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diff --git a/30294-0.txt b/30294-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..abb430d --- /dev/null +++ b/30294-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11636 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30294 *** + +[Transcriber's Notes: + + 1. Italic text is rendered with underscores _like this_, and bold with +equal signs =like this=. + + 2. Misprints and punctuation errors were corrected. A list of +corrections can be found at the end of the text.] + + + + + THE + CENTURY HANDBOOK OF + WRITING + + BY + GARLAND GREEVER + _AND_ + EASLEY S. JONES + + NEW YORK + THE CENTURY CO. + 1927 + + + Copyright, 1918, by + THE CENTURY CO. + + PRINTED IN U.S.A. + + + + +PREFACE + + +This handbook treats essential matters of grammar, diction, spelling, +mechanics; and develops with thoroughness the principles of sentence +structure. Larger units of composition it leaves to the texts in formal +rhetoric. + +The book is built on a decimal plan, the material being simplified and +reduced to one hundred articles. Headings of these articles are +summarized on two opposite pages by a chart. Here the student can see at +a glance the resources of the volume, and the instructor can find +immediately the number he wishes to write in the margin of a theme. The +chart and the decimal scheme together make the rules accessible for +instant reference. + +By a device equally efficient, the book throws upon the student the +responsibility of teaching himself. Each article begins with a concise +rule, which is illustrated by examples; then follows a short "parallel +exercise" which the instructor may assign by adding an _x_ to the number +he writes in the margin of a theme. While correcting this exercise, the +student will give attention to the rule, and will acquire theory and +practice at the same time. Moreover, every group of ten articles is +followed by mixed exercises; these may be used for review, or imposed in +the margin of a theme as a penalty for flagrant or repeated error. Thus +friendly counsel is backed by discipline, and the instructor has the +means of compelling the student to make rapid progress toward good +English. + +Although a handbook of this nature is in some ways arbitrary, the +arbitrariness is always in the interest of simplicity. The book does +have simplicity, permits instant reference, and provides an adequate +drill which may be assigned at the stroke of a pen. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS + + + SENTENCE STRUCTURE + + COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT + + 1. Fragments wrongly used as sentences + 2. Incomplete constructions + 3. Necessary words omitted + 4. Comparisons not logically completed + 5. Cause and reason + 6. _Is when_ and _is where_ clauses + 7. Undeveloped thought + 8. Transitions + 9. EXERCISE + A. Incomplete sentences + B. Incomplete constructions + C. Incomplete logic + D. Undeveloped thought and transitions + + + UNITY OF THOUGHT + + 10. Unrelated ideas in one sentence + 11. Excessive detail + 12. Stringy sentences to be broken up + 13. Choppy sentences to be combined + 14. Excessive coördination + 15. Faulty subordination of the main thought + 16. Subordination thwarted by _and_ + 17. The _and which_ construction + 18. The comma splice + 19. EXERCISE + A. The comma splice + B. One thought in a sentence + C. Excessive coördination + D. Upside-down subordination + + + CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT + + REFERENCE + 20. Divided reference + 21. Weak reference + 22. Broad reference + 23. Dangling participle or gerund + + COHERENCE + 24. General incoherence + 25. Logical sequence + 26. Squinting modifier + 27. Misplaced word + 28. Split construction + 29. EXERCISE + A. Reference of pronouns + B. Dangling modifiers + C. Coherence + + PARALLEL STRUCTURE + 30. Parallel structure for parallel thoughts + 31. Correlatives + + CONSISTENCY + 32. Shift in subject or voice + 33. Shift in number, person, or tense + 34. Mixed constructions + 35. Mixed imagery + + USE OF CONNECTIVES + 36. The exact connective + 37. Repetition of connective with gain in clearness + 38. Repetition of connective with loss in clearness + 39. EXERCISE + A. Parallel structure + B. Shift in subject or voice + C. Shift in number, person, or tense + D. The exact connective + E. Repetition of connectives + + + + EMPHASIS + + 40. Emphasis by position + 41. Emphasis by separation + 42. Emphasis by subordination + 43. The periodic sentence + 44. Order of climax + 45. The balanced sentence + 46. Weak effect of the passive voice + 47. Repetition effective: a Words; b Structure + 48. Repetition offensive: a Words; b Structure + 49. EXERCISE + A. Lack of emphasis in general + B. Loose structure + C. Repetition + + + + GRAMMAR + + 50. Case: a Nominative, especially after _than_ or _as_; + b Nominative _who_ and _whoever_; c Predicate nominative; + d Objective; e Objective with infinitive; f Possessive; + g Possessive with gerund; h Possession by inanimate + objects; i Agreement of pronouns + 51. Number: a _Each_, _every one_, etc.; b _Those kind_, etc.; + c Collective nouns; d _Don't_ + 52. Agreement--not to be thwarted by: a Intervening nouns; + b _Together with_ phrases; c _Or_ or _nor_ after subject; + d _And_ in the subject; e A predicate noun; + f An introductory _there_ + 53. _Shall_ and _will_ + 54. Principal parts. List + 55. Tense, mode, auxiliaries: a Tense in dependent clauses + or infinitives; b The past perfect; c Present tense for a + general statement; d Mode; e Auxiliaries + 56. Adjective and adverb: a Adjective misused for adverb; + b Ambiguous cases; c After verbs pertaining to the + senses + 57. A word in a double capacity + 58. List of the terms of grammar + 59. EXERCISE + A. Case of pronouns + B. Agreement + C. _Shall_ and _will_ + D. _Lie, lay; sit, set; rise, raise_ + E. Principal parts of verbs + F. General + + + + DICTION + + 60. Wordiness + 61. Triteness + 62. The exact word + 63. Concreteness + 64. Sound + 65. Subtle violations of good use: a Faulty idiom; b Colloquialism + 66. Gross violations of good use: a Barbarisms; b Improprieties; + c Slang + 67. Words often confused in meaning. List + 68. Glossary of faulty diction + 69. EXERCISE + A. Wordiness + B. The exact word + C. Words sometimes confused in meaning + D. Colloquialisms, slang, faulty idioms + + + + SPELLING + + 70. Recording errors + 71. Pronouncing accurately + 72. Logical kinship in words + 73. Superficial resemblances. List + 74. Words in _ei_ and _ie_ + 75. Doubling a final consonant + 76. Dropping final _e_ + 77. Plurals: a Plurals in _s_ or _es_; b Nouns ending in _y_; + c Compound nouns; d Letters, figures, and signs; + e Old plurals; f Foreign plurals + 78. Compounds: a Compound adjectives; b Compound nouns; + c Numbers; d Words written solid; e General principle + 79. SPELLING LIST (500 words, 200 in bold-face type) + + + + MISCELLANEOUS + + 80. Manuscript: a Titles; b Spacing; c Handwriting + 81. Capitals: a To begin a sentence or a quotation; b Proper + names; c Proper adjectives; d In titles of books or + themes; e Miscellaneous uses + 82. Italics: a Titles of books; b Foreign words; c Names of + ships; d Words taken out of context; e For emphasis + 83. Abbreviations: a In ordinary writing; b In business + writing + 84. Numbers: a Dates and street numbers; b Long figures; + Sums of money, etc. + 85. Syllabication: a Position of hyphen; b Division between + syllables; c Monosyllabic words not divided; d One consonant + between syllables; e Two consonants between + syllables; f Prefixes and suffixes; g Short words; h Misleading + division + 86. Outlines: a Topic Outline; b Sentence Outline; c Paragraph + Outline; d Indention; e Parallel form; f Faulty + coördination; g Too detailed subordination + 87. Letters: a Heading; b Inside address and greeting; + c Body, Language; d Close; e Outside address; + f Miscellaneous directions; g Model business letter; + h Formal notes + 88. Paragraphs: a Indention; b Length; c Dialogue + 89. EXERCISE + Capitals, numbers, abbreviations, etc. + + + + PUNCTUATION + + 90. The Period: a After sentences; b But not after fragments + of sentences; c After abbreviations + 91. The Comma: a Between clauses joined by _but_, _for_, _and_; + b But NOT to splice clauses not joined by a conjunction; + c After a subordinate clause preceding a main clause; + d To set off non-restrictive clauses and phrases; e To + set off parenthetical elements; f Between adjectives; + g Between words in a series; h Before a quotation; + i To compel a pause for clearness; j Superfluous uses + 92. The Semicolon: a Between coördinate clauses not joined + by a conjunction; b Between long coördinate clauses; + c Before a formal conjunctive adverb; d But not before + a quotation + 93. The Colon: a To introduce a formal series or quotation; + b Before concrete illustrations of a previous general + statement + 94. The Dash: a To enclose a parenthetical statement; b To + mark a breaking-off in thought; c Before a summarizing + statement; d But not to be used in place of a period; + e Not to be confused with the hyphen + 95. Parenthesis Marks: a Uses; b With other marks; c Confirmatory + symbols; d Not used to cancel words; + e Brackets + 96. Quotation Marks: a With quotations; b With paragraphs; + c In dialogue; d With slang, etc.; e With words + set apart; f Quotation within a quotation; g Together + with other marks; h Quotation interrupted by _he said_; + i Omission from a quotation; j Unnecessary in the title + of a theme, or as a label for humor or irony + 97. The Apostrophe: a In contractions; b To form the possessive; + c To form the possessive of nouns ending in _s_; + d Not used with personal possessive pronouns; e To + form the plural of certain signs and letters + 98. The Question Mark: a After a direct question; b Not + followed by a comma within a sentence; c In parentheses + to express uncertainty; d Not used to label irony; e The + Exclamation Point + 99. EXERCISE + 100. GENERAL EXERCISE + + + + +TO THE STUDENT + + +When a number is written in the margin of your theme, you are to turn to +the article which corresponds to the number. Read the rule (printed in +bold-face type), and study the examples. When an _r_ follows the number +on your theme, you are, in addition, to copy the rule. When an _x_ +follows the number, you are, besides acquainting yourself with the rule, +to write the exercise of five sentences, to correct your own faulty +sentence, and to hand in the six on theme paper. If the number ends in 9 +(9, 19, 29, etc.), you will find, not a rule, but a long exercise which +you are to write and hand in on theme paper. In the absence of special +instructions from your teacher, you are invariably to proceed as this +paragraph requires. + +Try to grasp the principle which underlies the rule. In many places in +this book the reason for the existence of the rule is clearly stated. +Thus under 20, the reason for the rule on parallel structure is +explained in a prologue. In other instances, as in the rule on divided +reference (20), the reason becomes clear the moment you read the +examples. In certain other instances the rule may appear arbitrary and +without a basis in reason. But there is a basis in reason, as you will +observe in the following illustration. + +Suppose you write, "He is twenty one years old." The instructor asks you +to put a hyphen in _twenty-one_, and refers you to 78. You cannot see +why a hyphen is necessary, since the meaning is clear without it. But +tomorrow you may write. "I will send you twenty five dollar bills." The +reader cannot tell whether you mean twenty five-dollar bills or +twenty-five dollar bills. In the first sentence the use of the hyphen in +_twenty-one_ did not make much difference. In the second sentence the +hyphen makes seventy-five dollars' worth of difference. Thus the +instructor, in asking you to write, "He is twenty-one years old," is +helping you to form a habit that will save you from serious error in +other sentences. Whenever you cannot understand the reason for a rule, +ask yourself whether the usage of many clear-thinking men for long years +past may not be protecting you from difficulties which you do not +foresee. Instructors and writers of text books (impressive as is the +evidence to the contrary) are human, and do not invent rules to puzzle +you. They do not, in fact, invent rules at all, but only make convenient +applications of principles which generations of writers have found to be +wisest and best. + + + + +THE CENTURY HANDBOOK OF WRITING SENTENCE STRUCTURE + +COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT + + +The first thing to make certain is that the thought of a sentence is +complete. A fragment which has no meaning when read alone, or a sentence +from which is omitted a necessary word, phrase, or idea, violates an +elementary principle of writing. + + +=Fragments Wrongly Used as Sentences= + +=1. Do not write a subordinate part of a sentence as if it were a +complete sentence.= + + Wrong: He stopped short. Hearing some one approach. + + Right: He stopped short, hearing some one approach. [Or] + Hearing some one approach, he stopped short. + + Wrong: The winters are cold. Although the summers are pleasant. + + Right: Although the summers are pleasant, the winters are cold. + + Wrong: The hunter tried to move the stone. Which he found very + heavy. + + Right: The hunter tried to move the stone, which he found very + heavy. [Or] The hunter tried to move the stone. He found it + very heavy. + +Note.--A sentence must in itself express a complete thought. Phrases or +subordinate clauses, if used alone, carry only an incomplete meaning. +They must therefore be attached to a sentence, or restated in +independent form. Elliptical expressions used in conversation may be +regarded as exceptions: Where? At what time? Ten o'clock. By no means. +Certainly. Go. + + Exercise: + + 1. My next experience was in a grain elevator. Where I worked + for two summers. + + 2. The parts of a fountain pen are: first, the point. This is + gold. Second, the body. + + 3. The form is set rigidly. So that it will not be displaced + when the concrete is thrown in. + + 4. There are several reasons to account for the swarming of + bees. One of these having already been mentioned. + + 5. Since June the company has increased its trade three per + cent. Since August, five per cent. + + +=Incomplete Constructions= + +=2. Do not leave uncompleted a construction which you have begun.= + + Wrong: You remember that in his speech in which he said he + would oppose the bill. + + Right: You remember that in his speech he said he would oppose + the bill. [Or] You remember the speech in which he said he + would oppose the bill. + + Wrong: He was a young man who, coming from the country, with + ignorance of city ways, but with plenty of determination to + succeed. + + Right: He was a young man who, coming from the country, was + ignorant of city ways, but had plenty of determination to + succeed. + + Wrong: From the window of the train I perceived one of those + unsightly structures. + + Right: From the window of the train I perceived one of those + unsightly structures which are always to be seen near a + station. + + Exercise: + + 1. As far as his having been deceived, there is a difference of + opinion on that matter. + + 2. The fact that he was always in trouble, his parents wondered + whether he should remain in school or not. + + 3. People who go back to the scenes of their childhood + everything looks strangely small. + + 4. It was the custom that whenever a political party came into + office, for the incoming men to discharge all employees of the + opposite party. + + 5. Although the average man, if asked whether he could shoot a + rabbit, would answer in the affirmative, even though he had + never hunted rabbits, would find himself badly mistaken. + + +=Necessary Words Omitted= + +=3. Do not omit a word or a phrase which is necessary to an immediate +understanding of a sentence.= + + Ambiguous: I consulted the secretary and president. [Did the + speaker consult one man or two?] + + Right: I consulted the secretary and the president. [Or] I + consulted the man who was president and secretary. + + Ambiguous: Water passes through the cement as well as the + bricks. + + Right: Water passes through the cement as well as through the + bricks. + + Wrong: I have had experience in every phase of the automobile. + + Right: I have had experience in every phase of automobile + driving and repairing. + + Wrong: About him were men whom he could not tell whether they + were friends or foes. + + Right: About him were men regarding whom he could not tell + whether they were friends or foes. [Or, better] About him were + men who might have been either friends or foes. + + Exercise: + + 1. When still a small boy, my family moved to Centerville. + + 2. Constantly in conversation with some one broadens our ideas + and our vocabulary. + + 3. It was a trick which opposing teams were sure to be + baffled. + + 4. They departed for the battle front with the knowledge they + might never return. + + 5. At the banquet were all classes of people; I met a banker + and plumber. + + +=Comparisons= + +=4. Comparisons must be completed logically.= + + Wrong: His speed was equal to a racehorse. + + Wrong: Of course my opinion is worth less than a lawyer. + + Wrong: The shells which are used in quail hunting are different + than in rabbit hunting. + +Compare a thing with another thing, an abstraction with another +abstraction. Do not carelessly compare a thing with a part or quality of +another thing. Always ask yourself: What is compared with what? + + Right: His speed was equal to that of a racehorse. + + Right: Of course my opinion is worth less than a lawyer's. + + Right: The shells used in quail hunting are different from + those used in rabbit hunting. + + Self-contradictory: Chicago is larger than any city in + Illinois. + + Right: Chicago is larger than any other city in Illinois. + + Impossible: Chicago is the largest of any other city in + Illinois. + + Right: Chicago is the largest of all the cities in Illinois. + [Or] Chicago is the largest city in Illinois. + +Note.--After a comparative, the subject of the comparison should be +excluded from the class with which it is compared; after a superlative, +the subject of the comparison should be included within the class. + + Wrong: {taller of all the girls. + {tallest of any girl. + + Right: {taller than any other girl [comparative]. + {tallest of all the girls [superlative]. + + Exercise: + + 1. The climate of America helps her athletes to become superior + to other countries. + + 2. This tobacco is the best of any other on the market. + + 3. You men are paid three dollars more than any other factory + in the city. + + 4. I thought I was best fitted for an engineering course than + any other. + + 5. Care should be taken not to turn in more cattle than the + grass in the pasture. + + +=Cause and Reason= + +=5. A simple statement of fact may be completed by a _because_ clause.= + + Right: I am late because I was sick. + +=But a statement containing _the reason is_ must be completed by a _that_ +clause.= + + Wrong: The reason I am late is because I was sick. [The + "reason" is not a "because"; the "reason" is the fact of + sickness.] + + Right: The reason I am late is that I was sick. + +=_Because_, the conjunction, may introduce an adverbial clause only.= + + Wrong: Because a man wears old clothes is no proof that he is + poor. [A _because_ clause cannot be the subject of _is_.] + + Right: The fact that a man wears old clothes is no proof that + he is poor. [Or] The wearing of old clothes is not proof that a + man is poor. + +Note.--_Because of_, _owing to_, _on account of_, introduce adverbial +phrases only. _Due to_ and _caused by_ introduce adjectival phrases +only. + + Wrong: He failed, due to weak eyes. [Due is an adjective; + it cannot modify a verb.] + + Right: His failure was {due to } weak eyes + {caused by} + + {because of } + Right: He failed {owing to } weak eyes. + {on account of} + + Exercise: + + 1. The reason why I would not buy a Ford car is because it is + too light. + + 2. My second reason for coming here is because of social + advantages. + + 3. Because John is rich does not make him happier than I. + + 4. Because I like farming is the reason I chose it. + + 5. The only reason why vegetation does not grow here is because + of the lack of water. + + +=_is when_ or _is where_ Clauses= + +=6. Do not use a _when_ or _where_ clause as a predicate noun. Do not +define a word by saying it is a "when" or a "where". Define a noun by +another noun, a verb by another verb, etc.= + + Wrong: The great event is when the train arrives. + + Right: The great event is the arrival of the train. + + Wrong: Immigration is where foreigners come into a country. + + Right: Immigration is the entering of foreigners into a + country. + + Wrong: A simile is when one object is compared with another. + + Right: A simile is a figure of speech in which one object is + compared with another. + +Note.--A definition of a term is a statement which (1) names the class +to which the term belongs, and (2) distinguishes it from other members +of the class. Example. A quadrilateral is a plane figure having four +sides and four angles. To test a definition ask whether it separates the +term defined from all other things. If the definition does not do this, +it is incomplete. Define _California_ (so as to exclude other states), +_window_ (so as to exclude _door_), _star_ (exclude _moon_), _night_, +_rain_, _circle_, _Bible_, _metal_, _mile_, _rectangle_. + + Exercise: + + 1. The pistol shot is when the race begins. + + 2. A snob is when a man treats others as inferior socially. + + 3. The wireless telegraph is where messages are sent a long + distance through the air. + + 4. The definition of usury is where one charges interest higher + than the legal rate. + + 5. Biology is when one studies plant and animal life. + + +=Undeveloped Thought= + +=7. Do not halfway express an idea. If the idea is important, develop it. +If it is not important, omit it.= + + Incomplete: We were now quite sure that we had lost our way, + and Jack said he had a business engagement that night. + + Better: We were now quite sure that we had lost our way, a fact + which was all the more annoying as Jack said he had a business + engagement that night. + + Puzzling: Since McAndrew had inherited money, his suitcase was + plastered with labels. + + Right: Since McAndrew had inherited money, he had traveled + extensively. His suitcase was plastered with the labels of + foreign hotels. + + Careless: In looking for gasoline troubles, we forgot to see + whether the tank was supplied. + + Right: In looking for the cause of the trouble, we forgot to + see whether the tank was supplied with gasoline. + +Note.--In giving information about books, do not confuse the title with +the contents or some part of the contents. Be accurate in referring to +the time, scene, action, plot, or characters. + + Loose thinking: Shakespeare's _Hamlet_ occurs in Denmark [The + scene is laid?]. Many passages are powerful, especially the + grave-digging [Is grave-digging a passage?]. The character of + Horatio is a noble fellow [conception], and the same is true of + Ophelia [Ophelia a fellow?]. The drama takes place over several + weeks. [The action covers a period of several weeks.] + + Exercise: + + 1. The victrola brings to the home the world's musical ability. + + 2. The user of Dietzgen instruments is not vexed by numerous + troubles that accompany the inferior makes. + + 3. To the picnicker rainy weather is bad weather, while the + farmer raises a big crop. + + 4. Some diseases can be checked by preventives, and in many + cases can be of great use to an army. + + 5. This idea of breaking all records held for eating is + naturally harmful to the digestion, and these important organs + may thank their stars that Christmas does not come very often. + + +=Transitions= + +The state of mind of a writer is not the state of mind of his reader. +The writer knows his ideas, and has spent much time with them. The +reader meets these ideas for the first time, and must gather them in at +a glance. The relation between two ideas may be clear to the writer, and +not at all clear to the reader. Therefore, + +=8. In passing from one thought to another, make the connection clear. If +necessary, insert a word, a phrase, or even a sentence, to carry the +reader safely across.= + + Space transition needed: We were surprised to see a house in + the distance, but we went to the door and knocked. [This + sentence does not give a reader the effect of distance.] + + Better: We were surprised to see a house in the distance. _But + we hastened toward it with thoughts of a warm meal and a good + lodging. We entered the yard_, and went up to the door, and + knocked. + + Exterior-interior transition needed: We noticed that the house + was built of cobblestones. There was a broad window from which + we could look out upon the small stream that dashed down the + rocky hillside. + + Better: We noticed that the house was built of cobblestones. + _We went inside, and found that the living room was large and + airy._ There was a broad window from which we could look out + upon the small stream that dashed down the rocky hillside. + + Cause transition lacking: The Romans were great road-builders. + They wished to maintain their empire. + + Better: The Romans were great road-builders, _because means of + moving troops quickly were necessary_ to the maintenance of + their empire. + + General-to-particular transition needed: Modern machinery often + makes men its slaves. Last summer I worked for the Chandler + Company. [This gap in thought occurs oftenest between the first + two sentences of a paragraph or theme.] + + Better: Modern machinery often makes men its slaves. _This + truth is well illustrated by my own experience._ Last summer I + worked for the Chandler Company. + + Transition to be improved by changing order: A careless trainer + may spoil a good colt. A good horse can never be made of a + vicious colt. [Here the order of ideas is: "Trainer ... colt. + Horse ... colt." Turn the last sentence end for end.] + + Better: A careless trainer may spoil a good colt. And a vicious + colt can never be made a good horse. [Now the order of ideas is + "Trainer ... colt. Colt ... horse."] + + Transition to be improved by removal of a disturbing element: + Our class in physics last week visited a pumping station in + which the Corliss type of steam engine is used. _The engines + are manufactured by the Allis-Chalmers Company of Milwaukee, + Wisconsin._ This type of engine is used because it has several + advantages. [The italicized sentence should be omitted here, + and used later in the theme.] + +Note.--The divisions of thought within a paragraph may likewise be +indicated by connectives: _however_, _on the other hand_, _equally +important_, _another interesting problem is_, _for this reason_, _the +remedy for this_, _so much for_, _it remains to mention_, _of course I +admit_, _finally_. (For a longer list see 36.) Such phrases are also +useful in linking one paragraph to another. + +When a student first learns the art, he is likely to use transition +phrases in excess, and produce something like the following: "When I +have to write a theme, I first think of my subject. As soon as I have my +subject, I take out my paper. On the paper I then make a rough outline." +This abuse of transition causes an overlapping of thought, like shingles +laid three inches to the weather. An abrupt transition is better than +wordiness. + + Exercise: + + 1. The shore looked far off. Then we reached it. + + 2. A light snow was falling last night. This is a good day for + hunting rabbits. + + 3. A dollar is often a large sum. I sold newspapers when I was + a boy. + + 4. Many English words still preserve their old meanings. There + is the teller in the bank. + + 5. We had to walk half a mile across the pastures in the fresh + morning air. Exercise indoors does not arouse much zest or + enthusiasm. + + +=9.= EXERCISE IN COMPLETENESS OF THOUGHT + +=A. Fragments Misused as Sentences= + +Rewrite the following statements in sentences each of which expresses a +complete thought. + + 1. He gave me a flower. Which was wilted. + + 2. The gasoline flows through the supply tube to the + carburetor. Where it should vaporize and enter the cylinders. + + 3. People of all ages were there. Old men, young women, and + even children. + + 4. He told us that you had a good standing among business men. + That you always met your bills promptly. + + 5. Excuse Everett Smith from school this morning. He having the + measles. + + 6. The internal combustion engine may be either one of two + types. The two cycle or the four cycle. + + 7. The young men and women acted like children. Who should have + known better. + + 8. There was a cross cow in the pasture. Which had long horns. + + 9. Bacteria are microscopic organisms. Especially found where + milk or some other substance decomposes. + + 10. We pass on down the street. The buildings rising two or + three stories high on either side. + + 11. The Y. M. C. A. enables you to keep your religious + interests alive. As well as to associate with clean young men. + + 12. She wasted her time on foolish clothes. While her mother + took in washing. + + 13. He was dressed in a ridiculous fashion. Wearing, for + instance, an orange necktie. + + 14. The point is similar to that of the ordinary steel pen, + except that it is made of gold. Gold being used on account of + its greater smoothness and durability. + + 15. Tire troubles have been made less formidable by the + invention of a compact, efficient little vulcanizer. A factory + for making which is now being built. + +=B. Incomplete Constructions= + +Improve the following statements. Supply missing words. Make sure that +each construction and each sentence is complete. + + 1. When one year old, my mother died. + + 2. Yours received, and in reply would say your order has been + filled. + + 3. While in there a man came in and bought a quarter's worth of + soap. + + 4. War is largely dependent upon the engineers to design new + machinery. + + 5. When you talk to a man look at him, not the floor or + ceiling. + + 6. In writing a book, an author's first one is usually not very + good. + + 7. Every summer while in high school, our family has gone to + our cottage on Lake Michigan. + + 8. When a boy, Mary was my best friend. + + 9. There is, however, another reason a person should know how + to swim. + + 10. I think more of her than anyone else. + + 11. Corrupt laws are often the means rich people obtain the + earnings of others. + + 12. A hundred dollars invested in a warning signal, future + accidents would be prevented. + + 13. Electric transmission is sometimes used on automobiles more + of an experiment than anything else. + + 14. Was delighted to hear from you. Glad to hear you entered + the wholesale business. Wish you success. + + 15. As a rule people eat too much. This point should be + noticed, and not overwork the digestive organs. + +=C. Incomplete Logic= + +The following sentences are inadequate statements of cause, comparison, +etc. Complete the thought. + + 1. His neck is as long as a giraffe. + + 2. His name was David Meek, from New Hampshire. + + 3. The Pacific Ocean is larger than any ocean. + + 4. Because he never worked led to his failure. + + 5. A monitor is where a heavily armored boat of light draft can + go near the shore. + + 6. Democracy is when people, through representatives, govern + themselves. + + 7. The story of _Huckleberry Finn_ is in reality Mark Twain + himself. + + 8. Because a man has money is no reason why he should be lazy. + + 9. The character of Sydney Carton is the real hero of this + novel. + + 10. A forester leads an interesting life is the reason I want + to be one. + + 11. Tact is where a man anticipates the criticism of others, + and acts with discretion. + + 12. The comfort of a modern house is much greater than the + old-time house. + + 13. Free trade is when no revenue is collected on imports, + beyond enough to run the government. + + 14. The cost of room, board, and tuition is low at this school, + compared to the more fashionable schools. + + 15. The theme of this novel tells how a peasant, Jean Valjean, + from a convict comes to be a respected citizen. + +=D. Undeveloped Thought and Transitions= + +Complete the thought of the following sentences, and secure a smooth +transition between parts. + + 1. As you enter this room, to the left is an interesting + painting of the Canterbury Pilgrims. + + 2. Poe delights in fantastic plots. A pirate's treasure chest + was discovered in _The Gold Bug_. + + 3. I got up and ate a bite of breakfast. A few of my friends + came over. We went to play golf. + + 4. All the loose material on the trail is carried off by the + rush of the water. The last time I was on it was in early + summer, and I found it in this rough condition. + + 5. I managed to find the softest board in the floor and went to + sleep. Some of the boys found pleasure in arousing me with a + shower of cold water. + + 6. Under guise of friendly escort the Indians accompanied the + inhabitants of the fort a few miles. Only three escaped the + massacre. + + 7. Many people say that in civil engineering it depends on the + prosperity of the country; in hard times they do not build and + in good times they do build. + + 8. Canada has more forests than minerals. Canada has made only + a start in the lumber industry. The minerals are found, for the + most part, in the mountain district near Lake Superior. + + 9. Thanksgiving day, as we are told, is a day on which our + Puritan forefathers gathered round the roast turkey and gave + thanks to God for his goodness. Last Thanksgiving I was at + home. + + 10. The old method was to dig the holes by hand, and drop two + or three kernels in each hole. Corn has become a staple crop. + Machinery is used. The preparing of a field for corn has become + a science. + + + +UNITY OF THOUGHT + +Unity means oneness. A sentence should contain one thought. It may +contain two or more statements only when these are closely related parts +of a larger thought or impression. A writer should make certain, first, +that his thought has unity; and second, that this unity will be obvious +to the reader. + + +=Unrelated Ideas in One Sentence= + +=10. Do not combine ideas which have no obvious relation to each other. +Place the ideas in separate sentences. Or, write the ideas as one +sentence, making their relation obvious.= + + Wrong: The Spartans did not care for literature, and lived in + the southern part of Greece. + + Wrong: The coffee business is not difficult to learn, and the + most important work in preparing coffee for the market is the + roasting of the green berries. + +The simplest method of correction is to divide the sentence. + + Right: The Spartans lived in the southern part of Greece. They + did not care for literature. + + Right: The coffee business is not difficult to learn. The most + important work in preparing the coffee for the market is the + roasting of the green berries. + +Another method of correction is to subordinate one idea to the other, or +to change the wording until the relation between the ideas is obvious. + + Right: The Spartans, who lived in the southern part of Greece, + did not care for literature. + + Right: The coffee business is not difficult to learn, since the + only important work in preparing the coffee for the market is + the roasting of the green berries. + + Exercise: + + 1. Franklin is often regarded as the typical American, and + wrote an interesting autobiography. + + 2. Coal miners wear little oil lamps in their caps, and they + seldom receive very good wages. + + 3. My neighbor, Mr. Houghton, was always a very good friend of + mine, and died last night. + + 4. I dropped the clock and injured the works, but the jeweler + told me it would be cheaper for me to buy a new clock. + + 5. The next thing the camper should do is to make a bed, and + the branches of the spruce are the best. + + +=Excessive Detail= + +=11. Do not encumber the main idea of a sentence with superfluous +details. Place some of the details in another sentence, or omit them.= + + Faulty: In the town in which I live there are several large + churches, and about six o'clock one morning, in a violent + storm, one of these churches was struck by lightning. + + Right: In my home town there are several large churches. One + morning about six o'clock, in a violent storm, one of these + churches was struck by lightning. + + Wrong: In 1836, in Baltimore, Poe married Virginia Clemm, his + cousin, who was hardly more than a child, being then fourteen + years old, while Poe himself was twenty-eight, and to her he + wrote much of his best verse. + + Right: In 1836 Poe married Virginia Clemm. Poe was then + twenty-eight, and Virginia was only fourteen. To this girl Poe + wrote much of his best verse. + + Exercise: + + 1. The house with the red tile roof is the finest in the city, + and is owned by Mr. Saunders, who made his money speculating in + land. + + 2. Then the engine tilted and fell over on one side, and the + boiler exploded and added to the frightful scene. + + 3. The deer whose antlers you see over the fireplace as you + enter the room was shot by my Uncle Will, who is now in South + America on a hunting expedition. + + 4. The seeds, which have previously been soaked in water over + night, are now planted carefully, not too deep, in straight + rows sixteen inches apart, the best time being in April, when + the ground is soft and has been thoroughly spaded. + + 5. One day last week my employer, Mr. Conway, a jolly, peculiar + man, raised my salary, first telling me I was about to be + discharged, and laughing at me when I looked so surprised. + +=Stringy Sentences to be Broken up= + +=12. Avoid stringy compound sentences. The crude, rambling style which +results from their use may be corrected by separating the material into +shorter sentences, or by subordinating lesser ideas to the main thought.= + + Faulty: The second speaker had sat quietly waiting, and he was + a man of a different type, and he began calmly, yet from the + very first words he showed great earnestness. + + Right: The second speaker, who had sat quietly waiting, was a + man of a different type. He began calmly, yet from his very + first words he showed great earnestness. + + Faulty: There are many stops on the organ which control the + tones of the different pipes and one has to learn how and when + to use these and this takes time and practice. + + Right: On the organ are many stops which control the tones of + the different pipes. To learn how and when to use these takes + time and practice. + + Faulty: He published prose fiction, and this was then the + accepted literary form, and the drama was neglected. + + Better: He published prose fiction, which was then the accepted + literary form, the drama being neglected. [This sentence makes + three statements in a diminishing series. The important idea is + expressed in a main clause; a less important explanation is + fitted into a relative clause; and a still less important + comment takes a parenthetical phrase at the end.] + +Note.--One of the crying faults of the immature writer is that by +excessive coördination he obscures the fine shades of meaning. When two +clauses are joined, the meaning will very often be more exact if one is +subordinated to the other. For a list of subordinating connectives, see +36. + + Exercise: + + 1. He went down town, and it began to rain, and so he decided + to go to the city library. + + 2. There is an old saying which I have often heard and I + believe in it to a certain extent, and it runs as follows: The + more you live at your wit's end, the more the wit's end grows. + + 3. Our salesman, Mr. Powers, has spoken very favorably of your + firm, and we feel that our relations will be most pleasant, and + the report of the commercial agencies is sufficient evidence of + your good financial standing. + + 4. There was no escaping from this churn, so one of the frogs, + after a brief struggle thought that he might just as well die + one time as another, and so he gave up and sank to the bottom. + + 5. Socrates did no writing himself, and the only information we + have of him we get from the writings of his pupils and from + later writers, and our most reliable knowledge comes from two + of these writers, Plato and Xenophon. + + +=Choppy Sentences to be Combined= + +=13. Do not use two or three short sentences to express ideas which will +make a more unified impression in one sentence. Place subordinate ideas +in subordinate grammatical constructions.= + + Excessive predication: Excavating is the first operation in + street paving. The excavating is usually done by means of a + steam shovel. The shovel scoops up the dirt and loads it + directly into wagons. + + Right: Excavating, the first operation in street paving, is + usually done by a steam shovel which loads the dirt directly + into wagons. + + Monotonous: The doe is wading along the shore. She is nibbling + the lily pads as she goes. Now she moves slowly around the + point. She has a little spotted fawn with her. The fawn frolics + along at the heels of his mother. + + Better: Wading along the shore, the doe nibbles the lily pads + by the way, and moves slowly around the point. A spotted fawn + frolics at her heels. + + Primer style: Rooms are marked on the floor. These rooms are + about fourteen feet square. + + Better: The floor is marked off into rooms about fourteen feet + square. + +Note.--An occasional short sentence is permissible, even desirable. +Successive short sentences may be used to express rapid action, or +emphatic assertion, or deliberate simplicity. Otherwise, avoid them. + + Exercise. + + 1. Decatur has wide streets. The streets are paved with brick, + asphalt, and creosote blocks. + + 2. Sixteen posts are set in a row. All of these are at equal + intervals. + + 3. The boat approaches the leeward side of the ship. This side + is the side protected from the wind. + + 4. The _Scientific American_ reports the progress of science. + It explains new inventions. It makes practical applications of + scientific principles. + + 5. The beans are usually harvested about the middle of + September. They are cut when the plants turn color at the roots + and the beans turn white. They are cut by a bean-cutter which + takes two rows at a time. + + +=Excessive Coördination= + +In structure a sentence may be + + A. Simple: The rain fell. + + B. Compound: The rain continued and the stream rose. + + C. Complex: When the rain ceased, the flood came. + +In B, the clauses are of almost equal importance, and the first is +coördinated with the second. In C, the clauses are not of equal +importance, and the first is subordinated to the second. _And_ is a +coördinating conjunction. _When_ is a subordinating conjunction. For a +list of connectives see 36. + +=14. Do not use coördination when subordination will secure a more clear +and emphatic unit of thought. Especially do not coördinate a main idea +with an explanatory detail.= The speech of children connects all ideas, +important and unimportant, with _and_. Discriminating writers place +minor ideas in subordinate clauses, consign still less important ideas +to participial or prepositional phrases, and omit trivial details +altogether. + + Childish: I went down town and saw a crowd standing in the + street, and wanted to know what was the matter, and so I went + up and asked a man. + + Right: When I went down town, I saw a crowd standing in the + street, and since I wanted to know what was the matter, I asked + a man. [Two clauses are subordinated by the use of _when_ and + _since_. This change abolishes two _ands_. The words _went up + and_ are struck out. One _and_ remains, and deserves to remain, + for it joins two ideas which are truly coördinate.] + + Main idea not emphasized: I talked with an old man and his name + was Ned. + + Better: I talked with an old man named Ned. [A participial + phrase replaces a clause. The name is now subordinated.] + + Main idea not emphasized: Developing is the next step in + preparing the film, and it is very important. + + Better: Developing, the next step in preparing the film, is + very important. [An appositional phrase replaces the first + predicate.] + + Main idea not emphasized: They began their perilous journey, + and they had four horses. + + Right [emphasizing _perilous journey_]: With four horses they + began their perilous journey. [A prepositional phrase replaces + a clause.] + + Right [emphasizing _having the horses_]: When they began their + perilous journey, they had four horses. [A subordinate clause + replaces a main clause.] + + Capable of greater unity: The frog is a stupid animal, and may + be caught with a hook baited with red flannel. [Is the writer + trying to tell us _how to catch frogs_, or merely that _frogs + are stupid_? Coördination makes the two ideas appear equally + important.] + + Right [emphasizing _frogs are stupid_]: The fact that the frog + can be caught with a hook baited with red flannel proves his + stupidity. + + Right [emphasizing _how to catch frogs_]: The frog, being + stupid, will bite at a piece of red flannel. + + Exercise. + + 1. Men were sent to Panama and could not live in such + unsanitary conditions. + + 2. When a letter came and it bore a familiar handwriting, I + always opened it eagerly. + + 3. West Hickory is the name of the place where the tannery is + situated, and it is a laboring man's town. + + 4. She wore a dress and it was silk, and cost her father a lot + of money. + + 5. Every race horse has a care taker or groom, and this man + spends all his time and makes the horse comfortable. + + +=Faulty Subordination of the Main Thought= + +=15. Do not put the principal statement of a sentence in a subordinate +clause or phrase.= This violation of unity is sometimes called +"upside-down subordination". + + Faulty: I was going down the street, when I heard an explosion. + [If _hearing the explosion_ is the main thought, it should be + placed in the main clause.] + + Right: When I was going down the street, I heard an explosion. + + Faulty: Longstreet received orders to attack the Federal right + wing, which he did immediately. + + Right: As soon as Longstreet received orders, he attacked the + Federal right wing. + + Faulty: I suspected that it would rain, although I did not take + an umbrella. + + Right: Although I suspected that it would rain, I did not take + an umbrella. + + Exercise: + + 1. An old man used to work for us, who died yesterday. + + 2. He became angry, saying he positively refused to go. + + 3. He is a bright boy, although I should not want to trust him + with my pocketbook. + + 4. He had an ambition which was to become the best lawyer in + the state by the time he was forty years old. + + 5. The cable breaks and the elevator starts to drop, when the + safety device always operates at once to prevent an accident. + + +=Subordination Thwarted by _and_= + +=16. Do not attach to a main clause by means of _and_, a word, phrase, or +clause which you intend shall be subordinate. The presence of _and_ +thwarts subordination.= + + Wrong: Major went to bed, and leaving the work unfinished. + + Right: Major went to bed, leaving the work unfinished. + + Wrong: He ran home and with coat tails flying. + + Right: He ran home with coat tails flying. + + Exercise: + + 1. They denied my request, and giving no reason for the + refusal. + + 2. He gave me his answer and in few words. + + 3. The girl stood on the edge of the cliff, and thus showing + that she was not afraid. + + 4. A telegraph line is leased by the Associated Press, and thus + giving the newspapers quick service. + + 5. When the summer passed, the fisherman returned home for the + winter, and where he renewed his acquaintance with the + villagers. + + +=The _and which_ construction= + +=17. Use _and which_ (or _but which_), _and who_ (or _but who_) only +between relative clauses similar in form. Between a main clause and a +relative clause, _and_ or _but_ thwarts subordination.= + + Wrong: This is an important problem, and which we shall not + find easy to solve. + + Right: This problem is an important problem, which we shall not + find easy to solve. + + Right: This problem is one _which_ is important, _and which_ we + cannot easily solve. + + Wrong: _Les Miserables_ is a novel of great interest and which + everybody should read. + + Right: _Les Miserables_ is a novel of great interest, and one + which everybody should read. + + Wrong: Their chief opponent was Winter, a shrewd politician, + but who is now less popular than he was. + + Right: Their chief opponent was Winter, a shrewd politician, + who is now less popular than he was. + +Note.--Rule 17 is sometimes briefly stated: "Do not use _and which_ +unless you have already used _which_ in the sentence." This statement is +generally true, but an exception must be made for sentences like the +following: Right: "He told me what countries he had visited, and which +ones he liked most." + + Exercise: + + 1. Just outside is a small porch looking out over the street, + and which can be used for sleeping purposes. + + 2. She is a woman of pleasing personality, and who can converse + intelligently. + + 3. It is a difficult task, but which can be accomplished in + time. + + 4. He is a good-looking man, but who is very snobbish. + + 5. The rule made by the conference of college professors in + 1896, and which has been followed ever since, applies to the + case we are considering. + + +=Unity Thwarted by Punctuation= + +=The Comma Splice= + +=18. Do not splice two independent statements by means of a comma. Write +two sentences. Or, if the two statements together form a unit of +thought, combine them (1) by a comma plus a conjunction, (2) by a +semicolon, or (3) by reducing one of the statements to a phrase or a +subordinate clause.= + + Wrong: The town has two railroads, it was founded when oil was + discovered. + + Right: The town has two railroads. It was founded when oil was + discovered. + + Wrong: The speed of the car seemed slower than it really was, + this was due, no doubt, to the absence of all noise. [Here are + three commas. The reader cannot quickly discover which one + marks the great division of thought.] + + Right: The speed of the car seemed slower than it really was. + This was due, no doubt, to the absence of all noise. + + Wrong: The winters were long and cold, nothing could live + without shelter. + + Right: The winters were long and cold. Nothing could live + without shelter. + + Right: The winters were long and cold, and nothing could live + without shelter [For the use of the comma, see 91a]. + + Right: The winters were long and cold; nothing could live + without shelter [For the use of the semicolon see 92]. + + Right: The winters were so long and cold that nothing could + live without shelter. + +Exception.--Short coördinate clauses which are parallel in structure and +leave a unified impression, may be joined by commas, even though the +conjunctions be omitted. + + Right: All was excitement. The ducks quacked, the pigs + squealed, the dogs barked. [The general idea _excitement_ gives + the three clauses a certain unity.] + + Exercise: + + 1. The key is turned to the right, this unlocks the door. + + 2. The author keeps one guessing, there is no hint how the + story will end. + + 3. The farmer is independent, he has no task-master. + + 4. There has been a change of government, in fact there has + been a revolution. + + 5. Lamb had failed in poetry, in the drama, and in the novel, + in the essay, at last, he succeeded. + + +=19.= EXERCISE IN UNITY OF THOUGHT + +=A. The Comma Splice= + +Rewrite the following material in sentences each of which is a unit of +thought. Most of the statements should be summarily cut apart. If you +decide that others taken together have unity of thought, combine them +(1) by a comma plus a conjunction, (2) by a semicolon, or (3) by +reducing one of the statements to a phrase or a subordinate clause. + + 1. The canoe is long and narrow, it is made of birch bark. + + 2. I decided to serve tea, of course cream and sugar would be + needed. + + 3. Some men hunt rabbits for market purposes only, they are the + sportsman's enemies. + + 4. This city furnished many boats for the siege of Calais, when + these boats returned they brought the plague with them. + + 5. The bottom of the box is then put in, it is nailed to the + sides. + + 6. It is not easy to become a good musician, one must practice + continually. + + 7. The Northern and Southern states could not be separate + nations, there was no natural boundary between them. + + 8. The telephone is a great invention, it is very useful to the + farmer. + + 9. Why would no one come to help me, my feet ached and I was + thirsty. + + 10. I know a girl who has a cynical disposition, she is always + criticizing. + + 11. I went into the office hopeless, a dime stood between me + and starvation. + + 12. The construction of the bridge has much to do with the tone + of a violin, it should be lower on the side nearest the E + string. + + 13. A private expense account does not require much labor or + time, just one hour a week will suffice to keep tract of all + expenditures. + + 14. We offer you sixty dollars a month to start, this is all we + can afford to pay at present. + + 15. He wanted personal success but would not shirk a duty or + harm any one in any way to gain that success, at all times he + forgot his own personal importance and was ready to do any task + set before him. + +=B. One Thought in a Sentence= + +By dividing, subordinating, or logically combining the following +statements, secure unity of thought. + + 1. She was born in Atlanta, Georgia, on September 30, 1902, + where she has lived ever since and is now well known. + + 2. Franklin was kindly, shrewd, and capable, and was the + representative of the United States in France. + + 3. She said that Mrs. Brown was ill and that she was just + caring for the baby, she loved babies anyway, she said. + + 4. One Sunday afternoon there was an excursion to Beaver and + several of us decided to go and take our lunches and return on + the eight o'clock car. + + 5. He gave me the dimensions of the room. The dimensions were + ten by twelve feet. + + 6. Good grades may be obtained in two ways: by honest work, and + by cheating; however any one who cheats is doing himself more + harm than good. + + 7. The wall studding is made of two-by-fours. These + two-by-fours are placed sixteen inches apart. + + 8. The returning Crusaders brought with them oriental learning, + and found the peasantry impoverished. + + 9. The articles in this magazine are of high quality. The + articles are well written and attractively illustrated. + + 10. A Japanese woman going abroad at night must carry a lighted + lamp and must not speak to any one, women do not have much + freedom in Japan. + + 11. The sugar beets are irrigated by river water. They are + irrigated by means of furrows. The furrows run between the rows + of beets. The beets are irrigated once a week. + + 12. The referee asked each captain if his men were ready, after + which he blew the whistle, and the game was on, and within five + minutes our team scored a touchdown. + + 13. The ground should be harrowed as soon as possible after it + is plowed. It is a good plan to harrow the ground on the same + day that it is plowed, or on the day following. + + 14. Choose the middle of the prepared ground, which is about + eighty-five by fifty feet, as your starting point, measure + twenty-four feet east and west and set the net posts; then, + after marking off the different courts with tape, you are ready + for a good game of tennis. + + 15. There are two places on the island suitable for plays: one + in the bungalow and the other down on the sandy point; the + latter lends itself to the purpose readily, there are two trees + which make a splendid support for wires on which to hang the + curtain, and just east of these the ground slopes enough to + make a natural amphitheater. + +=C. Excessive Coördination= + +The ideas in the following sentences are loosely strung together with +coördinating conjunctions. Place the important idea in the main clause. +Subordinate other ideas by reducing each to a dependent clause, or a +phrase, or a word. + + 1. Chris has a new coat and it is double-breasted. + + 2. I had a dog, and his name was Scratcher. + + 3. He gave a laugh but it was forced. + + 4. The woodcock is so foolish and deliberately walks into a + trap. + + 5. The engineers fastened rafts to the piles, and which were + pulled up when the tide rose. + + 6. Students often sit all doubled up, and raising their feet + high on the table. + + 7. Dunlap is carrying a palette, but without any paint on it. + + 8. The government has been successful in its suit, and the + tobacco trust was dissolved. + + 9. The British troops had no protection against poisonous gas + and the use of gas by the enemy was unexpected. + + 10. I make it a rule to study one thing at least an hour and no + long rest between. + + 11. The concrete is spread in a layer, and this is about nine + inches thick, and the width being ten feet. + + 12. Rockwell is our postmaster, and is accommodating, but he + has a disposition to be curious. + + 13. At the Gatun Dam there are concrete locks, and the purpose + of these is to lift vessels into the lake. + + 14. They say to tourists that objects are historic but which + are not historic at all. + + 15. I was lying quietly in the hammock, and I happened to look + up in the tree, and there was a green bird and eating a cherry. + + 16. They disputed for a time, and afterward the officer became + angry, and whipped out his sword. + + 17. A mirage is an illusion and the traveler thinks he sees + water when there really is none. + +=D. Upside-down Subordination= + +In the following sentences the important idea is buried in a subordinate +clause or phrase. Rescue this main idea, express it in the main clause, +and if possible subordinate the rest of the sentence to it. + + 1. I spoke to her on the street, when she did not answer. + + 2. She thanked me for my assistance, also asking me to come and + visit her the following Sunday. + + 3. The water froze in the buckets, although they did not burst. + + 4. The crows cawed angrily and circling around in one place. + + 5. He is threatened with tuberculosis, although he will not + sleep in the open air. + + 6. We had hacked the bark, the tree dying after a few months. + + 7. One of the contestants was from Wendover College, who + received the prize. + + 8. You ask a person what a spiral staircase is, when he will go + to showing you by motions of his hand. + + 9. It was about three o'clock, and we decided to return home, + which we did. + + 10. The plumber came, stopping the leak as soon as he arrived. + + 11. Benton sold stamps, in which business he grew rich. + + 12. The sun's heat beats down upon the brick tenements, which + is terrible. + + 13. The chemist tested the purity of the water, but which he + found unfit to drink. + + 14. Montaigne wrote an essay on "Solitude," where he pointed + out the disadvantages of travel. + + 15. The house is set close to the edge of the bluff, + overlooking a wide bend of the Alleghany River. + + 16. Things had been going from bad to worse among the Indians, + and some Sioux were entertaining a few Chippewas, and murdered + them, when the government took a hand in the affair. + + 17. The slight knowledge of metals and wide-awake observation + of an inexperienced miner discovered gold in Arizona. + + + +CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT + +Clearness is fundamental. The writer should be content, not when his +meaning may be understood, but only when his meaning cannot be +misunderstood. He may attain this entire clearness by giving attention +to five matters: + + Reference (20-23) + Coherence (24-28) + Parallel Structure (30-31) + Consistency (32-35) + Use of Connectives (36-38) + + +REFERENCE + +By the use of pronouns, participles, and other dependent words, language +becomes flexible and free. But each dependent part must refer without +confusion to a word which is reasonably near, and properly expressed. +Ordinarily a reader expects a pronoun or a participle to refer to the +nearest noun (or pronoun) or to an emphatic noun. + + +=Divided Reference= + +=20. A pronoun should be placed near the word to which it refers, and +separated from words to which it might falsely seem to refer. If this +method does not secure clearness, discard the pronoun and change the +sentence structure.= + + Uncertain reference of _which_: He dropped the bundle in the + mud which he was carrying to his mother. [The reader for a + moment refers the pronoun to the wrong noun. Bring _which_ + nearer to its proper antecedent _bundle_.] + + Right: He dropped in the mud the bundle which he was carrying + to his mother. + + Vague reference of _this_: My failure in mathematics was + serious. My grades in English, history, and Latin were good + enough. But this brought down my average. [_This?_ What _this_? + Five nouns intrude between the pronoun _this_ and its proper + antecedent _failure_.] + + Right: In English, history, and Latin I received fairly good + grades. But in mathematics I received a failure. This brought + down my average. + + Remote reference of _it_: If you want to make a good speech, + take your hands out of your pockets, open your mouth wide, and + throw yourself into it. + + Right: If you want to make a good speech, take your hands out + of your pockets, open your mouth wide, and throw yourself into + what you are saying. [Or, better] Take your hands out of your + pockets, open your mouth wide, and throw yourself into the + speech. + + Ambiguous reference of _he_: John spoke to the stranger, and he + was very surly. + + Right: John spoke to the stranger, who was very surly. [Or] + John spoke in a surly manner to the stranger. + +Note.--The reference of relative and demonstrative pronouns is largely +dependent upon their position. The reference of a personal pronoun +(_he_, _she_, _they_, etc.) is not so much dependent upon its position, +the main consideration being that the antecedent shall be emphatic (See +the next article.) + + Exercise: + + 1. He was driving an old mule attached to a cart that was blind + in one eye. + + 2. There is a grimy streak on the wall over the radiator which + can be removed only with great difficulty. + + 3. The feet of Chinese girls were bandaged so tightly when they + were babies that they could not grow. + + 4. He gave me a receipt for the money which he told me to keep. + + 5. After the pictures have been taken and the film has been + removed, they are sent to the developing room where it is + developed and dried. + + +=Weak Reference= + +=21. Do not allow a pronoun to refer to a word not likely to be central +in the reader's thought; a word, for example, in the possessive case, or +in a parenthetical expression, or in a compound, or not expressed at +all. Make the pronoun refer to an emphatic word.= + + Wrong: When a poor woman came to Jane Addams' famous Hull + House, she always gave help. [_Poor woman_ and _Hull House_ are + the emphatic words, to which any pronoun used later is + instinctively referred by the reader.] + + Right: When a poor woman came to Jane Addams' famous Hull + House, she always received help. [Or] When a poor woman came to + Hull House, Jane Addams always gave help. + + Wrong: In biology, which is the study of plants and animals we + find that they are made up of unitary structures called cells. + [Since the words _plants and animals_ occur only in a + parenthetical clause, the reader is surprised to find them used + as an antecedent.] + + Right: In the study of biology we find that plants and animals + are made up of unitary structures called cells. + + Wrong: This old scissors-grinder sharpens them for the whole + neighborhood. [The center of interest in the reader's mind is a + man, not scissors.] + + Right: This old scissors-grinder sharpens scissors for the + whole neighborhood. + + Wrong: I always liked engineers, and I have chosen that as my + profession. + + Right: I always liked engineering, and I have chosen it as my + profession. + + Absurd: When the baby is through drinking milk, it should be + disconnected and put in boiling water. [The central idea in the + reader's mind is _baby_, not _milk-bottle_. The writer may have + been thinking about the _bottle_, but he did not make the word + emphatic; in fact, he did not express it at all.] + + Right: When the baby is through drinking milk, the bottle + should be taken apart and put in boiling water. + +Note.--Ordinarily, do not refer to the title in the first line of a +theme. The reader expects you to assert something, and face forward, not +to turn back to what you have said in the title. + + Faulty: Color Photography + + I am interested in this new development of science. For + a long time I ... + + Right: Color Photography + + Taking pictures in color has long appealed to me as an interesting + possibility ... + + Exercise: + + 1. In Shakespeare's play _Othello_ he makes Iago a fiend. + + 2. The noodle-cutter is a kitchen device which saves time in + making this troublesome dish. + + 3. The life of a forester is interesting, and I intend to + follow that profession. + + 4. He took down his great-grandfather's old sword, who had + carried it at Bunker Hill. + + 5. I was always making experiments in science, and I naturally + acquired a liking for periodicals of that nature. + + +=Broad Reference= + +=22. Do not use a pronoun to refer broadly to a general idea. Supply a +definite antecedent or abandon the pronoun.= + + Wrong: The tapper strikes the gong, which continues as long as + the push button is pressed. [The writer intends that _which_ + shall refer to the entire preceding clause, but the reference + is intercepted by the word _gong_.] + + Right [supplying a definite antecedent]: The tapper strikes the + gong, a process which continues as long as the push button is + pressed. [Or, abandoning the pronoun] The tapper strikes the + gong as long as the push button is pressed. + + Wrong: Read the directions which are printed on the bottle and + it may save you from making a mistake. + + Right [supplying a definite antecedent]: Read the directions + which are printed on the bottle. This precaution may save you + from making a mistake. [Or, abandoning the pronoun] Reading the + directions on the bottle may prevent a mistake. + + Wrong: The managers told him they would increase his salary if + he would represent them in South America. He refused that. + + Right: The managers told him they would increase his salary if + he would represent them in South America. He refused the offer. + +Exception.--It cannot be maintained that a pronoun must _always_ have +one definite word for its antecedent. Many of the best English authors +occasionally use a pronoun to refer to a clause. But the reference must +always be clear. + +Note.--Impersonal constructions must be used with caution. "It is +raining" is correct, although _it_ has no antecedent. We desire that the +antecedent shall be vague, impersonal. But unnecessary use of the +indefinite _it_, _you_, or _they_ should be avoided. + + Faulty: It says in our history that Columbus was an Italian. + + Right: Our history says that Columbus was an Italian. + + Not complimentary to the reader: You aren't hanged nowadays for + stealing. + + Right: No one is hanged nowadays for stealing. + + Faulty: They are noted for their tact in France. + + Right: The French are noted for their tact. + + Exercise: + + 1. You use little slang in your paper which is commendable. + + 2. They had no reinforcements which caused them to lose the + battle. + + 3. The carbon must be removed from pig iron to make pure steel, + and that is done by terrific heat. + + 4. Our stenographer spends most of her spare time at a cheap + movie theater, which is in itself an index of her character. + + 5. It says in the new rules that you aren't allowed in the + building on Sunday. + + +=Dangling Participle or Gerund= + +=23. A participle, being dependent, must refer to a noun or pronoun. The +noun or pronoun should be within the sentence which contains the +participle, and should be so conspicuous that the participle will be +associated with it instantly and without confusion.= + + Wrong: Coming in on the train, the high school building is + seen. [Is the building coming in? If not, who is?] + + Right: Coming in on the train, one sees the high school + building. + +A sentence containing a dangling participle may be corrected (1) by +giving the word to which the participle refers a conspicuous position in +the sentence, or (2) by replacing the participial phrase by some other +construction. + + Wrong: Having taken our seats, the umpire announced the + batteries. + + Right: Having taken our seats, we heard the umpire announce + the batteries. [Or] When we had taken our seats, the umpire + announced the batteries. + + Wrong: She was for a long time sick, caused by overwork. [The + participle _caused_ should not modify _sick_. A participle is + used as an adjective, and should therefore modify a noun.] + + Right--using an adjectival modifier: + + She had a long sickness, {caused by} overwork. + {due to } + + Right--using an adverbial modifier: + + {because of } + She was for a long time sick {owing to } overwork. + {on account of} + +=When a gerund phrase (_in passing_, _while speaking_ etc.) implies the +action of a special agent, indicate what the agent is. Otherwise the +phrase will be dangling.= + + Faulty: In talking to Mr. Brown the other day, he told me that + you intend to buy a car. + + Better: In talking to Mr. Brown the other day, I learned that + you intend to buy a car. + + Faulty: The address was concluded by reciting a passage from + Wordsworth. + + Better: The speaker concluded his address by reciting a passage + from Wordsworth. [Or] The address was concluded by the + recitation of a passage from Wordsworth. + +Note.--Two other kinds of dangling modifier, treated elsewhere in this +book, may be briefly mentioned here. A phrase beginning with the +adjective _due_ should refer to a noun; otherwise the phrase is left +dangling (See 5 Note). An elliptical sentence (one from which words are +omitted) is faulty when one of the elements is left dangling (See 3). + + Faulty: I was late _due_ to carelessness [Use _because of_]. + + Ludicrous: My shoestring always breaks when hurrying to the + office at eight o'clock [Say _when I am hurrying_]. + + Exercise: + + 1. Coming out of the house, a street car is seen. + + 2. While engaged in conversation with my host and hostess, my + maid placed upon the table a steaming leg of lamb. + + 3. A small quantity of gold is thoroughly mixed with a few + drops of turpentine, using the spatula to work it smooth. + + 4. After being in the oven twenty minutes, open the door. When + fully baked, you are ready to put the sauce on the pudding. + + 5. Entering the store, a soda fountain is observed. Passing + down the aisle, a candy counter comes into view. The rear of + the store is bright and pleasant, caused by a skylight. + + +COHERENCE + +The verb _cohere_ means to stick or hold firmly together. And the noun +_coherence_ as applied to writing means a close and natural sequence of +parts. Order is essential to clearness. + + +=General Incoherence= + +=24. Every part of a sentence must have a clear and natural connection +with the adjoining part. Like or related parts should normally be placed +together.= + + Bring related ideas together: Little Helen stood beside the + horse wearing white stockings and slippers. + + Right: Little Helen, in white stockings and slippers, stood + beside the horse. + + Keep unlike ideas apart: The colors of purple and green are + pleasing to the eye as found in the thistle. + + Right: The purple and green colors of the thistle are + pleasing. + + Distribute unrelated modifiers, instead of bunching them: I + found a heap of snow on my bed in the morning + which had drifted in through the window. [Subject + verb--object--place--time--explanation.] + + Right: In the morning I found on my bed + a heap of snow which had drifted in through the window. + [Time--subject verb--place--object--explanation.] + + Bring related modifiers together: When he has prepared his + lessons, he will come, as soon as he can put on his old + clothes. [Condition--main clause--condition.] + + Right: When he has prepared his lessons and put on his old + clothes, he will come. [Condition and condition--main clause.] + + Exercise: + + 1. He was gazing at the landscape which he had painted with a + smiling face. + + 2. She turned the steak with a fork which she was cooking for + dinner every few minutes. + + 3. Dickens puts the various experiences he had in the form of a + novel when he was a boy. + + 4. If the roads are made of dirt, the farmer has to wait, if + the weather is rainy, till they dry. + + 5. We received practically very little or none at all + experience in writing themes. + + +=Logical Sequence= + +=25. Place first in the sentence the idea which naturally comes first in +thought or in the order of time.= + + Faulty: We went to the station from the house after bidding all + goodby. + + Right: We said goodby to all, and went from the house to the + station. + +=Do not begin one idea, abandon it for a second, and then return to the +first. Complete one idea at a time.= + + Faulty: She looked up as he approached and smoothed her hair. + [The writer begins a main clause, changes to a subordinate + clause, and then attempts to add more to the main clause. + Unfortunately the last two verbs appear to be coördinate.] + + Right: She looked up and smoothed her hair as he approached. + [Or] As he approached she looked up, and smoothed her hair. + +=Ordinarily, let a second thought begin where the first leaves off.= + + Faulty: An orange grove requires plenty of water. The young + trees will die if they do not have plenty of water. [The order + of ideas is: "Grove ... water. Trees ... water." Reverse the + order of the second sentence.] + + Right: An orange grove requires plenty of water. For without + water the young trees will die. [Now the order of ideas is: + "Grove ... water. Water ... trees."] + + Exercise: + + 1. I boarded the train, after buying a ticket. + + 2. I dropped my pen when the whistle blew and sighed. + + 3. Unless the bank clerk has ability he will never be + successful unless he works faithfully and hard. + + 4. I remember the days when Rover was a pup. Now he is not half + so interesting as he was then. + + 5. A chessboard is divided into sixty-four squares, and there + is plenty of room between the opposing armies for a terrific + battle, since each army occupies only sixteen squares. + + +=Squinting Modifier= + +=26. Avoid the squinting construction. That is, do not place between two +parts of a sentence a modifier that may attach itself to either. Place +the modifier where it cannot be misunderstood.= + + Confusing: I told him when the time came I would do it. [_When + the time came_ is said to "squint" because the reader cannot + tell whether it looks forward to the end of the sentence, or + backward to the beginning.] + + Right: When the time came, I told him I would do it. [Or] I + told him I would do it when the time came. + + Confusing: Some friends I knew would enjoy the play. [_I knew_ + squints.] + + Right: Some friends would enjoy the play, I knew. + + Confusing: The orator whom every one was calling for + enthusiastically hurried to the platform. [_Enthusiastically_ + squints.] + + Clear: The orator whom every one was enthusiastically calling + for hurried to the platform. + + Exercise: + + 1. The man who laughs half the time does not understand the + joke. + + 2. Playing football in many ways improves the mind. + + 3. When she reached home much to her disgust the door was + locked. + + 4. When the lightning struck for the first time in my life I + was afraid. + + 5. The landlord wrote that he would if the rent were not paid + in thirty days eject the tenant. + + +=Misplaced Word= + +=27. Such an adverb as _only_, _ever_, _almost_, should be placed near +the word it modifies, and separated from words which it might falsely +seem to modify. Such a conjunction as _nevertheless_, if required with a +clause, should usually be placed near the beginning.= + + Illogical: I only need a few dollars. + + Right: I need only a few dollars. + + Illogical: I don't ever intend to go there again. + + Right: I don't intend ever to go there again. [Or] I intend + never to go there again. + + Illogical: She has the sweetest voice I nearly ever heard. + + Right: She has nearly [or _almost_] the sweetest voice I ever + heard. + + Tardy use of conjunction: I intend to try. I do not expect to + accomplish much, however. + + Right: I intend to try. I do not, however, expect to accomplish + much. + + Exercise: + + 1. Students are only admitted to one lecture. + + 2. This is the smallest book I almost ever saw. + + 3. He is so poor he hasn't any food, scarcely. + + 4. She had one dress that she never expected to wear. + + 5. The difficulties were tremendous. He said that he would do + his best, nevertheless. + + +=Split Construction= + +=28. Elements that have a close grammatical connection should not be +separated awkwardly or carelessly. These elements are: (a) subject and +verb, or verb and object; (b) the parts of a compound verb; and (c) the +parts of an infinitive.= + + Awkward: One in the struggle for efficiency should not become a + machine. + + Better: In the struggle for efficiency one should not become a + machine. + + Awkward: What use of an education could a girl who married a + penniless rogue and afterwards knew + nothing but hard labor, make? + + Better: What use of an education could a girl make who married + a penniless rogue and afterward knew nothing but hard labor? + + Crude: He was unable to even so much as stir a foot. + + Better: He was unable even to stir a foot. + +Note.--It is often desirable to separate the forms enumerated under (a) +and (b) above, either for emphasis (See 40) or to avoid a bunching of +modifiers at the end of a sentence (See 24). The whole point of rule 28 +is not to depart from a natural order needlessly. + + Exercise: + + 1. One thing the beginner must remember is to not get excited. + + 2. Ralph, when he heard the news, came flying out of the house. + + 3. The president called together, for the need was urgent, his + cabinet. + + 4. Bryce said that it is more patriotic to judiciously vote + than to frantically wave the American flag. + + 5. About the time Florence Nightingale had to give up her + plans, a war between Turkey, England, and France on one side + and Russia on the other, broke out. + + +=29.= EXERCISE IN CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT + +=A. Reference of Pronouns= + +In the following sentences make the reference of pronouns exact and +unmistakable. + + 1. Brown wrote to Roberts that he had made a mistake. + + 2. We heard a voice through the door which told us to enter. + + 3. There is a walk leading from the street to the house which + is made of thin slabs of stone. + + 4. A milking stool was beside the cow on which he was + accustomed to sit. + + 5. Should a community, such as a small village, spend the money + they do on roads? + + 6. This magazine prints many special articles on politics and + social reforms that are always instructive. + + 7. I wish I could do something for the protection of birds in + our country which is neglected. + + 8. After a man has failed in one business, it is no sign he + will fail in every other. + + 9. Sometimes cane syrup is mixed with the maple syrup, which + reduces the value of the product. + + 10. It means hard and diligent work to study Latin, but it + strengthens our brain or at least it gives it good exercise. + + 11. In the class room the students become acquainted, which may + develop into lifelong friendships. + + 12. He was delighted with a ride on horseback, which animal he + had been familiar with in his childhood on the farm. + + 13. It says in our history that the battle of New Orleans was + fought after the treaty of peace had been signed. + + 14. Sparks flew about in the air, and it reminded me of a huge + Fourth of July celebration. + + 15. The doctor gave me medicine to stop the dull pain in my + head. This made me feel much better. + +=B. Dangling Modifiers= + +Remembering that a participle is used as an adjective and must therefore +refer to a noun or pronoun, correct the following sentences. Gerund +phrases and a few elliptical sentences are included in the list. + + 1. Having planned the basement, the next thing considered was + the first floor. + + 2. Glancing around the room, the ugly wall paper at once + confronted me. + + 3. After ringing the bell, and waiting a few moments, a maid + came to the door. + + 4. When selecting a site for an orchard, it should be well + drained. + + 5. Not being a skilled dancer, my feet moved awkwardly. + + 6. Having no watch, the clock must be consulted. + + 7. He was sick, caused by eating too much dessert. + + 8. Radium is very difficult to get, making it the most valuable + metal. + + 9. One man goes home and beats his wife, resulting in internal + injuries. + + 10. Over the paper and kindling a few small chunks of coal are + scattered, taking care not to choke the draft. + + 11. In speaking of character, it does not mean to be a governor + or a general. + + 12. This town draws trade for a radius of twenty miles, thus + accounting for the large volume of business. + + 13. While talking to Ralph yesterday, he spoke about his recent + success in the hardware business. + + 14. The bus holds fifteen people, and when full, the bus man + shuts the door. + + 15. If bright and pleasant, the rabbit will be found sitting at + the entrance of his burrow. + +=C. Coherence= + +Secure a clear, smooth, natural order for the following sentences. + + 1. I have a lot for sale near the city limits. + + 2. Many men can only speak their native tongue. + + 3. I saw yesterday, crossing the street, a beautiful woman. + + 4. They entered the room, and sitting on the floor they saw a + baby. + + 5. I put down my book when the clock struck and yawned. + + 6. She dropped the money on the sidewalk which she was carrying + home. + + 7. The horse did not notice that the gate was open for several + minutes. + + 8. It was worth the trouble. I do not wish to have the + experience again, however. + + 9. My first trip away from home, of any distance, was made on a + steamboat from St. Louis to New Orleans. + + 10. He gazed at a young man who was waving his hands violently, + called a cheer leader. + + 11. Any soil will grow some variety of strawberry, except sand + and clay. + + 12. I turned triumphantly to Will, who was still gazing at the + place where the muskrat sank with a beaming face. + + 13. Only the interest, the principal being kept intact, is + spent. + + 14. A student should see that external conditions are favorable + for study, such as light, temperature, and clothing. + + 15. Draw a heavy line using a ruler to connect New York and San + Francisco across the map. + + +PARALLEL STRUCTURE + +When the structure of a sentence is simple and uniform, the important +words strike the eye at once. Compare the following: + + Parallel: Beggars must not be choosers. + + Confusing: Beggars must not be the one who choose. + +A reader gives attention partly to the structure of a sentence, and +partly to the thought. The less we puzzle him with our structure, the +more we shall impress him with our thought. + + Parallel: Seeing is believing. [Attention goes to the thought.] + + Confusing: Seeing is to believe. [Attention is diverted to + _structure_.] + +The reader's expectation is that uniform structure shall accompany +uniform ideas, and that a departure from uniformity shall indicate a +change of thought. + + +=Parallel Structure for Parallel Thoughts= + +=30. Give parallel structure to those parts of a sentence which are +parallel in thought. Do not needlessly interchange an infinitive with a +participle, a phrase with a clause, a single word with a phrase or +clause, a main clause with a dependent clause, one voice or mode of the +verb with another, etc.= + + Faulty: Riding is sometimes better exercise than to walk. + + Right: Riding is sometimes better exercise than walking. [Or] + To ride is sometimes better exercise than to walk. + + Faulty: He had two desires, of which the first was for money; + in the second place, he wanted fame. + + Right: He had two desires, of which the first was for money and + the second for fame. [Or] He had two desires: in the first + place, he wanted money; in the second, fame. + + Faulty: His rival handled cigars of better quality and having a + higher selling price. + + Right: His rival handled cigars of better quality and higher + price. + + Faulty: When you have mastered the operation of shifting gears, + and after a little practice you will be a good driver. + + Right: When you have mastered the operation of shifting gears, + and had a little practice, you will be a good driver. [Or] + After you master the gears and have a little practice, you will + be a good driver. + + Faulty. These are the duties of the president of a literary + society: + + (a) To preside at regular meetings, + (b) He calls special meetings, + (c) Appointment of committees. + + Right: These are the duties of the president of a literary + society: + + (a) To preside at regular meetings, + (b) To call special meetings, + (c) To appoint committees. + + Faulty: She was actively connected with the club, church, and + with several organized charities. [Here parallelism is obscured + by the omission from the second phrase of both the preposition + and the article.] + + Right: She was actively connected with the club, with the + church, and with several organized charities. + + Faulty: He was red-faced, awkward, and had a disposition to eat + everything on the table. [The third element is like the others + in thought, and should have similar form.] + + Right: He had a red face, an awkward manner, and a disposition + to eat everything on the table. [Or] He was red-faced, awkward, + and voracious. + +Note.--Avoid misleading parallelism. For ideas _different_ in kind, do +_not_ use parallel structure. + + Wrong: He was hot, puffing, and evidently had run very hard. + [The third element is unlike the others in thought; hence the + _and_ is misleading.] + + Right: He was hot and puffing; evidently he had run very hard. + + Confusing: He was admired for his knowledge of science, and for + his taste for art, and for this I too honor him. [The last + _for_ gives a false parallelism to unlike thoughts.] + + Better: He was admired for his scientific knowledge and for his + artistic taste. I honor him for both these qualities. + + Exercise: + + 1. The duties of the secretary are to answer correspondence, + and keeping the minutes of the meetings. + + 2. This process is the most difficult; it costs the most; and + is most important. + + 3. I make it a rule to be orderly, spend no money foolishly, + and keep still when I have nothing to say. + + 4. The cotton is put up in bales about five feet in length and + three feet wide and four thick, and one of them weighing about + five hundred pounds. + + 5. Considerations of economy that one should bear in mind when + planning a house are: first, a rectangular ground-plan; second, + a one-chimney plan; third, to have only one stairway; fourth, + eliminate as many doors as possible; fifth, the bathroom should + be above the kitchen so as to reduce the cost of plumbing; and + lastly, the rooms should be few and large rather than small and + many of them. + + +=Correlatives= + +Conjunctions that are used in pairs are called correlatives; for +example, _not only_ ... _but also_ ..., _both_ ... _and_ +..., _either_ ... _or_ ..., _neither_ ... _nor_ ..., _not_ ... _or_ ..., +_whether_ ... _or_ .... + +=31. Correlatives should usually be followed by elements parallel in +form; if a predicate follows one, a predicate should follow the other; +if a prepositional phrase follows one, a prepositional phrase should +follow the other; and so on.= + + Faulty: He was not only courteous to rich customers but also to + poor ones. [Here the phrases intended to be balanced against + each other are _to rich customer's_ and _to poor ones_. As the + sentence stands, it is the word _courteous_ that is balanced + against _to poor ones_.] + + Right: He was courteous not only to rich customers but also to + poor ones. + + Faulty: She could neither make up her mind to go nor could she + decide to stay. + + Right: She could neither make up her mind to go nor decide to + stay. [Or] She could not make up her mind either to go or to + stay. + + Faulty: I talked both with Brown and Miller. [Here one + conjunction is followed by a preposition and the other by a + noun.] + + Right: I talked with both Brown and Miller. [Or] I talked both + with Brown and with Miller. + + Exercise: + + 1. He was courteous to both friends and his enemies. + + 2. Such conduct is not only dangerous to society but becomes a + national disgrace as well. + + 3. She had neither affectation of manners nor was she + sharp-tongued. + + 4. After reading Thoreau's _Walden_ I appreciate not only the + style but also I am inclined to believe in his ideas. + + 5. The good that the delegates derive from the convention not + only helps them, but they tell others what happened. + + +CONSISTENCY + +=Shift in Subject or Voice= + +=32. Do not needlessly shift the subject, voice, or mode in the middle of +a sentence. Keep one point of view, until there is a reason for +changing.= + + Faulty: In the stream which the road led over, fish were + plentiful. [Here the first mental picture is of a stream. Then + the thought is jerked away to the road above. Then it returns + to the fish in the stream.] + + Right: In the stream which flowed under the roadway, fish were + plentiful. + + Faulty: Mark Twain was born in the West, but the East was his + home in later years. [The change of subject is uncalled for.] + + Right: Mark Twain was born in the West, but lived in the East + in his later years. [Or] The West was the birthplace of Mark + Twain, and the East was his home in his later years. + + Faulty: A careful driver can go fifteen miles on a gallon of + gasoline, and at the same time very little lubricating oil is + used. [The shift from active to passive voice is awkward and + confusing.] + + Right: A careful driver can go fifteen miles on a gallon of + gasoline, and at the same time use very little lubricating oil. + + Faulty: When a problem in chemistry is given, or when we wish + to calculate certain formulas, we find that a knowledge of + mathematics is indispensable. + + Right: When a problem in chemistry is given, or when certain + formulas are to be calculated, a knowledge of mathematics is + indispensable. [Or] When we face a problem in chemistry, or + wish to calculate certain formulas, we find that a knowledge of + mathematics is indispensable. + + Faulty: Next the ground should be harrowed. Then you sow the + wheat. [The subject changes from _ground_ to _you_. One verb + explains what _should_ be done, the other what somebody + _does_.] + + {is } + Right: Next the ground { } harrowed. Then it + {should be} + {is } + { } sown to wheat. [Or] Next you should harrow + {should be} + the ground. Then you should sow the wheat. + + Exercise: + + 1. One end of a camera carries the film, and the lens and + shutter are in the other end. + + 2. When an athlete is in training, good healthful food should + be eaten. + + 3. An engineer's time is not devoted to one branch of science, + but should include many. + + 4. By having only five men in charge of our city government, + they would have more power, and we could then fix + responsibility. + + 5. There are two main classes of cake, sponge and butter. We + are taught to make both in cooking school. I like the sponge + cake. The butter cake is preferred by most persons. + + +=Shift in Number, Person, or Tense= + +=33. Avoid an inconsistent change in number, person, or tense.= + + Faulty change in number: One should save their money. + + Right: People should save their money. [Or] A man should save + his money. + + Faulty change in person: Place the seeds in water, and in a few + days a person can see that they have started to grow. + + Right: Place the seeds in water, and in a few days you will see + that they have started to grow. + + Faulty change in number: Take your umbrella with you. They will + be needed today. + + Right: Take your umbrella with you. You will need it today. + + Faulty change in tense: Freedom means that a man may conduct + his affairs as he pleases so long as he did not injure anybody + else. + + Right: Freedom means that a man may conduct his affairs as he + pleases so long as he does not injure anybody else. + + Faulty change in tense: When he heard the news, he hurries down + town and buys a paper. + + Right: When he heard the news, he hurried down town and bought + a paper. + +Note.--A change of tense within a sentence is desirable and necessary in +certain instances, for which see 55. + +Sometimes, for the sake of vividness, past events are described in the +present tense, as if they were taking place before our eyes. This usage +is called the _historical present_. A shift to the historical present +should not be made abruptly, or frequently, or for any subject except an +important crisis. + + Exercise: + + 1. A person should be careful of their conduct. + + 2. Sentences should be so formed that the reader feels it to be + a unit. + + 3. One should make the best of their surroundings and their + possessions, provided they cannot better them. + + 4. When he sees me coming, he looked the other way. + + 5. Silas Marner lost many of his habits of solitude, and goes + out among his neighbors. + + +=Mixed Constructions= + +=34. Do not make a compromise between two constructions.= + + Faulty: I cannot help but go. + + Right: I cannot help going. [Or] I cannot but go. [Or] I can + but go. + + Faulty: They are as following: + + Right: They are as follows: [Or] They are the following: + + Faulty: He tried, but of no avail. + + Right: He tried, but to no avail. [Or] He tried, but his effort + was of no avail. + + Faulty: There is no honor to be on this committee. + + Right: It is no honor to be on this committee. [Or] There is no + honor in being on this committee. + + Faulty: Sparks from the chimney caught the house on fire. + + Right: Sparks from the chimney set the house on fire. [Or] The + house caught fire from the sparks from the chimney. + +Note.--The double negative and kindred expressions (_not hardly_, _not +scarcely_, etc.) are an especially gross form of mixed construction. + + Wrong: He isn't no better now than he was then. [Logically, not + no better means _better_. The two negatives cancel each other + and leave an affirmative.] + + Right: He isn't any better now than he was then. [Or] He is no + better now than he was then. + + Wrong: She couldn't see her friend nowhere. + + Right: She couldn't see her friend anywhere. [Or] She could see + her friend nowhere. + + Wrong: We couldn't hardly see through the mist. + + Right: We could hardly see through the mist. [Or] We couldn't + see well through the mist. + + Exercise: + + 1. He doesn't come here no more. + + 2. I cannot help but make this error. + + 3. I remember scarcely nothing of the occurrence. + + 4. I would not remain there only a few days. + + 5. John would not do this under no circumstances. + + +=Mixed Imagery= + +=35. Avoid phrases which may call up conflicting mental images. When +using metaphor, simile, etc., carry one figure of speech through, +instead of shifting to another, or dropping suddenly back into literal +speech.= + + Crude: The Republicans have gained a foothold in the heart of + the cotton belt. + + Right: The Republicans have gained a foothold in the South. + + Crude: He traveled a rough road and climbed with his burden the + ladder of success, where he is a glowing example and guide to + other men. [The suggestion which a reader with a sense of humor + may get is, that a man starts out as a traveler, suddenly + becomes a hod-carrier, and is then transformed into a bonfire + or a lighthouse.] + + Right: He traveled a rough road, but found success. Other men + followed in his steps. + + Incongruous: Spring came scattering flowers, and there was rain + a great per cent of the time. [This sentence mingles the + language of poetry with the language of science. It should be + fanciful, or else literal, throughout.] + + Right: Spring came scattering flowers and rain. [Or] Spring + came with much rain and many flowers. + + Inconsistent use of irony: The phonograph was shrieking, "Waltz + me around again, Willie." I am sure I love that beautiful song. + The taste of the people who attend these cheap theaters is + deplorable. [The three sentences should be ironical throughout, + or not ironical at all.] + + Exercise: + + 1. We should meet the future from the optimistic point of view. + + 2. General Wolfe put every ounce of his life into the capture + of Quebec. + + 3. A key-note of sincerity should be the mainspring of a + well-built speech. + + 4. He went drifting down the sands of time on flowery beds of + ease. + + 5. The blank in my mind crystallized into action. + + +USE OF CONNECTIVES + +=The Exact Connective= + +=36. Use a connective which expresses the exact relation between two +clauses. Distinguish between time and cause, concession and condition, +etc. Do not overwork _and_, _so_, or _while_.= + + Misleading: _While_ he is sick, he is able to walk. [Use + _though_.] + + Misleading: Miss Brown sang, _while_ her sister spoke a piece. + [Use _but_.] + + Faulty. Work hard _when_ you want to succeed. [Use _if_.] + + Faulty: They will be sorry _without_ they do this. [Use + _unless_.] + + Faulty: Little poetry is read, _only_ at times when it is + compulsory. [Use _except_.] + + Faulty. The early morning and evening are the best times to + find ducks, _and_ we did not see many flying. [Use _and for + that reason_.] + + Faulty: Corbin says: "In America sportsmanship is almost a + passion," _and_ in England "the player very seldom forgets that + he is a man first and an athlete afterward." [Use _whereas_.] + +Note.--_So_ is an elastic word that covers a multitude of vague +meanings. Language has need of such a word, and in many instances +(especially when the relation between clauses is obvious and does not +need to be pointed out) _so_ serves well enough. Use it, but not as a +substitute for more exact connectives. Beware of falling into the +"_so_-habit." + + Abuse of _so_ as a vague coördinating connective: So I went to + call on Mrs. Woods, and so she told me about Mrs. White's new + gown; so then I missed the car, and so of course our supper is + late. [Strike out every _so_.] + + Abuse of _so_ as a subordinating connective: You may go, _so_ + you keep still. [Use _provided_.] _So_ you do only that, I + shall be satisfied. [Use _though_.] + + Permissible: I was excited, so I missed the target. + +_So_ may sometimes be used to express result. But when a clause of +result is important and needs emphasis, it is perhaps better to strike +out _so_ and subordinate the preceding clause. + + Right: In my excitement I missed the target. + + Right: Because I was excited, I missed the target. + + Right: Being excited, I missed the target. + + +=List of Connectives= + +=A. With Coördinate Clauses, expressing= + + =1. Addition:= and, besides, furthermore, again, in addition, in + like manner, likewise, moreover, then too, and finally. + + =2. Contrast:= but, and yet, however, in spite of, in contrast to + this, nevertheless, notwithstanding, nor, on the contrary, for + all that, rather still, but unhappily, yet unfortunately, + whereas. + + =3. Alternative:= or, nor, else, otherwise, neither, nor, or on + the other hand. + + =4. Consequence:= therefore, hence, consequently, accordingly, in + this way, it follows that, the consequence is, and under such + circumstances, wherefore, thus, as a result, as a consequence. + + =5. Explanation:= for example, for instance, in particular, more + specifically, for, because. + + =6. Repetition for emphasis:= in other words, that is to say, and + assuredly, certainly, in fact, and in truth, indeed it is + certain, undoubtedly, for example, in the same way, as I have + said. + +=B. With Subordinate Adverb Clauses, expressing= + + =1. Time:= when, then, before, while, after, until at last, as + long as, now that, upon which, until, whenever, whereupon, + meanwhile. + + =2. Place:= where, whence, whither, wherever. + + =3. Degree or Comparison:= as, more than, rather than, than, to + the degree in which. + + =4. Manner:= as, as if, as though. + + =5. Cause:= because, for, as, inasmuch as, since, owing to the + fact that, seeing that, in that. + + =6. Purpose:= that, so that, in order that, lest. + + =7. Result:= that is, so that, but that. + + =8. Condition:= if, provided that, in case that, on condition + that, supposing that, unless. + + =9. Concession:= though, although, assuming that, admitting that, + granting that, even if, no matter how, notwithstanding, of + course. + +=C. With Adjective Clauses.= Adjective or relative clauses are introduced +by who, which, that, or an equivalent compound. + + Exercise: + + Insert within the parentheses all the connectives that might + conceivably be used, and underscore the one which you consider + to be most exact: + + 1. He is not a broad-minded man; ( ) he has many prejudices. + + 2. A number of friends came in, bringing refreshments, ( ) + we spent a delightful evening. + + 3. We ought to return now, for it is growing dark; ( ) I + told Mary we would be home at six o'clock. + + 4. I do not believe that climate is responsible for many of the + differences between races, ( ) Taine says that it is. + + 5. She took the letter from me and read it slowly, ( ) her + eyes filled with tears. + + + +=Repetition of Connective with a Gain in Clearness= + +=37. Connectives that accompany a parallel series should be repeated when +clearness requires.= + + Preposition to be repeated: He was regarded as a hero by all + who had known him at school, and especially his old school + mates. + + Right: He was regarded as a hero _by_ all who had known him at + school, and especially _by_ his old school mates. + + Sign of the infinitive to be repeated: He wishes to join with + those who love freedom and justice, and end needless suffering. + + Right: He wishes _to_ join with those who love freedom and + justice, and _to_ end needless suffering. + + Conjunction to be repeated: Since he was known to have + succeeded in earlier enterprises, though confronted by + difficulties that would have taxed the ability of older men, + and his powers were now acknowledged to be mature, he was put + in charge of the undertaking. + + Right: _Since_ he was known to have succeeded in earlier + enterprises, though confronted by difficulties that would have + taxed the ability of older men, and _since_ his powers were now + acknowledged to be mature, he was put in charge of the + undertaking. + + Conjunction to be repeated: He explained that the strikers + asked only a fair hearing, since their contentions were + misunderstood; were by no means in favor of the violent + measures to which the public had grown accustomed; and had no + desire to resort to bloodshed and the destruction of property. + + Right: He explained _that_ the strikers asked only a fair + hearing, since their contentions were misunderstood; _that_ + they were by no means in favor of the violent measures to which + the public had grown accustomed; and _that_ they had no desire + to resort to bloodshed and the destruction of property. + + Exercise: + + 1. The place is often visited by fishermen who catch some + strange varieties of fish and especially summer tourists. + + 2. The worth of a man depends upon his character, not his + possessions. 3. He was delighted with that part of the city + which overlooked the harbor and bay, and especially the citadel + on the highest point. + + 4. Although he was so youthful in appearance that the + recruiting officer must have known he was under twenty-one, and + had not yet become a fully naturalized citizen, his effort to + enlist met with immediate success. + + 5. In the course of his speech he said that he was a foreigner, + he came to this country when he was fourteen years old, landing + in New York with his only possessions tied in a handkerchief, + went to work in an iron foundry, and after many years of toil + he found himself at the head of a great industry. + + +=Repetition of Connective with a Loss in Clearness= + +=38. Do not complicate thought by persistent repetition of elements +beginning with _that_, _which_, _of_, _for_, or _but_, and NOT parallel +in structure.= + + Complicated repetition of _that_: He gave a quarter to the boy + that brought the paper that printed the news that the war was + ended. [_That_, _which_, and _who_ are often used carelessly to + form a chain of subordinate clauses. Three successive + subordinations are all that a reader can possibly keep + straight; ordinarily a writer should not exceed two. But in + parallel structure (See 30 and 37) the number of _that_, + _which_, or _who_ clauses does not matter; a writer may + fill a page with them and not confuse the reader at all.] + + Right: He gave the boy a quarter for bringing him the paper + with the news that the war was ended. + + Complicated repetition of _of_: The East Side Civics Club is an + organization of helpers of the helpless of the lower classes of + the city. + + Right: The East Side Civics Club is organized to help the + helpless poor of the city. + + Complicated repetition of _for_: The general was dismayed, for + he had not expected resistance, for he had thought the power of + the enemy was shattered. + + Right: The general was dismayed; he had not expected + resistance, for he had thought the power of the enemy was + shattered. + + Complicated repetition of _but_: He was undoubtedly a brave + man, but now he was somewhat alarmed, but he would not turn + back. + + Right: He was undoubtedly a brave man; though now somewhat + alarmed, he would not turn back. [Or] He was undoubtedly a + brave man. He was now somewhat alarmed, but he would not turn + back. + +Note.--Guard against the _but_-habit. Frequent recurrence of _but_ makes +the reader's thought "tack" or change its course too often. There are +ways to avoid an excessive use of _but_ and _however_. When one wishes +to write about two things, A and B, which are opposed, he need not rush +back and forth from one idea to the other. Let him first say all he +wants to say about A. Then let him deliberately use the adversative +_but_, and proceed to the discussion of B. In the following paragraph on +"Whipping Children" the writer tries to be on both sides of the fence at +once. + + Confusing: It is easier to punish a child for a misdeed, than + to explain and argue. _But_ the gentler method is better. _Yet_ + we all admit that the birch must be used sometimes. _However_, + if it is used only for serious trangressions, the child will + have a sense of proportion regarding what offenses are grave. + _But_ for ordinary small misdemeanors I think we need a new + motto: Spoil the rod and spare the child. + + Right: It is easier to punish a child for a misdeed than to + explain and argue. And of course we all admit that the birch + must be used sometimes. _But_ if it is used only for serious + transgressions, the child will have a sense of proportion + regarding what offenses are grave. For ordinary small + misdemeanors I think we need a new motto: Spoil the rod and + spare the child. + + Exercise: + + 1. He did not agree at first, but hesitated for a time, but + finally said that he would go along. + + 2. Push down on the foot lever, which closes a switch which + starts an electric motor which turns the flywheel so that the + gasoline engine starts. + + 3. Apple dumplings are good, but they must be properly baked, + but fortunately this is not difficult to do. + + 4. The work of the course consists partly of the study of the + principles of grammar and of rhetoric, partly of the writing of + themes, partly of oral composition, and partly of the reading + and study of models of English prose. + + 5. The landscape which lay before me was one which was + different from any which I had ever seen before. There was one + thing which impressed me, and that was the miles and miles of + grass which stretched and undulated away from the hill on which + I stood. + + +=39.= EXERCISE IN CLEARNESS OF THOUGHT + +=A. Parallel Structure= + +Give parallel structure to elements which are parallel in thought. + + 1. Baskets are of practical value as well as being used for + ornaments. + + 2. The Book of Job ought to be interesting to a student, or for + anybody. + + 3. The important considerations are whether the soil is sandy, + and if it is well drained, and that it shall be easily + cultivated. + + 4. A flower garden is a source of profit--profit not measured + in money but in pleasure. + + 5. He was successful in business, and also attained success in + the political world. + + 6. Whether his object was writing for pastime, or to please a + friend, or money, we do not know. + + 7. Always praise your enemy, because if you whip him your glory + is increased, and if he whips you it lets you down easy. + + 8. Either the ship will sink in the rough sea or go to pieces + on the shore. + + 9. An athlete must possess strength, nerve, and be able to + think quickly. + + 10. We were interested in buying some dry-goods, and at the + same time see the sights of the great city. + + 11. Some people talk foolishness, and others on serious + subjects, and some keep still. + + 12. Not only she noticed my condition, but commented on it. + + 13. He abides by neither the laws of God nor man. He spoke both + to Harry and Tom. + + 14. It is good for the health of one's mind to get new ideas + every day, and expressing them clearly in writing. + + 15. Everyone who is capable of understanding the tax laws + should know them and how they are abused. + + 16. I began by making applications at federal, state, and city + employment bureaus for a position as cost accountant, salesman, + or clerical work. + + 17. The damage to the trunk was caused by rough handling and + not from faults in construction. + + 18. Pope, Swift, Addison, and Defoe were four satirists, but + differing greatly in their work. + + 19. The occupants of these buildings are engaged in various + kinds of business, namely: shoe-shining, shoe repair shops, + cleaning and pressing clothes, confectionery stores, and + restaurants. + + 20. I sing of geese: of the Biblical goose, that blew his bugle + from the roof of Noah's Ark; the classical goose that picked + his livelihood along the shores of the Ægean; of the + historical goose, that squawked to save old Rome; the mercenary + goose, laying the golden egg; and, finally, of the roast goose. + +=B. Shift in Subject or Voice= + +Rewrite the following sentences, avoiding all unnecessary shift in +construction. + + 1. After you decide on the plan of the house, your attention is + turned to the materials of construction. + + 2. Editors are careful to use words that are exact, yet simple, + and the use of technical terms is not generally considered to + be good. + + 3. Bank accounts should be balanced once a month in order that + you may know your exact standing. + + 4. We should have our athletic contest between the weakest + students, and in that way they will become physically strong. + + 5. When one is making a long-distance run, several cautions + should be borne in mind by him. + + 6. In melody the poem is good, but the author's ideas are + eccentric. + + 7. Lincoln's sentences are plain, blunt, and to the point. He + lacks the ornate eloquence of Jefferson. + + 8. The operator places a large shovelful of concrete in the + mold, and the mixture is made solid by tamping. + + 9. He might become angry, but it was over in a few minutes. + + 10. The pauper chanced to gain entrance to the royal palace, + and while there the young prince is met by him. + + 11. When the weather is hot, plowing is accomplished very + slowly with horses, while on the tractor the heat has no + effect. + + 12. First, one should mix one-half cup of corn syrup and one + cup of brown sugar; then one cup of cream and the flavoring are + added. + + 13. In the college situated in a small town there are + dormitories for the student, but in the cities they usually + room where they please. + + 14. An education should enable us to tell the valuable from + the cheap book, and by it we should be able to tell the true + from the counterfeit man. + + 15. Moisten the sand thoroughly and set the box in a warm + place, and in about a week's time it can readily be seen by the + way the grains have sprouted which ears of seed corn have + greatest vitality. + +=C. Shift in Number, Person, or Tense= + +Rewrite the following sentences, removing all inconsistency in +grammatical form. + + 1. Every one has a right to their own opinion. + + 2. Bryant rushed to the window and shouts at the postman. + + 3. The life of the honey bee has been studied, and their + activities found to be remarkable. + + 4. He says to me, "Are you ready?" And I answered, "No." + + 5. When a person keeps a store, you should remember the names + and faces of your customers. + + 6. An automobile is expensive, and they are liable to become an + elephant on your hands. + + 7. If one studies the market, he would find that prices rise + every year. + + 8. If one went to Europe, he will find everything different. + + 9. Since these tires were different in construction, the method + of repairing will vary. + + 10. Contentment is a state of mind in which one is satisfied + with themselves and their surroundings. + + 11. It is easy to catch 'possums if you can find the rascal. + + 12. The writer of a theme should not waste time on a long + introduction, and get to the facts of your subject as quickly + as possible. + + 13. Shakespeare's comedies are great fun. I prefer it to + tragedy. + + 14. Often a man will knock at the door, and finds no one at + home. + + 15. Too much attention will spoil a child. They should not be + entertained every minute. + +=D. The Exact Connective= + +Each of the following sentences contains an idea which is, or may be, +subordinate to another idea. (1) Decide what kind of subordinate +relation should exist between the ideas. (2) Determine what connective +best expresses this relation. (Consult 36 for a list of connectives.) +(3) Write the sentence as it should be. + + 1. Wealth is a good thing, while honest wealth is better. + + 2. Spend an hour in the open air every day when you want to + keep your health. + + 3. The rattlesnake gives warning and it is only afterward that + he strikes. + + 4. South Americans are our national neighbors, and we as a + nation should understand them. + + 5. The city man knows nothing about a cow, only that it has + horns. + + 6. He got up early in order that he might be able to see the + sunrise. + + 7. The tenderfoot saw the funnel-shaped cloud when he made for + a cyclone cellar. + + 8. Men fear what they do not understand, and a coward is one + who is ignorant. + + 9. Hinting did not influence her; then he tried scolding. + + 10. The valet spilled the wine, and the duke started up with an + oath. + + 11. While he writhed on the ground, he was not really hurt. + + 12. He will not cash the check without you indorse it. + + 13. We want this work done by the first of April, so please + send an estimate soon. + + 14. He had traveled everywhere, and he had a vivid recollection + of only three scenes: Niagara Falls, the Jungfrau, and Lake + Como. + + 15. I never hear him talk but he makes me angry. + + 16. Animals have some of the same feelings as human beings + have. + + 17. It was four o'clock and we decided to return and be home + for supper. + +=E. Repetition of Connectives= + +In the following sentences determine whether repetition is desirable or +undesirable, and change the sentences accordingly. + + 1. With the coming of meal time, the potatoes are removed from + the fire with a fork with a long handle. + + 2. His clothes were brushed and neat, but patched and + repatched. But still he could be bright and cheery. + + 3. To no other magazine do I look forward to the arrival of its + new issue, more than I do to the _World's Work_. + + 4. At the time the book was written, I believe Forster was + considered to be almost the best biographer living at that + time. + + 5. The freshman has no spirit until the sophomores have + provoked him until he resists until he finds that he has + spirit. + + 6. Some socialists are against the present system of + initiative, referendum, and recall, but advocate a system much + like it but applied in a different way. + + 7. The gun with which the Germans bombarded Paris with had a + range of seventy-five miles. + + 8. Basketball is a game that I have played for years, and I am + greatly interested in. + + 9. This is the lever which throws the switch which directs the + train that takes the track that goes to Boston. + + 10. Short talks were made by the captain, the coach, and by the + faculty. + + 11. At this school one can study to be a doctor, dentist, + farmer, a lawyer, or an engineer. + + 12. I like to cross the harbor on the ferry, to dodge in and + out among the ships, see the gulls dart among the waves, smell + the sharp tang of salty air, and to feel the rocking motion of + the boat. + + 13. In the sultry autumn, and when the winter's storms came, + and when in spring the winds whistled, and in the summer's + heat, he always wore the same old coat. + + 14. He knew that if he did not ignite the piece of wet bark + this time, that he could not dry his clothing or broil the + bacon. + + 15. The next speaker said that the need was critical, the + schools must be enlarged, and that the paving now begun must be + completed, and a new board of health should be created, that + the interest on past debts had to be paid, and the city + treasury was at this moment out of funds. + + + + +EMPHASIS + + +=Emphasis by Position= + +=40. Reserve the emphatic positions in a sentence for important words or +ideas. (The emphatic positions are the beginning and the end--especially +the end.)= + + Weak ending: Then like a flash a vivid memory of my uncle's + death came to me. + + Weak: I demand the release of the prisoners, in the first + place. + + Weak: This principle is one we cannot afford to accept, if my + understanding of the question is correct. + +Place the important idea at the end. Secure, if possible, an emphatic +beginning. "Tuck in" unimportant modifiers. + + Emphatic: Like a flash came to me a vivid memory of my uncle's + death. + + Emphatic: I demand, in the first place, the release of the + prisoners. + + Emphatic: This principle, if my understanding of the question + is correct, is one we cannot afford to accept. + + Exercise: + + 1. "War is inevitable," he said. + + 2. The cat had been poisoned to all appearances. + + 3. There are several methods of learning to swim, as everyone + knows. + + 4. A liar is as bad as a thief, in my estimation. + + 5. He saw a fight below him in the street, happening to look + out of the window. + + +=Emphasis by Separation= + +=41. An idea which needs much emphasis may be detached, and allowed to +stand in a sentence by itself.= + + Faulty: The flames were by this time beyond control, and the + walls collapsed, and several firemen were hurt. [The ideas here + are too important to be run together in one sentence.] + + Right: By this time the flames were beyond control, and the + walls collapsed. Several firemen were hurt. + +A quotation gains emphasis when it is separated from what follows. + + + Faulty: "The best laid schemes o' mice an' men + Gang aft a-gley," + + are some lines from Burns which McDonald was always quoting. + + Right: "The best laid schemes o' mice an' men + Gang aft a-gley." + + McDonald was always quoting these lines from Burns. + +Direct discourse is more emphatic when it is separated from explanatory +phrases, particularly from those which follow. + + Faulty: Mosher leaped to the stage and shouted defiantly, "I + will never consent to that!" and he looked as if he meant what + he said. + + Right: Mosher leaped to the stage and shouted his defiance: "I + will never agree to that!" And he looked as if he meant what he + said. + + Exercise: + + 1. After the tents are pitched, the beds made, and the fires + started, the first meal is cooked and served, and this meal is + the beginning of camp-life joy. + + 2. He tried to make his wife vote for his own, the Citizen's + Party, but she firmly refused. + + 3. At the word of command the dog rushed forward; the covey + rose with a mighty whir, and the hunter fired both barrels, and + the dog looked in vain for a dead bird, and then returned + disconsolate. + + 4. I sat and gazed at the motto, "Aim high, and believe + yourself capable of great things," which my mother had placed + there for me. + + 5. "A Book of Verses underneath the Bough, + A Jug of Wine, a Loaf of Bread, and Thou + Beside me singing in the Wilderness." + + were the four things Omar Khayyam wanted to make him happy. + + +=Emphasis by Subordination= + +=42. Do not place the important idea of a sentence in a subordinate +clause or phrase. Make the important idea grammatically independent. If +possible, subordinate the rest of the sentence to it.= + + Faulty: He had a manner which made me angry. + + Faulty: The fire spread to the third story, when the house was + doomed. + + Faulty: For years the Indians molested the white people, + thereby causing the settlers to want revenge. + +The important idea should not be placed in a _which_ clause, or a _when_ +clause, or a participial phrase. + + Right: His manner made me angry. + + Right: When the fire spread to the third story, the house was + doomed. + + Right: Years of molestation by the Indians made the white men + want revenge. + + Exercise: + + 1. I was riding on the train, when suddenly there was an + accident. + + 2. There are two windows in each bedroom, thus insuring good + ventilation. + + 3. Yonder is the house which is my home. + + 4. He saw that argument was useless, so he let her talk. + + 5. His clothes were very old, making him look like a tramp. + + +=The Periodic Sentence= + +A sentence is periodic when the completion of the main thought is +delayed until the end. This delay creates a feeling of suspense. A +periodic sentence is doubly emphatic: it has emphasis by position +because the important idea comes at the end; it has emphasis by +subordination because all ideas except the last one are grammatically +dependent. + + +=43. To give emphasis to a loosely constructed sentence, turn it into +periodic form.= + + Loose: I saw two men fight a duel, many years ago, on a moonlit + summer night, in a little village in northern France. [What is + most important, the time? the place? or the actual duel? Place + the important idea last.] + + Periodic: Many years ago, on a moonlit summer night, in a + little village in northern France, I saw two men fight a duel. + + Loose: We left Yellowstone Gateway for the ride of our lives in + a six-horse tally-ho. [Place the important idea last, _and make + all other ideas grammatically subordinate_.] + + Periodic: Leaving Yellowstone Gateway in a six-horse tally-ho, + we had the ride of our lives. + + Loose: The river was swollen with incessant rain, and it swept + away the dam. [Which is the important idea? Why not make it + appear more important by subordinating everything to it?] + + Periodic: The river, swollen with incessant rain, swept away + the dam. + + Loose: War means to have our pursuit of knowledge and happiness + rudely broken off, to feel the sting of death and bereavement, + to saddle future generations with a burden of debt and national + hatred. + + Periodic: To have our pursuit of knowledge and happiness rudely + broken off, to feel the sting of death and bereavement, to + saddle future generations with a burden of debt and national + hatred--this is war. + + Exercise: + + 1. I am happy when the spring comes, when the sun is warm, when + the fields revive. + + 2. He cares nothing for culture, for justice, for progress. + + 3. As the boat gathered speed, the golden sun was setting far + across the harbor. + + 4. He amassed a great fortune, standing there behind his dingy + counter, discounting bills, pinching coins, buying cheap and + selling dear. + + 5. The shattered aqueducts, pier beyond pier, melt into the + darkness, from the plains to the mountains. + + +=Order of Climax= + +=44. In a series of words, phrases, or clauses of noticeable difference +in strength, use the order of climax.= + + Wrong order: He was insolent and lazy. + + Weak ending: Literature has expanded into a sea, where before + it was only a small stream. + + Weak ending: As we listened to his story we felt the sordid + misery and the peril and fear of war. + + Emphatic: He was lazy and insolent. + + Emphatic: The stream of literature has swollen into a torrent, + expanded into a sea. + + Emphatic: As we listened to his story we felt the fear, the + peril, the sordid misery of war. + + Exercise: + + 1. We boarded the train, after having bought our tickets and + checked our baggage. + + 2. War brings famine, death, disease after it. + + 3. They have broken up our homes, enslaved our children, and + stolen our property. + + 4. In the old story, the drunken man, carried into the duke's + palace, sees himself surrounded with luxury, and imagines + himself a true prince, after waking up. + + 5. The becalmed mariners were famished, hungry. + + +=The Balanced Sentence= + +=45. Two ideas similar or opposite in thought gain in emphasis when set +off, one against the other, in similar constructions.= + + Weak and straggling: This paper, like many others, has many bad + features, but in some ways it is very good. The news articles + are far better than the editorials, which are feeble. + + Balanced structure: This paper is in some respects good; in + other respects very poor. The news articles are impressive, the + editorials are feeble. + + Weak and complicated: From the East a man who lives in the West + can learn a great deal, and an Easterner ought to be able to + understand the West. + + Balanced: A Westerner can learn much from the East, and an + Easterner needs to understand the West. + + Weak: Both Mill and Macaulay influenced the younger writers. + Mill taught some of them to reason, but many more of them + learned from Macaulay only a superficial eloquence. + + Balanced: Both Mill and Macaulay influenced the younger + writers. If Mill taught some of them to reason, Macaulay + tempted many more of them to declaim. + +Note.--Although excessive use of balance is artificial, occasional use +of it is powerful. It can give to writing either dignity (as in an +oration) or point (as in an epigram). Observe how many proverbs are in +balanced structure. "Seeing is believing.--Nothing venture, nothing +have.--For every grain of wit there is a grain of folly.--You cannot do +wrong without suffering wrong.--An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." +Note the effective use of balance in Emerson's _Essays_, particularly in +_Compensation_; and in the Old Testament, particularly in _Psalms_ and +_Proverbs_. + + Exercise: + + 1. Machinery is of course labor-saving, but countless men are + thrown out of work. + + 2. There is a difference between success in business and in + acquiring culture. + + 3. I attend concerts for the pleasure of it, and to get an + understanding of music. + + 4. The stag in the fable admired his horns and blamed his feet; + but when the hunter came, his feet saved him, and afterward, + caught in the thicket, he was destroyed by his horns. + + 5. We do not see the stars at evening, sometimes because there + are clouds intervening, but oftener because there are + glimmerings of light; thus many truths escape us from the + obscurity we stand in, and many more from the state of mind + which induces us to sit down satisfied with our imaginations + and of our knowledge unsuspicious. [This sentence is correctly + balanced, except at the end.] + + +=The Weak Effect of the Passive Voice= + +=46. Use the active voice unless there is a reason for doing otherwise. +The passive voice is, as the name implies, not emphatic.= + + Weak: Your gift is appreciated by me. + + Better: I appreciate your gift. + + Weak and vague: His step on the porch was heard. + + Better: His step sounded on the porch. [Or] I heard his step on + the porch. + +The passive voice is especially objectionable when by failing to +indicate the agent of the verb it unnecessarily mystifies the reader. + + Vague: The train was seen speeding toward us. + + Better: We saw the train speeding toward us. + + Exercise: + + 1. Their minds were changed frequently as to what profession + should be taken up by them. + + 2. A gun should be examined and oiled well before a hunter + starts. + + 3. Finally the serenaders were recognized. + + 4. In athletics a man is developed physically. + + 5. If a man uses slang constantly, a good impression is not + made. + + +=Effective Repetition= + +=47a. The simplest and most natural way to emphasize a word or an idea is +to repeat it.= The Bible is the best standard of simplicity and dignity +in our language, and the Bible uses repetition constantly. A word or +idea that is repeated must, of course, be important enough to deserve +emphasis. + + Fairly emphatic: He works and toils and labors, but he seems + never to get anywhere. + + Very emphatic: Work, work, work, all he does is work, and still + he seems never to get anywhere. + + Fairly emphatic: How did the general meet this new menace? He + withdrew before it! + + Very emphatic: How did the general meet this new menace? He + withdrew! He retreated! He ran away! + + Homely but emphatic: "I went under," said the old salt; "bows, + gunnels, and starn--all under." + + Deliberately too emphatic: Everywhere we hear of + efficiency--efficiency experts, efficiency bureaus, efficiency + methods, in the office, in the school, in the home--until one + longs to fly to some savage island beyond the reach of inhuman + modern science. + +=b. Not only words, but an entire grammatical structure may be repeated +on a large scale for emphasis.= + + Weak: We hope that this shipment will reach you in good + condition, and that you will favor us with other orders in the + future, which will be given prompt and courteous attention. + [This sentence is flimsy and spineless because the writer had a + timid reluctance to repeat.] + + Strong: We hope that this shipment will reach you in good + condition. We believe that the quality of our goods will induce + you to send us a second order. We assure you that such an order + will receive prompt and courteous attention. [Note the emphasis + derived from the resolute march of the expressions _We hope_, + _We believe_, _We assure_.] + + Emphatic: Through the patience, the courage, the high character + of Alfred the country was saved--saved from the rapacities of + fortune, saved from the malignancy of its enemies, saved from + the sluggish despair of the people of England themselves. + + Emphatic and natural: This corner of the garden was my first + playground. Here I made my first toddling effort to walk. Here + on the soft grass I learned the delight of out-of-doors. Here I + became acquainted with the bull-frog, and the bumble-bee, and + the neighbor's dog. + + Emphatic and delightful: He maketh me to lie down in green + pastures; he leadeth me beside the still waters. He restoreth + my soul; he leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his + name's sake. + + Exercise: + + 1. He kept digging away for gold through long years. + + 2. Breaking against the shore, came innumerable waves. + + 3. Sand, sagebrush, shimmering flat horizon. I could not endure + the barren monotony of the desert. + + 4. We want you to come and visit us, and bring along a good + appetite and your customary high spirits. Plan to stay a long + time. + + 5. 'Twas bitter cold outside. The cat meowed until I had to let + her in. + + +=Offensive Repetition= + +Careless repetition attracts attention to words that do not need +emphasis. It is extremely annoying to the reader. + +=48a. Unless a word or phrase is repeated deliberately to gain force or +clearness, its repetition is a blunder. Get rid of recurring expressions +in one of three ways: (1) by substituting equivalent expressions, (2) by +using pronouns more liberally, (3) by rearranging the sentence so as to +say once what has awkwardly been said twice.= Each of these schemes is +illustrated below. + +=1.= Repetition cured by the use of equivalent expressions (synonyms). + + Bad: _Just_ as we were half way down the lake, _just_ off + Milwaukee, we _began_ to feel a slight motion of the ship and + the _wind began_ to freshen. The _wind began_ to blow more + fiercely from the south and the waves _began_ to leap high. The + boat _began_ to pitch and roll. + + Right: _Just_ as we were half way down the lake, _opposite_ + Milwaukee, we began to feel a slight motion of the ship, for + the wind _had_ freshened. Before long _a gale_, _blowing_ from + the south, _kicked up a heavy sea and caused_ the boat to pitch + and roll. [Notice how combining the last two sentences helps to + solve the problem of the last _began_, besides giving firmer + texture to the construction.] + +=2.= Repetition cured by the use of pronouns. (In using this method, one +should take care that the reference of the pronouns is clear.) + + Bad: The _Law Building_, the _Commerce Building_, and the + _Science Building_ are close together. The _Commerce Building_ + is south of the _Law Building_, and the _Science Building_ is + south of the _Commerce Building_. The _Law Building_ is old and + dilapidated. The _Commerce Building_ is a red brick _building_, + trimmed in terra-cotta. The _Science Building_ resembles the + _Commerce Building_. + + Right: The Law, Commerce, and Science Buildings are close + together in a row. _The first of these_ is old and dilapidated. + South of it stands the Commerce Building, _which_, because of + _its_ red brick and terra-cotta trimmings, somewhat resembles + the Science Building. + +=3.= Repetition cured by rearranging and condensing. + + Bad: The _autumn_ is my favorite of all the _seasons_. While + _autumn_ in the _city_ is not such a pleasant _season_ as + _autumn_ in the country, yet even in the _city_ my preference + will always be for the _autumn_. + + Right: My favorite season is autumn. I like it best in the + country, but even in the city it is the best time of the year. + +=b. Avoid a monotonous repetition of sentence structure. To give variety +to successive sentences: (1) vary the length, (2) vary the beginnings, +(3) avoid a series of similar compound sentences, (4) interchange loose +with periodic structure, (5) use rhetorical question, exclamation, +direct discourse, (6) avoid an excessive use of participles or +adjectives.= + +=1.= Vary the length of sentences. + + Bad: Walter came up the path carrying Betty in his arms. She + was wet from head to toe. Damp curls clung to her pale face. + Water dripped from her clothes. One hand hung loosely over + Walter's arm. The other held a live duckling. She had saved + the little duck from drowning. This was Betty's first day in + the country. + + Right: Walter came up the path carrying Betty in his + arms--little Betty who was spending her first day in the + country. She was wet from head to toe; damp curls clung to her + pale face, and water dripped from her clothes. In one hand she + held a live duckling. Her face lighted with courage as she told + how she jumped into the pond and saved the little duck from + drowning. + +=2.= Vary the beginnings of sentences. Do not allow too many sentences to +begin with the subject, or with a time clause, or with a participle, or +with _so_. When you have finished a composition, rapidly read over the +opening words of each sentence, to see if there is sufficient variety. + + Bad [too many sentences begin directly with the subject]: Our + way is circuitous. A sharp turn brings us round a rocky point. + The road drops suddenly into a little valley. The roof of a + house appears in a grove of trees below. A cottage is there and + a flower garden. An old-fashioned well is near the door. + + Right: Presently, on our circuitous way, we make a sharp turn + round a rocky point. Before us the road drops suddenly into a + little valley. In a grove of trees below appears the roof of a + house, and as we draw nearer we see a cottage surrounded by + flowers. Nothing could be more attractive to a weary traveler + than the old-fashioned well near the door. + +=3.= Avoid a series of similar compound sentences, especially those of two +parts of equal length, joined by _and_ or _but_. + + Bad: Ring was a sheep dog, and tended the flock with his + master. One day there came a deep snow, and the flock did not + return. They found the herder frozen stiff, and the dog + shivering beside him. + + Right: Ring was a sheep dog, and tended the flock with his + master. One day there came a deep snow. When the flock failed + to return, the men became uneasy, and began to search. They + found the herder frozen stiff, with the dog shivering beside + him. + +=4.= Change occasionally from loose to periodic or balanced structure (See +43 and 45). + + Monotonous: I stood at the foot of Tunbridge hill. I saw on the + horizon a dense wood, which, in the evening sunlight, was + veiled in purple haze [Loose]. On the left was the village, the + houses appearing like specks in the distance [Loose]. Nearer on + the right was the creek, winding through the willows [Loose]. + The creek approached nearer until it reached the dam, over + which it rushed tumultuously [Loose]. Near by was a thicket of + tall trees, through which I could see the white tents of my + fellow campers, and their glowing camp fires [Loose]. + + Right: Far south from Tunbridge hill, on the dim horizon, I + saw, veiled in the evening haze, a dense wood [Periodic, long, + conveying the idea of distance better than a loose sentence]. + On my left stood the village, the houses like specks; on my + right wound the creek, nearer and nearer through the willows + [Balanced]. The creek advanced by slow sinuous turns, until, + reaching the dam, it plunged over tumultuously [Loose]. Through + a thicket of tall trees, near at hand, I could see the white + tents of my fellow campers, and their glowing camp fires + [Periodic through the middle of the sentence; then loose]. + +=5.= Use question, exclamation, direct quotation. + + Somewhat flat: He asked me the road to Camden. I did not know. + I told him to ask Thurber, who knew the country well. + + Better: He asked me the road to Camden. The road to Camden? How + should I know? "Ask Thurber," I said impatiently; "he knows + this country. I'm a stranger." + +=6.= Avoid an excessive use of participles. Do not pile adjectives around +every noun. Above all, do not form a habit of using adjectives in pairs +or triplets. + + Bad: Sitting by the window, I saw a sharp, dazzling flash of + lightning, and heard a loud rumbling crash of heavy thunder, + warning me of the coming of the storm. Darting across the gray, + leaden sky, the quick, jagged lightning flashed incessantly. + The tall stately poplar trees thrashed around in the boisterous + wind. Then across the window, like a great white curtain, swept + the streaming, blinding rain. + + Right: I sat by the window. Suddenly a sharp flash of lightning + and a roll of thunder gave warning of the approach of a storm. + Soon lightning zig-zagged across the sky incessantly. The wind + huddled the poplar trees. Then like a white curtain across the + window streamed the rain. + + Exercise: + + 1. The parts of the tables are not put together at the factory, + but the different parts are shipped in different shipments. + + 2. In order to convince the reader that the present management + of farms is inefficient, I shall give some examples of + efficiency in the farm management on some farms with which I am + acquainted. + + 3. When one wishes to learn how to swim one must first become + accustomed to the water. The best way to become accustomed to + the water is to go into it frequently. After one has become + accustomed to the water he may begin to learn the strokes. + + 4. _The Life of Sir Walter Scott_, written by J. G. Lockhart, + is an interesting biography of this great writer. It consists + of a short biography by Scott himself, and also consists of a + continuation of this biography by his son-in-law, J. G. + Lockhart. + + 5. If a piece of steel is kept hot for several seconds, it will + lose some of its hardness. If kept hot longer, it will lose + more of its hardness. Along with losing its hardness it will + lose its brittleness. If the piece of steel is heated + continually it will lose nearly all its hardness and + brittleness. In other words, it will lose its "temper." + + +=49.= EXERCISE IN EMPHASIS + +=A. Lack of Emphasis in General= + +Make the following sentences emphatic. + + 1. The man is a thief who fails in business but continues to + live in luxury. + + 2. The plant was withered and dry, not having been watered for + over a week. + + 3. Much time is saved in Chicago by taking the elevated cars, + if you have a great distance to travel. + + 4. The clock struck eleven, when he immediately seized his hat + and left. + + 5. These liberal terms should be taken advantage of by us. + + 6. The study of biology has proved very interesting, as far as + I have gone. + + 7. Who is this that comes to the foot of the guillotine, + crouching, trembling? + + 8. They must pay the penalty. Their death is necessary. They + have caused harm enough. + + 9. I intend to get up fifteen minutes earlier, thereby giving + myself time to eat a good breakfast. + + 10. The book was reread several times, for I never grew tired + of it. + + 11. "What is the aim of a university education?" the speaker + asked. + + 12. A bicycle is sometimes ridden when a tire contains no air, + total ruin resulting from the weight of the rim upon the flat + tire. + + 13. He sprang forward the instant the pistol cracked, since the + start of a sprint is very important, and one cannot overdo the + practicing of it. + + 14. Sometimes the fuses fail to burn, or burn too fast, causing + an explosion before the workmen are prepared for it. + + 15. How father made soap was always a mystery to me. Cracklings + saved from butchering time, lye, and water went into the kettle + on a warm spring day and came out in the form of soap a few + hours later, to my great astonishment. + +=B. Loose or Unemphatic Structure= + +Make the following sentences more emphatic by throwing them into +periodic form. + + 1. It was Tom, as I had expected. + + 2. I will not tell, no matter how you beg. + + 3. The supremacy of the old river steamboat is gone forever, + unless conditions should be utterly changed. + + 4. Across the desert he traveled alone, and over strange seas, + and through quaint foreign villages. + + 5. The hot water dissolves the glue in the muresco, making the + mixture more easily applied. + + 6. Visions of rich meadows and harvest-laden fields now pass + before my eyes, as I sit by the fire. + + 7. Some of the women were weeping bitterly, thinking they would + never see their homes again. + + 8. I splashed along on foot for three miles after night in a + driving rain. + + 9. Very high rent is demanded, thus keeping the peasants + constantly in debt. + + 10. Roderigo was in despair because he had been rejected by + Desdemona, and was ready to end his life, by the time Iago + entered. + + 11. Through storm and cold the open boat was brought to the + shore at last, after toil and suffering, with great difficulty. + + 12. The car came to a violent stop against a rock pile, after + it demolished two fences, upset a hen-house, and scared a pig + out of his wits. + + 13. The Panama Canal is the fulfilment of the dreams of old + Spanish adventurers, the desires of later merchant princes, + and the demand of modern nations for free traffic on the seas. + + 14. The fiddle yelled, and the feet of the dancers beat the + floor, and the spectators applauded, and the room fairly rang. + + 15. The man with the best character, not the man with most + money, will come out on top in the end. + +=C. Faulty Repetition= + +Repetition in the following sentences is objectionable, because it +attracts attention to words or constructions that do not need to be +emphasized. Improve the sentences, avoiding unnecessary repetition. + + 1. He is a great friend of boys, and views things from the + boys' point of view. + + 2. In the case of the strike at Lawrence, Massachusetts, the + real cause was low wages caused by immigration and child labor. + + 3. First, a subject must be chosen, and in choosing a subject, + choose one that you know something about. + + 4. There are great opportunities in the field of science, and a + scientist who makes a mark in the world of science makes a mark + for himself everywhere. + + 5. While the practical man is learning skill in the practical + world, the college man is attaining a development of mentality + that will surpass that of the practical man when the college + man learns the skill of the practical man. + + 6. The field is dragged and rolled. Dragging and rolling leaves + the ground smooth and ready for planting. + + 7. A great number and variety of articles appears in every + issue. There is a complete review of each subject. It is + treated in a short, but thorough manner. + + 8. They gave me a hearty welcome. They stood back and looked at + me. They wanted to see if three months in the city had made any + changes in me. But they said it had not. + + 9. Engineering is looked upon by many students as an easy and + uninteresting study, but to my knowledge it is not + uninteresting and easy. Engineering is probably one of the + hardest courses in college. To me it is also the most + interesting. + + 10. A duck hunter should have a place to hunt where ducks are + frequently found in duck season. Ducks often light in the + backwater along a river, and in ponds. They are often found in + small lakes. Corn fields are common feeding places for ducks. + Ducks make regular trips to cornfields within reach of a body + of water such as a river or lake. It is their nature to spend + the night in the water, and in the morning and in the evening + they go out to the fields to feed. + + + + +GRAMMAR + + +=Case= + +=50a. The subject of a verb is in the nominative case, even when the verb +is remote, or understood (not expressed).= + + Wrong: They are as old as us. + + Right: They are as old as we [are]. + + Wrong: He is taller than her. + + Right: He is taller than she [is]. + +Note.--_Than_ and _as_ are conjunctions, not prepositions. When they are +followed by a pronoun merely, this pronoun is not their object, but part +of a clause the rest of which may be understood. The case of this +pronoun is determined by its relation to the rest of the unexpressed +clause. Sometimes the understood clause calls for the objective: "I like +his brother better than [I like] him." _Than whom_, though +ungrammatical, is sanctioned by usage. + +=b. Guard against the improper attraction of _who_ into the objective +case by intervening expressions like _he says_.= + + Wrong: The man whom they believed was the cause of the trouble + left the country. [_They believed_ is parenthetical, and the + subject of _was_ is _who_.] + + Right: The man who they believed was the cause of the trouble + left the country. + + Wrong: Whom do you suppose made us a visit? + + Right: Who do you suppose made us a visit? + +=Guard against the improper attraction of _who_ or _whoever_ into the +objective case by a preceding verb or preposition.= + + Wrong: Punish whomever is guilty. [The pronoun is the subject + of _is_. The object of _punish_ is the entire clause _whoever + is guilty_.] + + Right: Punish whoever is guilty. + + Wrong: The mystery as to whom had rendered him this service + remained. [The pronoun is the subject of _had rendered_. The + object of the preposition is the entire clause _who had + rendered him this service_.] + + Right: The mystery as to who had rendered him this service + remained. + +=c. The predicate complement of the verb _to be_ (in any of its forms, +_is_, _was_, _were_, _be_, etc.) is in the nominative case.= _To be_ +never takes an object, because it does not express action. + + Wrong: Was it her? Was it them? It is me. + + Right: Was it she? Was it they? Is it I. + + Wrong: The happiest people there were him and his mother. + + Right: The happiest people there were he and his mother. + +=d. The object of a preposition or a verb is in the objective case.= + + Wrong: Some of we fellows went fishing. + + Right: Some of us fellows went fishing. + + Wrong: That seems incredible to you and I. + + Right: That seems incredible to you and me. + + Wrong: Who did they detect? + + Right: Whom did they detect? + +=e. The "assumed" subject of an infinitive is in the objective case.= + + Right: I wanted him to go. [_Him to go_ is the group object of + the verb _wanted_. _To go_, being an infinitive, cannot assert + an action, and consequently cannot take a subject. But _to go_ + implies that something is at least capable of action. _Him_ is + the latent or assumed subject of the action implied in _to + go_.] + + Right: _Whom_ do you wish _to be_ your leader? [_Whom_ is the + assumed subject of the infinitive _to be_.] + +=f. A noun or pronoun used to express possession is in the possessive +case.= Do not omit the apostrophe (See 97) from nouns, or from the +pronouns _one's_ and _other's_. Most of the other possessive +pronouns do not require an apostrophe. + + Right: The man's hair is gray. + + Right: The machine does its work well. [_It's_ would mean _it + is_.] + + Right: One should do one's duty. + +=g. A noun or pronoun linked with a gerund should be in the possessive +case whenever the use of the objective case might cause confusion.= + + Faulty: Is there any criticism of Arthur going? + + Right: Is there any criticism of Arthur's going? + + Right: I had not heard of his being sick. + + Right, but slightly less desirable: I had not heard of him + being sick. + +Note.--In other instances than those in which clearness is involved many +good writers use the objective case with the gerund. But even in these +instances most writers prefer the possessive case. + +=h. It is usually awkward and slightly illogical to attribute possession +to inanimate objects.= + + Awkward: The farm's management. + + Better: The management of the farm. + + Awkward: The stomach's lining. + + Better: The lining of the stomach. + +Note.--Usage justifies many exceptions, particularly (1) expressions +that involve time or measure, _a day's work_, _a hair's breadth_, _a +year's salary_, _a week's vacation_, _a cable's length_; and (2) +expressions that involve personification, explicit or implied, _Reason's +voice_, _the law's delay_, _for mercy's sake_, _the heart's desire_, +_the tempest's breath_. + +=i. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, gender, and number, +but not in case.= + + Right: _I, who am_ older, know better. + + Right: Tell _me, who am_ older, your trouble. + + Right: Many a man has saved _himself_ by counsel. + + Exercise: + + 1. I am as old as (he, him). They may be pluckier than (we, + us). Nobody is less conceited than (she, her). + + 2. He gave help to (whoever, whomever) wanted it. The girls + (who, whom) they say have the worst taste are on a committee to + select the class pin. + + 3. Four of (we, us) boys were left without a cent. That is a + good investment for her cousin and (she, her). + + 4. It was (he, him). It is (they, them). The sole occupants of + the car were his chum and (he, him). + + 5. I had not heard of (his, him) being sick. She does not + approve of (our, us) being late to dinner. (They, them) who + labor now the Master will reward. + + +=Number= + +=51a. _Each_, _every_, _every one_, _everybody_, _anybody_, _either_, +_neither_, _no one_, _nobody_, and similar words are singular.= + + Wrong: Everybody did their best. + + Right: Everybody did his best. + + Wrong: Each of my three friends were there. + + Right: Each of my three friends was there. + + Wrong: Either of the candidates are capable of making a good + officer. + + Right: Either of the candidates is capable of making a good + officer. + +=b. Do not let _this_ or _that_ when modifying _kind_ or _sort_ be +attracted into the plural by a following noun.= + + Wrong: He knew nothing of those kind of activities. + + Right: He knew nothing of that kind of activities. + + Wrong: I never did like these sort of post cards. + + Right: I never did like this sort of post cards. + +=c. Collective nouns may be regarded as singular or plural, according to +the meaning intended.= + + Right: The crowd is waiting. + + Right: The crowd are not agreed. + + Right: Webster maintained that the United States is an + inseparable union; Hayne that the United States are a separable + union. + + English usage: The government were considering a new bill + regarding labor. + + American usage: The government was glad to place our troops at + the disposal of General Foch. + +=d. Do not use _don't_ in the third person singular. Use _doesn't_. +_Don't_ is contraction of _do not_.= + + Wrong: He don't get up early on Sunday morning. + + Right: He doesn't get up early on Sunday morning. + + Exercise: + + 1. She said not to buy those sort of carpet tacks. These kind + of apples won't keep. I don't care for these boasting kind of + travelers. + + 2. Neither of us were in condition to run the race. Every one + assured Mrs. Merton they had spent a pleasant evening. + + 3. He don't suffer much now. I don't care if she don't come + today. + + 4. Each of us in that dismal waiting room were angry with the + agent for telling us the train was not late. + + 5. No one of the girls will tell their age. It don't matter. + + +=Agreement= + +=52a. A verb agrees in number with the subject, not with a noun which +intervenes between it and the subject.= + + Wrong: The size of the plantations vary. + + Right: The size of the plantations varies. + + Wrong: The increasing use of luxuries are a menace to the + country. + + Right: The increasing use of luxuries is a menace to the + country. + + Wrong: The prices of grain fluctuates in response to the + demand. + + Right: The prices of grain fluctuate in response to the demand. + [Or] The price of grain fluctuates in response to the demand. + +=b. The number of the verb is not affected by the addition to the subject +of words introduced by _with_, _together with_, _no less than_, _as well +as_, and the like.= + + Wrong: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, have + investigated the charges. + + Right: The mayor of the city, as well as several aldermen, has + investigated the charges. + +=c. Singular subjects joined by _or_ or _nor_ take a singular verb.= + + Wrong: Either the second or the third of the plans they have + devised are acceptable. + + Right: Either the second or the third of the plans they have + devised is acceptable. + +=d. A subject consisting of two or more nouns joined by _and_ takes a +plural verb.= + + Right: The hunting and fishing are good. + +=e. A verb should agree in number with the subject, not with a predicate +noun.= + + Wrong: The weak point in the team were the fielders. + + Right: The weak point in the team was the fielders. + + Wrong: Laziness and dissipation is the cause of his failure. + + Right: Laziness and dissipation are the cause of his failure. + +=f. In _There is_ and _There are_ sentences the verb should agree in +number with the noun that follows it.= + + Wrong: There is very good grounds for such a decision. + + Right: There are very good grounds for such a decision. + + Wrong: There was present a man, two women, and a child. + + Right: There were present a man, two women, and a child. + + Exercise: + + 1. The sound of falling acorns (is, are) one of the delights of + an autumn evening. Eye strain through ill-fit glasses (is, are) + injurious to the general health, but reading without glasses + (is, are) often more harmful still. + + 2. Neither the baritone nor the tenor (has, have) as good a + voice as the soprano. The guitar or the mandolin (is, are) + always out of tune. + + 3. The Amazon with its tributaries (affords, afford) access to + sea. The conductor of the freight train, along with the + engineer and fireman of the passenger, (was, were) injured. + + 4. Ghost stories late at night (is, are) a crime against + children. My reason for knowing that it is six o'clock (is, + are) the factory whistles. + + 5. There (was, were) in the same coach a dozen singing + freshmen. Years of experience in buying clothes (gives, give) + me confidence in my judgment. + + +=_Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_= + +Although there is a tendency to disregard subtle distinctions between +_shall_ and _will_ in ordinary speech, it is desirable to preserve the +more important distinctions in written discourse. + +=53. To express simple futurity or mere expectation, use _shall_ with the +first person (both singular and plural) and _will_ with the second and +third.= + + I shall go. We shall walk. + You will play. You will hear. + He will sing. They will reply. + +=To express resolution or emphatic assurance, reverse the usage; that is, +use _will_ with the first person (both singular and plural), and _shall_ +with the second and third.= + + I will; I tell you, I will. We will not be excluded. + You shall do what I bid. You shall not delay us. + He shall obey me. They shall pay the tribute. + +In asking questions, use the form expected in the answer. + + "Shall I go?" I asked myself musingly. "Shall we take a walk?" + "You promise. But will you pay?" "Will it rain tomorrow?" + +_Should_ and _would_ follow the rules given for _shall_ and _will_. + + Mere statement of a fact: + I [or We] should like to go. + You [or He or They] would of course accept the offer. + + Resolution or emphatic assurance: + I [or We] would never go under terms so degrading. + You [or He or They] should decline; honor demands it. + +_Should_ has also a special use in the subjunctive (in all persons) to +express a condition; and _would_ has a special use (in all persons) to +express a wish, or customary action. + + If it should rain, I shall not go. + + If I should remain, it would probably clear off. + + Would that I could swim! + + He [I, We, You, They] would often sit there by the hour. + + Exercise: + + 1. I (shall, will) probably do as he says. I'm determined; I + (shall, will) go! We (shall, will) see what tomorrow (shall, + will) bring forth. + + 2. The train (shall, will) whistle at this crossing, I suppose. + When the log is nearly severed, it (shall, will) begin to pinch + the saw. The weather (shall, will) be warmer tomorrow. + + 3. Johnny, you (shall, will) not go near those strawberries! He + (shall, will) not leave us in this predicament. I repeat it, he + (shall, will) not! We (shall, will) never sell this good old + horse. + + 4. (Shall, will) this calico fade? (Shall, will) you give the + organ grinder some money? (Shall, will) I raise the window? + (Should, would) I ask his permission? + + 5. If you (should, would) visit his laboratory, you (should, + would) learn how a starfish preserved in alcohol smells. You + (shall, will) all die some day, my friends. (Shall, will) I + ever forget this? Time (shall, will) tell. + + +=Principal Parts= + +=54. Use the correct form of the past tense and past participle.= Avoid +_come_, _done_, _bursted_, _knowed_, _says_ for the past tense; and +[_had_] _eat_, [_had_] _froze_, [_have_] _ran_, [_has_] _went_, [_has_] +_wrote_, [_are_] _suppose_ for the past participle. Memorize the +principal parts of difficult verbs. The principal parts are the present +tense, the past tense, and the past participle. A good way to recall +these is to repeat the formula: Today I _sing_; yesterday I _sang_; +often in the past I have _sung_. The principal parts of _sing_ are +_sing_, _sang_, _sung_. A list of difficult verbs is given below. + + bear bore borne + born + begin began begun + bend bent bent + bid bid bid + bade bidden + bite bit bit + bitten + bleed bled bled + blow blew blown + break broke broken + burn burnt burnt + burned burned + burst burst burst + catch caught caught + choose chose chosen + come came come + deal dealt dealt + dive dived dived + do did done + drag dragged dragged + draw drew drawn + dream dreamt dreamt + dreamed dreamed + drink drank drunk + drive drove driven + drown drowned drowned + dwell dwelt dwelt + dwelled dwelled + eat ate eaten + fall fell fallen + fight fought fought + flee fled fled + fly flew flown + flow flowed flowed + freeze froze frozen + get got got + go went gone + grow grew grown + hang hung hung + hang hanged hanged + hold held held + kneel knelt knelt + know knew known + lay laid laid + lead led led + lend lent lent + lie lay lain + lie lied lied + loose loosed loosed + lose lost lost + mean meant meant + pay paid paid + prove proved proved + read read read + rid rid rid + ride rode ridden + ring rang rung + rise rose risen + run ran run + say said said + see saw seen + set set set + shake shook shaken + shine shone shone + show showed shown + shrink shrank shrunk + sing sang sung + sit sat sat + slink slunk slunk + speak spoke spoken + spend spent spent + spit spit spit + spat spat + steal stole stolen + swear swore sworn + sweep swept swept + swim swam swum + take took taken + tear tore torn + throw threw thrown + thrust thrust thrust + tread trod trod + trodden + wake woke waked + waked + wear wore worn + weave wove woven + weep wept wept + write wrote written + + Exercise: + + 1. Adams ---- (past tense of _draw_) another glass of cider and + ---- (past tense of _drink_) it. When those squashes once ---- + (past tense of _begin_), they ---- (past tense of _grow_) like + mad. + + 2. The thermometer had ---- (past participle of _fall_) twenty + degrees, and three water pipes had ---- (past participle of + _freeze_). Afterward one ---- (past tense of _burst_). + + 3. Annie had ---- (past participle of _speak_) a piece, and + Nancy had ---- (past participle of _write_) a poem, and Isabel + had nearly ---- (past participle of _burst_) with envy. + + 4. He ---- (past tense of _do_) a brave deed; he ---- (past + tense of _swim_) straight for the whirlpool. I had ---- (past + participle of _know_) him before, and had ---- (past participle + of _shake_) hands with him. + + 5. He ---- (past tense of _come_) home late, and has ---- (past + participle of _eat_) his dinner. Now he has ---- (past + participle of _go_) down town. He has ---- (past participle of + _ride_) before. I ---- (past tense of _see_) him. He ---- (past + tense of _run_) swiftly. + + +=Tense, Mode, Auxiliaries= + +=55a. In dependent clauses and infinitives, the tense is to be considered +in relation to the time expressed in the principal verb.= + + Wrong: I intended to have gone. [The principal verb _intended_ + indicates a past time. In that past time I intended to do + something. What? Did I intend _to go_, or _to have gone_?] + + Right: I intended to go. + + Wrong: We hoped that you would have come to the party. [The + principal verb _hoped_ indicates a past time. In that past time + our hope was that you _would_ come, not that you _would have + come_.] + + Right: We hoped that you would come. + +=b. When narration in the past tense is interrupted for reference to a +preceding occurrence, the past perfect tense is used.= + + Wrong: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals + which he shot. + + Right: In the parlor my cousin kept a collection of animals + which he had shot. + +=c. General statements equally true in the past and in the present are +usually expressed in the present tense.= + + Faulty: He said that Venus was a planet. + + Right: He said that Venus is a planet. + +=d. The subjunctive mode of the verb _to be_ is used to express a +condition contrary to fact, or a wish.= + + Faulty: If he was here, I should be happy. + + Right: If he were here, I should be happy. + + Faulty: I wish that I was a man. + + Right: I wish that I were a man. + +=e. Use the correct auxiliary. Make sure that the tense, mode, or aspect +of successive verbs is not altered without reason.= + + Wrong: By giving strict obedience to commands, a soldier + _learns_ discipline, and consequently _would have_ steady + nerves in time of war. [_Learns_ should be followed by _will + have_.] + + Wrong: An automobile _should be_ kept in good working order so + that its life _is_ lengthened. [_Should be_ is properly + followed by _may be_.] + + Exercise: + + 1. Every one hoped that you would have spoken. + + 2. I saw it in the window. It was the very book I wanted so + long. + + 3. If I was sick, I should go home. + + 4. They expected to have won the game. + + 5. The Masons never invite men to join their lodge, but if a + person expresses a desire to join, his friends would probably + be able to secure membership for him. + + +=Adjective and Adverb= + +=56a. Do not use an adjective to modify a verb.= + + Crude: He spoke slow and careful. + + Right: He spoke slowly and carefully. + + Crude: He sure did good in his classes. + + Right: He surely did well in his classes. + +=b. In such sentences as _He stood firm_ and _The cry rang clear_ the +modifier should be an adjective if it refers to the subject, an adverb +if it refers to the verb.= + + Right: The sun shines bright on my old Kentucky home. [Here the + thought is that the sun which shines is bright.] + + Right: He worked diligently. [Here the modifier refers to the + manner of working rather than to the person who works. It + should therefore be an adverb.] + + Right: It stood immovable. The shot rang loud. He becomes + angry. The weeds grow thick. They remain obstinate. He seems + intelligent. + +=c. After a verb pertaining to the senses, _look_, _sound_, _taste_, +_smell_, _feel_, an adjective is used to denote a quality pertaining to +the subject.= (An adverb is used only when the reference is clearly to +the verb.) + + She looks _beautiful_. [Not _beautifully_.] + + The dinner bell sounds _good_. [Not _well_.] + + My food tastes _bad_. [Not _badly_.] + + That flower smells _bad_. [Not _badly_.] + + I feel good [_in good spirits_.] + + I feel well [_in good health_. An adjectival use of _well_.] + + I feel bad [_in bad health or spirits_. "I feel badly" would + mean "My sense of touch is impaired."] + + Exercise: + + 1. They fought ---- (heroic, heroically). Dave stumbled + ----(awkward, awkwardly). + + 2. Margaret ---- (sure, surely) worked ---- (faithful, + faithfully) in economics. + + 3. At this reply the teacher grew ---- (wrathful, wrathfully). + I hear you ---- (plain, plainly). + + 4. I feel ---- (giddy, giddily). Your rose looks ---- (sweet, + sweetly). No perfume smells so ---- (dainty, daintily). + + 5. That salad tastes ---- (good, well). I feel ---- (bad, + badly) today. Your voice sounds ---- (good, well) and + ----(familiar, familiarly). + + +=A Word in a Double Capacity= + +=57. Do not use a verb, conjunction, preposition, or noun in a double +capacity when one of the uses is ungrammatical.= + + Wrong [verb]: An opera house was built in one part of town, and + two churches in another. + + Right: An opera house was built in one part of town, and two + churches were built in another. + + Wrong [verb]: He always has and will do it. + + Right: He always has done it, and always will do it. + + Wrong [conjunction]: He was as old, if not older, than any + other man in the community. + + Right: He was as old as any other man in the community, if not + older. + + Wrong [preposition]: He was fond and diligent in work. + + Right: He was fond of work and diligent in it. + + Wrong [noun]: He is one of the most skilful, if not the most + skilful, tennis players in the state. + + Right: He is one of the most skilful tennis players in the + state, if not the most skilful. + + Exercise: + + 1. He is as old, if not older, than she is. + + 2. Two boats were in the water, and one on the shore. + + 3. From childhood he has, and to old age he will, have many + hobbies. + + 4. A visit to a ten cent store is better, or at least as good, + as a visit to a circus. You see as many or more queer things + than in any show. + + 5. One of the greatest, if not the greatest, secrets in keeping + our health, is to keep our teeth in good condition. A famous + physician said that one of the next, if not the very next, + marked advance in medical science will be through discoveries + in the realm of dentistry. + + + +Parts of Speech, Other Grammatical Terms, Conjugation + +The Parts of Speech and Their Uses + + =Noun.= A noun is a name. It may be =proper= (_Philip Watkins_), or + =common=. Common nouns may be =concrete= (_man_, _windmill_), or + =abstract= (_gratitude_, _nearness_). =A= noun applied to a group + is said to be =collective= (_family_, _race_). The uses of a noun + =are=: to serve as the subject of a verb, to serve as the object + of a verb or a preposition, to be in apposition with another + noun (Jenkins, our _coach_), to indicate possession (_Joseph's_ + coat of many colors); and less frequently, to serve as an + adjective (the _brick_ sidewalk) or adverb (John went _home_), + and to indicate direct address (_Jehovah_, help us!). + + =Pronoun.= A pronoun is a word which takes the place of a noun. + It may be =personal= (_I_, _thou_, _you_, _he_, _she_, _it_, + _we_, _they_), =relative= (_who_, _which_, _what_, _that_, _as_, + and compounds _whoever_, _whichsoever_, etc.), =interrogative= + (_who_, _which_, _what_), =demonstrative= (_this_, _that_, + _these_, _those_), or =indefinite= (_some_, _any_, _one_, _each_, + _either_, _neither_, _none_, _few_, _all_, _both_, etc.). + Strictly speaking, the last two groups, demonstratives and + indefinites, are adjectives used as pronouns. Certain pronouns + are also used as adjectives, notably the =possessives= (_my_, + _his_, _their_, etc.) and the relative or interrogative _which_ + and _what_. The addition of _-self_ to a personal pronoun forms + a =reflexive pronoun= or =intensive= (I blamed _myself_. You + _yourself_ are at fault). A noun for which the pronoun stands + is called the =antecedent=. The uses of pronouns are in general + the same as those of nouns. In addition, relatives serve as + connectives (the man _who_ spoke), interrogatives ask questions + (_what_ man?), and demonstratives point out (_that_ man). + + =Verb.= A verb is a word or word-group which makes an assertion + about the subject. It may express either action or mere + existence. It may be =transitive= (_trans_ meaning "across"; + hence action carried across, requiring a receiver of the act; + Brutus _stabbed_ Cæsar; Cæsar is _stabbed_) or =intransitive= + (not requiring a receiver of the act: Montgomery _fell_). Its + meaning is dependent upon its voice, mode, and tense. Voice + shows the relationship between the subject and the assertion + made by the verb. The =active voice= shows the subject as actor + (They _elected_ Washington); the =passive voice=, as acted upon + (Washington _was elected_). (A transitive verb may be active or + passive, but an intransitive verb has no voice.) Mode indicates + the manner of predicating an action, whether as assertion, + condition, command, etc. There are three modes in English. The + =indicative mode= affirms or denies (He _went_. She _did not + dance_.) The =subjunctive= expresses condition or wish (If he + _were_ older, he would be wiser. Would that I _were_ there!). + The =imperative= expresses command or exhortation (_Remain_ + there. _Go!_ _Let_ us pray). =Modal auxiliaries= with these three + modes form =modal aspects= of the verb. There are as many + different aspects as there are auxiliaries. Aspects are + sometimes spoken of as separate modes or called collectively + the "potential mode." Tense expresses the time of the action or + existence. The tenses are the =present=, the =past=, the =future= + (employing the auxiliaries _shall_ and _will_), the =perfect= + (employing _have_), the =past perfect= (employing _had_), and the + =future perfect= (employing _shall have_ and _will have_). + =Verbals= are certain forms of the verb used as other parts of + speech (noun, adjective, adverb). For the verbal forms, + infinitive, gerund, and participle, see the separate headings. + + =Adjective.= An adjective is a word used to modify a noun or + pronoun. An adjective may be =attributive= (_bright_ sun, + _cool-headed_ adventurers) or =predicate= (The field is _broad_. + The meat tastes _bad_. I want this _ready_ by Christmas). + Adjectives assume three forms known as degrees of comparison. + The =positive degree= indicates the simple quality of the object + without reference to any other. The =comparative degree= + indicates that two objects are compared (Stanley is the _older_ + brother). The =superlative degree= indicates that three or more + objects are compared (Stanley is the _oldest_ child in the + family) or that the speaker feels great interest or emotion (A + _most excellent_ record). Ordinarily _er_ or _r_ is added to + the positive to form the comparative, and _est_ or _st_ to the + positive to form the superlative (brave, braver, bravest). But + some adjectives (sometimes those of two, and always those of + more than two, syllables) prefix _more_ (or _less_) to the + positive to form the comparative, and _most_ (or _least_) to + the positive to form the superlative (beautiful, more + beautiful, most beautiful). Some adjectives express qualities + that do not permit comparison (_dead_, _four-sided_, _unique_). + + =Adverb.= An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an + adjective, another adverb (She played _well_; _unusually_ + handsome; _very_ sternly); or, more rarely, a verbal noun + (Walking _fast_ is good for the health), a preposition (The + ship drifted _almost_ upon the breakers), or a conjunction (It + came _just_ when we wished). Certain adverbs (_fatally_, + _entirely_) do not logically admit of comparison. Those that do + are compared like adjectives of more than two syllables + (_slowly_, _more_ or _less slowly_, _most_ or _least slowly_). + + =Preposition.= A preposition is a connective _placed before_ a + substantive (called its object) in order to subordinate the + substantive to some other word in a sentence (The boast _of_ + heraldry, the pomp _of_ power. He ran _toward_ the enemy + _without_ fear). + + =Conjunction.= A conjunction is a word used to _join together_ + words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. A =coördinate conjunction= + connects elements of equal rank (See 36). =Correlative + conjunctions= are conjunctions used in pairs (See 31). A + =subordinate conjunction= is one that connects elements unequal + in rank (See 36). When a conjunction, in addition to its + function as a connective, indicates a relation of time, place, + or cause, it is often called a =conjunctive adverb= or =relative + adverb=. + + =Interjection.= An interjection is a word _thrown into_ speech to + express emotion. It has no grammatical connection with other + words. (_Oh_, is that it? _Well_, I'll do it. _Hark!_) + +=Other Grammatical Terms= + + =Absolute expression.= An expression (usually composed of a + substantive and a participle, perhaps with modifiers) which, + though not formally and grammatically joined, is in thought + related to the remainder of the sentence. (_The relief party + having arrived_, we went home. _This disposed of_, the council + proceeded to other matters. _Defeated_, he was not dismayed.) + + =Antecedent.= A substantive to which a pronoun or participle + refers. Literally, _antecedent_ means _that which goes + before_; but sometimes the antecedent follows the dependent + word. (The _man_ who hesitates is lost. Entering the store, + _we_ saw a barrel of apples.) _Man_ is the antecedent of the + pronoun _who_, and _we_ is the antecedent of the participle + _entering_. + + =Auxiliary.= _Be_, _have_, _do_, _shall_, _will_, _ought_, _may_, + _can_, _must_, _might_, _could_, _would_, _should_, etc., when + used with participles and infinitives of other verbs, are + called auxiliary verbs. + + =Case.= The relation of a substantive to other words in the + sentence as shown by inflectional form or position. The subject + of a verb, or the predicate of the verb _to be_, is in the + nominative case. The object of a verb or preposition, or the + "assumed subject" of an infinitive, is in the objective case. A + noun or pronoun which denotes possession is in the possessive + case. + + =Clause.= A portion of a sentence which contains a subject and a + verb, perhaps with modifiers. The following sentence contains + one dependent (subordinate) and one independent (principal) + clause: _When the storm ceased, the grove was a ruin_. + + =Conjugation.= The inflectional changes in the verb to indicate + person, number, tense, voice, mode, and modal aspect. + + =Declension.= The changes in a noun, pronoun, or adjective to + indicate person, number, or case. + + =Ellipsis, elliptical expression.= An expression partially + incomplete, so that words have to be understood to complete the + meaning. An idea or relation corresponding to the omitted words + is present, at least vaguely, in the mind of the speaker. + Elliptical sentences are usually justifiable except when the + reader cannot instantly supply the understood words. Examples + of proper ellipses: You are as tall as I [am tall]. Is your + sister coming? I think [my sister is] not [coming]. I will go + if you will [go]. [I give you] Thanks for your advice. + + =Gerund.= A verbal in _-ing_ used as a noun. (I do not object to + your _telling_. His _having deserted_ us makes little + difference.) The gerund may be regarded as a special form of + the infinitive. + + =Infinitive.= A verbal ordinarily introduced by _to_ and used as + a noun (_To err_ is human). In such sentences as "The road to + follow is the river road," _follow_ may be regarded as the noun + of a phrase (compare _the road to Mandalay_), or the entire + phrase may be regarded as an adjective. Similarly, in "He + hastened to comply," _comply_ may be regarded as a noun or _to + comply_ as an adverb. After certain verbs (_bid_, _dare_, + _help_, _make_, _need_, etc.) the _to_ is omitted from the + infinitive group. (He bids me _go_. I need not _hesitate_.) + + =Inflection.= Change in the form of a word to show a modification + or shade of meaning. At a very early period in our language + there was a separate form for practically every modification. + Although separate forms are now less numerous, _inflection_ is + still a convenient term in grammar. Its scope is general: it + includes the declension of nouns, the comparison of adjectives + and adverbs, and the conjugation of verbs. + + =Modify.= To be grammatically dependent upon and to limit or + alter the quality of. In the expression "The very old man," + _the_ and _old_ modify _man_, and _very_ modifies _old_. + + =Participle.= A verbal used as an adjective, or as an adjective + with adverbial qualities. In the sentence "Mary, being oldest, + is also the best liked," _being oldest_ refers exclusively, or + almost exclusively, to the subject and is therefore adjectival. + In such sentences as "He fell back, exhausted" and "Running + down the street, I collided with a baby carriage," the + participle refers in part to the verb and is therefore + adverbial as well as adjectival. + + =Phrase.= A group of words forming a subordinate part of a + sentence and not containing a subject and its verb. Examples: + _With a whistle and a roar_ the train arrived [prepositional + phrase]. _Bowing his head_, the prisoner listened to the + verdict of the jury [participial phrase]. In a loose, + untechnical sense _phrase_ may refer to any short group of + words, even if the group includes a subject and its verb. + + =Predicate.= The word or word-group in a sentence which makes an + assertion about the subject. It consists of a finite verb with + or without objects or modifiers. + + =Predicate adjective.= An adjective in the predicate, usually + linked with the subject by some form of the verb _to be_ (_is_, + _was_, _were_, etc.). (John is _lazy_. The soldiers were very + _eager_.) + + =Predicate noun.= A noun linked with the subject by some form of + the verb _to be_. (John is _halfback._ They were our + _neighbors._) + + =Sentence.= A sentence is a group of words containing (1) a + subject (with or without modifiers) and a predicate (with or + without modifiers) and not grammatically dependent on any words + outside of itself; or (2) two or more such expressions related + in thought. Sentences of type 1 are simple or complex; + sentences of type 2 are compound. A =simple sentence= contains + one independent clause (The dog barks angrily). A =complex + sentence= contains one independent clause and one or more + subordinate clauses (The dog barks when the thief appears). A + =compound sentence= contains two or more independent clauses (The + dog barks, and the thief runs). + + =Substantive.= A noun or a word standing in place of a noun. (The + _king_ summoned _parliament_. The _bravest_ are the + _tenderest_. _She_ was inconsolable.) A =substantive phrase= is a + phrase used as a noun. (_From Dan to Beersheba_ is a term for + the whole of Israel.) A =substantive clause= is a clause used as + a noun. (_That he owed the money_ is certain.) + + =Syntax.= Construction; the grammatical relation between the + words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence. + + =Verbal.= Any form of the verb used as another part of speech. + Infinitives, gerunds, and participles are verbals. They are + used to express action without asserting it, and cannot, + therefore, have subjects or be used as predicate verbs. + +=Abridged Conjugation of the verb _to take_= + + =Tense= =Active Voice= =Passive Voice= + + =Indicative Mode= + + =Present= I take I am taken + =Past= I took I was taken + =Future= I shall (will) take I shall (will) be taken + =Perfect= I have taken I have been taken + =Past Perfect= I had taken I had been taken + =Future Perfect= I shall (will) have taken I shall (will) have been taken + + =Subjunctive Mode= + + =Present= If I take If I be taken + =Past= If I took If I were taken + =Perfect= If I have taken If I have been taken + =Past Perfect= If I had taken If I had been taken + + =Imperative Mode= + + =Present= Take + +=Modal Aspects= + +(Modal aspects, formed by combining auxiliaries with the main verb, give +special meanings--emphatic, progressive, etc.--to the primary modes. +Since there are almost as many aspects as there are auxiliaries, only a +few can be enumerated here.) + + =Tense= =Active Voice= =Passive Voice= + + { =Emphatic:= I do take + { =Progressive:= I am taking I am being taken + =Present= { =Contingent:= I may take I may be taken + =Indicative= { =Potential:= I can take I can be taken + { =Obligative:= I must take I must be taken + { =Etc.= + + { =Emphatic:= I did take + { =Progressive:= I was taking I was being taken + =Past= { =Contingent:= I might take I might be taken + =Indicative= { =Potential:= I could take I could be taken + { =Obligative:= I must take I must be taken + { =Etc.= + + { =Emphatic:= If I do take + { =Progressive:= If I be taking + =Present= { =Contingent:= If I might take + =Subjunctive= { =Potential:= If I could take + { =Obligative:= If I must take + { =Etc.= + + =Present= { =Emphatic:= Do take + =Imperative= { =Progressive:= Be taking + + + =Verbals= + + =Infinitive= + + =Active Voice= =Passive Voice= + =Present:= To take To be taken + =Perfect:= To have taken To have been taken + + =Gerund= + + =Present:= Taking Being taken + =Perfect:= Having taken Having been taken + + =Participle= + + =Present:= Taking Being taken + =Past:= Taken + =Perfect:= Having taken Having been taken + + Exercise: + + Copy a page of good prose from any book, leaving wide spaces + between the lines. Indicate the part of speech of every word. + This may be done by abbreviations placed beneath the words. For + example: + + "Von Arden, having fallen into a very unquiet + _noun_ _part._ _prep._ _art._ _adv._ _adj._ + + slumber, dreamed that he was an aged man + _noun_ _verb_ _conj._ _pers pro._ _verb_ _art._ _adj._ _noun_ + + who stood beside a window." + _rel. pro._ _verb_ _prep._ _art._ _noun_ + + + +=59.= EXERCISE IN GRAMMAR + +=A. Case of Pronouns= + +Determine the correct form of the pronoun. + + 1. It is (I, me). + + 2. No one knows better than (she, her). + + 3. Then came the whistle for Gerald and (I, me). + + 4. It was (they, them). + + 5. Alice can drive a car as well as (he, him). + + 6. It was (she, her) (who, whom) you saw on the car. + + 7. John, you may go with Dan and (I, me). + + 8. If I were (she, her), I could not think of accepting the + questionable honor. + + 9. One evening four of (we, us) girls decided to go to the + theater. + + 10. Others are older than (we, us). + + 11. (Who, Whom) do you imagine will be our next president? + + 12. He does not approve of (our, us) walking on the grass. + + 13. Counsel will be given to (they, them) who ask for it. + + 14. That seems strange to you and (I, me). + + 15. Her mother has more regular features than (she, her). + + 16. Women (who, whom) some people would call "quiet" are often + the wisest. + + 17. Between you and (I, me), I'm hungry. + + 18. The thought of (it, its) coming by parcel post never + entered my mind. + + 19. He never discovered (who, whom) his enemy was. + + 20. In case of a fumble, the ball is given to (whoever, + whomever) recovers it. + +=B. Agreement= + +Determine the correct form of the verb. + + 1. He (don't, doesn't) care for music. + + 2. The swimming, boating, and fishing (is, are) good. + + 3. Each one of the two hands of the clock (is, are) made of + gold. + + 4. The ore is sorted and the cars having good ore (is, are) + hauled to the smelter. + + 5. A deck of ordinary playing cards consisting of fifty-two + cards (is, are) used. + + 6. It is safe to say that only one out of every ten of the + great number of students (realizes, realize) the value of + economy. + + 7. In spite of all obstacles, the construction of the three + hundred trestles and the twenty scaffolds (was, were) + completed. + + 8. Some nights may seem still, yet there (is, are) always + noises. + + 9. The exact meaning of such words as _inspiration_, + _prophecy_, and _orthodox_ (puzzles, puzzle) laymen. + + 10. Hard roads (is, are) an important matter to all country + people. + + 11. There (has, have) been many lives lost in Arctic + exploration. + + 12. Personal gifts inspired by good will and directed by + careful thought (is, are) the very best kind of charity. + + 13. In Lincoln's replies to Douglas there (is, are) no flights + or oratory. + + 14. The conciseness of these lines (is, are) to be admired. + + 15. A constant stream of wagons and horses (was, were) passing + as the circus was unloaded. + + 16. Nevertheless there (exists, exist) a certain class of + students who are socially submerged. + + 17. She (doesn't, don't) care for olives. + + 18. "Current Events" (is, are) a very useful department of this + magazine. + + 19. No people (lives, live) in that house. + + 20. The corporal, together with two other members of the + patrol, (was, were) captured by the enemy. + +=C. _Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_= + +Determine the correct form of the verb. + + 1. Perhaps I (shall, will) be able to go. + + 2. I tell you, I (shall will) not allow that dog in the car. + + 3. It is odd what a person (shall, will) do in a time of + excitement. + + 4. They have never seen anything like it, and probably they + never (shall, will). + + 5. "Johnny, you (shall, will) not go!" Johnny knew that further + begging was useless. + + 6. As we (shall, will) find by investigation, our coast + fortifications are few. + + 7. I (shouldn't, wouldn't) do that for anything. + + 8. I (should, would) think you (should, would) enjoy your + bicycle. + + 9. (Shall, will) you go driving with us? + + 10. Do you think it (shall, will) rain? + + 11. Where (shall, will) I hang my hat? + + 12. (Should, would) you go if I (should, would) ask you? + + 13. Rover (should, would) stay in the house all the time, if we + (should, would) let him. + + 14. I promised that I (should, would) be at the station early, + lest we (should, would) miss the train. + + 15. You (shall, will) have much trouble with that cold, I'm + afraid. + +=D. _Lie_, _lay_; _sit_, _set_; _rise_, _raise_= + + Fix in mind the following principal parts: + + I lie I lay I have lain + I lay I laid I have laid + I sit I sat I have sat + I set I set I have set + I rise I rose I have risen + I raise I raised I have raised + + _Lie_, _sit_, _rise_ are used intransitively; _lay_, _set_, + _raise_ are used transitively. _Lay_, _set_, _raise_ are + causatives; that is, _to lay_ means _to cause to lie_, etc. + +Insert a correct form of the verb _lie_ or _lay_: + + 1. I ---- here and watch the clouds. My dog is ----ing at my + feet. + + 2. In the evening I ---- aside all cares. I ---- down on the + couch and read. Yesterday I ---- there an hour. + + 3. The children have ---- in bed until seven o'clock. John has + ---- his coat on a chair. He ---- there asleep now. + + 4. ---- the shovel down. The garden is now ---- out in rows. + ---- down and take a little rest. + + 5. Smoke ---- along the horizon. Snow was ----ing here + yesterday. He is ----ing plans for the future. + +Insert a correct form of the verb _sit_ or _set_: + + 6. Jerome ---- the box on the floor. Then he ---- on the box. + + 7. Four people are ----ing at the table. Who ---- the lamp + there? + + 8. I had ---- there an hour. They had ---- the pitcher outside + the door. + + 9. I often ---- up late. Last night I ---- up late. I must + ----the alarm clock. + + 10. ---- the package down. ---- down and rest. While we are + ----ing there the gardener is ----ing out the plants. + +Insert a correct form of the verb _rise_ or _raise_: + + 11. ---- up and speak! ---- the window. + + 12. He quickly ---- his head. The cork had gone under, but now + it ---- again to the surface. + + 13. During the night the bread ---- to the top of the pan. + + 14. The invalid slowly ---- himself in his bed. + + 15. The river has already ---- and overflowed its banks. + +=E. Principal Parts of Verbs= + +In the following sentences supply the correct form of the verb. + + 1. He ---- (past tense of _come_) to this country in 1887. + + 2. He has ---- (past participle of _eat_) breakfast and ---- + (past participle of _go_) to the office. + + 3. Have you ---- (past participle of _ride_) far? I have + ----(past participle of _drive_) ten miles. + + 4. I am sure it was Henry who ---- (past tense of _do_) it, for + I ---- (past tense of _see_) him running away as fast as he + could go. + + 5. The wind has ---- (past participle of _tear_) down the + chimney and ---- (past participle of _blow_) down the tree. + + 6. After he ---- (past tense of _lie_) down, he remembered he + had left his books ---- (present participle of _lie_) in the + orchard. + + 7. He ---- (past tense of _throw_) the ball so hard that the + window was ---- (past participle of _break_) into a hundred + pieces. + + 8. The man ---- (past tense of _give_) warning before we had + ---- (past participle of _go_) too far. + + 9. After we had ---- (past participle of _ride_) about ten + miles we ---- (past tense of _come_) upon a stretch of hard + road. + + 10. Where ---- (past tense of _be_) you? You ----n't (past + tense of _be_) at home when I ---- (past tense of _ring_) the + bell. + + 11. The harness was ---- (past participle of _break_ or + _burst_) beyond repair. Who ---- (past tense of _break_) it? + + 12. I ---- (past tense of _take_) four shots at the rabbit, but + every shot ---- (past tense of _go_) wild. + + 13. He has ---- (past participle of _swim_) across the harbor, + and has ---- (past participle of _break_) the record. + + 14. I had ---- (past participle of _drink_) buttermilk for + several weeks. I ---- (past tense of _begin_) to gain weight. + + 15. When we had ---- (past participle of _sit_) there an hour + and ---- (past participle of _eat_) all we wanted, Jim ---- + (past tense of _draw_) out his purse and ---- (past tense of + _give_) the waiter a dollar. + + +=F. General= + +Improve the grammar of the following sentences. + + 1. Those kind of lamps are ugly. + + 2. It don't interest me any more. + + 3. Nobody may enter the hall tonight without their admittance + cards. + + 4. One does not need to strain their ears while at the movies. + + 5. Nearly all people eat too much, too fast, and too irregular. + + 6. Don't take this letter too serious. + + 7. He done the best he could with these kind of tools. + + 8. Every person with a cold was blowing their nose. + + 9. It would help considerable if you would speak to the manager + about existing conditions. + + 10. If I were the mayor, I could not do as good as he does. + + 11. Talk polite to your customers. + + 12. It is important that a salesman has a good memory. + + 13. Each tube must be capable of withstanding a pressure of + five hundred pounds per square inch before they are lowered + into place. + + 14. She is as tall, if not taller, than he is. + + 15. He always has and always will say that. + + 16. He is one of the worst, if not the very worst, player on + the team. + + 17. Final examinations require time and study that would not + otherwise be done. + + 18. I feel badly. He talks rude. It smells fragrantly. + + + + +DICTION + + +=Wordiness= + +=60. Avoid wordiness. Strike out words not essential to the thought.= + + Roundabout impersonal construction: There are many interesting + things which may be seen in New York. [12 words.] + + Better: Many interesting things may be seen in New York. [9 + words.] + + Clause to be reduced to a phrase: The skeleton which stood in + the office of Dr. Willard was terrifying to little Cecil. [15 + words.] + + Right: The skeleton in Dr. Willard's office was terrifying to + little Cecil. [11 words.] + + Clause and phrase each to be reduced to a word: Men who cared + only for their individual interests were now in a state of + discouragement. [15 words.] + + Right: Selfish men were now discouraged. [5 words.] + + Separate predication in excess: That day I was shocking wheat + behind the binder. Shocking wheat behind the binder was my + usual job in harvest. That day while I was working at this job, + I found a nest full of partridge eggs. [37 words.] + + Right: That day, while shocking wheat behind the binder, my + usual job in harvest, I found a nest full of partridge eggs. + [21 words.] + + Ponderous scientific terms for simple ideas: Since, according + to the physicists, the per cent of efficiency of a machine is + equal to the amount of energy put in, divided by the amount of + useful work performed, it naturally follows that in all human + activities, unnecessary friction, since it lowers the amount of + nervous energy, is going to lower the per cent of efficiency. + While we may never reach an astonishing degree of efficiency by + economizing nervous energy, nevertheless, if we consistently + and perseveringly try to spare ourselves all unnecessary labor + and exertion, we shall have an abundant supply of energy to + direct into channels of usefulness. [100 words.] + + Right: If we economize our strength, we can make our actions + more efficient and useful. [14 words.] + + Inflated writing: She was supreme in beauty among the daughters + of Eve whom his ravished eyes had hitherto beheld. [17 words.] + + Right: She was the most beautiful woman he had ever seen. [10 + words.] + +Note.--A special form of wordiness is tautology--the useless repetition +of an idea in different words. + + Gross tautology: He had an entire monopoly of the whole fruit + trade. [This is like saying "black blackbird."] + + Right: He had a monopoly of the fruit trade. + + Tautological expressions: + + this here + where at + return back + ascend up + repeat again + biography of his life + good benefits + fellow playmates + Hallowe'en evening + important essentials + indorse on the back + connect up + meet up with + combined together + perfectly all right + utter absence of + quite round + absolutely annihilated + still continue to + absolutely new creation + necessary requisite + total effect of all this + + Exercise: + + 1. The people who act the parts in a play want the people who + witness the performance to applaud them. + + 2. There is an oily grass which is found on the prairie, and + which is called mesquite grass, and it covers the prairie. + + 3. You wish to call the operator. You take the receiver from + the hook. By taking the receiver from the hook you call the + operator. + + 4. At last the employer of the men, and those who were employed + by him, having compromised their difficulties, effected a + settlement, and reached an amicable understanding agreeable to + both parties. + + 5. The two merchants joined up their forces together in order + to secure a monopoly of the entire trade of the village. There + was one absolutely essential preliminary which they thought + must necessarily precede everything else. It was that they + should take all the old shop-worn articles and dispose of them + by selling them as bargains at a reduced rate. + + +=Triteness= + +=61. Avoid trite or hackneyed expressions.= Such expressions may be tags +from everyday speech (_the worse for wear_, _had the time of my life_); +or stale phrases from newspapers (_taken into custody_, _the officiating +clergyman_); or humorous substitutions (_ferocious canine_, _paternal +ancestor_); or forced synonyms (_gridiron heroes_, _the Hoosier +metropolis_); or conventional fine writing (_reigns supreme_, _wind +kissed the tree-tops_); or oft-repeated euphemisms (_limb_ for _leg_, +_pass away_ for _die_); or overworked quotations from literature +(_monarch of all I survey_, _footprints on the sands of time_). + + List of trite expressions: + + along these lines + meets the eye + feathered songsters + a long-felt want + the last sad rites + launched into eternity + last but not least + doomed to disappointment + at one fell swoop + sadder but wiser + did justice to a dinner + a goodly number + budding genius + beggars description + a dull thud + silence broken only by + wended their way + abreast of the times + trees stood like sentinels + method in his madness + sun-kissed meadows + tired but happy + hoping you are the same + nipped in the bud + the happy pair + seething mass of humanity + specimen of humanity + with bated breath + green with envy + the proud possessor + too full for utterance + a pugilistic encounter + conspicuous by its absence + with whom they come in contact + exception proves the rule + favor with a selection + as luck would have it + more easily imagined than described + where ignorance is bliss + + Exercise: + + 1. Halleck returned from his trip considerably the worse for + wear. + + 2. The baby whom she had promised to keep quiet proved to be a + foeman worthy of her steel. + + 3. I first saw the light of day in New Orleans. It was in the + Crescent City also that my dear mother passed away. + + 4. Americans come off second best in a vocalizing encounter + with umlauted _u_, while Germans and Frenchmen wage sanguinary + battles with our _th_. + + 5. The daily scramble for dear life to get aboard a trolley was + like taking arms against a sea of troubles. Even standing room + was conspicuous by its absence. Sheridan began to think along + the line of getting to the office in some other way. + + +=The Exact Word= + +=62. Find the exact word. Do not be content with a loose meaning. Seek +the verb, the noun, the adjective, the adverb, or the phrase which +expresses your thought with precision.= Such words as _said_, +_proposition_, and _nice_ are often used too loosely. Observe the +possible gain in definiteness by substitution. + + For _said_ (verb): _declared_, _related_, _insisted_, + _exclaimed_, _added_, _repeated_, _replied_, _admitted_, + _commented_, _corrected_, _protested_, _explained_, + _besought_, _interrupted_, _inquired_, _stammered_, _sighed_, + _murmured_, or _thundered_. + + For _proposition_ (noun): _transaction_, _undertaking_, + _venture_, _recourse_, _suggestion_, _overture_, _proposal_, + _proffer_, _convenience_, _difficulty_, _thesis_, or + _doctrine_. + + For _nice_ (adjective): _discriminating_, _precise_, + _fastidious_, _dainty_, _neat_, _pretty_, _pleasant_, + _fragrant_, _delicious_, _well-behaved_, _good_, or _moral_. + + Inexact verb: He had not sufficiently _regarded_ the + difficulties of the task [Use _considered_]. + + Inexact noun: Promptness is an _item_ which a manager should + possess [Use _quality_]. + + Inexact adjective: He looked _awfully funny_ when I told him he + had made a mistake [Use _surprised_]. + + Inexact phrasing throughout: Health is first in every line of + activity. A man who has it does not hold it with enough + respect, and make efforts enough to keep it. + + Right: Health is indispensable to success in any work. Even + those who have it do not realize its value. + + Exercise: + + 1. He was proud of the honorable record he had gained. + + 2. He resolved that some day he would be a banker, and I shall + tell you how he tried to do so. + + 3. Isn't the sunset grand? Isn't it nice to be out of doors? + + 4. The mystery as to which ones of the piano keys to play was + hard for him to acquire. + + 5. If the package comes by freight, you must negotiate the + proposition of getting it home; but if it comes by express, the + delivery is done free. + + +=Concreteness= + +=63. Concrete words are often more effective than vague, general, or +abstract words.= + + Not specific: She held herself aloof from her brothers' games + and amusements. + + Concrete: She never played soldier or sailed paper boats with + her brothers. + + No appeal to the senses: I liked to watch the servant girl as + she moved about the kitchen, preparing our morning repast. + + Concrete: I liked to watch Norah as she fried our crisp + breakfast bacon and browned our buckwheat cakes. + + Flat, not readily visualized: The first inhabitants overcame + the barriers to settlement about a century ago. + + Concrete: Rough backwoodsmen broke through the underbrush and + swamp-land a century ago. + + Exercise: + + 1. The scientist discovered a bird in a tree. + + 2. Our hostess set before us many good things to eat. + + 3. The sailor was carving queer figures on a piece of soft + wood. + + 4. The night watchman heard something that made him suspicious. + + 5. I stood at the door of the shop to watch the astonishing + things the blacksmith was doing. + + +=Sound= + +=64. Avoid the frequent repetition of a sound, especially if it be harsh +or unpleasant.= + + Bad: He is an exceedingly orderly secretary. + + Better: As a secretary he is very systematic. [Or] The + secretary is very systematic. + + Bad: Immediately the squirrel hid himself behind the hickory + tree. + + Better: Immediately the squirrel dodged behind the hickory + tree. + + Unfortunate rime: Bert did not dare to go home with wet hair. + + Better: Bert did not dare to go home with his hair wet. [Or] + Bert was afraid to go home with wet hair. + + Exercise: + + 1. That Christmas happened to be unusually happy. + + 2. I fear we must sit near the rear of the room. + + 3. The Jackies went clambering and scurrying up the rigging. + + 4. The ship slips anchor while the idlers sip tea on the deck. + + 5. The third treasure-seeker heard a thud. His pick had struck + an obstruction. + + +=Subtle Violations of Good Use: Faulty Idioms, Colloquialisms= + +=65. Avoid subtle violations of good use, particularly (a) faulty idioms +and (b) colloquialisms.= + +=a. Make your expression conform to English idiom.= A faulty idiom is an +expression which, though correct in grammar and general meaning, +combines words in a manner contrary to usage. Idioms are established by +custom, and cannot be explained by logical rules. "I enjoy to read" is +wrong, not because the words offend logic or grammar, but merely because +people do not instinctively make that combination of words. "I like to +read" and "I enjoy reading" are good idioms. + + =Faulty Idioms= =Correct Idioms= + + in the city Toledo in the city of Toledo + in the year of 1920 in the year 1920 + I hope you a good time I wish you a good time + the Rev. Hopkins the Reverend Mr. Hopkins + possessed with ability possessed of ability + stay to home stay at home + different than different from + independent from independent of + in search for in search of + +Observe that many idioms are concerned with prepositions. Make sure that +a verb or adjective is accompanied by the right preposition. Study the +following list of correct idioms: + + accused of (a theft) + accused by (a person) + accord with (a person) + agree with (a person) + agree to (a proposal) + agreeable to + angry at (things or persons) + angry with (a person) + careful about (an affair) + careful of (one's money) + comply with + convenient to (a person) + convenient for (a purpose) + correspond to (things) + correspond with (persons) + dissent from + enamored of + entrust to + free from + listen to + part from (a person) + part with (a thing) + pleased with + resolve on + sympathize with + take exception to + +=b. Do not carry the standards of conversation into formal writing.= +Colloquial usage is more free than literary usage. The colloquial +sentence _That's the man I talked with_ becomes in writing _That is the +man with whom I talked._ The colloquial sentence _It was a cold day but +there wasn't any wind blowing_ is a loose string of words. Written +discourse requires greater tension and more care in subordinating minor +ideas: _The day, though cold, was still._ Contractions are proper in +conversation, and in personal or informal writing. In formal writing +they are not appropriate. And do not let such expressions as _He +doesn't_, _We aren't_, _It's proved_, used in talk by careful speakers, +mislead you into expressions like _He don't_, _We ain't_, _It's proven_, +which violate even colloquial good use. + + Exercise: + + 1. He confessed of his inability to comply to the demand. + + 2. Is he from Irish descent? Is humor characteristic with the + Irish? + + 3. She was not to home, but I was reluctant against leaving. + + 4. He dissented to the opinion of the committee's majority, for + his ideas were utterly different than theirs. + + 5. He got a few jobs as a carpenter that summer, but they + didn't pay him much, and so he went to loafing around, and he's + been at it ever since. + + +=Gross Violations of Good Use: Barbarisms, Improprieties, Slang= + +=66. Avoid gross violations of good use, particularly (a) barbarisms, (b) +improprieties, and (c) slang.= + +=a. Barbarisms are distortions of words in good use, or coinages for +which there is no need.= Examples: _to concertize_, _to burgle_ or +_burglarize_, _to jell_, _alright_, _a-plenty_, _most_ (for _almost_), +_performess_, _fake_, _pep_, _tasty_, _illy_, _complected_, +_undoubtably_, _nowheres_, _soph_, _lab_, _gents_. + +=b. Improprieties are words wrenched from one part of speech to another, +or made to perform an unnatural service.= Examples: _to suspicion_, _to +gesture_, _to suicide_, _a steal_, _a try_, _a go_, _an invite_, _the +eats_, _humans_, _some_ or _real_ or _swell_ (as adverbs), _like_ (as a +conjunction). + +=c. Slang is speech consisting either of uncouth expressions of +illiterate origin, or of legitimate expressions used in grotesque or +irregular senses.= Though sometimes (witness eighteenth century _mob_, +and nineteenth century _buncombe_) it satisfies a real need and becomes +established in the language, in most instances it is short-lived +(witness the thieves' talk in _Oliver Twist_, or passages from any comic +opera song popular five years ago). Vicious types of slang are: + + Expressions of vulgar origin (from criminal classes, the prize + ring, the vaudeville circuit, etc.): _get pinched_, _down and + out_, _took the count_, _bum hunch_, _nix on the comedy + stuff_, _get across_. + + Language strained or distorted for novel effect: _performed the + feed act at a bang-up gastronomic emporium_, _bingled a tall + drive that made the horsehide ramble out into center garden_. + + Blanket expressions used as substitutes for thinking: + _corking_, _stunning_, _ain't it fierce?_, _can you beat it?_, + _going some_, _just so I get by with it_. + +The use of the last-named type is most to be regretted. It leads to a +mental habit of phonographic repetition, with no resort to independent +thinking. If a man really desires to use slang, let him invent new +expressions every day, and make them fit the specific occasion. + + Exercise: + + 1. I disremember what sort of an outfit he wore. + + 2. Helen's as light-complected a girl as you'll run across, I + calculate. + + 3. His ad brought a first-rate gent to hold down the job. + + 4. Thompson hasn't stability, or it seems like it. He ain't got + no gumption. He's too easy enthused. + + 5. The grub was to of cost us two bits, but we didn't have the + dough. We gets outside the food, and when the cashier ain't + lookin', we runs out the door and beats it. + + +=Words Often Confused in Meaning= + +=67. Do not confuse or interchange the meanings of the following words:= + + =_Accept_ and _except_.= _Accept_ means _to receive_; _except_ as + a verb means _to exclude_ and as a preposition means _with the + exception of_. + + =_Affect_ and _effect_.= _Affect_ is not used as a noun; _effect_ + as a noun means _result_. As verbs, _affect_ means _to + influence in part_; _effect_ means _to accomplish totally_. + "His story affected me deeply." "The Russians effected a + revolution." _Affect_ also has a special meaning _to feign_. + "She had an affected manner." + + =_Allusion_ and _illusion_.= _Allusion_ means _a reference_; + _illusion_ means a _deceptive appearance_. "A Biblical + allusion." "An optical illusion." + + =_Already_ and _all ready_.= _Already_ means _by this time_ or + _beforehand_; _all ready_ means _wholly ready_. "I have already + invited him." "Dinner is all ready." "We are all ready for + dinner." + + =_Altogether_ and _all together_.= _Altogether_ means _wholly_, + _entirely_; _all together_ means _collectively, in a group_. + "He is altogether honest." "The King sent the people all + together into exile." + + =_Can_ and _may_.= _Can_ means _to be able_; _may_ means _to have + permission_. _Can_ for _may_ has a certain colloquial standing, + but is condemned by literary usage. + + =_Emigrate_ and _immigrate_.= _Emigrate_ means _to go out from a + country_; _immigrate_ means _to enter into a country_. The same + man may be an _emigrant_ when he leaves Europe, and an + _immigrant_ when he enters America. + + =_Healthy_ and _healthful_.= _Healthy_ means _having health_; + _healthful_ means _giving health_. "Milk is healthful." "The + climate of Colorado is healthful." "The boy is healthy." + + =_Hanged_ and _hung_.= _Hanged_ is the correct past tense of + _hang_ in the sense _put to death, hanged on the gallows_; + _hung_ is the correct past tense for the general meaning + _suspended_. + + =_Hygienic_ and _sanitary_.= Both words mean _pertaining to + health_. _Hygienic_ is used when the condition is a matter of + personal habits or rules; _sanitary_ is used when the condition + is a matter of surroundings (water supply, food supply, sewage + disposal, etc.) or the relations of numbers of people. + + =_Instants_ and _instance_.= _Instants_ means _small portions of + time_; _instance_ means _an example_. + + =_Later_ and _latter_.= _Later_ means _more late_; _latter_ means + _the second in a series of two_. "The latter" is used in + conjunction with the phrase "the former." + + =_Lead_ and _led_.= _Led_ is the past tense of the verb _to + lead_. _Lead_ is the present tense. + + =_Learn_ and _teach_.= _Learn_ means _to get knowledge of_; + _teach_ means _to give knowledge of_ or _to_. "The instructor + _teaches_ (not _learns_) me physics." "He learns his lessons + easily." + + =_Leave_ and _let_.= _Leave_ means _to abandon_; _let_ means _to + permit_. + + =_Less_ and _fewer_.= _Less_ refers to quantity; _fewer_ refers + to number. "He has _fewer_ (not _less_) horses than he needs." + + =_Liable_, _likely_, and _apt_.= _Likely_ merely predicts; + _liable_ conveys the additional idea of harm or responsibility. + _Apt_ applies usually to persons, in the sense of _having + natural capability_, and sometimes to things, in the sense of + _fitting_, _appropriate_. "It is likely to be a pleasant day." + "I fear it is liable to rain." "He is liable for damages." "He + is an apt lad at his books." "That is an apt phrase." + + =_Lie_ and _lay_.= _Lay_, a transitive verb, means _to cause to + lie_. "I lay the book on the table and it lies there." "Now I + lay me down to sleep." A source of confusion between the two + words is that the past tense of _lie_ is _lay_: + + I lie down to sleep. I lay the book on the table. + I lay there yesterday. I laid it there yesterday. + I have lain here for hours. I have laid it there many times. + + =_Like_ and _as_ or _as if_.= _Like_ is in good use as a + preposition, and may be followed by a noun; _as_ is in good use + as a conjunction, and may be followed by a clause. "He is tall + like his father." "He is tall, as his father is." "It looks _as + if_ (not _like_) it were going to rain." + + =_Lose_ and _loose_.= _Lose_ means _to cease having_; _loose_ as + a verb means _to set free_, and as an adjective, _free, not + bound_. + + =_Majority_ and _plurality_.= In a loose sense, _majority_ means + the _greater part_. More strictly, it means the number by which + votes cast for one candidate exceed those of the opposition. A + _plurality_ is the excess of votes received by one candidate + over his nearest competitor. In an election A receives 500 + votes; B, 400 votes; and C, 300 votes. A has a plurality of + 100, but no majority. + + =_Practical_ and _practicable_.= _Practical_ means _not + theoretical_; _practicable_ means _capable of being put into + practice_. "A practical man." "The arrangement is + practicable." + + =_Principal_ and _principle_.= _Principal_ as an adjective means + _chief_ or _leading_; _principle_ as a noun means a _general + truth_. _Principal_ as a noun means a _sum of money_, or the + _chief official of a school_. + + =_Proof_ and _evidence_.= In a law court, _proof_ is _evidence + sufficient to establish a fact_; _evidence_ is _whatever is + brought forward in an attempt to establish a fact_. "The + evidence against the prisoner was extensive, but hardly proof + of his guilt." In ordinary speech, _proof_ is sometimes loosely + used as a synonym for _evidence_. + + =_Pseudo-_ and _quasi-_.= As a prefix, _pseudo-_ means _false_; + _quasi-_ means literally _as if_, hence _seeming_, _so-called_. + "Phrenology is a pseudo-science." "A quasi-evolutionary + doctrine." + + =_Quiet_ and _quite_.= _Quiet_ is an adjective meaning _calm_, + _not noisy_; _quite_ is an adverb meaning _entirely_. + + =_Respectfully_ and _respectively_.= _Respectfully_ means _in a + courteous manner_; _respectively_ means _in a way proper to + each_. "Yours _respectfully_" (not _respectively_). "He handed + the commissions to Gray and Hodgins respectively." + + =_Rise_ and _raise_.= _Rise_ is an intransitive verb; _raise_ is + a transitive verb. "I rise to go home." "I raise vegetables." + "I raise the stone from the ground." + + =_Sit_ and _set_.= _Set_, a transitive verb, means _to cause to + sit_. "He sets it in the corner and it sits there." The past + tense of _sit_ is _sat_. + + I sit down. I always set it in its place. + He sat in this very chair. I set it in its place yesterday. + He has sat there an hour. I have always set it just here. + + =_Stationary_ and _stationery_.= _Stationary_ is an adjective + meaning _fixed_; _stationery_ is a noun meaning _writing + material_. + + =_Statue_, _stature_, and _statute_.= _Statue_ means a _carved_ + or _moulded figure_; _stature_ means _height_; _statute_ means + a _law_. + + Exercise: + + 1. Insert _affect_ or _effect_: Noise does not ---- my + studying. It has little ---- on me. By the exercise of will + power I was able to ---- a change. + + 2. Insert _healthy_ or _healthful_: New Mexico has a ---- + climate, Graham bread is ----. You will be ---- if you take + exercise. + + 3. Insert _later_ or _latter_: I will see you ----. Here are + two plans: the former is complex; the ---- is simple. Sooner or + ---- you will learn the rule. + + 4. Insert _less_ or _fewer_: They have ---- money than we; we + have ---- pleasures than they. It seems to me there are ---- + accidents. + + 5. Insert _principal_ or _principle_: The ---- part of a clock + is the pendulum, which swings regularly, according to a ---- of + science. My ---- reason for trusting him is that he is a man of + ----. He is the ---- of the high school. The widow spends the + interest on the money, but keeps the ---- intact. + + +=Glossary of Faulty Diction= + +=68. Avoid faulty diction.= + + =_Ad_= (for _advertisement_). Avoid in formal writing and + speaking. + + =_Ain't_.= Never correct. Say _I'm not_, _you_ [_we_, _they_] + _aren't_, _he_ [_she_, _it_] _isn't_. + + =_All the farther_, _all the faster_.= Crude. Use _as far as_, + _as fast as_, in such sentences as "This is all the farther I + can go." + + =_As_.= (a) Incorrect in the sense of _that_ or _whether_. "I + don't know _whether_ (not _as_) I can tell you." "Not _that_ + (not _as_) I know." (b) _As ... as_ are correlatives. _Than_ + must not replace the second _as_. Right: "As good as or better + than his neighbors." "As good as his neighbors, or better [than + they]." See 57. + + =_Auto_.= An abbreviation not desirable in formal writing. + + =_Awful_.= Means _filling with awe_ or _filled with awe_. Do not + use in the sense of _uncivil_, _serious_, or _ludicrous_, or + (in the adverbial form) in the sense of _very_, _extremely_. + + =_Balance_.= Incorrect when used in the sense of _remainder_. + + =_Because_.= Not to be used for _the fact that_. "_The fact that_ + (not _because_) he is absent is no reason why we should not + proceed." See 5. + + =_Between_.= Used of two persons or things. Not to be confused + with _among_, which is used of more than two. + + =_Blame on_.= A crudity for _put the blame on_ or _blame_. + Faulty: "Don't blame it on me." Better: "Don't blame me." + + =_Borned_.= A monstrosity for _born_. "I was _born_ (not + _borned_) in 1899." + + =_Bursted_.= The past tense of _burst_ is the same as the + present. + + =_Bust_ or _busted_.= Vulgar for _burst_. Right: "The balloon + burst." "The bank failed." + + =_But what_.= _That_ is often preferable. "I do not doubt _that_ + (not _but what_) he is honest." + + =_Canine_.= An adjective. Not in good use as a noun. + + =_Cannot help but_.= A confusion of _can but_ and _cannot help_. + "I can but believe you"; or "I cannot help believing you"; not + "I cannot help but believe you." See 34. + + =_Caused by_.= To be used only when it refers definitely to a + noun. Wrong: "He was disappointed, caused by the lateness of + the train." The noun _disappointment_ should be used instead of + the verb _disappointed_. Then caused will have a definite + reference. Right: "His disappointment was caused by the + lateness of the train." See 23. + + =_Claim_.= Means _to demand as a right_. Incorrect for _maintain_ + or _assert_. + + =_Considerable_.= An adjective, not an adverb. "He talked + _considerably_ (not _considerable_) about it." + + =_Could of_.= An illiterate form arising from slovenly + pronunciation. Use _could have_. Avoid also _may of_, _must + of_, _would of_, etc. + + =_Data_.= Plural. The singular (seldom used) is _datum_. Compare + _stratum_, _strata_; _erratum_, _errata_. + + =_Demean_.= Means _to conduct oneself_, not _to lower_ or _to + degrade_. + + =_Different than_.= _Different from_ is to be preferred. _Than_ + is a conjunction. The idea of separation implied in _different_ + calls for a preposition, rather than a word of comparison. + + =_Disremember_.= Not in good use. + + =_Done_.= A gross error when used as the past tense of _do_, or + as an adverb meaning _already_. "_I did it_ (not _I done it_)." + "I've _already_ (not _done_) got my lessons." + + =_Don't_.= A contraction for _do not_; never to be used for _does + not_. The contraction of _does not_ is _doesn't_. See 51d. + + =_Drownded_.= Vulgar for _drowned_. + + =_Due to_.= To be used only when it refers definitely to a noun. + Faulty: "He refused the offer, due to his father's opposition." + Right: "His refusal of the offer was due to his father's + opposition." The noun _refusal_ should be used instead of the + verb _refused_. Then _due_ will have a definite reference. See + 5. + + =_Enthuse_.= Not in good use. + + =_Etc._= An abbreviation for the Latin _et cetera_, meaning _and + other_ [things]. _Et_ means _and_. _And etc._ is therefore + grossly incorrect. Do not write _ect._ + + =_Expect_.= Means _to look forward to_. Hardly correct in the + sense of _suppose_. + + =_Fine_.= Use cautiously as an adjective, and not at all as an + adverb. Seek the exact word. See 62. + + =_Former_.= Means the first or first named of two. Not to be used + when more than two have been named. The corresponding word is + _latter_. + + =_For to_.= Incorrect for _to_. "I want _you_ (not _for you_) to + listen carefully." "He made up his mind _to_ (not _for to_) + accept." + + =_Gent_.= A vulgar abbreviation of _gentleman_. + + =_Good_.= An adjective, not an adverb. Wrong: "He did good in + mathematics." Right: "He did well in mathematics." "He did good + work in mathematics." + + =_Gotten_.= An old form now usually replaced by _got_ except in + such expressions as _ill-gotten gains_. + + =_Guess_.= Expresses conjecture. Not to be used in formal + composition for _think_, _suppose_, or _expect_. + + =_Had of_.= Illiterate. "I wish I _had known_ (not _had of + known_) about it." + + =_Had ought_.= A vulgarism. "He _ought_ (not _had ought_) to have + resigned." "We _oughtn't_ (not _hadn't ought_) to make this + error." + + =_Hardly_.= Not to be used with a negative. See 34. + + =_Home_.= Do not use when you mean simply _house_. + + =_Human_ or _humans_.= Not in good use as a noun. Say _human + being_. Right: "The house was not fit for _human beings_ (not + _humans_) to live in." + + =_If_.= Do not use for _whether_. "I can't say _whether_ (not + _if_) the laundry will be finished today." + + =_In_.= Often misused for _into_. "He jumped _into_ (not _in_) + the pond." + + =_It's_.= Means _it is_; not to be written for the possessive + _its_. + + =_Kind of_.= (a) Should not modify adjectives or verbs. "He was + _somewhat_ (not _kind of_) lean." "_She partly suspected_ (not + _She kind of suspected_) what was going on." (b) When using + with a noun, do not follow by _a_. "That kind of man"; not + "That kind of a man." + + =_Like_.= To be followed by a substantive; never by a substantive + and a verb. "He ran like a deer." "Do _as_ (not _like_) I do." + "She felt _as if_ (not _like_) she was going to faint." _Like_ + is a preposition; _as_ is a conjunction. + + =_Literally_.= Do not use where you plainly do not mean it, as in + the sentence, "I was literally tickled to death." + + =_Loan_.= _Lend_ is in better use as a verb. + + =_Locate_.= Do not use for _settle_ or _establish oneself_. + + =_Lose out_.= Not used in formal writing. Say _lose_. + + =_Lots of_.= A mercantile term which has a dubious colloquial + standing. Not in good literary use for _many_ or _much_. + + =_Might of_.= A vulgarism for _might have_. + + =_Most_.= Do not use for _almost_. "_Almost_ (not _most_) all." + + =_Myself_.= Intensive or reflexive; do not use when the simple + personal pronoun would suffice. "I saw them myself." "Some + friends and _I_ (not _myself_) went walking." + + =_Neither_.= Used with _nor_, and not with _or_. "Neither the man + whom his associates had suspected _nor_ (not _or_) the one whom + the police had arrested was the criminal." "She could neither + paint a good picture _nor_ (not _or_) play the violin well." + + =_Nice_.= Means _delicate_ or _precise_. _Nice_ is used in a + loose colloquial way to indicate general approval, but should + not be so used in formal writing. Right: "He displayed nice + judgment." "We had a _pleasant_ (not _nice_) time." See 62. + + =_Nowhere near_.= Vulgar for _not nearly_. + + =_Nowheres_.= Vulgar. + + =_O_ and _Oh_.= _O_ is used with a noun in direct address; it is + not separated from the noun by any marks of punctuation. _Oh_ + is used as an interjection; it is followed by a comma or an + exclamation point. "Hear, O king, what thy servants would say." + "Oh, dear!" + + =_Of_.= Do not use for _have_ in such combinations as _should + have_, _may have_, _ought to have_. + + =_Off of_.= _On_, _upon_, or some equivalent expression is + usually preferable. + + =_Ought to of_.= A vulgarism for _ought to have_. + + =_Over with_.= Crude for _over_. + + =_Pants_.= _Trousers_ is the approved term in literary usage. + _Pants_ (from _pantaloons_) has found some degree of colloquial + and commercial acceptance. + + =_Party_.= Not to be used for _person_, except in legal phrases. + + =_Phone_.= A contraction not employed in formal writing. Say + _telephone_. + + =_Plenty_.= A noun; not in good use as an adjective or an adverb. + "He had _plenty of_ (not _plenty_) resources." "He had + _resources in plenty_ (not _resources plenty_)." + + =_Proposition_.= Means a _thing proposed_. Do not use loosely, as + in the sentence: "A berth on a Pullman is a good proposition + during a railway journey at night." See 62. + + =_Proven_.= Prefer _proved_. + + =_Providing_.= Prefer _provided_ in such expressions as "I will + vote for him _provided_ (not _providing_) he is a candidate." + + =_Quite a_.= Colloquial in such expressions as _quite a while_, + _quite a few_, _quite a number_. + + =_Raise_.= _Rear_ or _bring up_ is preferable in speaking of + children. "She _reared_ (not _raised_) seven children." + + =_Rarely ever_.= Crude for _rarely_, _hardly ever_. + + =_Real_.= Crude for _very_ or _really_. "She was _very_ (not + _real_) intelligent." "He was _really_ (not _real_) brave." + + =_Remember of_.= Not to be used for _remember_. + + =_Right smart_ and _Right smart of_.= Extremely vulgar. + + =_Same_.= No longer used as a pronoun except in legal documents. + "He saw her drop the purse and restored _it_ (not _the same_) + to her." + + =_Scarcely_.= Not to be used with a negative. See 34. + + =_Seldom ever_.= Crude for _seldom_, _hardly ever_. + + =_Shall_.= Do not confuse with _will_. See 53. + + =_Sight_.= _A sight_ or _a sight of_ is very crude for _many_, + _much_, _a great deal of_. "_A great many_ (not _a sight_) of + them." + + =_So_.= Not incorrect, but loose, vague, and often unnecessary. + (a) As an intensive, the frequent use of _so_ has been + christened "the feminine demonstrative." Hackneyed: "I was so + surprised." Better: "I was much surprised." Or, "I was + surprised." (b) As a connective, the frequent use of _so_ is a + mark of amateurishness. See 36 Note. + + =_Some_.= Not to be used as an adverb. "She was _somewhat_ (not + _some_) better the next day." Wrong: "He studied some that + night." Right: "He did some studying that night." + + =_Somewheres_.= Very crude. Use _somewhere_. + + =_Species_.= Has the same form in singular and plural. "He + discovered a new _species_ (not _specie_) of sunflower." + + =_Such_.= (a) To be completed by _that_, rather than by _so + that_, when a result clause follows. "There was such a crowd + _that_ (not _so that_) he did not find his friends." (b) To be + completed by _as_, rather than by _that_, _who_, or _which_, + when a relative clause follows. "I will accept such + arrangements _as_ (not _that_) may be made." "He called upon + such soldiers _as_ (not _who_) would volunteer for this service + to step forward." + + =_Superior than_.= Not in good use for _superior to_. + + =_Sure_.= Avoid the crude adverbial use. "It _surely_ (not + _sure_) was pleasant." In answer to the question, "Will you + go?" either _sure_ or _surely_ is correct, though _surely_ is + preferred. "[To be] sure." "[You may be] sure." "[I will] + surely [go]." + + =_Suspicion_.= A noun. Never to be used as a verb. + + =_Take and_.= Often unnecessary, sometimes crude. Redundant: "He + took the ax and sharpened it." Better: "He sharpened the ax." + Crude: "He took and nailed up the box." Better: "He nailed up + the box." + + =_Tend_.= In the sense _to look after_, takes a direct object + without an interposed _to_. _Attend_, however, is followed by + _to_. "The milliner's assistant _tends_ (not _tends to_) the + shop." "I shall _attend to your wants in a moment_." + + =_That there_.= Do not use for _that_. "I want _that_ (not _that + there_) box of berries." + + =_Them_.= Not to be used as an adjective. "_Those_ (not _them_) + boys." + + =_There were_ or _There was_.= Avoid the unnecessary use. Crude: + "There were seventeen senators voted for the bill." Better: + "Seventeen senators voted for the bill." + + =_These sort_, _These kind_.= Ungrammatical. See 51b. + + =_This here_.= Do not use for _this_. + + =_Those_.= Do not carelessly omit a relative clause after + _those_. Faulty: "He is one of those talebearers." Better: "He + is a talebearer." [Or] "He is one of those talebearers whom + everybody dislikes." + + =_Those kind_, _those sort_.= Ungrammatical. See 51b. + + =_Till_.= Do not carelessly misuse for _when_: "I had scarcely + strapped on my skates _when_ (not _till_) Henry fell through an + air hole." + + =_Transpire_.= Means _to give forth_ or _to become known_, not + _to occur_. "The secret _transpired_." "The sale of the + property _occurred_ (not _transpired_) last Thursday." + + =_Try_.= A verb, not a noun. + + =_Unique_.= Means _alone of its kind_, not _odd_ or _unusual_. + + =_United States_.= Ordinarily preceded by _the_. "The United + States raised a large army." (Not "United States raised a large + army.") + + =_Up_.= Do not needlessly insert after such verbs as _end_, + _rest_, _settle_. + + =_Used to could_.= Very crude. Say _used to be able_ or _once + could_. + + =_Very_.= Accompanied by _much_ when used with the past + participle. "He was _very much_ (not _very_) pleased with his + reception." + + =_Want to_.= Not to be used in the sense of _should_, _had + better_. "You _should_ (not _You want to_) keep in good + physical condition." + + =_Way_.= Not to be used for _away_. "Away (not _way_) down the + street." + + =_Ways_.= Not to be used for _way_ in referring to distance. "A + little _way_ (not _ways_)." + + =_When_.= (a) Not to be used for _that_ in such a sentence as "It + was in the afternoon that the races began." (b) A _when_ clause + is not to be used as a predicate noun. See 6. + + =_Where_.= (a) Not to be used for _that_ in such a sentence as "I + see in the paper that our team lost the game." (b) A _where_ + clause is not to be used as a predicate noun. See 6. + + =_Where at_.= Vulgar. "Where is he? (not _Where is he at_?)" + + =_Which_.= Do not use for _who_ or _that_ in referring to + persons. "The friends _who_ (not _which_) had loved him in his + boyhood were still faithful to him." + + =_Who_.= Do not use unnecessarily for _which_ or _that_ in + referring to animals. Do not use the possessive form _whose_ + for _of which_ unless the sentence is so turned as practically + to require the substitution. + + =_Will_.= Do not confuse with _shall_. See 53. + + =_Win out_.= Not used in formal writing or speaking. + + =_Woods_.= Not ordinarily to be used as singular. "_A wood_ (not + _A woods_)." + + =_Would have_.= Do not use for _had_ in if clauses. "If you _had_ + (not _would have_) spoken boldly, he would have granted your + request." + + =_Would of_.= A vulgarism for _would have_. + + =_You was_.= Use _You were_ in both singular and plural. + + =_Yourself_.= Intensive or reflexive; do not use when the + personal pronoun would suffice. "_You_ (not _Yourself_) and + your family must come." + + Exercise: + + 1. Be sure the gun works alright. I was already when you came. + + 2. He talked considerable, but I couldn't scarcely remember + what all he said. + + 3. I never suspicioned that John could of been guilty of + forging his father's note. It don't seem hardly possible. + + 4. The island was not inhabited by humans. It was different + than any place I ever remember of. One sailor and myself + climbed a sand hill, but we couldn't see any signs of life + anywheres. + + 5. Hawkeye walked a ways into a woods. He was a right smart at + ease, for he had Kildeer with him. + + +=69.= EXERCISE IN DICTION + +=A. Wordiness= + +Strike out all that is superfluous, and make the following sentences +simple and exact. + + 1. Some students lack the ability of being able to spell. + + 2. He seems to enjoy the universal esteem of all men. + + 3. The mind rebels against the enforced discipline imposed upon + it by others. + + 4. This is the house that was constructed and erected by a + young fellow who went by the common name of Jack. + + 5. There are invariably people in the world who always want to + get something for nothing. I saw some today crowding round a + soap man who was giving away free samples gratis. + + 6. Strawberries which grow in the woods or anywhere like that + have a flavor that is better than that of those which grow in + gardens. + + 7. The people showed Jackson the greatest honor it is within + their power to bestow by electing him president. + + 8. It was an old man of about sixty years, and he carried a + cane to support himself with when he took a walk. He pulled out + his watch to see what time it was every few minutes. + + 9. My favorite magazine is the one called _Popular Mechanics_. + I like it because it appeals to me. + + 10. There is a bird, and that bird is the cuckoo, that seems to + think it unnecessary to build its own nest, and so it occupies + any nest that it happens to find. + + 11. It is a good plan to follow if one would like to be able to + develop his memory to make it a rule to learn at least a few + lines of poetry every night before going to bed. + + 12. In the annals of history there is no historical character + more unselfish than the character of Robert E. Lee. + + 13. There are quite a few hotels in Estes Park, which is in + Colorado, but the one that is the most picturesque and striking + so that you remember it a long time on account of its unusual + surroundings is Long's Peak Inn. + + 14. It is often, but not always, a good sign that when one + person is quick to suspect another person of disloyalty or + dishonesty that he himself is disloyal or dishonest. + + 15. The canine quadruped was under suspicion of having + obliterated by a process of mastication that article of + sustenance which the butcher deposits at our posterior portal. + +=B. The Exact Word= + +Substitute, for inaccurate words and phrases, expressions which carry an +exact and reasonable meaning. + + 1. Ostrich eggs made into omelets are a funny experience. + + 2. A small back porch can be built which will enter directly + into the kitchen. + + 3. Ruskin uses a great deal of unfamiliar words. + + 4. Reading will broaden the point of view of a student. + + 5. To visit the plant in operation is indeed a spectacular + sight. + + 6. My plants grew and looked nicer than any I ever saw. + + 7. I place little truth in that article, since it appeared in a + strong partisan paper. + + 8. The manufacturing of automobiles has gained to quite an + extent. + + 9. Emerson has some real clever thoughts in his essays. + + 10. I do not mean to degrade our local street car system, for + indeed, it is good along some lines. + + 11. I want to attain a greater per cent of efficiency in my + study. + + 12. Imagination is an important part in the successful writing + of themes. + + 13. His employer praised him for the preparation he had done. + + 14. I used water-wings as a sort of a "safety first" until I + learned how to swim. + + 15. In order to prevent infection from disease, two big things + are necessary. + + 16. The pastor delivered the announcements and after the + collection had been obtained, he presented the sermon of the + morning. + + 17. Another factor in my career that winter was that I became a + part of the orchestra. + + 18. It was a mighty nice party that Mrs. Jones gave and + everybody seemed to have an awfully nice time. + + 19. The more general word socialism might be divided into three + distinct classes, namely: the political party, the theoretical + socialist, and last what might be called a general tendency. + + 20. Starting with the pioneer days and up to the present time + every energy was set forth to lay low the forests and to get + homes from the wilderness. + +=C. Words Sometimes Confused in Meaning= + +Use the word which accurately expresses the thought. + + 1. The climate of California is very (healthful, healthy). + + 2. (Leave, let) me have the book. + + 3. He is afraid that he will (loose, lose) his position. + + 4. The (principal, principle) speaker of the day was Colonel + Walker. + + 5. I cannot run (as, like) he can. + + 6. An hour ago he (laid, lay) down to sleep. + + 7. I fear we are (liable, likely) to be punished. + + 8. The scolding did not much (affect, effect) him. + + 9. The light roller presses down the bricks so that the steam + roller will break (fewer, less) of them. + + 10. Whittier makes many (allusions, illusions) to the Bible. + + 11. Bread will (raise, rise) much more quickly in a warm place + than in a place where there is a draft. + + 12. It hardly seems (credible, creditable) that a small child + could walk ten miles. + + 13. I can't write a letter on this (stationary, stationery). + + 14. He (sets, sits) at the head of the table. + + 15. He spoke to the stranger (respectfully, respectively). + + 16. Did the president (affect, effect) a settlement of the + strike? + + 17. I cannot (accept, except) help from anyone. + + 18. Are the guests (already, all ready) for dinner? + + 19. Is the train moving or (stationary, stationery)? + + 20. It is (apt, likely, liable) to be pleasant tomorrow. + +=D. Colloquialism, Slang, Faulty Idiom, etc.= + +The diction of the following sentences is incorrect or inappropriate for +written discourse. Improve the sentences. + + 1. I was kind of tired this morning, but now I feel alright. + + 2. I should of known better. + + 3. A young lady and myself went walking. + + 4. He is out of town for a couple days. + + 5. I feel some better now. + + 6. He will benefit greatly from the results. + + 7. The Puritans were a very odd acting people. + + 8. I like camping because of many reasons. + + 9. Cook your meal, and after you are finished eating, wash the + dishes. + + 10. He is a regular genius of a bookkeeper. + + 11. It is hard to see how humans can live in such tenements. + + 12. The soldiers destroyed property without the least regard of + who owned it. + + 13. She was crazy for an invite to the hop. + + 14. It was up to me to get out before there was something + doing. + + 15. The Gettysburg Address is very simple of understanding + though very strong of meaning. + + 16. When we become located in a desirable locality, we intend + to pay off some of our social indebtedness. + + 17. Have some local glass dealer to mend the broken door, and + send us the bill for the same. + + 18. The first part of Franklin's _Autobiography_ is different + than the latter part, which he wrote after the Revolutionary + War. + + 19. In 1771 a fellow by the name of Arkwright established a + mill in which spinning machines were run by water power. + + 20. Each day has brought closer to home the truth that the + condition of mankind in one part of the world is certain to + effect the equilibrium of mankind in most all other parts of + the world. + + + + +SPELLING + + +No one is able to spell all unusual words on demand. But every one must +spell correctly even unusual words in formal writing. The writer has +time or must take time to consult a dictionary. The best dictionaries +are _Webster's New International Dictionary_, the _Standard Dictionary_ +(less conservative than Webster's), the _Century Dictionary and +Cyclopedia_ (Volume 2 of the _Century_ is the best place to look for +proper names), and _Murray's New English Dictionary_ (very thorough, +each word being illustrated with numerous quotations to show historical +development). An abridged edition of one of these (the price is one to +three dollars) should be accessible to each student who cannot buy the +larger volumes. The best are: _Webster's Secondary School Dictionary_, +_Funk and Wagnalls Desk Standard Dictionary_, the _Oxford Concise +Dictionary_, and _Webster's Collegiate Dictionary_. + +But the student will be spared constant recourse to the dictionary, and +will save himself much time and many humiliations, if he will employ the +rules and principles which follow. + + +=Recording Errors= + +=70. Keep a list of all the words you misspell, copying them several +times in correct form.= Concentrate your effort upon a few words at a +time--upon those words which you yourself actually misspell. The list +will be shorter than you think. It may comprise not more than twenty or +thirty words. Unless you are extraordinarily deficient, it will +certainly not comprise more than a hundred or a hundred and fifty. Find +where your weakness lies; then master it. You can accomplish the +difficult part of the task in a single afternoon. An occasional review, +and constant care when you write, will make your mastery permanent. + +After this, and only after this, begin slowly to learn the spelling of +words which you do not yourself use often, but which are a desirable +equipment for all educated men. See the list under 79. _Concentrate your +efforts upon a few words at a time._ It is better to know a few exactly +than a large number hazily. Form the mental habit of being always right +with a small group of words, and extend this group gradually. + + Exercise: + + Prepare for your instructor a corrected list of words which you + have misspelled in your papers to the present time. + + +=Pronouncing Accurately= + +=71. Avoid slovenly pronunciation.= Careful articulation makes for +correctness in spelling. + +Watch the vowels of unaccented syllables; give them distinct (not +exaggerated) utterance, at least until you are familiar with the +spelling. Examples: _sep=a=rate_, _opp=o=rtunity_, _ever=y=body_, +_soph=o=more_, _d=i=vine_. + +Sound accurately all the consonants between syllables, and do not sound +a single consonant twice. Examples: _can=d=idate_, _gover=n=ment_, +_su=r=prise_ (not _supp=r=ise_), _o=m=i=ss=ion_ (compare _o=cc=a=s=ion_), +_de=f=er_ (compare _di=ff=er_). + +Sound the _g_ in final _-ing_. Examples: _eating_, _running_. + +Pronounce the _-al_ of adverbs derived from adjectives in _-ic_ or +_-al_. Examples: _tragically_, _occasionally_, _generally_, +_ungrammatically_. + +Do not transpose letters; place each letter where it belongs. Examples: +_p=er=spiration_ (not _p=re=spiration_), _tra=g=edy_ (not _tra=d=e=g=y_). + +Note.--The principle of phonetic spelling as stated above applies to +many words, but by no means to all. The Simplified Spelling Board would +extend this principle by changing the spelling of words to correspond +with their actual sounds. It recommends such forms as _tho_, _thru_, +_enuf_, _quartet_, _catalog_, _program_. If the student employs these +forms, he must use them consistently. Many writers oppose simplified +spelling; many advocate it; many compromise. Others desire to supplant +our present alphabet with one more nearly phonetic, and prefer, until +this fundamental reform takes place, to preserve our present spelling as +it is. + + Exercise: + + Copy the following words slowly, pronouncing the syllables as + you write: _accidentally_, _accommodate_, _accurately_, + _artistically_, _athletics_ (not _atheletics_), _boundary_, + _candidate_, _cavalry_, _commission_, _curiosity_, _defer_, + _definite_, _description_, _despair_, _different_, _dining + room_, _dinned_, _disappoint_, _divide_, _divine_, + _emphatically_, _eighth_, _everybody_, _February_, _finally_, + _goddess_, _government_, _hundred_, _hurrying_, _instinct_, + _laboratory_, _library_, _lightning_, _might have_ (not _might + of_), _naturally_, _necessary_, _occasionally_, _omission_, + _opinion_, _opportunity_, _optimist_, _partner_, _perform_, + _perhaps_, _perspiration_, _prescription_, _primitive_, + _privilege_, _probably_, _quantity_, _really_, _recognise_, + _recommend_, _reverence_, _separate_, _should have_ (not + _should of_), _sophomore_, _strictly_, _superintendent_, + _surprise_, _temperance_, _tragedy_, _usually_, _whether_. + + +=Logical Kinship in Words= + +=72. Get help in spelling a difficult word by thinking of related words.= +To think of _ridiculous_ will prevent your writing _a_ for the second +_i_ of _ridicule_; to think of _ridicule_ will prevent your writing +_rediculous_. To think of _prepare_ will prevent your writing +_preperation_; to think of _preparation_ will forestall _preparitory_. +To think of _busy_ will save you from the monstrosity _buisness._ To +think of the prefixes _re-_ (meaning _again_) and _dis-_ (meaning +_not_), and the verbs _commend_ and _appoint_, will prevent your writing +_recommend_ or _disappoint_ with a double _c_ or _s_. + +Note.--The relationship between words is not always a safe guide to +spelling. Observe _four_, _forty_; _nine_, _ninth_; _maintain_, +_maintenance_; _please_, _pleasant_; _speak_, _speech_; _prevail_, +_prevalent_. Do not confuse the following prefixes, which have no +logical connection: + + _ante-_ (before) _anti-_ (against, opposite) + _de-_ (from, about) _dis-_ (apart, away, not) + _per-_ (through, entirely) _pre-_ (before) + + Exercise: + + 1. Write the nouns corresponding to the following verbs: + _prepare_, _allude_, _govern_, _represent_, _degrade_. + + 2. Write the adjectives corresponding to the following nouns + and the nouns corresponding to the following adjectives: + _desperation_, _academy_, _origin_, _ridiculous_, _miraculous_, + _grammatical_, _arithmetical_, _busy_. + + 3. Write the adverbs corresponding to the following adjectives: + _real_, _sure_, _actual_, _hurried_, _accidental_, + _incidental_, _grammatical_. + + 4. Copy the following pairs of related words or related forms + of words: _labor, laboratory_; _debate, debater_; _base, + based_; _deal, dealt_; _chose, chosen_; _mean, meant_. + + 5. Write each of the following words with a hyphen between the + prefix and the body of the word: _describe_, _description_, + _disappoint_, _disappear_, _disease_, _dissatisfy_, _dissever_, + _permit_, _perspire_, _prescription_, _preconceive_, + _recommend_, _recollect_, _reconsider_, _antedate_, + _antecedent_, _anticlimax_, _antitoxin_. + + +=Superficial Resemblances between Words= + +=73. Guard against misspelling a word because it bears a superficial +resemblance, in sound or appearance, to some other word.= Most of the +words in the following list have no logical connection; the resemblance +is one of form only (_angel_, _angle_). But a few words are included +which are different in spelling in spite of a logical relation +(_breath_, _breathe_). + + accept (to receive) + except (to exclude, with exclusion of) + + advice (noun) + advise (verb) + + affect (to influence in part) + effect (to bring to pass totally) + + allusion (a reference) + illusion (a deceiving appearance) + + all right + almost + already + + altogether + always + + alley (a back street) + ally (a confederate) + + altar (a structure used in worship) + alter (to make otherwise) + + angel (a celestial being) + angle (the meeting place of two lines) + + baring (making bare) + barring (obstructing) + bearing (carrying) + born (brought into being) + borne (carried) + + breath (noun) + breathe (verb) + + capital (a city) + capitol (a building) + + canvas (a cloth) + canvass (to solicit) + + clothes (garments) + cloths (pieces of cloth) + + coarse (not fine) + course (route, method of behavior) + + conscious (aware) + conscience (an inner moral sense) + + dairy + diary + + device (noun) + devise (verb) + + desert (a barren country) + dessert (food) + + dining room + dinning + + disappear + disappoint + + disavowal + dissatisfaction + dissimilar + dissipate + dissuade + + decent (adjective) + descent (downward slope or motion) + dissent (a disagreement) + + dual (adjective) + duel (noun) + + formally (in a formal way) + formerly (in time past) + + forth + forty + four + fourth + + freshman + freshmen (not used as adjective) + + gambling (wagering money on games of chance) + gamboling (frisking or leaping with joy) + + guard + regard + + hear + here + + hinder + hindrance + + holly (a tree) + holy (hallowed, sacred) + wholly (altogether) + + hoping (from _hope_) + hopping + + instance (an example) + instants (periods of time) + + isle (an island) + aisle (a narrow passage) + + its (possessive pronoun) + it's (contraction of _it is_) + + Johnson, Samuel + Jonson, Ben + + later (comparative of _late_) + latter (the second) + + lead (present tense) + led (past tense) + + lessen (verb) + lesson (noun) + + liable (expresses responsibility or disagreeable probability) + likely (expresses probability) + + loose (free, not bound) + lose (to suffer the loss of) + + maintain + maintenance + + nineteenth + ninetieth + ninety + ninth + + past (adjective, adverb, preposition) + passed (verb, past tense) + + peace (a state of calm) + piece (a fragment) + + perceive + perform + persevere + persuade + purchase + pursue + + personal (private, individual) + personnel (the body of persons engaged in some activity) + + Philippines + Filipino + + plain (clear; adjective) + plain (flat region; noun) + plane (flat; adjective) + plane (geometrical term; noun) + + planed (past tense of _plane_) + planned (past tense of _plan_) + + pleasant + please + + precede + proceed } + succeed } these three are the + exceed } "double _e_ group" + concede + intercede + recede + supersede + + pre cé dence (act or right of preceding) + préc e dents (things said or done before, now used as authority + or model) + + presence (state of being present) + presents (gifts) + + prevail + prevalent + + principal (chief, leading, the leading official of a school, a + sum of money) + principle (a general truth) + + quiet (still) + quite (completely) + + rain + reign (rule of a monarch) + rein (part of a harness) + + respectfully ("Yours respectfully") + respectively (in a way proper to each--should never be used + to close a letter) + + right + rite (ceremony) + write + + shone (past tense of _shine_) + shown (past tense of _show_) + + seize + siege + + sight (view, spectacle) + site (situation, a plot of ground reserved for some use) + cite (to bring forward as evidence) + + speak + speech + + Spencer, Herbert (scientist) + Spenser, Edmund (poet) + + stationary (not moving) + stationery (writing materials) + + statue (a sculptured likeness) + stature (height, figure) + statute (a law) + + steal (to take by theft) + steel (a variety of iron) + + than + then + + their (belonging to them) + there (in that place) + they're (they are) + + therefor (to that end, for that thing) + therefore (for that reason) + + till + until + + to + too + two + + track (an imprint, or a road) + tract (an area of land) + tract (a treatise on religion) + + village + villain + + wandering + wondering + + weak (not strong) + week (seven days) + + weather + whether + + whole (entire) + hole (an opening) + + who's (who is) + whose (the possessive of _who_) + + your (indicates possession) + you're (contraction of _you are_) + + Exercise: + + 1. Insert _to_, _too_, or _two_: He is ---- tired ---- walk the + ----miles ---- the town. Then ----, it is ---- late ---- catch + a car. It is ---- minutes of ----. It is ---- bad. + + 2. Insert _lose_ or _loose_: You will ---- your money if you + carry it ---- in your pocket. We are ----ing time. The sailor + ----ens the rope. Did you ---- your ticket? + + 3. Insert _speak or speech_: I was ----ing with our congressman + about his recent ----. I ---- from experience. + + 4. Insert _plan_ or _plane_: The architect's ---- was accepted. + The carpenter's ---- cuts a long shaving. The carpenter does + not ---- the house. + + 5. Insert _quite_ or _quiet_: The baby is ----ly sleeping. She + is ---- well now, but last night she was ---- sick. Be ----. + Walk ----ly when you go. + + +=Words in _ei_ or _ie_= + + =74. Write _i_ before _e_ + When sounded as _ee_ + Except after _c_.= + +Examples: _believe_, _grief_, _chief_; but _receive_, _deceive_, +_ceiling_. + +Exceptions: _Neither financier seized either species of weird leisure._ +(Also a few uncommon words, like _seignior_, _inveigle_, _plebeian_.) + +Rules based on a key-word, lice, Alice, Celia (_i_ follows _l_ and _e_ +follows _c_) apply after two consonants only, and do not help one to +spell a word like _grief_. Rule 74 applies after all consonants. + +Note.--The words in which the sound is _ee_ are the words really +difficult to spell. When the sound is any other than _ee_ (especially +when it is _a_), _i_ usually follows _e_. + +Examples: _veil_, _weigh_, _freight_, _neighbor_, _height_, _sleight_, +_heir_, _heifer_, _counterfeit_, _foreign_, etc. + +Exceptions: _ancient_, _friend_, _sieve_, _mischief_, _fiery_, _tries_, +etc. + + Exercise: + + Write the following words, supplying _ei_ or _ie_: _conc--t_, + _retr--ve_, _dec--tful_, _n--ce_, _y--ld_, _p--ce_, _s--ge_, + _s--ze_, _rec--pt_, _n--ther_, _w--rd_, _rel--ve_, _l--sure_, + _f--ld_, _v--n_, _r--gn_, _sover--gn_, _sl--gh_, _br--f_, + _dec--ve_, _r--n_, _f--nt_, _perc--ve_, _w--ld_, _gr--vous_, + _--ther_. + + +=Doubling a Final Consonant= + +=75. Monosyllables and words accented on the final syllable, if they end +in one consonant preceded by a single vowel, double the consonant before +a suffix beginning with a vowel.= + +Examples: (a) Words derived from monosyllables: _plan-ned_, _clan-nish_, +_get-ting_, _hot-test_, _bag-gage_, (b) Words derived from words +accented on the final syllable: _begin-ning_, _repel-lent_, +_unregret-ted_. + +Note 1.--There are four distinct steps in the application of this rule. +(1) The primary word must be found. To decide whether _begging_ contains +two _g's_, we must first think of _beg_. (2) The primary word must be a +monosyllable or a word accented on the final syllable. _Hit_ and _allot_ +meet this test; _open_ does not. _Deferred_ and _differed_, _preferred_ +and _proffered_, _committed_ (or _committee_) and _prohibited_ double or +refrain from doubling the final consonant of the primary word according +to the position of the accent. The seeming discrepancy between +_preferred_ and _preferable_, between _conferred_ and _conference_, is +due to a shifting of the accent to the first syllable in the case of +_preferable_ and _conference_. (3) The primary word must end in one +consonant. _Trace_, _oppose_, _interfere_, _help_, _reach_, and +_perform_ fail to meet this test, and therefore in derivatives do not +double the last consonant. _Assurance_ has one _r_, as it should have; +_occurrence_ has two _r's_, as it should have. (4) The final consonant +of the primary word must be preceded by a single vowel. This principle +excludes the extra consonant from _needy_, _daubed_, and _proceeding_, +and gives it to _running_. + +Note 2.--After _q_, _u_ has the force of _w_. Hence _quitting_, +_quizzes_, _squatter_, _acquitted_, _equipped_, and similar words are +not really exceptions to the rule. + + Exercise: + + 1. Write the present participle (in _-ing_) of _din_ (not + _dine_), _begin_, _sin_ (compare _shine_), _stop_, _prefer_, + _rob_, _drop_, _occur_, _omit_, _swim_, _get_, _commit_. + + 2. Write the past tense (in _-ed_) of _plan_ (not _plane_), + _star_ (compare _stare_), _stop_ (compare _slope_), _lop_ (not + _lope_), _hop_ (not _hope_), _fit_, _benefit_, _occur_ (compare + _cure_), _offer_, _confer_, _bat_ (compare _abate_). + + +=Final _e_ before a Suffix Beginning with a Vowel= + +=76. Words that end in silent _e_ usually drop the _e_ in derivatives or +before a suffix beginning with a vowel.= + +Examples: _bride_, _bridal_; _guide_, _guidance_; _please_, _pleasure_; +_fleece_, _fleecy_; _force_, _forcible_; _argue_, _arguing_; _arrive_, +_arrival_; _conceive_, _conceivable_; _college_, _collegiate_; _write_, +_writing_; _use_, _using_; _change_, _changing_; _judge_, _judging_; +_believe_, _believing_. + +Note 1.--Of the exceptions some retain the _e_ to prevent confusion with +other words. Exceptions: _dyeing_, _singeing_, _mileage_, _acreage_, +_hoeing_, _shoeing_, _agreeing_, _eyeing_. The exceptions cause +comparatively little trouble. One rarely sees _hoing_ or _shoing_; he +often sees _hopeing_ and _inviteing_. + +Note 2.--After _c_ or _g_ and before a suffix beginning with _a_ or _o_ +the _e_ is retained. The purpose of this retention is to preserve the +soft sound of the _c_ or _g_. (Observe that _c_ and _g_ have the hard +sound in _cable_, _gable_, _cold_, _go_.) + +Examples: _peaceable_, _changeable_, _noticeable_, _serviceable_, +_outrageous_, _courageous_, _advantageous_. + + Exercise: + + 1. Write the present participle of the following words: _use_, + _love_, _change_, _judge_, _shake_, _hope_, _shine_, _have_, + _seize_, _slope_, _strike_, _dine_, _come_, _place_, _argue_, + _achieve_, _emerge_, _arrange_, _abide_, _oblige_, _subdue_. + + 2. Write the present participle of the following words: + _singe_, _tinge_, _dye_, _agree_, _eye_. + + 3. Write the _-ous_ or _-able_ form of the following words: + _trace_, _love_, _blame_, _move_, _conceive_, _courage_, + _service_, _advantage_, _umbrage_. + + 4. Write the adjectives which correspond to the following + nouns: _force_, _sphere_, _vice_, _sense_, _fleece_, _college_, + _hygiene_. + + 5. Write the nouns which correspond to the following verbs: + _please_, _guide_, _grieve_, _arrive_, _oblige_, _prepare_, + _inspire_. + + +=Plurals= + +=77a. Most nouns add _s_ or _es_ to form the plural.= Examples: _word_, +_words_; _fire_, _fires_, _negro_, _negroes_; _Eskimo_, _Eskimos_; +_leaf_, _leaves_ (_f_ changes to _v_ for the sake of euphony); knife, +knives. + +=b. Nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant (or by _u_ as _w_) change +the _y_ to _i_ and add _es_ to form the plural.= + +Examples: _sky_, _skies_; _lady_, _ladies_; _colloquy_, _colloquies_; +_soliloquy_, _soliloquies_. + +=Other nouns ending in _y_ form the plural in the usual way.= Examples: +_day_, _days_; _boy_, _boys_; _monkey_, _monkeys_; _valley_, _valleys_. + +=c. Compound nouns usually form the plural by adding _s_ or _es_ to the +principal word.= Examples: _sons-in-law_, _passers-by_; but _stand-bys_, +_hat-boxes_, _writing-desks_. + +=d. Letters, signs, and sometimes figures, add _'s_ to form the plural.= +Examples: Cross your t's and dot your i's; ?'s; $'s; 3's or 3s. + +=e. A few nouns adhere to old declensions.= Examples: _ox_, _oxen_; +_child_, _children_; _goose_, _geese_; _foot_, _feet_; _mouse_, _mice_; +_man_, _men_; _woman_, _women_; _sheep_, _sheep_; _deer_, _deer_; +_swine_, _swine_. + +=f. Words adopted from foreign languages sometimes retain the foreign +plural.= Examples: _alumnus_, _alumni_; _alumna_, _alumnæ_; _fungus_, +_fungi_; _focus_, _foci_; _radius_, _radii_; _datum_, _data_; _medium_, +_media_; _phenomenon_, _phenomena_; _stratum_, _strata_; _analysis_, +_analyses_; _antithesis_, _antitheses_; _basis_, _bases_; _crisis_, +_crises_; _oasis_, _oases_; _hypothesis_, _hypotheses_; _parenthesis_, +_parentheses_; _thesis_, _theses_; _beau_, _beaux_; _tableau_, +_tableaux_; _Mr._, _Messrs._ (_Messieurs_); _Mrs._, _Mmes._ +(_Mesdames_). + + Exercise: + + Write the singular and plural of the following words: _day_, + _sky_, _lady_, _wife_, _leaf_, _loaf_, _negro_, _potato_, + _tomato_, _pass_, _glass_, _boat_, _beet_, _flash_, _crash_, + _bead_, _box_, _passenger_, _messenger_, _son-in-law_, _Smith_, + _Jones_, _jack-o'-lantern_, _hanger-on_, _stratum_, _datum_, + _phenomenon_, _crisis_, _basis_, _thesis_, _analysis_. + + +=Compounds= + +=78a. Use a hyphen between two or more words which serve as a single +adjective before a noun:= _iron-bound bucket_, _well-kept lawn_, +_twelve-inch main_, _normal-school teacher_, _up-to-date methods_, +_twentieth-century ideas_, _devil-may-care expression_, _a +twenty-dollar-a-week clerk_. + +=But when the words follow the noun, the hyphen is omitted.= _The lawn is +well kept. Methods up to date in every way_. + +=Also adverbs ending in _-ly_ are not ordinarily made into compound +modifiers:= _nicely kept lawn_, _securely guarded treasure_. + +=b. Use a hyphen between members of a compound noun when the second +member is a preposition, or when the writing of two nouns solid or +separately might confuse the meaning:= _runner-up_, _kick-off_; +_letting-down of effort_, _son-in-law_, _jack-o'-lantern_, _Pedro was a +bull-fighter_, _a woman-hater_, _Did you ever see a shoe-polish like +this?_ + +=c. Use a hyphen in compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine, and +in fractions according to the following examples:= + +_Twenty-three_, _eighty-nine_; but _one hundred and one_. +_Twenty-third_, _one-hundred-and-first man_. _Three-fourths_, _four and +two-thirds_, _thirty-hundredths_, _thirty-one hundredths_. + +But omit the hyphen in simple fractions when loosely used: _Three +quarters of my life are spent._ _One third of his fortune._ + +=d. A hyphen is not used in the following common words:= _airship_, +_altogether_, _anybody_, _baseball_, _basketball_, _everybody_, +_football_, _goodby_, _herself_, _handbook_, _himself_, _inasmuch_, +_itself_, _midnight_, _myself_, _nevertheless_, _nobody_, _nothing_ (but +_no one_), _nowadays_, _railroad_, _themselves_, _together_, +_typewritten_, _wherever_, _without_, _workshop_, _yourself_, +_newspaper_, _sunset_. + +=e. For words that do not come within the scope of rules, consult an +up-to-date dictionary.= Compounds tend, with the passing of time, to grow +together. Once men wrote _steam boat_, later _steam-boat_, and finally +_steamboat_. New-coined words are usually hyphenated; old words are +often written solid. The degree of intimacy between the parts of a +compound word affects usage; thus we write _sun-motor_, but _sunbeam_; +_birth-rate_, but _birthday_; _cooling-room_, but _bedroom_; +_non-conductor_, but _nonsense_. The ease with which a vowel blends with +the consonant of a syllable adjoining it affects usage; thus +_self-evident_, but _selfsame_; _non-existent_, but _nondescript_; +_un-American_, but _unwise_. Many compounds, however, are still +uncontrolled by usage; whether they should be written as two words or +one, whether with or without the hyphen, the dictionaries themselves do +not agree. + + Exercise: + + Copy the following expressions, inserting hyphens where they + are necessary: _twenty two years old_, _twenty two dollar + bills_ _make forty dollars_, _twenty seven eighths inch + boards_, _a normal school graduate_, _two handled boxes_, _a + cloth covered basket_, _blood red sun_, _water tight + compartment_, _sixty horse power motor_, _seven dollar bathing + suits_, _a happy go lucky fellow_, _germ destroying powder_, + _he had a son in law_, _passers by on the street_, _the kick + off is at three o'clock_, _dark complexioned woman_, _silver + tongued orator_, _a dish like valley_, _a rope like tail_, _a + fish shaped cloud_, _a touch me not expression_, _will o' the + wisp_, _well to do merchant_, _rough and tumble existence_. + + +=79.= SPELLING LIST + +The English language comprises about 450,000 words. Of these a student +uses about 4000 (although he may understand more than twice that number +when he encounters them in sentences). Of these, in turn, not more than +four or five hundred are frequently misspelled. The following list +includes nearly all of the words which give serious trouble. Certain +American colleges using this list require of freshmen an accuracy of +ninety per cent. + + absurd + academy + =accept= + =accidentally= + =accommodate= + accumulate + accustom + acquainted + acquitted + =across= + addressed + =adviser= + aeroplane + =affects= + aggravate + alley + allotted + =all right= + ally + already + altar + alter + =altogether= + alumnus + =always= + =amateur= + =among= + analogous + analysis + =angel= + angle + annual + anxiety + apparatus + =appearance= + appropriate + arctic + =argument= + =arising= + =arithmetic= + arrange + arrival + ascend + asks + =athletic= + audience + auxiliary + awkward + + balance + barbarous + baring + barring + baseball + =based= + bearing + =becoming= + before + beggar + =begging= + =beginning= + =believing= + =benefited= + =biscuit= + boundaries + brilliant + =Britain= + =Britannica= + buoyant + bureau + =business= + =busy= + + =calendar= + =candidate= + =can't= + cemetery + =certain= + =changeable= + =changing= + characteristic + chauffeur + =choose= + chose + chosen + =clothes= + =coarse= + column + =coming= + commission + =committee= + comparative + =compel= + compelled + competent + concede + conceivable + =conferred= + conquer + conqueror + conscience + conscientious + considered + continuous + control + =controlled= + coöperate + country + =course= + =courteous= + courtesy + cruelty + cylinder + + =dealt= + debater + deceitful + decide + decision + deferred + =definite= + descend + =describe= + =description= + derived + =despair= + =desperate= + destroy + device + devise + dictionary + difference + digging + dilemma + =dining room= + dinning + =disappear= + =disappoint= + disavowal + discipline + disease + =dissatisfied= + dissipate + distinction + distribute + =divide= + =divine= + =doctor= + =don't= + dormitories + drudgery + dying + + ecstasy + =effects= + =eighth= + eliminate + =embarrass= + eminent + encouraging + =enemy= + =equipped= + especially + =etc.= + everybody + exaggerate + exceed + excellent + except + exceptional + exhaust + exhilarate + =existence= + expense + experience + explanation + + familiar + fascinate + =February= + fiery + fifth + =finally= + financier + forfeit + formally + =formerly= + forth + =forty= + =fourth= + frantically + fraternity + =freshman= (adj.) + =friend= + fulfil + furniture + + gallant + gambling + =generally= + goddess + =government= + governor + =grammar= + grandeur + =grievous= + guard + guess + guidance + + harass + haul + =having= + height + hesitancy + =holy= + =hoping= + huge + =humorous= + =hurriedly= + hundredths + hygienic + + =imaginary= + imitative + immediately + immigration + impromptu + imminent + incidentally + incidents + incredulous + =independence= + indispensable + induce + influence + =infinite= + =instance= + instant + =intellectual= + intelligence + =intentionally= + intercede + irresistible + =its= + it's + itself + invitation + + =judgment= + + =knowledge= + + laboratory + =ladies= + =laid= + =later= + =latter= + =lead= + =led= + liable + library + =lightning= + likely + literature + loneliness + =loose= + =lose= + =losing= + lying + + maintain + =maintenance= + manual + manufacturer + =many= + marriage + Massachusetts + material + =mathematics= + mattress + =meant= + messenger + =miniature= + minutes + =mischievous= + Mississippi + misspelled + momentous + month + murmur + muscle + mysterious + + =necessary= + =negroes= + =neither= + nickel + nineteenth + ninetieth + =ninety= + ninth + =noticeable= + =nowadays= + + oblige + obstacle + =occasion= + occasionally + occur + =occurred= + =occurrence= + occurring + =o'clock= + officers + =omitted= + =omission= + =opinion= + opportunity + =optimistic= + =original= + outrageous + overrun + + paid + pantomime + =parallel= + =parliament= + particularly + =partner= + =pastime= + peaceable + =perceive= + perception + peremptory + =perform= + =perhaps= + =permissible= + perseverance + pérsonal + personnél + =perspiration= + persuade + pertain + pervade + physical + picnic + picnicking + =planned= + =pleasant= + politics + politician + =possession= + possible + practically + =prairie= + =precede= + precédent + précedents + =preference= + =preferred= + prejudice + =preparation= + =primitive= + =principal= + =principle= + prisoner + =privilege= + =probably= + =proceed= + prodigy + profession + =professor= + proffered + prohibition + promissory + =prove= + purchase + pursue + putting + + quantity + =quiet= + =quite= + quizzes + + rapid + =ready= + =really= + recede + =receive= + recognize + =recommend= + =reference= + =referred= + =regard= + region + =religion= + =religious= + repetition + replies + representative + =restaurant= + rheumatism + ridiculous + + sacrilegious + safety + =sandwich= + schedule + science + scream + screech + =seems= + =seize= + sense + =sentence= + =separate= + sergeant + several + shiftless + =shining= + shone + shown + =shriek= + =siege= + similar + =since= + smooth + soliloquy + =sophomore= + speak + specimen + =speech= + statement + =stationary= + =stationery= + statue + stature + statute + steal + steel + stops + =stopped= + =stopping= + =stories= + stretch + =strictly= + succeeds + successful + summarize + =superintendent= + supersede + =sure= + =surprise= + syllable + symmetrical + + =temperament= + =tendency= + than + =their= + there + therefore + =they're= + thorough + thousandths + till + to + =too= + =together= + =tragedy= + track + =tract= + transferred + tranquillity + translate + treacherous + treasurer + =tries= + =trouble= + =truly= + =Tuesday= + two + typical + tyranny + + universally + =until= + =using= + =usually= + + vacancy + vengeance + vigilance + village + =villain= + + weak + =wear= + weather + =Wednesday= + week + =weird= + welfare + where + wherever + =whether= + which + whole + =wholly= + =who's= + whose + wintry + wiry + within + without + =women= + world + =writing= + written + + your + =you're= + +Note 1.--The following words have more than one correct form, the one +given here being preferred. + + abridgement + acknowledgment + analyze + ax + boulder + caliber + catalog + center + check + criticize + develop + development + dulness + endorse + envelop + esthetic + gaiety + gild + gipsy + glamor + goodby + gray + inquire + medieval + meter + mold + mustache + odor + program + prolog + skilful + theater + +Note 2.--In a few groups of words American spelling and English spelling +differ. American spelling gives preference to _favor_, _honor_, _labor_, +_rumor_; English spelling gives preference to _favour_, _honour_, +_labour_, _rumour_. American spelling gives preference to _civilize_, +_apprize_; _defense_, _pretense_; _traveler_, _woolen_; etc. English +spelling gives preference to _civilise_, _apprise_; _defence_, +_pretence_; _traveller_, _woollen_; etc. + + + + +MISCELLANEOUS + + +=Manuscript= + +=80a. Titles.= Center a title on the page. Capitalize important words. It +is unnecessary to place a period after a title, but a question mark or +exclamation point should be used when one is appropriate. Do not +underscore the title, or unnecessarily place it in quotation marks. +Leave a blank line under the title, before beginning the body of the +writing. + +=b. Spacing.= Careful spacing is as necessary as punctuation. Place +writing on a page as you would frame a picture, crowding it toward +neither the top nor the bottom. Leave liberal margins. Write verse as +verse; do not give it equal indention or length of line with prose. +Connect all the letters of a word. Leave a space after a word, and a +double space after a sentence. Leave room between successive lines, and +do not let the loops of letters run into the lines above or below. + +=c. Handwriting.= Write a clear, legible hand. Form _a_, _o_, _u_, _n_, +_e_, _i_, properly. Write out _and_ horizontally. Avoid unnecessary +flourishes in capitals, and curlicues at the end of words. Dot your +_i's_ and cross your _t's_; not with circles or long eccentric strokes, +but simply and accurately. Let your originality express itself not in +ornate penmanship, or unusual stationery, or literary affectations, but +in the force and keenness of your ideas. + + +=Capitals= + +=81a. Begin with a capital a sentence, a line of poetry, or a quoted +sentence. But if only a fragment of a sentence is quoted, the capital +should be omitted.= + + Right: He said, "The time has come." + + Right: The question is, Shall the bill pass? + + Right: They said they would "not take no for an answer." + + Right: + + "The good die first, + And they whose hearts are dry as summer dust + Burn to the socket."--Wordsworth. + + + +=b. Begin proper names, and all important words used as or in proper +names, with capitals.= Words not so used should not begin with capitals. + + Right: Mr. George K. Rogers, the Principal of the Urbana High + School, a college president, the President of the Senior Class, + a senior, the Second Corps of the Army of Northern Virginia, + three battalions of infantry, the Fourth of July, on the tenth + of June, the House of Representatives, an assembly of + delegates, a Presbyterian church, the separation of church and + state, the Baptist Church, the Society for the Prevention of + Cruelty to Animals, a creek known as Black Oak Creek, the + Republican Party, a party that advocates high tariff, Rocky + Mountains, The Bible, God, The Christian Era, Wednesday, in the + summer, living in the South, turning south after taking a few + steps to the east, one morning, O dark-haired Evening! italic + type, watt, pasteurize, herculean effort. + +=c. Begin an adjective which designates a language or a race with a +capital.= + + Right: A Norwegian peasant, Indian arrowheads, English + literature, the study of French. + +=d. In the titles of books or themes capitalize the first word and all +other important words.= Prepositions, conjunctions, and articles are +usually not important. + + Right: _The English Novel in the Time of Scott_, _War and + Peace_, _Travels with a Donkey_, _When I Slept under the + Stars_. + +=e. Miscellaneous uses. Capitalize the pronoun _I_, the interjection _O_, +titles that accompany a name, and abbreviations of proper names.= + + Right: Battery F, 150 F. A.; Mobile, Ala.; Dr. Stebbins. + + Exercise: + + 1. the teacher said, "let me read you a famous soliloquy." he + began: "to be, or not to be: that is the question." + + 2. the chinese laundry man does not write out his lists in + english. + + 3. the _la fayette tribune_ says that a Principal of a School + has been elected to congress. + + 4. mr. woodson, the lecturer, said that "the title of a book + may be a poem." he mentioned _christmas eve on lonesome_ by + john fox, jr. + + 5. i like architecture. as i approached the british museum, i + noticed the ionic colonnade that runs along the front. the + first room i visited was the one filled with marbles which lord + elgin brought from the parthenon at athens. + + +=Italics= + +In manuscript, a horizontal line drawn under a letter or word is a sign +for the printer to use italic type. + +=82a. Quoted titles of books, periodicals, and manuscripts are usually +italicized.= + + Right: I admire Shakespeare's _Hamlet_. [The italics make the + reader know that the writer means, _Hamlet_ the play, not + Hamlet the man.] + + Right: John Galsworthy's novel, _The Patrician_, appeared in + serial form in the _Atlantic Monthly_. + +Note 1.--When the title of a book begins with an article (_a_, _an_, or +_the_), the article is italicized. But _the_ before the title of a +periodical is usually not italicized. + +Note 2.--It is correct, but not the best practice, to indicate the +titles of books by quotation marks. The best method is to use italics +for the title of a book, and quotation marks for chapters or +subdivisions of the same book. Example: See _Encyclopedia Britannica_, +Vol. II, p. 427, "Modern Architecture". + +=b. Words from a foreign language, unless they have been anglicized by +frequent use, are italicized.= + + Right: A great noise announced the coming of the _enfant + terrible_. + + Right: A play always begins _in medias res_. + +=c. The names of ships are usually italicized.= + + Right: The _Saxonia_ will sail at four o'clock. + +=d. Words taken out of their context and made the subject of discussion +are italicized or placed in quotation marks.= + + Right: _So_ is a word faded and colorless from constant use. + + Right: The _t_ in the word _often_ is not pronounced. + +=e. A word or passage requiring great emphasis is italicized.= This device +should not be used to excess. The proper way to secure emphasis is to +have good ideas, and to use emphatic sentence structure in expressing +them. + + Exercise: + + 1. In Vanity Fair Thackeray heads one chapter How to Live Well + on Nothing a Year. + + 2. Auf wiedersehen was his parting word. He had informed me, + sub rosa of course, that he was going to Bremen. + + 3. The battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac + revolutionized naval warfare. How far back it seems to the days + when Decatur set fire to the old Philadelphia! + + 4. Her They say's are as plenteous as rabbits in Australia. + + 5. A writer in the Century Magazine says the public may know + better than an author what the title of his book should be. + Dickens, for example, called one of his works The Posthumous + Papers of the Pickwick Club. + + +=Abbreviations= + +=83a. In ordinary writing avoid abbreviations. The following, however, +are always correct: Mr., Messrs., Dr., or St. (Saint), before proper +names; B. C. or A. D., when necessary to avoid confusion, after a date; +and No. or $ when followed by numerals.= + +In ordinary writing spell out + + All titles, except those listed above. + + Names of months, states, countries. + + Christian names, unless initials are used instead. + + Names of weights and measures, except in statistics. + + Street, Avenue, Road, Railroad, Park, Fort, Mountain, Company, + Brothers, Manufacturing, etc. + +In ordinary writing, instead of _&_ write _and_; for _viz._ write +_namely_; for _i. e._, write _that is_; for _e. g._ write _for example_; +for _a. m._ and _p. m._ write _in the morning_, _this afternoon_, +_tomorrow evening_, _Saturday night_. Do not use _etc._ (_et cetera_) +when it can be avoided. + +=b. In business correspondence, technical writing, tabulations, +footnotes, and bibliographies, or wherever brevity is essential, other +abbreviations may be used.= Even here, short words should not be +abbreviated: Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, Samoa, Utah, +March, April, May, June, July. + + Exercise: + + 1. Mr. Gregg & Dr. Appleton were rivals. + + 2. Harris lacked but one of having a grade of one hundred; _i. + e._, he had the two O's already. + + 3. His inheritance tax was three thousand $. In Apr. he moved + from Portland, Me., to Sandusky, O. + + 4. Prof. Kellogg came down Beech St. at a quarter before eight + every a. m. + + 5. A No. of old friends visited them on special occasions; _e. + g._, on their wedding anniversaries. + + +=Numbers= + +=84a. It is customary to use figures for dates, for the street numbers in +addresses, for reference to the pages of a book, and for statistics.= + +Right: June 16, 1920. 804 Chalmers Street. See Chapter 4, especially +page 79. + +Note.--It is desirable not to write _st_, _nd_, or _th_ after the day of +the month if the year is designated also. Right: March 3, 1919 (not +March 3rd, 1919). + +=b. Figures are used for numbers which cannot be expressed in a few +words. The dollar sign and figures are used with complicated sums of +money.= + +Right: The farm comprised 3260 acres. The population of Kansas City, +Missouri, was 248,381 in 1910. He earned $437 while attending school. +The cost of the improvement was $1,940.25. + +=c. In other instances than those specified in _a_ and _b_ numbers as a +rule should be written out.= (This rule applies to numbers and to sums of +money which can be expressed in a few words, to sums of money less than +one dollar, and to ages and time of day.) + +Right: The box weighs two hundred pounds. Xerxes had an army of three +million men. I enclose seventy-five cents. He owed twelve hundred +dollars. Grandfather Toland is eighty-seven years old. The train is due +at a quarter past three. + + Exercise: + + 1. For 70 pounds of excess baggage I had to pay $1.00. + + 2. At 2 o'clock Rice gave him the 2nd capsule. + + 3. The letter was sent from twenty-one Warner St. November the + eleventh, nineteen hundred and eighteen. + + 4. Knox earned $5 a day he said; but they paid him only $0.75. + + 5. At 40 he owned a 2,000 acre farm and had an income of + $10,000 a year. + + +=Syllabication= + +=85a. When a word is broken at the end of a line, use a hyphen there. Do +not place a hyphen at the beginning of the second line.= + +=b. Words are divided only between syllables:= _depart-ment_, +_dis-charge_, _ab-surd_, _univer-sity_, _pro-fessor_ (not _depa-rtment_, +_disc-harge_, _abs-urd_, _unive-rsity_, _prof-essor_). + +=c. Monosyllabic words are never divided:= _which_, _through_, _dipped_, +_speak_ (not _wh-ich_, _thr-ough_, _dip-ped_, _spe-ak_). + +=d. A consonant at the junction of two syllables usually goes with the +second:= _recipro-cate_, _ordi-nance_, _inti-mate_ (not _reciproc-ate_, +_ordin-ance_, _intim-ate_). Sometimes two consonants are equivalent to a +single letter: _falli-ble_, _photo-graph_ (not _fallib-le_, +_photog-raph_). + +=e. Two or more consonants at the junction of syllables are themselves +divided:= _en-ter-prise_, _com-mis-sary_, _in-car-nate_ (not +_ent-erpr-ise_, _comm-iss-ary_, _inc-arn-ate_). + +=f. A prefix or a suffix is usually set off from the rest of the word +regardless of the rule for consonants between syllables:= _ex-empt_, +_dis-appoint_, _sing-ing_, _pro-gress-ive_. But when a final consonant +is doubled before a suffix the additional consonant goes with the +suffix: _trip-ping_, _permit-ted_, _omis-sion_. + +=g. The best usage avoids separating one or two letters (unless in +prefixes like _un_ or suffixes like _ly_) from the rest of the word:= +_achieve-ment_, _enor-mous_, _remem-bered_, _dyspep-sia_ (not +_a-chievement_, _e-normous_, remember-ed, dyspepsi-a). + +=h. The first part of a divided word should not be ludicrous or +misleading:= _dogma-tize_, _croco-dile_, _de-cadence_, _metri-cal_, +_goril-la_ (not _dog-matize_, _croc-odile_, _deca-dence_, _met-rical_, +_go-rilla_). + + Exercise: + + Place a hyphen between each pair of syllables in each word of + more than one syllable: _thoughtful_, _burrowing_, _thorough_, + _chimney_, _brought_, _helped_, _harshnesses_, _which_, + _murmur_, _superstition_, _ground_, _symmetry_, _ripped_, + _compartment_, _disallow_, _obey_, _opinion_, _opportune_, + _aggressive_, _intellectually_, _complicated_, _encyclopedia_, + _wrought_, _electricity_, _abstraction_, _syllabication_, + _punctuation_, _frustrate_, _except_, _substituting_, + _distressful_. + + +=Outlines= + +Three kinds of outlines are illustrated in this article: (a) the Topic +Outline, (b) the Sentence Outline, and (c) the Paragraph Outline. + +=86a. A topic outline consists of headings (nouns or phrases containing +nouns) which indicate the important ideas in a composition, and their +relation to each other. Conform to the following model:= + + =The Lumber Problem= + + Theme: The decline of our lumber supply requires that we shall + take steps toward reforesting, conservation, and the use of + substitutes for wood. + + I The Depletion of our forests + A Former abundance + B Present scarcity (especially walnut, white pine, oak) + + II The Causes of the depletion + A Great demand + 1 For building + 2 For industrial expansion (ties, posts, etc.) + 3 For fuel, and other minor uses + B Wasteful methods of forestry + + III The Remedy + A Reforestation + 1 Planting by individuals + 2 Planting by the states + 3 Extension of the present National Forest Reserves + + B The prevention of waste + 1 In fires, by insects, etc. + 2 In cutting and sawing + 3 In by-products (sawing, odd lengths, etc.) + + C The use of substitutes for wood (concrete, steel, brick, + stone, etc.) + + +=b. A sentence outline is expressed in complete sentences. Conform to the +following model:= + + =The Lumber Problem= + + I The depletion of our forests is evident when one compares + A the former abundance, with + B the present scarcity (of walnut, white pine, and oak, + especially). + + II The causes of the depletion are: + A the great demand + 1 for building, + 2 for industrial expansion (ties, posts, etc.), + 3 for fuel and other minor uses; and + B wasteful methods of forestry. + + III The remedies for the depletion are: + A reforestation + 1 by individuals, + 2 by the states, + 3 by extension of the present National Forest + Reserves; + B the prevention of waste + 1 in fires, by insects, etc., + 2 in cutting and sawing, + 3 in by-products (sawdust, odd lengths, etc.); + and + C the use of substitutes, for wood (concrete, steel, + brick, stone, etc.) + + +=c. A paragraph outline is a series of sentences summarizing the thought +of successive paragraphs in a composition. Conform to the following +model:= + + =The Disagreeable Optimist= + + 1. The present age may be called an era of efficiency, + prosperity, and optimism, since efficiency has produced + prosperity, and this in turn has produced "optimism"--a word + recurrent in common literature and conversation. + + 2. The optimist is often not natural or sincere, because his + thoughts are centered on keeping up an appearance of being + happy. + + 3. He is intrusive, for he thrusts comfort upon those who wish + to mourn, and repeats irritating epigrams and poems about + cheer. + + 4. He is undiscriminating, in that he prescribes the same + remedy, "good cheer," for everybody and for every condition. + + 5. He is sometimes harmful, because he tells us that the world + is going well, when conditions need changing, and need changing + badly. + +=d. Mechanical details.= Indent headings that are coördinate (that is, of +equal value) an equal distance from the margin. One inch to the right is +a good distance for successive subordinate headings. Use Roman numerals, +capital letters, Arabic numerals, and small letters to indicate the +comparative rank of ideas. When a heading runs over one line, use +hanging indention; that is, do not allow the second line to run back to +the left-hand margin, but indent it. Make the numerals and letters (_1_, +_A_, etc.) stand out prominently. The title of a theme should not be +given a numeral or letter. + + Faulty indention: + + + Sources of energy which may be utilized when the coal + supply is exhausted are + + I Rivers and streams, especially in mountain + districts + II The tides + III The heat of the sun + + + Correct hanging indention: + + Sources of energy which may be utilized when the coal supply + is exhausted are + + I Rivers and streams, especially in mountain + districts + II The tides + III The heat of the sun + + +=e. Ideas parallel in thought should be expressed in parallel form.= Nouns +and phrases including nouns are ordinarily used. + + Faulty parallelism: + Advantages of a garden: + 1 Profitable + 2 It affords good exercise + 3 Gives pleasure + + Right: + Advantages of a garden: + 1 Profit + 2 Exercise + 3 Pleasure + +=f. Avoid faulty coördination (giving two ideas equal rank, when one +should be subordinated to the other) and _vice versa_, avoid faulty +subordination.= + + Faulty coördination: + + How Seeds Scatter + + I By Wind + II Some Seeds provided with parachutes + III Others light, and easily blown about + IV By Water + V By Animals + + Right: + + =How Seeds Scatter= + + I By Wind + A Some seeds provided with parachutes + B Others light, and easily blown about + + II By Water + + III By Animals + + +=g. Avoid detailed subordination. Especially avoid a single subheading +when it can be joined to the preceding line, or omitted.= + + Too detailed: + + A The McClellan Orchard + 1 Situation + a On a northern slope + 2 Nature of soil + a Sandy + 3 Kind of fruit + a Apple + b Cherry + + Right: + + A The McClellan Orchard + 1. Situation: a northern slope + 2. Nature of soil: sandy + 3. Kind of fruit: apple and cherry + + Exercise: + + 1. Give a title to an outline which shall include the following + topics. Group the topics under two main headings, and give the + headings names. + + Uses of the grape + The Vine + The Fruit Itself + How Marketed + How Cultivated + + 2. Place in order the sentences of the following outline on + "Why Keep a Diary?" Subordinate some of the headings to others. + + A diary affords great satisfaction in future years. + + We sometimes record in a diary information which proves useful. + + A few lines a day will suffice. + + A diary is not hard to keep. + + We may find time for writing in our diary if we do not waste + time at the table or on newspapers. + + We may write in our diary just before we go to bed. + + A diary will bring back the past. + + We all have some moments to kill. + + A diary gives us pleasure even in the present. + + 3. Place in order the headings of the following outline on + "Ulysses S. Grant." Subordinate some of the headings to others. + + Obscurity in 1861 + Prominence in 1865 + Patience + President + General + Perseverance and Resolution + Character + The Turning Point in His Career + + +=Letters= + +The parts of a letter are the heading, the inside address, the greeting, +the body, the close, and the signature. For these parts good use +prescribes definite forms, which we may sometimes ignore in personal +letters, but must rigidly observe in formal or business letters. + +=87a. The heading of a letter should give the full address of the writer +and the date of writing. Do not abbreviate short words, or omit Street +or Avenue.= + + Objectionable: #15 Hickory, Omaha. + + Right: 15 Hickory Street, Omaha, Nebraska. + + Objectionable: 4/12/19; 10-28-'16; May 2nd, 1910. + + Right: April 12, 1919; October 28, 1916; May 2, 1910. + + The following headings are correct: + + 106 East Race Street, + Red Oak, Iowa, + August 4, 1916. + + 423 Michigan Avenue + Chicago, Illinois + May 20, 1918 + + Prescott, Arizona, June 1, 1920. + + +Note.--In personal letters the heading may be transferred to the end, +below the signature, at the left-hand side. But it must not be so +divided that the street address will appear in one place and the town +and state in another. + +The "closed" form of punctuation (the use of punctuation at the ends of +the lines) is best until the student learns what is correct. Afterward, +the adoption of the "open" form becomes purely a matter of individual +taste and not a matter of carelessness or ignorance. + +=b. An inside address and a greeting are required in business letters.= +Personal letters contain the greeting, but may omit the inside address, +or may supply it at the end of the letter. + + + The Jeffrey Chemical Works, + 510 Marion Street, + Norfolk, Virginia. + + Gentlemen: + + + Mr. Joseph N. Kellogg + 1411 Lake Street + Cleveland, Ohio + + Dear Mr. Kellogg: + + + Secretary of Rice Institute, Houston, Texas. + + My dear Sir: + + Greetings used in business letters are: + + My dear Sir: + My dear Madam: + My dear Mr. Fisher: + Dear Sir: + Sir: + Sirs: + Gentlemen: + Ladies: + + Greetings used in personal letters are: + + My dear Miss Brown: + Dear Professor Ward: + Dear Jones, + Dear Mrs. Vincent, + Dear Robert, + Dear Olive, + +"My dear Miss Brown" is more ceremonious than "Dear Miss Brown". As a +rule, the more familiar the letter, the shorter the greeting. + +A colon follows the greeting if the letter is formal or long; a comma, +if the letter is familiar or in the nature of a note. + +Both inside address and greeting begin at the left-hand margin. The body +of the letter begins on the line below the greeting, and is indented as +much as an ordinary paragraph (about an inch). + +=c. The body of a letter should be written in correct style.= + +=1.= Do not omit pronouns, or write a "telegraphic style". + + Wrong: Just received yours of the 21st, and in reply would say + your order has been filled and shipped. + + Right: I have your letter of March twenty-first. Your order was + promptly filled and shipped. + +=2.= The idea that it is immodest to use _I_ is a superstition. Undue +repetition of _I_ is of course awkward; but entire avoidance of it is +silly. + +=3.= Use simple language. Say "your letter"; not "your kind favor", or +"yours duly received", or "yours of the 21st is at hand". + +=4.= Avoid "begging" expressions which you obviously do not mean, +especially the hackneyed "beg to advise". + + Wrong: Received yours of the 3rd instant, and beg to advise we + are out of stock. + + Right: We received your order of March 3. We find that we have + no more dining-room chairs B 2-4-6 in stock. + + Wrong: I beg to enclose a booklet. + + Right: I enclose a booklet. + + Wrong: Permit us to say that prices have been advanced. + + Right: The prices on our goods have been advanced. + +=5.= Avoid the formula "please find enclosed". The reader will find what +is enclosed; if you use "please", let it refer to what the reader shall +do with what is enclosed. + + Wrong: Enclosed please find 10 cents, for which send me + Bulletin 58. + + Right: I enclose ten cents, for which please send me Bulletin + 58. + +=6.= Avoid unnecessary commercial slang: _On the job_, _A-1 service_, +_O.K._, _your ad_, _popular-priced line_, _this party_, _as per +schedule_. + +=7.= Get to the important idea quickly. In applying for a position, do not +beat around the bush, or say you "wish to apply" or "would apply". +Begin, "I make application for ...", "kindly consider my application for +...", or "I apply ..." + +=8.= Group your ideas logically. Do not scatter information. A letter +applying for a position might consist of three paragraphs: Personal +qualifications (age, health, education, etc.); Experience (nature of +positions, dates, etc.); References (names, business or profession, +exact street address). Finish one group of ideas before passing to the +next. + +=9.= Do not monotonously close all letters with a sentence beginning with +a participle: _Hoping to hear from you ..._, _Asking your coöperation +..._, _Awaiting your further favors ..._, _Trusting this will be +satisfactory ..._, _Wishing you ..._, _Thanking you ..._. The +independent form of the verb is more emphatic (see 42); _I hope to hear +from you ..._, _We await further orders ..._, _We ask coöperation ..._. + +=d. The close= should be consistent in tone with the greeting. It is +written on a separate line, beginning near the middle of the page, and +is followed by a comma. Only the first word is capitalized. Preceding +expressions like "I am", "I remain", "As ever", (if they are used at +all) belong in the body of the letter. + + Right: I thank you for your courtesy, and remain + + Yours sincerely, + Robert Blair + + Right: I shall be grateful for any further information you can + give me. + + Yours truly, + Florence Mitchell + + In business letters the following forms are used: + + Yours truly, + Very truly yours, + Yours respectfully, + + In personal letters the following are used: + + Yours truly, + Yours sincerely, + Sincerely yours, + Cordially yours, + +=e. The outside address should follow one of the forms given below:= + + +---------------------------------------------------+ + | R. E. Stearns | + | 512 Chapel Hill St. | + | Durham, N. C. | + | | + | | + | Mr. Donald Kemp | + | 3314 Salem Street | + | Baltimore | + | Maryland | + +---------------------------------------------------+ + + +---------------------------------------------------+ + | Bentley Davis | + | 906 Park Street | + | Ogden, Utah | + | | + | | + | Rogers, Mead, and Company | + | 2401 Eighth Avenue | + | Los Angeles | + | California | + +---------------------------------------------------+ + +Note.--An abbreviation in an address is followed by a period. +Punctuation is also correct, but not necessary, after every line (a +period after the last line, and a comma after the others). + +A married woman is ordinarily addressed thus: Mrs. George H. Turner. But +a title belonging to the husband should not be transferred to the wife. +Wrong: Mrs. Dr. Jenkins, Mrs. Professor Ward. Right: Mrs. Jenkins, Mrs. +Ward. Reverend Mr. Beecher is a correct address for a minister; not +"Rev. Beecher". If a title of respect is placed before a name +(Professor, Dr., Honorable), it is undesirable to place another title +after the name (Secretary, M.D., Ph.D., Principal, Esq.). + +=f. Miscellaneous directions.= Writing should be centered on the page, not +crowded against the top, or against one side. Letter paper so folded +that each sheet is a little book of four pages is best for personal +correspondence. Both sides of such paper may be written on. The pages +may be written on in any order which will be convenient to the reader. +An order like that of the pages in a printed book (1, 2, 3, 4) is best. + +Business letters are usually written on one side only of flat sheets +8-1/2 by 11 inches in size. The sheet is folded once horizontally in the +middle, and twice in the other direction, for insertion in the envelope. + +=g. A business letter should have, in general, the following form:= + + 1516 South Garrison Avenue. + Carthage, Missouri, + May 14, 1918. + + J. E. Pratt, General Superintendent, + The Southwest Missouri Railroad Company, + 1012 North Madison Street, + Webb City, Missouri. + + Dear Sir: + + I apply for a position as mechanic's assistant in the + electrical department of your shops. I am nineteen years old, + and in good physical condition. On June 6 I shall graduate from + Carthage High School, and after that date I can begin work + immediately. + + I have had no practical experience in electrical work. But I + have for two years made a special study of physics, in and out + of school. I worked last summer in the local garage of Mr. R. + S. Bryant. In addition, I have become familiar with tools in my + workshop at home, so that I both know and like machinery. + + For statements as to my character and ability, I refer you to + R. S. Bryant, Manager Bryant's Garage; Mr. Frank Darrow + (lawyer), 602 Ninth Street; W. C. Barnes, Superintendent of + Schools; and C. W. Oldham, Principal of the High School--all of + this city. + + Respectfully yours, + Howard Rolfe + +=h. Formal notes and replies are written in the third person (avoiding +_I_, _my_, _me_, _you_, _your_) and permit no abbreviations except +_Mr._, _Mrs._, _Dr._ = + + Mrs. Clarence King requests the company of + Mr. Charles Eliot at dinner on Friday, + April the twenty-fourth, at six o'clock. + + 102 Pearl Street, + April the seventeenth. + +In accepting an invitation, the writer should repeat the day and hour +mentioned, in order to avoid a misunderstanding; in declining an +invitation, only the day need be mentioned. The verb used in the reply +should be in the present tense; not "will be pleased to accept", or +"regrets that he will be unable to accept"; but "is pleased to accept", +or "regrets that circumstances prevent his accepting". + + Mr. Charles Eliot gladly accepts the invitation of Mrs. King to + dinner on Friday, April the twenty-fourth, at six o'clock. + + 514 Poplar Avenue, + April the eighteenth. + + +=Paragraphs= + +=88a. The first lines of paragraphs are uniformly indented, in +manuscript, about an inch; in print, somewhat less. After a sentence, +the remainder of a line should not be left blank, except at the end of a +paragraph.= + +=b. The length of a paragraph is ordinarily from fifty to three hundred +words, depending on the importance or complexity of the thought.= In +exposition, the paragraphs should be long enough to develop every idea +thoroughly. Scrappy expository paragraphs arouse the suspicion that the +writer is incoherent, or that he has not given sufficient thought to the +subject. Short paragraphs are permissible, and even desirable, in the +following cases: + +1. In a formal introduction to the main body of a discourse, or in the +formal conclusion. (In some instances the paragraph may consist of a +single sentence.) + +2. In the body of a composition, when a brief logical transition between +two longer paragraphs is necessary. + +3. In short compositions on complex subjects, where space forbids the +development of each thought on a proper scale. (But, as a rule, the +student should limit his subject to a few simple ideas, each of which +can be developed fully.) + +4. In newspapers, where brevity and emphasis are required. (But the +student should not take the journalistic style as a model.) + +5. In description or narration meant to be vivid, vigorous, or rapid. + +6. In dialogue. + +=c. In representing dialogue, each speech, no matter how short, is placed +in a separate paragraph.= + + Right: + + "Listen!" he said. "There was a noise + outside. Didn't you hear it?" + + "No," I whispered. It was dark in the room, except for a faint + light at the window, and I felt my way cautiously to his side. + "What is it? Burglars?" + + "I believe it is." + + "I can't hear anything." + + "Listen! There it is again." + + "Pshaw!" I had to laugh aloud. "Thompson's cow has got into the + garden again." + +Note that a slight amount of descriptive matter may be included in a +paragraph with the direct discourse, the only requirement being that a +change of speaker shall be indicated by a new paragraph. + +When special emphasis is desired, a quotation may be detached from a +preceding introductory statement. + + Right: The speaker turned gravely about, and facing the front + row, he said slowly and solemnly: + + "Small boys should be seen and not heard." + +In exceptional cases a long, rapid-fire dialogue may, for purposes of +compression, be placed in one paragraph. Dashes should then be used +before successive quotations to indicate a change of speaker. + +Omissions from a dialogue (as when only one side of a telephone +conversation is reported), long pauses, and the unfinished part of +interrupted statements, may be represented by a short row of dots. + + Exercise: + + Arrange in paragraphs, and insert quotation marks: + + 1. Help! I cried, rolling over in the narrow crevasse, and + wondering dazedly how far I had fallen through the snow. A + muffled voice came from above: We'll have a rope down to you in + a minute. Tie that bottle of brandy on the end of it, I + suggested, and it'll come faster. [The student will here insert + a sentence of his own to complete the dialogue.] + + 2. Good morning, James, said the deacon, suspiciously. How are + you? and where are you going? I'm all right, answered the boy, + and I'm goin' down to the creek. As he spoke, he tried to hide + something bulky underneath his coat. You oughtn't to go fishing + on Sunday. [Add another sentence to finish the dialogue.] + + +=89.= MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE + +The following sentences illustrate errors in the use of capitals, +italics, numbers, abbreviations, etc. Make necessary changes. + + 1. I met him at kansas city at a dinner of the commercial club. + + 2. The senate and the house of representatives are the two + branches of congress. + + 3. In today's chicago herald the union pacific railroad + advertises reduced rates to yellowstone park and the northwest. + + 4. There are 30 men in each section in chemistry, but only 25 + in each section in french. + + 5. Early in pres. wilson's administration troops crossed the + rio grande river. Pres. Carranza protested. + + 6. In nineteen ten the population of new york city (including + suburbs) was 4,766,883. + + 7. Send the moving van to thirty walnut street at eight + o'clock. + + 8. I like Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice better than George + Eliot's Adam Bede. + + 9. May I call for you about 7:30 p. m., Miss Reynolds? + + 10. The note draws 6 per cent interest, and is payable Jan. + 1st, 1921. + + 11. He will remain in town until Apr. 20th, and will then go + away for the Summer. He is going abroad to study the spanish + and italian languages. + + 12. Grays elegy in a country churchyard is perhaps the best + known poem in english literature. + + 13. Enclosed please find $4, for which send me the New Republic + for one year. + + 14. In reply to yours of 3-7-18 wish to advise that we are out + of stock. + + 15. I enclose $0.10 for a copy of bulletin #314 of the dept. of + Agriculture. Thanking you, I remain ... yours Respectively.... + + + + +PUNCTUATION + + +Punctuation is not used for its own sake. It is used in writing as +gestures, pauses, and changes of voice are used in speaking--to add +force or to reveal the precise relationship of thoughts. The tendency at +present is against the lavish use of punctuation. This does not mean, +however, that one may do as he pleases. In minor details of punctuation +there is room for individual preference, but in essential principles all +trustworthy writers agree. + + +=The Period= + +=90a. Place a period after a complete declarative or imperative sentence.= + +=b. Do not separate part of a sentence from the rest of the sentence by +means of a period. (See 1.)= + + Wrong: He denied the accusation. As every one expected him to + do. + + Right: He denied the accusation, as every one expected him to + do. + + Wrong: Anderson wrote good editorials. The best that appeared + in any paper in the city. + + Right: Anderson wrote good editorials, the best that appeared + in any paper in the city. [Or] Anderson wrote good + editorials--the best that appeared in any paper in the city. + +Exception.--Condensed or elliptical phrases established by long and +frequent use may be written as separate sentences. They should be +followed by appropriate punctuation--usually by a period. + + Examples: Yes. Of course. Really? By all means! + +Note.--The student should distinguish clearly between a subordinate +clause and a main clause. A subordinate clause is introduced by a +subordinate conjunction (_when_, _while_, _if_, _as_, _since_, +_although_, _that_, _lest_, _because_, _in order that_, etc.), or by a +relative pronoun (_who_, _which_, _that_, etc.). Since a subordinate +clause does not express a complete thought, it cannot stand alone, but +must be joined to a main clause to form a sentence. + +=c. Place a period after an abbreviation.= + + Bros. Mr. e. g. Ph.D. LL.D. etc. + +If an abbreviation falls at the end of a sentence, one period may serve +two functions. + + Exercise: + + 1. The hen clucks to her chickens. When she scratches up a + worm. + + 2. Before my brother could forewarn me. I had touched my tongue + against the cold iron. On which it stuck. + + 3. The commission had the services of two men of international + reputation. Charles Newman, Esq. and Gifford Bailey, + Ph D. + + 4. Since Hugh had fished only in creeks. He was surprised that + the lines were let down a hundred feet or more. The right + distance for codfish. + + 5. Between 1775 and 1825 Virginia furnished the nation its + leaders. Such as the author of the Declaration of Independence. + The orator of the Revolution. The leader of the Revolutionary + army. The chief maker of the Constitution. Four of our first + five Presidents. And our greatest Chief Justice of the Supreme + Court. + + +=The Comma= + +There are five principal uses of the comma: + + to separate clauses (a-d) + to set off a parenthetical element (e) + to mark a series (f-g) + to introduce a quotation (h) + to compel a pause for the sake of clearness (i) + +=91a. A comma is used between clauses joined by _but_, _for_, _and_, or +any other coördinating conjunction.= + + Right: The hour arrived, but Forbes did not appear. [The comma + emphasizes the contrast.] + + Right: She was glad she had looked, for a man was approaching + the house. [The comma prevents the combination _looked for a + man_.] + + Right: He gave the money to Burke, and Reynolds received + nothing. [The comma prevents confusion.] + +Exception.--If the clauses are short and closely linked in thought, the +comma may be omitted (She came and she was gone in a moment. McCoy +talked and the rest of us listened.) If the clauses are long and +complicated, a semicolon may be used (See 92b). + +Note.--No comma should follow the conjunction. Wrong: He was +enthusiastic but, inexperienced. Wrong: They went before the committee +but, not one of them would answer a question. + +=b. Do _not_ use a comma between independent clauses which are _not_ +joined by a conjunction. Use a period or a semicolon.= (This error, the +"comma splice," betrays ignorance of what constitutes a unified +sentence. See 18.) + + Wrong: The circus had just come to town, every one wanted to + see it. + + Right: The circus had just come to town. Every one wanted to + see it. + + Wrong: The story deals with the life of a youth, Don Juan, his + mother desired to make an angel of him. + + Right: The story deals with the life of a youth, Don Juan. His + mother desired to make an angel of him. + + Wrong: My courses required very hard study, did yours? + + Right: My courses required very hard study. Did yours? [Or] My + courses required very hard study; did yours? + + Wrong: He will assist you without the slightest hesitation, + indeed he will do so with alacrity. + + Right: He will assist you without the slightest hesitation. + Indeed he will do so with alacrity. [Or] He will assist you + without the slightest hesitation; indeed he will do so with + alacrity. + +Exception.--Short coördinate clauses which are not joined by +conjunctions, but which are parallel in structure and leave a unified +impression, may be joined by commas. + + Right: He sowed, he reaped, he repented. + +=c. An adverbial clause which precedes a main clause is usually set off +by a comma.= + +When long: + + Right: While I have much confidence in his sincerity, I cannot + approve his decision. [The comma marks the meeting point of + clauses too long to be easily read together. Brief clauses do + not require the comma. Right: Where thou goest I will go.] + +When ending in words that link themselves with words in the main +clause: + + Right: If Jacob finds time to plow, the garden can be planted + tomorrow. [The comma prevents _plow the garden_ from being read + as verb and object.] + +When not closely connected with the main clause in meaning: + + Right: Although they were few, they were resolute. [Here the + comma reveals the distinctness of the two stages of thought. In + the sentence _If it freezes the skating will be good_ the + distinctness of the two thoughts is less emphatic, and the + comma may be omitted.] + +Note.--The comma is usually omitted when the adverbial clause follows +the main clause. + + Right: The score stood twelve to twelve when the first half + ended. [The adverbial clause is linked closely with the element + it modifies, the predicate; punctuation is unnecessary. If the + _when_ clause were placed before the element it does not + modify, the subject, a comma should be inserted.] + +=d. Restrictive clauses should not be set off by commas; non-restrictive +clauses should be set off by commas.= (A restrictive clause is one +inseparably connected with the noun or pronoun it modifies; to omit it +would change the thought of the main clause. A non-restrictive clause is +less vitally connected with the noun or pronoun; to omit it would not +affect the thought of the main clause.) + + Right: Men who are industrious will succeed. [The relative + clause restricts the meaning; it is inseparably connected with + the noun it modifies, and to omit it would change the thought + of the main clause.] + + Right: Thomas Carlyle, who wrote forty volumes, was of peasant + origin. [The relative clause is non-restrictive; it is not + inseparably connected with the noun it modifies, and to omit + it would not change the thought of the main clause. Thus: + Thomas Carlyle was of peasant origin.] + + Right: Where is the house that Jack built? [Restrictive.] + + Right: I went to Jack's house, which is across the street. + [Non-restrictive.] + + Wrong: Students, who are lazy, do not deserve to pass. [The + sentence as it stands says that all students are lazy, and that + none of them deserve to pass. Without the commas, the sentence + would mean that such students as are lazy do not deserve to + pass.] + + Right: Students who are lazy do not deserve to pass. + +=The rule stated above for clauses applies also to phrases.= + + Right. She, hearing the voice, turned quickly. [_Hearing the + voice_ is non-restrictive. It does not identify _she_, and the + thought of the main clause is complete without it.] + + Right: Books pertaining to aeronautics are in demand. + [_Pertaining to aeronautics_ is restrictive. It explains what + books are referred to, and without it the meaning of the main + thought is changed.] + + Right: Our country, made up as it is of democratic people, + lacks the centralized power of a monarchy. [Non-restrictive.] + + Right: A country made up of democratic people must be lacking + in centralized power. [Restrictive. _Made up of democratic + people_ explains _country_ and is essential to the thought of + the sentence.] + +=e. Slightly parenthetical elements are set off by commas:= + +Direct address or explanation: + + Write soon, Henry, and tell all the news. + + They intend, as you know, to build a great dam across the + river. + + His father, they say, was frugal and industrious. + + I, on my part, however, am unalterably opposed to the + expenditure. + + He was, according to such reports as have reached me, + altogether in the right. + +Mild interjections: + + Well, we shall see. + + Come now, let's talk it over. + + But alas, the cupboard was bare. + + The custom is, oh, very old. + +Absolute phrases: + + This being admitted, I shall proceed to my other evidence. + +Geographical names which explain other names and dates which explain +other dates: + + The convention met at Madison, Wisconsin, on March 24, 1916. + +Words in apposition: + + We arrived at Austin, the capital of Texas. + + It was Archie, my best friend in boyhood. + + Exception.--The comma is omitted (1) When the appositive is + part of a proper name. Right: William the Silent, Alexander the + Great. (2) When there is unusually close connection between the + appositive and the noun it modifies. Right: My one confidant + was my brother Robert. (3) When the appositive is a word or + phrase to which attention is called by italics or some other + device which sets it apart. Right: The word _sequent_ is + derived from Latin. Right: The expression "That's fine" is one + which I use indiscriminately. + +Note.--When the parenthetical element occurs in the middle of a +sentence, "set off by commas" means _punctuate before and after_. + + Wrong: I was, madam at home yesterday. + + Right: I was, madam, at home yesterday. + + Wrong: I am to say the least, provoked. + + Right: I am, to say the least, provoked. + +=f. Consecutive adjectives that modify the same noun are separated from +each other by commas. If, however, the last adjective is closely linked +in meaning with the noun, no comma is used before it.= + + Right: A short, slight, pitiable figure. + + Right: A shrewd professional man. [_Shrewd_ modifies, not _man_ + alone, but _professional man_.] + + Right: A bedraggled old rooster. [_Old rooster_ has almost the + force of a compound word. _Bedraggled_ modifies the general + idea _old rooster_.] + +Note.--The commas in a series of adjectives are used to separate the +adjectives from each other. No comma should intervene between the final +adjective and the noun. Wrong: He was only a frail, unarmed, frightened, +youngster. Right: He was only a frail, unarmed, frightened youngster. + +=g. Words or phrases in series are separated by commas.= + +When the series takes the form _a, b, and c_, a comma precedes the +_and_. + + Confusing: The railroads in question are the New York Central, + Pennsylvania and Chesapeake and Ohio. [The reader might surmise + that the words _Pennsylvania and Chesapeake and Ohio_ represent + a single line or even three different lines.] + + Right: The railroads in question are the New York Central, + Pennsylvania, and Chesapeake and Ohio. + + Confusing: For breakfast we had oatmeal, bacon, eggs and honey. + [Omission of the comma after _eggs_ suggests a mixture.] + + Right: For breakfast we had oatmeal, bacon, eggs, and honey. + +=h. A comma should follow an expression like _he said_ which introduces a +short quotation.= (For longer or more formal quotations use a colon.) + + Right: He shouted, "Come on! I dare you!" + + Right: Our captain replied, "We're ready." + +But for indirect quotations, a caution is necessary. Do not place a +comma between a verb and a _that_ or _how_ clause which the verb +introduces. + + Wrong: He explained, how the accident occurred. + + Right: He explained how the accident occurred. + + Wrong: The chauffeur told us, that the gasoline tank was empty. + + Right: The chauffeur told us that the gasoline tank was empty. + +=i. A comma is used to separate parts of a sentence which might +erroneously be read together.= + + Confusing: Long before she had received a letter. + + Better: Long before, she had received a letter. + + Confusing: We turned the corner and the horse stopped throwing + us off. + + Better: We turned the corner and the horse stopped, throwing us + off. + + Confusing: Through the alumni gathered there went a thrill of + dismay. + + Better: Through the alumni gathered there, went a thrill of + dismay. + + Wrong: For a dime you can buy two pieces of pie or cake and ice + cream. + + Right: For a dime you can buy two pieces of pie, or cake and + ice cream. + + Right: The man whom everybody had for years regarded as a crank + and a weakling, is now praised for his sagacity and his + strength. + + Right: In a situation so critical as to require the utmost + coolness of mind, he lost his wits completely. [Here the + confusion might not be serious if the comma were omitted, but + separation of the long introduction from the main clause is + desirable.] + +=j. Do not use superfluous commas:= + +=1.= To mark a trivial pause: + + Needless use of comma: In the road, stood a wagon. + + Needless use of commas: The taking of notes, is a guarantee, + against inattention, in class. + +Slight pauses in a sentence are taken care of by the good sense of the +reader. Do not sprinkle commas when the sentence is moving along freely +with no complication in the thought. + + Right: In the road stood a wagon. + + Right: The taking of notes is a guarantee against inattention + in class. + +=2.= To separate an adjective from its noun: + + Wrong: A tall, solemn, antique, clock stood in the hallway. + [The first two commas separate the adjectives from each other. + There is no reason why _antique_ should be separated from the + noun.] + + Right: A tall, solemn, antique clock stood in the hallway. + +=3.= Before the first word or phrase in a series unless the comma would be +employed if the word or phrase stood alone: + + Wrong: He made a study of, gymnastics, medicine, and surgery. + + Right: He made a study of gymnastics, medicine, and surgery. + + Wrong: He had learned, to be prompt, to think clearly, and to + write correctly. + + Right: He had learned to be prompt, to think clearly, and to + write correctly. + + Exercise: + + 1. Before the workmen finished eating the tunnel caved in. + Three Italian laborers were crushed, the others with the + foreman escaped. + + 2. Sneed the new chairman proposed that the convention should + meet at Cheyenne Wyoming. The suggestion however was according + to reports not adopted. + + 3. He had a pen and an ink bottle was in the cupboard. By + washing poor widows can earn but scant living. + + 4. Saunders asked, how I liked the Overland car as compared + with the Chalmers, the Hudson and the Buick. I started to reply + but at that moment we were interrupted. + + 5. People, who steal watermelons, say the stolen melons are + sweetest. Farragut who was born in Tennessee was the North's + ablest naval commander. The developer is a chemical, which + reduces the silver salt. + + +=The Semicolon= + +The semicolon represents a division in thought somewhat greater than +that represented by a comma, and somewhat smaller than that represented +by a period. It may represent grammatical separation and logical +connection at the same time; that is, it may indicate that two +statements are separate units in grammar, and are yet to be taken +together to form a larger unit of logic or thought. + +=92a. The semicolon is used between coördinate clauses which are not +joined by a conjunction.= (For a possible exception see 91b.). + + Wrong: He was alarmed in fact he was terrified. + + Right: He was alarmed; in fact he was terrified. + + Right: He drew up at the curb; he leaped from the car. + +Note.--Very often the writer may choose freely between the semicolon and +the period; in such instances the use of the semicolon implies greater +logical unity between the clauses than the use of the period would show. +Unless this logical unity is distinct, the period is to be preferred. + +=b. The semicolon is sometimes used between coördinate clauses which are +joined by a conjunction if the clauses are long, or if the clauses have +commas within themselves, or if obscurity would result were the +semicolon not used.= (Otherwise, see 91a.) + + Right: Very slowly the glow in the heavens deepened and + extended itself along the eastern horizon; but at last the + bright-red rim of the sun showed above the crest of the hill. + + Right: He arrived, so they tell me, after nightfall; and + immediately going to a hotel, called for a room. + + Confusing: She enjoyed the dinners, and the dancing, and the + music, and the whole gay round of fashionable life was a + delight to her. + + Better. She enjoyed the dinners, and the dancing, and the + music; and the whole gay round of fashionable life was a + delight to her. + +=c. The semicolon is used between coördinate clauses which are joined by +a formal conjunctive adverb (_hence_, _thus_, _then_, _therefore_, +_accordingly_, _consequently_, _besides_, _still_, _nevertheless_, or +the like).= + + Wrong: We have failed in this therefore let us try something + else. + + Right: We have failed in this; therefore let us try something + else. + + Wrong: He was tattered and muddy, besides he ate like a + cormorant. + + Right: He was tattered and muddy; besides he ate like a + cormorant. + +Note 1.--If a simple conjunction like _and_ is used in the sentences +above, a comma will suffice. But a comma is not sufficient before a +conjunctive adverb like _therefore_. Conjunctive adverbs may be clearly +distinguished from simple conjunctions (See 91a). They cannot always be +easily distinguished from subordinating conjunctions (see 90b, Note), +but the distinction, when it can be made with certainty, is an aid to +clear thinking. + +Note 2.--Good usage sometimes permits a comma to be used before a +conjunctive adverb in short sentences where the break in the thought is +not formal or emphatic. For instance, when the conjunctive adverb _so_ +is used as a formal or emphatic connective, a semicolon is desirable (I +won't go; so that's settled). But in the sentence, "I was excited, so I +missed the target", a comma is sufficient. For the use of _so_ is here +informal, and probably expresses degree as well as result. (Compare "I +was so excited that I missed the target"). + +=d. The semicolon is not used before quotations, or after the "Dear Sir" +in letters. Use a comma or a colon.= (See 91h, 93a, and 87b.) + + Wrong: Mother said; "Let me get my needle." + + Right: Mother said, "Let me get my needle." + + Exercise: + + 1. The eggs tasted musty, they were cold storage eggs. + + 2. You should have seen that old, formally kept house, you + should have sat in that stuffy and immaculate parlor. + + 3. I objected to the plan however since he insisted upon it I + yielded. + + 4. I suppose I must go if I don't he will be anxious. + + 5. Although the note is due on March 19, you have three days of + grace, consequently you may pay it on March 22. + + +=The Colon= + +=93a. The colon is used to introduce formally a word, a list, a statement +or question, a series of statements or questions, or a long quotation.= + + Right: Only one man stood between Burr and the presidency: + Jefferson. + + Right: My favorite novels are the following: _Ivanhoe_, _Henry + Esmond_, and _The Mill on the Floss_. + + Right: The difficulty is this: Where is the money to come from? + + Right: The measure must be considered from several standpoints: + Is it timely? Is it expedient? Is it just? Is it superior to + the other measures proposed? + + Right: I shall do three things next year: study hard, take care + of my health, and enter into various student activities. + + Right: Webster concluded with the following peroration: "When + my eyes shall be turned for the last time to behold the sun in + heaven," etc., etc. + +=b. The colon may be used before concrete illustrations of a general +statement.= + + Right: The colors were various: blue, purple, emerald, and + orange. + + Right: The day was propitious: the sun shone, the birds sang, + the flowers sent forth their fragrance. + + Exercise: + + 1. The city must have these improvements paved streets more + schools better sanitation and a park. + + 2. A guild comprised men of a single class tailors, + fishmongers, or goldsmiths. + + 3. Everything was favorable, it was a wheat-raising district, + there were no rival mills, the means of transportation were + excellent. + + 4. The personal adornments of the eighteenth century "blood" + were elaborate, wigs, cocked hat, colored breeches, red-heeled + shoes, cane, and muff. + + 5. The chief of the engineers reported "The route, taken as a + whole, is practicable enough, but near Clifton, where the yards + must be placed, it leads through a rocky defile." + + +=The Dash= + +=94a. The dash may be used instead of the marks of parenthesis, +especially where informality is desired.= + + Right: She fell asleep--would you believe it?--in the middle of + the lecture. + + Right: That fellow actually--of course this is between you and + me--stole money from his father. + +=b. Insert a dash when a sentence is broken off abruptly.= + + Right: The next morning--let's see, what happened the next + morning? + +=c. The dash may be used near the end of a sentence, before a summarizing +statement or an afterthought.= + + Right: When you have carried in the wood and the water, and + milked the cows, and fed all the stock and the poultry, and + mended the harness--when you have done these things, you may + consider the rest of the evening your own. + + Right: Barnes played a mischievous trick one day--in fact, + Barnes was always into mischief. + +=d. The use of the dash to end sentences is childish.= + + Childish: At dawn I went on deck--far off to the left was a + cloud, I thought, on the edge of the water--it grew more + distinct as we angled toward it--it was land--before noon we + had sailed into harbor. + + Right: At dawn I went on deck. Far off to the left was a cloud, + I thought, on the edge of the water. It grew more distinct as + we angled toward it. It was land. Before noon we had sailed + into harbor. + +=e. A dash should be made about three times as long as a hyphen; +otherwise it may be mistaken as the sign of a compound word.= + + Exercise: + + 1. The boy left the package on the where did that boy leave the + package? + + 2. She was haughty independent as a queen in fact and she told + him no. + + 3. The clatter of the other typewriters, the relentless + movement of the hands of the clock, the calls from the press + room for more copy, these made Sears write like mad. + + 4. He made her acquaintance what do you think of this by + scribbling his name and address on some eggs he sold to a + grocer. + + 5. He obtained a position in a big department store--his good + taste was quickly recognized--within a month he was dressing + the windows. + + +=Parenthesis Marks and Brackets= + +=95a.= Parenthesis marks may be used to enclose matter foreign to the main +thought of the sentence. (But see also 94a and 91e.) + + Right: His testimony is conclusive (unless, to be sure, we find + that he has perjured himself). + +=b. A comma or a semicolon used at the end of a parenthesis should as a +rule follow the mark of parenthesis rather than precede it.= + + Right: If there is snow on the ground (and I am sure there will + be), we shall have plenty of sleighing. + +=c. When confirmatory symbols or figures are enclosed within parenthesis +marks, they should follow rather than precede the words they confirm.= + + Wrong: They earn (3) dollars a day. + + Right: They earn three (3) dollars a day. [Or] They earn three + dollars ($3) a day. + +=d. Do not use parenthesis marks to cancel a word or passage.= Draw a +horizontal line through whatever is to be omitted. + +=e. Brackets are used to insert explanatory matter in a quotation which +one gives from another writer.= Explanatory matter inserted by the +original writer is enclosed within parenthesis marks. + + Right: "Bunyan's masterpiece (_The Pilgrim's Progress_)," + declared the lecturer, "is out of harmony with the spirit of the + age that produced it [the age of the Restoration]." (Here the + explanatory words _the age of the Restoration_ are inserted + by the person who is quoting the lecturer.) + + Exercise: + + 1. The supremacy of the horse-drawn vehicle is unless a miracle + happens now gone forever. + + 2. My count shows (41) forty-one bales of cotton in the mill + yard. + + 3. [Insert _the Marne_ as your explanation]: "It was this + battle," said the lecturer, "that made the name of Joffre + immortal." + + 4. [Insert _Florida_ as the explanation of the person you are + quoting]: "In that state oranges are plentiful." + + 5. It was the opinion of Bailey and events proved him right + that the government must assume control of the railroads. + + +=Quotation Marks= + +=96a. Quotation marks should be used to enclose a direct, but not an +indirect, quotation.= + + Right: "I am thirsty," he said. + + Wrong: He said "that he was thirsty." + + Right: He said that he was thirsty. + +=b. A quotation of several paragraphs should have quotation marks at the +beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last paragraph.= + +=c. In narrative each separate speech, however short, should be enclosed +within quotation marks=; but a single speech of several sentences should +have only one set of quotation marks. + + Wrong: "Will you come? she pleaded. + + Certainly." + + Right: "Will you come," she pleaded. + + "Certainly." + + Wrong: He replied, "It was not for my own sake that I did + this." "There were others whom I had to consider." "I can + mention no names." + + Right: He replied, "It was not for my own sake that I did this. + There were others whom I had to consider. I can mention no + names." + +=d. Quotation marks may be used with technical terms, with slang +introduced into formal writing, or with nicknames=; but not with merely +elevated diction, with good English that resembles slang, with nicknames +that have practically become proper names, or with fictitious names from +literature. + + Permissible: The rime is called a "feminine rime". He is really + "a corker". Their name for my friend was "Sissy". + + Better without the quotation marks: He was awed by "the + grandeur of the mountains". "A humbug". "Fetch". "Stonewall" + Jackson. He was a true "Rip Van Winkle". + +=e. Either quotation marks or italics may be used with words to which +special attention is called.= (See the examples under 91e, Exception, 3.) +Quotation marks are used with the titles of articles, of chapters in +books, of individual short poems, and the like. Italics are used with +the titles of books or of periodicals, with the names of ships, and with +foreign words which are still felt to be emphatically foreign. + +=f. A quotation within a quotation should be enclosed in single quotation +marks; a quotation within that, in double marks.= + + Right: "It required courage," the speaker said, "for a man to + affirm in those days: 'I endorse every word of Patrick Henry's + sentiment, "Give me liberty, or give me death!"'" + +=g. When a word is followed by both a quotation mark and a question mark +or an exclamation point, the question mark or the exclamation point +should come first if it applies to the quotation; last, if it applies to +the main sentence.= + + Wrong: He shouted but one command, "Give them the bayonet"! + + Right: He shouted but one command, "Give them the bayonet!" + + Wrong: Did Savonarola say, "I recant?" + + Right: Did Savonarola say, "I recant"? + +Note.--Regarding the position of a comma, semicolon, or period at the +end of a quotation, usage differs. Printers ordinarily place commas and +periods inside the quotation marks, and semicolons outside, from +considerations of spacing. But logic, not spacing, should determine the +order, and all three marks should be treated alike. They should be +placed within the quotation marks if they were a part of the original +quotation; otherwise outside. In quoting manuscript, the quotation marks +should enclose exactly what is in the original. In quoting oral +discourse, a certain liberty is necessarily allowed. + + Correct: He said calmly, "It is I." + + Also correct, but not commonly used: He said calmly, "It is I". + + Correct, and in common use, but slightly illogical: He began, + "Our Father which art in heaven." [The period should follow the + quotation mark, since there is no period in the original + quotation.] + + Correct, and in common use, but slightly illogical: Can you + tell me the difference between "apt," "likely," and "liable"; + between "noted" and "notorious"? + + Also correct: Can you tell me the difference between "apt", + "likely", and "liable"; between "noted" and "notorious"? + +=h. When a quotation is interrupted by such an expression as _he said,_= + +=1. An extra set of quotation marks is employed, and the interpolated +words are normally set off by commas.= + + Wrong: "I rise said he to second the motion." + + Right: "I rise," said he, "to second the motion." + +=2. A question mark or exclamation point should precede the interpolated +expression if it would be used were the expression omitted.= + + Right: "'May I go?'" complained father, "is all that boy can + ask." + + Right: "Merciful heavens!" he cried, "we are lost." + +=3. The expression should be followed by a semicolon if the semicolon +would follow the preceding words in case the expression were omitted.= + + Right: "I admit it", he said; "it is true." + +=4. Neither the expression nor the words following it should begin with a +capital.= + + Wrong: "We must be quiet", Said the old man, "If we expect to + catch sight of a squirrel." + + Right: "We must be quiet", said the old man, "if we expect to + catch sight of a squirrel." + +=i. An omission from a quotation is indicated by dots.= + + Right: "When a word is followed by both a quotation mark and + ... an exclamation point, ... the exclamation point should come + ... last, if it applies to the main sentence." [Abridged + citation of g above.] + +=j. Do not use superfluous quotation marks:= + +1. Around the title at the head of a theme (unless it is a quoted +title); + +2. As a label for humor or irony. + + Superfluous: The "abstemious" Mr. Crew ate an enormous dinner. + + Better: The abstemious Mr. Crew ate an enormous dinner. + + Exercise: + + 1. Carew says, "that the profit comes from selling + knickknacks." + + 2. What's the matter with that horse? asked Williams. He's as + frisky as if he had been shut up a week. + + 3. "Who's your favorite character in the play?, persisted + Laura. Is it "Brutus"? No, answered Howard; I admire his wife + "Portia". + + 4. "It's amazing, said Mrs. Phelps, how children love + playthings. Helen Locke said yesterday, Hughie always tells me + when I am putting him to bed, I want my Teddy bear". + + 5. "You see, said Daugherty, the two offices across the + corridor from each ether." "One is the county clerk's." "The + other is the county collector's." + + +=The Apostrophe= + +=97a. In contracted words place the apostrophe where letters are omitted, +and do not place it elsewhere.= + + Wrong: does'nt, theyr'e, oclock. + + Right: doesn't, they're, o'clock. + +=b. To form the possessive of a noun, singular or plural, that does not +end in _s_, add '_s_.= + + Right: A hunter's gun, children's games, the cannon's mouth. + +=c. To form the possessive of a noun, singular or plural, that ends in +_s_, place an apostrophe after (not before) the _s_ if there is no new +syllable in pronunciation. If there is a new syllable in pronunciation, +add _'s_.= + + Wrong: Moses's mandates, Keat's poems, Dicken's novels, those + hunter's guns. + + Right: Moses' mandates, Keats's poems (or Keats' poems), + Dickens' (or Dickens's) novels, those hunters' guns. + +=d. Do not use an apostrophe with the possessive adjectives _its_, _his_, +_hers_, _ours_, _yours_, and _theirs_. But _one's_, _other's_, +_either's_ take the apostrophe.= + +=e. Add _'s_ to form the plural of letters of the alphabet, of words +spoken of as words, and sometimes numbers.= But do not form the regular +plural of a word by adding _'s_ (See 77). + + Right: His _B's_, _8's_ (or _8s_), and _it's_ look much alike. + + Wrong: The Jones's, the Smith's, and the Brown's. + + Right: The Joneses, the Smiths, and the Browns. + + Exercise: + + 1. We don't know theyr'e dishonest. + + 2. The soldier's heads showed above the trenches. + + 3. Five 8es, three 7es, and two 12es make 85. + + 4. Pierce told the Keslers that Jones hogs were fatter than + their's. + + 5. Its three oclock by his watch; five minutes past three by + her's. + + +=The Question Mark and the Exclamation Point= + +=98a. Place a question mark after a direct question, but not after an +indirect question.= + + Wrong: What of it. What does it matter. + + Right: What of it? What does it matter? + + Wrong: He asked whether I belonged to the glee club? + + Right: He asked whether I belonged to the glee club. + +Note.--When the main sentence which introduces an indirect question is +itself interrogatory, a question mark follows. + + Right: Did she inquire whether you had met her aunt? + +=b. A question mark is often used within a sentence, but should not be +followed by a comma, semicolon, or period.= + + Wrong: "What shall I do?," he asked. + + Right: "What shall I do?" he asked. + + Wrong: But where are the stocks?, the bonds?, the evidences of + prosperity? + + Right: But where are the stocks? the bonds? the evidences of + prosperity? + +=c. A question mark within parentheses may be used to express uncertainty +as to the correctness of an assertion.= + + Right: Shakespeare was born April 23 (?), 1564. + + Right: In 1340 (?) was born Geoffrey Chaucer. + +=d. The use of a question mark as a label for humor or irony is childish.= + + Superfluous: Immediately the social lion (?) rose to his feet. + + Better: Immediately the social lion rose to his feet. + +=e. The exclamation point is used after words, expressions, or sentences +to show strong emotion.= + + Right: Hark! I hear horses. Give us a light there, ho! + +Note.--The lavish use of the exclamation point is not in good taste. +Unless the emotion to be conveyed is strong, a comma will suffice. See +91e. + + Exercise: + + 1. What is my temperature, doctor. + + 2. "Shall we go by the old mill?", asked Newcomb? + + 3. Did Wu Ting Fang say, "The Chinese Republic will survive." + + 4. He inquired whether Lorado Taft is the greatest living + American sculptor. + + 5. Farewell. Othello's occupation's gone. + + +=99.= EXERCISE IN PUNCTUATION + +=A.= + +Punctuate the following sentences: + + 1. Why its ten oclock + + 2. It was a rainy foggy morning + + 3. Arthurs cousin said Lets go + + 4. I begged her to stay but she refused + + 5. His parents you know were wealthy + + 6. Near by the children were playing house + + 7. Ever since John has driven carefully + + 8. I smell something burning Etta + + 9. Well Harry are you ready for a tramp + + 10. I well remember a trip which I once took + + 11. When the day has ended the twilight comes + + 12. She was a poor lonely defenseless old woman + + 13. Trout bass and pickerel are often caught there + + 14. Lees army was defeated at Gettysburg Pennsylvania on July 3 + 1863 + + 15. Students who are poor appreciate the value of an education + + 16. Clem Rogers who is poor as Jobs turkey has bought a + phonograph + + 17. He had no resentment against the man who had injured him + + 18. He spoke to his father who sat on the veranda + + 19. The rifle which he used on this trip was the best he had + + 20. His long beard sticking out at an angle from his chin and + his tall silk hat looked ridiculous + +=B.= + +Punctuate the following sentences: + + 1. I found the work difficult did you find it so + + 2. If they had agreed to buy things would have been different + but they didn't + + 3. I could satisfy myself if need be with dreams and imaginary + delights she must have realities + + 4. Well Im not disappointed its just what I expected + + 5. Hard roads are not only an advantage they are almost + indispensable + + 6. The man who hesitates is lost the woman who hesitates is won + + 7. The nihilists accept no principle or creed they reject + government and religion and all institutions which cramp the + individuals desires + + 8. No longer are women considered weaklings although not so + strong as man physically they are now assumed to have will and + courage of their own + + 9. The Pilgrims wished to thank God so they prepared a feast + + 10. Our country roads are full of chuck holes consequently one + must drive with caution + + 11. The first player advances ten paces the second eight the + third six and so on + + 12. I told her it was her own fault she was too reticent and + held herself aloof + + 13. He had complained of weariness therefore we left him in + camp + + 14. The Panama Canal consists of four sections the Atlantic + Level the Lake the Cut and the Pacific Level + + 15. There are three reasons why I do not like Ford cars first + they rattle second they bump and third they never wear out + + 16. Protoplasm has been found to contain four elements carbon + hydrogen oxygen and nitrogen but by no artificial combination + can these be made into the living substance + + 17. Phlox mignonette sweet peas cannas all these yield flowers + until late in the fall. + + 18. He asked for hot water the mollycoddle as if this were a + hotel + + 19. Is this seat occupied sir asked Brown who stood in the + aisle + + 20. There are two types of democracy 1 a pure democracy and 2 a + representative democracy + + +=C.= + +Punctuate the following sentences: + + 1. And Harvey waiting all this time mind you sprang for the + door + + 2. I want to go to Memphis Tennessee to the old house if it is + still standing where I was born + + 3. My bill amounted to exactly counting the car fare nine + dollars and ninety five cents + + 4. I do not believe it he cried then turning to the others in + the group he asked nervously do you + + 5. Which is better to borrow money for ones school expenses or + to work ones way + + 6. He swore swore like a pirate and lashed the horses + + 7. Dickens novel Martin Chuzzlewit is satirical + + 8. But what of the Dakotas of Minnesota of Wisconsin are they + to give us no political support + + 9. The grain is then run into a bin called the weighing bin + from this it is let down on to the scales + + 10. Lincoln showed very plainly what the phrase All men are + created equal means and what its application was to the + anti-slavery movement. + + 11. His name was lets see what was the fellows name. + + 12. He looks sharply for little points passed over by the + average person are important to him + + 13. How uncomfortable I feel in a room whose windows are not + covered by curtains I cannot describe + + 14. Some time ago he moved away I was sorry because he was a + fine young man + + 15. I went to the lawyers office to hear the reading of my + uncles will + + 16. Well well I havent seen you for years But youre the same + stub nosed freckle faced good natured Tom + + 17. I did not stop long to consider the football togs were + nearest at hand so in they went cleated shoes trousers sweater + pads headgear and the rest + + 18. Today I shall outline explain and argue the subject which + has already been announced to you namely The Distribution of + Taxes in Illinois + + 19. His piping voice his long crooked nose his white hair + falling over the shoulders of his faded blue coat his shuffling + shambling gait as he hobbled up to Carletons Grocery with his + basket all this I shall remember as long as I live + + 20. We hold these truths to be self evident that all men are + created equal that they are endowed by their Creator with + certain inalienable rights that among these rights are life + liberty and the pursuit of happiness + + +100. GENERAL EXERCISE + +Improve the following sentences, making as many changes as are necessary +to express the thought clearly and accurately. + +=A.= + + 1. It don't sound right. + + 2. Us fellows hadn't ought to complain. + + 3. The decision effects my brother and I alike. + + 4. Following his breakfast he went up to the office. + + 5. One finds that beginning on a pipe organ is much more + complicated than the piano. + + 6. She married before she was eighteen, she had never taken + much interest in school work + + 7. New Year's Eve, a young lady who I was calling upon, and + myself decided to fool the old folks. + + 8. Williams drove across town at full speed, this was against + the ordinances. + + 9. Mr. Black, who had been laying on the sofa, rose and set + down by myself. + + 10. The agricultural course is a study which every person + should have a great deal of knowledge along that line. + + 11. Swinging around the curve, the open switch was seen in + time, and directly the train stopped we rushed off of the cars. + + 12. I can say a little in regard to my expectations in + connection with the next four years of my life, however. + Expectations of work, pleasure, and perhaps a little sorrow. + + 13. An interesting experience of mine was a collection of + insects made when I studied biology. + + 14. A man can talk to an animal, and he learns to obey him by + repeating certain commands. + + 15. The life of a princess as well as a hermit are made happy + by a little child, as illustrated in the stories of Pharaoh's + daughter and Silas Marner. + + +=B.= + + 1. Every one in the office were busy invoicing. + + 2. Their unconscious pranks and laughter is very amusing. + + 3. The tiger is a beautiful animal, it is also very ferocious. + + 4. Either he or she are good companions for you. + + 5. Again, take a student who has been forced to make his own + way, the question may be harder to decide. + + 6. As for the proposition which is before you, if it was me, I + would not even consider it. + + 7. The fly is the insect that causes more fatal deaths in a + year than any other insect. + + 8. The success of a sponge cake depends upon two things. The + beating of the eggs and the mixing of the flour in lightly. + + 9. James, a youth of such energy, and who is attractive in many + ways, failed in his exams. + + 10. Fish are only found in the deep holes, and they are hard to + get at. + + 11. Besides cigarettes, there are other forms of using tobacco, + such as cigars, and in pipes, and chewing tobacco, making the + total consumption very great. + + 12. I am endeavoring to secure for this position a man not only + with ability as a manager, but one who is capable of + understanding and sympathizing with rural community conditions. + + 13. Any one having any question to ask or who has trouble with + their camera, may write to this department. + + 14. When I hear oatmeal it nauseates me. I can see a mental + picture of the breakfast table where I sat nearly all last + summer. + + 15. In ones second year in high school the books to be read are + Burns poems, Miltons paradise Lost; Bunyans Pilgrims Progress, + and several of Shakespeares plays. + +=C.= + + 1. He promised to on no consideration delay. + + 2. I heard a voice at the door which was familiar. + + 3. The most important part of a book is often to read the + preface. + + 4. Observing carefully, a number of errors are seen to exist. + + 5. Unless one is very wealthy they cannot afford to own a car. + + 6. These kind of fellows usually make good athletes. + + 7. It was the custom of we campers to ride into town and back + on freight cars, when in need of supplies. + + 8. As I was sitting near a radiator so I moved as I decided it + was too warm there. + + 9. To thine own self be true is the advice Polonius gave to his + son. + + 10. In order that Otto should not regain his political power + back again, Sarphina put him in jail. + + 11. For every action there is an opposite and equal reaction is + the idea which Emerson's essay on compensation begins. + + 12. To consult a Bible encyclopedia and read it concerning + Easter, one learns quite a little about that religious holiday. + + 13. Never try to shoot a rabbit or any animal when they are not + moving, for among hunters it is very poor sportsmanship to kill + any animal before they have had a chance to get away. + + 14. We find that many of Whittier's poems were concerned with + slavery, which he considered a very great moral wrong, and + determined to do all in his power to eradicate this evil. + + 15. Rhetoric is required in order that a person may learn how + to express their thoughts so as to be readily understood, and + the ability to do this greatly increases the value of your + knowledge. + + +=D.= + + 1. Socialism is different than anarchy. + + 2. He ate the lunch instead of his sister. + + 3. The Volga is the longest of any river in Europe. + + 4. I come over to see if you will leave Tilly go on a picnic + with us tomorrow. + + 5. The value of the birds are studied and the good results + taught to the older children. + + 6. Despotism is where a ruler is not responsible to those under + his authority. + + 7. When a boy or girl enters a high school they think they are + very important. + + 8. I was anxious to begin eating, so no time was wasted by me. + + 9. They run out of ammunition, which caused them to loose the + battle. + + 10. The mind is not only developed, but also the body. + + 11. He built a reservoir varying from 75 to 150 ft. in diameter + and from 8 to 15 ft. high. + + 12. The most principal reason for going to college is so as to + prepare myself for teaching. + + 13. While the room was not very large, yet it had a good-sized + closet in which to put a trunk would be easy and lighted by a + small window. + + 14. A college education is supposed to be general and thorough + by training a man not only into something definite, but give + him a wider scope from which to choose from. + + 15. Motion pictures give actual battle scenes showing just how + the different countries carry on warfare, in taking care of the + wounded, making ammunition, and how they discharge the + artillery, and advance or retreat. + + +=E.= + + 1. He acted like the rest did. + + 2. He don't see anything attractive about her. + + 3. Neither Admiral Beatty nor Admiral Sims are afraid to take + chances. + + 4. The Girl's Campfire Organization was organized when the Boy + Scouts organization was proved such a success. + + 5. Coal is found likely 15 ft. from the waters edge, extending + horizontally under the cliff. + + 6. It is no sure sign that just because a student has took a + course in literature, that he really enjoys the best reading. + + 7. One of the most noticeable characteristics about Lowell's + letters were that they are brief, to the point, and emphatic. + + 8. On the license there will be found the laws regarding + hunting and on the back of it tells when the different seasons + are open. + + 9. The St. Louis Republic is a partisan democratic newspaper + and thus it can be guessed as to what their editorials are like + concerning political questions. + + 10. If the public in general is well posted on the subject and + finds that the charity workers are in earnest, they are much + more apt to donate. + + 11. Some were laughing, some acted serious, others like myself + were merely looking on. + + 12. Entering the campus, the Library is seen, which is a + building nicer than all the others. + + 13. The Ideal Starter starts the engine perfectly without + leaving the driver's seat. + + 14. The fly feeds on decayed vegetable matter, and also the + decayed animal. + + 15. It is true that some people keep a fire extinguisher. It is + of minor importance when considering organized fire protection. + It is organized fire protection with which we are chiefly + concerned, so let us dismiss the former and proceed to the + latter subject. + + +=F.= + + 1. In olden days the curfew rung everywheres at 9 o'clock. + + 2. If a person was to become a charity worker, it would + necessitate him giving time and effort. + + 3. I think most any person can appreciate a good joke when it + is not on them. + + 4. Your clothing for the hunt should be warm and of goods that + will not tear easy. + + 5. Life can be classified in four general stages. Infancy, + Youth, Maturity, and Old Age. + + 6. At the sound of the summons I had to arise from my downy cot + and hurry to the morning repast. + + 7. He was surprised at the way people lived in the city. + Especially the dirt and misery of the slums. + + 8. The house is battered and dingy, being built twenty years + ago by Mr. Robinson, and needs paint badly. + + 9. We hadn't scarcely more than begun the work when one of the + engines got broke and we had to stop until it could be fixed. + + 10. Neither self-denial nor self-sacrifice are to be admired, + or even pardoned, at the cost of happiness, Stevenson says. + + 11. The thing that took my eye most of all were the walls. + Pennants, pictures, and souvenirs were hanging everywhere. + + 12. Grandmother had put the spectacles in the Bible which she + had lost. + + 13. In the summer time the weather is warm but some people are + complaining of the hot weather and who wish the weather would + turn cooler but is it not this kind of weather that makes the + plants grow, which in turn furnish us food? + + 14. Until athletics are demanded from the weaker students, the + training will go to the one who does not need it, and the ones + who do need it are sitting up on the bleachers exercising their + lungs. + + 15. The people of olden times used pumps, but did not know why + they worked, they thought it worked because "nature abhors a + vacuum." + + +=G.= + + 1. Each one of these three books are interesting. + + 2. You may put this hat in any desired shape you like. + + 3. We motored over to Bloomington which was much more pleasant + than the train. + + 4. Every one of his statements are so clear that they cannot be + misconstrued what they mean. + + 5. Analysis is when things are resolved into elements or parts. + + 6. She dropped the doll on the pavement, of which she was very + fond. + + 7. He was offered money to keep still, but would not, thus + showing his good character. + + 8. The first training center for training police dogs was in + Hildesheim, Prussia, and was in the year 1896. + + 9. The draining of land not only increases the yield, and it + greatly lengthens the season that the land may be worked. + + 10. He next stated the number of the founders of the + Constitution, which were 39 in no. + + 11. The life of Doctor Kingsley is a good example of a man who + has succeeded. + + 12. The fortunes of our country are now standing at the + cannon's mouth, and one vote may stem the tide of disaster. + + 13. There was little scenery on an Elizabethan stage. While the + parts intended for women were performed by men. + + 14. The cave which Tom Sawyer was lost in really existed. It + was the cave just outside Hannibal, Missouri, it was near the + Mississippi. Here was the place where Mark Twain was a boy. + + 15. Yes, and the buildings werent what they are now, do you + remember how we used to go to the old log meeting house, that + was up on stilts, and the pigs crawled under the floor and + raised such a disturbance that the preacher had to stop and + have the pigs chased out before he could continue the sermon? + + + + +INDEX + +_The numbers refer to articles._ + + + Abbreviations, 83, 90c + + Absolute expressions + Defined, 58 + Punctuation of, 91e + + _Accept_ and _except_, 67 + + _Ad_, 68 + + Addresses, 87b, 87e + + Adjectives + Classes of, 58 + Comparison of, 58 + Distinguished from adverbs, 56 + In a series, 91f, 91j2 + + Adverbs, + Classes of, 58 + Comparison of, 58 + Distinguished from adjectives, 56 + + _Affect_ and _effect_, 67 + + _Aggravate_, 68 + + Agreement + Of verbs, 52 + Of pronouns, 51, 50i + + _Ain't_, 68 + + _All right_, 68 + + _Almost_, Position of, 27 + + _Allusion and illusion_, 67 + + _Already_ and _all ready_, 67 + + _And_ before a subordinate phrase or clause, 16, 17 + + _And_ used to excess, 14 + + _And which_ construction, 17 + + Antecedent + Defined, 58 + Faulty reference to, 20-23 + + _Anybody_, Number of, 51a + + Apostrophe + In contractions, 97 + With possessive, 97, 50f + + Application for a position, 87g + + Articles, Omission of, 3 + + _As_, Incorrect use of, 50a, 68 + + Aspect of the verb, 58 + + Auxiliary + Defined, 58 + Use of, 55e + + _Awful_, Abuse of, 68 + + + Balanced sentence, 45 + + Balanced structure, 30, 45 + + Barbarisms, 66 + + _Because_ clauses, 5 + + _Because of_ phrases, 5 Note + + _Be_, Nominative with, 50c + + _Both ... and_, 31 + + Brackets, 95e + + Brevity for emphasis, 41, 60 + + Business letters, 87c + + _Bust_ or _busted_, 68 + + _But_ used to excess, 38 Note + + + _Can_ and _may_, 67 + + _Cannot help but_, 34 + + Capitals, 81 + + Case + Defined, 58 + Use of, 50 + + Cause, Inaccurate statement of, 5 + + _Caused by_, 5 Note, 23, 68 + + Change in number or person, 33 + + Change in subject or voice, 32 + + Change in tense, 33, 55 + + Choppy sentences, 13 + + _Claim_, 68 + + Clauses + Cause, 5 + Coördinated loosely, 14, 12 + Defined, 58 + House-that-Jack-built, 38 + Misplaced, 24 + Misused as sentences, 1, 90b + Restrictive and non-r., 91d + Subordinate. Not to be used as complete sentences, 1 + Subordination faulty, 15 + To be reduced to phrases, 60 + _When_ or _where_ clauses, 6 + + Clearness, 20-39 + + Climax, 44 + + Coherence, 24-29 + + Colon, 93 + + Collective nouns, Number of, 51c + + Colloquialisms, 65 + + Comma, 91, 92c Notes 1 and 2, 95b + After quotation, 96 Note + "Comma splice" or "comma fault," 18 + Not used after question mark, 98b + + Comparison of adjectives and adverbs, 58 + + Comparisons, Inaccurate, 4 + + Compound sentence structure in excess, 12, 14 + + Compound words, 78 + + Concreteness, 63 + + Conjugation, 58 + + Conjunctions + Defined, 58 + List of, 36 + Omitted, 37 + Repeated carelessly, 38 + + Conjunctive adverbs + Defined, 58 + Punctuation with, 92c + + Connectives, 8, 36, 37, 38 + + Consonants + Between syllables, 71, 85 + Final (in spelling), 75 + + Construction + Incomplete, 2 + Mixed, 34 + Split, 28 + + Contractions + Apostrophe with, 97 + When proper, 65b + + Coördination, Excessive, 12, 14 + + Correlatives, 31 + + _Could of_, 68 + + + Dangling gerund, 23 + + Dangling participle, 23 + + Dash, 94 + + Dates, Writing of, 84, 91e + + Declension, 58 + + Definition, 6 Note + + Dialogue + Paragraphing, 88c + Punctuation before, 91h, 93a + Punctuation in, 96 + + Diction, Faulty (list), 68 + + _Different than_, 68 + + Divided reference, 20 + + _Don't_, 51d + + Double capacity, Words in, 57 + + Double negative, 34 Note + + _Drownded_, 68 + + _Due to_, Proper use of, 5 Note, 23 Note, 68 + + + _Each_, Number of, 51a + + _ei_ or _ie_, 74 + + _Either_, Number of, 51a + + _Either ... or_, 31 + + Ellipsis + Defined, 58 + Misuse of, 3, 23 Note + + _Emigrate_ and _immigrate_, 67 + + Emphasis + By brevity, 41 + By position, 40 + By repetition, 47 + By separation, 41 + By subordination, 42, 14 + By variety, 48 + + _Enthuse_, 68 + + _Etc._, Use of, 68 + + Euphemism, 61 + + _Ever_, Position of, 27 + + _Every_, _every one_, _everybody_, Number of, 51a + + Exclamation point, 98e + + Exact connective, 36 + + Exact word, 62 + + + Figures, Use of, 84 + + Figures of speech, Mixed, 35 + + Final consonant (in spelling), 75 + + Final _e_ before a suffix, 76 + + _Fine_, Abuse of, 68 + + Fine writing, 61 + + Flowery language, 61 + + Formal invitations, 87h + + _Former_, 68 + + + _Gent_, 68 + + Geographical names, 91e + + Gerund + Dangling, 23 + Defined, 58 + With possessive, 50g + + Good use, 65, 66 + + _Gotten_, 68 + + Grammar, 50-59 + + Grammatical terms, 58 + + _Guess_, 68 + + + Hackneyed expressions, 61 + + _Had ought_, 68 + + Handwriting, 80c + + _Hanged_ and _hung_, 67 + + _Healthy_ and _healthful_, 67 + + Historical present, 33 Note + + _However_, Position of, 27 + + _Human_, _humans_, 68 + + _Hygienic_ and _sanitary_, 67 + + Hyphen + Between syllables, 85 + In compound words, 78 + + + Idioms, 65 + + Illogical thought, 4, 5, 6, 7 + + Imagery mixed, 35 + + Impersonal construction, Needless use of, 60 + + Improprieties, 66 + + Incomplete construction, 2 + + Indefinite _it_, _you_, _they_, 22 Note + + Indention of paragraphs, 88 + + Inflection, 58 + + Infinitive + Case with, 50e + Defined, 58 + Sign of, to be repeated, 37 + Split, 28 + Tense of, 55 + + _Instants_ and _instance_, 67 + + Interjections + Defined, 58 + Punctuation of, 91c, 98e + + Invitations, Formal, 87h + + _Is when_ clauses, 6 + + _Is where_ clauses, 6 + + Italics, 82, 96e + + Its (possessive adjective), without apostrophe, 50f, 97d + + + _Kind of_, 68 + + + _Later_ and _latter_, 67 + + _Lead_ and _led_, 67 + + _Learn_ and _teach_, 67 + + _Leave_ and _let_, 67 + + Length of paragraph, 88b + + Length of sentences, 12, 13, 48b + + _Less_ and _fewer_, 67 + + Letters, 87 + + _Liable_ and _likely_, 67 + + _Lie_ and _lay_, 59D, 67 + + _Like_ (for _as_), 67, 68 + + List + Of connectives, 36 + Of principal parts, 54 + Of grammatical terms, 58 + Of words confused in meaning, 67 + Of words incorrectly used, 68 + Of words logically akin, 72 + Of words confused in spelling, 73 + For spelling, 79 + + _Loan_, 68 + + _Locate_, 68 + + Logic, 4, 5, 6, 7 + + Logical Agreement, 4, 5, 6 + + Logical Sequence, 25 + + _Lose_ and loose, 67 + + _Lots of_, 68 + + + _Majority_ and _plurality_, 67 + + Manuscript, 80 + + _Might of_, 68 + + Misplaced word, 27 + + Mixed constructions, 34 + + Mixed imagery, 35 + + Modal aspects, 58 + + Mode + Definition of, 58 + Use of subjunctive, 55d + + Modifiers + Grouping of, 24, 25 + Needless separation of, 24, 27 + Squinting, 26 + Wrongly used as sentences, 1, 90b + + Money, 84c + + _Most_ (for _almost_), 66, 68 + + _Myself_, Needlessly used for _I_ or _me_, 68 + + + Negative, Double, 34 Note + + _Neither_, Number of, 51a + + _Neither ... nor_, 31 + + _Nice_, Inaccurate use of, 62, 68 + + Nicknames, Quotations with, 96d + + _Not only ... but also_, 31 + + Nouns, Classes of, 58 + + Number + Shift in, 33 + _These kind_, etc., 51b + _Each_, _Every_, etc., 51a + Collective nouns, 51c + Of verbs, 52 + + Numbers, Use of, 84 + Formation of plural, 77d, 97e + + + _O_ and _Oh_, 68 + + Objective case, 50d, 50e + + _Off of_, 68 + + Omission + Of words, 3 + From quotations, 96i + + _Only_, Position of, 27 + + Outlines, 86 + + Overlapping thought, 8 Note + + _Owing to_, Proper use of, 5 Note + + + Paragraphs, 88 + + Parallel structure, 30, 31, 45 + + Parenthesis and parenthetical elements, 91e, 94a, 95 + + Participle + Dangling, 23 + Definition of, 58 + + Parts of speech, 58 + + _Party_, Abuse of, 68 + + Passive voice, not emphatic, 46 + + Past tense, Wrong forms of, 54 + + Past perfect tense, 55 + + Period, 90, 91b, 92a Note + After quotation, 96g Note + Not used after question mark, 98b + "Period blunder," 1, 90b + + Periodic sentence, 43 + + Person, Change in, 33 + + Phonetic spelling, 71 Note + + Phrases + Defined, 58 + Not to be used as sentences, 1 Note + Absolute, 91e + + Plurals, Spelling of, 77 + + Poetry to be separated from prose, 41, 80b + + Point of view, Shift in, 32 + + Ponderous language, 60 + + Possessive + With gerund, 50g + Apostrophe with, 50f, 97 + Inanimate objects in, 50h + + _Practical and practicable_, 67 + + Predicate adjective, 58 + + Predicate noun, 58 + + Prefixes, 72 + + Prepositions + Defined, 58 + Omitted, 3, 37 + Repeated carelessly, 38 + + Principal parts, 54 + + _Principal_ and _principle_, 67 + + Pronouns + Agreement with antecedent, 50i + Case of, 50 + Kinds of, 58 + Reference of, 20, 21, 22 + Wrong use of _myself_, _yourself_, for _I_, _me_, _you_, 68 + + Pronunciation as a guide to spelling, 71 + + _Proof_ and _evidence_, 67 + + _Proposition_, Synonyms for, 62 + + _Proven_, 68 + + _Pseudo-_ and _quasi-_, 67 + + + _Quiet_ and _quite_, 67 + + Question mark, 98 + + Quotation marks _vs._ italics, 82a + Note 2, 96e + + Quotations + Punctuation before, 91h, 92d, 93a + Punctuation of, 96 + + + Reason, Statement of, to be completed by a _that_ clause, 5 + + Redundance, 60 + + Reference + Ambiguous, 20 + Broad, 22 + Divided, 20 + Impersonal, 22 Note + Remote, 20 + To a clause, 22 + To a title, 21 Note + To an unemphatic word, 21 + Weak, 21 + + Reflexive wrongly used for the simple pronoun, 68 + + Repetition + Of connectives, good, 37; + bad, 38 + Of structure, good 47b; + bad 48b + Of words, good, 47a; + bad, 48a + + _Respectfully_ and _respectively_, 67 + + Restrictive and non-restrictive clauses, 91d + + _Right smart_, 68 + + _Rise_ and _raise_, 59D, 67 + + + _Said_, Synonyms for, 62 + + _Same_, Abuse of, 68 + + Scrappy sentences, 13 + + Semicolon, 91b, 92, 95b + After quotation, 96g Note + Not used after question mark, 98b + + Sequence of tense, 55 + + Sequence of thought, 25 + + Series, Punctuation of, 91f, 91g, 91j 3 + + _Shall_ and _will_, 53 + + Shift in number, person, or tense, 33 + + Shift in subject or voice, 32 + + _Should_ and _would_, 53 + + _Sit_ and _set_, 59D, 67 + + Slang, 66 + Quotations with, 96d + + _So_, 36 Note, 68 + + _Some_, Abuse of, 68 + + _Somewheres_, 68 + + Sound, 64 + + Spacing, 80b + + Specific words, 63 + + Spelling, 70-79 + + Split construction, 28 + + Split infinitive, 28 + + Squinting, 26 + + _Stationary_ and _stationery_, 67 + + _Statue_, _stature_, and _statute_, 67 + + Stringy sentences, 12, 14 + + Subject in nominative case, 50a + + Subjunctive mode + Defined, 58 + Use of, 55d + + Subordinating conjunctions + Defined, 58 + Enumerated, 36 + + Subordination + Necessary, 12, 13, 14 + Faulty, 15, 16, 17, 42 + _And which_, 17 + + Substantive defined, 58 + + _Such_, 68 + + Suffixes, 75, 76 + + Superlative degree in comparisons, 4, 58 + + _Sure_ and _surely_, 68 + + _Suspicion_, 68 + + Syllabication, 85 + + Syntax defined, 58 + + + Tautology, 60 Note + + Technical terms, Quotations with, 96d + + Tense + In dependent clauses, 55a + In general statements, 55c + Past Perfect, 55b + Sequence of, 55 + Shift in, 33 + + _Than_ or _as_, Case of pronouns after, 50a + + _That there_, 68 + + _Them_ (misused as adjective), 68 + + _These kind_, 51b + + _Those_, Omission of relative clause after, 2, 68 + + Thought undeveloped, 7 + + Title + Capitals in, 81 + Reference to, 21 Note + Spacing, etc., 80a, 96j + Quoted (books, periodicals, etc.), 82a, 96e + + Transitions, 8, 36 + + _Transpire_, 68 + + Triteness, 61 + + + Undeveloped thought, 7 + + Unity, 10-19 + + Upside-down subordination, 15 + + Usage, Good, 65, 66 + + + Verbals, 58 + + Verb, Forms of the, 58 + + + _Ways_, 68 + + Weak reference, 21 + + _Where at_, 68 + + _While_, Abuse of, 36 + + _Win out_, 68 + + _Who_, _whoever_, 50b + + _Woods_, 68 + + _Would of_, 68 + + Wordiness, 60 + + Words + Confused in meaning, 67 + Confused in spelling, 73 + Double capacity of, 57 + Misused, 68 + Omission of, 3 + + + _Yourself_ wrongly used for _you_, 68 + + + + +Transcriber's Notes: + + + Article 7, Missing period added (Many passages are powerful, + especially the grave-digging [Is grave-digging a passage?].) + + Article 13, Changed period to colon (Exercise:) + + Article 14, Changed period to colon (Exercise:) + + Article 24, Added missing article "a" (In the morning I found on + my bed a heap of snow...) + + Article 25, Changed "them" to "then" (Do not begin one idea, + abandon it for a second, and then return to the first.) + + Article 31, Added missing comma (not only ... but also ..., + both ... and ...) + + Article 38, Changed "men to "man" (He was undoubtedly a brave + man...) + + Article 38, Changed "trangressions" to "transgressions" + (However, if it is used only for serious transgressions...) + + Article 39, Added missing parenthesis ((Consult 36 for a list + of connectives.)) + + Article 54, Changed period to colon (Exercise:) + + Article 58, Changed "I was being taken" to "I must be taken" + in the conjugation table for the verb "to take" as Present + Indicative Obligative in Passive voice + + Article 65, Changed "idoms" to "idioms" (Study the following + list of correct idioms) + + Article 65, Added missing commas (ain't it fierce?, can you + beat it?, going some) + + Article 68, Added missing quotation mark ("We oughtn't (not + hadn't ought) to make this error.") + + Article 68, Changed "Verb" to "Very" (Very. Accompanied by + much when used with the past participle.) + + Article 71, Removed italic style for the word "compare" + (compare occasion) + + Article 86, Corrected numbering in a list changing "2." to + "3." (3. Place in order the headings of the following outline) + + Article 88, Added missing parenthesis ((In some instances the + paragraph may consist of a single sentence.)) + + Article 88, Changed comma to period (We'll have a rope down to + you in a minute.) + + Article 91, Added missing parenthesis ((She came and she was + gone in a moment. McCoy talked and the rest of us listened.)) + + Article 91, Changed period to colon (Right: For breakfast we + had oatmeal, bacon, eggs, and honey.) + + Article 92, Changed period to colon (Better: She enjoyed the + dinners, and the dancing, and the music) + + Article 94, Changed "d." to "b.", and "b." to "d." (b. Insert + a dash when a sentence is broken off abruptly.; d. The use of + the dash to end sentences is childish.) + + Article 95, Changed "dedeclared" to "declared" ("Bunyan's + masterpiece (The Pilgrim's Progress)," declared the lecturer) + + INDEX, Changed period to comma (Impersonal construction, + Needless use of) + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30294 *** |