden, Percy, Chambowe, +Ribbesford, Bygod, Roger de Mortimer, Golbare or Grove, De +Bassingburn, with many others not recognized, and frequent +repetitions.... "Besides their heraldry, squares at each corner are +wrought with swans and peacocks of curious interest for every lover of +mediæval symbolism...." These coats of arms, being mostly blazoned on +lozenge-shaped shields, suggest that possibly they record those of the +noble ladies who worked the border; while those on circles may be the +arms of religious houses or donors. + +"A word or two upon the needlework; how it was done; and the now +unused mechanical appliance to it after it was wrought, so observable +on this vestment, lending its figures more effect." + +"We find that for the human face, all over this cope, the first +stitches were begun in the centre of the cheek, and worked in circular +lines, into which, after the first start, they fell, and were so +carried on through the rest of the flesh tints. + +"Then with a little iron rod, ending in a small bulb slightly heated, +were pressed down those parts of the faces worked in circles, as well +as the wide dimple in the throat. By the hollows thus sunk a play of +light and shadow is brought out that lends to the parts so treated a +look of being done in low relief. Upon the lightly clothed figure of +our Lord the same process is followed, and shows a noteworthy example +of the mediæval knowledge of external anatomy. + +"We must not, however, hide from ourselves that the unequal surfaces, +given by such a use of the hot iron to parts of the work, expose it to +the danger of being worn by friction more than other parts, and soon +betray the damage by their threadbare, dingy look, as is the case in +the example just cited. The method for grounding the quatrefoils is +remarkable for being done in a long zigzag diaper pattern (laid +stitch).... + +"The stitching on the armorial bearings is the same as that now +followed in many trifling things worked in wool (cross stitch). + +"The canvas (or linen) for every part of this cope is of the finest +sort, but its crimson canvas lining is thick and coarse.... + +"A word or two about the history of this fine cope...." + +Dr. Rock now enters into the history of the guilds, which included +noble laymen and women, and members of the clergy; and tells us that +the rolls of these associations sometimes grew to be exceedingly +wealthy. He says that each of these guilds had usually in its parish +church a chapel or altar of its own, splendidly provided for, to which +offerings were spontaneously given by individuals, or by members +clubbing together that their joint gift might be the more worthy. + +Perhaps the cleric and the layman worked on the cope may have been the +donors. Dr. Rock suggests that possibly Coventry may have been the +place of its origin, "where the famous Corpus Christi plays" (which +this cope so well illustrates) "drew crowds every year to see them, as +is testified by the Paston letters. Taking this old city as a centre, +with a radius of no great length, we may draw a circle on the map +enclosing Tamworth, tower and town, Chartley castle, Warwick, +Charlcote, and Althorp. The lords of these broad lands would, in +accordance with the religious feelings of those times, become brothers +of the famous Guild of Coventry, and on account of their high rank +find their arms embroidered on the vestments belonging to their +fraternity. That such a pious queen as the gentle Eleanor, wife of +Edward the First, who died 1290, should have in her lifetime become a +sister is very likely, so that we may easily account for the +shield--Castile and Leon." + +The other noble shields may possibly record munificent benefactions. +"The whole must have taken very long in the working, and the +probability is that it was embroidered by the nuns of some convent +which stood in or near Coventry.... + +"Upon the banks of the Thames at Isleworth, near London, Henry V. +built and munificently endowed a monastery, to be called 'Syon,' for +the nuns of St. Bridget's order. Among the earliest friends of this +new house was a Master Thomas Graunt, an official in one of the +Ecclesiastical Courts of the kingdom. In the Syon Nun's +Martyrologium--a valuable MS. lately bought by the British +Museum--this Churchman is gratefully recorded as the giver to their +convent of several precious ornaments, of which this very cope +seemingly is one. It was the custom for a guild or religious body to +bestow some rich church vestment upon an ecclesiastical advocate who +had befriended it by his pleadings before the tribunal, and thus to +convey their thanks to him with his fee. After such a fashion this +cope might easily have found its way, through Dr. Graunt, from +Warwickshire to Middlesex. + +"At the beginning of Elizabeth's reign it went with the nuns, as they +wandered in an unbroken body through Flanders, France, and Portugal, +where they halted. About sixty years ago it came back again from +Lisbon to England, and has found a home in the South Kensington +Museum." + +For want of space I have been obliged to omit a great deal of Dr. +Rock's interesting account of the Syon Cope. The reader is referred +for further details, especially regarding the heraldry and the +subjects in the quatrefoils, to Rock's "Textile Fabrics," pp. 275-291, +in the South Kensington Museum (No. 9182). + + +APPENDIX VII., TO PAGE 350. + +The Assyrians were great in fringes. Of this we can judge from their +sculptures, in which the rich deep and broad fringe forms the ornament +and accentuates the shaping of the garments of kings and priests and +nobles. Loftus, in his "Babylon and Susiana," tells of the only +actually existing remnant of their textile art of which I can find any +record. Some terra-cotta coffins were opened at Warka (the ancient +Erech), and in one of them was a cushion, on which the head, gone to +dust, had reposed. It was covered with linen--fringed. Nothing else +had survived the ages except a huge wig of false hair. Such +fragmentary echoes from a life, a civilization, and an art dead for +thousands of years, are curiously pathetic, and touch and startle the +thinking mind. + + +APPENDIX VIII., TO PAGE 369. + +The following poem from the Anglo-Saxon poem of Beowulf shows that the +hospitable hall of the Saxon earl was hung with tapestry embroidered +with gold. + + Fœla pœra was + Much people were + Wera and Wifa pe pat win rued + Men and women who that wine house + Gest sele gyredon gold fag scinon + That guest-hall garnished. Cloths embroidered with gold + Web-after wagum. Wundersiòna feld + Those along the walls many wonderful sights + Sioga gustryleum para pe on swyle stara ♀ + To every person of those that gaze on such. + + Translation by Thomas Arnold. + +The poem of Beowulf is supposed to have been written in the early part +of the twelfth century. + +The lines which follow are from a poem, recomposed from earlier sagas, +in the beginning of the twelfth century. It serves to show that arras +was used in bedrooms thus early in Germany. + +From the "Niebelungen Lied," übersetzt von Karl Simrock, p. 294. + + Manche schmucke Decke von Arras da lag + Aus lichthellem Zeuge und manches Ueberdach + Aus arabischer Seides so gut sie mochte sein, + Darüber lagen leisten du gaben herrlicher Schein. + +I owe these notices to the kindness of the Rev. A. O. Winnington +Ingram. + + +APPENDIX IX., TO PAGE 362. + +_Abridged from Trans. by Sir G. Dasent._ + +(_From the Ezrbyggja Saga._) + +In that summer in which Christianity was established by law in Iceland +(A.D. 1000), there came a ship from off the sea out to Snowfellsness, +in Iceland. It was a Dublin ship, and on board it were Irishmen and +men from Sodor and the Hebrides, but few Norsemen.... On board the +ship was a woman from the Hebrides, whose name was Thorgunna. Her +shipmates said that they were sure she had such treasures with her as +would be hard to get in Iceland. + +Thurida, the housewife at Frida, was envious and covetous of these +precious goods, and received Thorgunna into her home in hopes, by some +means, to possess herself of them, especially the embroidered hangings +of a bed; but Thorgunna refused to part with them. "I will not lie in +the straw for thee, though thou art a fine lady, and thinkest great +things of thyself." Thorgunna made her own terms with Thurida and +Master Harold, and set up her bed at the inner end of their hall. Her +richly worked bed-clothes, her English sheets and silken quilt, and +her bed-hangings and canopy were such "that men thought nothing at all +like them had ever been seen." An air of truth is given to the whole +story by the details. Thorgunna is described as "tall and strong and +very stout. She was swarthy brown, with eyes set close together; her +hair was brown and very thick. She was well-behaved in daily life, and +went to church every morning before she went to her work." Then comes +an account of a storm, and a rain of blood; and how Thorgunna sickened +and died, and at her own desire was carried to be buried to Skilholt, +which she prophesied would one day be considered holy, and that +priests might there sing dirges over her. + +There is a curious and picturesque account of the two days' journey to +Skilholt, and the adventures that befell the funeral cortége; +including the incident of the corpse cooking the supper of the convoy +at an inhospitable farmhouse where they had sought refuge and received +no entertainment. + +On Harold's return home after the funeral, he proceeded to carry out +the wishes of Thorgunna, who had warned him that the ownership of her +embroidered hangings would cause trouble, and therefore she had +desired they should be burned. Thurida, however, could not bear to +lose them, and persuaded Harold to spare them. "After this followed +many signs and portents, and deaths of men and women, and apparitions +of ghosts, until Kjartan (Thurida's son) brought out all Thorgunna's +bed-hangings and furniture, and burned them in the fire." + + +APPENDIX X., TO PAGE 365. + +Aelfled or Athelfleda was the founder of a race of embroiderers. Their +pedigree is as follows:-- + + BRITHNOD, === ATHELFLEDA. + a Northumberland | She embroidered the + Chief or Alderman. | daring deeds of her husband. + | + LEOFLEDA. === KING OSWIC. + | Oswic's sister Aedelfleda was + | adopted by Hilda, Abbess of Whitby. + | She succeeded Hilda, and died 713. + | She was a great embroiderer. + ___________|___________ + | | | + AELFWIN. AELSWITH. LEOFWED. + | + AELSWITH. + +Leofwed made her will in the time of King Cnut; dividing her revenue +between her daughter Aelswith and the Abbey of Ely. Aelswith accepted +the residence of Coveney, a small property belonging to the convent, +and there she embroidered with her maidens. See Liber Eliensis, ed. D. +J. Stewart, "Anglia Christiana," vol. i., 1848. + + +APPENDIX XI., TO PAGE 377. + +In the Statutes at Large there is the following in vol. i. p. 526 (in +old French):-- + +2 Henry VI. + +A penalty on deceitful workers of gold and silver embroidery. + +Item. pur ceo que diverses defautes sont trovez en loveraigne de +diverses persons occupiantz le mestier de brouderie. Ordonnez est & +assentiez, que tout loveraigne & stuff de brouderie d'or ou d'argent +de Cipre ou d'or de Luke melle avec laton de Spayne & mys a vent en +deceit des lieges du Roi sont forfait au Roi ou as Seigneurs et autres +accenz franchises d'autielx forfaitures ein quy franchise autiel +overaigne soit trouvée et durera c'est ordinance longue parlement +prochainement avenir. + +33 Henry VI. + +That if any Lombard or any other person, Stranger or Denizen, bring or +cause to be brought by way of merchandize any wrought silk thrown, +Ribbands, Laces, Corses of Silk, or any other thing wrought, touching +or concerning the mystery of Silk women, the corses which come from +Genoa only excepted, into any part or place of the Realm from beyond +the Sea, that the same ... be forfeit. + +3 Edward IV. + +Whereby the importation of any wrought silk thrown, Ribbands, Laces, +Corses of Silk, or other things wrought, concerning the craft of Silk +women is prohibited or restrained. + +22 Edward IV. + +That no Marchant, Stranger, nor other person shall bring into the +Realm to be sold, any Corses, Girdles, Ribbands, Laces, Coll. Silk or +Colein Silk, thrown or wrought, upon pain of forfeiture of the same. + +Also Richard III. "An Act touching the bringing in of Silk Laces, +Ribbands, &c." + +Also 19 Henry VII. "An Act for Silk Women." + +These acts appear to have been partially repealed, 3 and 5 George III. + + + + +INDEX. + + + Achilles, shield of, 33, 103. + + Aelgitha, wife of Canute, embroideries by, 366. + + Æsthetic, 17, 90, 339. + + Agrippina, golden garment of, 143. + + Alessandri Palace, Florence, 284. + + Alexander the Great, 142, 299; + wedding tent of, 263-4; + pall of, 142. + + Alkisthenes, mantle of, 298. + + Altar, 42, 346; + altar-piece, 328; + altar-cloths, 340, 346; + by Queen Emma, 366. + + Amasis, corselet of, 20, 308; + Bishop of, 299. + + Anne of Brittany, 331. + + Apollo of Branchidæ, 296. + + Arabesque, 43, 80. + + Arachne, 237. + + Aragon, Catherine of, embroideries by, 383. + + Aristophanes, 98. + + Arras, 238, 243, 255-6, 274. + + Arrazzi, 245; + Prince of, 249; + trade with, 250, 252. + + Art of dress, 298; + of needlework, 396. + + Art, Greek, 18, 35, 59, 306; + Egyptian, 20, 25, 34, 56-7; + Scandinavian, 29, 40; + Roman, 37, 60, 310; + Romanesque, 36, 323; + Christian, 37, 39, 300, 306, 311, 315, 317; + Chinese, 38, 73, 153, 155; + Japanese, 38, 64, 65, 393; + Gothic, 42, 52, 68, 307, 324; + Italian, 43, 311; + French, 46; + Ecclesiastical, 41, 78, 303, 305; + Aryan, 69, 70; + Celtic, 96, 273; + decorative, 289; + Lombardic, 310; + Pagan, 338. + + Asbestos linen, 123. + + Atrebates, 136, 246. + + Attalus II., 142. + + Auxerre, Bishop of, 242. + + + Balawat, bronze gates from, 271. + + Baldachino, 170, 268, 283, 312. + + Banner, 215; + of St. Cuthbert, 349. + + Bas-relief, Assyrian, 287. + + Bayeux tapestries, 367. + + Beads, 332. + + Bede, mention of worked palls by, 160. + + Bedsteads, 282; + at Kenilworth, 283-4; + at Hampton Court, 395. + + Bellini, portrait of Mahomet II., 147. + + Black, 187. + + Blode-bendes, or silk arm-bindings, 374. + + Blue, 184, 187. + + Boadicea, dress of, 87, 359. + + Bombacinum or cotton, 138. + + Book-coverings in library of Charles V., 289. + + Borghese Palace, Rome, 277. + + British Museum, sculptures in, 22; + vases, 31, 114; + frieze of Parthenon, 31; + mantle of Demeter, 93; + Egyptian dress, 93; + glass bowls, 101; + carpets from Nineveh, 105; + Egyptian woollen embroidery, 130; + fine linen printed, 134; + garment with gold ornaments, 144; + "opus pectineum" from Egypt, 236; + pavements, 272; + bronze statuette of Minerva, 297; + specimen of "opus Anglicanum," 376. + + Brocade, 141. + + Bronze age, 358; + statues, 359. + + Brown, 187. + + Buckram, 139. + + Burleigh House arras, 256. + + Byrri, 238. + + Byssus, 134-5. + + Byzantium, 306, 314. + + + Carpets, 261, 285; + Persian, 23, 73, 132, 188, 241, 271, 371. + + Cashmere, 133. + + Castle Ashby, tapestries at, 277. + + Catacombs, 304. + + Chair, 285; + chair-backs, 286. + + Chaldean house, 281. + + Charles I., 255, 390. + + Charles V., library of, 289, 295. + + Chasuble, 164; + by Isabella of Spain, 147; + at Coire, 328; + of St. Oswald, 362; + at Valencia, 381; + for Henry III., 374. + + Chaucer, 251. + + Chemmis, city of Pan, woollen trade in, 127. + + Chenille, 395. + + Church historical embroideries, 316. + + Ciclatoun, 145. + + Cinnabar, 183. + + Clavus latus, 309, 337. + + Cleves, Anne of, 384. + + Cochineal, 184. + + Code of Manu, 89. + + Colour, 175-193; + prismatic, 177; + purple, 180; + crimson, 184; + copper, 184; + yellow, 185; + pure, 189, 192; + iodine, 190; + chromatic, 190; + Oriental, 191; + gas, 191; + foundation, 289; + green, 289; + liturgical, 305; + mystical, 335. + + Complication, 67. + + Confusion, 65. + + Constantine, 306, 316. + + Consutum, 214. + + Contrast, 66. + + Conventional, 71, 97. + + Cope of St. Andrew, 144; + Syon, 206, 326; + of Boniface VIII., 320; + at Rheims, 321-2; + Daroca, 320, 376; + at Stoneyhurst, 348, 379; + of Innocent III., 369; + at Durham, 390. + + Copper, 184. + + Coral, 88, 124, 332. + + Coronation robes, 295, 318, 362; + of St. Stephen of Hungary, 322; + of Charles X., 339; + of Edward the Confessor, 366; + of James II., 393. + + Corselet of Amasis in temple at Lindos, in Rhodes, 20, 308. + + Cotton, 137; + cotton trees, 138; + woven, 139; + cotton plush, 139. + + Counterpane worked by Queen Catherine, 384. + + Coverlets, 393. + + Crewels, 133, 229, 345, 398; + work in, 390, 392. + + Crimson, 184. + + Cross, 103; + of St. Andrew, 144; + Greek, 165; + emblem of, 308; + prehistoric, 335-6. + + Croyland Abbey embroideries, 366. + + Crusaders, 307, 371. + + Curtains, 261, 270, 272, 281, 288; + ordered by Sergius, 312; + by Pope John, 312; + by Stephen IV., 312. + + Cushion at Hatfield, of James I.'s reign, 390. + + Cuthbert, St., 144; + silk garments in tomb of, 163, 165, 364-5. + + Cyprus bowls, 109. + + + Dado, 271. + + Dais, the chamber of, 282. + + Dalmatic of Charlemagne, 53, 317-18; + at Valencia, 381. + + Damascus, 127. + + Decoration, 5, 50, 70, 290, 355; + art of, 273. + + Decorative, 81, 273. + + Design, 54-81; + floral, 71, 345, 348; + English, 377; + by St. Dunstan, 365. + + Detail, 71. + + Dress, 70, 294, 301, 373; + Greek, 297-8; + Roman, 299; + early Christian, 300; + of Claudius, 360; + of Duke and Duchess of Buckingham, 393. + + Durham Cathedral, 348. + + Dyes, 183, 185, 358; + Indian, 187. + + + East India Company, monopoly of trade by, 388. + + Ecclesiastical embroidery, 303, 327, 330, 353; + for images, 305; + priests' robes, 306; + materials used in, 311; + names of garments in, 313, 316; + at Durham, 316; + English, 332. + + Edward II., 250. + + Edward III., 377. + + Eighteenth century decorations, 112; + embroidery, 393, 395. + + Eleanor, Queen, crosses of, 372. + + Emare, mantle of, 372. + + Embroiderers' Guild, 388; + list of names, 373; + Company in Elizabeth's reign, 387, 394. + + Embroideries, Babylonian and Ninevite, 22, 44, 105, 127, 132, 271, + 299, 311, 350; + Greek, 31-2, 93, 103, 142; + German, 43, 149; + Italian, 43, 116, 147; + Spanish, 45, 150, 331, 383; + Portuguese, 45; + Scandinavian and Celtic, 68, 91, 104, 116, 131, 136, 306; + Egyptian, 93, 114, 130, 134, 209, 236, 271; + Assyrian, 93, 127, 262, 357; + Roman, 129, 143, 153, 313; + Chinese, 97, 113, 127, 151, 208; + Persian, 99, 266, 299; + Japanese, 109, 214; + Russian, 201, 206, 313; + Delphic, 272; + English, 319, 321, 325, 356-396; + spurious, in Henry VI.'s reign, 377. + + Embroidery, art of, 16, 136, 173, 195, 289, 378; + white, 200; + in churches, 313, 341. + + Emma, Queen, embroideries by, 366. + + Enamel, 146. + + Etruscan borders, 47; + tombs, 357. + + + Fashion, 301. + + Fayoum, 39; + ancient Egyptian textile fabrics from, 139, 300. + + Fictile vases, 31, 32, 93, 103. + + Field of Cloth of Gold, 381-2. + + Filatorium, 222. + + Fitness, 81. + + Flat, drawing on, 69-70; + stitches, 345. + + Flavius Vopiscus, 158. + + Flax, 133, 135. + + Flemish work, 329. + + Floral patterns, 71. + + Floss silk, 374. + + Flowers, 291. + + Footstools, 285. + + Frames, 292, 299, 371, 389. + + Frescoes, 373. + + Fringes, 271, 351. + + Fulham, tapestry works at, 257. + + Furniture, 280-293. + + + Gammadion, 104. + + Gaudry, Bishop, tapestry of, 242. + + Geoffrey, Abbot, 249. + + Gisela, Queen, 323. + + Giustini Palace, Florence, 277. + + Gobelins, 131, 237, 247-8, 275, 277. + + Gold, 140, 143; + threads, 346; + Gothic design in, 75, 377; + embroideries, 202; + needlework for Elinor of Aquitaine, 369; + Spanish lace, 381; + caskets, 389. + + Gradation, 67. + + Green, 187. + + Gregory Nazianzen, 160. + + Grey, 187. + + Grotesque, 43. + + Guimp, 163, 223. + + + Hair, 133. + + Hampton Court, 288, 384; + bed at, worked by Mrs. Pawsey, 395. + + Hand-looms, 374. + + Hangings, 243, 260-274; + of the Hebrew Sanctuary, 262; + of Alexander's tent, 263; + portraits on, 265; + in Kosroes' "white palace," 268; + on Greek vases, 269; + in Pompeii, 269; + saffron, mentioned by Euripides, 272; + French, sixteenth century, 274; + modern French, 275; + in Holland House, 276; + in Florence, 277; + in Rome, 277; + English, from time of Harold to Edward IV., and others, 370, 384, + 392-3. + + Harmonies, 66. + + Hawaiian royal mantle, 209. + + Helen, 33. + + Helena, Empress, 316, 360. + + Hemp, 121. + + Henry II., mantle of, 203, 323. + + Henry VIII., manufacture of tapestry in reign of, 252; + embroidery, 302, 369, 384-5. + + Hephæstion, catafalque of, 267. + + Hexameron work of St. Ambrose and St. Basil, 333. + + Holland House, 276. + + Homer, 11, 19, 33, 130. + + Hom, the sacred, 99, 334. + + + Icelandic Sagas, 273, 362. + + Illumination, 273, 305, 310, 363. + + Imperial, a silk tissue, 161. + + India, arts of, 7, 27, 75, 83, 311; + Museum, 89, 285. + + Indian carving, 75; + shawls, 133; + cotton fabrics, 138; + dyes, 187; + embroideries, 284, 299; + manufactures, 389, 391, 394. + + Inscriptions, 105, 146, 341; + woven in, 168; + in tapestry, 242, 375. + + Isabella of France, 331; + of Spain, 384. + + + Jacket in Lady Waterford's collection, 386. + + James I., manufacture of tapestry in reign of, 254; + portrait of, 255; + work in reign of, 387, 388. + + Josephus, 9. + + Juno, toilet of, 297. + + Jute, 121. + + + Kells, Book of, 30. + + Khotan, Prince of, 156. + + Kosroes' hangings, 261, 268. + + Kunigunda, Empress, 203, 323. + + + Lace, 222-235; + bone, 225; + yak, 225; + needle-made, 227; + ancient lace-books, 228; + stitches, 229; + Venetian, 229; + Burano, 230; + list of, 231; + blond, 232; + schools in France, 233; + for ecclesiastical purposes, 233; + bobbin, 234; + Limerick, 234; + Irish, 234; + Honiton, 234; + Spanish, 383. + + Lambeth tapestry works, 257; + missal at, 30. + + Lares, 291. + + Leather, 123. + + Lilac, 187. + + Linen, 357-8. + + Lombardic, 310, 323. + + Lotus, 89, 102, 105. + + Louis XIV., 46, 247, 276, 332, 393. + + Louis XV., 47, 110, 247, 276, 332. + + Louis XVI., 332. + + Lyons, 151, 167, 345. + + + Maniple of St. Cuthbert, 144; + in Durham library, 364. + + Mantle of Demeter, 93; + of Ajax, 103; + of Servius Tullius, 129; + of Alkisthenes, 299; + of Gisela, 323; + of King Wiglaf, 363-4. + + Manu, Code of, 314. + + Manufactures of Nineveh and Babylon, 127; + at Lyons, 151; + of silk, 160; + at Palermo, 161. + + Marcus Aurelius, 158. + + Mark's, St., Venice, 346. + + Mary, Queen of Scots, 387. + + Mary's, St., Hall, Coventry, 250, 379. + + Melito, Bishop of Sardis, book on Symbolism by, 333. + + Middle Ages, 12, 23, 42, 73, 125, 137, 145, 168, 183, 202, 239, 242, + 249, 273, 307, 315. + + Mitre at Milan, 211; + of St. Thomas à Becket, 321, 369. + + Monks of St. Florent, Saumur, 242; + of Cluny, 242; + of Fleury, 242; + in England, 249; + of St. Alban's, 251. + + Monuments, 373. + + Morris, William, 290. + + Mosaics, 40, 300, 314; + Empress Theodora's dress figured in, 41, 93; + of Sta. Pudenziana, 306, 317; + early Christian, 314; + in Sta. Maria Maggiore, 117, 322. + + Mummy-wrappings, 21. + + Museum, Cluny, 247, 275, 277; + at Boulac, 56. + + Muslin, 139. + + Mycenæ, tomb of Agamemnon at, 19; + lion's gate of, 304. + + + Needle, the first, 14, 357; + bronze, steel, 195, 213; + bone, 358. + + Nimroud, 24. + + Nineteenth century, style of, 49, 339. + + Normans, 366. + + Northumberland House, tapestries at, 257. + + Nunneries, 10. + + + Opus Alexandrinum, 117. + + Opus Anglicanum, 325, 376. + + Orange, 187. + + Order, 59. + + Oriental work, 392. + + Orphrey, 368-9. + + Oudenarde "hallings" or "salles," 252. + + + Painting, 4. + + Palermo, silk-weaving at, 165, 307. + + Pall of Alexander, 142; + at Dunstable, 251, 378; + of London Companies, 329, 379. + + Pamphile silk-weaver, 152. + + Panels, 69, 79. + + Patchwork, 117; + appliqué, 214, 325, 392. + + Patterns, 82-117; + wave, 62, 114; + key, 63, 97; + Oriental, 84, 99; + lotus, 89, 102; + animal, 93; + lily, 95; + rose, 95; + palm leaf on shawl, 96; + sacred hom, 99; + pine-apple, 100; + honeysuckle, 101; + egg and tongue, 102; + cross, 103; + crenelated, 104; + Renaissance, 108; + cloud, 109, 338; + fundata or netted, 109; + wheel, 110; + Moorish, 110; + Sicilian, 111; + shell, 112; + Indian balcony, 112; + chrysoclavus or palmated, 113; + wicker and lattice-work, 113; + bead, 114; + daisy, 114; + geometrical, 115; + German and Venetian books of, 206; + feather, 208; + Persian, 241; + check, 270; + metal-work, 325; + Roës, or wheel and plate, 336-7; + Indian dimity, 394. + + Peacocks, 163, 211; + feathers, 376. + + Pearls, 332, 362, 383, 389. + + Pectineum, 235. + + Penates, 291. + + Penelope, bridal couch of, 281. + + Peplos of Athene, 32. + + Père Labbé, 242. + + Persian carpets, 23, 73, 98, 132, 241, 266, 271; + rugs, 94; + silks, 153. + + Perspective, 70. + + Peter's, St., Rome, 346. + + Pheidias, 59. + + Phœnicians, 7, 21, 125, 176, 357; + bowls from Cyprus, 109. + + Phrygium, 202. + + Pictorial art, 79, 331. + + Plâteresque, 45. + + Plumarii, 207, 212. + + Plush, 221. + + Pluvial of St. Silvester, 319; + at Bologna, 320; + at Aix, 351; + Daroca, 376. + + Polymita, 87. + + Pompeii, 269. + + Portraits of Charles V., 295; + of Richard II. at Wilton House, 372; + of fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, 379; + in needlework in reign of James I., 388. + + Portuguese silks, 394. + + Progression, 64. + + Proportion, 64, 291. + + Pulvinarium, 204. + + Purl, 387. + + Purple, 187. + + + Queen Anne, style in reign of, 46, 49, 88, 391, 394. + + Queen Elizabeth, embroidery of, 385-6; + style in reign of, 389. + + Queen Mary of Hungary, 330. + + Queen Matilda, 367. + + + Radiation, 67. + + Raphael, 44, 245; + cartoons of, 255. + + Renaissance, 26, 43, 45, 75, 108, 308, 329, 380, 383. + + Repetition, 62. + + Reredos at St. Alban's, 249, 347; + of Vintners' Company, 251. + + Richard Cœur de Lion, 374. + + Robes of Julius Cæsar, 153; + of Childeric, 144; + of Bishop Adhelme, 361; + of St. Thomas à Becket, 369. + + Roger, King of Sicily, transports silk-weavers from Greece, 161. + + Roman silks, 160; + fashions, 299. + + Romanesque, 36, 306, 323, 362, 364. + + Roses, Wars of, 371, 372-3, 378. + + Rugs, 285. + + Runic art, 29, 306. + + + Samit, 145. + + Sampler of Henry VII.'s reign, 379-80. + + Saracenicum, 240. + + Satin, 161, 170; + of Bruges, 171. + + Scarlet, 182, 187, 189. + + School of Art Needlework, South Kensington, 219, 288, 392; + rise of, 396-7; + list of work executed at, 398; + designs for, 398. + + Schools, branch of Art Needlework, 397. + + Screens, 261, 287. + + Sculptures, 4, 353. + + Seam, 198. + + Seres, 154, 160. + + Seventh century work, 361-2. + + Sewing, plain, 197. + + Shells, 88, 124, 190. + + Sicilian patterns, 111; + embroideries, 124; + textile designs, 162, 341; + silk manufactures, 168; + fabrics, 315; + ecclesiastical designs, 331. + + Sicily, textile art in, 41, 307. + + Si-ling-chi, Empress, inventor of unwinding the cocoon, 156. + + Silk, origin of, 151; + first woven by Pamphile at Cos, 300 B.C., 152; + Roman and Chinese, 153, 160; + trade in, 153; + in cocoon, 153, 156; + wild silk in China, 154-5; + attire mentioned in Latin poets, 157; + silken robes sold by Marcus Aurelius, 158; + garments given by Emperor Carinus, 158; + edict of Diocletian, with prices of articles, 159; + silk mentioned by poets and historians from first to sixth century, + 159; + silkworm, 159; + monopoly of silk manufactures in Constantinople, 159; + first allusion to use of silk in Christian Church, 160; + palls of silk brought from Rome, A.D. 685, 160; + Bede's remains wrapped in silk, 160; + specimens of silk in Auberville's "Tissus," silk tissues called + "Imperial," 161. + + Silk-weavers, Jewish, at Thebes in 1161, 161; + transported by Roger, King of Sicily, from Greece to Palermo, 161, + 165; + description of Royal manufactory at Palermo, by Hugh Falcandus, + twelfth century, 161; + three periods in Sicily, 162-3; + Saracenic, in India, 166-7; + Italian, in Lyons, 1450, 167, 169; + Spanish at Malaga and Almeria, 168; + in Hungary under Queen Gisela, 169; + in the Flemish towns, 170; + Asiatic, 170. + + Smock of Mary Tudor, 385. + + Society of Arts, Birmingham, 292. + + Sofas, 285. + + Spangles, 146. + + Spanish Armada, hangings, 253. + + Sphinx, 265. + + Spinning, 357. + + Stamford, Arras woven at, 256, 257. + + Stitches, 194-259; + lists of, 196; + gold, 203; + mosaic, 204; + cushion, 204; + plumage, 207; + satin, 214; + sampler, 234; + ecclesiastical, 345; + stem, 214. + + Stole, 308; + at Durham, 364; + of Aelfled, Queen of Edward II., 364. + + Style, 14-53. + + Sun-cross, Egyptian, 337. + + Sunflower, 91; + radiated pattern of, 111. + + Surcoat of Black Prince, 373. + + Swastika, 103. + + Symbolism, 59, 95, 98, 307, 333, 334-5, 352. + + Symmetry, 63-4. + + + Table covers, 287. + + Tanaquil, robes worked by, 129. + + Tapestry, 235-259; + in British Museum, 236; + woven, 237; + of Charles, Duke of Burgundy, 243; + Gobelins, 237; + Arras, 238; + Saracenic, 240; + at Brussels, 245; + French, 245; + Italian, 245; + English, 248, 277; + revival of, at Windsor, 257; + in Cluny Museum, 277. + + Taste, 52; + Oriental, 388. + + Tau, 335. + + Tent, funeral, of an Egyptian queen, 25, 215; + of Antar, 263; + of Nadir Shah, 263; + of Alexander, 264; + of Ptolemy Philadelphus, 264-5; + Persian, 265. + + Textile art, 45, 59, 74, 77, 93, 104, 107, 174, 176, 187, 205, 307, 310. + + Thebes, silk-weavers of, 161. + + "Tissus" of Auberville, 160. + + Titian, 178. + + Toga, 338. + + Tomb of Agamemnon, 19; + of Rameses, 20; + of warrior at Kuban, 129; + in Crimea, 130, 217; + Anglo-Saxon, 144; + of St. Cuthbert at Durham, 163. + + Trabea, 309, 337. + + Tree of Life, 336. + + Triptych in Cluny Museum, 211; + at Zurich, 328. + + Tyrian purple, 180, 289. + + + Ulysses, 281. + + + Vatican, Etruscan gold ornament, 21, 295, 300. + + Veil of Temple, 22; + classical, 261, 265, 311, 312; + for pyx, 350; + of Hebrew sanctuary, 311, 351. + + Velvet, 76, 345, 347; + stoles, 161, 172, 221; + pall, 378. + + Venetian red, 289; + style, 306. + + Vestments, 313, 326; + Italian, 329; + Spanish, 331; + modern, 343; + set presented to Romsey and Croyland by Canute, 366, 370; + set bequeathed to Westminster Abbey by Henry VII., 379. + + + Watteau, school of, 248. + + Welby, Lady, founder of School of Art Needlework, South Kensington, 396. + + Wiglaf, King, 362. + + William and Mary, 393. + + Wilton carpet works, 190. + + Windsor, 257, 398. + + Wool, 125, 127, 130; + Berlin, 395. + + Worcester, dress in tomb of Walter de Cantilupe, 320; + cope of William of Blois, 322; + tomb of King John, 373. + + Workhouse sheeting, 140. + + Wroxton House, Arras at, 256. + + + York, Archbishop of, Arras with design of the Four Seasons, 255. + + + Zoroaster, 101. + + + + +ERRATA. + + + Page xv, line 27, _for_ Albert Castet _read_ Albert Castel. + " 10, " 24, _read_ as that of an important factor. + " 17, " 22, _for_ slow _read_ swift. + " 26, " 16, _for_ art _read_ artistic. + " 42, " 16, _for_ are _read_ were. + " 56, " 5, _read_ advance of them, in the earliest. + " 66, " 21, _for_ we _read_ I. + " 75, " 20, _for_ These _read_ Those. + " 101, " 18, _for_ from Cervetri, in Southern Italy, _read_ from + a tomb at Chiusi, in Etruria. + " 156, " 8, _for_ Chin _read_ Chan. + " 195, " 20, _for_ 6, 7. Bone needles from Neolithic cave-man's + grave, _read_ 6. Cave-man's needle from the + Pinhole, Churchfield, Ereswell Crag. 7. Bone + needle from La Madeleine, Dordogne. + " 198, " 5, footnote, _for_ act _read_ art. + " 208, " 3, footnote, _for_ "Arte Plumarii" _read_ "Arte + Plumaria." + " 237, " 8, _for_ which prove _read_ proving. + " 239, " 17, _delete_ " _after_ of art." + " " " 18, _insert_ " _after_ backwards. + " 242, " 9, _for_ in the Crimea _read_ at Chiusi. + + + + +Transcriber's Note + +Page 202--the marker for footnote 2 was missing in the original. The +transcriber has estimated where it should have been, based on the text +and reference material therein. + +Page 303 includes an excerpt from Psalm 45, with quoted verse numbers +of 10, 14 and 15. These should be verses 9, 13 and 14. + +Archaic spelling is preserved as printed. Variable spelling, +hyphenation and use of accents has been made consistent where there +was a clear prevalence of one form over the other, or with reference +to reliable sources; otherwise, these are preserved as printed. +Typographic errors, e.g. omitted, superfluous or transposed letters, +and punctuation errors have been repaired. Other amendments are as +follows: + + Plate 71--precipit amended to precepit and omitted word + 'pio' added--"... Aelfled fieri precepit pio Episcopo + Fridestano." + + Page xx--3 amended to 9--"From Layard's "Monuments," + Series i. pl. 9." + + Page xxi--Edward amended to Richard--"6. Badge of + Richard II." + + Page xxii--John amended to Mark--"ST. MARK. Anglo-Saxon + Book of the Gospels." + + Page 115--5. removed from beginning of section title, + for consistency with others in that chapter, "GEOMETRICAL." + + Page 197--Encyclopedia amended to Cyclopædia--"The + second list is from Rees' "Cyclopædia" (Stitches), 1819 + ..." + + Page 311--des Antiquités amended to Royale des + Antiquaires--""... par la Société Royale des Antiquaires + du Nord" ..." + + Page 316--Lwewelig amended to Wledig--"... and in the + Welsh ballad of "The Dream of Maxen Wledig" ..." + + Page 316, footnote 502--Pallison's amended to + Palliser's--"See Mrs. Palliser's "Lace," p. 4." + + Page 320--T. amended to I.--"... (see Hon. and Rev. I. + Clifford's list of embroideries in Appendix 5)." + + Page 331--Riario amended to Riano--"Don Juan F. Riano[533] + says that Toledo is a perfect museum ..." + + Page 331, footnote 533--Riario amended to Riano--"See "The + Industrial Arts of Spain," pp. 250-264, by Don Juan F. + Riano, ..." + + Page 417--350 amended to 348--"Design, ... floral, 71, 345, + 348; ..." + + Page 417--210 amended to 109--"Embroideries, ... Egyptian, + 93, 114, 130, 134, 209, 236, 271; ..." + + Page 419--47 amended to 46 and 308 amended to 276--"Louis + XIV., 46, 247, 276, 332, 393." + + Page 419--167 amended to 93--"Mosaics, ... Empress Theodora's + dress figured in, 41, 93; ..." + + Page 419--306 amended to 117--"Mosaics, ... in Sta. Maria + Maggiore, 117, 322." + + Page 420--index entries for 'Pall' and 'Pamphile,' which + originally followed the entry for 'Pattern,' have been moved + to their correct places. + + Page 421--399 amended to 345--"Stitches, ... ecclesiastical, + 345; ..." + +There are a number of discrepancies between the information in the +list of illustrations (LOI) and the information on the plates +themselves. Some of these are simple omission, others involve +conflicting information. The transcriber has resolved and repaired +some of these differences with reference to alternative sources. In +general, it seems that the information on the plate is correct. Those +that could not be resolved are as follows: + + Pl. 5--LOI has "Journal Asiatique, + Syro-Egyptien-Phœnicien." Plate has "Journal + Asiatique, Coupe de Palestrina." + + Pl. 9--LOI has "sixteenth century." Plate has + "seventeenth century." + + Pl. 10--LOI has "5, 6, 7. Egyptian smooth and rippling + wave pattern." Plate has "5, 6, 7. Egyptian Smooth and + Rippling Water Patterns." + + Pl. 10--LOI has "10, 11, 14. Babylonian and Chaldean." + Plate has "10, 11, 14. Assyrian." + + Pl. 11--LOI omits Assyrian references. + + Pl. 12--LOI has "2, 3. Egyptian. 4, 5. Greek." Plate has + "2, 3. Indian Lotus Patterns. 4, 5. Egyptian Lotus + Patterns." + + Pl. 15--LOI has "Book of Kells." Plate has "Lindisfarne + Gospels." + + Pl. 20--LOI has "1, 2, 3. Assyrian. 4. Sicilian Silk. 5. + Mediæval." Plate has "1, 2, 3, 5. Assyrian. 4. + Sicilian Silk." + + Pl. 28--LOI has "1. Dress patterns from old MS. 2, 3. + Old English tiles." Plate has "1, 2. Gothic tiles. 3. + Gothic Border of a Dress. 4. Gothic Vine." + + Pl. 31--LOI omits mention of a third Egyptian fundata + pattern. + + Pl. 32--LOI references "Bock's Lit. Gew. ii. p. 246." + Plate references "Vol i. taf. xi." + + Pl. 35--LOI omits mention of a peacock pattern. Plate + omits mention of Persian type. + + Pl. 41--The source of the examples are either omitted or + different on the LOI to those given on the plate. + + Pl. 68--LOI has "sixteenth century." Plate has + "fifteenth century." + + Pl. 70--LOI has "A.D. 434." Plate has "sixth century." + + Pl. 72--LOI "ST. GREGORY AND ST. JOHN (PROPHET)." Plate + has "St. John" and "St. Roger." + + Pl. 74--LOI gives different title for Strutt's book to + that given on the plate. From research, it seems that + the short title is actually "The Regal and + Ecclesiastical Antiqities of England." + + Pl. 76--LOI has "twelfth century." Plate has "XIII. + century." + +Illustrations have been moved where necessary so that they are not in +the middle of a paragraph. Some of the plates do not have numbers on +the plate themselves. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Needlework As Art, by Marian Alford + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30472 *** |