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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30290 ***
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the numerous original illustrations.
+      See 30290-h.htm or 30290-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30290/30290-h/30290-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30290/30290-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+_The Homeland Handbooks_--No. 55.
+
+OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES AND HOW TO STUDY THEM.
+
+by
+
+SIDNEY HEATH
+(Author of "Some Dorset Manor Houses," etc.)
+
+Illustrated by the Author and Ethel M. Heath
+
+And by Photographs.
+
+Published under the General Editorship
+of Prescott Row and Arthur Henry Anderson,
+by the Homeland Association for the
+Encouragement of Touring in Great Britain.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: The Foundations of a Romano-British Church.
+  Uncovered at Silchester. _Photograph S. Victor White & Co._]
+
+
+
+London:
+The Homeland Association Ltd.,
+22, Bride Lane, Fleet Street, E.C.
+
+First Edition.
+1907.
+
+
+
+
+EDITORIAL NOTE.
+
+
+With a view to making future Editions of this Handbook as accurate and
+comprehensive as possible, suggestions for its improvement are cordially
+invited. If sent to THE EDITORS, The Homeland Association, Association
+House, 22, Bride Lane, Fleet Street, E.C., they will be gratefully
+acknowledged.
+
+
+COPYRIGHT.
+
+This Book as a whole, with its contents, both Literary and Pictorial, is
+Copyrighted in Great Britain.
+
+
+ADVERTISING.
+
+LOCAL.--Terms for Advertising in future issues of this Handbook
+    will be forwarded on application to the General Manager of the
+    Homeland Association, at the above address.
+
+GENERAL.--Contracts for the insertion of Advertisements through
+    the whole series of Homeland Handbooks, more than fifty volumes,
+    circulating through the country, can be arranged on application to
+    the General Manager.
+
+
+
+
+ _CONTENTS._
+
+
+ _Author's Preface_                                7
+ _Dedication_                                      8
+ _Introduction_                                    9
+
+    _I.--Early British Churches_                  19
+   _II.--Early Church Architecture_               26
+  _III.--The Saxon and Norman Styles_             31
+   _IV.--The Early English Style_                 47
+    _V.--The Decorated Style_                     57
+   _VI.--The Perpendicular Style_                 64
+  _VII.--The Renaissance and Later_               74
+ _VIII.--Church Furniture and Ornaments_          80
+   _IX.--Bells and Belfries_                      95
+    _X.--The Spire: Its Origin and Development_   99
+   _XI.--Stained Glass_                          104
+  _XII.--Crypts_                                 109
+ _XIII.--How to describe an Old Church_          111
+
+ _Appendix--A Glossary of the Principal Terms
+  used in Ecclesiastical Architecture_           115
+ _Bibliography_                                  123
+ _Index_                                         124
+
+
+
+
+_LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS._
+
+PLATES.
+
+ 1 _Foundations of a Romano-British Church_               _Frontispiece_
+ 2 _The Church of St. Margaret, Lynn_                                52
+ 3 _A Fine Perpendicular Tower, St. Mary, Taunton_                   72
+ 4 _Sedilia and Chantry, Luton_                                      88
+       *       *       *       *       *
+   _The Various Forms of Arches_                                     10
+   _Plan of a Typical Gothic Cruciform Parish Church, Luton_         12
+   _Examples of Gothic Windows_                                      15
+   _Examples of Buttresses_                                          17
+   _A Rood Screen, with a Restoration of the Rood_                   20
+   _The Church of S. Martin, Canterbury_                             22
+   _Window Built with Roman Brick, Swanscombe_                       24
+   _A Reputed Saxon Doorway, Bishopstone_                            30
+   _Tower of Earls' Barton Church_                                   33
+   _An Example of Norman Tower, Bishopstone_                         34
+   _A Norman Pier Arcade, Abbots Langley_                            36
+   _Examples of Norman Mouldings_                                    37
+   _A Late Norman Parish Church, Castle Rising_                      38
+   _West Doorway, Rochester Cathedral_                               40
+   _Tympanum of Norman Doorway, Fordington St. George_               41
+   _Examples of Norman Capitals_                                     42
+   _A Curious Norman Capital, Seaford_                               43
+   _Norman and Early English Doorways, Dunstable Priory Church_      45
+   _Windows, Showing the Origin of Tracery_                          47
+   _An Early English Arch, Rochester Cathedral_                      48
+   _Wall Arcading, Showing Junction of Norman and Early English
+      Masonry, Dunstable Priory Church_                              50
+   _An Early English Doorway, Huntingdon_                            51
+   _A Group of Thirteenth Century Lancet Windows, Ockham_            53
+   _Salisbury Cathedral_                                             55
+   _Examples of Early English Capitals and Ornament_                 56
+   _A Late Decorated Window in a Parish Church, East Sutton_         59
+   _Examples of Decorated Ornament_                                  61
+   _Examples of Perpendicular Ornament_                              64
+   _Early Perpendicular Parish Church, Yeovil_                       65
+   _A Fine Parish Church, Showing Rich Perpendicular Work,
+      Terrington St. Clement, Norfolk_                               67
+   _A Perpendicular Doorway, Merton College_                         68
+   _A Perpendicular Porch, King's Lynn_                              71
+   _An English Renaissance Church, S. Stephen, Walbrook_             78
+   _A Typical Cornish Font_                                          80
+   _The Sanctuary Knocker, Durham Cathedral_                         82
+   _The Baptistery in Luton Church_                                  83
+   _An Example of a Leaden Font of the Late Norman Period_           85
+   _A Reputed Saxon Font, Shaldon_                                   86
+   _A Detached Holy-Water Stoup of Unusual Design_                   87
+   _A Typical Somerset Bench-End, Spaxton_                           89
+   _A Richly-Carved Pulpit and Canopy, Edlesborough_                 91
+   _Screen with Rood Loft, Kenton_                                   93
+   _The Carved Oak Balustrade in Compton Church_                     94
+   _Bell Turret for Three Bells, Radipole_                           98
+   _The Best Example of a Saxon Spire or Pyramidal Roof, Sompting_  100
+   _Leighton Buzzard Church, with Early English Tower and Spire_    102
+   _A Parish Church with a Shingle Broach Spire, Edenbridge_        105
+   _Interior Elevation of a Bay of a Church_                        114
+
+
+
+
+_STYLES OF ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE._
+
+
+The following periods of architectural style may be of use for the
+purpose of reference, but it must be borne in mind that they are more or
+less approximate, as each style merged by slow degrees into the next.
+
+
+ _Norman._--William I. to Stephen. 1066-1154.
+ _Transition Norman._--Henry II. 1154-1189.
+ _Early English Gothic._--Richard I. to Henry III. 1189-1272
+ _Decorated._--Edward I., II., III. 1272-1377.
+ _Perpendicular._--Richard II. to Henry VII. 1377-1485.
+ _Tudor._--Henry VIII. to Elizabeth. 1485-1600.
+
+
+Mr. Edmund Sharpe gives seven periods of English architecture up to the
+time of the Reformation, and dates them as follows:--
+
+
+ _ROMANESQUE._
+
+   I. _Saxon_              from ---- to 1066
+  II. _Norman_               "  1066  " 1145       79 years
+ III. _Transitional_         "  1145  " 1190       45   "
+
+
+ _GOTHIC._
+
+  IV. _Lancet_             from 1190 to 1245       55 years
+   V. _Geometrical_          "  1245  " 1315       70   "
+  VI. _Curvilinear_          "  1315  " 1360       45   "
+ VII. _Rectilinear_          "  1360  " 1550      190   "
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+It is a truism that the history of building is the history of the
+civilized world, for of all the arts practised by man, there is none
+which conveys to us a clearer conception of the religion, history,
+manners, customs, ideals and follies of past ages, than the art of
+building. This applies in a special sense to cathedrals and churches,
+which glorious relics reflect and perpetuate the noble aim, the delicate
+thought, the refined and exquisite taste, the patient and painstaking
+toil which have been expended upon them by the devout and earnest
+craftsmen of the past.
+
+There are very few of our ancient churches in village, town or city
+which do not offer some feature of interest to the visitor, and in the
+absence of anything more important, there is sure to be some door,
+window, font, screen, or other detail which will amply repay him for the
+small amount of time spent in seeing it.
+
+The aim of the author of this little volume has been to indicate the
+symbolism and meaning attaching to the various portions of our churches
+and cathedrals, and to endeavour briefly to describe, in language as
+simple as the subject will allow, the various styles of ecclesiastical
+architecture with their distinctive characteristics in such a way as
+will enable the reader to assign each portion and detail of a church to
+its respective period with an approximate degree of accuracy.
+
+He does not claim to be original, but endeavours to be useful and
+interesting. The best authorities have been consulted and freely drawn
+upon, but with the object in view of writing a book at once thus useful
+and interesting, no attempt has been made to deal with the subject in a
+strictly architectural, or a purely scientific manner.
+
+Weymouth, 1906.
+
+
+
+
+DEDICATION.
+
+
+To all those who love old buildings--cathedrals, abbeys, and village
+churches, which breathe the spirit of an age with which we have entirely
+broken--and who would fain hand down to posterity, unmutilated, the
+great building achievements of our forefathers, which we, with all our
+science, wealth, and means of curtailing labour, can no more imitate
+than we can reproduce the language of a Chaucer or a Shakespeare; this
+book is respectfully dedicated.
+
+S. H.
+
+
+  "_Firm was their faith, the ancient bands,
+    The wise of heart in wood and stone,
+  Who reared with stern and trusting hands
+    Those dark grey towers of days unknown;
+  They filled the aisles with many a thought,
+    They bade each nook some truth recall
+  The pillared arch its legend brought,
+    A doctrine came with roof and wall._"
+                          --HAWKER OF MORWENSTOW.
+
+
+
+
+OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES AND HOW TO STUDY THEM.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+However much we may admire, considered purely as art, the Pagan temples
+of the Greeks and Romans, we must confess that they are lacking in those
+high ideals and those sustained and inspired motives which seem to
+penetrate and permeate the buildings and churches of the Christian era.
+Perfect as is Greek art within its somewhat narrow limits, it is,
+nevertheless, cold, precise and lifeless. The Gothic buildings on the
+contrary are pregnant with the very spirit of life.
+
+Prompted by a deep and fervent faith in their religion, the Gothic
+builders and sculptors unconsciously wove into the humblest of their
+architectural enrichments some portion of their daily life and
+personality. The slave-built temples of the Greeks offered no scope for
+the exercise of individual expression--such, in fact, would have been
+strongly resented--whereas the early Christian craftsman, revelling in
+his freedom, seized every opportunity of expressing in his work his joy,
+fear and hope of immortality.
+
+This is made apparent in the study of an old church, whereof every
+portion--door, window, bench-end, carving, gargoyle--has hidden about it
+some suggestion of beautiful thought, or some distinct and appropriate
+symbolism. The fact that symbolism underlies almost every such
+indication of mediæval thought is made abundantly manifest in the study
+of mediæval literature. Open any 12th century treatise on morals,
+science or history, and you become aware of the fact at once. The
+main-spring of this symbolism, of all Christian symbolism, turns on the
+parabolic meaning in the scheme of Creation. The early writers were far
+less concerned with recording the plain objective facts of history, than
+in pursuing the allegory and the love of the marvellous, and showing
+all those characteristics of what we now term an unscientific attitude
+of mind.
+
+ [Illustration: The Various Forms of Arches.
+
+  Norman.          Stilted.        Horse Shoe.
+  Equilateral.     Lancet.         Drop.
+  Trefoil.         Trefoil.        Cinquefoil.
+  Ogee.            Four Centered.  Tudor.]
+
+In its widest sense, symbolism means the expression of belief, and if we
+would interpret history aright, we must grasp the fact that the key to
+the character and disposition of peoples of all ages lies in the
+knowledge of their beliefs; for out of the beliefs of one age most
+surely grow the beliefs of its successors, and in no work of man's hand
+are the beliefs held by various peoples in past ages more clearly
+defined than in our cathedrals and churches, which noble buildings in
+every civilized country indicate principles as well as facts, influences
+as well as results; and while presenting the finest materials for
+æsthetic study, are no less useful as indicating the psychological
+peculiarities of those builders of old to whose condition they bear
+witness.
+
+In our grand specimens of ecclesiastical architecture, we may read the
+world's later history, and to-day they breathe the sombre reverential
+influence of a faith which sought to satisfy itself with the visible
+symbolizing of those half-poetical, half-superstitious conceptions with
+which the religion of the Middle Ages was so deeply imbued.
+
+An early development of decorative symbolic art, known as Celtic, of
+which we have examples on old Irish crosses, and particularly on
+illuminated MSS. was wrought by the Christian monks of the 7th and 8th
+centuries, but what is generally understood as Christian symbolic art
+had its finest development about the 13th century. Gothic art is
+essentially symbolic and in many instances, its individual forms have
+specific significance. Thus the common equilateral triangle was used to
+symbolize the Holy Trinity, as are the two entwined triangles. Other
+symbols employed at this period setting forth the mystery of the Unity
+of the Trinity, without beginning and without end, are three interlaced
+circles, and a very curious one is that in which three faces are so
+combined as to form an ornamental figure. Baptism under the immediate
+sanction of the Divine Trinity was represented by three fishes placed
+together in the form of a triangle. So numerous, indeed were such
+Christian symbols after the 9th century that a mere enumeration of them
+would occupy considerable space. Every trefoil symbolized the Holy
+Trinity; every quatrefoil the four Evangelists; every cross the
+Crucifixion, or the martyrdom of some saint; and in Gothic ornament and
+decoration, we find the Chalice, the Crown of Thorns, the Dice, the Sop,
+the Hammer and Nails, the Flagellum and other symbols of our Lord's
+Passion.
+
+ [Illustration: Plan of a Typical Gothic Cruciform Parish Church.
+ (St. Mary, Luton, fully described in No. 47 of this Series).
+  _Drawn by Ed. Craven Lee._]
+
+Although presenting the same characteristics in their external design,
+our town and village churches are very various. The simplest form, and
+the one most commonly found, is that of a nave and chancel, with a tower
+at the west end; to which plan may be added aisles and transepts, the
+latter often being wrongly called "cross-aisles." When the walls of the
+nave above the arcade rise above those of the aisles and are pierced
+with windows, the upper portion is called the clerestory, the meaning
+of which word is not free from obscurity; it seems probable that it
+indicates the clear story--the story which rises clear of the nave and
+aisles. In large buildings, they are important both for utility and
+beauty, but in small and early churches, they are of less importance.
+
+It is a well-known fact that the chancel and nave of a church generally
+stand east and west. This arrangement, called the orientation, is
+symbolic of the teaching that to the east we are to look for assistance
+and protection against the power of our enemy, and that as we pray we
+may look for the day-spring, symbolized to us in the rising sun that
+sheds light and warmth all over the earth.
+
+The public entrance to a church is generally at the west end (the priest
+usually had a door in the chancel for his own use). Through this door we
+enter the house of prayer, for as in the east we see the emblem of the
+Lord of Life and Light, so the west represents the seat of darkness and
+of the powers of evil.
+
+The earliest porches were those of the early Christian basilica churches;
+they were long and arcaded and were called "narthex." In later times,
+they assumed two forms, one the projecting erection, covering the
+entrance and divided into three or more doorways, and the other a kind
+of covered chamber open at the end and having small windows at the
+sides. These latter are generally found on the north and south sides
+of the nave. Formerly, when church government was more rigorous in
+discipline than is now the case, the porch was the appointed place for
+those who were under censure. Those also who were unbaptised, or who had
+not yet received the sacrament of regeneration, were not allowed beyond
+the porch, not quite excluded from the church and yet not permitted
+to enter fully. The porch also served as a path of admission for all
+Christians into the body of the church, so that they passed through the
+assembly of penitents and catechumens, who were wont to ask the prayers
+of the more highly privileged for their full restoration or admission to
+the communion of the faithful.
+
+With reference to our Lord's word, "I am the Door," we frequently find
+the tympana of church doors, particularly those of Norman date, adorned
+with representations of events from his life, but they often also depict
+the monsters, dragons and devils, that formed so strong an article in
+the faith of the early Christians.
+
+A more detailed account of these tympana will be found in a following
+chapter.
+
+Passing through the porch we enter the nave, which word is derived from
+the Latin _navis_, a ship. Its symbolic teaching is that of the Church
+riding triumphantly and buoyantly on the troubled and dark waters of the
+world. The first thing noticed on entering the nave is the font, which
+was formerly placed outside the church, in a separate building called
+the baptistery; a few of our churches have retained these little
+buildings which now form part of the churches proper.
+
+The reason in early days for placing the font outside the church was
+that the Christian was not admitted into the nave until he had been
+baptised and confirmed, the latter rite being administered immediately
+after baptism.
+
+From the western door there is a clear passage through the centre of
+the nave, called the aisle, signifying the straight and narrow way from
+the seat of darkness to immortal life. On each side of this aisle are
+seats for the laity, with room for standing and kneeling. The nave was
+usually divided from the chancel by an open screen of wood or stone,
+signifying that although the Christian might have some insight into the
+mysteries of the priest's office, at the same time these were to be
+partly concealed from his view. The rood screen was so called from the
+fact that the great Rood, or Crucifix, stood above it, not always on the
+screen itself, but on a separate beam, to which was often attached a
+rood loft or chamber. In early days, the lessons were read from the top
+of the rood screen, and in many of our churches the stairways leading
+thither have been retained.
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Gothic Windows.
+  Early English.  Decorated.  Perpendicular.
+  See also page 59.]
+
+In churches where the screen has vanished, the division of the nave
+from the rest of the church is plainly marked by the chancel arch.
+The chancel is emblematic of the Christian perfection, of the Church
+triumphant in heaven.
+
+In an old church, a piscina is nearly always found in the chancel, and
+here, too, were the sedilia or seats for the officiating clergy, the
+prior, sub-prior, and the deacon, the last-named occupying the lowest
+seat.
+
+Founders' tombs also nearly always occupy positions in the chancel, and
+these tombs differ from all others in that they form an integral part
+of the structure, and could not have been added after the church was
+completed.
+
+Another thing sometimes to be seen is the ambery, or aumbry, a small
+cupboard let into the chancel wall, in which were kept the communion
+vessels, the chalice, paten, etc.
+
+The great object of interest, however, in the chancel, is the altar,
+which Archbishop Laud directed should be enclosed by rails, so that
+although the people may draw near, they cannot touch the holy table, but
+must accept from the hands of the priest those gifts of which he is the
+minister from God.
+
+Altars are fully described in a following chapter, but we may here note
+that the reredos, so universally found in our cathedrals, abbeys, and
+in many of our churches, forms no part of the altar, and the Court of
+Arches has decided that there are no altars in the Church of England,
+but only communion tables.
+
+Prominent among the external enrichments of our churches is the
+gargoyle, a word derived from the French, "gargouille," which in its
+turn comes from the Latin "gurgulio"--a water-spout. The earliest
+gargoyles are merely orifices with a lip to shoot the water well away
+from the fabric. The true gargoyle, however, was quickly evolved from
+this primitive form, and consists of two parts, the lower one forming
+the channel, the upper one being the cover. The full significance of the
+skill displayed by the old masons in the rare opportunity the gargoyle
+afforded them of representing the dragons, serpents, etc., in which
+their fancy revelled, is made apparent when we view the futile attempts
+of modern architects to introduce this feature in their churches, for
+modern gargoyles are generally grotesque caricatures, and anything but
+happy appendages to the buildings to which they are attached.
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Buttresses.
+ _Norman_             _Decorated_
+        _Flying Buttress_
+ _Early English_      _Perpendicular_
+ _Drawn by E. M. Heath._]
+
+The churchyard, so pleasing an adjunct to the House of God placed within
+it, is frequently approached through a lych-gate, which word is derived
+from the Saxon _lich_, a corpse. These gates in our country churchyards
+are often very picturesque little structures, and under them the corpse
+at a funeral awaited the officiating priest before being taken into the
+church. The churchyard is commonly regarded as a mere dependency of the
+church, and as having a history very inferior in interest to that of the
+temple to which it is the court. The truth is that many of our churchyards
+have an antiquity far greater than that of the churches, as many of them
+constituted the open-air meeting-places of our Saxon forefathers long
+before the erection of parish churches. In the common meeting-place a
+cross was set up, either of wood or stone, to mark and hallow the spot,
+and when a church was subsequently built it was usually in the immediate
+vicinity of the cross, which accounts for the fact that many churchyard
+crosses are of older date than the churches themselves.
+
+Wells of water are often found in old churchyards, and as the
+regulations of the Saxon church required immersion and not sprinkling,
+it is possible that these were the Saxon fonts.
+
+Such then is the necessarily brief attempt to describe the main lines on
+which our old churches were planned, and the motives and ideals which
+animated their builders, who, being impressed with the dignity and
+mystery of the works of God, made their churches symbolical of the
+portions of the Christian life; the porch signifying baptism, the nave
+the life militant on earth, and the chancel the life eternal; while
+every little ornament, piece of sculpture and enrichment was designed to
+remind the worshippers of their faith, of its hopes, blessed promises
+and rewards.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EARLY BRITISH CHURCHES.
+
+
+In dealing with the introduction of church architecture into our own
+land, the task would be much simplified if one could state with
+certainty when the first church was built on British soil. Some
+historians assert that the Church of England as it is constituted to-day
+dates no further back than the moment when S. Augustine and his
+followers landed on the shores of Kent in the year 596, yet one is
+probably justified in assuming that a church existed in these islands
+for centuries previous to the arrival of the Roman missionaries.
+Unfortunately we have no records to guide us as to the date of this
+earlier settlement, and the name of the first Christian missionary to
+heathen Britain has still to be discovered. "We see," says the quaint
+old historian, Thomas Fuller, "the light of the word shined here, but
+see not who kindled it." The first Christian building of which we have
+any record was probably that erected at Glastonbury before the year 300,
+but that this was the first Christian settlement cannot be alleged with
+certainty.
+
+There are many traditions concerning the introduction of Christianity
+into Britain, some of which may probably have some bearing on the truth,
+but the whole subject is involved in considerable obscurity. One of
+these numerous traditions is to the effect that the British King
+Caradoc, after being taken prisoner to Rome, was allowed to return, on
+condition that several members of his family remained as hostages; and
+whilst serving in this capacity, his mother, son, and daughter are
+stated to have become converts to Christianity, the doctrines of which
+faith they spread in their native land on their return thereto. Another
+tradition is to the effect that S. Paul himself visited Britain and laid
+the foundation of the Christian faith. We are also told by eminent
+church historians that the father and grandfather of S. Patrick were
+Christians, in which case S. Patrick himself would from a very early age
+have been brought up in the tenets of their faith. He is said to have
+been seized by pirates in the Clyde and taken to the north of Ireland,
+and eventually to Gaul. He was subsequently restored to his friends,
+whom he wished to convert to the Christian faith, and for this purpose
+his father sent him to be taught in the schools of Tours, Auxerre and
+Lerins. Eventually he was consecrated Bishop of the Irish and organized
+an efficient ecclesiastical system in Ireland.
+
+ [Illustration: A Rood Screen with a Restoration of the Rood.
+  Kenn, Devon. _Photograph by Chapman._]
+
+Before the coming of the Anglo-Saxons the church seems to have
+established a firm hold on the people, who held tenaciously to their
+possessions, both secular and religious, which were only wrested from
+them after a severe struggle. Their enthusiastic love of Christianity
+led them to make a heroic defence of the churches, rather than see them
+fall into the hands of the heathen Anglo-Saxons. The historian Bede
+tells us that all their buildings were destroyed, the priests' blood was
+spilt upon the altars, prelates and people were slain with the sword,
+and all the cities and churches were burnt to the ground. When all was
+lost and there was no longer a church or home to defend, the Britons
+retired to the country of their fellow-Christians, the secluded and
+almost impenetrable hills and forests of the west. The Anglo-Saxon love
+of gold was quickly recognised by the people of West Wales who saved
+their property and bought the right of worshipping after the manner of
+their fathers by the payment of an annual tribute to their conquerors.
+
+ [Side note: Church of S. Piran, Perranporth.]
+
+So ruthlessly indeed did the Anglo-Saxons rase to the ground the early
+churches, that, until a few years ago, but few traces of these early
+buildings were thought to exist. An accidental discovery, however, in
+the year 1835, brought to light an undoubted relic of an early British
+church in the west, this being the remains of a little church which had
+been until the date above mentioned completely buried in the sand
+on the sea coast near Perranporth in Cornwall. They are thought by
+ecclesiologists to be the remains of the original church erected to the
+memory of S. Piran, a Cornish missionary and a friend of S. Patrick, who
+was buried within its walls before the year 500 A.D. On removing the
+sand, the accumulated deposit of centuries, the church was found to have
+consisted of a nave and chancel containing a stone altar.
+
+ [Illustration: The Church of S. Martin, Canterbury.]
+
+The building measured 29 feet in length, 16-1/3 feet in width and 19
+feet from the floor to the roof, and probably shares with S. Mary's
+Church in Dover Castle, and S. Martin's, Canterbury, the honour of being
+one of the earliest links we possess with the ancient British Church. S.
+Mary's, Dover, appears to have been built of Roman bricks and cement, a
+combination which antiquaries consider is found only in those buildings
+which were erected during the Roman occupation.
+
+ [Side note: S. Martin's Canterbury.]
+
+S. Martin's Church, Canterbury has many claims to be considered one of
+our most interesting churches, no less on account of its associations
+than for its structural interest. The date of its building has been a
+source of endless controversy, as it contains many features attributable
+to either Roman or Saxon architecture. It is thought that it may
+possibly have been used for worship by the Christian soldiers of the
+Roman army. Be this as it may, it is established beyond doubt that it
+was the oratory of Queen Bertha, the first English Christian queen, who
+here worshipped, with her chaplain Liudhard, long before the advent of
+S. Augustine, who himself in later times preached here; and within the
+walls of this cradle of English Christianity, Ethelbert, King of Kent,
+the husband of Queen Bertha was baptized. The Venerable Bede, writing
+within a hundred years of the death of S. Augustine states that there
+was in 597 A.D. in Canterbury, a church "dedicated to the honour of S.
+Martin and built while the Romans still occupied Britain." On the
+departure of the Romans it is probable that the church was still used by
+a small band of Christian worshippers until the heathen Jutes overran
+the Isle of Thanet in 449.
+
+Little is known of the progress of Christianity on this island from that
+date until the landing of S. Augustine in 597, and the first fruits of
+his mission, as we have seen, was the conversion and baptism of King
+Ethelbert. As one would naturally expect, the aspect of the structure
+to-day, though suggestive of antiquity, is lacking in uniformity of
+treatment. The brick courses in the nave are at irregular intervals,
+varying from nine to twenty inches apart, the spaces being filled with
+Kentish rag-stone and occasional blocks of chalk. The chancel extends
+eighteen or twenty feet east of the arch and is composed of Roman
+bricks, evenly laid and averaging four bricks to a foot.
+
+ [Illustration: An Ancient Window built with Roman Brickwork.
+ Swanscombe, Kent. _Photograph Mr. G. H. Smith._]
+
+The chancel was lengthened at the beginning of the thirteenth century
+and again at a more recent date, so that its architecture to-day is
+of three distinct periods. Outside may be seen five flat pilaster
+buttresses and one semi-circular one, a square-headed Roman doorway, a
+Saxon doorway and two Early English porches; and there is also a nearly
+circular panel on the south side of the nave, and a Norman squint at the
+west end. There are many other features of interest which bear evidences
+of a great antiquity, and the only question which is seriously disputed
+is whether the earliest portion of the present nave was built about the
+end of the Roman occupation of Britain or during the mission of S.
+Augustine. The Rev. Charles F. Routledge, M.A., F.S.A., Hon. Canon of
+Canterbury Cathedral, writes: "Whatever may finally be determined to be
+the date of the church's foundation, it can never lose its unique
+association with S. Augustine, King Ethelbert and Queen Bertha, nor its
+undisputed claim to be the oldest existing church in England. From it
+flowed the tiny spring of English Christianity, which has since widened
+out into a mighty river, and penetrated the remotest parts of the
+civilized and uncivilized world."
+
+ [Side note: Other Early Churches.]
+
+Among other churches which show signs of having been built during the
+Roman occupation are those of Reculver, Richborough and Lyminge, while
+the foundations of an undoubted early church have been discovered in
+the old Roman city of Silchester, in Hampshire. _See frontispiece._ The
+old church at Reculver stood originally within the Roman castrum, the
+fortress which guarded the northern mouth of the Wantsume, now a small
+stream, but once an arm of the sea dividing the Isle of Thanet from the
+mainland. The greater part of this church was pulled down in 1809, but
+the western towers, known as "the sisters" were repaired by Trinity
+House, as they constitute a useful landmark for mariners, being visible
+at a great distance.
+
+Reculver church was built about A.D. 670, and from the existing walls
+and foundations it is clear that its plan was basilican. The church
+is now a ruin, but some stone pillars which supported the arches are
+preserved in the Cathedral Close at Canterbury.
+
+As Reculver guarded the northern mouth of the watercourse, so
+Richborough protected the south, and here traces of a chapel in the
+form of a cross are plainly discernible amongst ruins known to be of
+Roman workmanship. The old church at Lyminge in the same county is thus
+described by Canon Jenkyns, in his "_History of Lyminge_":--"The Roman
+foundations discoverable at the south-east angle of the chancel, together
+with the remarkable half-arch that intervenes, marked the site of the
+_aquilonalis porticus_--the title of basilica already given to it in the
+seventh century establishes its claim to great antiquity."
+
+We thus see that although remains of the actual buildings in which the
+British Christians worshipped are few in number, yet enough are left us
+to prove conclusively that there was a very active and zealous Christian
+community established in these islands during at least the period
+immediately preceding that in which Rome withdrew her legions from
+Britain in order to defend Italy against the Goths, and abandoned our
+island to the mercy of her foes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+EARLY CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+In the early years of the Christian Church, when its members became
+sufficiently free from persecution to erect buildings for the purpose of
+worship, they were naturally anxious to avoid any of the forms peculiar
+to either heathen or Jewish temples. Some model, however, was necessary,
+and their choice being limited, they appear to have adopted the
+simple style of the Roman basilica, or court of justice. There was an
+adaptability about the general plan of such a building which rendered
+its selection natural and not inappropriate, while the dignified
+simplicity of its construction and the object for which it was primarily
+founded--the dispensation of justice--commended it no doubt in the first
+instance as a model for the primitive Christian church. These basilicæ
+were usually enclosures surrounded by a colonnade, sometimes roofed, but
+more often open to the air, and designedly built for the purpose of
+being accessible to all members of the community at all times of the
+day. They appear occasionally to have been used for the transaction of
+ordinary business in which they would closely resemble our exchanges. Be
+this as it may, this form of architecture has left its impress on many
+Christian buildings, and the name of basilica, for a church, is still
+used in many parts of Italy.
+
+The Roman basilica was usually in the form of a parallelogram, with a
+seat for the judges at one end, and in their adaptation of this form of
+building, the early Christians devoted this place to the purposes of an
+altar. This, by an easy and natural transition, is thought to have given
+rise to the formation of the semi-circular recess at one end of the
+building, known as the apse (from the Latin _apsis_, a bow or arch),
+which is still to be found in some of our older churches.
+
+Being thus Roman in the nature of their ground plan, it is not
+surprising to find that other portions of the early Christian buildings
+show decided characteristics of a Roman style. On the destruction of the
+Pagan temples by order of the Emperor Constantine about the year 330,
+much of their material was built into the earliest Christian churches,
+and the Roman character of their design being prevalent, they formed a
+style of architecture which has been designated Romanesque, of which the
+later styles, known here as Saxon and Norman were largely modifications.
+There is no reason to doubt that the earliest Christian churches were
+very unpretentious in form and that some time elapsed before there was
+anything which could be called a definite church architecture, beyond
+that to which we have alluded. Nevertheless, as the Church strengthened
+her position and grew in security, more attention was devoted to the
+subject of its edifices, and the departure in time from the original
+ground plan furnished an opportunity for the introduction of a more
+symbolical and appropriate design. The plan of the old basilica was
+abandoned for one in the form of the cross, the accepted symbol of the
+Christian religion, which departure, however, did not involve any very
+great alteration from the old ground plan.
+
+We come then to the time when one or other of the forms known as the
+Latin or the Greek cross--whichever was most convenient--was usually
+employed in a building designed for Christian worship, and these forms
+are universally found in the most elaborate structures of which the
+Christian Church can boast.
+
+As time passed, these cruciform churches were surmounted with a dome,
+steeple, or tower at the point where the members of the cross
+intersected each other. At first the most prominent of these external
+adornments was the dome; a characteristic of the architecture of Eastern
+Europe, which acquired the name Byzantine, from its having been carried
+to great perfection in Byzantium (Constantinople), the capital of the
+Eastern Empire.
+
+The church of S. Sophia, which was built, much as it now exists, early
+in the sixth century, and was afterwards converted into a mosque, is an
+almost perfect example of the Byzantine style. In this building we find
+the Roman arch used in a variety of ways, while the dome itself is
+formed entirely of this arch used as the crowning work of the edifice.
+Eastern churches in this style usually took the form of the Greek cross,
+this form being better calculated to support the weight of the cupola.
+In Western Europe, however, where the flat squat tower afterwards
+developed into the steeple, as we shall see in a later chapter, the
+Latin cross was mostly used, and this, with a few notable exceptions, is
+the plan of most western churches.
+
+With writers of about fifty years ago, it was a favourite theory that
+the Christians converted the old basilicæ into churches, and that the
+"Halls of Justice" erected by the Romans in this country were also
+converted into Christian churches, and some authorities point to the
+walls and arches of Brixworth church in confirmation of this theory. The
+late Mr. J. W. Brewer, however, stated that unfortunately for this
+theory, no single example of a basilica being converted into a church
+has been found in this country and he himself held the theory that the
+word basilica was used by the Romans to describe any building which was
+supported by internal columns, and in that way the name came to be
+applied to Christian churches.
+
+As we have seen, the early Christians, after a short time, became
+dissatisfied with these buildings adapted from Pagan types, and the
+Byzantine form of church arose, the first people who practised this
+style of building being the Greeks. The style spread with rapidity all
+over the East, the great church of S. Sophia being its largest example
+and the smaller, but more perfect, church of S. Mark at Venice giving us
+the best idea of this form of church architecture. Largely modelled on
+this style, also, are the circular baptisteries of Italy and the round
+churches of England, France and Germany, the modern Russian churches and
+all the Mohammedan mosques. The Latin churches did not greatly favour
+this style and their use of it was confined, with few exceptions, to
+baptisteries, monumental chapels and the like, but for parochial,
+cathedral and monastic churches, the oblong plan was retained and
+ultimately developed into the Gothic church with its nave, transepts and
+chancel.
+
+The changes which the Christian basilica at first underwent were simple,
+_viz._, the use of the arch instead of the straight lintel, or the
+placing of an entablature between the columns; a little later, about the
+tenth century, the old wooden roof of the basilica gave place to the
+arched roof or vaulting, so called from its being composed of a series
+of vaults. The styles called Romanesque and Lombardic are but
+geographical varieties of the same architecture and from these the Saxon
+and Norman styles were soon to be developed. The vaulted basilica church
+soon became common over the north of Europe, the two most important and
+practically unaltered examples being the cathedrals of Speyer and Worms,
+in Germany, although our Anglo-Saxon cathedrals of Peterborough, Ely and
+Norwich may, so far as regards their naves, be justly regarded as the
+offspring of the vaulted basilica style of building.
+
+When the old basilica style of church with its heavy beam roof and its
+innumerable columns had ceased to satisfy the lofty aspirations of Latin
+Christianity, and when the Greeks had inaugurated a new style of church
+architecture, only two courses were left to the Latins, either to adopt
+the Greek style in its entirety, or to improve upon the basilica type.
+Fortunately, although after considerable hesitation, they chose the
+latter alternative, the result being the genesis of our glorious
+cathedrals with their long naves and aisles, deep transepts and
+beautiful variety of form and outline.
+
+ [Illustration: A Reputed Saxon Doorway.
+  Bishopstone, Sussex. _Photograph Mr. W. Hodgson._]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE SAXON AND NORMAN STYLES.
+
+
+As we have seen in the previous chapter, the whole subject of pre-Saxon
+church building is still very obscure, and for some considerable time
+after the Anglo-Saxon invasion little is known concerning church
+architecture, nor has it yet been fully ascertained whether any
+buildings of this period exist. By the year 588 the Saxons were in
+complete possession of the land. Christianity was to all appearance
+wiped out and the Church, to the superficial observer was dead. In his
+"_History of English Church Architecture_," Scott expresses the opinion
+that the oldest English churches may be divided into three groups.
+First, those which preceded the Danish invasion; secondly, those from
+the above epoch to the invasion of Sweyn; and thirdly, those onward to
+the Norman Conquest.
+
+ [Side note: Saxon Architecture.]
+
+What exactly constituted Saxon architecture has long been a
+controversial point and one which will probably never be definitely
+settled. Parker, in his "_Glossary of Architecture_," says:--
+
+    "For a considerable time, after they (the Anglo-Saxons) had
+    established themselves in this country, their buildings were
+    of wood, and this appears to have been the prevailing material
+    employed at the time of the Conquest, although stone had been
+    occasionally used several centuries earlier.... No timber-work
+    of Saxon date can be in existence at the present time, but it is
+    contended by some antiquaries that several of our churches exhibit
+    specimens of Saxon masonry; the truth of this theory, however, is
+    not fully established, nor has the subject of Saxon architecture
+    been yet sufficiently investigated to clear away the obscurity in
+    which it is involved."
+
+Probably few of our so-called Saxon churches were built earlier than
+thirty or forty years before the Norman Conquest, and it seems certain
+that for some years after they had settled in England, the Normans
+employed Saxon masons to build in the Saxon manner, as is seen by the
+tower of S. Michael's Church, Oxford, which, although showing all the
+characteristics of reputed Saxon masonry was built many years after the
+Battle of Hastings. Certain it is that these pre-Norman buildings in
+England were singularly rude and rough and show how much our Saxon
+ancestors were, at that period, behind the Italians, French and Germans
+in architectural skill.
+
+ [Side note: Saxon Churches.]
+
+Our best examples containing Saxon work are possibly the churches at
+Sompting and Bishopstone, Sussex; Bradford-on-Avon; Wootton Wawen
+(sub-structure of tower); Wing; Brixworth, and Barnack, Northants;
+Greenstead in Essex; and S. Martin's at Wareham, Dorset. Of towers of
+this date the best are possibly those of S. Mary's and S. Peter's,
+Lincoln and S. Benet's, Cambridge. Of crypts, the finest examples are
+at Ripon Cathedral, York Minster (part) and S. Mary's Church, York. In
+addition to these, many other churches have chancel arches, doorways or
+some other less important features which are considered to be of Saxon
+origin.
+
+These early buildings generally show the semi-circular arch on the
+doorways, but the windows usually have a triangular head; at Sompting
+church, however, the windows have the semi-circular arch. It is
+necessary to say a few words in detail about the more important churches
+of this era.
+
+ [Side note: S. Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon.]
+
+The church of S. Lawrence at Bradford-on-Avon is one of the oldest
+unaltered churches in England, and it seems to be beyond question that
+it is the actual church built by Ealdhelm at the beginning of the eighth
+century and dedicated by him to S. Lawrence. It consists of a chancel,
+nave and north porch, and among its remarkable features is its great
+height and the extreme narrowness of the round-headed arch between the
+nave and the chancel, a feature it has in common with the Saxon church
+of S. Martin at Wareham; the ground-plan measurements of both these
+churches are identical. At S. Lawrence's church, an incised arcade is
+seen outside the walls, and on either side of the west aspect of the
+chancel arch are two sculptured figures of angels, which are thought to
+represent the earliest extant fragments of church carving in England.
+
+ [Side note: Brixworth, Earls' Barton and Barnack.]
+
+Brixworth church is possibly older than S. Lawrence's and it is said to
+have been in continuous use for Divine Service ever since it was
+erected. The tower appears to be of rather later date than the nave and
+rests upon the walls of a "narthex" or portico, which may have extended
+along the whole breadth of the front, as is still to be seen in churches
+at Rome and Ravenna. The curious pile of masonry built up against the
+tower may have been added for defence, as it could hardly have formed
+part of the original design.
+
+ [Illustration: Tower of Earls' Barton Church.
+  Generally considered to show characteristics of Saxon masonry.]
+
+Earls' Barton and Barnack churches both have towers so covered with
+narrow projecting strips of stonework that the surface of the walls
+appears divided into rudely formed panels. The west doorways of both
+show primitive imitations of Roman mouldings in the imposts and
+architraves. The tower of Earls' Barton consists of four stages, each
+of which is slightly smaller than the one below. In that of Barnack
+church, the upper stages of the tower represent the period of transition
+from Norman to Early English.
+
+ [Illustration: An Example of a Norman Tower.
+  Bishopstone, Sussex. _Homeland Copyright._]
+
+S. Michael's, Oxford, has a massive tower of solid masonry, unpierced in
+its lowest stage by either door or window, the second stage shows but
+one window and the highest is pierced by several windows of more
+elaborate construction.
+
+ [Side note: St. Michael's Church, Oxford.]
+
+Although generally consisting of rubble and stone, Saxon churches were
+sometimes built of wood as we see from the existing nave of the parish
+church of Greenstead, Essex.
+
+ [Side note: Greenstead Church, Essex.]
+
+A brick chancel has been added at the east and a timber belfry at the
+west end, but the old Saxon portion is composed of large chestnut trees
+split asunder and set upright close to each other with the round side
+outwards. The ends are roughly hewn so as to fit into a sill at the
+bottom, and into a plate at the top, where they are fastened with wooden
+pins. There are 16 logs on the south side where are two doorposts, and
+on the north side twenty-one logs and two spaces now filled with rubble.
+There is a tradition that this church was erected to receive the body of
+S. Edmund, on its return from London to Bury, in 1013.
+
+The semi-circular arch has long been considered to be one of the most
+distinctive marks of Norman architecture, but Mr. Rickman, who made an
+exhaustive study of the early churches of France and England, says:--
+
+    "In various churches it has happened that a very plain arch
+    between nave and chancel has been left as the only Norman feature,
+    while both nave and chancel have been rebuilt at different times;
+    but each leaving the chancel arch standing. I am disposed to think
+    that some of these plain chancel arches, will, on minute
+    examination, turn out to be of Saxon origin."
+
+It would be tedious to enter into any more minute account of the
+Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical remains, and the reader whose enquiries
+conduct him to the more elaborate works on the subject will be startled
+by the contrary opinions that he will surely encounter.
+
+In concluding these brief remarks on early buildings, we must again
+quote from Parker's work to which reference has already been made:--
+
+    "The class of buildings referred to as being considered to belong
+    to this style contain some rather unusual features, and they
+    require to be particularly described, both because they are in
+    themselves remarkable, and because there is a probability that
+    some of them may be Saxon."
+
+ [Illustration: A Norman Pier Arcade.
+  Abbots Langley, Herts. _Photograph Mr. A. W. Anderson._]
+
+The Norman style of church architecture with its varied forms of
+columns, moulded and recessed arches and vaulting, may be roughly stated
+to have been introduced into England at the time of the Conquest. The
+Saxon masons do not appear to have understood vaulting sufficiently well
+to have roofed over any large space with stone, and for this reason
+alone the Saxon form of building was bound to give way before the
+Norman, which of all the earlier styles was the most advanced in this
+respect.
+
+ [Side note: Norman Architecture.]
+
+Generally speaking, Norman arches were semi-circular, but they were by
+no means universally so, for a form frequently found is one in which the
+spring of the arch does not take place from the abacus, or upper member
+of the capital, but at some distance above it and when it assumes this
+form it is called a "stilted" arch, suggested by some authorities to
+have been unintentional and the result of imperfect construction or
+planning. _See page 10._
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Norman Mouldings.
+  Chevron or Zig-zag.        Star.
+  Alternate Billet.          Square Billet.
+  Double Cone.               Lozenge.
+  Beak Head.                 Bird Head.]
+
+The main features in the ornamentation of this period are the sculptured
+bands worked round the arches, which, although generally called
+"mouldings," are more in the nature of decoration, and in some instances
+they appear to be additions carved on the originally unadorned surface
+of the masonry.
+
+ [Side note: Ornament.]
+
+The earliest and most general ornament is the chevron or zig-zag, which
+is frequently found doubled, trebled and quadrupled. The next most
+common form is the beak-head, consisting of a hollow and large round.
+In the hollow are placed heads of beasts or birds whose tongues or beaks
+encircle the round. On the west doorway of Iffley church, Oxford, are
+many of these beak-heads extending the whole length of the jamb down to
+the base moulding. They also figure prominently among the ornamentations
+of the hospital church of S. Cross, near Winchester. The zig-zag
+moulding is very common on Norman churches and is so easily recognised
+that no further description is needed here. The less prominent decorations
+of Norman mouldings include the alternate billet, the double cone, and
+the lozenge, together with an immense number of others less commonly
+found.
+
+ [Side note: Windows.]
+
+The Early Norman window was little better than a narrow slit finished
+with a plain semi-circular head, and was generally only a few inches
+wide. They were, it is believed, filled with oiled linen and the sides
+of the aperture were splayed towards the interior. Later in the period,
+the windows were enriched by the zig-zag and other mouldings and at a
+still later period an improvement was made by inserting nook-shafts in
+the jambs similar to those in doorways.
+
+ [Illustration: A Late Norman Parish Church.
+  Castle Rising, Norfolk. _Drawn by Gordon Home._]
+
+The towers of Norman churches often show windows of two lights separated
+by a central shaft, all enclosed under a large semi-circular arch, the
+spandrel of which is rarely pierced. Plain circular windows of small
+dimensions are sometimes found in other positions and in churches of
+later date, and occasionally in gable walls. Larger windows of the same
+form, with small shafts radiating from the centre and connected at the
+circumference by semi-circular or trefoiled arches, are also found as at
+Barfreston church, Kent, where there is a fine example.
+
+ [Side note: Doorways.]
+
+Norman doorways are found in great numbers and variety, even in churches
+which present no other features in this style. The most usual form
+consists of a semi-circular-headed aperture with a hood-mould springing
+from plain square-edged jambs. Frequently, however, the doorways are
+recessed, having a nook-shaft in the angle formed by a recession from
+the capital, in which case it presents two soffits and two faces,
+besides the hood-moulds. The depth of these doorways is largely due to
+the great thickness of the walls usual in buildings of this period, but
+in many cases that portion of the wall in which the entrance is inserted
+is made to project forward beyond the general face, which projection is
+finished either with plain horizontal capping, or a high-pitched gable.
+
+ [Illustration: _West Doorway Rochester Cathedral_
+  Duncan Moul.]
+
+Norman porches thus have generally but little projection, and are
+frequently so flat as to be little more than outer mouldings to the
+inner door. They are, however, often richly ornamented and have rooms
+above, which rooms are wrongly called "parvises." The shallow aperture
+often follows the form of the arch, but is frequently square-headed,
+having a semi-circular tympanum of masonry filling the space between the
+lintel of the door and the intrados of the arch.
+
+ [Illustration: Tympanum of Norman Doorway.
+  Fordington S. George, Dorset. _Drawn by E. M. Heath._]
+
+These tympana are usually sculptured in low relief with a representation
+of some scriptural or traditional event, while the assertion of the
+Apostle that "we must, through much tribulation, enter into the kingdom
+of God," may account for the fondness of the Norman sculptors in
+representing different stages of martyrdom on the tympana of their
+doors. A very singular tympanum is that on the door of the church of
+Fordington S. George, at Dorchester, whereon is represented some
+incident in the life of S. George. The principal figure is on horseback
+with a discus round his head. The other figures are in hauberks and
+chausses, and generally bear, in point of costume, much resemblance to
+the figures on the famous Bayeux tapestry. Barfreston church, Kent, has
+an interesting tympanum, as also has Patrixbourne church in the same
+county, where the sculpture shows the Saviour with dragons and at his
+feet a dog. At Alveston church, Warwickshire, the sculpture shows two
+quadrupeds with enormous tails, fighting, with between them a small
+bird, possibly intended for a dove. Our best example of a Norman doorway
+and tympanum is generally considered to be the west doorway of
+Rochester Cathedral, where the sculpture is of a very advanced character
+for its date, which is probably about 1130-40.
+
+ [Side note: Piers.]
+
+A distinctive feature of the Norman style are the massive pillars,
+usually circular, and with capitals either of the same form, or square;
+occasionally in plain buildings the pillars themselves are square with
+very little or no ornamentation. Towards the end of the period, an
+octagonal pillar was often used, having a much lighter appearance than
+the earlier forms.
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Capitals.
+      Norman.             Transitional.              Norman.
+  Crypt, Winchester.  Christ Church, Oxford.  Winchester Cathedral.]
+
+Besides these plain styles, compound or clustered piers are very
+numerous, differing considerably in plan; the simplest consists of a
+square having one or more rectangular recesses at each corner, but one
+more frequently met with has a small circular shaft in each of the
+recesses and a larger semi-circular one on each side of the square.
+
+ [Side note: Capitals.]
+
+Norman capitals are very varied, having many different forms of
+ornamentation; the commonest is one which resembles a bowl with the
+sides truncated, reducing the upper part to a square; sometimes the
+lower part is cut into round mouldings and ornamented, but it is
+frequently left plain. The Norman capital in its earliest style was of
+short proportions, but afterwards it became longer, with lighter
+ornamentation, gradually merging into the Early English.
+
+ [Illustration: A Curious Norman Capital. Seaford, Sussex.]
+
+The bishops and abbots of this period appear to have possessed
+considerable skill in architecture, for no fewer than fifteen of our
+English cathedrals contain some important Norman work, as the older
+portions of the cathedrals of Canterbury, Durham, Winchester,
+Gloucester, Peterborough, Ely, Norwich, Lincoln and Oxford.
+
+ [Side note: Norman Buttresses.]
+
+The Norman buttress, better described by Mr. Sharpe as a pilaster strip,
+unlike those of the later period, projects but very little from the
+wall, and this is especially so in buildings of the earlier part of the
+period. They are usually quite plain and are more used for finish than
+actual support; the Norman builder relying principally upon the thickness
+and weight of his walls to sustain any roof thrust (_see page 17_).
+
+ [Side note: The Round Churches.]
+
+There are in England a few round churches which are thought to have been
+built by the Knights Templars, a religious community banded together for
+the purpose of wresting the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem from the
+Saracens. Their object was to defend the Saviour's tomb and to guard
+Palestine, for which purpose they built numerous monasteries throughout
+the Holy Land and fortified them like castles.
+
+Another famous order which combined the religious instincts of the
+cloister with the military ardour of the warrior was that of the Knights
+of S. John Baptist or Knights Hospitallers, who, besides fighting, were
+to tend the sick and provide for the welfare of all Christian travellers.
+The churches belonging to the Templars were usually built in circular
+form in imitation of the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. They
+were capped with vaulted concave roofs said to be symbolical of the
+vast circuit and concave of the heavens. Our best example is the Temple
+Church, London, to which was added at a later period, a beautiful Early
+English Gothic extension. Other round churches are those of S. Sepulchre,
+Cambridge; S. Sepulchre, Northampton; Temple Balsall, Warwickshire, and
+of Little Maplestead, Essex, which last, although the smallest, is by no
+means the least interesting. It is attributed to the Hospitallers, an
+order founded about the year 1092, and introduced into England in the
+reign of Henry I. At Clerkenwell may still be seen the ancient gateway
+leading to their hospital. The order was suppressed in 1545. The church
+at Little Maplestead was built early in the 12th century, and in 1186
+the adjoining manor was given by Juliana Doisnel to this order, which
+gift was confirmed by King John and Henry III. This church is thought to
+reproduce with more fidelity than the others the original church of the
+Holy Sepulchre.
+
+ [Illustration: Norman and Early English Doorways.
+  Showing the transition from one style to another.
+  Dunstable Priory Church. _Drawn by Worthington G. Smith._]
+
+These famous Norman round-chancelled churches have much in common with
+the old basilica form.
+
+It must be pointed out that the arbitrary divisions into which
+architecture has been divided--Norman, Gothic, etc., are pure figures of
+the imagination, as by a series of easy transitions, one style became
+gradually merged into the next without any hard and fast dividing lines
+whatever. The periods during which one style became gradually blended
+into another are called the periods of transition.
+
+ [Side note: The Transition.]
+
+Architecture being progressive, it was only by the gradual development
+of one style from another that the art was enabled to advance with
+social progress, the literature and other arts of the country. The
+transition from the Norman to the Early English style may be ascribed to
+a period somewhat earlier than the 12th century, when a great change in
+the construction of the arch began to manifest itself. Alone, however,
+the form of the arch is no real test, for many pure Norman works have
+pointed arches. The square abacus may be taken as the best test. In its
+incipient state the pointed arch exhibited a change of form only, whilst
+the accessories and details remained the same as before; and although
+this change gradually led to the Early Pointed style in a pure state,
+with mouldings and features altogether distinct from those of the
+Norman, and to the general disuse, in the 13th century, of the
+semi-circular arch, it was for a while so intermixed as, from its first
+appearance to the close of the 12th century, to constitute that state of
+transition called the semi-Norman.
+
+
+ [Illustration: Windows showing the Origin of Tracery.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+The origin of what is loosely called Gothic architecture--which is
+generally considered to include the styles, with their transitions, from
+Early English to late Perpendicular, or Tudor-Gothic--is not free
+from obscurity, but it is certain that it began to be employed in
+ecclesiastical edifices about the time that the Goths settled in Italy,
+although all the available evidence goes to prove that the style
+originated and underwent its earliest developments in the north-west of
+Europe, and penetrated by slow degrees to the south and east.
+
+England was somewhat later than France in introducing this style of
+architecture, our earliest purely Gothic building being Salisbury
+Cathedral, begun in 1220, although the choirs of Rievaulx and Fountains
+Abbey were commenced a few years earlier. The Early English style in its
+earliest developments is nowhere seen to better advantage than in
+Salisbury Cathedral, and in its very latest forms at Westminster Abbey,
+the period of time being chronologically measured by the reigns of
+Richard I., John and Henry III.
+
+ [Illustration: An Early English Arch.
+  Rochester Cathedral. _Photograph Eastmead._]
+
+Most of our Gothic buildings were carried out under the supervision of a
+master-mason, but the most subordinate workman was left plenty of scope
+within reasonable limits for whatever artistic individuality he
+possessed, and the enrichments and ornaments of the Gothic era point out
+the noble aim, the delicate and graceful thought, the refined and
+exquisite taste expended upon every portion of their buildings by these
+Gothic masons.
+
+ [Side note: The Pointed Arch.]
+
+One of the chief differences between pure Gothic and Norman
+architecture is in the use of the pointed form of arch, yet in the study
+of the early buildings of this date it is curious to notice how evenly
+the balance is held between the pointed and the round arch, and how at
+one time it was quite an open question whether the Gothic style would be
+distinguished by a round or a pointed arch. In Germany and Italy the
+round arch held its own and continued to be used right through the
+Middle Ages. In England, however, the pointed arch soon gained a decided
+victory over its rival. Many theories have been put forward concerning
+the introduction of the pointed arch, one amongst them being that it was
+the result of the intersection of two circular arches such as is very
+commonly found in late Norman work; another theory is the poetical idea
+that it was copied from an avenue of trees. Whether or not either of
+these theories holds good, it is quite certain that this form of arch
+was known in the East for centuries before it reached Europe, being
+found in cisterns and tombs in Egypt and Arabia dating from long before
+the Christian era.
+
+It has also been suggested that it was introduced from the East by the
+Crusaders, in which case we should have found it making its first
+appearance in Hungary, Poland, Bohemia and Russia, but it so happens
+that these were the very last countries in Europe to adopt the pointed
+arch.
+
+ [Side note: The Transitional Period.]
+
+The first form of the pointed arch, known as the Early English, was used
+from about 1180 to 1300, including part of the reigns of Henry II.,
+Richard I., John, Henry III. and Edward I. "Nothing," says the Rev. J.
+M. Hutchinson, "could be more striking than the change from Norman to
+Early English. The two styles were the complete opposites of each other;
+the round arch was replaced by the pointed, often by the acute, lancet;
+the massive piers by graceful clustered shafts; the grotesque and
+rudely-sculptured capitals by foliage of the most exquisite character;
+and the heavy cylindrical mouldings by bands of deeply undercut
+members."
+
+ [Illustration: Arcading showing the junction of the Norman
+  and Early English Masonry. Dunstable Priory Church.
+ _Photograph H. A. Strange._]
+
+Gothic architecture differs from all previous forms in the economical
+use of material, and the small size of the stones used. Whereas in both
+Roman and Norman buildings the arrangement of the materials depended
+upon their strength in masses, the Gothic masons employed stones of
+small size in the construction of edifices of equal strength and of far
+greater magnificence; while in constructive properties the Gothic style
+was a great advance on anything that had gone before, as the buildings
+in this style did not depend for their stability on the vertical
+pressure of columns, but on the correct adjustment of the bearings and
+thrusts of different arches operating in various directions. Owing to
+the fact, then, that each portion of a Gothic Church helps to support
+something besides itself, it is obvious that such buildings could be
+erected with a far smaller quantity of material than was previously
+necessary. The various little shafts or columns are so disposed as to
+distribute the weight of the superstructure and thus relieve the greater
+columns or piers of some portion of the superincumbent weight; the
+aisles help to support the nave; the walls of the side chapels act
+as abutments against the walls of the aisles, while the towers are
+generally placed so as to resist the accumulated thrust of all the
+arches along the sides of the nave.
+
+ [Illustration: An Early English Doorway. Huntingdon.]
+
+The enrichments and little ornaments attached to mouldings, and
+particularly those placed in the hollows, are most characteristic of the
+various styles of Gothic architecture. The zig-zag is peculiar to the
+Norman, the nail head to the Transitional or semi-Norman, and the dog
+tooth to the Early English.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Ornament.]
+
+This last ornament represents a flower, looking like four sweet almonds
+arranged pyramidically, and there is no other ornament so distinctive of
+this period. Early English foliage is known by reason of the stalks
+always being shown as growing upwards from the lower ring of the
+capital, called the astrigal. These stalks are generally grouped
+together and curve forward in a very graceful manner. The plants mostly
+represented are the wild parsley, seakale and celery, and this foliage,
+called stiff-leaved foliage, is found at no other period than the end of
+the 12th century.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Mouldings.]
+
+Early English mouldings are very complicated and yet very beautiful, and
+consist of beads, keel and scroll patterns, separated by deep hollows
+giving a rich effect of light and shade round the arch. These deeply-cut
+hollows are also a distinctive mark of the style.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Windows.]
+
+The earliest windows of this period are long and narrow, with acutely
+pointed heads, the exterior angle being merely chamfered and the
+interior widely splayed. Somewhat later the introduction of tracery gave
+a highly beautiful appearance to the windows and from the character of
+this feature the date of the window can be fairly accurately determined.
+Where the tracery is formed by ornamental apertures pierced through a
+plate of stone, it is called plate tracery, and is certain to be of not
+later date than the earlier part of the 13th century. If it is bar
+tracery, with the bars forming plain circles, the work is also Early
+English, but if, on the other hand, the bars form other shapes filled in
+with patterns, or consisting of a single trefoil or quatrefoil, they are
+of later date.
+
+ [Illustration: The Church of St. Margaret, Lynn.
+  West Front showing the Early English work in the base of the Tower.
+ _Photograph Dexter & Son._]
+
+ [Illustration: Example of Group of Thirteenth Century Lancet Windows.
+  Ockham, Surrey. _Homeland Copyright._]
+
+The traceried window originated from the placing of a two-light narrow
+lancet window under one dripstone having a plain head, the introduction
+of tracery between the heads of the lancets and the dripstone
+becoming necessary for beauty and lightness of the form (_see page 47_).
+
+ [Side note: Early English Porches.]
+
+Early English porches project much further from the main walls than
+do the Norman doorways, and in large and important buildings they
+frequently have a room above. The gables are usually bold and high
+pitched, and the interiors quite as rich in design as are the
+exteriors.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Doorways.]
+
+The doorways of this period are usually pointed, though occasionally
+they have a semi-circular head. The mouldings are boldly cut and often
+enriched with dog tooth ornament. The jambs frequently contain a shaft
+or shafts with plain or foliated capitals (_see page 51_).
+
+ [Side note: Early English Capitals and Piers.]
+
+Early English capitals are usually bell-shaped, and are, in the smaller
+examples, quite devoid of ornament, with the exception of a necking and
+one or two mouldings round the abacus. The bell is generally deeply
+undercut, which, as in the mouldings, is a strong characteristic of the
+style. The nail head and dog tooth ornaments sometimes appear in the
+hollows between the mouldings. In the large examples the bell is covered
+with foliage, which, springing direct from the necking, curls over most
+gracefully beneath the abacus. In clustered piers the capitals follow
+the form of the pier, and they also adopt the same form in the single
+shaft, with the exception that multiangular shafts have often circular
+capitals. The base consists of a series of mouldings and frequently
+stands upon a double or single plinth, which in the earlier examples
+is square, but in later examples assumes the form of the base, and is
+either circular or polygonal. At Stone church, Kent, is a good example
+of an Early English capital, decorated with stiff-leaved foliage, and
+the dog tooth ornament, which in this case is seen between the mouldings
+of the arch, and is of a perforated character.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Buttresses.]
+
+The buttresses (_see page 17_) of this period are, as a rule, simple
+in form, and in small churches consist of two or more stages, each
+set-off or division being sloped at the top to carry off the rain. In
+larger buildings the buttress generally finishes with a triangular head
+or gable, and is frequently carried above the parapet, except where
+stone vaulting is used, in which case it is covered with a pinnacle
+either plain or ornamented. The edges are often chamfered or the
+angles ornamented with slender shafts. A niche to contain a statue is
+occasionally sunk in the face of the buttress, but this feature is
+more common in the next or Decorated period, although the change from
+one period to another was so gradual that the exact date of a niched
+buttress would be difficult to determine were there no other features to
+guide us.
+
+ [Illustration: Salisbury Cathedral. Begun in 1220.
+  The spire was added, 1350. _Drawn by Sidney Heath._]
+
+Flying buttresses were first introduced at this period, and are common
+in all large buildings with vaulted roofs. They are generally of simple
+design, with a plain capping and archivolt, and they spring from the
+wall buttress to the clerestory (_see page 17_).
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Early English Capitals and Ornament.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE DECORATED STYLE.
+
+
+The best examples of Gothic architecture may be said to have been
+erected between the years 1180 and 1300, and from the latter year many
+writers date the commencement of its decline. In England we owe nearly
+the whole of such magnificent buildings as the cathedrals of Lincoln,
+Salisbury, Worcester, and the abbey of Westminster to the 13th century,
+and there is scarcely a cathedral or abbey that does not owe some
+beautiful portion of its structure to the builders of the same period,
+the transepts and lady chapel of Hereford Cathedral, the eastern
+transepts of Durham, the nave and transepts of Wells, the transepts of
+York, the choir presbytery, central and eastern transepts of Rochester,
+the eastern portion of the choir of Ely, the west front of Peterborough,
+the choir of Southwell, the nave and transepts of Lichfield, and the
+choir of S. David's being a few of our most characteristic examples of
+this period. The style which followed the Early English is known as the
+Geometric or Early Decorated style, and it embraces roughly the end
+of the 13th century and the first twenty or thirty years of the 14th
+century, and continued in its later or Curvilinear form to near the end
+of that century. Perhaps the most perfect example of the Geometric style
+in the world is the cathedral church at Amiens, which is usually called
+the _mother church_ of this style, and although she has many daughters,
+none of them can be said to equal their parent in beauty.
+
+In England the most perfect examples are not to be looked for in
+cathedrals and large churches, but in their chapels, and the most superb
+specimen we possessed, S. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, has been
+destroyed within comparatively recent years. Those left to us include
+the chapel of the palace of the bishops of Ely, in Ely Place, Holborn,
+now the Roman Catholic Church of S. Etheldreda, a building almost
+identical in plan with the vanished chapel of S. Stephen. Trinity
+Church, Ely, once Our Lady's Chapel, and Prior Crawden's Chapel,
+in the same city, are lovely examples of the latest development of
+the Curvilinear style, while the former is considered the most
+highly-wrought building in England. Belonging to this period, also,
+is the choir of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, and Luton Church.
+
+The Decorated style may be divided as regards its windows into two
+classes--Geometric and Curvilinear. The first has tracery evolved
+entirely from the circle. The Curvilinear style is distinguished by
+traceries formed by curved and flowing lines. _See pages 15 and 59._
+
+ [Side note: Decorated Windows.]
+
+Decorated windows are usually large and contain from two to seven
+lights, although one sometimes finds a window with a single light, but
+of less elongated form than those of the Early English period.
+
+As we have seen in a previous chapter, tracery originated from the
+necessity of piercing that portion of the wall which was left vacant
+when two lights were gathered under a single arched dripstone, and
+therefore elementary tracery consisted merely of apertures in a flat
+surface. As the possibilities of this ornamental feature became better
+understood, the mullions were recessed from the face of the wall and the
+fine effect thus produced was, as the art progressed, much enhanced by
+the introduction of various orders of mullions, and by recessing certain
+portions of the tracery from the face of the mullions and their
+corresponding bars. The geometrical tracery, as we have seen, consists
+of various combinations of the circle, as the trefoil, based on the
+triangle, the quatrefoil on the square, the cinquefoil on the pentagon,
+etc.
+
+ [Illustration: A Late Decorated Window in a Parish Church.
+  East Sutton, Kent. _Photograph Gardner Waterman._]
+
+In Curvilinear windows the tracery, although based on the same forms and
+figures, is yet so blended into an intricate pattern that each figure
+does not stand out with the same individuality as in the Geometric.
+Among our most beautiful Geometric windows are those of the Lady Chapel
+at Exeter, Ely Chapel, and Merton Chapel, Oxford, and of the Curvilinear
+our best example is probably the east window of Carlisle Cathedral.
+
+It must be noted that beautiful as are Curvilinear windows, yet they
+mark a certain decadence in Gothic architecture, in that it is an
+irrational treatment of stone, and conveys the idea that the material
+was bent and not cut into the required shape, it being a well-established
+canon in art that when strength is sacrificed to mere elegance it marks
+a decline in that art.
+
+ [Side note: Decorated Capitals and Piers.]
+
+Decorated capitals as a rule follow the contour of the pier in clustered
+columns, and are either bell-shaped or octagonal. They are frequently
+only moulded, thus presenting rounds, ogees and hollows, on which the
+prevailing ornaments of the period, the ball and the square flower,
+are set. The foliated sculpture is most exquisite, and is gracefully
+wreathed around the bell, instead of rising from the astrigal or upper
+member of the capital, as in the earlier style.
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Decorated Ornament.
+  Finial                 Capital           Finial
+ (Wimborne Minster).    (York Minster).   (York Minster).
+                         Square Flower.
+                         Ball Flower.
+  Crocket                Cornice           Crockets
+ (Hereford Cathedral).  (Grantham).       (York Minster).
+ _Drawn by E. M. Heath._]
+
+Almost every variety of leaf and flower is represented, the oak, the
+vine and the rose being perhaps the most common, but the leaves of the
+maple, hazel, ivy and strawberry are all so beautifully rendered as to
+evidence their having been directly studied from nature. Plucked flowers
+too, are not uncommon, and sometimes the little stalks and foliage
+are accompanied by birds, lizards, squirrels and other creatures. The
+columns of this period are much more elaborate than those of the Early
+English style, and in plan have curved profiles with moulded members
+between the shafts. These mouldings are very varied, but the hollows not
+being so deeply undercut, the general effect is broader and less liney
+than in the Early English; while the Decorated arches are less sharply
+pointed than in the previous style.
+
+ [Side note: Decorated Doorways.]
+
+The doorways of this style possess much the same features as the last,
+but the mouldings, jamb shafts, etc., are more slender, and generally of
+finer proportions, the hollows being often filled with the ball flower
+and square flower instead of the dog tooth. Sometimes the doorways have
+no pillars, being entirely composed of mouldings which are continuous
+with those in the architrave. The large single doorways of this period
+are nearly as large as the double ones of Early English date, and on the
+sides small buttresses or niches are sometimes placed, and often one
+finds a series of niches carried up like a hollow moulding, and filled
+with figures. The figures of this period are not so good as in the
+previous style, the heads seem too large for the bodies, and in the
+female figures the breasts are represented as quite flat. Where there
+are no figures double foliated tracery is often found hanging from one
+of the outer mouldings, giving an effect of great richness.
+
+ [Side note: Decorated Buttresses.]
+
+The buttresses (_see page 17_) in the Decorated style are nearly always
+worked in stages, and a niche frequently figures on the face of the
+buttress. Crocketed canopies and other carved decorations are common,
+and in large buildings they usually terminate in pinnacles, which are
+sometimes of open work.
+
+A Gothic building attains its effect by the combination of numerous
+parts, each possessing an individual character of its own. In its
+loftiness, graceful outlines, and rich effect of light and shade, it
+speaks of noble aspirations, of freedom, of intellectual thought,
+of talent and skill, all generously given for a high purpose, the
+foundation of which was a strong religious enthusiasm, combined with
+an intense love of the work itself.
+
+ [Side note: Characteristics of Gothic Architecture.]
+
+Having now arrived at the point where Gothic architecture reached its
+climax, we may briefly sum up its leading characteristics. It is
+essentially pointed or vertical; its details are mostly geometrical in
+its window traceries, clusters of shafts and bases, but this geometric
+quality is only one of construction and form and not of its inner spirit
+and motive, for plants copied directly from nature were used in
+beautiful profusion.
+
+If we compare a large Gothic church with a comparatively small one, we
+shall find the columns, windows, ornaments of the former are not so very
+much larger than those of the latter, but that there are double or three
+times the number of them. This is not the case in a classical building,
+where each feature has to be enlarged in proportion to the size of the
+building. It is the constant sub-division of a Gothic Church which adds
+so to its apparent size.
+
+Ornamentally, the Gothic is the geometrical and pointed elements
+repeated to their utmost and afterwards combined with the elaboration of
+natural objects, plants, flowers, etc., growing in the neighbourhood of
+the work. This is a great feature, but the most striking point in all
+good Gothic work is the wonderful elaboration of geometric tracery,
+vesicas, trefoils, quatrefoils and an immense variety of other ornament.
+
+In regard to the sizes of our great churches it may be of interest to
+note that our longest English cathedral is Winchester. York and Lincoln,
+although not so long as Winchester, are in superficial area very much
+larger. The largest English church of a non-cathedral rank is
+Westminster Abbey, which has, moreover, the distinction of being the
+loftiest internally; the nave being 104 ft. in height. The largest
+parish church is that of S. Nicholas, Great Yarmouth, which exceeds in
+superficial area no fewer than eight of our cathedrals.
+
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Perpendicular Ornament.
+     Panel.                        Crocket.
+  Tudor Rose.      Portcullis.   Fleur de Lys.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE.
+
+
+Towards the close of the XIVth century a great change came over English
+Gothic architecture, a change which was to a certain extent a return to
+classical ideas. The curvilinear tracery gave place to a rigid vertical
+and horizontal form, with the result that windows and panels instead of
+being filled with curved bars of stone, were sub-divided by straight
+perpendicular bars and transoms or cross-bars.
+
+This style of architecture is popularly known as Perpendicular, but as
+the horizontal lines are quite as distinct a feature as are the vertical,
+it would perhaps be more correct to speak of it as Rectilinear. This
+change in architectural form made its appearance towards the close of
+the XIVth century, although it was by no means generally introduced at
+that period, for the old methods and styles were carried on side by side
+with the new for many years. For example, the eastern end of the choir
+of York Minster (1361-99) possesses a window the traceries of which
+contain both curvilinear and rectilinear lines, while Shottesbrook
+Church in Berkshire (1387), and Wimmington Church, Bedfordshire (1391)
+are examples of village churches neither of which has any feature of the
+Perpendicular style.
+
+ [Illustration: Yeovil Parish Church (A.D. 1376).
+  Early Perpendicular in style, without a clerestory, and called,
+  for its large window area, the "Lantern of the West."]
+
+In its earlier stages the Perpendicular style presented an effect at
+once good and bold; the mouldings, though not equal to the best of the
+Decorated style, were well defined, the enrichments effective, and the
+details delicate without extravagant minuteness. Subsequently the
+style underwent a gradual debasement; the arches became depressed; the
+mouldings impoverished, the details crowded and coarsely executed, and
+the whole style became wanting in the chaste and elegant effects for
+which the Decorated stands unapproached and unapproachable. The flowing
+contours and curved lines of the previous style now gave place in the
+windows to mullions running straight up from the bottom to the top, and
+crossed by transoms. As the arch became more and more depressed the
+mouldings became shallower and less effective. In early buildings of
+this period the drop arch is very prevalent, but as the period advanced
+a form known as the Tudor arch began to be used. It is an arch in which,
+as a rule, the centres of the upper portion lie immediately below those
+of the lower, but this is not always the case. Sometimes the whole of
+the upper portion uniting the arcs of the ends is struck from one centre,
+in which case the arch becomes a three-centred one, being, in fact, half
+an ellipse. Towards the close of the style the curvature of the upper
+portion is so slight that it can hardly be distinguished from a straight
+line, and as the debasement progressed it became really straight. Ogee
+arches are also found at this period, and foiled arches are very frequent.
+When the Tudor arch was not used, we generally find the low drop arch,
+these three last being mostly used for small openings.
+
+ [Illustration: A Fine Parish Church showing Rich Perpendicular Work.
+  Terrington St. Clement, Norfolk. _Photograph Dexter & Son._]
+
+The peculiar characteristics of the windows--the perpendicular
+mullions and horizontal transoms--we have already alluded to.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Windows.]
+
+The window heads, instead of being filled with flowing tracery, have
+slender mullions running from the heads of the lights between each
+mullion, and these again have smaller transoms, until the whole surface
+of the window becomes divided into a series of panels, the heads of
+which being arched, are trefoiled or cinquefoiled. In the later windows
+the transoms at the top are often furnished with a small ornamental
+battlement, causing the mullions to present a concave outline.
+
+ [Illustration: A Perpendicular Doorway.
+  Merton College Chapel. _Drawn by E. M. Heath._]
+
+The plans of churches in this style differ from all others in that they
+are more spacious, the columns more slender and wider apart, the windows
+much larger, and the walls loftier and thinner. Panelling is used most
+abundantly on walls, both internally and externally, and also on
+vaulting, while some buildings, as Henry the Seventh's Chapel at
+Westminster, are almost entirely covered with it. Fan tracery vaulting,
+a feature peculiar to this style, is almost invariably covered with
+panelling.
+
+The mouldings of this period are essentially different from those which
+preceded them. As a general rule they are cut on a slanting or chamfer
+plane, the groups of mouldings being separated by a shallow oval-shaped
+hollow, entirely different from those of the Decorated period.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Doorways.]
+
+The doorways of the early portion of this period had two-centred arches,
+but the characteristic form is the four-centred, enclosed in a square
+head, formed by the outer mouldings with a hood mould of the same shape,
+the spandrels being filled with quatrefoils, roses, shields, etc.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Capitals.]
+
+Perpendicular capitals are either circular or octagonal, but the necking
+is usually of the former shape, and the upper members of the abacus of
+the latter form. The bell portion is mostly plain, but is often enriched
+with foliage of a very conventional character, shallow and formal,
+without either the freedom or the boldness of the Early English, or the
+exquisite grace of the Decorated periods. A distinguishing feature in
+the ornamentation of this period is that called panel-tracery, with
+which the walls and vaulted ceilings are covered. The patterns are found
+in a variety of forms, as circles, squares, quatrefoils, etc.
+
+ [Side note: Fan Vaulting.]
+
+The rich vaulting called fan vaulting previously alluded to, is composed
+of pendant curved semi-cones, covered with foliated panel-work, which
+bears some resemblance to a fan spread open.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Ornament.]
+
+Another very characteristic ornament is the Tudor flower. It is formed
+by a series of flat leaves placed upright against the stalk. It was
+much used in late buildings as a crest or ornamental finishing to
+cornices, etc., to which it gave an embattled appearance. Cornices and
+brackets were frequently ornamented with busts of winged angels called
+angel-brackets, and angel-corbels. The portcullis and the Tudor
+rose--both badges of the house of Tudor--also figure prominently among
+the ornaments of the period. The crockets for the most part partake of
+the squareness which pervades all the foliage of this style. _See page
+64._
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Buttresses.]
+
+The buttresses are very similar to those preceding them in their plainer
+forms, but, in richer examples the faces are covered with panel work
+and are finished with square pinnacles sometimes set diagonally and
+terminated with a crocketed spire, or finished with an animal or other
+ornament. Parapets with square battlements are very common at this period,
+but they too are frequently panelled or pierced with tracery, or with
+trefoils or quatrefoils inserted in square, circular or triangular
+compartments.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Roofs.]
+
+The roofs of this period, both in ecclesiastical and secular buildings,
+are very magnificent, and have the whole of the framing exposed to view;
+many of them are of high pitch, the spaces between the timbers being
+filled with tracery, and the beams arched, moulded and ornamented in
+various ways; and frequently pendants, figures of angels, and other
+carvings are introduced. The flatter roofs are sometimes lined with
+boards and divided into panels by ribs, or have the timbers open, and
+all enriched with mouldings and carvings, as at Cirencester church,
+Gloucestershire.
+
+The gradual decline of the Gothic style is very evident in late
+Perpendicular churches, especially in those erected at the beginning
+of the XVIth century. The elements of Gothic architecture became much
+degraded and led to that mixture of features called the Debased Gothic
+in which every real principle of art and of beauty was lost.
+
+ [Illustration: A Perpendicular Porch.
+  S. Nicholas, King's Lynn. _Photograph Dexter & Son._]
+
+The chief characteristics, then, of the Perpendicular style are the
+vertical mullions, and the general flattening of arches, mouldings and
+carvings. Should there be no other guide, a Perpendicular church carries
+its style and period stamped upon its carvings. The plants represented
+are, almost without exception, the vine with or without grapes, and
+the oak with or without acorns. The leaves are generally full blown and
+crumpled. The earliest building showing the Perpendicular style is the
+beautiful little priory church of Edington, in Wilts, erected by William
+Edington, Bishop of Winchester. The same style, but more fully developed,
+is seen in the nave of Winchester Cathedral, at New College, Oxford, and
+at Winchester College.
+
+It is generally admitted that the Perpendicular style was, to a certain
+extent, a return to classical ideas, for Gothic architecture in its
+aspiring grace and feeling for motion was becoming a little unsteady in
+construction, and although the movement was started by Bishop Edington,
+it was left to William of Wykeham to save our English Gothic architecture
+from developing into the flamboyant[1] style so characteristic of the
+late Gothic buildings of France and Germany.
+
+It is little less than astounding that William of Wykeham, at once Prime
+Minister, diplomatist, scholar and energetic churchman, should have found
+time to introduce such far-reaching reforms into the art of building,
+and whatever his fame may be in other directions he will always be
+remembered by posterity as one of the most remarkable geniuses of the
+Middle Ages, a man of giant mind and immense physical energy, who
+carried into all his work a large and dignified character, stamping it
+with the unmistakable personality of a master mind.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Towers.]
+
+As builders and designers of church towers the masons of the
+Perpendicular era have never been approached, and all our finest English
+towers are of this style and period.
+
+ [Illustration: A Fine Perpendicular Tower.
+  St. Mary, Taunton. _Photograph H. Montague Cooper._]
+
+Considerations of space will only allow a few of these towers to be
+mentioned, but among the finest are those at Boston, Lincolnshire;
+Wrexham, Denbighshire; Wymondham, Heigham and S. Clement's in Norfolk;
+Southwold Church in Suffolk; Manchester Cathedral, S. Nicholas' Church,
+Newcastle, and S. Mary's Church, Taunton. Of Perpendicular date and
+style, also, are the great lantern towers of Worcester, Bristol,
+Gloucester, York and Durham Cathedrals, in addition to the fine
+bell-tower of Evesham Abbey.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Spires.]
+
+The spire, although less commonly used than formerly, was by no means
+abandoned, and beautiful examples of Perpendicular spires are those at
+S. Michael's, Coventry, and Rotherham Church, Yorkshire. Although
+nearly all our cathedrals have some portion of their fabric in the
+Perpendicular style, chantries, chapels, cloisters, vaulting, screens,
+etc., it was in our parochial churches that Perpendicular architecture
+reached its highest and finest development. Just as the XIIIth century
+was the great age for cathedral building, so the latter end of the XIVth
+and earlier half of the XVth centuries was the period to which we owe
+some of the most beautiful of our parish churches, as S. Michael's,
+Coventry (fin. 1395); S. Nicholas, Lynn (fin. 1400); Manchester
+Cathedral (formerly a collegiate church), (1422); Fotheringay Church,
+Northants (fin. 1435); Southwold Church, Suffolk (1440), and S. Mary
+Redcliffe, Bristol (about 1442). A little later came, among others,
+Wakefield Church, Yorkshire (1470), S. Stephen's, Bristol (1470), S.
+Mary's, Oxford, and its namesake at Cambridge (both in 1478) and Long
+Melford Church, Suffolk (1481).
+
+Apart from the actual buildings the Perpendicular architects, masons and
+sculptors have left us some beautiful work in the form of timber roofs,
+screens, stalls and seats. Among the more notable roofs of this period
+are those at S. Peter's, S. Andrew's and S. Mary's, Norwich, the one at
+Morton Church in Somerset, those at Saffron Walden and Thaxted, Essex,
+and a particularly fine one at S. David's Cathedral in Wales. Among the
+remarkable domestic roofs in this style are those at Westminster Hall
+and Eltham Palace.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE RENAISSANCE AND LATER.
+
+
+So far we have been considering Gothic churches, but we now come to the
+time when, from a variety of causes, the Italian architects, among them
+Palladio and Vitruvius, began to revive classical architecture, a
+movement which gradually spread over other parts of Europe.
+
+ [Side note: The Classic Revival.]
+
+The various causes which led to this apparently retrograde movement are
+still involved in considerable obscurity. The commercial prosperity of
+the age produced a class who travelled abroad and cultivated the fine
+arts, with the result that they desired to see erected in England
+buildings such as they had seen in Rome, Florence, Genoa and Padua. It
+is generally admitted that the ramifications of Gothic architecture had
+reached their utmost limit, and the style was getting out of hand, as
+is seen by the flamboyant buildings on the continent. The revival of
+classical literature in western Europe gave an impetus to the movement
+which was largely intended to enfold art within the shelter of an
+enlightened taste, and protect it from the licence of unordered
+enthusiasm. How far it succeeded is not a question that can be discussed
+at length here, but, however good their intentions may have been, the
+architects used little discrimination in the selection of buildings
+which were to serve as models for Christian churches, and although
+subsequently considerable improvements were made, yet, most of the
+defects in the pagan buildings of the ancients were retained in such as
+were intended to be utilized for Christian worship, and even considered
+purely as exercises in architecture it was not until the more chaste
+remains of antiquity began to be studied that the spirit and harmony of
+the good examples were attained. A greater contrast than the methods
+employed by the Gothic mason and the Renaissance architect could not
+well be imagined. The former shaped his material with his own hands; the
+foster mother of his art was tradition and its cradle the craftsman's
+bench; whereas the latter, with no builder's training, worked out his
+flawless and precise plans in the exotic atmosphere of the office and
+the study. The practice of making working drawings for every detail
+of the building was the cause of the decline of ornamental sculpture,
+with the result that all life and growth in the building ceased. Some
+authorities are very severe on the Renaissance movement. Dr. Fergusson,
+in his "_Modern Styles of Architecture_," says: "During the Gothic era
+the art of building was evolved by the simple exercise of man's reason,
+with the result that the work of this period is the instinctive natural
+growth of man's mind. The buildings, on the other hand, which were
+designed in the imitative styles, and produced on a totally different
+principle, present us with an entirely different result, and one
+which frequently degrades architecture from its high position of a
+quasi-natural production to that of a mere imitative art."
+
+ [Side note: Inigo Jones and Wren.]
+
+Be this as it may, the severe classical style introduced into England by
+Inigo Jones (who studied in Italy under Palladio), and continued by Sir
+Christopher Wren, soon swept everything before it.
+
+Our most remarkable church in this style is S. Paul's Cathedral, which
+in style has two very adverse circumstances to struggle against. In the
+first place, it bears so great a similarity to the great church of
+S. Peter, at Rome, that one cannot help comparing it with that fine
+example, and secondly, it is the only English cathedral which is not in
+the Gothic style. It must, of course, be acknowledged that S. Paul's
+falls far short of S. Peter's, especially in its lighting, but it does
+not deserve the condemnation of a great German critic, who said, "It is
+a building marked neither by elegance of form nor vigour of style."
+Although the interior of its dome and clerestory of the nave and choir
+are extremely gloomy when compared with those of S. Peter's, the church
+is generally acknowledged to be far superior to the latter in its
+architectural details, and few, if any, Italian churches can be said to
+surpass it, either in general composition or external effect, although
+it must be admitted that everything having been sacrificed to attain the
+latter quality, S. Paul's taken as a whole, is neither worthy of its
+fine situation nor of its great architect.
+
+Other churches which are excellent examples of this style are S.
+Stephen's, Walbrook, and S. Mary Abchurch, London. Both show remarkable
+skill. The former is divided into a nave and four aisles, transepts, and
+a shallow chancel, by four rows of Corinthian columns, with a small dome
+over the intersection. The interior is very beautiful, and this church
+is generally considered to be Wren's masterpiece. S. Mary Abchurch, is
+nearly square in plan, has no columns and is covered with a domical
+ceiling, but so skilfully treated that the effect is singularly
+pleasing.
+
+ [Side note: Hawkesmore.]
+
+Of the Elizabethan and Jacobean buildings it is necessary to say little,
+as at best they are but clumsy imitations of the Flemish, French and
+Italian Renaissance, while the style which we now call Queen Anne came
+in towards the close of the XVIIth century, and belongs of right to the
+reign of Charles II. Hawkesmore, a pupil and follower of Wren, was a
+strong architect who has left us Christ Church, Spitalfields, and S.
+Mary Woolnoth. He also designed the western towers of Westminster Abbey,
+often wrongly ascribed to Wren, and the second quadrangle of All Souls'
+College, Oxford. This architect, like the majority of his contemporaries,
+misunderstood and despised the Gothic style, with which he had little
+real sympathy; he drew out designs, which still exist, for converting
+Westminster Abbey into an Italian church, just as Inigo Jones had done
+with the exterior of the nave of old S. Paul's, but we cannot be too
+thankful that this abominable suggestion was never carried out.
+
+ [Illustration: An English Renaissance Church.
+  S. Stephen's, Walbrook, London. Generally considered to be
+  Sir Christopher Wren's masterpiece. _From an Engraving dated 1806._]
+
+With King George III. on the throne our ancestors contented themselves
+with dull, but substantial, buildings of which some hard things have
+been written, but they were at least respectable and free from sham,
+while the churches, although not elegant, were well-built and occasionally
+picturesque, as we see by the perfect little building of this date at
+Billesley, Warwickshire.
+
+The eighteenth century pseudo-classical abominations and sham Gothic, so
+favoured by Horace Walpole and his admirers, can be briefly dismissed.
+A more rampant piece of absurdity than that of erecting imitations of
+portions of Greek temples and adapting them for Christian worship it
+is difficult to imagine, and in the Pavilion at Brighton, Marylebone
+Church, and the "Extinguisher" Church in Langham Place we even surpassed
+in bad taste and vulgarity all the absurdities of the Continental
+architecture produced by the French Revolution.
+
+ [Side note: Barry and Pugin.]
+
+Two men now came on the scene who, united, were destined to bring some
+kind of order out of this chaos. Barry and Pugin were both scholars and
+architects, for while the former rather favoured the classical style he
+thoroughly understood the Gothic, while Pugin was a thorough mediævalist,
+a true artist, and a bold exponent in his "_Contrasts_" of a complete
+return to mediæval architecture as the only possible cure for the evils
+which had crept into the art of building.
+
+Barry's idea, which was perhaps the more practical, was to correct by
+careful study the errors into which the later exponents of both Classic
+and Gothic architecture had fallen, and endeavour by well thought out
+modifications to evolve a style more suitable to modern requirements.
+Pugin, however, would have none of the evil thing, and although he
+supplied his friend with designs for the details and woodwork of the
+Houses of Parliament which Barry was rebuilding, they did not collaborate
+in any further way, and both died before the Houses of Parliament
+were completed, in which, as a matter of fact, Barry's designs were
+completely ignored. The Reform Club is considered to be the best of
+Barry's classical buildings.
+
+Pugin's earlier works were mostly Roman Catholic churches, and they are
+acknowledged to be an immense advance on any Gothic work which had been
+seen for centuries. In the Roman Catholic Cathedral of S. Chad, at
+Birmingham, there is a dignity, loftiness and simplicity surpassed by
+few Gothic buildings when that style was at its zenith, and from the
+time Pugin designed this building, architecture--notwithstanding our
+exhaustive study of archæology, our immense resources of capital and
+labour, our science and labour-saving appliances, and the comparative
+accessibility of the finest materials--has neither developed nor advanced.
+The most erudite Gothic mason could have possessed but little art
+knowledge as compared with the modern architect, and yet with our
+learned societies, wonderful libraries, easily obtained photographs and
+plans of the best buildings in the world; with writers far superior in
+intellectual acquirements to those of the Middle Ages, our vast wealth,
+with our tools such as the mediæval craftsman could never have dreamed
+of, and with the experience of twenty centuries to guide us we have
+made no advance during more than half a century. Our best architects
+acknowledge that until we get a new method of building, originality in
+architecture is an impossibility, mainly because all the existing styles
+of architecture have been worked out to their legitimate conclusion,
+and have been perfected under circumstances and conditions with which
+we have entirely broken; the originality in detail which pervades and
+permeates our Gothic buildings and gives them the greater part of their
+charm, must, of necessity, be out of our reach until we blend the spirit
+of what we are pleased to call our practical age, with a certain amount
+of that spirit of poetry and romance, religious fervour and devoutness,
+which animated the builders and craftsmen of the past.
+
+
+ [Illustration: A Typical Cornish Font.
+  Probably of the late Norman period. Now at Maker, near Plymouth.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+CHURCH FURNITURE AND ORNAMENTS.
+
+
+The most important part of the internal furniture of a church is the
+altar, a name derived from the Latin _altare_, a high place. The altar
+is a raised structure on which propitiatory offerings are placed. In the
+Christian church the altar is a table or slab on which the instruments
+of the Eucharist are displayed.
+
+ [Side note: The Altar.]
+
+The early Christian altars were portable structures of wood, and the
+Church of Rome still allows the use of an altar of this description,
+although a consecrated stone, containing an authentic relic and regarded
+as the true altar, must be placed upon the wooden table. The slab
+forming the altar was sometimes supported on pillars, but more
+frequently on solid masonry, and previous to the Reformation it was
+marked with five crosses cut into the top, in allusion to the five
+wounds of Christ. From the period that stone altars were introduced it
+was usual to enclose within them the relics of saints, so that in some
+cases they were the actual tombs of saints. In England the altars were
+generally taken down about the year 1550, set up again in the beginning
+of the reign of Queen Mary, and again removed in the second year of
+Queen Elizabeth. In the church of Porlock, Somerset, the original high
+altar has been preserved, though not in use, being placed against the
+north wall of the chancel. In Dunster Church, in the same county, there
+is a solid stone altar, said to have been the original high altar, and
+in the ruined church of S. Mary Magdalene at Ripon, the high altar has
+escaped destruction. Of chantry altars we have several left, including
+those at Abbey Dore, Herefordshire; Grosmont, Monmouthshire; Chipping
+Norton, Oxon.; Warmington, Warwick; S. Giles's, Oxford; Lincoln
+Cathedral, and many others; and it is rare to find a Gothic church
+without some traces of altars in their various chapels, oratories or
+chantries.
+
+The altar is, of course, an adoption by the Christian church of a pagan
+aid to worship, and at S. Mary's church, Wareham, which is thought to
+stand on the site of a Roman temple, are some pieces of stone considered
+by antiquaries to be portions of a pagan altar, on which burnt offerings
+were placed.
+
+Above many Christian altars was placed a piece of sculpture or a
+painting representing some religious subject. These altar pieces
+sometimes consist of two pictures, when they are called "diptyches," and
+sometimes of three pictures, when they are called "triptyches," and
+both forms usually fold up or are provided with shutters. They are often
+rare examples of the Flemish and other schools of painting, and of great
+value.
+
+At the Reformation the stone altar was displaced by the communion table,
+which at first occupied the position vacated by the altar. This gave
+umbrage to the Puritan mind, and the communion table was then usually
+placed in the centre of the chancel, with seats all round for the
+communicants; which arrangement is still in vogue in some of our English
+churches and in Jersey, although at the Restoration the communion table
+was, as a general rule, replaced at the eastern wall of the Chancel.
+
+ [Illustration: _Durham Sanctuary Knocker._]
+
+Long before the Christian era the altar was regarded as a place of
+refuge for those fleeing from justice or oppression, and this custom or
+privilege of sanctuary was sanctioned by the English bishops and was
+retained for many centuries by the Christian Church. Many of our parish
+churches claim to possess old sanctuary rings or knockers, but it is
+doubtful if any of these were ever used by fugitives, for the reason
+that although in early days every parish church had the right to grant
+sanctuary, few possessed the means of feeding and housing a refugee,
+save in the church itself, which was expressly forbidden. This is why
+we find records of fugitives travelling many miles at the risk of their
+lives and passing hundreds of parish churches in their endeavour to reach
+Bury St. Edmunds, Hexham, Durham or some other of the well-recognised
+sanctuaries. The only sanctuary knocker remaining to-day, which is
+above suspicion, is that at Durham Cathedral. It is made of bronze and
+represents the grotesque head of a dragon, the ring coming from the
+mouth.
+
+ [Illustration: The Baptistery in Luton Church.
+ _Photograph Fredk. Thurston, F.R.P.S._]
+
+Above the door is a small room in which attendants watched by
+day and night, and when a fugitive was admitted a bell was rung to
+announce that someone had taken sanctuary.
+
+ [Side note: The Font.]
+
+The font, as we have seen, was originally placed in a separate building
+called the baptistery. The only known example of anything of the kind
+in England is that in S. Mary's Church, Luton, fully described in The
+Homeland Handbook, No. 47. It is in the Decorated style, dates from the
+time of Edward III., and is said to have been designed by William of
+Wykeham for Queen Philippa. It is composed of white stone with open
+panels, pierced by cinquefoils and quatrefoils, while the apex of each
+panel terminates in a foliated finial. The font inside is octagonal
+in form and of 13th century date, but it has been somewhat restored.
+Ancient fonts were always large enough to allow for total immersion,
+and our present custom of baptism by affusion, or sprinkling, is only
+permitted, not enjoined by the rubric. In early days the sacrament of
+baptism was only administered by the bishops at the great festivals of
+Pentecost and Easter, for the reason that this afforded the greater
+convenience for immediate confirmation, but with the increase in the
+number of churches the rite was administered by the priests in every
+village. The font was required by the canon to be of stone, but there
+are a few Norman fonts made of lead, among them those at S. Mary's
+Church, Wareham, Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey, and at Edburton, Parham,
+and Pyecombe, Sussex. A remarkable font is that at Dolton Church, Devon,
+made up of fragments of the churchyard cross, and there is also a
+somewhat similar one at Melbury Bubb, Dorset. By a constitution of
+Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury (1236), fonts were required to be
+covered and locked, and at first these covers were little more than
+plain lids, but they afterwards became highly ornamental and were
+enriched with buttresses, pinnacles, crockets, etc. It is doubtful if
+any fonts exist which can reasonably be supposed to be Saxon, although
+a few, like that at Little Billing, Northants, may possibly be of that
+era. Of Norman fonts we have large numbers. They are sometimes plain
+hollow cylinders; others are massive squares with a large pillar in
+the centre, and small shafts at the corners. These fonts are generally
+ornamented with rudely executed carvings, consisting of foliage and
+grotesque animals.
+
+
+ [Illustration: An Example of a Leaden Font of the late Norman period.
+  Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey.]
+
+The one in Winchester Cathedral is a good example, and there are three
+other very similar ones in Hampshire. Early English fonts are very often
+circular, and sometimes square, and they are often supported in much the
+same way as the Norman ones. In the Decorated and Perpendicular styles
+they are, with few exceptions, octagonal, and the details generally
+partake of the character of those used in the other architectural features
+of the period. There are hexagonal fonts of Decorated date at Rolvenden,
+Kent, and Heckington, Lincs. The font is usually placed close to a pillar
+near the entrance, generally that nearest but one to the tower in the
+south arcade, or, in larger buildings, in the middle of the nave.
+
+ [Side note: Stoups.]
+
+The holy-water stoups sometimes found in our old churches are generally
+small niches with stone basins formed in the wall either in or just
+outside the porch, or within the church close to the door, or in one of
+the pillars nearest to the door. These niches resemble piscinas, except
+that they differ in situation, are smaller and plainer, and rarely have
+a drain. A good example of an outside stoup is that at Broadmayne,
+Dorset, where there is also one inside the church. They are rarely found
+unmutilated, but there is one in perfect condition in the north porch of
+Thornham Church, Kent; and a rather elaborate example at Pylle Church,
+near Glastonbury.
+
+ [Illustration: A Reputed Saxon Font. Shaldon, Devon.]
+
+The piscina is a water-drain formerly placed near the altar and
+consisting of a shallow stone basin, or sink, with a drain to carry off
+whatever is poured into it.
+
+ [Side note: Piscinas.]
+
+It was used to receive the water in which the priest washed his hands,
+as well as for that with which the chalice was rinsed at the celebration
+of the mass. It was usually placed within a niche, although the basin
+often projects from the face of the wall, and is sometimes supported
+on a shaft rising from the floor. In the Early English and Decorated
+periods there are often two basins and two drains, and occasionally
+three. Within the niche a wooden or stone shelf is often found, called
+a credence-table, on which the sacred vessels were placed previous to
+their being required at the altar.
+
+ [Illustration: A Detached Holy-water Stoup of unusual design.
+  Wooton Courtenay, Som.]
+
+Piscinas are unknown in England of earlier date than the middle of the
+12th century, and of that date they are extremely rare. Of thirteenth
+and succeeding centuries we have many examples, more or less mutilated.
+Their forms and decorations are very various, but the character of their
+architectural features will always decide their approximate date.
+
+ [Side note: Sedilia.]
+
+The Sedilia, from the Latin _sedile_, a seat, has come to be applied in
+modern times to the seats used by the celebrants during the pauses in
+the mass. They were sometimes moveable, but more usually in this country
+were formed of masonry and recessed in the wall. They are generally three
+in number, for the priest, deacon and sub-deacon, while in a few rare
+instances they number four seats, as at Rothwell Church, Northants, and
+Furness Abbey; or even five, as at Southwell Minster. Sometimes a long
+single seat under one arch is found, and when three seats are used the
+two western ones are often on the same level and the eastern one raised
+above them. Numerous examples remain in our churches, some being as
+early as the latter part of the 12th century, but they are mostly later
+and extend to the end of the Perpendicular style. Some of them are
+separated by shafts, and profusely ornamented with panelling, niches,
+statues, pinnacles, tabernacle work, and crowned with canopies all more
+or less elaborately enriched.
+
+ [Side note: Stalls.]
+
+Stalls are fixed seats in the choir, either wholly or partially enclosed
+and used by the clergy. Previous to the Reformation all large and many
+small churches had a range of wooden stalls on each side and at the west
+end of the choir. In cathedrals they were enclosed at the back with
+panelling, and surmounted by overhanging canopies of tabernacle work,
+generally of oak, of which those at Winchester, Henry VII.'s Chapel at
+Westminster, and Manchester Cathedral are possibly our finest examples.
+When the stalls occupied both sides of the choir, return seats were
+placed at the ends for the prior, dean, precentor, and other of the
+officiating clergy.
+
+ [Illustration: Sedilia and Chantry. Luton, Beds.
+ _Photograph Fredk. Thurston, F.R.P.S._]
+
+Mr. Parker, in his "_Glossary of Architecture_," gives the following
+definition of the miserere, patience or pretella. "The projecting bracket
+on the underside of the seats of stalls in churches; these, when perfect,
+are fixed with hinges so they may be turned up, and when this is done the
+projection of the miserere is sufficient, without actually forming a
+seat, to afford very considerable rest to anyone leaning upon it. They
+were allowed as a relief to the infirm during the long services that
+were required to be performed by ecclesiastics in a standing posture."
+It is in the carving of these that one is frequently struck by the
+curious mixture of the sacred and the profane, the refined and the
+vulgar, for which it is difficult to find any adequate explanation. Of
+so coarse a nature are some of these carvings that it has been necessary
+to entirely remove them from the stalls. They are usually attributed to
+the mendicant and wandering monks, and they undoubtedly reflect the
+licentiousness which at one time pervaded the monastic and conventual
+establishments. Among our best examples are those at Christchurch
+Priory, Hants, and in Henry VII.'s Chapel. There is a remarkably
+complete set in Exeter Cathedral.
+
+ [Illustration: A Typical Somerset Bench-End.
+  Showing a Fuller at work with the implements of his trade. Spaxton.
+ _Photograph Mr. Page._]
+
+Of modern pews it is not necessary to say anything here, but previous
+to the Reformation the nave of a church was usually fitted with fixed
+seats, parted from each other by wainscoting, and partially enclosed at
+the ends by framed panelling, but more often by solid pieces of wood,
+either panelled or carved on the front. These bench-ends are very common
+in the West of England, in Somerset and Devon, and they are often very
+beautiful pieces of work and were in all probability executed by local
+craftsmen. They embrace a variety of subjects: figures, scrolls, dragons,
+serpents, etc., and frequently bear the arms of the family who owned the
+pew. Sometimes they terminate at the top with finials either in the form
+of heads, bunches of foliage, a chamfered _fleur-de-lys_ and a variety
+of other ornaments called Poppy-heads, from the French _Poupée_. No
+examples are known to exist earlier than the Decorated style, but of
+Perpendicular date specimens are very numerous, especially in our
+cathedrals and old abbey churches.
+
+ [Side note: Pulpits.]
+
+Pulpits were formerly placed, not only in churches, but in the
+refectories and occasionally in the cloisters of monasteries, and there
+is one in the outer court of Magdalen College, Oxford, and another at
+Shrewsbury. In former times pulpits were placed in the nave attached
+to a wall, pillar or screen, usually against the second pier from the
+chancel arch. Some are of wood, others of stone; the former are mostly
+polygonal, with the panels enriched with foliation or tracery. Few exist
+of earlier date than the Perpendicular style, but stone pulpits of
+Decorated date are sometimes met with as at Beaulieu, Hants, a very
+early specimen. Wooden pulpits are usually hexagonal or octagonal; some
+stand on slender wooden stems, others on stone bases. A few have canopies
+or sounding boards, and their dates can be fixed by the character of
+their ornamentation. At Kenton, Devon, there is an early pulpit which
+has retained its original paintings. Jacobean pulpits are very numerous,
+and are frequently gilded and painted; the one at S. Saviour's Church,
+Dartmouth, being a most elaborate example.
+
+ [Illustration: A Richly Carved Pulpit and Canopy.
+  Edlesborough, Bucks. _Photograph H. A. Strange._]
+
+Open-air preaching is anything but a modern invention, for long before
+the erection of parish churches it was the recognised method of addressing
+the people. There is a print of some popular bishop preaching in a
+pulpit at Paul's Cross in S. Paul's Churchyard, and in mediæval days
+open-air pulpits were erected near the roads, on bridges and often on
+the steps of the market crosses, which are often still known as
+preaching crosses.
+
+ [Side note: Squints.]
+
+In some of our churches is to be seen a squint, an opening in an oblique
+direction through a wall or pier for the purpose of enabling persons in
+the aisles or transepts to see the elevation of the Host at the high
+altar. They are of frequent occurrence in our churches and are very
+numerous in the neighbourhood of Tenby, South Wales, also in Devon and
+the West generally. They are usually without any ornament, but are
+sometimes arched and enriched with tracery. They are mostly found on one
+or both sides of the chancel arch, but they sometimes occur in rooms
+above porches, in side-chapels and the like; in every instance they were
+so situated that the altar could be seen. When they occur in porches or
+the rooms above they are thought to have been for the use of the acolyte
+appointed to ring the sanctus bell, who, viewing the performance of mass,
+would be thus able to sound the bell at the proper time. The name
+hagioscope has been used to describe these oblique openings.
+
+Cruciform marks are sometimes found on our churches, often on a stone in
+the porch; they are usually incised crosses or five dots in the form of
+a cross. They were, presumably, cut by the bishop when the building was
+consecrated, and are called consecration crosses.
+
+ [Side note: Screens.]
+
+The rood-screens, separating the chancel or choir of a church from the
+nave, usually supported the great Rood or Crucifix, not actually on the
+screen itself, but on a beam called the rood-beam, or by a gallery
+called the rood-loft, which last was approached from the inside of the
+church, by a small stone staircase in the wall, as can be seen in many
+of our churches to-day. Although rood-lofts have been generally destroyed
+in England, some beautiful examples remain at Long Sutton, Barnwell,
+Dunster and Minehead, Somerset; Kemsing, Kent; Newark, Nottingham;
+Uffendon, Collumpton, Dartmouth, Kenton, Plymtree and Hartland, Devon.
+The general construction of wooden screens is close panelling below,
+from which rise tall slender balusters, or wooden mullions supporting
+tracery rich with cornices and crestings, frequently painted and gilded.
+The lower panels often depict saints and martyrs. From the top of the
+screen certain parts of the services and the lessons were read. They
+were occasionally close together and glazed, as we see by a most beautiful
+example at Charlton-on-Otmoor, in Oxfordshire. These screens, many of
+which have been over-restored, are very common, and in addition to those
+above mentioned, are found at S. Mary's, Stamford, Ottery S. Mary,
+Chudleigh, Bovey, and in nearly all the Devon parish churches. At
+Dunstable a screen of Queen Mary's time separates the vestry from the
+chancel.
+
+ [Illustration: Screen with Rood Loft.
+  Kenton, Devon. _Photograph by Chapman._]
+
+Of stone screens space will permit of only the briefest mention. They
+were used in various situations, to enclose tombs and to separate
+chapels, and occasionally the rood-screen was of stone.
+
+ [Illustration: The Carved Oak Balustrade in Compton Church.
+  Held to be the oldest existing piece of carved woodwork in England.]
+
+The oldest piece of screen work in this country is that at Compton
+Church, Surrey; it is of wood and shows the transition from the Norman
+to the Early English styles. Stone screens are often massive structures
+enriched with niches, statues, tabernacles, pinnacles, crestings, etc.,
+as those at Canterbury, York and Gloucester.
+
+ [Side note: The Reredos.]
+
+The reredos forms no part of the altar, and is often highly enriched
+with niches, buttresses, pinnacles, and other ornaments. Not infrequently
+it extends across the whole breadth of the church, and is sometimes
+carried nearly up to the roof, as at S. Alban's Abbey, Durham and
+Gloucester Cathedrals, S. Saviour's, Southwark and in that remarkably
+fine example at Christchurch, Hants. In village churches they are mostly
+very simple, and generally have no ornaments formed in the wall, though
+niches and corbels are sometimes provided to carry images, and that part
+of the wall immediately over the altar is panelled, as at S. Michael's,
+Oxford; Solihull, Warwickshire; Euston and Hanwell, Oxfordshire, etc.
+
+It is interesting to note that the open fire-hearth, once used in
+domestic halls, was also called a "reredos."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+BELLS AND BELFRIES.
+
+
+The history of bells is lost in antiquity, and little is known about
+them previous to the XVth century. It is probable, however, that they
+were used in India and China centuries before they reached Europe.
+
+Bells were used by the Romans for many secular purposes, and although
+their use was sanctioned by the Christian Church about 400 A.D., they
+were not in general use in England until 650 A.D.
+
+The earliest bells were hand bells, quadrangular in shape, and made of
+thin plates of copper or iron riveted together, and their abominable
+sound when struck must have been one of their chief merits, as the early
+bells were much used for the purpose of frightening the devil and other
+evil spirits.
+
+Our oldest bells are hand bells, S. Patrick's bell at Belfast (1091) and
+S. Ninian's bell at Edinburgh, which is probably of even earlier date.
+From 1550 to 1750 was the golden age of production for bells, more
+especially so in Belgium and the Low Countries, where the bells of the
+towers and belfries were rung to arouse the country in times of danger
+and invasion. It is quite possible that the bells used for secular and
+religious purposes were kept distinct. Bells played a very important
+part in mediæval life, and next to cannon were regarded as the chief
+city guardians, for he who held the bells held the town, and the first
+thing done by the invader on taking a town was to melt the bells and
+thus destroy the means of communicating an alarm.
+
+In England our old towns, being almost entirely constructed of wood,
+were liable to periodic and devastating conflagrations, which fact
+suggested to that genius, William the Conqueror, the institution of
+Couvre-feu, or in its more popular form, Curfew, which rang at eight
+o'clock in the evening, when all lights were to be extinguished. The
+ringing of curfew has survived in many of our towns and villages to this
+day, but it is doubtful if the custom has been continuous from its first
+institution.
+
+The secular use of the bell is, however, only incidental, and it is in
+its connection with religious life that we are now concerned, for all
+church history, church doctrine and church custom and observances are
+set to bell music. Bells in fact may be said to sum up the short span of
+our mortal life, for the birthday, the wedding and the funeral, are all
+welded to religion by the church bell.
+
+Bells were used for ecclesiastical purposes in England long before the
+erection of our parish churches, for Bede, speaking of the death of S.
+Hilda, A.D. 680, says that "one of the sisters in the distant monastery
+of Hackness, thought she heard as she slept, the sound of the bell which
+called them to prayers," and Turketul gave to Croyland Abbey a great
+bell called Guthlac, and afterwards six others which he called Bartholomew
+and Betelin, Turketul and Tatwin, and Pega and Bega.
+
+S. Dunstan gave bells to many of the churches in Somerset, and he also
+seems to have introduced bell ringing into the monasteries.
+
+A few words may be of interest concerning the number and purposes of
+these monastic bells, with which the life of the monks must have been
+completely bound up. The _Signum_ woke up the whole community at
+day-break. The _Squilla_ announced the frugal meal in the refectory; but
+for those working in the gardens, the cloister-bell, or _Campanella_,
+was rung. The abbot's _Cordon_, or handbell, summoned the brothers and
+novices to their Superior; whilst the _Petasius_ was used to call in
+those working at a distance from the main building. At bed-time the
+_Tiniolum_ was sounded, and the _Noctula_ was rung at intervals throughout
+the night to call the monks to watch and pray. The _Corrigiumcula_ was
+the scourging bell, while the sweet-toned _Nota_, a choir bell, was rung
+at the consecration of the elements.
+
+The use of the bell-tower was recognised in the ancient Saxon law, which
+gave the title of thane to anyone who had a church with a bell-tower on
+his estate, and two of our most interesting Saxon churches, Brixworth
+and Brigstock, both in Northamptonshire, have each a semi-circular tower
+rising together with the bell-tower, and forming a staircase to it.
+
+One of the most beautiful campaniles or bell-towers still standing
+is that at Evesham, in Worcestershire, which is a good specimen of
+Perpendicular architecture. It was built by Abbot Lichfield, the last
+abbot but one of the abbey, and took six years in building, and was not
+quite completed when the famous abbey, of which it was a final ornament,
+was pulled down.
+
+In addition to this example at Evesham, detached bell-towers exist, or
+once existed, at Chichester, East Dereham, Glastonbury Abbey, Bruton, in
+Somerset, and in several other places.
+
+Markland, in his _Remarks on Churches_, says: "The great bell-tower
+which once formed part of the abbey church of S. Edmundsbury was
+commenced about 1436. From the year 1441 to 1500 legacies were still
+being given towards the building. In 1461 an individual, probably a
+benefactor, desired to be buried _in magno ostio novi campanilis_."
+
+In Protestant use church bells have been stripped of much of the former
+superstition and symbolism. They are no longer rung to announce the
+miracle of transubstantiation; neither are they called upon as of old
+for the purpose of scaring devils, demons, and other evil spirits which
+formed so prominent a feature in the faith of the early Christian
+communities.
+
+ [Illustration: Bell Turret for 3 Bells. Radipole, Dorset.]
+
+Closely connected with the subject of bells and belfries are the
+bell-gables or bell-turrets, so frequently found at the west ends of
+our smaller churches which have no towers. They usually contain but one
+bell, but are sometimes found with two, and at Radipole Church, near
+Weymouth, the bell-turret was originally designed to carry three bells.
+They are generally most picturesque little features of which a few may
+be of Norman date, but by far the greater number of them are Early
+English, a style in which they are frequently found. In addition to
+these bell-turrets at the western ends of our churches one sometimes
+finds a similar, but smaller, erection at the eastern end of the roof of
+the nave, but used for a very different purpose, for while the bell at
+the western end was rung to summon the parishioners to service, that at
+the eastern end, known as the Sanctus or Mass-bell, was rung on the
+elevation of the Host during the celebration of mass; although usually
+placed on the apex of the roof, this bell sometimes occupied a position
+in the lantern or tower, or in a turret of larger dimensions. In churches
+where no turret existed it was carried in the hand, and such is now the
+prevailing practice on the continent. The turret for the Sanctus bell
+still exists at Barnstaple, Devon, and St. Peter Port, Guernsey. The
+Sanctus bell was generally made of silver, and occasionally a number of
+little bells were hung in the middle of the church, and by means of a
+wheel they were all made to ring at once.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE SPIRE; ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT.
+
+
+Probably the most beautiful feature of a Gothic church is the spire,
+raising its tapering form far above the town or village and forming a
+prominent landmark, denoting the location of the House of God. Although
+found occasionally in other styles, the spire is essentially Gothic, and
+one of the most marked characteristics of this period. Spires are
+generally of two kinds, those constructed of timber and covered with
+slates, lead, tiles or shingles, and those built of stone or brick.
+Examples of both kinds are very numerous on the continent and in
+England, while shingle spires are especially common in Sussex.
+
+The spire is generally acknowledged to have originated from the small
+pyramidal roof so frequently found on Saxon and Norman towers. This
+gradually became elongated, and the towers were sometimes gabled on each
+side, as is the case with the remarkable Saxon church at Sompting, Sussex.
+This shows us very clearly the angles of the spire resting upon the apex
+of each gable, so that the spire itself is set obliquely to the square
+of the tower.
+
+ [Illustration: The best example of a Saxon Spire or Pyramidal Roof.
+  Sompting, Sussex. _Drawn by George Pearl._]
+
+Saxon and Norman spires are very rare in England, Sompting being our
+best example of the former and those on the eastern transepts of
+Canterbury Cathedral of the latter.
+
+Of Early English spires we have, fortunately, some good examples, among
+which are those at Oxford Cathedral, Wilford and Wansted, in the same
+county, and a very graceful one at Leighton Buzzard. These 13th century
+spires are very common in France, as at Chartres and S. Pierre, Caen.
+
+ [Illustration: Leighton Buzzard Church.
+  With Early English Tower and Spire. _Photograph H. A. Strange._]
+
+Of fourteenth century, or Decorated, spires, we have many examples, of
+which perhaps the best is the beautiful spire of Salisbury Cathedral,
+although the equally fine one at S. Mary's, Oxford, runs it close for
+premier position. The triple group at Lichfield Cathedral belong to this
+period, as do the spires of Ross, Heckington, Grantham, S. Mary's,
+Newark, King's Sutton, Bloxham and Snettisham, Norfolk. A peculiarity of
+the Salisbury spire is that it never formed part of the original design
+of the cathedral, being added seventy years later. It is the loftiest
+spire in England--404 feet--about 40 ft. higher than the cross of
+S. Paul's. It speaks well for the Gothic builders that such a vast
+superstructure as this tower and spire could be imposed upon walls and
+piers never intended to bear it. At an early period it was found to have
+deflected twenty-three inches from the perpendicular, but there has been
+no sign of any further movement. Barnack Church, in Northamptonshire,
+has a curious spire showing the transition from Norman to Early English.
+
+It will be noticed that the sides of a church spire are slightly curved,
+so that they swell out a little in the centre. This is called the
+entasis of the spire, and belongs to the study of optics in architecture.
+Where the spire has no entasis the same effect is produced by the
+introduction of small projecting gables, bands of carving, or a little
+coronal of pinnacles.
+
+One of the most clearly marked differences between English and continental
+spires is that the latter are much shorter than the towers which support
+them, the towers, as a rule, being twice as high as the spires. In
+England, on the contrary, the spire is generally very much loftier
+than the tower. At Shottesbrook, Berks, and Ledbury, Herefordshire, the
+spires occupy as much as three-fifths of the total elevation, and the
+usual rule in England is for the tower to be a little less in height
+than the spire.
+
+The masons lavished an extraordinary amount of care and skill on their
+spires. So much is this the case that there is hardly a mediæval spire
+in the country which can be called ill-designed or displeasing.
+
+Church spires are very common in some counties and very rare in others.
+There are, of course, exceptions, but it is in the flat counties that
+spires are most frequent, the most beautiful ones being found in
+Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Warwickshire,
+Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and Oxfordshire.
+
+The top of the spire is usually capped with a weather vane terminating
+in a cock. The custom of using a cock as the flag of the vane is of very
+early date, for Wolfstan, in his Life of S. Ethelwold, written towards
+the end of the 10th century, speaks of one which surmounted Winchester
+Cathedral. In the Bayeux Tapestry one is shown on the gable of Westminster
+Abbey, and one of the early Popes ordained that every church under the
+papal jurisdiction should be surmounted by a cock as emblematical of the
+sovereignty of the church over the whole world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+STAINED GLASS.
+
+
+The use of coloured glass in the windows of buildings devoted to
+religious purposes appears to have been employed as early as the ninth
+century, but no examples remain of anything like so old a date, and we
+have only illuminated missals and primitive drawings by members of the
+conventual bodies to guide us in determining the earliest styles of
+coloured glazing. It appears to have consisted of more or less primitive
+representations of the human form, with strong black lines to indicate
+the features and folds of the drapery. The backgrounds were generally
+masses of deep blue or red, and in the rare instances where landscapes
+were introduced positive colours only appear to have been used. Our
+oldest specimens in England are those in the choir aisles of Canterbury
+Cathedral, which appear to be of the 12th century, and it is thought
+that they are the remains of the original glazing that was put in when
+this part of the building was rebuilt after a fire in 1174. The general
+design is composed of panels of various forms, in which are depicted
+subjects from Holy Scripture, with backgrounds of deep blue or red; the
+spaces between the panels are filled with mosaic patterns in which blue
+and red colours predominate, and the whole design is framed in an
+elaborate border of leaves and scroll-work in brilliant colours.
+
+ [Illustration: A Parish Church with a Shingle Broach Spire.
+ (_See page 99_). Edenbridge, Kent. _Homeland Copyright._]
+
+Of thirteenth century windows we have some magnificent examples
+--unfortunately few unmutilated--as at York, where is the five-light
+lancet window situated in the north end of the transept, known as the
+Five Sisters of York. Of this date, also, are the large circular window
+of Lincoln Cathedral, and the windows at Chetwode, Bucks; Westwell,
+Kent; West Horsley, Surrey; and Beckett's Crown, Canterbury.
+
+A little later, in the Decorated period, we get the great east window
+of York Cathedral, 75 ft. high and 32 ft. broad; the east window of
+Gloucester Cathedral, 72 ft. high and 38 ft. broad; and other fine
+windows at Tewkesbury Abbey; Merton College, Oxford; Wroxhall
+Abbey, Warwickshire; and the churches of Chartham, Kent; Stanford,
+Leicestershire; Ashchurch, Glous.; Cranley, Surrey; Norbury, Derbyshire,
+and others. Salisbury Cathedral has retained portions, but very lovely
+portions, of the glazing of its west windows, and enough is left to show
+that it was little inferior to the great windows of York and Gloucester.
+Carlisle Cathedral, too, has preserved fragments of the original glass
+in the tracery of the great east window, but the lower part of the
+glazing is modern. Windows in the Decorated style continued to be
+arranged in panels, with the spaces between them filled with flowing
+patterns of foliage, in which the vine and ivy leaves predominate.
+Single figures are more common than in the previous style, and when used
+are generally shown beneath a simple pediment or canopy. In the early
+examples they only occupy a portion of the window light, but later they
+are found occupying nearly the whole of the surface and are surmounted
+by large and elaborate canopies. Quarries are much used in this style,
+sometimes quite plain, but more often with leaves or rosettes painted on
+them in black lines, or painted with the vine and ivy leaves so arranged
+that they form a repeating pattern over the whole window. At this
+period, too, heraldry began to be employed in the decoration of the
+windows to which it is always an appropriate and artistic adjunct, and
+many authentic and valuable examples of our national heraldry have thus
+been preserved for posterity.
+
+With the advent of the Perpendicular style the glazing became more
+uniform in character, the glass was thinner and lighter, the tints
+paler, and the whole effect more brilliant and transparent. The
+paintings for the most part consist of large figures under elaborate
+canopies, frequently occupying an entire light, and in the patterns and
+smaller decorations there is a greater freedom of design, and the whole
+treatment is more harmonious and artistic than in any other period. The
+use of heraldry became very common, and inscriptions on long narrow
+scrolls were frequently employed. Among the best examples of this period
+are the windows at S. Margaret's Church, Westminster; King's College
+Chapel, Cambridge; Fairford Church, Gloucestershire; and Morley Church,
+Derbyshire.
+
+The Reformation, with its vast social and political upheaval, was not
+conducive to the encouragement of the fine arts, and from this period
+the art of glazing in England declined beyond measure, and was not the
+only art that received its death-blow in the triumph of Puritanism. The
+art has, however, revived greatly during recent years, thanks, among
+other artists, to William Morris and Burne-Jones. A few words must
+be said about the "Jesse" window found in some of our cathedrals and
+churches. Strictly speaking, it is a representation of the genealogy of
+Christ, in which the different persons forming the descent are placed on
+scrolls of foliage branching out of each other, intended to represent a
+tree. It was also wrought into a branched candlestick, thence called a
+Jesse, a common piece of furniture in ancient churches. The subject is
+found on a window at Llanrhaiadr y Kinmerch, Denbighshire, on the stone
+work of one of the chancel windows at Dorchester Church, Oxfordshire,
+and in carved stone on the reredos of Christchurch Priory, Hants.
+
+It is not perhaps generally known that the actual colours used in early
+stained glass possessed each of them their own specific symbolism.
+Underlying the obvious story conveyed by the human figures or decorated
+devices, there was an inner story to be read with profit by those who
+understood the mystic symbolism concerning colours. Without entering at
+length into this interesting subject, it may yet be stated that green
+was the symbol of Regeneration, red of Divine Love, white of Divine
+Wisdom, yellow of Faith, and grey, or a mixture of black and white, the
+emblem of Terrestrial Death and Spiritual Immortality. These colours at
+different times or in different countries had other meanings as well,
+and ecclesiologists tell us that the colours chosen for depicting the
+robes of our Lord differ according to the period of His life which it
+was intended to represent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+CRYPTS.
+
+
+The crypts so generally found beneath our cathedrals and abbeys, and so
+frequently under our churches, rarely extend beyond the choir or chancel
+and its aisles, and are sometimes of very small dimensions. They are
+often coeval with the upper parts of the building, and although not so
+elaborate in ornamentation as the fabric they support, they are almost
+without exception well constructed and well finished pieces of building.
+In some cases the crypt is of much older date than any portion of
+the superstructure, as is the case at York, Worcester and Rochester
+cathedrals. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the roofs were
+often richly groined, and upheld by cylindrical columns or clustered
+piers, and furnished with handsome bases and decorated capitals. There
+is abundant evidence that crypts were at one time furnished with altars,
+piscinas, and the various fittings requisite for the celebration of the
+mass, and they were used as sepulchres, wherein the shrines of relics
+and martyrs were carefully preserved. Some authorities claim a purely
+Saxon origin for the crypts at Ripon Cathedral, Hexham Abbey, and Repton
+Church, Derbyshire. The Ripon example is a plain barrel-vaulted chamber,
+about 11 ft. long and 8 ft. wide, with no pillars or ornament of any
+kind. It is popularly known as S. Wilfrid's Needle, but the exact origin
+of the name is lost in obscurity. The Hexham crypt is very similar in
+character, but is somewhat longer, being more than 13 ft. long and 8 ft.
+wide. As at Ripon, there are hollows or shallow niches in the walls in
+which lamps may possibly have been placed. The third reputed Saxon crypt
+is that at Repton, but it has little in common with the other two, its
+superficial area being nearly twice as great and the roof is supported
+on four columns, with plain square capitals rudely carved, and bearing
+much similarity to early Norman work.
+
+The position of the crypt varies. At Beverley Minster it is on the
+south side of the south-west tower; in Hereford Cathedral it is under a
+side chapel, while at Lastingham, in Yorkshire, the crypt extends under
+the whole of the church, including the apse. At Wells the crypt is
+beneath the chapter-house, and Durham Cathedral has three crypts, one
+under what was the dormitory, another beneath the refectory, and the
+third under the prior's chapel. Of crypts of Norman date we have many
+examples, of which, perhaps, our best are those at Gloucester, Worcester,
+Canterbury and Winchester Cathedrals, while Canterbury is probably the
+largest of them all. Good crypts are also found at Wimborne Minster,
+Christchurch Priory, and in our smaller churches at Repton and S.
+Peter's-in-the-East, Oxford.
+
+The Wimborne crypt is lighted by four windows. The vaulting is supported
+by two pairs of pillars which form three aisles, each of three bays. Mr.
+Perkins, in his book on Wimborne Minster, says, "On each side of the
+place where the altar stood there are two openings into the choir
+aisles. The exteriors of these are of the same form and size as the
+crypt windows, but they are deeply splayed inside, and probably were
+used as hagioscopes or squints, to allow those kneeling in the choir
+aisles to see the priest celebrating mass at the crypt altar." The crypt
+at Christchurch is of Norman date, and now serves as a vault for the
+Malmesbury family. The crypt of Canterbury Cathedral is claimed and
+justly claimed, perhaps, as the largest and most beautiful in England.
+It is thought to contain fragments of Roman and Saxon work, and much of
+it dates from the days of S. Anselm (1096-1100). It was here that the
+remains of S. Thomas à Becket lay from 1170 to 1220, and "here that
+Henry II., fasting and discrowned, with naked feet, bared back, and
+streaming tears, performed on July 12th, 1174, the memorable penance for
+his share in the murder of the great Archbishop."
+
+It was here too, in later times that the Walloons were granted, by Queen
+Elizabeth, the privilege of carrying on their silk-weaving, and it was
+also reserved as a place of worship for French Protestants.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+HOW TO DESCRIBE AN OLD CHURCH.
+
+
+Having carefully read the foregoing chapters, it should be possible for
+anyone interested in the subject to be able to write a fairly accurate
+description of any old church. The record should, if possible, be
+amplified with sketches or photographs.
+
+In course of time, decay, neglect and restoration will deprive our
+ancient buildings of every visible stone of original work which they
+possess, and careful records of this kind, written, photographed and
+sketched, may be of the highest possible value to future generations of
+historians and architects, long after the objects themselves have ceased
+to exist. The work in itself is of absorbing interest, and the more one
+studies these works of past ages the stronger becomes the conviction
+that our old buildings, whether cathedral, castle or simple village
+church, are the landmarks of the nation's history, and a priceless
+inheritance of beauty and art the conservation of which is the duty of
+all generations.
+
+The principal points to be noted are--1. The name of the church. 2. Its
+situation. 3. Its dedication. 4. General plan. 5. The style of
+architecture to which each portion belongs. 6. Any peculiarity of the
+architecture, blocked up windows, etc. 7. Any ancient furniture,
+screens, bench-ends, glass. 8. Any monuments, tablets, or mural
+paintings. 9. Church plate, bells, registers. 10. Any local traditions.
+The record should be made somewhat in the following manner.
+
+The church of ---- is prettily situated on rising ground some quarter of
+a mile north of the village, and on the main road to ---- . It is
+approached by a picturesque timber lych-gate, and consists of nave,
+aisles and chancel, having a side chapel to the north and a single
+transept to the south. At the west end is a Decorated tower and spire.
+There are two porches, one on the north side and the other on the west,
+which last has a niche for a figure over the doorway and seats on either
+side. The nave is Perpendicular, as is the greater part of the rest of
+the fabric. Above the nave rises a lofty and noble clerestory, divided
+from the aisles by five rather obtusely-pointed arches supported by
+richly moulded piers with small moulded capitals. Each bay of the
+clerestory contains two three-light windows of late Perpendicular date.
+The roof is flat pitched and is of oak, the principals are adorned with
+panelled tracery and show vestiges of ancient colour decoration. The
+windows of the aisles are late Decorated in style; they are of three
+lights, the traceries elegant and richly moulded. The east window is
+Perpendicular and is much sub-divided by mullions and transoms; in the
+upper portions are some heraldic coats of arms, which appear to have
+formed part of a much earlier window. The chancel is divided from the
+nave by a fine open oak screen, coeval with the larger part of the
+building. It is richly carved and gilded, and in the right-hand side of
+the chancel arch are the steps which formerly led up to the top of it.
+The chancel, together with its chapel, is vaulted in stone with well
+marked ribs and carved bosses. The transept, late Perpendicular, opens
+into the south side of the nave by a four-centred arch, and has a
+rich flat ceiling. In the chancel is a piscina of Early English date,
+together with a sedilia of the same period. On the north side of the
+chancel, resting on the floor, is a cross-legged effigy, in chain mail,
+surcoat, etc., and bearing on his left arm a shield, but all much
+mutilated. There is a local tradition that it represents Sir ----, but
+there is no evidence by which he can be identified. Features of the
+church are the many highly carved bench ends, all in oak, representing a
+great variety of subjects, such as dragons, serpents, etc., while a few
+bear the arms of local families who probably bore the cost of the work.
+The pulpit is Jacobean, and has no special feature. The font, which
+stands in the centre of the nave, is square in form and is supported by
+a modern round plinth. It is constructed of marble, the four sides being
+carved in low relief with intersecting patterns. It is possibly of
+Norman date, and is the only existing feature of a much earlier church.
+The tower and spire are Decorated; the latter is of stone with four
+pinnacles at the base, and has a little coronal of pinnacles. The belfry
+windows are arranged in pairs on each side of the tower. The tower or
+western window is of five lights, richly Decorated in style.
+
+ Illustration:
+  KEY TO DIAGRAM OF THE INTERIOR ELEVATION OF A BAY OF A CHURCH.
+
+  CLERESTORY.
+
+   26 Boss.
+   25 Vaulting Rib.
+   24 Vault.
+   23 Vaulting Rib.
+   22 Tracery of C. Window.
+   21 Clerestory Window.
+   20 Sill of Clerestory Window.
+   19 Base of Jamb, C. Arch.
+   18 Jamb of C. Arch.
+   17 Clerestory String.
+
+  BLIND STOREY (TRIFORIUM).
+
+   16 Capital of Vaulting Shaft.
+   15 Tracery of Triforium.
+   14 Triforium Arch.
+   13 Capital of T. Pier.
+   12 Pier of Triforium.
+   11 Triforium String.
+
+  GROUND STOREY.
+
+   10 Tracery of Aisle Window.
+    9 Aisle Window.
+    8 Sill of Aisle Window.
+    7 Wall Arcade.
+    6 Vaulting Shaft.
+    5 Corbel.
+    4 Pier Arch.
+    3 Capital of Pier.
+    2 Pier.
+    1 Base of Pier.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES.
+
+1: So called from its "flame"-like appearance, producing forms which
+   resemble elongated tongues of flame. There is great beauty in much of
+   this work, but it is constructionally weak. The finest example is
+   Chartres Cathedral.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+A GLOSSARY OF THE PRINCIPAL TERMS USED IN ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+ ABACUS         Derived from the Greek _Abax_--a tray or flat board, an
+                essential feature of the Grecian and Roman orders, but
+                now used to describe the slab forming the upper part of
+                a column, pier, etc.
+
+ ABBEY          A term for a union of ecclesiastical buildings, for the
+                housing of those conventual bodies presided over by an
+                abbot or abbess, supposed to be derived from the Hebrew
+                _ab_, "father."
+
+ ACANTHUS       A plant, the leaves of which are represented in the
+                capitals of the Corinthian orders.
+
+ AISLE          French _aile_, a wing, the lateral division of a church.
+
+ ALMONRY        A room where alms were distributed.
+
+ ALTAR          An elevated table dedicated to the Sacrament of the Holy
+                Eucharist, and usually called the Communion Table.
+
+ ALMERY, AUMERY,
+ and AUMBREY    A recess or small cupboard in the wall of a church, used
+                to contain the chalices, patens, etc., for the use of
+                the priest. They are sometimes near the _piscina_, but
+                are usually on the opposite side of the chancel.
+
+ ANTE-CHAPEL    The outer part of a chapel.
+
+ APSE           The semi-circular or polygonal recess at the east end of
+                the choir or aisles of a church.
+
+ ARCADE         A series of arches, open or closed with masonry, and
+                supported by columns or piers.
+
+ ARCH           A construction of bricks or stones so placed as by
+                mutual pressure to support each other and a
+                superincumbent weight. They may be semi-circular,
+                segmental, elliptical, stilted, horse-shoe, pointed,
+                trefoiled, cinquefoiled, or ogee.
+
+ ARCHITRAVE     In classical architecture, the lowest division of the
+                entablature resting immediately on the abacus of the
+                capital. In Gothic buildings the ornamental mouldings
+                round the openings of doors, windows, etc.
+
+ ARCHIVOLT      The under surface of the curve of an arch, from impost
+                to impost.
+
+ ASHLAR         Shaped or squared stone used in building, as
+                distinguished from that in the rough.
+
+ ASTRAGAL       A small semi-circular bead or moulding.
+
+ BALL FLOWER    An ornament resembling a ball in a circular flower
+                with three enclosing petals. Dec.
+
+ BASE           The lower member of a column, pier, or wall.
+
+ BASILICA       A Roman law-court. Early Christian churches when
+                built on the same lines were called by the same name.
+
+ BILLET         An ornament much used in Norman work and formed by
+                cutting a moulding in notches, so that the remaining
+                parts resembled wooden billets or pieces of stick.
+
+ BLIND STOREY   See Triforium.
+
+ BOSSES         Ornamental projections usually of foliage and placed
+                at the intersection of the ribs of vaults, ceilings,
+                etc.
+
+ BRACES         Timbers which brace or support the main rafters. Also
+                called _struts_.
+
+ BROACH         A spire, generally octagonal and springing from the
+                square top of the tower, without a parapet. (_See
+                page 105_).
+
+ BUTTRESS       A projection from a wall, giving it additional strength.
+
+ CANOPY         In Gothic architecture an ornamental hood or projection
+                over doors, windows, niches, tombs, etc., and rarely
+                found except in the Dec. and Perp. styles.
+
+ CAPITAL        The head of a column or pilaster, found in a great
+                variety of shapes.
+
+ CATHEDRAL      A church presided over by a Bishop. The principal
+                church of a diocese.
+
+ CHALICE        The cup used for the wine at the celebration of the
+                Eucharist.
+
+ CHAMFER        The surface formed by cutting away the rectangular edge
+                of wood or stone work.
+
+ CHANCEL        The choir or eastern part of a church, appropriated to
+                the use of those who officiate in the performance of
+                the services.
+
+ CHANTRY        A chapel often containing a tomb of the founder, and
+                in which masses were said.
+
+ CHAPEL         A small building attached to cathedrals and large
+                churches.
+
+ CHAPTER-HOUSE  The room where the Dean and Prebendaries meet for the
+                transaction of business.
+
+ CHEVRON        An ornament characteristic of the Norman period and
+                divided into several equal portions chevron-wise or
+                zig-zag.
+
+ CHOIR          That part of a church to the east of the nave where the
+                services are celebrated, also called chancel, and
+                frequently separated from the nave by an open screen of
+                stone or wood.
+
+ CINQUEFOIL     An ornamental foliation used in arches, tracery, etc.,
+                and composed of projecting points or cusps, so arranged
+                that the opening resembles five leaves.
+
+ CLERESTORY     Possibly the _clear_ storey. An upper storey standing
+                above or clear of the adjacent roofs, and pierced by
+                windows to give increased light.
+
+ CLOISTER       A covered walk or ambulatory forming part of a
+                cathedral or college quadrangle.
+
+ CLUSTERED
+ COLUMN         A pier made up of several columns or shafts in a cluster.
+
+ COLONNADE      A row or rows of columns supporting a roof or building.
+
+ CORBEL         Usually a moulded or carved ornament projecting from the
+                walls, acting as a bracket and capable of bearing a
+                super-incumbent weight.
+
+ CORNICE        The horizontal termination of a building in the form of
+                a moulded projection.
+
+ COURSE         A continuous and regular line of stones or bricks in the
+                wall of a building.
+
+ CROCKETS       Projecting ornaments in the form of leaves, flowers,
+                etc., used to embellish the angles of pinnacles,
+                spires, gables, canopies, etc.
+
+ CROSS          The accepted symbol of the Christian religion and an
+                architectural church ornament usually placed upon the
+                apex of the gable. A large cross called a rood was at one
+                time always placed over the entrance to the chancel. The
+                cross was worn as a personal ornament ages before the
+                Christian era by the Assyrians, and we are told that the
+                Druids also used this symbol in very early times.
+
+ CRYPT          Sometimes called the Undercroft, a vaulted chamber,
+                usually underground and, in churches, rarely extending
+                beyond the area of the choir or chancel, and often of
+                less dimensions.
+
+ CUSPS          Projecting points giving the foliated appearance to
+                tracery, arches, panels, etc.
+
+ DORMER         A gabled window pierced through a sloping roof.
+
+ DRIPSTONE      A projecting ledge or narrow moulding over the heads of
+                doorways, windows, etc., to carry off the rain.
+
+ FAN-TRACERY    Tracery in which the ribs form a fan-like appearance and
+                diverge equally in every direction. (Peculiar to the
+                late Perp.)
+
+ FLAMBOYANT     Tracery whereof the curves assume flame-like waves and
+                shapes.
+
+ FLYING
+ BUTTRESS       A buttress in the form of a bridge, usually transferring
+                the thrust of the main roof from the clerestory walls to
+                the main or aisle buttresses.
+
+ FONT           The vessel for holding the consecrated water used in
+                baptism.
+
+ GARGOYLE       A projecting spout usually grotesquely carved and used
+                to throw the water from the roof well away from the
+                building.
+
+ GROIN          The line of intersection in vaulted roofs.
+
+ IMPOST         Horizontal mouldings, capping a column or pier, from
+                which the arch springs.
+
+ JAMB           The side of a window or door.
+
+ KEYSTONE       The central stone at the top of an arch. The bosses
+                in vaulted ceilings are frequently called keys.
+
+ LADY CHAPEL    A chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary,
+                called "Our Lady."
+
+ LANTERN        A small structure or erection surmounting a dome or
+                tower to admit light. These towers are known as Lantern
+                Towers.
+
+ LOZENGE        A name given in modern times to Norman mouldings which
+                partake of a lozenge formation.
+
+ LYCH-GATE      From the Anglo-Saxon _lich_, a corpse. A small and
+                often picturesque shelter at the entrance to a
+                churchyard.
+
+ MINSTER        The church usually of a monastery or abbey or one to
+                which such has been an appendant. York and Beverley,
+                however, are exceptions to this rule.
+
+ MISERERE       A small bracket on the undersides of the seats of
+                stalls.
+
+ MOULDING       A term generally applied to the contours given to angle
+                projections or hollows of arches, doors, windows, etc.
+
+ MULLION        The dividing bars of stone or wood between the lights
+                of windows, or the openings of screens.
+
+ MÃœNSTER        has now lost its simple application.
+ (MONASTERY)
+
+ NAVE           From _navis_, a ship, the main body of a church west
+                of the chancel.
+
+ NICHE          An alcove or recess in a wall for holding a statue or
+                ornament.
+
+ OGEE           A moulding or arch formed of a curve or curves somewhat
+                like the letter S, the curve of contra-flexure, part
+                being concave and part convex.
+
+ ORDERS         In Gothic architecture, the receding mouldings of an
+                arch.
+
+ PARCLOSE       The screen or railings protecting a monument or chantry.
+
+ PARVISE        An open space or porch at the entrance to a church, and
+                often wrongly applied to the room over a church porch.
+
+ PATEN          The small plate or salver used to hold the Consecrated
+                Bread in the celebration of the Eucharist.
+
+ PENDANT        Ornaments which hang or _depend_ from a ceiling or roof.
+
+ PENTHOUSE      A covering projecting over a door, window, etc., as a
+                protection from the weather.
+
+ PIER           The masses or clusters of masonry between doors, windows,
+                etc.; the supports from which arches spring.
+
+ PILLAR         A term frequently confounded with column, but differing
+                from it in not being subservient to the rules of
+                classical architecture, and in not of necessity
+                consisting of a single circular shaft.
+
+ PINNACLE       A small turreted ornament tapering towards the top,
+                and used as a termination to many parts of Gothic
+                architecture.
+
+ PISCINA        The stone basin or sink in the chancel used for
+                cleansing the communion vessels.
+
+ PLINTH         The lower division of the base of a column, pier or wall.
+
+ POPPY-HEAD     An ornament boldly carved on the tops of bench ends, etc.
+
+ PRESBYTERY     A term sometimes used to include the whole of the choir,
+                but more often meant to refer to the eastern end of the
+                choir from which it is generally raised by several steps.
+
+ QUARRIES or
+ QUARRELS       The small diamond, square or other the shaped panes used
+                in plain glazing.
+
+ QUATREFOIL     The shape resembling four leaves formed in tracery or
+                panels by cusps.
+
+ QUOIN          The external angle of a building, generally of ashlar.
+
+ REREDOS        The wall or screen at the back of an altar, often
+                enriched with carving, niches, statues, etc.
+
+ ROOD-BEAM or
+ ROOD-LOFT      The loft or beam which, previous to the Reformation,
+                supported the Great Rood, or Crucifix.
+
+ ROSE WINDOW    A term often used to denote a circular window of
+                several lights.
+
+ ROTUNDA        A term used to describe a church or other building
+                which is of circular formation both within and without.
+
+ SACRISTRY      A room used in churches for storing the plate and
+                valuables.
+
+ SANCTUARY      See Presbytery.
+
+ SEDILIA        A seat or seats, generally canopied and situated on the
+                south side of the chancel and used in pre-Reformation
+                days by the officiating clergy during the pauses in the
+                mass.
+
+ SHAFT          The part of a column or pillar between the capital and
+                the base.
+
+ SHRINE         Often called the feretory. The place where relics were
+                deposited.
+
+ SOFFIT         The word means literally a ceiling, but is generally
+                used to describe the flat under-surface of arches,
+                cornices, stairways, etc.
+
+ SPANDRELS      The spaces between the arch of a doorway or window and
+                the rectangular mouldings over it. Early tracery
+                originated from the piercing of the spandrels of windows.
+
+ SPIRE          The acutely pointed termination of towers, etc.,
+                originating by the elongation of the early pyramidal
+                roofs.
+
+ SPLAY          The slanting or sloped surface of a window opening in the
+                thickness of the wall, also of doorways, etc.; the term
+                is also applied to bevels and other sloped surfaces.
+
+ SPRINGER       See Voussoir.
+
+ SQUINT         An oblique opening or slit in the wall of a church, for
+                the purpose of enabling persons in the aisles or
+                transepts to see the elevation of the Host at the High
+                Altar. They are mostly found on the sides of the chancel
+                arch, and are frequently called _hagioscopes_.
+
+ STOUP          A vessel for consecrated water, at or near the entrance
+                to a church.
+
+ STRING or
+ STRING COURSE. A horizontal projecting band of stone in the wall of a
+                building.
+
+ STRUT          See Brace.
+
+ TOOTH
+ ORNAMENT       An ornament used almost exclusively in the E.E. style,
+                resembling a square four-leaved flower, and thought to
+                be based on the dog-tooth violet.
+
+ TRANSOM        A horizontal cross-bar in a panel or window.
+
+ TRACERY        The ornamental stonework in the upper part of a window;
+                when formed by the mullions it is called bar tracery
+                and when the spandrel is pierced, plate tracery. Also
+                used largely on tombs, screens, doorways, etc.
+
+ TRANSEPTS      The projecting arms of a cruciform church, often wrongly
+                called "cross-aisles."
+
+ TRANSITION     A term used to describe the process of change from one
+                style of architecture to another. The three great periods
+                of transition are from the Romanesque and Norman to the
+                Early English; the Early English to the Decorated, and
+                the Decorated to the Perpendicular.
+
+ TREFOIL        An ornamental foliation in the heads of windows, panels,
+                etc., in which the spaces formed by the cusps resemble
+                three leaves.
+
+ TRIFORIUM      or Blind-Storey. An open gallery or arcade without
+                windows immediately above the pier arcade and under the
+                roof of the aisle.
+
+ TYMPANUM       The space between the top of a square-headed door and the
+                arch above it; frequently sculptured.
+
+ VAULT          Roofing of stone constructed on the principle of the
+                arch, the intersections of which are termed groins and
+                are in the pointed styles usually ribbed.
+
+ VAULTING
+ SHAFTS         Small shafts sometimes rising from the floor, sometimes
+                from the capital of a pillar and sometimes from a corbel,
+                and intended as supports for the ribs of a vault.
+
+ VESICA PISCIS  An oval shape or figure formed by two equal circles
+                cutting each other in their centres. Very commonly found
+                on episcopal and monastic seals.
+
+ VOUSSOIR       The wedge-shaped stones forming an arch, the centre one
+                of which is the _keystone_ and those at the impost or
+                starting point of the curve are the _springers_.
+
+ ZIG-ZAG        See Chevron.
+
+
+
+
+A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+ Adeline, J.       Art Dictionary of Terms.
+ Bland, W.         Arches, Piers, Buttresses, etc.
+ Blomfield, R.     Short History of Renaissance Architecture.
+ Bond, Francis     English Cathedrals Illustrated.
+ Bond, Francis     Gothic Architecture in England.
+ Bonney, T. G.     Cathedrals, Abbeys, and Churches of England and Wales.
+ Carter, J.        The Ancient Architecture of England.
+ Colling, J. K.    Details of Gothic Architecture.
+ Corroyer, E.      Gothic Architecture.
+ Cram, R. Adams    Church Building.
+ Davidson, E. A.   Gothic Stonework.
+ Fergusson, J.     Handbook of Architecture.
+ Fergusson, J.     History of Architecture.
+ Fairbairns, A.    Portfolio of English Cathedrals.
+ Garbett, E. L.    Principles of Design in Architecture.
+ Markland, J. H.   Remarks on Churches.
+ Moore, C. H.      Development and Character of Gothic Architecture.
+ Paley, F. A.      Manual of Gothic Architecture.
+ Paley, F. A.      Manual of Gothic Mouldings.
+ Parker, J. H.     A.B.C. of Gothic Architecture.
+ Parker, J. H.     Concise Glossary of Architecture.
+ Parker, J. H.     Introduction to the Study of Gothic Architecture.
+ Perkins, Rev. T.  Handbook of Gothic Architecture.
+ Prior, Ed. S.     History of Gothic Art.
+ Pugin, A. W.      Treatise on Chancel Screens and Rood Lofts.
+ Rickman, Thos.    Gothic Architecture.
+ Rickman, Thos.    Attempts to discriminate the Styles of Architecture
+                   in England.
+ Sharpe, Edmund    The Seven Periods of English Architecture.
+ Sharpe, Edmund    Treatise on the Rise and Progress of Window Tracery.
+ Scott, G.         History of Church Architecture.
+ Ruskin, John      Seven Lamps of Architecture.
+ Ruskin, John      Stones of Venice.
+ Ruskin, John      Poetry of Architecture.
+ Ruskin, John      Lectures on Architecture.
+ Wall, J. C.       Shrines of British Saints.
+ Winkle            British Cathedrals.
+ Wilson, S.        Romance of our Ancient Churches.
+
+ Bell's Cathedral Series.
+ "The Builder" Portfolio of English Cathedrals.
+ Murray's Handbooks to the Cathedrals.
+ S.P.C.K. Illustrated Notes on English Church History.
+      Swan, Sonnenschein & Co. Notes on the Cathedrals.
+     "Our English Minsters." Edited by Dean Farrar.
+
+This bibliography does not claim to be complete, but is a selection of
+the various books on the subject which should be studied by the student.
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+ All Souls' College, Oxford, 76
+ Altars, 80
+ Alveston Church, Warwickshire, 41
+ Amiens Cathedral, 57
+ Anne, Queen, 76
+ Apse, The, 27
+ Arches--
+   Saxon, 35
+   Norman, 37
+   Early English, 49
+   Decorated, 62
+   Perpendicular, 66
+ Ashchurch, Gloucestershire, 106
+
+ Baptistery, The, 84
+ Barfreston Church, Kent, 39, 41
+ Barnack Church, Northants 32, 33, 34, 101
+ Barnstaple, Devon, 98
+ Barnwell, 92
+ Barry, Sir C., 78, 79
+ Basilica, The, 26
+ Bayeux Tapestry, 41, 103
+ Beaulieu, Hants, 90
+ Beckett's Crown, Canterbury, 106
+ Bede (quoted), 21, 23, 96
+ Bells and Belfries, 95
+ Bench Ends, 89
+ Bertha, Queen, 23
+ Beverley Minster, 109
+ Billesley Church, Warwickshire, 78
+ Bishopstone, Sussex, 32
+ Bloxham Church, 101
+ Boston, Lincs, 72
+ Bovey Church, 92
+ Bradford-on-Avon, 32
+ Brewer, J. W. (quoted), 28
+ Brighton Pavilion, 78
+ Brigstock Church, Northants, 97
+ Bristol Cathedral, 70
+ British Churches, Early, 19
+ Brixworth Church, 28, 32, 33, 97
+ Broadmayne Church, 86
+ Bruton, Som., 97
+ Burne-Jones, Sir E., 107
+ Bury St. Edmunds, 82
+ Buttresses--
+   Norman, 43
+   Early English, 84
+   Decorated, 62
+   Perpendicular, 70
+ Byzantium, 27
+
+ Canterbury Cathedral, 43, 94, 101, 104, 110
+ Capitals--
+   Norman, 42
+   Early English, 54
+   Decorated, 60
+   Perpendicular, 69
+ Caradoc, King, 19
+ Carlisle Cathedral, 60, 106
+ Charles II., 76
+ Charlton-on-Otmoor, 92
+ Charlton Church, Kent, 106
+ Chartres Cathedral, 101
+ Chetwode, Bucks, 106
+ Chichester Cathedral, 97
+ Chipping Norton, Oxford, 81
+ Christchurch Priory, 88, 94, 107, 110
+ Christ Church, Spitalfields, 76
+ Chudleigh Church, Devon, 92
+ Church Furniture and Ornaments, 80
+ Cirencester Church, Glos., 70
+ Classic Reverse, The, 70
+ Clerkenwell, 44
+ Collumpton, Devon, 92
+ Compton Church, 94
+ Constantine, Emperor, 27
+ Constantinople, 27
+ Cranley, Surrey, 106
+ Crawden's Chapel, 58
+ Croyland Abbey, 96
+ Crypts, 109
+ Curfew, 96
+
+ Decorated Style, The, 57
+ Doisnel, Juliana, 44
+ Dolton Church, 84
+ Doorways--
+   Saxon, 30, 32
+   Norman, 39
+   Early English, 54
+   Decorated, 62
+   Perpendicular, 69
+ Dorchester Church, Oxford, 107
+ Dore Abbey, 81
+ Dunstable, 92
+ Dunster Church, 81, 92
+ Durham Cathedral, 43, 73, 82, 94, 112
+
+ Earl's Barton Church, 32, 33
+ Early English Style, The, 47
+ East Dereham, 97
+ Edburton Church, 84
+ Edington Church, Wilts, 72
+ Edington, Bp. William, 72
+ Edmund, Archbp. of Cant., 84
+ Edward I., 49
+ Edward III., 84
+ Elizabeth, Queen, 81, 110
+ Eltham Palace, 73
+ Ely Cathedral, 29, 43, 57
+ Ely Chapel, 60
+ Ethelbert, King of Kent, 23
+ Euston, Oxford, 94
+ Evesham Abbey, 73, 97
+ Exeter Cathedral, 89
+
+ Fairford Church, Glos., 107
+ Fan Vaulting, 69
+ Fergusson, Dr. (quoted), 75
+ Flying Buttresses, 56
+ Fonts, 84
+ Fordington S. George, Dorchester, 41
+ Fotheringay Church, Northants, 73
+ Fountains Abbey, 47
+ Fuller, Thos. (quoted), 19
+ Furness Abbey, 87
+ Furniture, Church, 80
+
+ Glass, Stained, 104
+ Glastonbury Abbey, 19, 97
+ Glossary, 115
+ Gloucester Cathedral, 43, 73, 94, 106, 110
+ Gothic Architecture, Leading Characteristics, 63
+ Gothic Styles, The, 47
+ Grantham, 101
+ Greenstead Church, Essex, 32, 34, 35
+ Grosmont, Monmouth, 81
+
+ Hackness, 96
+ Hanwell, Oxford, 94
+ Hartland Church, 92
+ Hawkesmore, 76
+ Heckington, 86, 101
+ Heigham, 72
+ Henry I., 44
+ Henry II., 49
+ Henry III., 44, 48, 49
+ Hereford Cathedral, 57, 110
+ Hexham, 82, 109
+ Hutchinson, Rev. J. M. (quoted), 49
+
+ Iffley Church, Oxford, 39
+
+ Jenkyns, Canon (quoted), 25
+ John, King, 44, 48, 49
+ Jones, Inigo, 75, 78
+
+ Kemsing, Kent, 92
+ Kenton Church, Devon, 90, 92
+ King's College Chapel, Cambridge, 107
+ King's Sutton, 101
+ Knights Hospitallers, 44
+ Knights Templars, 43
+
+ Lady Chapel, Exeter, 60
+ Langham Place, 78
+ Lastingham Church, York, 110
+ Laud, Archbishop, 16
+ Ledbury, Hereford, 103
+ Leighton Buzzard, 101
+ Lichfield, Abbot, 97
+ Lichfield, Cathedral, 57, 101
+ Lincoln Cathedral, 43, 52, 57, 63, 81, 106
+ Little Billing, 84
+ Little Maplestead, 44
+ Llanrhaiadr-y-Kinmerch, 107
+ Luidhard, Bishop, 23
+ Long Melford Church, Suffolk, 73
+ Long Sutton, 92
+ Luton Church, 58
+ Lyminge, 25
+
+ Magdalen College, Oxford, 90
+ Malmesbury (family), 110
+ Manchester Cathedral, 73, 88
+ Markland (quoted), 97
+ Mary, Queen, 81, 92
+ Marylebone Church, 78
+ Melbury Bubb, 84
+ Merton College, Oxford, 58, 60, 106
+ Minehead, 92
+ Morley Church, Derbyshire, 107
+ Morris, William, 107
+ Morton Church, Soms., 73
+ Mouldings--
+   Norman, 37
+   Early English, 52
+   Decorated, 62
+   Perpendicular, 69
+
+ Newark, Notts., 92
+ New College, Oxford, 72
+ Norbury, Derbyshire, 106
+ Norman Architecture, 35
+ Norwich Cathedral, 29, 43
+
+ Ornaments--
+   Norman, 37
+   Early English, 52
+   Decorated, 60, 62
+   Perpendicular, 68, 69, 70
+ Ornaments, Church, 80
+ Oxford Cathedral, 43, 101
+
+ Palladio, 74, 75
+ Parham, 84
+ Parker (quoted), 31, 35, 88
+ Parliament, Houses of, 78
+ Patrixbourne Church, Kent, 41
+ Perkins, Rev. T. (quoted), 110
+ Perpendicular Styles, 64
+ Perpendicular Towers, 72
+ Perpendicular Spires, 73
+ Peterborough Cathedral, 29, 43, 57
+ Philippa, Queen, 84
+ Piscinas, 87
+ Piers--
+   Norman, 42
+   Early English, 54
+   Decorated, 60
+   Perpendicular, 68
+ Plymtree, 92
+ Pointed Arch, The, 49
+ Porches, 53
+ Porlock Church, Somerset, 81
+ Pugin, 78, 79
+ Pulpits, 90
+ Pyecombe, 84
+ Pylle Church, 86
+
+ Radipole Church, Dorset, 98
+ Ravenna, 33
+ Reculver, 25
+ Reform Club, 79
+ Renaissance, The, 74
+ Repton Church, Derby, 109, 110
+ Reredos, The, 94
+ Richard I., 48, 49
+ Richborough, 25
+ Rickman (quoted), 35
+ Ripon Cathedral, 32, 109
+ Rievaulx, 47
+ Rochester Cathedral, 42, 57, 109
+ Rolvenden Church, Kent, 86
+ Romanesque Style, The, 27
+ Rome, 33
+ Ross, 101
+ Rotherham Church, Yorks., 70
+ Rothwell Church, 87
+ Round Churches, The, 44
+ Routledge, Rev. C. F., M.A., F.S.A., 24
+
+ Saffron Walden, 73
+ Saint Alban's Cathedral, 54, 94
+ Saint Andrew's, Norwich, 73
+ Saint Anselm, 110
+ Saint Augustine, 19
+ Saint Benet's, Cambridge, 32
+ Saint Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham, 79
+ Saint Clement's, Norfolk, 73
+ Saint Cross, Winchester, 39
+ Saint David's, Cathedral, 57, 73
+ Saint Dunstan, 96
+ Saint Edmundsbury, 97
+ Saint Edmund, Martyr, 35
+ Saint Etheldreda, 58
+ Saint Ethelwold, 103
+ Saint Giles', Oxford, 81
+ Saint Hilda, 96
+ Saint Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon, 32, 33
+ Saint Margaret's, Westminster, 107
+ Saint Mark's, Venice, 28
+ Saint Mary Abchurch, 76
+ Saint Mary Magdalene, Ripon, 81
+ Saint Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, 73
+ Saint Mary's, Cambridge, 73
+ Saint Mary's, Dover, 22
+ Saint Mary's, Lincoln, 32
+ Saint Mary's, Luton, 84
+ Saint Mary's, Newark, 101
+ Saint Mary's, Norwich, 73
+ Saint Mary's, Ottery, 92
+ Saint Mary's, Oxford, 73, 101
+ Saint Mary's, Stamford, 92
+ Saint Mary's, Taunton, 73
+ Saint Mary's, Wareham, 81, 84
+ Saint Mary's, Woolnoth, 76
+ Saint Mary's, York, 32
+ Saint Martin's, Canterbury, 22
+ Saint Martin's, Wareham, 32
+ Saint Michael's, Coventry, 73
+ Saint Michael's, Oxford, 32, 34, 94
+ Saint Nicholas, Lynn, 73
+ Saint Nicholas, Newcastle, 73
+ Saint Nicholas, Yarmouth, 63
+ Saint Paul the Apostle, 19
+ Saint Paul's Cathedral, 75, 76, 101
+ Saint Paul's Churchyard, 90
+ Saint Patrick, 21
+ Saint Peter Port, Guernsey, 98
+ Saint Peter's in the East, Oxford 110
+ Saint Peter's, Lincoln, 32
+ Saint Peter's, Norwich, 73
+ Saint Peter's, Rome, 75, 76
+ Saint Pierre, Caen, 101
+ Saint Piran's, Perranporth, 21
+ Saint Saviour's, Dartmouth, 90, 92
+ Saint Saviour's Southwark, 94
+ Saint Sepulchre, Cambridge, 44
+ Saint Sepulchre, Northampton, 44
+ Saint Sophia, Constantinople, 28
+ Saint Stephen's, Bristol, 73
+ Saint Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, 58
+ Saint Stephen's, Walbrook, 76
+ Saint Thomas à Becket, 110
+ Saint Wilfrid's Needle, 109
+ Saint Wolfstan, 103
+ Salisbury Cathedral, 47, 57, 101, 106
+ Sanctuary Knockers, 82
+ Saxon Architecture, 31
+ Saxon Churches, 32
+ Scott (quoted), 31
+ Screens, 92
+ Sedilia, 87
+ Shottesbrook Church, Berks, 66, 103
+ Shrewsbury, 90
+ Silchester, 25
+ Snettisham, Norfolk, 101
+ Solihull, Warwickshire, 94
+ Sompting, Sussex, 32, 99
+ Southwell, 57, 87
+ Southwold Church, Suffolk, 73
+ Speyer Cathedral, 29
+ Spires, 73, 99
+ Squints, 90
+ Stalls, 88
+ Stanford, Leicester, 106
+ Stone Church, Kent, 54
+ Stoups, 86
+
+ Temple Balsall, 44
+ Temple Church, London, 44
+ Tenby, 90
+ Tewkesbury Abbey, 106
+ Thaxted Church, Essex, 73
+ Thornham Church, Kent, 86
+ Towers, 33, 72
+ Transom, The, 46, 49
+ Trinity Church, Ely, 58
+ Tympana, 41
+
+ Uffendon, Devon, 92
+
+ Vitruvius, 74
+
+ Wakefield Church, Yorkshire, 73
+ Walpole, Horace, 78
+ Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey, 84
+ Wansted, Oxford, 101
+ Wantsume, 25
+ Warmington, Warwickshire, 81
+ Wells Cathedral, 53, 57, 110
+ West Horsley, Surrey, 106
+ Westminster Abbey, 48, 57, 63, 76, 78, 103
+ Westminster Hall, 73
+ Westminster, Henry's VII.'s Chapel, 68, 88, 89
+ Westwell, Kent, 106
+ Wilford Church, Oxford, 101
+ William the Conqueror, 96
+ Wimborne Minster, 110
+ Wimmington Church, Bedfordshire, 66
+ Winchester Cathedral, 43, 63, 72, 85, 88, 103, 110
+ Winchester College, 72
+ Windows--
+   Saxon, 32
+   Norman, 39
+   Early English, 52
+   Decorated, 58
+   Perpendicular, 68
+ Wing, 32
+ Wootton Wawen, 32
+ Worcester Cathedral, 57, 109, 110
+ Worms Cathedral, 29
+ Wren, Sir Christopher, 75, 76
+ Wrexham Church, 72
+ Wroxhall Abbey, 106
+ Wykeham, William of, 72, 84
+ Wymondham Church, 72
+
+ York Minster, 32, 57, 63, 66, 73, 94, 106, 109
+
+
+
+
+THE HOMELAND HANDBOOKS
+
+Copiously Illustrated and provided with Ordnance Maps and Plans.
+
+
+JANUARY, 1907.
+
+ No.                                                          Cloth. Paper.
+
+ 1 TONBRIDGE FOR THE ANGLER, THE HOLIDAY-MAKER, AND THE RESIDENT.
+     By Stanley Martin and Prescott Row                         1/-    6d.
+ 2 TUNBRIDGE WELLS OF TO-DAY. By Stanley Martin and
+     Prescott Row. Ordnance Map and Plans. Second Edition       1/-    6d.
+ 3 "LONDON TOWN." By Eric Hammond                               1/-    6d.
+ 4 "LYONESSE": THE ISLES OF SCILLY. By J. C. Tonkin and
+     Prescott Row. Fourth Edition. Map                          2/-    1/-
+ 5 "WOLFE-LAND": THE WESTERHAM DISTRICT, KENT. By Gibson
+     Thompson. Third Edition. Ordnance Map                      1/6    1/-
+ 6 "KENT'S CAPITAL": MAIDSTONE. By Stanley Martin and Prescott
+     Row. Second Edition. With Map                              1/-    6d.
+ 7 CROYDON, NEW AND OLD. By Edward A. Martin, F.G.S., and
+     J. E. Morris, B.A. Third Edition. With Map                 1/-    6d.
+ 8 DARTMOOR AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Beatrix F. Cresswell.
+     Edited by William Crossing. Fourth Edition. Ordnance Maps  2/-    1/-
+ 9 ROCHESTER AND CHATHAM WITH PEN AND CAMERA. By
+     A. G. Munro, B.A. Second Edition. With Map                 1/6    6d.
+ 10 REIGATE AND REDHILL. By T. F. W. Hamilton and W. Hodgson.
+     Second Edition. Ordnance Map                               1/-    6d.
+ 11 "SURREY'S CAPITAL": GUILDFORD AND DISTRICT.
+     By J. E. Morris, B.A. Third Edition. With Map              1/6    6d.
+ 12 DULVERTON AND DISTRICT: THE COUNTRY OF THE WILD RED DEER.
+     By F. J. Snell, B.A. Second Edition.
+     Cloth Edition contains Map                                 1/6    6d.
+ 13 FARNHAM AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Gordon Home. With Map      2/-    1/-
+ 14 GODALMING AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. Edited by Prescott Row.
+     Second Edition. With Ordnance Map                          1/-    6d.
+ 15 TEIGNMOUTH AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Beatrix F. Cresswell.
+     Second Edition. With Ordnance Map                          1/-    6d.
+ 16 HASTINGS AND ST. LEONARDS. By W. H. Sanders. With Plan      1/6    6d.
+ 17 EPSOM AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Gordon Home. Ordnance Map    1/6    9d.
+ 18 MINEHEAD, PORLOCK, AND DUNSTER: THE SEA-BOARD OF EXMOOR.
+     By C. E. Larter. Second Edition. Ordnance Map              1/-    6d.
+ 19 CRANBROOK: THE TOWN OF THE KENTISH WEALD.
+     By Stanley Martin. Second Edition. With Map                1/6    6d.
+ 20 DAWLISH, AND THE ESTUARY OF THE EXE.
+     By Beatrix F. Cresswell. Cloth Edition contains Map        1/-    6d.
+ 21 ST. ALBANS: ITS ABBEY AND ITS SURROUNDINGS.
+     By C. H. Ashdown, F.R.G.S., F.C.S. With Ordnance Map       2/6    1/-
+ 22 BROMLEY, BECKENHAM, AND CHISLEHURST. By George Clinch,
+     F.G.S. Ordnance Map                                        2/6    1/-
+ 23 EXETER AND ITS CATHEDRAL.
+     By Beatrix F. Cresswell. With Plan                         1/-    6d.
+ 24 KINGSTON-UPON-THAMES AND SURBITON.
+     By Dr. W. E. St. L. Finny. With Ordnance Map               2/6    1/-
+ 25 EVESHAM AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD, INCLUDING BROADWAY.
+     By William Smith. With Map                                 1/6    1/-
+ 26 PETWORTH AND MID WEST SUSSEX. By L. C. Barnes. With Map.
+      (Cloth only)                                              1/-    --
+ 27 NEWQUAY, THE VALE OF LANHERNE, AND PERRANZABULOE.
+      By Fannie Goddard. Second Edition. Ordnance Map           1/-    6d.
+ 28 HASLEMERE AND HINDHEAD WITH THEIR SURROUNDINGS.
+      By J. E. Morris, B.A. Second Edition. Ordnance Map        2/-    1/-
+ 29 TAUNTON AND TAUNTON DEANE. By Beatrix F. Cresswell.
+      Ordnance Map                                              2/6    1/-
+ 30 LITTLEHAMPTON, ARUNDEL, AND AMBERLEY.
+      By Rev. W. Goodliffe, M.A. Ordnance Map                   1/-    6d.
+ 31 "THE WESTERN GATE OF DARTMOOR": TAVISTOCK AND THE DISTRICT.
+      By William Crossing. With Ordnance Map                    1/-    6d.
+ 32 PLYMOUTH: "THE METROPOLIS OF THE WEST."
+      By W. H. K. Wright. With Ordnance Map                     1/-    6d.
+ 33 THE CHALFONT COUNTRY (SOUTH BUCKS). By S. Graveson.
+      Ordnance Map                                              1/6    1/-
+ 34 DUNSTABLE, THE DOWNS, AND THE DISTRICT. By. G. Worthington
+      Smith, F.L.S., etc. With Maps                             2/-    1/-
+ 35 THE QUANTOCK HILLS, THEIR COMBES AND VILLAGES.
+      By Beatrix F. Cresswell. Ordnance Map. (Cloth only)       2/6    --
+ 36 OXTED, LIMPSFIELD, AND EDENBRIDGE. By Gordon Home.
+      Ordnance Map                                              1/-    6d.
+ 37 LYNTON, LYNMOUTH, AND THE LORNA DOONE COUNTRY.
+      By J. E. Morris, B.A. Ordnance Map                        1/-    6d.
+ 38 HORSHAM AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Rev. W. Goodliffe, M.A.
+      Ordnance Map                                              2/-    1/-
+ 39 SEAFORD AND NEWHAVEN. By Geo. Day. Ordnance Map             1/-    6d.
+ 40 THE GREAT OUSE. HUNTINGDON, ST. NEOTS, AND ST IVES. By
+      H. L. Jackson, M.A., and G. R. Holt Shafto. Ordnance Map  2/-    1/-
+ 41 KING'S LYNN WITH ITS SURROUNDINGS, INCLUDING SANDRINGHAM.
+      By W. A. Dutt. Ordnance Map                               2/-    1/-
+ 42 WOKING AND RIPLEY WITH THEIR SURROUNDINGS.
+      By A. H. Anderson. Ordnance Map                           2/-    1/-
+ 43 HERTFORD AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By W. Graveson.
+      Ordnance Map.                                             2/-    1/-
+ 44 DORKING AND LEATHERHEAD.
+      By Joseph E. Morris, M.A. Ordnance Map                    2/-    1/-
+ 45 WALTHAM AND CHESHUNT. By Freeman Bunting. Ordnance Map      1/-    6d.
+ 46 DORCHESTER WITH ITS SURROUNDINGS. By F. W. and Sidney
+      Heath. with a Foreword by Thomas Hardy. Ordnance Map      2/-    1/-
+ 47 LUTON CHURCH. By Constance Isherwood. With Plan             1/-    6d.
+ 48 READING AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By A. H. Anderson.
+      Ordnance Map                                              2/-    1/-
+ 49 SUTTON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS.
+      By F. Richards. Ordnance Map                              2/-    1/-
+ 50 WATFORD AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Walter Moore.
+      Ordnance Map                                              2/-    1/-
+ 51 YEOVIL AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Frank Heath. Ordnance Map   2/-    1/-
+ 52 AYLESBURY AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Walter Moore.
+    Ordnance Map                                                2/-    1/-
+ 53 GRAVESEND AND ITS SURROUNDINGS.  By A. J. Philip.
+      Ordnance Map                                              2/-    1/-
+ 54 HIGH WYCOMBE AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Henry Harbour         --     --
+ 55 OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES, AND HOW TO STUDY THEM.
+      By Sidney Heath                                           2/-    --
+
+
+HANDBOOKS FOR MANY OTHER TOWNS AND DISTRICTS ARE IN ACTIVE PREPARATION.
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30290 ***
diff --git a/30290-h/30290-h.htm b/30290-h/30290-h.htm
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+<head>
+<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8" />
+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Our Homeland Churches and How to Study Them, by Sidney Heath</title>
+<style type="text/css">
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+    pre      {font-size: 85%;}
+</style>
+</head>
+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30290 ***</div>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Our Homeland Churches and How to Study Them,
+by Sidney Heath, Illustrated by Sidney Heath and Ethel M. Heath</h1>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="frontis" id="frontis">[Frontispiece]</a></span>
+<a name="Plate_1" id="Plate_1"></a></p>
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="ILLUSTRATION">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img1c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img1c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Foundations of Romano-British Church at Silchester" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+    <tr>
+		 <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><br />
+              <b>The Foundations of a Romano-British Church.</b><br />
+         Uncovered at Silchester.<br />
+				 <i>Photograph S. Vidor White &amp; Co.</i><br />
+Click to <a href="images/img1c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<small><i>The Homeland Handbooks</i>&mdash;No. 55.</small></p>
+
+<h1>OUR HOMELAND<br />
+CHURCHES</h1>
+<h3>AND HOW TO STUDY THEM.</h3>
+
+<h6>BY</h6>
+<h4>SIDNEY HEATH</h4>
+<h6>(Author of<br />
+"Some Dorset Manor Houses,"<br />
+etc.)</h6>
+
+<h5>ILLUSTRATED BY THE AUTHOR<br />
+AND</h5>
+<h5>ETHEL M. HEATH</h5>
+
+<h6>AND BY<br />
+PHOTOGRAPHS.</h6>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5>Published under the General Editorship of<br />
+Prescott Row and Arthur Henry Anderson,<br />
+by the Homeland Association for the Encouragement<br />
+of Touring in Great Britain.</h5>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5>London:<br />
+THE HOMELAND ASSOCIATION LTD.,<br />
+22, <span class="smallcaps">Bride Lane, Fleet Street, E.C.</span><br />
+<span class="smallcaps">First Edition.</span>1907.<br /></h5>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>EDITORIAL NOTE.</h3>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p><small>With a view to making future Editions of this Handbook as
+accurate and comprehensive as possible, suggestions for
+its improvement are cordially invited. If sent to <span class="smallcaps">The
+Editors</span>, The Homeland Association, Association House,
+22, Bride Lane, Fleet Street, E.C., they will be gratefully
+acknowledged.</small></p>
+
+<hr class="minimal" />
+
+<h3>COPYRIGHT.</h3>
+<p><small>This Book as a whole, with its contents, both Literary and
+Pictorial, is Copyrighted in Great Britain.</small></p>
+
+<hr class="minimal" />
+
+<h3>ADVERTISING.</h3>
+
+<p><small><span class="smallcaps">Local.</span>&mdash;Terms for Advertising in future issues of this Handbook
+will be forwarded on application to the General
+Manager of the Homeland Association, at the above
+address.</small></p>
+
+<p><small><span class="smallcaps">General.</span>&mdash;Contracts for the insertion of Advertisements
+through the whole series of Homeland Handbooks, more
+than fifty volumes, circulating through the country, can be
+arranged on application to the General Manager.</small></p>
+
+</blockquote>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3><i>CONTENTS</i></h3>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="1" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Pref"><i>Author's Preface</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Dedic"><i>Dedication</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Intro"><i>Introduction</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><i>Chapter I.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Early British Churches</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><i>Chapter II.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Early Church Architecture</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><i>Chapter III.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Saxon and Norman Styles</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><i>Chapter IV.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Early English Style</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><i>Chapter V.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Decorated Style</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><i>Chapter VI.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Perpendicular Style</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><i>Chapter VII.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Renaissance and Later</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><i>Chapter VIII.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Church Furniture and Ornaments</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><i>Chapter IX.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Bells and Belfries</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_X"><i>Chapter X.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Spire: Its Origin and Development</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><i>Chapter XI.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Stained Glass</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><i>Chapter XII.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Crypts</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><i>Chapter XIII.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>How to describe an Old Church</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Appendix"><i>Appendix</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>A Glossary of the Principal Terms used in<br /> Ecclesiastical Architecture</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Biblio"><i>Bibliography</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Index"><i>Index</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><i>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</i></h3>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="1" summary="Illustrations">
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Plate_1"><span class="smallcaps">Plate&nbsp;1</span></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Foundations of a Romano-British Church (Frontispiece)</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Plate_2"><span class="smallcaps">Plate&nbsp;2</span></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Church of St. Margaret, Lynn</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Plate_3"><span class="smallcaps">Plate&nbsp;3</span></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>A Fine Perpendicular Tower, St. Mary, Taunton</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Plate_4"><span class="smallcaps">Plate&nbsp;4</span></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Sedilia and Chantry, Luton</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img2"><i>The Various Forms of Arches</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img3"><i>Plan of a Typical Gothic Cruciform Parish Church, Luton</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img4"><i>Examples of Gothic Windows</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img5"><i>Examples of Buttresses</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img6"><i>A Rood Screen, with a Restoration of the Rood</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img7"><i>The Church of S. Martin, Canterbury</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img8"><i>Window Built with Roman Brick, Swanscombe</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img9"><i>A Reputed Saxon Doorway, Bishopstone</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img10"><i>Tower of Earls' Barton Church</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img11"><i>An Example of Norman Tower, Bishopstone</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img12"><i>A Norman Pier Arcade, Abbots Langley</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img13"><i>Examples of Norman Mouldings</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img14"><i>A Late Norman Parish Church, Castle Rising</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img15"><i>West Doorway, Rochester Cathedral</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img16"><i>Tympanum of Norman Doorway, Fordington St. George</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img17"><i>Examples of Norman Capitals</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img18"><i>A Curious Norman Capital, Seaford</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img19"><i>Norman and Early English Doorways, Dunstable Priory Church</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img20"><i>Windows, Showing the Origin of Tracery</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img21"><i>An Early English Arch, Rochester Cathedral</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img22"><i>Wall Arcading, Showing Junction of Norman and<br />
+<span class="ind2">&nbsp;</span>Early English Masonry,Dunstable Priory Church</i></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img23"><i>An Early English Doorway, Huntingdon</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img24"><i>A Group of Thirteenth Century Lancet Windows, Ockham</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img25"><i>Salisbury Cathedral</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img26"><i>Examples of Early English Capitals and Ornament</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img27"><i>A Late Decorated Window in a Parish Church, East Sutton</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img28"><i>Examples of Decorated Ornament</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img29"><i>Examples of Perpendicular Ornament</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img30"><i>Early Perpendicular Parish Church, Yeovil</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img31"><i>A Fine Parish Church, Showing Rich Perpendicular Work,<br />
+<span class="ind2">&nbsp;</span>Terrington St. Clement, Norfolk</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img32"><i>A Perpendicular Doorway, Merton College</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img33"><i>A Perpendicular Porch, King's Lynn</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img34"><i>An English Renaissance Church, S. Stephen, Walbrook</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img35"><i>A Typical Cornish Font</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img36"><i>The Sanctuary Knocker, Durham Cathedral</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img37"><i>The Baptistery in Luton Church</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img38"><i>An Example of a Leaden Font of the Late Norman Period</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img39"><i>A Reputed Saxon Font, Shaldon</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img40"><i>A Detached Holy-Water Stoup of Unusual Design</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img41"><i>A Typical Somerset Bench-End, Spaxton</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img42"><i>A Richly-Carved Pulpit and Canopy, Edlesborough</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img43"><i>Screen with Rood Loft, Kenton</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img44"><i>The Carved Oak Balustrade in Compton Church</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img45"><i>Bell Turret for Three Bells, Radipole</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img46"><i>The Best Example of a Saxon Spire or Pyramidal Roof, Sompting</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img47"><i>Leighton Buzzard Church, with Early English Tower and Spire</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img48"><i>A Parish Church with a Shingle Broach Spire, Edenbridge</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img49"><i>Interior Elevation of a Bay of a Church</i></a></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3><i>STYLES OF ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.</i></h3>
+
+<p><small>The following periods of architectural style may be of
+use for the purpose of reference, but it must be borne in mind
+that they are more or less approximate, as each style merged by
+slow degrees into the next.</small></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="small" style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="1" summary="Periods">
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Norman:</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">William I. to Stephen.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">1066-1154.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Transition Norman.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Henry II.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">1154-1189.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Early English Gothic.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Richard I. to Henry III.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">1189-1272.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Decorated.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Edward I., II., III.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">1272-1377.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Perpendicular.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Richard II. to Henry VII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">1377-1485.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Tudor.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Henry VIII. to Elizabeth.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">1485-1600.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><small>Sharpe gives seven periods of English architecture
+up to the time of the Reformation, and dates them as
+follows:&mdash;</small></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="small" border="0" style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Periods">
+
+<tr><td colspan="4" valign="top"><i>ROMANESQUE.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">I.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Saxon</i></td><td align="right">from &mdash;&mdash; to 1066</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">II.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Norman</i></td><td align="right">from 1066 to 1145</td><td align="right">79 years</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">III.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Transitional</i></td><td align="right">from 1145 to 1190</td><td align="right">45 years</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="4" valign="top"><i>GOTHIC.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IV.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Lancet</i></td><td align="right">from 1190 to 1245</td><td align="right">55 years</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">V.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Geometrical</i></td><td align="right">from 1245 to 1315</td><td align="right">70 years</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VI.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Curvilinear</i></td><td align="right">from 1315 to 1360</td><td align="right">45 years</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VII.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Rectilinear</i></td><td align="right">from 1360 to 1550</td><td align="right">190 years</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="Pref" id="Pref"></a>PREFACE.</h3>
+
+<p>It is a truism that the history of building is the
+history of the civilized world, for of all the arts
+practised by man, there is none which conveys to
+us a clearer conception of the religion, history, manners,
+customs, ideals and follies of past ages, than the art of
+building. This applies in a special sense to cathedrals
+and churches, which glorious relics reflect and perpetuate
+the noble aim, the delicate thought, the refined
+and exquisite taste, the patient and painstaking toil
+which have been expended upon them by the devout
+and earnest craftsmen of the past.</p>
+
+<p>There are very few of our ancient churches in village,
+town or city which do not offer some feature of interest
+to the visitor, and in the absence of anything more
+important, there is sure to be some door, window, font,
+screen, or other detail which will amply repay him for
+the small amount of time spent in seeing it.</p>
+
+<p>The aim of the author of this little volume has been
+to indicate the symbolism and meaning attaching to the
+various portions of our churches and cathedrals, and to
+endeavour briefly to describe, in language as simple as
+the subject will allow, the various styles of ecclesiastical
+architecture with their distinctive characteristics in such
+a way as will enable the reader to assign each portion
+and detail of a church to its respective period with an
+approximate degree of accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>He does not claim to be original, but endeavours to
+be useful and interesting. The best authorities have
+been consulted and freely drawn upon, but with the
+object in view of writing a book at once thus useful and
+interesting, no attempt has been made to deal with the
+subject in a strictly architectural, or a purely scientific
+manner.</p>
+<p>Weymouth, 1906.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3><a name="Dedic" id="Dedic"></a>DEDICATION.</h3>
+
+<p>To all those who love old buildings&mdash;cathedrals,
+abbeys, and village churches, which breathe the
+spirit of an age with which we have entirely
+broken&mdash;and who would fain hand down to posterity,
+unmutilated, the great building achievements of our forefathers,
+which we, with all our science, wealth, and
+means of curtailing labour, can no more imitate than
+we can reproduce the language of a Chaucer or a Shakespeare;
+this book is respectfully dedicated.</p>
+
+<p class="right">S. H.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="small" style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="1" summary="Poem">
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">"<i>Firm was their faith, the ancient bands,</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>The wise of heart in wood and stone,</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><i>Who reared with stern and trusting hands</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Those dark grey towers of days unknown;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><i>They filled the aisles with many a thought,</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>They bade each nook some truth recall</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><i>The pillared arch its legend brought,</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>A doctrine came with roof and wall.</i>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="smallcaps">&mdash;Hawker of Morwenstow.</span></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span class="wide">OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES<br />
+AND<br />
+HOW TO STUDY THEM.</span></h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3><a name="Intro" id="Intro"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h3>
+
+<p>However much we may admire, considered purely
+as art, the Pagan temples of the Greeks and
+Romans, we must confess that they are lacking
+in those high ideals and those sustained and inspired
+motives which seem to penetrate and permeate the
+buildings and churches of the Christian era. Perfect as
+is Greek art within its somewhat narrow limits, it is,
+nevertheless, cold, precise and lifeless. The Gothic
+buildings on the contrary are pregnant with the very
+spirit of life.</p>
+
+<p>Prompted by a deep and fervent faith in their religion,
+the Gothic builders and sculptors unconsciously wove
+into the humblest of their architectural enrichments some
+portion of their daily life and personality. The slave-built
+temples of the Greeks offered no scope for the
+exercise of individual expression&mdash;such, in fact, would
+have been strongly resented&mdash;whereas the early Christian
+craftsman, revelling in his freedom, seized every opportunity
+of expressing in his work his joy, fear and hope
+of immortality.</p>
+
+<p>This is made apparent in the study of an old church,
+whereof every portion&mdash;door, window, bench-end,
+carving, gargoyle&mdash;has hidden about it some suggestion of
+beautiful thought, or some distinct and appropriate symbolism.
+The fact that symbolism underlies almost every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+such indication of medi&aelig;val thought is made abundantly
+manifest in the study of medi&aelig;val literature. Open any
+12th century treatise on morals, science or history, and
+you become aware of the fact at once.<a name="img2" id="img2"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-1-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-1-1-t.jpg" height="84" alt="Norman" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-1-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-1-2-t.jpg" height="84" alt="Stilted" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-1-3.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-1-3-t.jpg" height="84" alt="Horse Shoe" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Norman.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      Stilted.
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Horse Shoe.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-2-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-2-1-t.jpg" height="125" alt="Equilateral" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-2-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-2-2-t.jpg" height="125" alt="Lancet" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-2-3.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-2-3-t.jpg" height="125" alt="Drop" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Equilateral.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Lancet.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Drop.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-3-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-3-1-t.jpg" height="116" alt="Trefoil" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-3-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-3-2-t.jpg" height="116" alt="Trefoil" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-3-3.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-3-3-t.jpg" height="116" alt="Cinquefoil" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Trefoil.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Trefoil.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Cinquefoil.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-4-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-4-1-t.jpg" height="83" alt="Ogee" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-4-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-4-2-t.jpg" height="83" alt="Four Centered" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-4-3.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-4-3-t.jpg" height="83" alt="Tudor" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Ogee.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Four Centered.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Tudor.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      <span class="b"><b>The Various Forms of Arches</b></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The main-spring
+of this symbolism, of all Christian symbolism, turns on
+the parabolic meaning in the scheme of Creation. The
+early writers were far less concerned with recording the
+plain objective facts of history, than in pursuing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+allegory and the love of the marvellous, and showing all
+those characteristics of what we now term an unscientific
+attitude of mind.</p>
+
+<p>In its widest sense, symbolism means the expression
+of belief, and if we would interpret history aright, we
+must grasp the fact that the key to the character and
+disposition of peoples of all ages lies in the knowledge of
+their beliefs; for out of the beliefs of one age most surely
+grow the beliefs of its successors, and in no work of man's
+hand are the beliefs held by various peoples in past ages
+more clearly defined than in our cathedrals and churches,
+which noble buildings in every civilized country indicate
+principles as well as facts, influences as well as results;
+and while presenting the finest materials for &aelig;sthetic
+study, are no less useful as indicating the psychological
+peculiarities of those builders of old to whose condition
+they bear witness.</p>
+
+<p>In our grand specimens of ecclesiastical architecture,
+we may read the world's later history, and to-day they
+breathe the sombre reverential influence of a faith
+which sought to satisfy itself with the visible symbolizing
+of those half-poetical, half-superstitious conceptions with
+which the religion of the Middle Ages was so deeply
+imbued.</p>
+
+<p>An early development of decorative symbolic art,
+known as Celtic, of which we have examples on old Irish
+crosses, and particularly on illuminated MSS. was wrought
+by the Christian monks of the 7th and 8th centuries, but
+what is generally understood as Christian symbolic art
+had its finest development about the 13th century. Gothic
+art is essentially symbolic and in many instances, its
+individual forms have specific significance. Thus the
+common equilateral triangle was used to symbolize the
+Holy Trinity, as are the two entwined triangles. Other
+symbols employed at this period setting forth the mystery
+of the Unity of the Trinity, without beginning and without
+end, are three interlaced circles, and a very curious one
+is that in which three faces are so combined as to form
+an ornamental figure. Baptism under the immediate
+sanction of the Divine Trinity was represented by three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+fishes placed together in the form of a triangle.<a name="img3" id="img3"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img3c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img3c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Plan of a Gothic Cruciform Parish Church" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><i><br /><b>Plan of a Typical Gothic Cruciform Parish Church.</b><br />
+         (St. Mary, Luton, fully described in No. 47 of this Series).<br />
+				 <small>Drawn by Ed. Craven Lee.</small></i>
+Click to <a href="images/img3c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+So numerous, indeed were such Christian symbols after the
+9th century that a mere enumeration of them would
+occupy considerable space. Every trefoil symbolized the
+Holy Trinity; every quatrefoil the four Evangelists;
+every cross the Crucifixion, or the martyrdom of some
+saint; and in Gothic ornament and decoration, we find
+the Chalice, the Crown of Thorns, the Dice, the Sop, the
+Hammer and Nails, the Flagellum and other symbols
+of our Lord's Passion.</p>
+
+<p>Although presenting the same characteristics in their
+external design, our town and village churches are very
+various. The simplest form, and the one most commonly
+found, is that of a nave and chancel, with a tower at the
+west end; to which plan may be added aisles and transepts,
+the latter often being wrongly called "cross-aisles."
+When the walls of the nave above the arcade
+rise above those of the aisles and are pierced with windows,
+the upper portion is called the clerestory, the meaning of
+which word is not free from obscurity; it seems probable
+that it indicates the clear story&mdash;the story which rises
+clear of the nave and aisles. In large buildings, they
+are important both for utility and beauty, but in small
+and early churches, they are of less importance.</p>
+
+<p>It is a well-known fact that the chancel and nave of
+a church generally stand east and west. This arrangement,
+called the orientation, is symbolic of the
+teaching that to the east we are to look for assistance
+and protection against the power of our enemy, and that
+as we pray we may look for the day-spring, symbolized
+to us in the rising sun that sheds light and warmth all
+over the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The public entrance to a church is generally at the west
+end (the priest usually had a door in the chancel for his
+own use). Through this door we enter the house of
+prayer, for as in the east we see the emblem of the Lord
+of Life and Light, so the west represents the seat of
+darkness and of the powers of evil.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest porches were those of the early Christian
+basilica churches; they were long and arcaded and were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+called "narthex." In later times, they assumed two
+forms, one the projecting erection, covering the entrance
+and divided into three or more doorways, and the other
+a kind of covered chamber open at the end and having
+small windows at the sides. These latter are generally
+found on the north and south sides of the nave. Formerly,
+when church government was more rigorous in
+discipline than is now the case, the porch was the appointed
+place for those who were under censure. Those also
+who were unbaptised, or who had not yet received the
+sacrament of regeneration, were not allowed beyond the
+porch, not quite excluded from the church and yet not
+permitted to enter fully. The porch also served as a
+path of admission for all Christians into the body of the
+church, so that they passed through the assembly of
+penitents and catechumens, who were wont to ask the
+prayers of the more highly privileged for their full restoration
+or admission to the communion of the faithful.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to our Lord's word, "I am the
+Door," we frequently find the tympana of church doors,
+particularly those of Norman date, adorned with representations
+of events from his life, but they often also depict
+the monsters, dragons and devils, that formed so strong
+an article in the faith of the early Christians.</p>
+
+<p>A more detailed account of these tympana will be
+found in a following chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Passing through the porch we enter the nave, which
+word is derived from the Latin <i>navis</i>, a ship. Its symbolic
+teaching is that of the Church riding triumphantly
+and buoyantly on the troubled and dark waters of the
+world. The first thing noticed on entering the nave is
+the font, which was formerly placed outside the church,
+in a separate building called the baptistery; a few of our
+churches have retained these little buildings which now
+form part of the churches proper.</p>
+
+<p>The reason in early days for placing the font outside
+the church was that the Christian was not admitted into
+the nave until he had been baptised and confirmed, the
+latter rite being administered immediately after baptism.</p>
+
+<p>From the western door there is a clear passage through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+the centre of the nave, called the aisle, signifying the
+straight and narrow way from the seat of darkness to
+immortal life. On each side of this aisle are seats for
+the laity, with room for standing and kneeling. The nave
+was usually divided from the chancel by an open screen
+of wood or stone, signifying that although the Christian
+might have some insight into the mysteries of the priest's
+office, at the same time these were to be partly concealed
+from his view. The rood screen was so called from
+the fact that the great Rood, or Crucifix, stood
+above it, not always on the screen itself, but on a
+separate beam, to which was often attached a rood loft
+or chamber. In early days, the lessons were read from
+the top of the rood screen, and in many of our churches
+the stairways leading thither have been retained.<a name="img4" id="img4"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/win-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/win-1-t.jpg" height="302" alt="Norman" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/win-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/win-2-t.jpg" height="302" alt="Stilted" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/win-3.jpg">
+      <img src="images/win-3-t.jpg" height="302" alt="Stilted" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Early English.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Decorated.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Perpendicular.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;<br /><span class="b"><b>Examples of Gothic Windows</b><br />
+      <small>See also page <a href="#Page_59">59</a></small>.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>In churches where the screen has vanished, the division
+of the nave from the rest of the church is plainly marked
+by the chancel arch. The chancel is emblematic of the
+Christian perfection, of the Church triumphant in heaven.</p>
+
+<p>In an old church, a piscina is nearly always found in
+the chancel, and here, too, were the sedilia or seats for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+the officiating clergy, the prior, sub-prior, and the
+deacon, the last-named occupying the lowest seat.</p>
+
+<p>Founders' tombs also nearly always occupy positions
+in the chancel, and these tombs differ from all others in
+that they form an integral part of the structure, and
+could not have been added after the church was completed.</p>
+
+<p>Another thing sometimes to be seen is the ambery,
+or aumbry, a small cupboard let into the chancel wall,
+in which were kept the communion vessels, the chalice,
+paten, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The great object of interest, however, in the chancel,
+is the altar, which Archbishop Laud directed should be
+enclosed by rails, so that although the people may draw
+near, they cannot touch the holy table, but must accept
+from the hands of the priest those gifts of which he is
+the minister from God.</p>
+
+<p>Altars are fully described in a following chapter, but
+we may here note that the reredos, so universally found
+in our cathedrals, abbeys, and in many of our churches,
+forms no part of the altar, and the Court of Arches has
+decided that there are no altars in the Church of England,
+but only communion tables.</p>
+
+<p>Prominent among the external enrichments of our
+churches is the gargoyle, a word derived from the French,
+"gargouille," which in its turn comes from the Latin
+"gurgulio"&mdash;a water-spout. The earliest gargoyles are
+merely orifices with a lip to shoot the water well away
+from the fabric. The true gargoyle, however, was
+quickly evolved from this primitive form, and consists
+of two parts, the lower one forming the channel, the
+upper one being the cover. The full significance of the
+skill displayed by the old masons in the rare opportunity
+the gargoyle afforded them of representing the dragons,
+serpents, etc., in which their fancy revelled, is made
+apparent when we view the futile attempts of modern
+architects to introduce this feature in their churches, for
+modern gargoyles are generally grotesque caricatures,
+and anything but happy appendages to the buildings to
+which they are attached.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+<a name="img5" id="img5"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="20" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/norman.jpg">
+            <img src="images/norman-t.jpg" height="322" alt="Norman" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Norman</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/early.jpg">
+            <img src="images/early-t.jpg" height="316" alt="Early English" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Early English</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/flying.jpg">
+            <img src="images/flying-t.jpg" height="566" alt="Flying Buttress" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Flying Buttress</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/decorated.jpg">
+            <img src="images/decorated-t.jpg" height="322" alt="Decorated" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Decorated</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/perpendic.jpg">
+            <img src="images/perpendic-t.jpg" height="316" alt="Perpendicular" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Perpendicular</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      <small><b>Examples of Buttresses</b><br />
+      <i>Drawn by E. M. Heath</i></small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The churchyard, so pleasing an adjunct to the House
+of God placed within it, is frequently approached through
+a lych-gate, which word is derived from the Saxon <i>lich</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+a corpse. These gates in our country churchyards are
+often very picturesque little structures, and under
+them the corpse at a funeral awaited the officiating
+priest before being taken into the church. The churchyard
+is commonly regarded as a mere dependency
+of the church, and as having a history very inferior
+in interest to that of the temple to which it is the
+court. The truth is that many of our churchyards
+have an antiquity far greater than that of the
+churches, as many of them constituted the open-air
+meeting-places of our Saxon forefathers long before the
+erection of parish churches. In the common meeting-place
+a cross was set up, either of wood or stone, to mark
+and hallow the spot, and when a church was subsequently
+built it was usually in the immediate vicinity of the cross,
+which accounts for the fact that many churchyard
+crosses are of older date than the churches themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Wells of water are often found in old churchyards,
+and as the regulations of the Saxon church required
+immersion and not sprinkling, it is possible that these
+were the Saxon fonts.</p>
+
+<p>Such then is the necessarily brief attempt to describe
+the main lines on which our old churches were planned,
+and the motives and ideals which animated their builders,
+who, being impressed with the dignity and mystery of
+the works of God, made their churches symbolical of the
+portions of the Christian life; the porch signifying
+baptism, the nave the life militant on earth, and the
+chancel the life eternal; while every little ornament,
+piece of sculpture and enrichment was designed to remind
+the worshippers of their faith, of its hopes, blessed
+promises and rewards.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></h4>
+
+<h3>EARLY BRITISH CHURCHES.</h3>
+
+<p>In dealing with the introduction of church architecture
+into our own land, the task would be much
+simplified if one could state with certainty when
+the first church was built on British soil. Some historians
+assert that the Church of England as it is constituted
+to-day dates no further back than the moment
+when S. Augustine and his followers landed on the shores
+of Kent in the year 596, yet one is probably justified in
+assuming that a church existed in these islands for
+centuries previous to the arrival of the Roman missionaries.
+Unfortunately we have no records to guide us as
+to the date of this earlier settlement, and the name of
+the first Christian missionary to heathen Britain has still
+to be discovered. "We see," says the quaint old historian,
+Thomas Fuller, "the light of the word shined here,
+but see not who kindled it." The first Christian building
+of which we have any record was probably that erected
+at Glastonbury before the year 300, but that this was the
+first Christian settlement cannot be alleged with certainty.</p>
+
+<p>There are many traditions concerning the introduction
+of Christianity into Britain, some of which may probably
+have some bearing on the truth, but the whole subject
+is involved in considerable obscurity. One of these
+numerous traditions is to the effect that the British King
+Caradoc, after being taken prisoner to Rome, was allowed
+to return, on condition that several members of his family
+remained as hostages; and whilst serving in this capacity,
+his mother, son, and daughter are stated to have become
+converts to Christianity, the doctrines of which faith
+they spread in their native land on their return thereto.
+Another tradition is to the effect that S. Paul himself
+visited Britain and laid the foundation of the Christian
+faith.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a><a name="img6" id="img6"></a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img6c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img6c.jpg" height="330"
+      alt="Rood Screen" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><b>A Rood Screen with a Restoration of the Rood</b>.<br />
+                  Kenn, Devon.<br />
+              <i>Photograph by Chapman.</i><br />
+Click to <a href="images/img6c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>We are also told by eminent church historians<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+that the father and grandfather of S. Patrick were
+Christians, in which case S. Patrick himself would from
+a very early age have been brought up in the tenets of
+their faith. He is said to have been seized by pirates in
+the Clyde and taken to the north of Ireland, and eventually
+to Gaul. He was subsequently restored to his friends,
+whom he wished to convert to the Christian faith, and
+for this purpose his father sent him to be taught in the
+schools of Tours, Auxerre and Lerins. Eventually he
+was consecrated Bishop of the Irish and organized an
+efficient ecclesiastical system in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Before the coming of the Anglo-Saxons the church
+seems to have established a firm hold on the people, who
+held tenaciously to their possessions, both secular and
+religious, which were only wrested from them after a
+severe struggle. Their enthusiastic love of Christianity
+led them to make a heroic defence of the churches,
+rather than see them fall into the hands of the heathen
+Anglo-Saxons. The historian Bede tells us that all their
+buildings were destroyed, the priests' blood was spilt
+upon the altars, prelates and people were slain with the
+sword, and all the cities and churches were burnt to the
+ground. When all was lost and there was no longer a
+church or home to defend, the Britons retired to the
+country of their fellow-Christians, the secluded and
+almost impenetrable hills and forests of the west. The
+Anglo-Saxon love of gold was quickly recognised by the
+people of West Wales who saved their property and bought
+the right of worshipping after the manner of their fathers
+by the payment of an annual tribute to their conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>So ruthlessly indeed did the Anglo-Saxons rase to the
+ground the early churches, that, until a few years ago, but
+few traces of these early buildings were thought to exist.
+<span class="sidenote">Church of<br />
+S. Piran, Perranporth.</span>
+An accidental discovery, however, in the year 1835,
+brought to light an undoubted relic of an
+early British church in the west, this being
+the remains of a little church which had
+been until the date above mentioned completely
+buried in the sand on the sea coast
+near Perranporth in Cornwall. They are thought by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+ecclesiologists to be the remains of the original church
+erected to the memory of S. Piran, a Cornish missionary
+and a friend of S. Patrick, who was buried within its
+walls before the year 500 A.D. On removing the sand,
+the accumulated deposit of centuries, the church was
+found to have consisted of a nave and chancel
+containing a stone altar.<a name="img7" id="img7"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img7c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img7c.jpg" height="300"
+      alt="Church of S. Martin, Canterbury" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption">The Church of S. Martin, Canterbury.<br />
+			    Click to <a href="images/img7c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The building measured 29
+feet in length, 16<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>3</sub> feet in width and 19 feet from
+the floor to the roof, and probably shares with S.
+Mary's Church in Dover Castle, and S. Martin's, Canterbury,
+the honour of being one of the earliest links
+we possess with the ancient British Church. S. Mary's,
+Dover, appears to have been built of Roman bricks and
+cement, a combination which antiquaries consider is
+found only in those buildings which were erected during
+the Roman occupation.<span class="sidenote">S. Martin's, Canterbury.</span> S. Martin's Church, Canterbury
+has many claims to be considered one of
+our most interesting churches, no less on
+account of its associations than for its
+structural interest. The date of its building has been a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+source of endless controversy, as it contains many features
+attributable to either Roman or Saxon architecture. It
+is thought that it may possibly have been used for worship
+by the Christian soldiers of the Roman army. Be this
+as it may, it is established beyond doubt that it was the
+oratory of Queen Bertha, the first English Christian queen,
+who here worshipped, with her chaplain Liudhard, long
+before the advent of S. Augustine, who himself in later
+times preached here; and within the walls of this cradle
+of English Christianity, Ethelbert, King of Kent, the
+husband of Queen Bertha was baptized. The Venerable
+Bede, writing within a hundred years of the death of S.
+Augustine states that there was in 597 A.D. in Canterbury,
+a church "dedicated to the honour of S. Martin and built
+while the Romans still occupied Britain." On the departure
+of the Romans it is probable that the church was
+still used by a small band of Christian worshippers until
+the heathen Jutes overran the Isle of Thanet in 449.</p>
+
+<p>Little is known of the progress of Christianity on this
+island from that date until the landing of S. Augustine in
+597, and the first fruits of his mission, as we have seen,
+was the conversion and baptism of King Ethelbert. As
+one would naturally expect, the aspect of the structure
+to-day, though suggestive of antiquity, is lacking in
+uniformity of treatment. The brick courses in the nave
+are at irregular intervals, varying from nine to twenty
+inches apart, the spaces being filled with Kentish rag-stone
+and occasional blocks of chalk. The chancel
+extends eighteen or twenty feet east of the arch and is
+composed of Roman bricks, evenly laid and averaging
+four bricks to a foot. The chancel was lengthened at
+the beginning of the thirteenth century and again at a
+more recent date, so that its architecture to-day is of
+three distinct periods. Outside may be seen five flat
+pilaster buttresses and one semi-circular one, a square-headed
+Roman doorway, a Saxon doorway and two Early
+English porches; and there is also a nearly circular
+panel on the south side of the nave, and a Norman
+squint at the west end. There are many other features
+of interest which bear evidences of a great antiquity, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+the only question which is seriously disputed is whether
+the earliest portion of the present nave was built about
+the end of the Roman occupation of Britain or during the
+mission of S. Augustine.<a name="img8" id="img8"></a></p>
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img08c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img08c.jpg" height="300"
+      alt="Ancient Window built with Roman Brickwork" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><b>An Ancient Window built with Roman Brickwork.</b><br />
+               Swanscombe, Kent.<br />
+						<i>Photograph Mr. G. H. Smith.</i><br />
+			   Click to <a href="images/img08c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Rev. Charles F. Routledge,
+M.A., F.S.A., Hon. Canon of Canterbury Cathedral,
+writes: "Whatever may finally be determined to be the
+date of the church's foundation, it can never lose its
+unique association with S. Augustine, King Ethelbert and
+Queen Bertha, nor its undisputed claim to be the oldest
+existing church in England. From it flowed the tiny
+spring of English Christianity, which has since widened
+out into a mighty river, and penetrated the remotest parts
+of the civilized and uncivilized world."</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Among other churches which show signs of having<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+been built during the Roman occupation are those of<span class="sidenote">Other Early Churches.</span>
+Reculver, Richborough and Lyminge, while
+the foundations of an undoubted early
+church have been discovered in the old
+Roman city of Silchester, in Hampshire.
+<i>See <a href="#frontis">frontispiece.</a></i> The old church at Reculver
+stood originally within the Roman castrum, the fortress
+which guarded the northern mouth of the Wantsume, now
+a small stream, but once an arm of the sea dividing the
+Isle of Thanet from the mainland. The greater part of
+this church was pulled down in 1809, but the western
+towers, known as "the sisters" were repaired by Trinity
+House, as they constitute a useful landmark for
+mariners, being visible at a great distance.</p>
+
+<p>Reculver church was built about A.D. 670, and from
+the existing walls and foundations it is clear that its plan
+was basilican. The church is now a ruin, but some stone
+pillars which supported the arches are preserved in the
+Cathedral Close at Canterbury.</p>
+
+<p>As Reculver guarded the northern mouth of the watercourse,
+so Richborough protected the south, and here
+traces of a chapel in the form of a cross are plainly discernible
+amongst ruins known to be of Roman workmanship.
+The old church at Lyminge in the same county is
+thus described by Canon Jenkyns, in his "<i>History of
+Lyminge</i>":&mdash;"The Roman foundations discoverable at the
+south-east angle of the chancel, together with the remarkable
+half-arch that intervenes, marked the site of
+the <i>aquilonalis porticus</i>&mdash;the title of basilica already
+given to it in the seventh century establishes its claim to
+great antiquity."</p>
+
+<p>We thus see that although remains of the actual
+buildings in which the British Christians worshipped
+are few in number, yet enough are left us to prove
+conclusively that there was a very active and zealous
+Christian community established in these islands during
+at least the period immediately preceding that in
+which Rome withdrew her legions from Britain in order
+to defend Italy against the Goths, and abandoned our
+island to the mercy of her foes.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></h4>
+
+<h3>EARLY CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+<p>In the early years of the Christian Church, when its
+members became sufficiently free from persecution
+to erect buildings for the purpose of worship, they
+were naturally anxious to avoid any of the forms peculiar
+to either heathen or Jewish temples. Some model, however,
+was necessary, and their choice being limited, they
+appear to have adopted the simple style of the Roman
+basilica, or court of justice. There was an adaptability
+about the general plan of such a building which rendered
+its selection natural and not inappropriate, while the
+dignified simplicity of its construction and the object for
+which it was primarily founded&mdash;the dispensation of
+justice&mdash;commended it no doubt in the first instance as
+a model for the primitive Christian church. These
+basilic&aelig; were usually enclosures surrounded by a colonnade,
+sometimes roofed, but more often open to the air,
+and designedly built for the purpose of being accessible
+to all members of the community at all times of the day.
+They appear occasionally to have been used for the transaction
+of ordinary business in which they would closely
+resemble our exchanges. Be this as it may, this form of
+architecture has left its impress on many Christian buildings,
+and the name of basilica, for a church, is still used
+in many parts of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman basilica was usually in the form of a
+parallelogram, with a seat for the judges at one end, and
+in their adaptation of this form of building, the early
+Christians devoted this place to the purposes of an altar.
+This, by an easy and natural transition, is thought to
+have given rise to the formation of the semi-circular
+recess at one end of the building, known as the apse (from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+the Latin <i>apsis</i>, a bow or arch), which is still to be found in
+some of our older churches.</p>
+
+<p>Being thus Roman in the nature of their ground plan,
+it is not surprising to find that other portions of the early
+Christian buildings show decided characteristics of a
+Roman style. On the destruction of the Pagan temples
+by order of the Emperor Constantine about the year 330,
+much of their material was built into the earliest Christian
+churches, and the Roman character of their design being
+prevalent, they formed a style of architecture which has
+been designated Romanesque, of which the later styles,
+known here as Saxon and Norman were largely modifications.
+There is no reason to doubt that the earliest
+Christian churches were very unpretentious in form and
+that some time elapsed before there was anything which
+could be called a definite church architecture, beyond that
+to which we have alluded. Nevertheless, as the Church
+strengthened her position and grew in security, more
+attention was devoted to the subject of its edifices, and the
+departure in time from the original ground plan furnished
+an opportunity for the introduction of a more symbolical
+and appropriate design. The plan of the old basilica was
+abandoned for one in the form of the cross, the accepted
+symbol of the Christian religion, which departure, however,
+did not involve any very great alteration from the
+old ground plan.</p>
+
+<p>We come then to the time when one or other of the
+forms known as the Latin or the Greek cross&mdash;whichever
+was most convenient&mdash;was usually employed in a building
+designed for Christian worship, and these forms are
+universally found in the most elaborate structures of
+which the Christian Church can boast.</p>
+
+<p>As time passed, these cruciform churches were surmounted
+with a dome, steeple, or tower at the point
+where the members of the cross intersected each other.
+At first the most prominent of these external adornments
+was the dome; a characteristic of the architecture of
+Eastern Europe, which acquired the name Byzantine,
+from its having been carried to great perfection in Byzantium
+(Constantinople), the capital of the Eastern Empire.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The church of S. Sophia, which was built, much as it
+now exists, early in the sixth century, and was afterwards
+converted into a mosque, is an almost perfect example
+of the Byzantine style. In this building we find the
+Roman arch used in a variety of ways, while the dome
+itself is formed entirely of this arch used as the crowning
+work of the edifice. Eastern churches in this style
+usually took the form of the Greek cross, this form being
+better calculated to support the weight of the cupola. In
+Western Europe, however, where the flat squat tower
+afterwards developed into the steeple, as we shall see in
+a later chapter, the Latin cross was mostly used, and this,
+with a few notable exceptions, is the plan of most western
+churches.</p>
+
+<p>With writers of about fifty years ago, it was a favourite
+theory that the Christians converted the old basilic&aelig; into
+churches, and that the "Halls of Justice" erected by
+the Romans in this country were also converted into
+Christian churches, and some authorities point to the walls
+and arches of Brixworth church in confirmation of this
+theory. The late Mr. J. W. Brewer, however, stated that
+unfortunately for this theory, no single example of a
+basilica being converted into a church has been found
+in this country and he himself held the theory that the
+word basilica was used by the Romans to describe any
+building which was supported by internal columns, and
+in that way the name came to be applied to Christian
+churches.</p>
+
+<p>As we have seen, the early Christians, after a short
+time, became dissatisfied with these buildings adapted
+from Pagan types, and the Byzantine form of church
+arose, the first people who practised this style of building
+being the Greeks. The style spread with rapidity all
+over the East, the great church of S. Sophia being its
+largest example and the smaller, but more perfect, church
+of S. Mark at Venice giving us the best idea of this form
+of church architecture. Largely modelled on this style,
+also, are the circular baptisteries of Italy and the round
+churches of England, France and Germany, the modern
+Russian churches and all the Mohammedan mosques. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+Latin churches did not greatly favour this style and their
+use of it was confined, with few exceptions, to baptisteries,
+monumental chapels and the like, but for parochial,
+cathedral and monastic churches, the oblong plan was
+retained and ultimately developed into the Gothic church
+with its nave, transepts and chancel.</p>
+
+<p>The changes which the Christian basilica at first underwent
+were simple, <i>viz.</i>, the use of the arch instead of the
+straight lintel, or the placing of an entablature between
+the columns; a little later, about the tenth century, the
+old wooden roof of the basilica gave place to the arched
+roof or vaulting, so called from its being composed of a series
+of vaults. The styles called Romanesque and Lombardic
+are but geographical varieties of the same architecture
+and from these the Saxon and Norman styles were soon
+to be developed. The vaulted basilica church soon became
+common over the north of Europe, the two most
+important and practically unaltered examples being the
+cathedrals of Speyer and Worms, in Germany, although
+our Anglo-Saxon cathedrals of Peterborough, Ely and
+Norwich may, so far as regards their naves, be justly
+regarded as the offspring of the vaulted basilica style of
+building.</p>
+
+<p>When the old basilica style of church with its heavy
+beam roof and its innumerable columns had ceased to
+satisfy the lofty aspirations of Latin Christianity, and
+when the Greeks had inaugurated a new style of church
+architecture, only two courses were left to the Latins,
+either to adopt the Greek style in its entirety, or to improve
+upon the basilica type. Fortunately, although
+after considerable hesitation, they chose the latter alternative,
+the result being the genesis of our glorious
+cathedrals with their long naves and aisles, deep transepts
+and beautiful variety of form and outline.<a name="img9" id="img9"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img9c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img9c.jpg" height="400"
+      alt="REPUTED SAXON DOORWAY" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><b>A Reputed Saxon Doorway.</b><br />
+			              Bishopstone, Sussex.<br />
+			           <i>Photograph Mr. W. Hodgson.</i><br />
+         Click to <a href="images/img9c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></h4>
+
+<h3>THE SAXON AND NORMAN STYLES.</h3>
+
+<p>As we have seen in the previous chapter, the whole
+subject of pre-Saxon church building is still very
+obscure, and for some considerable time after the
+Anglo-Saxon invasion little is known concerning church
+architecture, nor has it yet been fully ascertained whether
+any buildings of this period exist. By the year 588 the
+Saxons were in complete possession of the land. Christianity
+was to all appearance wiped out and the Church,
+to the superficial observer was dead. In his "<i>History of
+English Church Architecture</i>," Scott expresses the opinion
+that the oldest English churches may be divided into
+three groups. First, those which preceded the Danish
+invasion; secondly, those from the above epoch to the
+invasion of Sweyn; and thirdly, those onward to the
+Norman Conquest.</p>
+<div class="sidenote">Saxon<br />
+Archi&shy;tecture.</div>
+<p class="noindent">What exactly constituted Saxon architecture
+has long been a controversial point
+and one which will probably never be
+definitely settled. Parker, in his "<i>Glossary
+of Architecture</i>," says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p><small>"For a considerable time, after they (the Anglo-Saxons) had
+established themselves in this country, their buildings were of
+wood, and this appears to have been the prevailing material
+employed at the time of the Conquest, although stone had been
+occasionally used several centuries earlier&#8230;. No timber-work
+of Saxon date can be in existence at the present time, but
+it is contended by some antiquaries that several of our churches
+exhibit specimens of Saxon masonry; the truth of this theory,
+however, is not fully established, nor has the subject of Saxon
+architecture been yet sufficiently investigated to clear away the
+obscurity in which it is involved."</small>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Probably few of our so-called Saxon churches were
+built earlier than thirty or forty years before the Norman
+Conquest, and it seems certain that for some years after
+they had settled in England, the Normans employed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+Saxon masons to build in the Saxon manner, as is seen
+by the tower of S. Michael's Church, Oxford, which,
+although showing all the characteristics of reputed Saxon
+masonry was built many years after the Battle of Hastings.
+Certain it is that these pre-Norman buildings in England
+were singularly rude and rough and show how much our
+Saxon ancestors were, at that period, behind the Italians,
+French and Germans in architectural skill.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Saxon
+Churches.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Our best examples containing Saxon work are possibly
+the churches at Sompting and Bishopstone, Sussex;
+Bradford-on-Avon; Wootton Wawen (sub-structure
+of tower); Wing; Brixworth, and
+Barnack, Northants; Greenstead in Essex;
+and S. Martin's at Wareham, Dorset.
+Of towers of this date the best are possibly those of
+S. Mary's and S. Peter's, Lincoln and S. Benet's,
+Cambridge. Of crypts, the finest examples are at Ripon
+Cathedral, York Minster (part) and S. Mary's Church,
+York. In addition to these, many other churches
+have chancel arches, doorways or some other less
+important features which are considered to be of
+Saxon origin.</p>
+
+<p>These early buildings generally show the semi-circular
+arch on the doorways, but the windows usually have a
+triangular head; at Sompting church, however, the
+windows have the semi-circular arch. It is necessary to
+say a few words in detail about the more important
+churches of this era.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">S. Lawrence,
+Bradford-on-Avon.</div>
+<p class="noindent">The church of S. Lawrence at Bradford-on-Avon
+is one of the oldest unaltered churches in England, and
+it seems to be beyond question that it is
+the actual church built by Ealdhelm at the
+beginning of the eighth century and dedicated
+by him to S. Lawrence. It consists
+of a chancel, nave and north porch, and
+among its remarkable features is its great height and the
+extreme narrowness of the round-headed arch between
+the nave and the chancel, a feature it has in common
+with the Saxon church of S. Martin at Wareham; the
+ground-plan measurements of both these churches are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+identical. At S. Lawrence's church, an incised arcade
+is seen outside the walls, and on either side of the west
+aspect of the chancel arch are two sculptured figures of
+angels, which are thought to represent the earliest extant
+fragments of church carving in England.<a name="img10" id="img10"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img10c.jpg" width="250" alt="Tower of Earls' Barton Church." />
+<span class="caption"><b>Tower of Earls' Barton Church</b><br />
+Generally considered to have characteristics<br />
+of Saxon masonry.</span></div>
+<div class="sidenote">Brixworth,
+Earls' Barton
+and Barnack.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Brixworth church is possibly older than S. Lawrence's
+and it is said to have been in continuous use for Divine
+Service ever since it was erected. The
+tower appears to be of rather later date
+than the nave and rests upon the walls of a
+"narthex" or portico, which may have
+extended along the
+whole breadth of the
+front, as is still to be
+seen in churches at
+Rome and Ravenna.
+The curious pile of
+masonry built up
+against the tower may
+have been added for
+defence, as it could
+hardly have formed
+part of the original
+design.</p>
+
+<p>Earls' Barton and
+Barnack churches both
+have towers so covered
+with narrow projecting
+strips of stonework
+that the surface of the
+walls appears divided
+into rudely formed
+panels. The west doorways
+of both show
+primitive imitations of
+Roman mouldings in
+the imposts and architraves.
+The tower of
+Earls' Barton consists
+of four stages, each of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+which is slightly smaller than the one below. In that of
+Barnack church, the upper stages of the tower represent
+the period of transition from Norman to Early English.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">S. Michael's
+Church, Oxford.</div>
+<p class="noindent">S. Michael's, Oxford, has a massive tower of solid
+masonry, unpierced in its lowest stage by either door or
+window, the second stage shows but one
+window and the highest is pierced by
+several windows of more elaborate construction. Although generally consisting
+of rubble and stone, Saxon churches were
+sometimes built of wood as we see from the existing nave
+of the parish church of Greenstead, Essex.<span class="sidenote">Greenstead
+Church, Essex.</span> A brick chancel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+has been added at the east and a timber belfry at the west
+end, but the old Saxon portion is composed
+of large chestnut trees split asunder and set
+upright close to each other with the round
+side outwards. The ends are roughly hewn
+so as to fit into a sill at the bottom, and
+into a plate at the top, where they are fastened with
+wooden pins. There are 16 logs on the south side where
+are two doorposts, and on the north side twenty-one logs
+and two spaces now filled with rubble. There is a
+tradition that this church was erected to receive the body
+of S. Edmund, on its return from London to Bury, in 1013.<a name="img11" id="img11"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img036c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img036c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Example of a Norman Tower" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><br /><b>An Example of a Norman Tower.</b><br />
+             Bishopstone, Sussex.<br />
+						 <i>Homeland Copyright.</i><br />
+         Click to <a href="images/img036c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The semi-circular arch has long been considered to be
+one of the most distinctive marks of Norman architecture,
+but Mr. Rickman, who made an exhaustive study of the
+early churches of France and England, says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p><small>"In various churches it has happened that a very plain arch
+between nave and chancel has been left as the only Norman
+feature, while both nave and chancel have been rebuilt at
+different times; but each leaving the chancel arch standing.
+I am disposed to think that some of these plain chancel arches,
+will, on minute examination, turn out to be of Saxon origin."</small>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>It would be tedious to enter into any more minute
+account of the Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical remains, and
+the reader whose enquiries conduct him to the more
+elaborate works on the subject will be startled by the
+contrary opinions that he will surely encounter.</p>
+
+<p>In concluding these brief remarks on early buildings,
+we must again quote from Parker's work to which
+reference has already been made:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+<small>"The class of buildings referred to as being considered to
+belong to this style contain some rather unusual features, and
+they require to be particularly described, both because they are
+in themselves remarkable, and because there is a probability
+that some of them may be Saxon."</small>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent"><span class="sidenote">Norman<br />
+Archi&shy;tecture.</span>The Norman style of church architecture with its
+varied forms of columns, moulded and recessed arches
+and vaulting, may be roughly stated to
+have been introduced into England at the
+time of the Conquest. The Saxon masons
+do not appear to have understood vaulting
+sufficiently well to have roofed over any large space with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+stone, and for this reason alone the Saxon form of building
+was bound to give way before the Norman, which of
+all the earlier styles was the most advanced in this
+respect.<a name="img12" id="img12"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img038c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img038c.jpg" height="500"
+      alt="Norman Pier Arcade" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><b>A Norman Pier Arcade.</b><br />
+			        Abbots Langley, Herts.<br />
+						<i>Photograph Mr. A. W. Anderson.</i><br />
+         Click to <a href="images/img038c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>Generally speaking, Norman arches were semi-circular,
+but they were by no means universally so, for a
+form frequently found is one in which the spring of the
+arch does not take place from the abacus, or upper
+member of the capital, but at some distance above it and
+when it assumes this form it is called a "stilted" arch,
+suggested by some authorities to have been unintentional
+and the result of imperfect construction
+or planning. <i>See page <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</i><a name="img13" id="img13"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-1-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-1-1-t.jpg" height="77" alt="Chevron or Zig-zag" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-1-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-1-2-t.jpg" height="70" alt="Star" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Chevron or Zig-zag.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Star.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-2-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-2-1-t.jpg" height="84" alt="Alternate Billet" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-2-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-2-2-t.jpg" height="67" alt="Square Billet" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Alternate Billet.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Square Billet.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-3-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-3-1-t.jpg" height="71" alt="Double Cone" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-3-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-3-2-t.jpg" height="71" alt="Lozenge" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Double Cone.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Lozenge.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-4-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-4-1-t.jpg" height="68" alt="Beak Head" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-4-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-4-2-t.jpg" height="68" alt="Bird Head" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Beak Head.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Bird Head.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      <span class="b"><b>Examples of Norman Mouldings.</b></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ornament.</div>
+<p class="noindent">The main features in the ornamentation of this period
+are the sculptured bands worked round the arches, which,
+although generally called "mouldings,"
+are more in the nature of decoration, and
+in some instances they appear to be additions
+carved on the originally unadorned surface of the
+masonry. The earliest and most general ornament
+is the chevron or zig-zag, which is frequently found
+doubled, trebled and quadrupled. The next most common
+form is the beak-head, consisting of a hollow and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+large round.<a name="img14" id="img14"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img040c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img040c.jpg" height="550"
+      alt="Late Norman Parish Church" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><b>A Late Norman Parish Church.</b><br />
+             Castle Rising, Norfolk.<br />
+						<i>Drawn by Gordon Home.</i><br />
+         Click to <a href="images/img040c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>In the hollow are placed heads of beasts
+or birds whose tongues or beaks encircle the round. On
+the west doorway of Iffley church, Oxford, are many
+of these beak-heads extending the whole length of the
+jamb down to the base moulding. They also figure
+prominently among the ornamentations of the hospital
+church of S. Cross, near Winchester. The zig-zag
+moulding is very common on Norman churches and is
+so easily recognised that no further description is needed
+here. The less prominent decorations of Norman mouldings
+include the alternate billet, the double cone, and the
+lozenge, together with an immense number of others
+less commonly found.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Windows.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The Early Norman window was little better than a
+narrow slit finished with a plain semi-circular head, and
+was generally only a few inches wide.
+They were, it is believed, filled with oiled
+linen and the sides of the aperture were
+splayed towards the interior. Later in the period, the
+windows were enriched by the zig-zag and other mouldings
+and at a still later period an improvement was made
+by inserting nook-shafts in the jambs similar to those
+in doorways.</p>
+
+<p>The towers of Norman churches often show windows
+of two lights separated by a central shaft, all enclosed
+under a large semi-circular arch, the spandrel of which
+is rarely pierced. Plain circular windows of small
+dimensions are sometimes found in other positions and in
+churches of later date, and occasionally in gable walls.
+Larger windows of the same form, with small shafts
+radiating from the centre and connected at the circumference
+by semi-circular or trefoiled arches, are also
+found as at Barfreston church, Kent, where there is a
+fine example.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Doorways.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Norman doorways are found in great numbers and
+variety, even in churches which present no other features
+in this style. The most usual form consists
+of a semi-circular-headed aperture with a
+hood-mould springing from plain square-edged
+jambs. Frequently, however, the doorways are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+recessed, having a nook-shaft in the angle formed by
+a recession from the capital, in which case it presents
+two soffits and two faces, besides the hood-moulds. The
+depth of these doorways is largely due to the great
+thickness of the walls usual in buildings of this
+period, but in many cases that portion of the wall
+in which the entrance is inserted is made to project
+forward beyond the general face, which projection is
+finished either with plain horizontal capping, or a high-pitched
+gable.<a name="img15" id="img15"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img042.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img042.jpg" height="500"
+      alt="West Doorway of Rochester Cathedral" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><b>West Doorway of Rochester Cathedral</b><br />
+			Duncan Moul<br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img042.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Norman porches thus have generally but
+little projection, and are frequently so flat as to be little
+more than outer mouldings to the inner door. They are,
+however, often richly ornamented and have rooms above,
+which rooms are wrongly called "parvises." The
+shallow aperture often follows the form of the arch, but
+is frequently square-headed, having a semi-circular
+tympanum of masonry filling the space between the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>lintel of the door and the intrados of the arch. These
+tympana are usually sculptured in low relief with a
+representation of some scriptural or traditional event,
+while the assertion of the Apostle that "we must, through
+much tribulation, enter into the kingdom of God," may
+account for the fondness of the Norman sculptors in
+representing different stages of martyrdom on the tympana
+of their doors. A very singular tympanum is that
+on the door of the church of Fordington S. George, at
+Dorchester, whereon is represented some incident in the
+life of S. George.<a name="img16" id="img16"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img043c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img043c.jpg" height="250"
+      alt="Tympanum of Norman Doorway." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Tympanum of Norman Doorway.</b><br />
+      Fordington S. George, Dorset.<br />
+	 <i>Drawn by E. M. Heath.</i><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img043c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The principal figure is on horseback
+with a discus round his head. The other figures are in
+hauberks and chausses, and generally bear, in point of
+costume, much resemblance to the figures on the famous
+Bayeux tapestry. Barfreston church, Kent, has an
+interesting tympanum, as also has Patrixbourne church
+in the same county, where the sculpture shows the
+Saviour with dragons and at his feet a dog. At Alveston
+church, Warwickshire, the sculpture shows two quadrupeds
+with enormous tails, fighting, with between them
+a small bird, possibly intended for a dove. Our best
+example of a Norman doorway and tympanum is generally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+considered to be the west doorway of Rochester Cathedral,
+where the sculpture is of a very advanced character for
+its date, which is probably about 1130-40.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Piers.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">A distinctive feature of the Norman style are the
+massive pillars, usually circular, and with capitals either
+of the same form, or square; occasionally
+in plain buildings the pillars themselves
+are square with very little or no ornamentation.
+Towards the end of the period, an octagonal
+pillar was often used, having a much lighter appearance
+than the earlier forms. Besides these plain styles, compound
+or clustered piers are very numerous, differing
+considerably in plan; the simplest consists of a square
+having one or more rectangular recesses at each corner,
+but one more frequently met with has a small circular
+shaft in each of the recesses and a larger semi-circular
+one on each side of the square.<a name="img17" id="img17"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/cap-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/cap-1-t.jpg" height="200" alt="Norman.
+      Crypt, Winchester." /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/cap-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/cap-2-t.jpg" height="200" alt="Traditional.
+      Christ Church, Oxford." /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/cap-3.jpg">
+      <img src="images/cap-3-t.jpg" height="200" alt="Norman.
+      Winchester Cathedral." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Norman.<br />
+      Crypt, Winchester.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Traditional.<br />
+      Christ Church, Oxford.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Norman.<br />
+      Winchester Cathedral.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;<br /><span class="b"><b>Examples of Capitals.</b></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Capitals.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Norman capitals are
+very varied, having many different forms of
+ornamentation; the commonest is one
+which resembles a bowl with the sides
+truncated, reducing the upper part to a square; sometimes
+the lower part is cut into round mouldings and
+ornamented, but it is frequently left plain.</p>
+
+<p>The Norman
+capital in its earliest style was of short proportions, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+afterwards it became longer, with lighter ornamentation,
+gradually merging into the Early English. The bishops
+and abbots of this period appear to have possessed
+considerable skill in architecture, for no fewer than
+fifteen of our English cathedrals contain some important
+Norman work, as the older portions of the cathedrals of
+Canterbury, Durham, Winchester, Gloucester, Peterborough,
+Ely, Norwich, Lincoln and Oxford.<a name="img18" id="img18"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img045c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img045c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="CURIOUS NORMAN CAPITAL" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Curious Norman Capital.</b><br />
+     Seaford, Sussex.<br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img045c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Norman Buttresses.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The Norman buttress, better described by Mr. Sharpe
+as a pilaster strip, unlike those of the later period,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+projects but very little from the wall, and this is
+especially so in buildings of the earlier
+part of the period. They are usually
+quite plain and are more used for
+finish than actual support; the Norman
+builder relying principally upon the thickness and
+weight of his walls to sustain any roof thrust (<i>see page <a href="#Page_17">17</a></i>).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Round
+Churches.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">There are in England a few round churches which are
+thought to have been built by the Knights Templars, a
+religious community banded together for the purpose
+of wresting the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem
+from the Saracens. Their object
+was to defend the Saviour's tomb and to
+guard Palestine, for which purpose they
+built numerous monasteries throughout the Holy Land
+and fortified them like castles.</p>
+
+<p>Another famous order which combined the religious
+instincts of the cloister with the military ardour of the
+warrior was that of the Knights of S. John Baptist
+or Knights Hospitallers, who, besides fighting, were
+to tend the sick and provide for the welfare of
+all Christian travellers. The churches belonging
+to the Templars were usually built in circular form
+in imitation of the church of the Holy Sepulchre
+at Jerusalem. They were capped with vaulted concave
+roofs said to be symbolical of the vast circuit
+and concave of the heavens. Our best example is the
+Temple Church, London, to which was added at a later
+period, a beautiful Early English Gothic extension.
+Other round churches are those of S. Sepulchre, Cambridge;
+S. Sepulchre, Northampton; Temple Balsall,
+Warwickshire, and of Little Maplestead, Essex,
+which last, although the smallest, is by no means the
+least interesting. It is attributed to the Hospitallers,
+an order founded about the year 1092, and introduced
+into England in the reign of Henry I. At
+Clerkenwell may still be seen the ancient gateway leading
+to their hospital.<a name="img19" id="img19"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img046c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img046c.jpg" height="300"
+      alt="Norman and Early English Doorways" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Norman and Early English Doorways.</b><br />
+        Showing the transition from one style to another.<br />
+          Dunstable Priory Church.<br />
+           <i>Drawn by Worthington G. Smith.</i><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img046c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The order was suppressed in 1545.
+The church at Little Maplestead was built early in the
+12th century, and in 1186 the adjoining manor was given
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>by
+Juliana Doisnel to this order, which gift was confirmed
+by King John and Henry III. This church is thought
+to reproduce with more fidelity than the others the
+original church of the Holy Sepulchre.</p>
+
+<p>These famous Norman round-chancelled churches have
+much in common with the old basilica form.</p>
+
+<p>It must be pointed out that the arbitrary divisions into
+which architecture has been divided&mdash;Norman, Gothic,
+etc., are pure figures of the imagination, as by a series
+of easy transitions, one style became gradually merged
+into the next without any hard and fast
+dividing lines whatever. The periods during
+which one style became gradually blended
+into another are called the periods of
+transition.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The
+Transition.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Architecture being progressive, it was only by the
+gradual development of one style from another that the
+art was enabled to advance with social progress, the literature
+and other arts of the country. The transition from the
+Norman to the Early English style may be ascribed to a
+period somewhat earlier than the 12th century, when a
+great change in the construction of the arch began to
+manifest itself. Alone, however, the form of the arch is no
+real test, for many pure Norman works have pointed arches.
+The square abacus may be taken as the best test. In its
+incipient state the pointed arch exhibited a change of
+form only, whilst the accessories and details remained
+the same as before; and although this change gradually
+led to the Early Pointed style in a pure state, with mouldings
+and features altogether distinct from those of the
+Norman, and to the general disuse, in the 13th century,
+of the semi-circular arch, it was for a while so intermixed
+as, from its first appearance to the close of the 12th
+century, to constitute that state of transition called the
+semi-Norman.<a name="img20" id="img20"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img049c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img049c.jpg" height="240"
+      alt="WINDOWS SHOWING ORIGINS OF TRACERY" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Windows showing the Origin of Tracery.</b><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img049c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h4>
+
+<h3>THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE.</h3>
+
+<p>The origin of what is loosely called Gothic
+architecture&mdash;which is generally considered to
+include the styles, with their transitions, from
+Early English to late Perpendicular, or Tudor-Gothic&mdash;is
+not free from obscurity, but it is certain that it
+began to be employed in ecclesiastical edifices about
+the time that the Goths settled in Italy, although
+all the available evidence goes to prove that the style
+originated and underwent its earliest developments in
+the north-west of Europe, and penetrated by slow
+degrees to the south and east.</p>
+
+<p>England was somewhat later than France in introducing
+this style of architecture, our earliest purely
+Gothic building being Salisbury Cathedral, begun in 1220,
+although the choirs of Rievaulx and Fountains Abbey
+were commenced a few years earlier. The Early English
+style in its earliest developments is nowhere seen to
+better advantage than in Salisbury Cathedral, and in its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+very latest forms
+at Westminster
+Abbey, the period
+of time being
+chronologically
+measured by the
+reigns of Richard
+I., John and
+Henry III.<a name="img21" id="img21"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/img050c.jpg" width="220" alt="Early English Arch." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>An Early English Arch.</b><br />
+Rochester Cathedral.<br />
+<i>Photograph Eastmead.</i></span></div>
+
+<p>Most of our
+Gothic buildings
+were carried out
+under the supervision
+of a master-mason,
+but the
+most subordinate
+workman was left
+plenty of scope
+within reasonable
+limits for whatever
+artistic individuality
+he possessed,
+and the
+enrichments and
+ornaments of the
+Gothic era point
+out the noble aim,
+the delicate and
+graceful thought,
+the refined and
+exquisite taste
+expended upon
+every portion of
+their buildings
+by these Gothic
+masons.</p>
+
+<p>One of the
+chief differences
+between pure
+Gothic and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+Norman architecture is in the use of the pointed form
+of arch, yet in the study of the early buildings
+of this date it is curious to notice how evenly the
+balance is held between the pointed
+and the round arch, and how at one time it
+was quite an open question whether the
+Gothic style would be distinguished by
+a round or a pointed arch. <span class="sidenote">The Pointed
+Arch.</span>In Germany and Italy
+the round arch held its own and continued to be
+used right through the Middle Ages. In England,
+however, the pointed arch soon gained a decided victory
+over its rival. Many theories have been put forward
+concerning the introduction of the pointed arch, one
+amongst them being that it was the result of the intersection
+of two circular arches such as is very commonly
+found in late Norman work; another theory is the
+poetical idea that it was copied from an avenue of trees.
+Whether or not either of these theories holds good,
+it is quite certain that this form of arch was known
+in the East for centuries before it reached Europe,
+being found in cisterns and tombs in Egypt and Arabia
+dating from long before the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>It has also been suggested that it was introduced
+from the East by the Crusaders, in which case we should
+have found it making its first appearance in Hungary,
+Poland, Bohemia and Russia, but it so happens that
+these were the very last countries in Europe to adopt
+the pointed arch.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><span class="sidenote">The
+Transitional
+Period.</span>The first form of the pointed arch, known as the
+Early English, was used from about 1180 to 1300,
+including part of the reigns of Henry II., Richard I.,
+John, Henry III. and Edward I. "Nothing," says
+the Rev. J. M. Hutchinson, "could be more striking
+than the change from Norman to Early
+English. The two styles were the complete
+opposites of each other; the round
+arch was replaced by the pointed, often
+by the acute, lancet; the massive piers
+by graceful clustered shafts; the grotesque and rudely-sculptured
+capitals by foliage of the most exquisite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+character; and the heavy cylindrical mouldings by bands
+of deeply undercut members."<a name="img22" id="img22"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img052c.jpg" width="250" alt="Junction of Norman and Early English Masonry" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>Arcading showing the junction of the Norman<br />
+and Early English Masonry.</b><br />
+Dunstable Priory Church<br />
+<i>Photograph H. A. Strange.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gothic architecture differs from all previous forms
+in the economical use of material, and the small size of
+the stones
+used. Whereas
+in both Roman
+and Norman
+buildings the
+arrangement
+of the materials
+depended
+upon their
+strength in
+masses, the
+Gothic masons
+employed
+stones of small
+size in the construction
+of
+edifices of
+equal strength
+and of far
+greater magnificence;
+while
+in constructive
+properties the
+Gothic style
+was a great
+advance on
+anything that
+had gone before,
+as the
+buildings in
+this style did
+not depend for their stability on the vertical pressure
+of columns, but on the correct adjustment of the
+bearings and thrusts of different arches operating in
+various directions. Owing to the fact, then, that each
+portion of a Gothic Church helps to support something<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+besides itself, it is obvious that such buildings could
+be erected with a far smaller quantity of material than
+was previously necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The various little shafts or
+columns are so disposed as to distribute the weight
+of the superstructure and thus relieve the greater
+columns or
+piers of
+some portion
+of the
+superincumbent
+weight; the
+aisles help
+to support
+the nave;
+the walls of the
+side
+chapels act
+as abutments
+against
+the
+walls of the
+aisles, while
+the towers
+are generally
+placed
+so as to resist
+the accumulated
+thrust of all
+the arches
+along the
+sides of the
+nave.<a name="img23" id="img23"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img053cs.jpg" width="250" alt="Early English Doorway" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>An Early English Doorway.</b><br />
+Huntingdon.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The enrichments
+and little
+ornaments attached to mouldings, and particularly those
+placed in the hollows, are most characteristic of the
+various styles of Gothic architecture. The zig-zag is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+peculiar to the Norman, the nail head to the Transitional
+or semi-Norman, and the dog tooth to
+the Early English.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early English Ornament.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">This last ornament
+represents a flower, looking like four
+sweet almonds arranged pyramidically,
+and there is no other ornament so
+distinctive of this period. Early English foliage is
+known by reason of the stalks always being shown as
+growing upwards from the lower ring of the capital,
+called the astrigal. These stalks are generally grouped
+together and curve forward in a very graceful manner.
+The plants mostly represented are the wild parsley, seakale
+and celery, and this foliage, called stiff-leaved foliage,
+is found at no other period than the end of the 12th
+century.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early English
+Mouldings.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Early English mouldings are very complicated and
+yet very beautiful, and consist of beads, keel and scroll
+patterns, separated by deep hollows giving
+a rich effect of light and shade round the
+arch. These deeply-cut hollows are also
+a distinctive mark of the style.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early English
+Windows.</div>
+
+<p>The earliest windows of this period are long and
+narrow, with acutely pointed heads, the exterior angle
+being merely chamfered and the interior
+widely splayed. Somewhat later the introduction
+of tracery gave a highly beautiful
+appearance to the windows and from the
+character of this feature the date of the window can be
+fairly accurately determined. Where the tracery is
+formed by ornamental apertures pierced through a plate
+of stone, it is called plate tracery, and is certain to be
+of not later date than the earlier part of the 13th
+century. If it is bar tracery, with the bars forming
+plain circles, the work is also Early English, but if, on
+the other hand, the bars form other shapes filled in
+with patterns, or consisting of a single trefoil or quatrefoil,
+they are of later date.<a name="Plate_2" id="Plate_2"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img055cs.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img055cs.jpg" height="450"
+      alt="Church of St. Margaret, Lynn" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>The Church of St. Margaret, Lynn.</b><br />
+         West Front showing the Early English work in the base of the Tower.<br />
+         <i>Photograph Dexter &amp; Son</i><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img055cs.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The traceried window originated from the placing
+of a two-light narrow lancet window under one dripstone
+having a plain head, the introduction of tracery<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+between the heads of the lancets and the dripstone
+becoming necessary for beauty and lightness of the form
+(<i>see page <a href="#Page_47">47</a></i>.<a name="img24" id="img24"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img057cs.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img057cs.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Thirteenth Century Lancet Windows" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Example of Group of Thirteenth Century Lancet Windows.</b><br />
+Ockham, Surrey.<br />
+<i>Homeland Copyright.</i><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img057cs.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early English
+Porches.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Early English porches project much further from
+the main walls than do the Norman
+doorways, and in large and important
+buildings they frequently have a room
+above. The gables are usually bold and
+high pitched, and the interiors quite as rich in design<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+as are the exteriors.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early English
+Doorways.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The doorways of this period are usually pointed,
+though occasionally they have a semi-circular
+head. The mouldings are boldly
+cut and often enriched with dog tooth
+ornament. The jambs frequently contain a shaft or
+shafts with plain or foliated capitals (<i>see page <a href="#Page_51">51</a></i>).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early English
+Capitals and
+Piers.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Early English capitals are usually bell-shaped, and
+are, in the smaller examples, quite devoid of ornament,
+with the exception of a necking and
+one or two mouldings round the abacus.
+The bell is generally deeply undercut,
+which, as in the mouldings, is a strong
+characteristic of the style. The nail head
+and dog tooth ornaments sometimes appear in the
+hollows between the mouldings. In the large examples
+the bell is covered with foliage, which, springing direct
+from the necking, curls over most gracefully beneath
+the abacus. In clustered piers the capitals follow the
+form of the pier, and they also adopt the same form in
+the single shaft, with the exception that multiangular
+shafts have often circular capitals. The base consists
+of a series of mouldings and frequently stands upon a
+double or single plinth, which in the earlier examples
+is square, but in later examples assumes the form of
+the base, and is either circular or polygonal. At Stone
+church, Kent, is a good example of an Early English
+capital, decorated with stiff-leaved foliage, and the
+dog tooth ornament, which in this case is seen
+between the mouldings of the arch, and is of a
+perforated character.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early
+English
+Buttresses.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The buttresses (<i>see page <a href="#Page_17">17</a></i>) of this period are, as a rule,
+simple in form, and in small churches consist of two or
+more stages, each set-off or division being
+sloped at the top to carry off the rain.
+In larger buildings the buttress generally
+finishes with a triangular head or gable,
+and is frequently carried above the parapet,
+except where stone vaulting is used, in which case it is
+covered with a pinnacle either plain or ornamented.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+<a name="img25" id="img25"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img059bs.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img059bs.jpg" height="650"
+      alt="Salisbury Cathedral" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Salisbury Cathedral.</b><br />
+Begun in 1220. The spire was added, 1350.<br />
+<i>Drawn by Sidney Heath.</i><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img059bs.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>The edges are often chamfered or the angles ornamented
+with slender shafts. A niche to contain a statue is
+occasionally sunk in the face of the buttress, but this
+feature is more common in the next or Decorated period,
+although the change from one period to another was so
+gradual that the exact date of a niched buttress would
+be difficult
+to determine
+were there
+no other
+features to
+guide us.<a name="img26" id="img26"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img060ca.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img060ca.jpg" height="600"
+      alt="Examples of Early English Capitals and Ornament" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Examples of Early English Capitals<br />
+		 and Ornament</b><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img060ca.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Flying
+buttresses
+were first
+introduced
+at this period,
+and are
+common in
+all large
+buildings
+with vaulted
+roofs.
+They are
+generally of
+simple design,
+with a
+plain capping
+and
+archivolt,
+and they
+spring from
+the wall
+buttress to
+the clerestory
+(<i>see
+page <a href="#Page_17">17</a></i>).</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h4>
+
+<h3>THE DECORATED STYLE.</h3>
+
+<p>The best examples of Gothic architecture may be
+said to have been erected between the years 1180
+and 1300, and from the latter year many writers
+date the commencement of its decline. In England we
+owe nearly the whole of such magnificent buildings as
+the cathedrals of Lincoln, Salisbury, Worcester, and the
+abbey of Westminster to the 13th century, and there is
+scarcely a cathedral or abbey that does not owe some
+beautiful portion of its structure to the builders of the
+same period, the transepts and lady chapel of Hereford
+Cathedral, the eastern transepts of Durham, the nave
+and transepts of Wells, the transepts of York, the choir
+presbytery, central and eastern transepts of Rochester,
+the eastern portion of the choir of Ely, the west front of
+Peterborough, the choir of Southwell, the nave and
+transepts of Lichfield, and the choir of S. David's being a
+few of our most characteristic examples of this period.
+The style which followed the Early English is known
+as the Geometric or Early Decorated style, and it embraces
+roughly the end of the 13th century and the first
+twenty or thirty years of the 14th century, and continued
+in its later or Curvilinear form to near the end of
+that century. Perhaps the most perfect example of the
+Geometric style in the world is the cathedral church at
+Amiens, which is usually called the <i>mother church</i> of
+this style, and although she has many daughters, none of
+them can be said to equal their parent in beauty.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In England the most perfect examples are not to be
+looked for in cathedrals and large churches, but in their
+chapels, and the most superb specimen we possessed,
+S. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, has been destroyed
+within comparatively recent years. Those left to us
+include the chapel of the palace of the bishops of Ely,
+in Ely Place, Holborn, now the Roman Catholic Church
+of S. Etheldreda, a building almost identical in plan
+with the vanished chapel of S. Stephen. Trinity Church,
+Ely, once Our Lady's Chapel, and Prior Crawden's
+Chapel, in the same city, are lovely examples of the
+latest development of the Curvilinear style, while the
+former is considered the most highly-wrought building
+in England. Belonging to this period, also, is the
+choir of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, and Luton
+Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decorated
+Windows.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The Decorated style may be divided as regards its
+windows into two classes&mdash;Geometric and Curvilinear.
+The first has tracery evolved entirely from
+the circle. The Curvilinear style is distinguished
+by traceries formed by curved
+and flowing lines. <i>See pages <a href="#Page_15">15</a> and <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</i></p>
+
+<p>Decorated windows are usually large and contain
+from two to seven lights, although one sometimes finds a
+window with a single light, but of less elongated form
+than those of the Early English period.</p>
+
+<p>As we have seen in a previous chapter, tracery
+originated from the necessity of piercing that portion
+of the wall which was left vacant when two lights were
+gathered under a single arched dripstone, and therefore
+elementary tracery consisted merely of apertures in a
+flat surface. As the possibilities of this ornamental
+feature became better understood, the mullions were
+recessed from the face of the wall and the fine effect
+thus produced was, as the art progressed, much enhanced
+by the introduction of various orders of mullions, and
+by recessing certain portions of the tracery from the
+face of the mullions and their corresponding bars. The
+geometrical tracery, as we have seen, consists of various
+combinations of the circle, as the trefoil, based on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+triangle, the quatrefoil on the square, the cinquefoil on
+the pentagon, etc.<a name="img27" id="img27"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img063c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img063c.jpg" height="550"
+      alt="Late Decorated Window in a Parish Church" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Late Decorated Window in a Parish Church.</b><br />
+		 East Sutton, Kent.<br />
+		 <i>Photograph Gardner Waterman</i><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img063c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>In Curvilinear windows the tracery, although based on
+the same forms and figures, is yet so blended into an
+intricate pattern that each figure does not stand out
+with the same individuality as in the Geometric. Among
+our most beautiful Geometric windows are those of the
+Lady Chapel at Exeter, Ely Chapel, and Merton Chapel,
+Oxford, and of the Curvilinear our best example is
+probably the east window of Carlisle Cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>It must be noted that beautiful as are Curvilinear
+windows, yet they mark a certain decadence in Gothic
+architecture, in that it is an irrational treatment of
+stone, and conveys the idea that the material was
+bent and not cut into the required shape, it being a
+well-established canon in art that when strength is
+sacrificed to mere elegance it marks a decline in that
+art.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decorated<br />
+Capitals<br />
+and Piers.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Decorated capitals as a rule follow the contour of the
+pier in clustered columns, and are either bell-shaped
+or octagonal. They are frequently only
+moulded, thus presenting rounds, ogees
+and hollows, on which the prevailing
+ornaments of the period, the ball and the
+square flower, are set. The foliated sculpture
+is most exquisite, and is gracefully wreathed around
+the bell, instead of rising from the astrigal or upper
+member of the capital, as in the earlier style. Almost
+every variety of leaf and flower is represented, the oak,
+the vine and the rose being perhaps the most common,
+but the leaves of the maple, hazel, ivy and strawberry
+are all so beautifully rendered as to evidence their having
+been directly studied from nature. Plucked flowers
+too, are not uncommon, and sometimes the little stalks
+and foliage are accompanied by birds, lizards, squirrels
+and other creatures. The columns of this period are
+much more elaborate than those of the Early English style,
+and in plan have curved profiles with moulded members
+between the shafts. These mouldings are very varied,
+but the hollows not being so deeply undercut, the general
+effect is broader and less liney than in the Early English;
+while the Decorated arches are less sharply pointed than in
+the previous style.<a name="img28" id="img28"></a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-1-1.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-1-1-t.jpg" height="177" alt="Finial
+            (Winborne Minster)" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Finial<br />
+            (Winborne Minster).</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;<br />&nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-1-2.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-1-2-t.jpg" height="121" alt="Crocket
+            (Hereford Cathedral)" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Crocket<br />
+            (Hereford Cathedral).</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-2-1.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-2-1-t.jpg" height="195" alt="Capital
+            (York Minster)" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Capital<br />
+            (York Minster).</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-2-2.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-2-2-t.jpg" height="92" alt="Square Flower" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Square Flower.</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-2-3.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-2-3-t.jpg" height="81" alt="Ball Flower" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Ball Flower.</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-2-4.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-2-4-t.jpg" height="72" alt="Cornice
+            (Grantham)" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Cornice<br />
+            (Grantham).</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-3-1.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-3-1-t.jpg" height="134" alt="Finial
+            (York Minster)" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Finial<br />
+            (York Minster).</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-3-2.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-3-2-t.jpg" height="213" alt="Crockets
+            (York Minster)" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Crockets<br />
+            (York Minster).</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;<br /><span class="b"><b>Examples of Decorated Ornament</b></span><br />
+      <i>Drawn by E. M. Heath</i>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decorated
+Doorways.</div>
+<p class="noindent"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>The doorways of this style possess much the same
+features as the last, but the mouldings, jamb shafts, etc.,
+are more slender, and generally of finer
+proportions, the hollows being often filled
+with the ball flower and square flower
+instead of the dog tooth. Sometimes the
+doorways have no pillars, being entirely composed of
+mouldings which are continuous with those in the architrave.
+The large single doorways of this period are
+nearly as large as the double ones of Early English date,
+and on the sides small buttresses or niches are sometimes
+placed, and often one finds a series of niches carried
+up like a hollow moulding, and filled with figures. The
+figures of this period are not so good as in the previous
+style, the heads seem too large for the bodies, and in
+the female figures the breasts are represented as quite flat.
+Where there are no figures double foliated tracery is
+often found hanging from one of the outer mouldings,
+giving an effect of great richness.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decorated<br />
+Buttresses.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The buttresses (<i>see page <a href="#Page_17">17</a></i>) in the Decorated style are
+nearly always worked in stages, and a niche frequently
+figures on the face of the buttress.
+Crocketed canopies and other carved
+decorations are common, and in large buildings
+they usually terminate in pinnacles,
+which are sometimes of open work.</p>
+
+<p>A Gothic building attains its effect by the combination
+of numerous parts, each possessing an individual
+character of its own. In its loftiness, graceful outlines,
+and rich effect of light and shade, it speaks of noble
+aspirations, of freedom, of intellectual thought,
+of talent and skill, all generously given for a high
+purpose, the foundation of which was a strong
+religious enthusiasm, combined with an intense love
+of the work itself.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Characte&shy;ristics<br />
+of Gothic<br />
+Architecture.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Having now arrived at the point where Gothic architecture
+reached its climax, we may briefly sum up its leading<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+characteristics. It is essentially pointed or vertical;
+its details are mostly geometrical in its
+window traceries, clusters of shafts and
+bases, but this geometric quality is only
+one of construction and form and not of
+its inner spirit and motive, for plants
+copied directly from nature were used in beautiful
+profusion.</p>
+
+<p>If we compare a large Gothic church with a comparatively
+small one, we shall find the columns, windows,
+ornaments of the former are not so very much larger
+than those of the latter, but that there are double or
+three times the number of them. This is not the case in
+a classical building, where each feature has to be enlarged
+in proportion to the size of the building. It is the
+constant sub-division of a Gothic Church which adds
+so to its apparent size.</p>
+
+<p>Ornamentally, the Gothic is the geometrical and
+pointed elements repeated to their utmost and afterwards
+combined with the elaboration of natural objects, plants,
+flowers, etc., growing in the neighbourhood of the work.
+This is a great feature, but the most striking point in
+all good Gothic work is the wonderful elaboration of
+geometric tracery, vesicas, trefoils, quatrefoils and
+an immense variety of other ornament.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the sizes of our great churches it may
+be of interest to note that our longest English cathedral
+is Winchester. York and Lincoln, although not so
+long as Winchester, are in superficial area very much
+larger. The largest English church of a non-cathedral
+rank is Westminster Abbey, which has, moreover, the
+distinction of being the loftiest internally; the nave being
+104 ft. in height. The largest parish church is that of
+S. Nicholas, Great Yarmouth, which exceeds in superficial
+area no fewer than eight of our cathedrals.
+<a name="img29" id="img29"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" colspan="3">
+            <a href="images/perporn-l-1.jpg">
+            <img src="images/perporn-l-1-t.jpg" height="130" alt="Panel" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" colspan="3">
+            <small>Panel.</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <a href="images/perporn-l-2-1.jpg">
+            <img src="images/perporn-l-2-1-t.jpg" height="116" alt="Tudor Rose" /></a>
+          </td>
+          <td align="center">
+            <a href="images/perporn-l-2-2.jpg">
+            <img src="images/perporn-l-2-2-t.jpg" height="116" alt="Portcullis" /></a>
+          </td>
+          <td align="center">
+            <a href="images/perporn-l-2-3.jpg">
+            <img src="images/perporn-l-2-3-t.jpg" height="116" alt="Fleur de Lys" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Tudor Rose.</small>
+          </td>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Portcullis.</small>
+          </td>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Fleur de Lys.</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+            <a href="images/perporn-r.jpg">
+            <img src="images/perporn-r-t.jpg" height="232" alt="Crocket" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Crocket.</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;<br /><span class="b"><b>Examples of Perpendicular Ornament.</b></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h4>
+
+<h3>THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE.</h3>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the XIVth century a great
+change came over English Gothic architecture, a
+change which was to a certain extent a return to
+classical ideas. The curvilinear tracery gave place to
+a rigid vertical and horizontal form, with the result that
+windows and panels instead of being filled with curved
+bars of stone, were sub-divided by straight perpendicular
+bars and transoms or cross-bars.</p>
+
+<p>This style of architecture is popularly known as
+Perpendicular, but as the horizontal lines are quite as
+distinct a feature as are the vertical, it would perhaps
+be more correct to speak of it as Rectilinear. This
+change in architectural form made its appearance towards
+the close of the XIVth century, although it was by no
+means generally introduced at that period, for the old
+methods and styles were carried on side by side with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+new for many years.<a name="img30" id="img30"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img069c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img069c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Yeovil Parish Church (A.D. 1376)" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Yeovil Parish Church (A.D. 1376).</b><br />
+		 Early Perpendicular in style, without a clerestory,<br />
+      and called, for its large window area, the "Lantern of the West."<br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img069c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>For example, the eastern end of
+the choir of York Minster (1361-99) possesses a window
+the traceries of which contain both curvilinear and
+rectilinear lines, while Shottesbrook Church in Berkshire
+(1387), and Wimmington Church, Bedfordshire
+(1391) are examples of village churches neither of which
+has any feature of the Perpendicular style.</p>
+
+<p>In its earlier stages the Perpendicular style presented
+an effect at once good and bold; the mouldings, though
+not equal to the best of the Decorated style, were well
+defined, the enrichments effective, and the details
+delicate without extravagant minuteness. Subsequently
+the style underwent a gradual debasement; the arches
+became depressed; the mouldings impoverished, the
+details crowded and coarsely executed, and the whole
+style became wanting in the chaste and elegant effects
+for which the Decorated stands unapproached and
+unapproachable. The flowing contours and curved lines
+of the previous style now gave place in the windows
+to mullions running straight up from the bottom to the
+top, and crossed by transoms. As the arch became
+more and more depressed the mouldings became shallower
+and less effective. In early buildings of this period the
+drop arch is very prevalent, but as the period advanced
+a form known as the Tudor arch began to be used. It
+is an arch in which, as a rule, the centres of the upper
+portion lie immediately below those of the lower, but
+this is not always the case. Sometimes the whole of
+the upper portion uniting the arcs of the ends is struck
+from one centre, in which case the arch becomes a
+three-centred one, being, in fact, half an ellipse.
+Towards the close of the style the curvature of the
+upper portion is so slight that it can hardly be distinguished
+from a straight line, and as the debasement
+progressed it became really straight. Ogee arches
+are also found at this period, and foiled arches are very
+frequent. When the Tudor arch was not used, we
+generally find the low drop arch, these three last being
+mostly used for small openings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+<a name="img31" id="img31"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img071c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img071c.jpg" height="500"
+      alt="A Fine Parish Church showing Rich Perpendicular Work." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Fine Parish Church showing Rich Perpendicular Work.</b><br />
+		 Terrington St. Clement, Norfolk.<br />
+      <i>Photograph Dexter &amp; Son.</i><br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img071c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular
+Windows.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>The
+peculiar characteristics of the windows&mdash;the
+perpendicular mullions and horizontal transoms&mdash;we have
+already alluded to. The window heads,
+instead of being filled with flowing tracery,
+have slender mullions running from the
+heads of the lights between each mullion,
+and these again have smaller transoms, until the whole
+surface of the window becomes divided into a series of
+panels, the heads of which being arched, are trefoiled
+or cinquefoiled. In the later windows the transoms at
+the top are often furnished with a small ornamental
+battlement, causing the mullions to present a concave
+outline.<a name="img32" id="img32"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img072c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img072c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="A Perpendicular Doorway." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Perpendicular Doorway.</b><br />
+		 Merton College Chapel.<br />
+      <i>Drawn by E. M. Heath.</i><br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img072c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The plans of churches in this style differ from all
+others in that they are more spacious, the columns more
+slender and wider apart, the windows much larger, and
+the walls loftier and thinner. Panelling is used most
+abundantly on walls, both internally and externally, and
+also on vaulting, while some buildings, as Henry the
+Seventh's Chapel at Westminster, are almost entirely
+covered with it. Fan tracery vaulting, a feature peculiar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+to this style, is almost invariably covered with panelling.</p>
+
+<p>The mouldings of this period are essentially different
+from those which preceded them. As a general rule
+they are cut on a slanting or chamfer plane, the groups
+of mouldings being separated by a shallow oval-shaped
+hollow, entirely different from those of the Decorated
+period.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular
+Doorways.</div>
+<p class="noindent">The doorways of the early portion of this period had
+two-centred arches, but the characteristic form is the
+four-centred, enclosed in a square head,
+formed by the outer mouldings with a
+hood mould of the same shape, the spandrels
+being filled with quatrefoils, roses,
+shields, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular
+Capitals.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Perpendicular capitals are either circular or octagonal,
+but the necking is usually of the former shape, and the
+upper members of the abacus of the latter
+form. The bell portion is mostly plain,
+but is often enriched with foliage of a
+very conventional character, shallow and
+formal, without either the freedom or the boldness
+of the Early English, or the exquisite grace of the Decorated
+periods. A distinguishing feature in the ornamentation
+of this period is that called panel-tracery,
+with which the walls and vaulted ceilings are covered.
+<span class="sidenote">Fan
+Vaulting.</span>The patterns are found in a variety of forms, as circles,
+squares, quatrefoils, etc. The rich vaulting
+called fan vaulting previously alluded
+to, is composed of pendant curved semi-cones,
+covered with foliated panel-work,
+which bears some resemblance to a fan spread open.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular
+Ornament.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Another very characteristic ornament is the Tudor
+flower. It is formed by a series of flat leaves placed
+upright against the stalk. It was much
+used in late buildings as a crest or ornamental
+finishing to cornices, etc., to which
+it gave an embattled appearance. Cornices
+and brackets were frequently ornamented with busts of
+winged angels called angel-brackets, and angel-corbels.
+The portcullis and the Tudor rose&mdash;both badges of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+house of Tudor&mdash;also figure prominently among the
+ornaments of the period. The crockets for the most
+part partake of the squareness which pervades all the
+foliage of this style. <i>See page <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular
+Buttresses.</div>
+<p class="noindent">The buttresses are very similar to those preceding
+them in their plainer forms, but, in richer examples
+the faces are covered with panel work
+and are finished with square pinnacles
+sometimes set diagonally and terminated
+with a crocketed spire, or finished with an
+animal or other ornament. Parapets with square battlements
+are very common at this period, but they too are
+frequently panelled or pierced with tracery, or with
+trefoils or quatrefoils inserted in square, circular or
+triangular compartments.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular
+Roofs.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The roofs of this period, both in ecclesiastical and
+secular buildings, are very magnificent, and have the
+whole of the framing exposed to view;
+many of them are of high pitch, the
+spaces between the timbers being filled
+with tracery, and the beams arched,
+moulded and ornamented in various ways; and frequently
+pendants, figures of angels, and other carvings
+are introduced. The flatter roofs are sometimes lined
+with boards and divided into panels by ribs, or have
+the timbers open, and all enriched with mouldings and
+carvings, as at Cirencester church, Gloucestershire.</p>
+
+<p>The gradual decline of the Gothic style is very evident
+in late Perpendicular churches, especially in those
+erected at the beginning of the XVIth century. The
+elements of Gothic architecture became much degraded
+and led to that mixture of features called the Debased
+Gothic in which every real principle of art and of beauty
+was lost.</p>
+
+<p>The chief characteristics, then, of the Perpendicular
+style are the vertical mullions, and the general flattening
+of arches, mouldings and carvings. Should there be
+no other guide, a Perpendicular church carries its style
+and period stamped upon its carvings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+<a name="img33" id="img33"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img075c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img075c.jpg" height="450"
+      alt="A Perpendicular Porch." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Perpendicular Porch.</b><br />
+		 S. Nicholas, King's Lynn.<br />
+      <i>Photograph Dexter &amp; Son.</i><br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img075c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The plants
+represented are, almost without exception, the vine
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>with or without grapes, and the oak with or without
+acorns. The leaves are generally full blown and crumpled.
+The earliest building showing the Perpendicular style is
+the beautiful little priory church of Edington, in Wilts,
+erected by William Edington, Bishop of Winchester.
+The same style, but more fully developed, is seen in
+the nave of Winchester Cathedral, at New College,
+Oxford, and at Winchester College.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally admitted that the Perpendicular style
+was, to a certain extent, a return to classical ideas, for
+Gothic architecture in its aspiring grace and feeling for
+motion was becoming a little unsteady in construction,
+and although the movement was started by Bishop
+Edington, it was left to William of Wykeham to save
+our English Gothic architecture from developing into
+the flamboyant<a href="#fn1" class="fnanchor"><small><sup>1</sup></small></a> style so characteristic of the late Gothic
+buildings of France and Germany.</p>
+
+<p>It is little less than astounding that William of Wykeham,
+at once Prime Minister, diplomatist, scholar and
+energetic churchman, should have found time to introduce
+such far-reaching reforms into the art of building,
+and whatever his fame may be in other directions he
+will always be remembered by posterity as one of the
+most remarkable geniuses of the Middle Ages, a man
+of giant mind and immense physical energy, who carried
+into all his work a large and dignified character,
+stamping it with the unmistakable personality of a
+master mind.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular Towers.</div>
+<p class="noindent">As builders and designers of church towers the masons
+of the Perpendicular era have never been approached,
+and all our finest English towers are of
+this style and period. Considerations of
+space will only allow a few of these towers
+to be mentioned, but among the finest
+are those at Boston, Lincolnshire; Wrexham,
+Denbighshire; Wymondham, Heigham and S.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>Clement's in Norfolk; Southwold Church in Suffolk;
+Manchester Cathedral, S. Nicholas' Church, Newcastle,
+and S. Mary's Church, Taunton.<a name="Plate_3" id="Plate_3"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img077c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img077c.jpg" height="550"
+      alt="A Fine Perpendicular Tower." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Fine Perpendicular Tower.</b><br />
+		 St. Mary, Taunton.<br />
+      <i>Photograph H. Montague Cooper.</i><br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img077c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of Perpendicular date
+and style, also, are the great lantern towers of Worcester,
+Bristol, Gloucester, York and Durham Cathedrals, in
+addition to the fine bell-tower of Evesham Abbey.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular Spires.</div>
+<p class="noindent">The
+spire, although less commonly used than
+formerly, was by no means abandoned,
+and beautiful examples of Perpendicular
+spires are those at S. Michael's, Coventry,
+and Rotherham Church, Yorkshire. Although nearly
+all our cathedrals have some portion of their fabric in
+the Perpendicular style, chantries, chapels, cloisters,
+vaulting, screens, etc., it was in our parochial churches
+that Perpendicular architecture reached its highest
+and finest development. Just as the XIIIth century
+was the great age for cathedral building, so the latter end
+of the XIVth and earlier half of the XVth centuries was
+the period to which we owe some of the most beautiful
+of our parish churches, as S. Michael's, Coventry
+(fin. 1395); S. Nicholas, Lynn (fin. 1400); Manchester
+Cathedral (formerly a collegiate church), (1422); Fotheringay
+Church, Northants (fin. 1435); Southwold Church,
+Suffolk (1440), and S. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol (about
+1442). A little later came, among others, Wakefield
+Church, Yorkshire (1470), S. Stephen's, Bristol (1470),
+S. Mary's, Oxford, and its namesake at Cambridge (both
+in 1478) and Long Melford Church, Suffolk (1481).</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the actual buildings the Perpendicular
+architects, masons and sculptors have left us some
+beautiful work in the form of timber roofs, screens,
+stalls and seats. Among the more notable roofs of this
+period are those at S. Peter's, S. Andrew's and S. Mary's,
+Norwich, the one at Morton Church in Somerset, those
+at Saffron Walden and Thaxted, Essex, and a particularly
+fine one at S. David's Cathedral in Wales. Among the
+remarkable domestic roofs in this style are those at
+Westminster Hall and Eltham Palace.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><a name="fn1" id="fn1">1</a>: So called from its "flame"-like appearance, producing forms
+which resemble elongated tongues of flame. There is great
+beauty in much of this work, but it is constructionally weak.
+The finest example is Chartres Cathedral.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h4>
+<h3>THE RENAISSANCE AND LATER.</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Classic Revival.</div>
+<p class="noindent">So far we have been considering Gothic churches,
+but we now come to the time when, from a
+variety of causes, the Italian architects, among
+them Palladio and Vitruvius, began to revive classical
+architecture, a movement which gradually
+spread over other parts of Europe.
+The various causes which led to this
+apparently retrograde movement are still
+involved in considerable obscurity. The
+commercial prosperity of the age produced a class
+who travelled abroad and cultivated the fine arts,
+with the result that they desired to see erected in
+England buildings such as they had seen in Rome,
+Florence, Genoa and Padua. It is generally admitted
+that the ramifications of Gothic architecture had
+reached their utmost limit, and the style was getting
+out of hand, as is seen by the flamboyant buildings on
+the continent. The revival of classical literature in
+western Europe gave an impetus to the movement
+which was largely intended to enfold art within the
+shelter of an enlightened taste, and protect it from the
+licence of unordered enthusiasm. How far it succeeded
+is not a question that can be discussed at length here,
+but, however good their intentions may have been, the
+architects used little discrimination in the selection of
+buildings which were to serve as models for Christian
+churches, and although subsequently considerable improvements
+were made, yet, most of the defects in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+pagan buildings of the ancients were retained in such as
+were intended to be utilized for Christian worship, and even
+considered purely as exercises in architecture it was not
+until the more chaste remains of antiquity began to be
+studied that the spirit and harmony of the good examples
+were attained. A greater contrast than the methods
+employed by the Gothic mason and the Renaissance
+architect could not well be imagined. The former
+shaped his material with his own hands; the foster
+mother of his art was tradition and its cradle the craftsman's
+bench; whereas the latter, with no builder's
+training, worked out his flawless and precise plans in
+the exotic atmosphere of the office and the study. The
+practice of making working drawings for every detail
+of the building was the cause of the decline of ornamental
+sculpture, with the result that all life and growth in the
+building ceased. Some authorities are very severe on
+the Renaissance movement. Dr. Fergusson, in his
+"<i>Modern Styles of Architecture</i>," says: "During the
+Gothic era the art of building was evolved by the simple
+exercise of man's reason, with the result that the work
+of this period is the instinctive natural growth of man's
+mind. The buildings, on the other hand, which were
+designed in the imitative styles, and produced on a
+totally different principle, present us with an entirely
+different result, and one which frequently degrades
+architecture from its high position of a quasi-natural
+production to that of a mere imitative art."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Inigo Jones<br />
+and Wren.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Be this as it may, the severe classical style introduced
+into England by Inigo Jones (who studied
+in Italy under Palladio), and continued by
+Sir Christopher Wren, soon swept everything
+before it.</p>
+
+<p>Our most remarkable church in this style is S.
+Paul's Cathedral, which in style has two very adverse circumstances
+to struggle against. In the first place, it
+bears so great a similarity to the great church of S.
+Peter, at Rome, that one cannot help comparing it with
+that fine example, and secondly, it is the only English
+cathedral which is not in the Gothic style. It must, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+course, be acknowledged that S. Paul's falls far short
+of S. Peter's, especially in its lighting, but it does not
+deserve the condemnation of a great German critic, who
+said, "It is a building marked neither by elegance of
+form nor vigour of style." Although the interior of its
+dome and clerestory of the nave and choir are extremely
+gloomy when compared with those of S. Peter's, the
+church is generally acknowledged to be far superior
+to the latter in its architectural details, and few, if any,
+Italian churches can be said to surpass it, either in
+general composition or external effect, although it must
+be admitted that everything having been sacrificed to
+attain the latter quality, S. Paul's taken as a whole, is
+neither worthy of its fine situation nor of its great architect.</p>
+
+<p>Other churches which are excellent examples of this
+style are S. Stephen's, Walbrook, and S. Mary Abchurch,
+London. Both show remarkable skill. The former is
+divided into a nave and four aisles, transepts, and a shallow
+chancel, by four rows of Corinthian columns, with a
+small dome over the intersection. The interior is very
+beautiful, and this church is generally considered to be
+Wren's masterpiece. S. Mary Abchurch, is nearly
+square in plan, has no columns and is covered with a
+domical ceiling, but so skilfully treated that the effect
+is singularly pleasing.</p>
+<div class="sidenote">Hawkes&shy;more.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Of the Elizabethan and Jacobean buildings it is necessary
+to say little, as at best they are but clumsy imitations
+of the Flemish, French and Italian Renaissance, while
+the style which we now call Queen Anne came in towards
+the close of the XVIIth century, and belongs of right to the
+reign of Charles II.</p>
+
+<p>Hawkesmore, a pupil
+and follower of Wren, was a strong architect
+who has left us Christ Church, Spitalfields,
+and S. Mary Woolnoth. He also designed the western
+towers of Westminster Abbey, often wrongly ascribed
+to Wren, and the second quadrangle of All Saints'
+College, Oxford. This architect, like the majority of
+his contemporaries, misunderstood and despised the
+Gothic style, with which he had little real sympathy;
+he drew out designs, which still exist, for converting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+Westminster Abbey into an Italian church, just as Inigo
+Jones had done with the exterior of the nave of old S.
+Paul's, but we cannot be too thankful that this abominable
+suggestion was never carried out.<a name="img34" id="img34"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img083cs.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img083cs.jpg" height="500"
+      alt="An English Renaissance Church." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>An English Renaissance Church.</b><br />
+		 S. Stephen's, Walbrook, London.<br />
+      Generally considered to be Sir Christopher Wren's masterpiece.<br />
+      <i>From an Engraving dated 1806.</i><br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img083cs.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>With King George III. on the throne our ancestors
+contented themselves with dull, but substantial, buildings
+of which some hard things have been written, but they
+were at least respectable and free from sham, while
+the churches, although not elegant, were well-built and
+occasionally picturesque, as we see by the perfect little
+building of this date at Billesley, Warwickshire.</p>
+
+<p>The eighteenth century pseudo-classical abominations
+and sham Gothic, so favoured by Horace Walpole and
+his admirers, can be briefly dismissed. A more rampant
+piece of absurdity than that of erecting imitations of
+portions of Greek temples and adapting them for Christian
+worship it is difficult to imagine, and in the Pavilion
+at Brighton, Marylebone Church, and the "Extinguisher"
+Church in Langham Place we even surpassed in bad
+taste and vulgarity all the absurdities of the Continental
+architecture produced by the French Revolution.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Barry and<br />
+Pugin.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Two men now came on the scene who, united, were
+destined to bring some kind of order out of this chaos.
+Barry and Pugin were both scholars and
+architects, for while the former rather
+favoured the classical style he thoroughly
+understood the Gothic, while Pugin was
+a thorough medi&aelig;valist, a true artist, and a bold exponent
+in his "<i>Contrasts</i>" of a complete return to medi&aelig;val
+architecture as the only possible cure for the evils which
+had crept into the art of building.</p>
+
+<p>Barry's idea, which was perhaps the more practical,
+was to correct by careful study the errors into which the
+later exponents of both Classic and Gothic architecture
+had fallen, and endeavour by well thought out modifications
+to evolve a style more suitable to modern requirements.
+Pugin, however, would have none of the evil
+thing, and although he supplied his friend with designs
+for the details and woodwork of the Houses of Parliament
+which Barry was rebuilding, they did not collaborate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+in any further way, and both died before the Houses
+of Parliament were completed, in which, as a matter of
+fact, Barry's designs were completely ignored. The
+Reform Club is considered to be the best of Barry's
+classical buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Pugin's earlier works were mostly Roman Catholic
+churches, and they are acknowledged to be an immense
+advance on any Gothic work which had been seen for
+centuries. In the Roman Catholic Cathedral of S. Chad,
+at Birmingham, there is a dignity, loftiness and simplicity
+surpassed by few Gothic buildings when that style was
+at its zenith, and from the time Pugin designed this
+building, architecture&mdash;notwithstanding our exhaustive
+study of arch&aelig;ology, our immense resources of capital
+and labour, our science and labour-saving appliances, and
+the comparative accessibility of the finest materials&mdash;has
+neither developed nor advanced. The most erudite
+Gothic mason could have possessed but little art knowledge
+as compared with the modern architect, and yet
+with our learned societies, wonderful libraries, easily
+obtained photographs and plans of the best buildings
+in the world; with writers far superior in intellectual
+acquirements to those of the Middle Ages, our vast
+wealth, with our tools such as the medi&aelig;val craftsman
+could never have dreamed of, and with the experience
+of twenty centuries to guide us we have made no
+advance during more than half a century. Our best
+architects acknowledge that until we get a new method
+of building, originality in architecture is an impossibility,
+mainly because all the existing styles of architecture
+have been worked out to their legitimate conclusion,
+and have been perfected under circumstances and conditions
+with which we have entirely broken; the originality
+in detail which pervades and permeates our Gothic
+buildings and gives them the greater part of their charm,
+must, of necessity, be out of our reach until we blend
+the spirit of what we are pleased to call our practical
+age, with a certain amount of that spirit of poetry and
+romance, religious fervour and devoutness, which
+animated the builders and craftsmen of the past.<a name="img35" id="img35"></a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img086c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img086c.jpg" height="300"
+      alt="A Typical Cornish Font." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Typical Cornish Font.</b><br />
+		 Probably of the late Norman period. Now at Maker, near Plymouth.<br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img086c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h4>
+
+<h3>CHURCH FURNITURE AND ORNAMENTS.</h3>
+
+<p>The most important part of the internal furniture of
+a church is the altar, a name derived from the
+Latin <i>altare</i>, a high place. <span class="sidenote">The Altar.</span>The altar is a raised
+structure on which propitiatory offerings are placed. In the
+Christian church the altar is a table or slab on which the
+instruments of the Eucharist are displayed. The early<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+Christian altars were portable structures of wood, and
+the Church of Rome still allows the use
+of an altar of this description, although a
+consecrated stone, containing an authentic
+relic and regarded as the true altar, must be placed
+upon the wooden table. The slab forming the altar
+was sometimes supported on pillars, but more frequently
+on solid masonry, and previous to the Reformation it
+was marked with five crosses cut into the top, in allusion
+to the five wounds of Christ. From the period that
+stone altars were introduced it was usual to enclose
+within them the relics of saints, so that in some cases
+they were the actual tombs of saints. In England the
+altars were generally taken down about the year 1550,
+set up again in the beginning of the reign of Queen
+Mary, and again removed in the second year of Queen
+Elizabeth. In the church of Porlock, Somerset, the
+original high altar has been preserved, though not in
+use, being placed against the north wall of the chancel.
+In Dunster Church, in the same county, there is a solid
+stone altar, said to have been the original high altar,
+and in the ruined church of S. Mary Magdalene at Ripon,
+the high altar has escaped destruction. Of chantry
+altars we have several left, including those at Abbey
+Dore, Herefordshire; Grosmont, Monmouthshire; Chipping
+Norton, Oxon.; Warmington, Warwick; S. Giles's,
+Oxford; Lincoln Cathedral, and many others; and it
+is rare to find a Gothic church without some traces of
+altars in their various chapels, oratories or chantries.</p>
+
+<p>The altar is, of course, an adoption by the Christian
+church of a pagan aid to worship, and at S. Mary's
+church, Wareham, which is thought to stand on the
+site of a Roman temple, are some pieces of stone considered
+by antiquaries to be portions of a pagan altar,
+on which burnt offerings were placed.</p>
+
+<p>Above many Christian altars was placed a piece of
+sculpture or a painting representing some religious
+subject. These altar pieces sometimes consist of two
+pictures, when they are called "diptyches," and sometimes
+of three pictures, when they are called "triptyches,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+and both forms usually fold up or are provided with
+shutters. They are often rare examples of the Flemish
+and other schools of painting, and of great value.</p>
+
+<p>At the Reformation the stone altar was displaced by
+the communion table, which at first occupied the position
+vacated by the altar. This gave umbrage to the Puritan
+mind, and the communion table was then usually placed
+in the centre of the chancel, with seats all round for the
+communicants; which arrangement is still in vogue
+in some of our English churches and in Jersey, although
+at the Restoration the communion
+table was, as a
+general rule, replaced at the
+eastern wall of the Chancel.<a name="img36" id="img36"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/img088c.jpg" width="150" alt="Durham Sanctuary Knocker." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>Durham Sanctuary Knocker</b></span></div>
+
+<p>Long before the Christian
+era the altar was regarded as
+a place of refuge for those fleeing
+from justice or oppression,
+and this custom or privilege
+of sanctuary was sanctioned
+by the English bishops
+and was retained for many
+centuries by the Christian
+Church. Many of our parish
+churches claim to possess old
+sanctuary rings or knockers,
+but it is doubtful if any of these were ever used by fugitives,
+for the reason that although in early days every parish
+church had the right to grant sanctuary, few possessed
+the means of feeding and housing a refugee, save in the
+church itself, which was expressly forbidden. This is
+why we find records of fugitives travelling many miles
+at the risk of their lives and passing hundreds of parish
+churches in their endeavour to reach Bury St. Edmunds,
+Hexham, Durham or some other of the well-recognised
+sanctuaries. The only sanctuary knocker remaining
+to-day, which is above suspicion, is that at Durham
+Cathedral. It is made of bronze and represents the
+grotesque head of a dragon, the ring coming from the
+mouth. Above the door is a small room in which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+attendants watched by day and night, and when a fugitive
+was admitted a bell was rung to announce that someone
+had taken sanctuary.<a name="img37" id="img37"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img089c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img089c.jpg" height="500"
+      alt="The Baptistery in Luton Church." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>The Baptistery in Luton Church.</b><br />
+		 		  <i>Photograph Fredk. Thurston, F.R.P.S.</i><br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img089c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>The font, as we have seen, was originally placed in
+a separate building called the baptistery.<span class="sidenote">The Font.</span> The only
+known example of anything of the kind
+in England is that in S. Mary's Church,
+Luton, fully described in The Homeland
+Handbook, No. 47. It is in the Decorated style, dates
+from the time of Edward III., and is said to have been
+designed by William of Wykeham for Queen Philippa.
+It is composed of white stone with open panels, pierced
+by cinquefoils and quatrefoils, while the apex of each
+panel terminates in a foliated finial. The font inside
+is octagonal in form and of 13th century date, but it
+has been somewhat restored. Ancient fonts were
+always large enough to allow for total immersion, and
+our present custom of baptism by affusion, or sprinkling,
+is only permitted, not enjoined by the rubric. In early
+days the sacrament of baptism was only administered
+by the bishops at the great festivals of Pentecost and
+Easter, for the reason that this afforded the greater
+convenience for immediate confirmation, but with the
+increase in the number of churches the rite was administered
+by the priests in every village.</p>
+
+<p>The font was
+required by the canon to be of stone, but there are a
+few Norman fonts made of lead, among them those at
+S. Mary's Church, Wareham, Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey,
+and at Edburton, Parham, and Pyecombe, Sussex. A
+remarkable font is that at Dolton Church, Devon, made
+up of fragments of the churchyard cross, and there is
+also a somewhat similar one at Melbury Bubb, Dorset.
+By a constitution of Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury
+(1236), fonts were required to be covered and locked,
+and at first these covers were little more than plain lids,
+but they afterwards became highly ornamental and were
+enriched with buttresses, pinnacles, crockets, etc. It is
+doubtful if any fonts exist which can reasonably be supposed
+to be Saxon, although a few, like that at Little Billing,
+Northants, may possibly be of that era. Of Norman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+fonts we have large numbers. They are sometimes
+plain hollow cylinders; others are massive squares
+with a large pillar in the centre, and small shafts at the
+corners. These fonts are generally ornamented with
+rudely executed carvings, consisting of foliage and
+grotesque animals.<a name="img38" id="img38"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img091cs.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img091cs.jpg" height="400"
+      alt="An Example of a late Norman Leaden Font." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>An Example of a Leaden Font of the late Norman period.</b><br />
+		 		  Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey<br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img091cs.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The one in Winchester Cathedral
+is a good example, and there are three other very
+similar ones in Hampshire. Early English fonts are
+very often circular, and sometimes square, and they are
+often supported in much the same way as the Norman
+ones. In the Decorated and Perpendicular styles they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+are, with few exceptions, octagonal, and the details
+generally partake of the character of those used in the
+other architectural features of the period. There are
+hexagonal fonts of Decorated date at Rolvenden, Kent,
+and Heckington, Lincs. The font is usually placed close
+to a pillar near the entrance, generally that nearest but
+one to the tower in the south arcade, or, in larger buildings,
+in the middle of the nave.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Stoups.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The holy-water stoups sometimes found in our old
+churches are generally small niches with stone basins
+formed in the wall either in or just outside
+the porch, or within the church close to
+the door, or in one of the pillars nearest
+to the door. These niches resemble piscinas, except
+that they differ in
+situation, are smaller
+and plainer, and rarely
+have a drain. A good
+example of an outside
+stoup is that at Broadmayne,
+Dorset, where
+there is also one inside
+the church. They are
+rarely found unmutilated,
+but there is one
+in perfect condition in
+the north porch of
+Thornham Church,
+Kent; and a rather
+elaborate example at
+Pylle Church, near
+Glastonbury.<a name="img39" id="img39"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/img092c.jpg" width="150" alt="A Reputed Saxon Font." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>A Reputed Saxon Font.</b><br />
+Shaldon, Devon.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The piscina is a
+water-drain formerly
+placed near the altar
+and consisting of a
+shallow stone basin, or
+sink, with a drain to
+carry off whatever is
+poured into it. It was used to receive the water in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+which the priest washed his hands, as well as for that
+with which the chalice was rinsed at the
+celebration of the mass. It was usually
+placed within a niche, although the basin often projects
+from the face of the wall, and is sometimes supported on
+a shaft rising from the floor. In the Early English and
+Decorated periods there are often two basins and two
+drains, and occasionally three. Within the niche a
+wooden or stone shelf is often found, called a credence-table,
+on which the sacred
+vessels were placed previous to
+their being required at the altar.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Piscinas.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Piscinas are unknown in
+England of earlier date than
+the middle of the 12th century,
+and of that date they are
+extremely rare. Of thirteenth
+and succeeding centuries we
+have many examples, more or
+less mutilated. Their forms and
+decorations are very various,
+but the character of their architectural
+features will always
+decide their approximate date.<a name="img40" id="img40"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/img093c.jpg" width="200" alt="A Detached Holy-water Stoup." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>A Detached Holy-water Stoup<br />
+of unusual design.</b><br />
+Wooton Courtenay, Som.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The Sedilia, from the Latin
+<i>sedile</i>, a seat, has come to be
+applied in modern times to the
+seats used by the celebrants
+during the pauses in the mass. <span class="sidenote">Sedilia.</span>They were sometimes
+moveable, but more usually in this country
+were formed of masonry and recessed
+in the wall. They are generally three
+in number, for the priest, deacon and sub-deacon, while
+in a few rare instances they number four seats, as
+at Rothwell Church, Northants, and Furness Abbey;
+or even five, as at Southwell Minster. Sometimes
+a long single seat under one arch is found, and
+when three seats are used the two western ones are
+often on the same level and the eastern one raised above
+them. Numerous examples remain in our churches,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+some being as early as the latter part of the 12th century,
+but they are mostly later and extend to the end of the
+Perpendicular style. Some of them are separated by
+shafts, and profusely ornamented with panelling,
+niches, statues, pinnacles, tabernacle work, and crowned
+with canopies all more or less elaborately enriched.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Stalls.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Stalls are fixed seats in the choir, either wholly or
+partially enclosed and used by the clergy. Previous to
+the Reformation all large and many small
+churches had a range of wooden stalls on
+each side and at the west end of the choir.
+In cathedrals they were enclosed at the back with panelling,
+and surmounted by overhanging canopies of tabernacle
+work, generally of oak, of which those at Winchester,
+Henry VII.'s Chapel at Westminster, and
+Manchester Cathedral are possibly our finest examples.
+When the stalls occupied both sides of the choir, return
+seats were placed at the ends for the prior, dean, precentor,
+and other of the officiating clergy.<a name="Plate_4" id="Plate_4"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img095c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img095c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Sedilia and Chantry." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Sedilia and Chantry.</b><br />
+		 		  Luton, Beds.<br />
+		 		<i>Photograph Fredk. Thurston, F.R.P.S.</i><br />
+       Click to <a href="images/img095c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Parker, in his "<i>Glossary of Architecture</i>," gives
+the following definition of the miserere, patience or
+pretella. "The projecting bracket on the underside
+of the seats of stalls in churches; these, when perfect,
+are fixed with hinges so they may be turned up, and
+when this is done the projection of the miserere is
+sufficient, without actually forming a seat, to afford
+very considerable rest to anyone leaning upon it. They
+were allowed as a relief to the infirm during the long
+services that were required to be performed by ecclesiastics
+in a standing posture." It is in the carving of these
+that one is frequently struck by the curious mixture
+of the sacred and the profane, the refined and the vulgar,
+for which it is difficult to find any adequate explanation.
+Of so coarse a nature are some of these carvings that it
+has been necessary to entirely remove them from the
+stalls. They are usually attributed to the mendicant
+and wandering monks, and they undoubtedly reflect the
+licentiousness which at one time pervaded the monastic
+and conventual establishments. Among our best examples
+are those at Christchurch Priory, Hants, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+in Henry VII.'s Chapel. There is a remarkably complete
+set in Exeter Cathedral.<a name="img41" id="img41"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/img097cs.jpg" width="280" alt="Typical Somerset Bench-End." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>A Typical Somerset Bench-End,</b><br />
+Showing a Fuller at work with the<br />
+implements of his trade.<br />
+Spaxton.<br />
+<i>Photograph Mr. Page.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of modern pews it is not necessary to say anything
+here, but previous to
+the Reformation the
+nave of a church was
+usually fitted with
+fixed seats, parted
+from each other by
+wainscoting, and
+partially enclosed at
+the ends by framed
+panelling, but more
+often by solid pieces
+of wood, either
+panelled or carved
+on the front. These
+bench-ends are very
+common in the
+West of England, in
+Somerset and Devon,
+and they are often
+very beautiful pieces
+of work and were
+in all probability
+executed by local
+craftsmen. They
+embrace a variety
+of subjects: figures,
+scrolls, dragons,
+serpents, etc., and
+frequently bear the
+arms of the family
+who owned the pew.
+Sometimes they terminate
+at the top
+with finials either
+in the form of heads, bunches of foliage, a chamfered
+<i>fleur-de-lys</i> and a variety of other ornaments called
+Poppy-heads, from the French <i>Poup&eacute;e</i>. No examples<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+are known to exist earlier than the Decorated style, but
+of Perpendicular date specimens are very numerous,
+especially in our cathedrals and old abbey churches.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pulpits.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Pulpits were formerly placed, not only in churches,
+but in the refectories and occasionally in the cloisters of
+monasteries, and there is one in the outer
+court of Magdalen College, Oxford, and
+another at Shrewsbury. In former times
+pulpits were placed in the nave attached to a wall, pillar
+or screen, usually against the second pier from the
+chancel arch. Some are of wood, others of stone; the
+former are mostly polygonal, with the panels enriched
+with foliation or tracery. Few exist of earlier date
+than the Perpendicular style, but stone pulpits of Decorated
+date are sometimes met with as at Beaulieu, Hants,
+a very early specimen. Wooden pulpits are usually
+hexagonal or octagonal; some stand on slender wooden
+stems, others on stone bases. A few have canopies
+or sounding boards, and their dates can be fixed by the
+character of their ornamentation. At Kenton, Devon,
+there is an early pulpit which has retained its original
+paintings. Jacobean pulpits are very numerous, and are
+frequently gilded and painted; the one at S. Saviour's
+Church, Dartmouth, being a most elaborate example.</p>
+
+<p>Open-air preaching is anything but a modern invention,
+for long before the erection of parish churches it
+was the recognised method of addressing the people.
+There is a print of some popular bishop preaching in
+a pulpit at Paul's Cross in S. Paul's Churchyard, and in
+medi&aelig;val days open-air pulpits were erected near the
+roads, on bridges and often on the steps of the market
+crosses, which are often still known as preaching
+crosses.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Squints.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">In some of our churches is to be seen a squint, an
+opening in an oblique direction through a wall or pier for
+the purpose of enabling persons in the aisles
+or transepts to see the elevation of the
+Host at the high altar. They are of
+frequent occurrence in our churches and are very numerous
+in the neighbourhood of Tenby, South Wales, also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+in Devon
+and the
+West generally.<a name="img42" id="img42"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/img099c.jpg" width="220" alt="A Richly Carved Pulpit and Canopy." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>A Richly Carved Pulpit and Canopy.</b><br />
+Edlesborough, Bucks.<br />
+<i>Photograph H. A. Strange.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>They
+are usually
+without any
+ornament,
+but are
+sometimes
+arched and
+enriched
+with tracery.
+They
+are mostly
+found on
+one or both
+sides of the
+chancel
+arch, but
+they sometimes
+occur
+in rooms
+above porches,
+in
+side-chapels
+and the like;
+in every instance
+they
+were so situated
+that
+the altar
+could be
+seen. When
+they occur
+in porches
+or the rooms
+above they
+are thought
+to have been
+for the use<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+of the acolyte appointed to ring the sanctus bell, who,
+viewing the performance of mass, would be thus able to
+sound the bell at the proper time. The name hagioscope
+has been used to describe these oblique openings.</p>
+
+<p>Cruciform marks are sometimes found on our churches,
+often on a stone in the porch; they are usually incised
+crosses or five dots in the form of a cross. They were,
+presumably, cut by the bishop when the building was
+consecrated, and are called consecration crosses.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Screens.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The rood-screens, separating the chancel or choir
+of a church from the nave, usually supported the great
+Rood or Crucifix, not actually on the
+screen itself, but on a beam called the
+rood-beam, or by a gallery called the
+rood-loft, which last was approached from the inside
+of the church, by a small stone staircase in the wall,
+as can be seen in many of our churches to-day. Although
+rood-lofts have been generally destroyed in England,
+some beautiful examples remain at Long Sutton, Barnwell,
+Dunster and Minehead, Somerset; Kemsing,
+Kent; Newark, Nottingham; Uffendon, Collumpton,
+Dartmouth, Kenton, Plymtree and Hartland, Devon.
+The general construction of wooden screens is
+close panelling below, from which rise tall slender
+balusters, or wooden mullions supporting tracery rich
+with cornices and crestings, frequently painted and gilded.
+The lower panels often depict saints and martyrs. From
+the top of the screen certain parts of the services and the
+lessons were read. They were occasionally close together
+and glazed, as we see by a most beautiful example at
+Charlton-on-Otmoor, in Oxfordshire. These screens,
+many of which have been over-restored, are very common,
+and in addition to those above mentioned, are found
+at S. Mary's, Stamford, Ottery S. Mary, Chudleigh,
+Bovey, and in nearly all the Devon parish churches.
+At Dunstable a screen of Queen Mary's time separates
+the vestry from the chancel.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+<a name="img43" id="img43"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img101c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img101c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Screen with Rood Loft." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Screen with Rood Loft.</b><br />
+		 		  Kenton, Devon.<br />
+		 		<i>Photograph by Chapman.</i><br />
+       Click to <a href="images/img101c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of stone screens space will permit of only the briefest
+mention. They were used in various situations, to
+enclose tombs and to separate chapels, and occasionally the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+rood-screen was of stone. The oldest piece of screen work
+in this country is that at Compton Church, Surrey; it
+is of wood and shows the transition from the Norman to
+the Early English styles.<a name="img44" id="img44"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/img102c.jpg" width="200" alt="Carved Oak Balustrade" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>The Carved Oak Balustrade in<br />
+Compton Church.</b><br />
+Held to be the oldest existing piece<br />
+of carved woodwork in England.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Stone screens are often massive
+structures enriched with niches, statues, tabernacles, pinnacles,
+crestings, etc.,
+as those at Canterbury,
+York and Gloucester.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The
+Reredos.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The reredos forms
+no part of the altar,
+and is often highly enriched
+with
+niches, buttresses,
+pinnacles,
+and
+other ornaments. Not
+infrequently it extends
+across the whole
+breadth of the church,
+and is sometimes
+carried nearly up to
+the roof, as at S.
+Alban's Abbey, Durham
+and Gloucester Cathedrals,
+S. Saviour's,
+Southwark and in that
+remarkably fine example
+at Christchurch,
+Hants. In village
+churches they are mostly very simple, and generally
+have no ornaments formed in the wall, though niches
+and corbels are sometimes provided to carry images, and
+that part of the wall immediately over the altar is
+panelled, as at S. Michael's, Oxford; Solihull, Warwickshire;
+Euston and Hanwell, Oxfordshire, etc.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note that the open fire-hearth, once
+used in domestic halls, was also called a "reredos."</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h4>
+
+<h3>BELLS AND BELFRIES.</h3>
+
+<p>The history of bells is lost in antiquity, and little
+is known about them previous to the XVth
+century. It is probable, however, that they were
+used in India and China centuries before they reached
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Bells were used by the Romans for many secular
+purposes, and although their use was sanctioned by
+the Christian Church about 400 A.D., they were not
+in general use in England until 650 A.D.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest bells were hand bells, quadrangular in
+shape, and made of thin plates of copper or iron riveted
+together, and their abominable sound when struck
+must have been one of their chief merits, as the early
+bells were much used for the purpose of frightening
+the devil and other evil spirits.</p>
+
+<p>Our oldest bells are hand bells, S. Patrick's bell at
+Belfast (1091) and S. Ninian's bell at Edinburgh, which
+is probably of even earlier date. From 1550 to 1750
+was the golden age of production for bells, more especially
+so in Belgium and the Low Countries, where the bells
+of the towers and belfries were rung to arouse the country
+in times of danger and invasion. It is quite possible that
+the bells used for secular and religious purposes were kept
+distinct. Bells played a very important part in medi&aelig;val
+life, and next to cannon were regarded as the chief city
+guardians, for he who held the bells held the town, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+the first thing done by the invader on taking a town
+was to melt the bells and thus destroy the means of
+communicating an alarm.</p>
+
+<p>In England our old towns, being almost entirely constructed
+of wood, were liable to periodic and devastating
+conflagrations, which fact suggested to that genius,
+William the Conqueror, the institution of Couvre-feu,
+or in its more popular form, Curfew, which rang at
+eight o'clock in the evening, when all lights were to be
+extinguished. The ringing of curfew has survived in
+many of our towns and villages to this day, but it is
+doubtful if the custom has been continuous from its
+first institution.</p>
+
+<p>The secular use of the bell is, however, only incidental,
+and it is in its connection with religious life that we are
+now concerned, for all church history, church doctrine
+and church custom and observances are set to bell music.
+Bells in fact may be said to sum up the short span of
+our mortal life, for the birthday, the wedding and the
+funeral, are all welded to religion by the church bell.</p>
+
+<p>Bells were used for ecclesiastical purposes in England
+long before the erection of our parish churches, for
+Bede, speaking of the death of S. Hilda, A.D. 680, says
+that "one of the sisters in the distant monastery of
+Hackness, thought she heard as she slept, the sound
+of the bell which called them to prayers," and Turketul
+gave to Croyland Abbey a great bell called Guthlac,
+and afterwards six others which he called Bartholomew
+and Betelin, Turketul and Tatwin, and Pega and Bega.</p>
+
+<p>S. Dunstan gave bells to many of the churches in
+Somerset, and he also seems to have introduced bell
+ringing into the monasteries.</p>
+
+<p>A few words may be of interest concerning the number
+and purposes of these monastic bells, with which the
+life of the monks must have been completely bound up.
+The <i>Signum</i> woke up the whole community at day-break.
+The <i>Squilla</i> announced the frugal meal in the
+refectory; but for those working in the gardens, the
+cloister-bell, or <i>Campanella</i>, was rung. The abbot's
+<i>Cordon</i>, or handbell, summoned the brothers and novices<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+to their Superior; whilst the <i>Petasius</i> was used to call in
+those working at a distance from the main building. At
+bed-time the <i>Tiniolum</i> was sounded, and the <i>Noctula</i>
+was rung at intervals throughout the night to call the
+monks to watch and pray. The <i>Corrigiumcula</i> was the
+scourging bell, while the sweet-toned <i>Nota</i>, a choir bell,
+was rung at the consecration of the elements.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the bell-tower was recognised in the ancient
+Saxon law, which gave the title of thane to anyone who
+had a church with a bell-tower on his estate, and two
+of our most interesting Saxon churches, Brixworth
+and Brigstock, both in Northamptonshire, have each a
+semi-circular tower rising together with the bell-tower,
+and forming a staircase to it.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most beautiful campaniles or bell-towers
+still standing is that at Evesham, in Worcestershire,
+which is a good specimen of Perpendicular architecture.
+It was built by Abbot Lichfield, the last abbot but one
+of the abbey, and took six years in building, and was
+not quite completed when the famous abbey, of which
+it was a final ornament, was pulled down.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to this example at Evesham, detached
+bell-towers exist, or once existed, at Chichester, East
+Dereham, Glastonbury Abbey, Bruton, in Somerset, and
+in several other places.</p>
+
+<p>Markland, in his <i>Remarks on Churches</i>, says: "The
+great bell-tower which once formed part of the abbey
+church of S. Edmundsbury was commenced about 1436.
+From the year 1441 to 1500 legacies were still being
+given towards the building. In 1461 an individual,
+probably a benefactor, desired to be buried <i>in magno
+ostio novi campanilis</i>."<a name="img45" id="img45"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 160px;">
+<img src="images/img106c.jpg" width="160" alt="Bell Turret for 3 Bells." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>Bell Turret for 3 Bells.</b><br />
+Radipole, Dorset.</span>
+</div>
+<p>In Protestant use church bells have been stripped
+of much of the former superstition and symbolism.
+They are no longer rung to announce the miracle of
+transubstantiation; neither are they called upon as
+of old for the purpose of scaring devils, demons, and
+other evil spirits which formed so prominent a feature
+in the faith of the early Christian communities. Closely
+connected with the subject of bells and belfries are the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+bell-gables or bell-turrets, so frequently found at the
+west ends of our smaller churches which have no towers.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">They usually contain but one
+bell, but are sometimes found
+with two, and at Radipole
+Church, near Weymouth, the
+bell-turret was originally
+designed to carry three bells.
+They are generally most
+picturesque little features of
+which a few may be of
+Norman date, but by far the
+greater number of them are
+Early English, a style in
+which they are frequently
+found. In addition to these
+bell-turrets at the western
+ends of our churches one
+sometimes finds a similar,
+but smaller, erection at the
+eastern end of the roof of the
+nave, but used for a very
+different purpose, for while
+the bell at the western end
+was rung to summon the
+parishioners to service, that
+at the eastern end, known
+as the Sanctus or Mass-bell,
+was rung on the elevation of the Host during the celebration
+of mass; although usually placed on the apex
+of the roof, this bell sometimes occupied a position in
+the lantern or tower, or in a turret of larger dimensions.
+In churches where no turret existed it was carried in
+the hand, and such is now the prevailing practice on the
+continent. The turret for the Sanctus bell still exists
+at Barnstaple, Devon, and St. Peter Port, Guernsey.
+The Sanctus bell was generally made of silver, and
+occasionally a number of little bells were hung in the
+middle of the church, and by means of a wheel they
+were all made to ring at once.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.</h4>
+
+<h3>THE SPIRE; ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT.</h3>
+
+<p>Probably the most beautiful feature of a Gothic
+church is the spire, raising its tapering form far
+above the town or village and forming a prominent
+landmark, denoting the location of the House
+of God. Although found occasionally in other styles,
+the spire is essentially Gothic, and one of the most
+marked characteristics of this period. Spires are generally
+of two kinds, those constructed of timber and
+covered with slates, lead, tiles or shingles, and those
+built of stone or brick. Examples of both kinds are very
+numerous on the continent and in England, while shingle
+spires are especially common in Sussex.</p>
+
+<p>The spire is generally acknowledged to have originated
+from the small pyramidal roof so frequently found on
+Saxon and Norman towers. This gradually became
+elongated, and the towers were sometimes gabled on
+each side, as is the case with the remarkable Saxon church
+at Sompting, Sussex. This shows us very clearly the
+angles of the spire resting upon the apex of each
+gable, so that the spire itself is set obliquely to the
+square of the tower.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+<a name="img46" id="img46"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img108c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img108c.jpg" height="550"
+      alt="Saxon Spire or Pyramidal Roof." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>The best example of a Saxon Spire or
+           Pyramidal Roof.</b><br />
+		 		  Sompting, Sussex.<br />
+		 		<i>Drawn by George Pearl.</i><br />
+       Click to <a href="images/img108c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Saxon and Norman spires are very rare in England,
+Sompting being our best example of the former and
+thoseon
+the eastern transepts of Canterbury Cathedral of the
+latter.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>Of
+Early English spires we have, fortunately, some good
+examples, among which are those at Oxford Cathedral,
+Wilford and Wansted, in the same county, and a very
+graceful one at Leighton Buzzard. These 13th century
+spires are very common in France, as at Chartres and
+S. Pierre, Caen.</p>
+
+<p>Of fourteenth century, or Decorated, spires, we have
+many examples, of which perhaps the best is the beautiful
+spire of Salisbury Cathedral, although the equally fine
+one at S. Mary's, Oxford, runs it close for premier position.
+The triple group at Lichfield Cathedral belong to this
+period, as do the spires of Ross, Heckington, Grantham, S.
+Mary's, Newark, King's Sutton, Bloxham and Snettisham,
+Norfolk. A peculiarity of the Salisbury spire is
+that it never formed part of the original design of the
+cathedral, being added seventy years later. It is the
+loftiest spire in England&mdash;404 feet&mdash;about 40 ft. higher
+than the cross of S. Paul's. It speaks well for the Gothic
+builders that such a vast superstructure as this tower
+and spire could be imposed upon walls and piers never
+intended to bear it. At an early period it was found to
+have deflected twenty-three inches from the perpendicular,
+but there has been no sign of any further
+movement. Barnack Church, in Northamptonshire, has
+a curious spire showing the transition from Norman to
+Early English.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that the sides of a church spire are
+slightly curved, so that they swell out a little in the centre.
+This is called the entasis of the spire, and belongs to the
+study of optics in architecture. Where the spire has no
+entasis the same effect is produced by the introduction
+of small projecting gables, bands of carving, or a little
+coronal of pinnacles.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most clearly marked differences between
+English and continental spires is that the latter are
+much shorter than the towers which support them, the
+towers, as a rule, being twice as high as the
+spires.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+<a name="img47" id="img47"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img110c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img110c.jpg" height="500"
+      alt="Leighton Buzzard Church." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Leighton Buzzard Church.</b><br />
+           With Early English Tower and Spire.<br />
+			 		<i>Photograph H. A. Strange.</i><br />
+       Click to <a href="images/img110c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>In England, on the contrary, the spire is generally very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+much loftier than the tower. At Shottesbrook, Berks,
+and Ledbury, Herefordshire, the spires occupy as much
+as three-fifths of the total elevation, and the usual rule
+in England is for the tower to be a little less in height
+than the spire.</p>
+
+<p>The masons lavished an extraordinary amount of
+care and skill on their spires. So much is this the case
+that there is hardly a medi&aelig;val spire in the country
+which can be called ill-designed or displeasing.</p>
+
+<p>Church spires are very common in some counties and
+very rare in others. There are, of course, exceptions,
+but it is in the flat counties that spires are most frequent,
+the most beautiful ones being found in Northamptonshire,
+Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Warwickshire, Staffordshire,
+Nottinghamshire and Oxfordshire.</p>
+
+<p>The top of the spire is usually capped with a weather
+vane terminating in a cock. The custom of using a cock
+as the flag of the vane is of very early date, for Wolfstan,
+in his Life of S. Ethelwold, written towards the end of
+the 10th century, speaks of one which surmounted Winchester
+Cathedral. In the Bayeux Tapestry one is shown
+on the gable of Westminster Abbey, and one of the early
+Popes ordained that every church under the papal jurisdiction
+should be surmounted by a cock as emblematical
+of the sovereignty of the church over the whole world.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.</h4>
+
+<h3>STAINED GLASS.</h3>
+
+<p>The use of coloured glass in the windows of buildings
+devoted to religious purposes appears to have
+been employed as early as the ninth century, but
+no examples remain of anything like so old a date, and
+we have only illuminated missals and primitive drawings
+by members of the conventual bodies to guide us in
+determining the earliest styles of coloured glazing. It
+appears to have consisted of more or less primitive
+representations of the human form, with strong black
+lines to indicate the features and folds of the drapery.
+The backgrounds were generally masses of deep blue
+or red, and in the rare instances where landscapes were
+introduced positive colours only appear to have been used.
+Our oldest specimens in England are those in the choir
+aisles of Canterbury Cathedral, which appear to be of
+the 12th century, and it is thought that they are the
+remains of the original glazing that was put in when
+this part of the building was rebuilt after a fire in 1174.
+The general design is composed of panels of various
+forms, in which are depicted subjects from Holy Scripture,
+with backgrounds of deep blue or red; the spaces between
+the panels are filled with mosaic patterns in which
+blue and red colours predominate, and the whole design
+is framed in an elaborate border of leaves and scroll-work
+in brilliant colours.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+<a name="img48" id="img48"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img113c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img113c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Leighton Buzzard Church." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Parish Church with a Shingle Broach Spire.</b> (<i>See page <a href="#Page_99">99</a></i>)<br />
+           Edenbridge, Kent.<br />
+			 		<i>Homeland Copyright.</i><br />
+       Click to <a href="images/img113c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>Of thirteenth century windows we have some magnificent
+examples&mdash;unfortunately few unmutilated&mdash;as at
+York, where is the five-light lancet window situated in
+the north end of the transept, known as the Five
+Sisters of York. Of this date, also, are the large circular
+window of Lincoln Cathedral, and the windows at
+Chetwode, Bucks; Westwell, Kent; West Horsley,
+Surrey; and Beckett's Crown, Canterbury.</p>
+
+<p>A little later, in the Decorated period, we get the great
+east window of York Cathedral, 75 ft. high and 32 ft.
+broad; the east window of Gloucester Cathedral, 72 ft.
+high and 38 ft. broad; and other fine windows at Tewkesbury
+Abbey; Merton College, Oxford; Wroxhall Abbey,
+Warwickshire; and the churches of Chartham, Kent;
+Stanford, Leicestershire; Ashchurch, Glous.; Cranley,
+Surrey; Norbury, Derbyshire, and others. Salisbury
+Cathedral has retained portions, but very lovely portions,
+of the glazing of its west windows, and enough is left
+to show that it was little inferior to the great windows
+of York and Gloucester. Carlisle Cathedral, too, has
+preserved fragments of the original glass in the tracery
+of the great east window, but the lower part of the
+glazing is modern. Windows in the Decorated style
+continued to be arranged in panels, with the spaces
+between them filled with flowing patterns of foliage, in
+which the vine and ivy leaves predominate. Single
+figures are more common than in the previous style, and
+when used are generally shown beneath a simple pediment
+or canopy. In the early examples they only
+occupy a portion of the window light, but later they are
+found occupying nearly the whole of the surface and are
+surmounted by large and elaborate canopies. Quarries
+are much used in this style, sometimes quite plain, but
+more often with leaves or rosettes painted on them in
+black lines, or painted with the vine and ivy leaves so
+arranged that they form a repeating pattern over the
+whole window. At this period, too, heraldry began
+to be employed in the decoration of the windows to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+which it is always an appropriate and artistic adjunct,
+and many authentic and valuable examples of our
+national heraldry have thus been preserved for posterity.</p>
+
+<p>With the advent of the Perpendicular style the glazing
+became more uniform in character, the glass was thinner
+and lighter, the tints paler, and the whole effect more
+brilliant and transparent. The paintings for the most
+part consist of large figures under elaborate canopies,
+frequently occupying an entire light, and in the patterns
+and smaller decorations there is a greater freedom
+of design, and the whole treatment is more harmonious
+and artistic than in any other period. The use of heraldry
+became very common, and inscriptions on long narrow
+scrolls were frequently employed. Among the best
+examples of this period are the windows at S. Margaret's
+Church, Westminster; King's College Chapel, Cambridge;
+Fairford Church, Gloucestershire; and Morley
+Church, Derbyshire.</p>
+
+<p>The Reformation, with its vast social and political
+upheaval, was not conducive to the encouragement of
+the fine arts, and from this period the art of glazing in
+England declined beyond measure, and was not the only
+art that received its death-blow in the triumph of
+Puritanism. The art has, however, revived greatly
+during recent years, thanks, among other artists, to
+William Morris and Burne-Jones. A few words must
+be said about the "Jesse" window found in some
+of our cathedrals and churches. Strictly speaking,
+it is a representation of the genealogy of Christ, in
+which the different persons forming the descent are
+placed on scrolls of foliage branching out of each
+other, intended to represent a tree. It was also wrought
+into a branched candlestick, thence called a Jesse,
+a common piece of furniture in ancient churches.
+The subject is found on a window at Llanrhaiadr y
+Kinmerch, Denbighshire, on the stone work of one of
+the chancel windows at Dorchester Church, Oxfordshire,
+and in carved stone on the reredos of Christchurch
+Priory, Hants.</p>
+
+<p>It is not perhaps generally known that the actual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+colours used in early stained glass possessed each of
+them their own specific symbolism. Underlying the
+obvious story conveyed by the human figures or
+decorated devices, there was an inner story to be read
+with profit by those who understood the mystic symbolism
+concerning colours. Without entering at length
+into this interesting subject, it may yet be stated that
+green was the symbol of Regeneration, red of Divine
+Love, white of Divine Wisdom, yellow of Faith, and
+grey, or a mixture of black and white, the emblem of
+Terrestrial Death and Spiritual Immortality. These
+colours at different times or in different countries had
+other meanings as well, and ecclesiologists tell us that
+the colours chosen for depicting the robes of our Lord
+differ according to the period of His life which it was
+intended to represent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.</h4>
+
+<h3>CRYPTS.</h3>
+
+<p>The crypts so generally found beneath our cathedrals
+and abbeys, and so frequently under our churches,
+rarely extend beyond the choir or chancel and its
+aisles, and are sometimes of very small dimensions.
+They are often coeval with the upper parts of the building,
+and although not so elaborate in ornamentation
+as the fabric they support, they are almost without
+exception well constructed and well finished pieces of
+building. In some cases the crypt is of much older
+date than any portion of the superstructure, as is the
+case at York, Worcester and Rochester cathedrals.
+During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the roofs
+were often richly groined, and upheld by cylindrical
+columns or clustered piers, and furnished with handsome
+bases and decorated capitals. There is abundant evidence
+that crypts were at one time furnished with altars,
+piscinas, and the various fittings requisite for the celebration
+of the mass, and they were used as sepulchres,
+wherein the shrines of relics and martyrs were carefully
+preserved. Some authorities claim a purely Saxon
+origin for the crypts at Ripon Cathedral, Hexham Abbey,
+and Repton Church, Derbyshire. The Ripon example
+is a plain barrel-vaulted chamber, about 11 ft. long and
+8 ft. wide, with no pillars or ornament of any kind.
+It is popularly known as S. Wilfrid's Needle, but the exact
+origin of the name is lost in obscurity. The Hexham
+crypt is very similar in character, but is somewhat longer,
+being more than 13 ft. long and 8 ft. wide. As at Ripon,
+there are hollows or shallow niches in the walls in which
+lamps may possibly have been placed. The third reputed
+Saxon crypt is that at Repton, but it has little in common
+with the other two, its superficial area being nearly
+twice as great and the roof is supported on four columns,
+with plain square capitals rudely carved, and bearing
+much similarity to early Norman work.</p>
+
+<p>The position of the crypt varies. At Beverley Minster<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+it is on the south side of the south-west tower; in Hereford
+Cathedral it is under a side chapel, while at Lastingham,
+in Yorkshire, the crypt extends under the whole
+of the church, including the apse. At Wells the crypt
+is beneath the chapter-house, and Durham Cathedral
+has three crypts, one under what was the dormitory,
+another beneath the refectory, and the third under the
+prior's chapel. Of crypts of Norman date we have many
+examples, of which, perhaps, our best are those at
+Gloucester, Worcester, Canterbury and Winchester
+Cathedrals, while Canterbury is probably the largest
+of them all. Good crypts are also found at Wimborne
+Minster, Christchurch Priory, and in our smaller churches
+at Repton and S. Peter's-in-the-East, Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>The Wimborne crypt is lighted by four windows.
+The vaulting is supported by two pairs of pillars which
+form three aisles, each of three bays. Mr. Perkins, in
+his book on Wimborne Minster, says, "On each side of
+the place where the altar stood there are two openings
+into the choir aisles. The exteriors of these are of the
+same form and size as the crypt windows, but they
+are deeply splayed inside, and probably were used as
+hagioscopes or squints, to allow those kneeling in the
+choir aisles to see the priest celebrating mass at the
+crypt altar." The crypt at Christchurch is of Norman date,
+and now serves as a vault for the Malmesbury family.
+The crypt of Canterbury Cathedral is claimed and justly
+claimed, perhaps, as the largest and most beautiful in
+England. It is thought to contain fragments of Roman
+and Saxon work, and much of it dates from the days of
+S. Anselm (1096-1100). It was here that the remains
+of S. Thomas &agrave; Becket lay from 1170 to 1220, and "here
+that Henry II., fasting and discrowned, with naked feet,
+bared back, and streaming tears, performed on July
+12th, 1174, the memorable penance for his share in the
+murder of the great Archbishop."</p>
+
+<p>It was here too, in later times that the Walloons were
+granted, by Queen Elizabeth, the privilege of carrying on
+their silk-weaving, and it was also reserved as a place of
+worship for French Protestants.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII.</h4>
+
+<h3>HOW TO DESCRIBE AN OLD CHURCH.</h3>
+
+<p>Having carefully read the foregoing chapters, it
+should be possible for anyone interested in the
+subject to be able to write a fairly accurate
+description of any old church. The record should, if
+possible, be amplified with sketches or photographs.</p>
+
+<p>In course of time, decay, neglect and restoration will
+deprive our ancient buildings of every visible stone of
+original work which they possess, and careful records
+of this kind, written, photographed and sketched, may
+be of the highest possible value to future generations
+of historians and architects, long after the objects themselves
+have ceased to exist. The work in itself is of
+absorbing interest, and the more one studies these works
+of past ages the stronger becomes the conviction that
+our old buildings, whether cathedral, castle or simple
+village church, are the landmarks of the nation's history,
+and a priceless inheritance of beauty and art the conservation
+of which is the duty of all generations.</p>
+
+<p>The principal points to be noted are&mdash;1. The name of
+the church. 2. Its situation. 3. Its dedication. 4.
+General plan. 5. The style of architecture to which
+each portion belongs. 6. Any peculiarity of the architecture,
+blocked up windows, etc. 7. Any ancient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+furniture, screens, bench-ends, glass. 8. Any monuments,
+tablets, or mural paintings. 9. Church plate,
+bells, registers. 10. Any local traditions. The record
+should be made somewhat in the following manner.</p>
+
+<p>The church of&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;is prettily situated on rising
+ground some quarter of a mile north of the village, and
+on the main road to&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;. It is approached by a picturesque
+timber lych-gate, and consists of nave, aisles
+and chancel, having a side chapel to the north and a
+single transept to the south. At the west end is a Decorated
+tower and spire. There are two porches, one on
+the north side and the other on the west, which last
+has a niche for a figure over the doorway and seats on
+either side. The nave is Perpendicular, as is the greater
+part of the rest of the fabric. Above the nave rises
+a lofty and noble clerestory, divided from the aisles by
+five rather obtusely-pointed arches supported by richly
+moulded piers with small moulded capitals. Each
+bay of the clerestory contains two three-light windows of
+late Perpendicular date. The roof is flat pitched and is of
+oak, the principals are adorned with panelled tracery
+and show vestiges of ancient colour decoration. The
+windows of the aisles are late Decorated in style; they
+are of three lights, the traceries elegant and richly
+moulded. The east window is Perpendicular and is
+much sub-divided by mullions and transoms; in the
+upper portions are some heraldic coats of arms, which
+appear to have formed part of a much earlier window.
+The chancel is divided from the nave by a fine open
+oak screen, coeval with the larger part of the building.
+It is richly carved and gilded, and in the right-hand side
+of the chancel arch are the steps which formerly led up
+to the top of it. The chancel, together with its chapel,
+is vaulted in stone with well marked ribs and carved
+bosses. The transept, late Perpendicular, opens into
+the south side of the nave by a four-centred arch, and
+has a rich flat ceiling. In the chancel is a piscina of
+Early English date, together with a sedilia of the same
+period. On the north side of the chancel, resting on the
+floor, is a cross-legged effigy, in chain mail, surcoat, etc.,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+and bearing on his left arm a shield, but all much mutilated.
+There is a local tradition that it represents
+Sir&nbsp;<span class="nowrap">&mdash;&mdash;</span>, but there is no evidence by which he can be
+identified. Features of the church are the many highly
+carved bench ends, all in oak, representing a great variety
+of subjects, such as dragons, serpents, etc., while a few
+bear the arms of local families who probably bore the
+cost of the work. The pulpit is Jacobean, and has no
+special feature. The font, which stands in the centre of
+the nave, is square in form and is supported by a modern
+round plinth. It is constructed of marble, the four sides
+being carved in low relief with intersecting patterns. It
+is possibly of Norman date, and is the only existing
+feature of a much earlier church. The tower and spire
+are Decorated; the latter is of stone with four pinnacles
+at the base, and has a little coronal of pinnacles. The
+belfry windows are arranged in pairs on each side of
+the tower. The tower or western window is of five
+lights, richly Decorated in style.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+<a name="img49" id="img49"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="1" summary="diagram">
+<tr><td><div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/img122c.jpg" width="300" alt="Interior Elevation of a Bay of a Church." title="" />
+</div></td><td align="left"><p class="noindent"><small><b>Key to Diagram of the<br />
+Interior Elevation of a<br />
+Bay of a Church.</b><br />
+<br />
+<b>Clerestory.</b><br />
+26 Boss.<br />
+25 Vaulting Rib.<br />
+24 Vault.<br />
+23 Vaulting Rib.<br />
+22 Tracery of C. Window.<br />
+21 Clerestory Window.<br />
+20 Sill of Clerestory Window.<br />
+19 Base of Jamb, C. Arch.<br />
+18 Jamb of C. Arch.<br />
+17 Clerestory String.<br />
+<br />
+<b>Blind Storey (Triforium).</b><br />
+16 Capital of Vaulting Shaft.<br />
+15 Tracery of Triforium.<br />
+14 Triforium Arch.<br />
+13 Capital of T. Pier.<br />
+12 Pier of Triforium.<br />
+11 Triforium String.<br />
+<br />
+<b>Ground Storey.</b><br />
+10 Tracery of Aisle Window.<br />
+9 Aisle Window.<br />
+8 Sill of Aisle Window.<br />
+7 Wall Arcade.<br />
+6 Vaulting Shaft.<br />
+5 Corbel.<br />
+4 Pier Arch.<br />
+3 Capital of Pier.<br />
+2 Pier.<br />
+1 Base of Pier.<br /></small>
+</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="Appendix" id="Appendix"></a>APPENDIX.</h3>
+
+<div class="center">
+ <p class="noindent">A GLOSSARY OF THE PRINCIPAL TERMS USED<br />
+ IN ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="sm" style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="5" summary="Glossary">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ABACUS</td><td align="left">Derived from the Greek <i>Abax</i>&mdash;a tray or
+flat board, an essential feature of the Grecian and Roman orders, but now
+used to describe the slab forming theupper part of a column, pier, etc. </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ABBEY</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term for a union of ecclesiastical buildings,
+for the housing of those conventual bodies presided over by an abbot or
+abbess, supposed to be derived from the Hebrew <i>ab</i>, "father."</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ACANTHUS</td><td align="left" valign="top"> A plant, the leaves of which are
+represented in the capitals of the Corinthian orders.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">AISLE</td><td align="left" valign="top">French <i>aile</i>, a wing, the lateral division of a church.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ALMONRY</td><td align="left" valign="top">A room where alms were distributed.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ALTAR</td><td align="left" valign="top">An elevated table dedicated to the Sacrament of the Holy Eucharist,
+and usually called the Communion Table.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ALMERY, AUMERY,<br />
+and AUMBREY </td><td align="left" valign="top">A recess or small cupboard in the wall of a church, used to contain
+the chalices, patens, etc., for the use of the priest. They are sometimes near
+the <i>piscina</i>, but are usually on the opposite side of the chancel.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ANTE-CHAPEL</td><td align="left" valign="top">The outer part of a chapel.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">APSE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The semi-circular or polygonal recess at
+the east end of the choir or aisles of a church.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ARCADE </td><td align="left" valign="top">A series of arches, open or closed with
+masonry, and supported by columns or piers.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ARCH</td><td align="left" valign="top">A construction of bricks or stones so placed
+as by mutual pressure to support each
+other and a superincumbent weight.
+They may be semi-circular, segmental,
+elliptical, stilted, horse-shoe, pointed,
+trefoiled, cinquefoiled, or ogee<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ARCHITRAVE</td><td align="left" valign="top">In classical architecture, the lowest division
+of the entablature resting immediately
+on the abacus of the capital. In Gothic
+buildings the ornamental mouldings
+round the openings of doors, windows, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ARCHIVOLT</td><td align="left" valign="top">The under surface of the curve of an arch,
+from impost to impost.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ASHLAR</td><td align="left" valign="top">Shaped or squared stone used in building,
+as distinguished from that in the rough.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ASTRAGAL</td><td align="left" valign="top">A small semi-circular bead or moulding.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BALL FLOWER </td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornament resembling a ball in a circular
+flower with three enclosing petals. Dec.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BASE </td><td align="left" valign="top">The lower member of a column, pier, or wall.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BASILICA</td><td align="left" valign="top">A Roman law-court. Early Christian
+churches when built on the same lines
+were called by the same name.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BILLET</td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornament much used in Norman work
+and formed by cutting a moulding in
+notches, so that the remaining parts
+resembled wooden billets or pieces of
+stick.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BLIND STOREY</td><td align="left" valign="top">See Triforium.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BOSSES</td><td align="left" valign="top">Ornamental projections usually of foliage
+and placed at the intersection of the
+ribs of vaults, ceilings, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BRACES</td><td align="left" valign="top">Timbers which brace or support the main
+rafters. Also called <i>struts</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BROACH</td><td align="left" valign="top">A spire, generally octagonal and springing
+from the square top of the tower, without
+a parapet. (<i>See page <a href="#Page_105">105</a></i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BUTTRESS</td><td align="left" valign="top">A projection from a wall, giving it additional
+strength.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CANOPY</td><td align="left" valign="top">In Gothic architecture an ornamental hood
+or projection over doors, windows, niches,
+tombs, etc., and rarely found except in
+the Dec. and Perp. styles.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CAPITAL</td><td align="left" valign="top">The head of a column or pilaster, found in
+a great variety of shapes.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CATHEDRAL</td><td align="left" valign="top">A church presided over by a Bishop. The
+principal church of a diocese.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHALICE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The cup used for the wine at the celebration
+of the Eucharist.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHAMFER</td><td align="left" valign="top">The surface formed by cutting away the
+rectangular edge of wood or stone work.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHANCEL </td><td align="left" valign="top">The choir or eastern part of a church,
+appropriated to the use of those who
+officiate in the performance of the
+services.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHANTRY</td><td align="left" valign="top">A chapel often containing a tomb of the
+founder, and in which masses were said.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHAPEL</td><td align="left" valign="top">A small building attached to cathedrals and
+large churches.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHAPTER-HOUSE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The room where the Dean and Prebendaries
+meet for the transaction of
+business.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHEVRON</td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornament characteristic of the Norman
+period and divided into several equal
+portions chevron-wise or zig-zag.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHOIR</td><td align="left" valign="top">That part of a church to the east of the
+nave where the services are celebrated,
+also called chancel, and frequently
+separated from the nave by an open
+screen of stone or wood.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CINQUEFOIL</td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornamental foliation used in arches,
+tracery, etc., and composed of projecting
+points or cusps, so arranged that the
+opening resembles five leaves.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CLERESTORY</td><td align="left" valign="top">Possibly the <i>clear</i> storey. An upper storey
+standing above or clear of the adjacent
+roofs, and pierced by windows to give
+increased light.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CLOISTER</td><td align="left" valign="top">A covered walk or ambulatory forming
+part of a cathedral or college quadrangle.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CLUSTERED COLUMN</td><td align="left" valign="top">A pier made up of several columns or
+shafts in a cluster.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">COLONNADE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A row or rows of columns supporting a
+roof or building</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CORBEL</td><td align="left" valign="top">Usually a moulded or carved ornament
+projecting from the walls, acting as a
+bracket and capable of bearing a super-incumbent
+weight.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CORNICE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The horizontal termination of a building
+in the form of a moulded projection.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">COURSE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A continuous and regular line of stones or
+bricks in the wall of a building.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CROCKETS</td><td align="left" valign="top">Projecting ornaments in the form of leaves,
+flowers, etc., used to embellish the angles
+of pinnacles, spires, gables, canopies, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CROSS</td><td align="left" valign="top">The accepted symbol of the Christian religion
+and an architectural church ornament
+usually placed upon the apex of
+the gable. A large cross called a rood
+was at one time always placed over the
+entrance to the chancel. The cross was
+worn as a personal ornament ages before
+the Christian era by the Assyrians, and
+we are told that the Druids also used this
+symbol in very early times.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CRYPT</td><td align="left" valign="top">Sometimes called the Undercroft, a vaulted
+chamber, usually underground and in,
+churches, rarely extending beyond the
+area of the choir or chancel, and often of
+less dimensions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CUSPS</td><td align="left" valign="top">Projecting points giving the foliated appearance
+to tracery, arches, panels, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">DORMER </td><td align="left" valign="top">A gabled window pierced through a sloping
+roof.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">DRIPSTONE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A projecting ledge or narrow moulding
+over the heads of doorways, windows,
+etc., to carry off the rain.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">FAN-TRACERY </td><td align="left" valign="top">Tracery in which the ribs form a fan-like
+appearance and diverge equally in every
+direction. (Peculiar to the late Perp.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">FLAMBOYANT</td><td align="left" valign="top">Tracery whereof the curves assume flame-like
+waves and shapes.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">FLYING BUTTRESS</td><td align="left" valign="top">A buttress in the form of a bridge, usually
+transferring the thrust of the main roof
+from the clerestory walls to the main or
+aisle buttresses</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">FONT</td><td align="left" valign="top">The vessel for holding the consecrated
+water used in baptism.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">GARGOYLE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A projecting spout usually grotesquely
+carved and used to throw the water from
+the roof well away from the building.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">GROIN</td><td align="left" valign="top">The line of intersection in vaulted roofs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">IMPOST</td><td align="left" valign="top">Horizontal mouldings, capping a column or
+pier, from which the arch springs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">JAMB</td><td align="left" valign="top">The side of a window or door.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">KEYSTONE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The central stone at the top of an arch.
+The bosses in vaulted ceilings are frequently
+called keys.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">LADY CHAPEL</td><td align="left" valign="top">A chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin
+Mary, called "Our Lady."</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">LANTERN</td><td align="left" valign="top">A small structure or erection surmounting
+a dome or tower to admit light. These
+towers are known as Lantern Towers.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">LOZENGE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A name given in modern times to Norman
+mouldings which partake of a lozenge
+formation.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">LYCH-GATE </td><td align="left" valign="top">From the Anglo-Saxon <i>lich</i>, a corpse. A
+small and often picturesque shelter at
+the entrance to a churchyard.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MINSTER</td><td align="left" valign="top">The church usually of a monastery or abbey
+or one to which such has been an appendant.
+York and Beverley, however, are
+exceptions to this rule.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MISERERE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A small bracket on the undersides of the
+seats of stalls.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MOULDING</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term generally applied to the contours
+given to angle projections or hollows of
+arches, doors, windows, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MULLION</td><td align="left" valign="top">The dividing bars of stone or wood between
+the lights of windows, or the openings of
+screens.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">M&Uuml;NSTER (MONASTERY)</td><td align="left" valign="top">has now lost its
+simple application.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">NAVE</td><td align="left" valign="top">From <i>navis</i>, a ship, the main body of a
+church west of the chancel.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">NICHE</td><td align="left" valign="top">An alcove or recess in a wall for holding
+a statue or ornament.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">OGEE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A moulding or arch formed of a curve or
+curves somewhat like the letter S, the
+curve of contra-flexure, part being concave
+and part convex.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ORDERS</td><td align="left" valign="top">In Gothic architecture, the receding mouldings
+of an arch.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PARCLOSE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The screen or railings protecting a monument
+or chantry.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PARVISE</td><td align="left" valign="top">An open space or porch at the entrance to
+a church, and often wrongly applied to
+the room over a church porch.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PATEN</td><td align="left" valign="top">The small plate or salver used to hold the
+Consecrated Bread in the celebration of
+the Eucharist.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PENDANT</td><td align="left" valign="top">Ornaments which hang or <i>depend</i> from a
+ceiling or roof.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PENTHOUSE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A covering projecting over a door, window,
+etc., as a protection from the weather.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PIER</td><td align="left" valign="top">The masses or clusters of masonry between
+doors, windows, etc.; the supports from
+which arches spring.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PILLAR</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term frequently confounded with column,
+but differing from it in not being subservient
+to the rules of classical architecture,
+and in not of necessity consisting of a
+single circular shaft.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PINNACLE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A small turreted ornament tapering
+towards the top, and used as a termination
+to many parts of Gothic architecture.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PISCINA</td><td align="left" valign="top">The stone basin or sink in the chancel used
+for cleansing the communion vessels.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PLINTH</td><td align="left" valign="top">The lower division of the base of a column,
+pier or wall.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">POPPY-HEAD</td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornament boldly carved on the tops of
+bench ends, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PRESBYTERY</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term sometimes used to include the
+whole of the choir, but more often
+meant to refer to the eastern end of the
+choir from which it is generally raised
+by several steps.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">QUARRIES or QUARRELS</td><td align="left" valign="top">The small diamond, square or other
+shaped panes used in plain glazing.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">QUATREFOIL</td><td align="left" valign="top">The shape resembling four leaves formed
+in tracery or panels by cusps.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">QUOIN</td><td align="left" valign="top">The external angle of a building, generally
+of ashlar.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">REREDOS</td><td align="left" valign="top">The wall or screen at the back of an altar,
+often enriched with carving, niches,
+statues, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ROOD-BEAM or<br />
+ROOD-LOFT </td><td align="left" valign="top">The loft or beam which, previous to the
+Reformation, supported the Great Rood,
+or Crucifix.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ROSE WINDOW</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term often used to denote a circular
+window of several lights.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ROTUNDA</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term used to describe a church or other
+building which is of circular formation
+both within and without.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SACRISTRY</td><td align="left" valign="top">A room used in churches for storing the
+plate and valuables.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SANCTUARY</td><td align="left" valign="top">See Presbytery.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SEDILIA </td><td align="left" valign="top">A seat or seats, generally canopied and
+situated on the south side of the chancel
+and used in pre-Reformation days by
+the officiating clergy during the pauses
+in the mass.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SHAFT</td><td align="left" valign="top">The part of a column or pillar between the
+capital and the base.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SHRINE</td><td align="left" valign="top">Often called the feretory. The place where
+relics were deposited.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SOFFIT</td><td align="left" valign="top">The word means literally a ceiling, but is
+generally used to describe the flat under-surface
+of arches, cornices, stairways, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SPANDRELS</td><td align="left" valign="top">The spaces between the arch of a doorway
+or window and the rectangular mouldings
+over it. Early tracery originated from
+the piercing of the spandrels of windows.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SPIRE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The acutely pointed termination of towers,
+etc., originating by the elongation of
+the early pyramidal roofs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SPLAY</td><td align="left" valign="top">The slanting or sloped surface of a window
+opening in the thickness of the wall,
+also of doorways, etc.; the term is also
+applied to bevels and other sloped
+surfaces.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SPRINGER</td><td align="left" valign="top">See Voussoir.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SQUINT</td><td align="left" valign="top">An oblique opening or slit in the wall of
+a church, for the purpose of enabling
+persons in the aisles or transepts to see
+the elevation of the Host at the High
+Altar. They are mostly found on the
+sides of the chancel arch, and are frequently
+called <i>hagioscopes</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">STOUP</td><td align="left" valign="top">A vessel for consecrated water, at or near
+the entrance to a church.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">STRING or<br />
+STRING COURSE.</td><td align="left" valign="top">A horizontal projecting band
+of stone in the wall of a building.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">STRUT</td><td align="left" valign="top">See Brace.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TOOTH&nbsp;ORNAMENT</td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornament used almost exclusively in
+the E.E. style, resembling a square four-leaved
+flower, and thought to be based
+on the dog-tooth violet.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TRANSOM</td><td align="left" valign="top">A horizontal cross-bar in a panel or window.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TRACERY</td><td align="left" valign="top">The ornamental stonework in the upper
+part of a window; when formed by the
+mullions it is called bar tracery and when
+the spandrel is pierced, plate tracery.
+Also used largely on tombs, screens,
+doorways, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TRANSEPTS</td><td align="left" valign="top">The projecting arms of a cruciform church,
+often wrongly called "cross-aisles."</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TRANSITION</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term used to describe the process of
+change from one style of architecture to
+another. The three great periods of
+transition are from the Romanesque and
+Norman to the Early English; the
+Early English to the Decorated, and the
+Decorated to the Perpendicular.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TREFOIL</td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornamental foliation in the heads of
+windows, panels, etc., in which the
+spaces formed by the cusps resemble
+three leaves.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TRIFORIUM</td><td align="left" valign="top">or Blind-Storey. An open gallery
+arcade without windows immediately
+above the pier arcade and under the
+roof of the aisle.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TYMPANUM</td><td align="left" valign="top">The space between the top of a square-headed
+door and the arch above it;
+frequently sculptured.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">VAULT</td><td align="left" valign="top">Roofing of stone constructed on the principle
+of the arch, the intersections of
+which are termed groins and are in the
+pointed styles usually ribbed.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">VAULTING SHAFTS</td><td align="left" valign="top">Small shafts sometimes rising from the
+floor, sometimes from the capital of a
+pillar and sometimes from a corbel, and
+intended as supports for the ribs of a
+vault.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">VESICA PISCIS</td><td align="left" valign="top">An oval shape or figure formed by two
+equal circles cutting each other in their
+centres. Very commonly found on
+episcopal and monastic seals.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">VOUSSOIR</td><td align="left" valign="top">The wedge-shaped stones forming an arch,
+the centre one of which is the <i>keystone</i>
+and those at the impost or starting point
+of the curve are the <i>springers</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ZIG-ZAG</td><td align="left" valign="top">See Chevron.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3><a name="Biblio" id="Biblio"></a>A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH<br />
+ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></h3>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="2" summary="Bibliography">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Adeline, J.</td><td align="left">Art Dictionary of Terms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bland, W.</td><td align="left">Arches, Piers, Buttresses, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Blomfield, R.</td><td align="left">Short History of Renaissance Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bond, Francis</td><td align="left">English Cathedrals Illustrated.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bond, Francis </td><td align="left">Gothic Architecture in England.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bonney, T. G.</td><td align="left">Cathedrals, Abbeys, and Churches of<br />
+England and Wales.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Carter, J.</td><td align="left">The Ancient Architecture of England.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Colling, J. K.</td><td align="left">Details of Gothic Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Corroyer, E.</td><td align="left">Gothic Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Cram, R. Adams&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Church Building.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Davidson, E. A.</td><td align="left">Gothic Stonework.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fergusson, J.</td><td align="left">Handbook of Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fergusson, J.</td><td align="left">History of Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fairbairns, A.</td><td align="left">Portfolio of English Cathedrals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Garbett, E. L.</td><td align="left">Principles of Design in Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Markland, J. H.</td><td align="left">Remarks on Churches.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Moore, C. H.</td><td align="left">Development and Character of Gothic<br />
+Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Paley, F. A.</td><td align="left">Manual of Gothic Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Paley, F. A.</td><td align="left">Manual of Gothic Mouldings.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Parker, J. H.</td><td align="left">A.B.C. of Gothic Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Parker, J. H.</td><td align="left">Concise Glossary of Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Parker, J. H.</td><td align="left">Introduction to the Study of Gothic<br />
+Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Perkins, Rev. T.</td><td align="left">Handbook of Gothic Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Prior, Ed. S.</td><td align="left">History of Gothic Art.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Pugin, A. W.</td><td align="left">Treatise on Chancel Screens and Rood Lofts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rickman, Thos.</td><td align="left">Gothic Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rickman, Thos.</td><td align="left">Attempts to discriminate the Styles<br />
+of Architecture in England.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sharpe, Edmund</td><td align="left">The Seven Periods of English Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sharpe, Edmund</td><td align="left">Treatise on the Rise and Progress of Window<br />
+Tracery.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Scott, G.</td><td align="left">History of Church Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ruskin, John</td><td align="left">Seven Lamps of Architecture</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ruskin, John</td><td align="left">Stones of Venice.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ruskin, John </td><td align="left">Poetry of Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ruskin, John</td><td align="left">Lectures on Architecture</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wall, J. C.</td><td align="left">Shrines of British Saints.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winkle</td><td align="left">British Cathedrals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson, S.</td><td align="left">Romance of our Ancient Churches.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="left"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left">Bell's Cathedral Series.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left">"The Builder" Portfolio of English Cathedrals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left">Murray's Handbooks to the Cathedrals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left">S.P.C.K. Illustrated Notes on English Church History.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Swan, Sonnenschein &amp; Co. Notes on the Cathedrals.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"Our English Minsters." Edited by Dean Farrar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left"></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>This bibliography does not claim to be complete, but is a selection
+of the various books on the subject which should be studied by
+the student.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2><a name="Index" id="Index"></a>Index</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="sm" style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="2" summary="Index">
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>A</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">All Souls' College, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Altars,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Alveston Church, Warwickshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Amiens Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Anne, Queen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Apse, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Arches&mdash;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Saxon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ashchurch, Gloucestershire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>B</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Baptistery, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Barfreston Church, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Barnack Church, Northants</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Barnstaple, Devon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Barnwell,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Barry, Sir C.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Basilica, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bayeux Tapestry,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beaulieu, Hants,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beckett's Crown, Canterbury,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bede (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bells and Belfries,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bench Ends,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bertha, Queen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beverley Minster,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Billesley Church, Warwickshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bishopstone, Sussex,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bloxham Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Boston, Lincs,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bovey Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bradford-on-Avon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brewer, J. W. (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brighton Pavilion,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brigstock Church, Northants,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bristol Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">British Churches, Early,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brixworth Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Broadmayne Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bruton, Som.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Burne-Jones, Sir E.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bury St. Edmunds,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Buttresses&mdash;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Byzantium,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>C</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Canterbury Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
+<a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Capitals&mdash;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Caradoc, King,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Carlisle Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Charles II.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Charlton-on-Otmoor,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Charlton Church, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chartres Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chetwode, Bucks,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chichester Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chipping Norton, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Christchurch Priory,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Christ Church, Spitalfields,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chudleigh Church, Devon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Church Furniture and Ornaments,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cirencester Church, Glos.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Classic Reverse, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Clerkenwell,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Collumpton, Devon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Compton Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Constantine, Emperor,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Constantinople,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cranley, Surrey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Crawden's Chapel,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Croyland Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Crypts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Curfew,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>D</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Decorated Style, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Doisnel, Juliana,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dolton Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Doorways&mdash;</td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Saxon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dorchester Church, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dore Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dunstable,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dunster Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Durham Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
+<a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>E</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Earl's Barton Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Early English Style, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">East Dereham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Edburton Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Edington Church, Wilts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Edington, Bp. William,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Edmund, Archbp. of Cant.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Edward I.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Edward III.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Elizabeth, Queen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Eltham Palace,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ely Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ely Chapel,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ethelbert, King of Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Euston, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Evesham Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Exeter Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>F</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fairford Church, Glos.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fan Vaulting,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fergusson, Dr. (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flying Buttresses,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fonts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fordington S. George, Dorchester,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fotheringay Church, Northants,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fountains Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fuller, Thos. (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Furness Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Furniture, Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>G</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glass, Stained,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glastonbury Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glossary,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gloucester Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
+<a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gothic Architecture,
+<br />Leading Characteristics,</td><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gothic Styles, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Grantham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Greenstead Church, Essex,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Grosmont, Monmouth,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>H</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hackness,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hanwell, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hartland Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hawkesmore,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Heckington,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Heigham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Henry I.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Henry II.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Henry III.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hereford Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hexham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hutchinson, Rev. J. M. (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>I</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Iffley Church, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>J</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Jenkyns, Canon (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">John, King,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Jones, Inigo,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>K</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Kemsing, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Kenton Church, Devon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">King's College Chapel, Cambridge,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">King's Sutton,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Knights Hospitallers,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Knights Templars,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>L</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lady Chapel, Exeter,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Langham Place,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lastingham Church, York,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Laud, Archbishop,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ledbury, Hereford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Leighton Buzzard,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lichfield, Abbot,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lichfield, Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lincoln Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,
+<a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Little Billing,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Little Maplestead,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Llanrhaiadr-y-Kinmerch,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Luidhard, Bishop,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Long Melford Church, Suffolk,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Long Sutton,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Luton Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lyminge,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>M</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Magdalen College, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Malmesbury (family),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Manchester Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Markland (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mary, Queen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Marylebone Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Melbury Bubb,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Merton College, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Minehead,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Morley Church, Derbyshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Morris, William,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Morton Church, Soms.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mouldings&mdash;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>N</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Newark, Notts.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">New College, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Norbury, Derbyshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Norman Architecture,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Norwich Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>O</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ornaments&mdash;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ornaments, Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Oxford Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>P</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Palladio,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Parham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Parker (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Parliament, Houses of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Patrixbourne Church, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Perkins, Rev. T. (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Perpendicular Styles,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Perpendicular Towers,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Perpendicular Spires,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Peterborough Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Philippa, Queen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Piscinas,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Piers&mdash;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Plymtree,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pointed Arch, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Porches,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Porlock Church, Somerset,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pugin,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pulpits,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pyecombe,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pylle Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>R</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Radipole Church, Dorset,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ravenna,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Reculver,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Reform Club,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Renaissance, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Repton Church, Derby,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Reredos, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Richard I.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Richborough,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rickman (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ripon Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rievaulx,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rochester Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rolvenden Church, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Romanesque Style, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rome,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ross,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rotherham Church, Yorks.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rothwell Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Round Churches, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Routledge, Rev. C. F., M.A., F.S.A.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>S</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saffron Walden,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Alban's Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Andrew's, Norwich,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Anselm,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Augustine,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Benet's, Cambridge,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Clement's, Norfolk,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Cross, Winchester,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint David's, Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Dunstan,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Edmundsbury,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Edmund, Martyr,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Etheldreda,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Ethelwold,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Giles', Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Hilda,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Margaret's, Westminster,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mark's, Venice,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary Abchurch,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary Magdalene, Ripon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary Redcliffe, Bristol,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Cambridge,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Dover,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Lincoln,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Luton,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Newark,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Norwich,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Ottery,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Stamford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Taunton,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Wareham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Woolnoth,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, York,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Martin's, Canterbury,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Martin's, Wareham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Michael's, Coventry,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Michael's, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Nicholas, Lynn,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Nicholas, Newcastle,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Nicholas, Yarmouth,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Paul the Apostle,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Paul's Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Paul's Churchyard,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Patrick,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Peter Port, Guernsey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Peter's in the East, Oxford</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Peter's, Lincoln,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Peter's, Norwich,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Peter's, Rome,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Pierre, Caen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Piran's, Perranporth,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Saviour's, Dartmouth,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Saviour's, Southwark,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Sepulchre, Cambridge,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Sepulchre, Northampton,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Sophia, Constantinople,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Stephen's, Bristol,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Stephen's Chapel, Westminster,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Stephen's, Walbrook,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Thomas &agrave; Becket,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Wilfrid's Needle,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Wolfstan,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Salisbury Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,
+<a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sanctuary Knockers,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saxon Architecture,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saxon Churches,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scott (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Screens,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sedilia,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shottesbrook Church, Berks,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shrewsbury,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Silchester,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Snettisham, Norfolk,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Solihull, Warwickshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sompting, Sussex,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Southwell,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Southwold Church, Suffolk,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Speyer Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Spires,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Squints,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stalls,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stanford, Leicester,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stone Church, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stoups,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>T</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Temple Balsall,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Temple Church, London,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tenby,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tewkesbury Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Thaxted Church, Essex,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Thornham Church, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Towers,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Transom, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Trinity Church, Ely,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tympana,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>U</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Uffendon, Devon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>V</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vitruvius,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>W</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wakefield Church, Yorkshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Walpole, Horace,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wansted, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wantsume,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Warmington, Warwickshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wells Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">West Horsley, Surrey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Westminster Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>,
+<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Westminster Hall,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Westminster, Henry's VII.'s Chapel,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>,
+<a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Westwell, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wilford Church, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">William the Conqueror,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wimborne Minster,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wimmington Church, Bedfordshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Winchester Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><a href="#Page_72">72</a>,
+<a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Winchester College,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Windows&mdash;</td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Saxon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wing,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wootton Wawen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Worcester Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Worms Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wren, Sir Christopher,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wrexham Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wroxhall Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wykeham, William of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wymondham Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Y</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">York Minster,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>,
+<a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>THE HOMELAND HANDBOOKS</h3>
+
+<h4>Copiously Illustrated and provided<br />
+with Ordnance Maps and Plans.</h4>
+<div class="center">
+<table class="sm" style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="ad">
+<tr><td colspan="4" align="left">JANUARY, 1907.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">No.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Cloth.</td><td align="right">Paper.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">1</td><td align="left"><b>Tonbridge for the Angler, the Holiday-maker, and the Resident.</b><br />
+By Stanley Martin and Prescott Row</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">2</td><td align="left"><b>Tunbridge Wells of To-Day.</b>By Stanley Martin and Prescott Row.<br />
+Ordnance Map and Plans. Second Edition;</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">3</td><td align="left"><b>"London Town."</b> By Eric Hammond<br />
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">4</td><td align="left"><b>"Lyonesse": The Isles of Scilly.</b> By J. C. Tonkin and Prescott<br />
+Row. Fourth Edition. Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">5</td><td align="left"><b>"Wolfe-Land": The Westerham District, Kent.</b> By Gibson<br />
+Thompson. Third Edition. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">6</td><td align="left"><b>"Kent's Capital": Maidstone.</b> By Stanley Martin and Prescott<br />
+Row. Second Edition. With Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">7</td><td align="left"><b>Croydon, New and Old.</b> By Edward A. Martin, F.G.S., and J. E.<br />
+Morris, B.A. Third Edition. With Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">8</td><td align="left"><b>Dartmoor and Its Surroundings.</b> By Beatrix F. Cresswell. Edited<br />
+by William Crossing. Fourth Edition. Ordnance Maps</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">9</td><td align="left"><b>Rochester and Chatham with Pen and Camera.</b> By A. G. Munro,<br />
+B.A. Second Edition. With Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">10</td><td align="left"><b>Reigate and Redhill.</b> By T. F. W. Hamilton and W. Hodgson.<br />
+Second Edition. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">11</td><td align="left"><b>"Surrey's Capital": Guildford and District.</b> By J. E. Morris, B.A.<br />
+Third Edition. With Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">12</td><td align="left"><b>Dulverton and District: The Country of the Wild Red Deer.</b> By F. J.<br />
+Snell, B.A. Second Edition. Cloth Edition contains Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">13</td><td align="left"><b>Farnham and Its Surroundings.</b> By Gordon Home. With Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">14</td><td align="left"><b>Godalming and its Surroundings.</b> Edited by Prescott Row. Second<br />
+Edition. With Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">15</td><td align="left"><b>Teignmouth and its Surroundings.</b> By Beatrix F. Cresswell. Second<br />
+Edition. With Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">16</td><td align="left"><b>Hastings and St. Leonards.</b> By W. H. Sanders. With Plan
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">17</td><td align="left"><b>Epsom and Its Surroundings.</b> By Gordon Home. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>9d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">18</td><td align="left"><b>Minehead, Porlock, and Dunster: The Sea-board of Exmoor.</b> By<br />
+C. E. Larter. Second Edition. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">19</td><td align="left"><b>Cranbrook: The Town of the Kentish Weald.</b> By Stanley Martin.<br />
+Second Edition. With Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">20</td><td align="left"><b>Dawlish, and the Estuary of the Exe.</b> By Beatrix F. Cresswell.<br />
+Cloth Edition contains Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">21</td><td align="left"><b>St. Albans: Its Abbey and Its Surroundings.</b> By C. H. Ashdown,<br />
+F.R.G.S., F.C.S. With Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">22</td><td align="left"><b>Bromley, Beckenham, and Chislehurst.</b> By George Clinch, F.G.S.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">23</td><td align="left"><b>Exeter and Its Cathedral.</b> By Beatrix F. Cresswell. With Plan<br />
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">24</td><td align="left"><b>Kingston-upon-Thames and Surbiton.</b> By Dr. W. E. St. L. Finny<br />
+With Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">25</td><td align="left"><b>Evesham and its Neighbourhood, Including Broadway.</b> By William<br />
+Smith. With Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">26</td><td align="left"><b>Petworth and Mid West Sussex.</b> By L. C. Barnes. With Map.<br />
+(Cloth only)</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>&mdash;</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">27</td><td align="left"><b>Newquay, the Vale of Lanherne, and Perranzabuloe.</b> By Fannie<br />
+Goddard. Second Edition. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">28</td><td align="left"><b>Haslemere and Hindhead with their Surroundings.</b> By J. E. Morris,<br />
+B.A. Second Edition. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">29</td><td align="left"><b>Taunton and Taunton Deane.</b> By Beatrix F. Cresswell.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">30</td><td align="left"><b>Littlehampton, Arundel, and Amberley.</b> By Rev. W. Goodliffe,<br />
+.A. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">31</td><td align="left"><b>"The Western Gate of Dartmoor": Tavistock and the District.</b><br />
+By William Crossing. With Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">32</td><td align="left"><b>Plymouth: "The Metropolis of the West."</b> By W. H. K. Wright.<br />
+With Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">33</td><td align="left"><b>The Chalfont Country (South Bucks).</b> By S. Graveson.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">34</td><td align="left"><b>Dunstable, the Downs, and the District.</b> By. G. Worthington<br />
+Smith, F.L.S., etc. With Maps</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">35</td><td align="left"><b>The Quantock Hills, their Combes and Villages.</b> By Beatrix F.<br />
+Cresswell. Ordnance Map. (Cloth only)</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>&mdash;</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">36</td><td align="left"><b>Oxted, Limpsfield, and Edenbridge.</b> By Gordon Home.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">37</td><td align="left"><b>Lynton, Lynmouth, and the Lorna Doone Country.</b> By J. E. Morris,<br />
+B.A. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">38</td><td align="left"><b>Horsham and its Surroundings.</b> By Rev. W. Goodliffe, M.A.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">39</td><td align="left"><b>Seaford and Newhaven.</b> By Geo. Day. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">40</td><td align="left"><b>The Great Ouse. Huntingdon, St. Neots, and St Ives.</b> By H. L.<br />
+Jackson, M.A., and G. R. Holt Shafto. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">41</td><td align="left"><b>King's Lynn with Its Surroundings, including Sandringham.</b><br />
+By W. A. Dutt. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">42</td><td align="left"><b>Woking and Ripley with their Surroundings.</b> By A. H. Anderson.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">43</td><td align="left"><b>Hertford and Its Surroundings.</b> By W. Graveson. Ordnance Map.
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">44</td><td align="left"><b>Dorking and Leatherhead.</b> By Joseph E. Morris, M.A.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">45</td><td align="left"><b>Waltham and Cheshunt.</b> By Freeman Bunting. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">46</td><td align="left"><b>Dorchester with its Surroundings.</b> By F. W. and Sidney Heath.<br />
+with a Foreword by Thomas Hardy. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">47</td><td align="left"><b>Luton Church.</b> By Constance Isherwood. With Plan
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">48</td><td align="left"><b>Reading and its Surroundings.</b> By A. H. Anderson. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">49</td><td align="left"><b>Sutton and its Surroundings.</b> By F. Richards. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">50</td><td align="left"><b>Watford and its Surroundings.</b> By Walter Moore. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">51</td><td align="left"><b>Yeovil and its Surroundings.</b> By Frank Heath. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">52</td><td align="left"><b>Aylesbury and its Surroundings.</b> By Walter Moore. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">53</td><td align="left"><b>Gravesend and Its Surroundings.</b>  By A. J. Philip.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">54</td><td align="left"><b>High Wycombe and Its Surroundings.</b> By Henry Harbour
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>&mdash;</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>&mdash;</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">55</td><td align="left"><b>Our Homeland Churches, and How to Study Them.</b> By Sidney Heath
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>&mdash;</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="4">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4"><b>Handbooks for many other Towns and Districts are in active preparation.</b></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30290 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
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+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #30290 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/30290)
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Our Homeland Churches and How to Study Them,
+by Sidney Heath, Illustrated by Sidney Heath and Ethel M. Heath
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Our Homeland Churches and How to Study Them
+
+
+Author: Sidney Heath
+
+
+
+Release Date: October 19, 2009  [eBook #30290]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES AND HOW TO
+STUDY THEM***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Delphine Lettau, Joseph E. Loewenstein, M.D., Paul
+Dring, and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+(http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the numerous original illustrations.
+      See 30290-h.htm or 30290-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30290/30290-h/30290-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30290/30290-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+_The Homeland Handbooks_--No. 55.
+
+OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES AND HOW TO STUDY THEM.
+
+by
+
+SIDNEY HEATH
+(Author of "Some Dorset Manor Houses," etc.)
+
+Illustrated by the Author and Ethel M. Heath
+
+And by Photographs.
+
+Published under the General Editorship
+of Prescott Row and Arthur Henry Anderson,
+by the Homeland Association for the
+Encouragement of Touring in Great Britain.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: The Foundations of a Romano-British Church.
+  Uncovered at Silchester. _Photograph S. Victor White & Co._]
+
+
+
+London:
+The Homeland Association Ltd.,
+22, Bride Lane, Fleet Street, E.C.
+
+First Edition.
+1907.
+
+
+
+
+EDITORIAL NOTE.
+
+
+With a view to making future Editions of this Handbook as accurate and
+comprehensive as possible, suggestions for its improvement are cordially
+invited. If sent to THE EDITORS, The Homeland Association, Association
+House, 22, Bride Lane, Fleet Street, E.C., they will be gratefully
+acknowledged.
+
+
+COPYRIGHT.
+
+This Book as a whole, with its contents, both Literary and Pictorial, is
+Copyrighted in Great Britain.
+
+
+ADVERTISING.
+
+LOCAL.--Terms for Advertising in future issues of this Handbook
+    will be forwarded on application to the General Manager of the
+    Homeland Association, at the above address.
+
+GENERAL.--Contracts for the insertion of Advertisements through
+    the whole series of Homeland Handbooks, more than fifty volumes,
+    circulating through the country, can be arranged on application to
+    the General Manager.
+
+
+
+
+ _CONTENTS._
+
+
+ _Author's Preface_                                7
+ _Dedication_                                      8
+ _Introduction_                                    9
+
+    _I.--Early British Churches_                  19
+   _II.--Early Church Architecture_               26
+  _III.--The Saxon and Norman Styles_             31
+   _IV.--The Early English Style_                 47
+    _V.--The Decorated Style_                     57
+   _VI.--The Perpendicular Style_                 64
+  _VII.--The Renaissance and Later_               74
+ _VIII.--Church Furniture and Ornaments_          80
+   _IX.--Bells and Belfries_                      95
+    _X.--The Spire: Its Origin and Development_   99
+   _XI.--Stained Glass_                          104
+  _XII.--Crypts_                                 109
+ _XIII.--How to describe an Old Church_          111
+
+ _Appendix--A Glossary of the Principal Terms
+  used in Ecclesiastical Architecture_           115
+ _Bibliography_                                  123
+ _Index_                                         124
+
+
+
+
+_LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS._
+
+PLATES.
+
+ 1 _Foundations of a Romano-British Church_               _Frontispiece_
+ 2 _The Church of St. Margaret, Lynn_                                52
+ 3 _A Fine Perpendicular Tower, St. Mary, Taunton_                   72
+ 4 _Sedilia and Chantry, Luton_                                      88
+       *       *       *       *       *
+   _The Various Forms of Arches_                                     10
+   _Plan of a Typical Gothic Cruciform Parish Church, Luton_         12
+   _Examples of Gothic Windows_                                      15
+   _Examples of Buttresses_                                          17
+   _A Rood Screen, with a Restoration of the Rood_                   20
+   _The Church of S. Martin, Canterbury_                             22
+   _Window Built with Roman Brick, Swanscombe_                       24
+   _A Reputed Saxon Doorway, Bishopstone_                            30
+   _Tower of Earls' Barton Church_                                   33
+   _An Example of Norman Tower, Bishopstone_                         34
+   _A Norman Pier Arcade, Abbots Langley_                            36
+   _Examples of Norman Mouldings_                                    37
+   _A Late Norman Parish Church, Castle Rising_                      38
+   _West Doorway, Rochester Cathedral_                               40
+   _Tympanum of Norman Doorway, Fordington St. George_               41
+   _Examples of Norman Capitals_                                     42
+   _A Curious Norman Capital, Seaford_                               43
+   _Norman and Early English Doorways, Dunstable Priory Church_      45
+   _Windows, Showing the Origin of Tracery_                          47
+   _An Early English Arch, Rochester Cathedral_                      48
+   _Wall Arcading, Showing Junction of Norman and Early English
+      Masonry, Dunstable Priory Church_                              50
+   _An Early English Doorway, Huntingdon_                            51
+   _A Group of Thirteenth Century Lancet Windows, Ockham_            53
+   _Salisbury Cathedral_                                             55
+   _Examples of Early English Capitals and Ornament_                 56
+   _A Late Decorated Window in a Parish Church, East Sutton_         59
+   _Examples of Decorated Ornament_                                  61
+   _Examples of Perpendicular Ornament_                              64
+   _Early Perpendicular Parish Church, Yeovil_                       65
+   _A Fine Parish Church, Showing Rich Perpendicular Work,
+      Terrington St. Clement, Norfolk_                               67
+   _A Perpendicular Doorway, Merton College_                         68
+   _A Perpendicular Porch, King's Lynn_                              71
+   _An English Renaissance Church, S. Stephen, Walbrook_             78
+   _A Typical Cornish Font_                                          80
+   _The Sanctuary Knocker, Durham Cathedral_                         82
+   _The Baptistery in Luton Church_                                  83
+   _An Example of a Leaden Font of the Late Norman Period_           85
+   _A Reputed Saxon Font, Shaldon_                                   86
+   _A Detached Holy-Water Stoup of Unusual Design_                   87
+   _A Typical Somerset Bench-End, Spaxton_                           89
+   _A Richly-Carved Pulpit and Canopy, Edlesborough_                 91
+   _Screen with Rood Loft, Kenton_                                   93
+   _The Carved Oak Balustrade in Compton Church_                     94
+   _Bell Turret for Three Bells, Radipole_                           98
+   _The Best Example of a Saxon Spire or Pyramidal Roof, Sompting_  100
+   _Leighton Buzzard Church, with Early English Tower and Spire_    102
+   _A Parish Church with a Shingle Broach Spire, Edenbridge_        105
+   _Interior Elevation of a Bay of a Church_                        114
+
+
+
+
+_STYLES OF ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE._
+
+
+The following periods of architectural style may be of use for the
+purpose of reference, but it must be borne in mind that they are more or
+less approximate, as each style merged by slow degrees into the next.
+
+
+ _Norman._--William I. to Stephen. 1066-1154.
+ _Transition Norman._--Henry II. 1154-1189.
+ _Early English Gothic._--Richard I. to Henry III. 1189-1272
+ _Decorated._--Edward I., II., III. 1272-1377.
+ _Perpendicular._--Richard II. to Henry VII. 1377-1485.
+ _Tudor._--Henry VIII. to Elizabeth. 1485-1600.
+
+
+Mr. Edmund Sharpe gives seven periods of English architecture up to the
+time of the Reformation, and dates them as follows:--
+
+
+ _ROMANESQUE._
+
+   I. _Saxon_              from ---- to 1066
+  II. _Norman_               "  1066  " 1145       79 years
+ III. _Transitional_         "  1145  " 1190       45   "
+
+
+ _GOTHIC._
+
+  IV. _Lancet_             from 1190 to 1245       55 years
+   V. _Geometrical_          "  1245  " 1315       70   "
+  VI. _Curvilinear_          "  1315  " 1360       45   "
+ VII. _Rectilinear_          "  1360  " 1550      190   "
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+It is a truism that the history of building is the history of the
+civilized world, for of all the arts practised by man, there is none
+which conveys to us a clearer conception of the religion, history,
+manners, customs, ideals and follies of past ages, than the art of
+building. This applies in a special sense to cathedrals and churches,
+which glorious relics reflect and perpetuate the noble aim, the delicate
+thought, the refined and exquisite taste, the patient and painstaking
+toil which have been expended upon them by the devout and earnest
+craftsmen of the past.
+
+There are very few of our ancient churches in village, town or city
+which do not offer some feature of interest to the visitor, and in the
+absence of anything more important, there is sure to be some door,
+window, font, screen, or other detail which will amply repay him for the
+small amount of time spent in seeing it.
+
+The aim of the author of this little volume has been to indicate the
+symbolism and meaning attaching to the various portions of our churches
+and cathedrals, and to endeavour briefly to describe, in language as
+simple as the subject will allow, the various styles of ecclesiastical
+architecture with their distinctive characteristics in such a way as
+will enable the reader to assign each portion and detail of a church to
+its respective period with an approximate degree of accuracy.
+
+He does not claim to be original, but endeavours to be useful and
+interesting. The best authorities have been consulted and freely drawn
+upon, but with the object in view of writing a book at once thus useful
+and interesting, no attempt has been made to deal with the subject in a
+strictly architectural, or a purely scientific manner.
+
+Weymouth, 1906.
+
+
+
+
+DEDICATION.
+
+
+To all those who love old buildings--cathedrals, abbeys, and village
+churches, which breathe the spirit of an age with which we have entirely
+broken--and who would fain hand down to posterity, unmutilated, the
+great building achievements of our forefathers, which we, with all our
+science, wealth, and means of curtailing labour, can no more imitate
+than we can reproduce the language of a Chaucer or a Shakespeare; this
+book is respectfully dedicated.
+
+S. H.
+
+
+  "_Firm was their faith, the ancient bands,
+    The wise of heart in wood and stone,
+  Who reared with stern and trusting hands
+    Those dark grey towers of days unknown;
+  They filled the aisles with many a thought,
+    They bade each nook some truth recall
+  The pillared arch its legend brought,
+    A doctrine came with roof and wall._"
+                          --HAWKER OF MORWENSTOW.
+
+
+
+
+OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES AND HOW TO STUDY THEM.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+However much we may admire, considered purely as art, the Pagan temples
+of the Greeks and Romans, we must confess that they are lacking in those
+high ideals and those sustained and inspired motives which seem to
+penetrate and permeate the buildings and churches of the Christian era.
+Perfect as is Greek art within its somewhat narrow limits, it is,
+nevertheless, cold, precise and lifeless. The Gothic buildings on the
+contrary are pregnant with the very spirit of life.
+
+Prompted by a deep and fervent faith in their religion, the Gothic
+builders and sculptors unconsciously wove into the humblest of their
+architectural enrichments some portion of their daily life and
+personality. The slave-built temples of the Greeks offered no scope for
+the exercise of individual expression--such, in fact, would have been
+strongly resented--whereas the early Christian craftsman, revelling in
+his freedom, seized every opportunity of expressing in his work his joy,
+fear and hope of immortality.
+
+This is made apparent in the study of an old church, whereof every
+portion--door, window, bench-end, carving, gargoyle--has hidden about it
+some suggestion of beautiful thought, or some distinct and appropriate
+symbolism. The fact that symbolism underlies almost every such
+indication of mediæval thought is made abundantly manifest in the study
+of mediæval literature. Open any 12th century treatise on morals,
+science or history, and you become aware of the fact at once. The
+main-spring of this symbolism, of all Christian symbolism, turns on the
+parabolic meaning in the scheme of Creation. The early writers were far
+less concerned with recording the plain objective facts of history, than
+in pursuing the allegory and the love of the marvellous, and showing
+all those characteristics of what we now term an unscientific attitude
+of mind.
+
+ [Illustration: The Various Forms of Arches.
+
+  Norman.          Stilted.        Horse Shoe.
+  Equilateral.     Lancet.         Drop.
+  Trefoil.         Trefoil.        Cinquefoil.
+  Ogee.            Four Centered.  Tudor.]
+
+In its widest sense, symbolism means the expression of belief, and if we
+would interpret history aright, we must grasp the fact that the key to
+the character and disposition of peoples of all ages lies in the
+knowledge of their beliefs; for out of the beliefs of one age most
+surely grow the beliefs of its successors, and in no work of man's hand
+are the beliefs held by various peoples in past ages more clearly
+defined than in our cathedrals and churches, which noble buildings in
+every civilized country indicate principles as well as facts, influences
+as well as results; and while presenting the finest materials for
+æsthetic study, are no less useful as indicating the psychological
+peculiarities of those builders of old to whose condition they bear
+witness.
+
+In our grand specimens of ecclesiastical architecture, we may read the
+world's later history, and to-day they breathe the sombre reverential
+influence of a faith which sought to satisfy itself with the visible
+symbolizing of those half-poetical, half-superstitious conceptions with
+which the religion of the Middle Ages was so deeply imbued.
+
+An early development of decorative symbolic art, known as Celtic, of
+which we have examples on old Irish crosses, and particularly on
+illuminated MSS. was wrought by the Christian monks of the 7th and 8th
+centuries, but what is generally understood as Christian symbolic art
+had its finest development about the 13th century. Gothic art is
+essentially symbolic and in many instances, its individual forms have
+specific significance. Thus the common equilateral triangle was used to
+symbolize the Holy Trinity, as are the two entwined triangles. Other
+symbols employed at this period setting forth the mystery of the Unity
+of the Trinity, without beginning and without end, are three interlaced
+circles, and a very curious one is that in which three faces are so
+combined as to form an ornamental figure. Baptism under the immediate
+sanction of the Divine Trinity was represented by three fishes placed
+together in the form of a triangle. So numerous, indeed were such
+Christian symbols after the 9th century that a mere enumeration of them
+would occupy considerable space. Every trefoil symbolized the Holy
+Trinity; every quatrefoil the four Evangelists; every cross the
+Crucifixion, or the martyrdom of some saint; and in Gothic ornament and
+decoration, we find the Chalice, the Crown of Thorns, the Dice, the Sop,
+the Hammer and Nails, the Flagellum and other symbols of our Lord's
+Passion.
+
+ [Illustration: Plan of a Typical Gothic Cruciform Parish Church.
+ (St. Mary, Luton, fully described in No. 47 of this Series).
+  _Drawn by Ed. Craven Lee._]
+
+Although presenting the same characteristics in their external design,
+our town and village churches are very various. The simplest form, and
+the one most commonly found, is that of a nave and chancel, with a tower
+at the west end; to which plan may be added aisles and transepts, the
+latter often being wrongly called "cross-aisles." When the walls of the
+nave above the arcade rise above those of the aisles and are pierced
+with windows, the upper portion is called the clerestory, the meaning
+of which word is not free from obscurity; it seems probable that it
+indicates the clear story--the story which rises clear of the nave and
+aisles. In large buildings, they are important both for utility and
+beauty, but in small and early churches, they are of less importance.
+
+It is a well-known fact that the chancel and nave of a church generally
+stand east and west. This arrangement, called the orientation, is
+symbolic of the teaching that to the east we are to look for assistance
+and protection against the power of our enemy, and that as we pray we
+may look for the day-spring, symbolized to us in the rising sun that
+sheds light and warmth all over the earth.
+
+The public entrance to a church is generally at the west end (the priest
+usually had a door in the chancel for his own use). Through this door we
+enter the house of prayer, for as in the east we see the emblem of the
+Lord of Life and Light, so the west represents the seat of darkness and
+of the powers of evil.
+
+The earliest porches were those of the early Christian basilica churches;
+they were long and arcaded and were called "narthex." In later times,
+they assumed two forms, one the projecting erection, covering the
+entrance and divided into three or more doorways, and the other a kind
+of covered chamber open at the end and having small windows at the
+sides. These latter are generally found on the north and south sides
+of the nave. Formerly, when church government was more rigorous in
+discipline than is now the case, the porch was the appointed place for
+those who were under censure. Those also who were unbaptised, or who had
+not yet received the sacrament of regeneration, were not allowed beyond
+the porch, not quite excluded from the church and yet not permitted
+to enter fully. The porch also served as a path of admission for all
+Christians into the body of the church, so that they passed through the
+assembly of penitents and catechumens, who were wont to ask the prayers
+of the more highly privileged for their full restoration or admission to
+the communion of the faithful.
+
+With reference to our Lord's word, "I am the Door," we frequently find
+the tympana of church doors, particularly those of Norman date, adorned
+with representations of events from his life, but they often also depict
+the monsters, dragons and devils, that formed so strong an article in
+the faith of the early Christians.
+
+A more detailed account of these tympana will be found in a following
+chapter.
+
+Passing through the porch we enter the nave, which word is derived from
+the Latin _navis_, a ship. Its symbolic teaching is that of the Church
+riding triumphantly and buoyantly on the troubled and dark waters of the
+world. The first thing noticed on entering the nave is the font, which
+was formerly placed outside the church, in a separate building called
+the baptistery; a few of our churches have retained these little
+buildings which now form part of the churches proper.
+
+The reason in early days for placing the font outside the church was
+that the Christian was not admitted into the nave until he had been
+baptised and confirmed, the latter rite being administered immediately
+after baptism.
+
+From the western door there is a clear passage through the centre of
+the nave, called the aisle, signifying the straight and narrow way from
+the seat of darkness to immortal life. On each side of this aisle are
+seats for the laity, with room for standing and kneeling. The nave was
+usually divided from the chancel by an open screen of wood or stone,
+signifying that although the Christian might have some insight into the
+mysteries of the priest's office, at the same time these were to be
+partly concealed from his view. The rood screen was so called from the
+fact that the great Rood, or Crucifix, stood above it, not always on the
+screen itself, but on a separate beam, to which was often attached a
+rood loft or chamber. In early days, the lessons were read from the top
+of the rood screen, and in many of our churches the stairways leading
+thither have been retained.
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Gothic Windows.
+  Early English.  Decorated.  Perpendicular.
+  See also page 59.]
+
+In churches where the screen has vanished, the division of the nave
+from the rest of the church is plainly marked by the chancel arch.
+The chancel is emblematic of the Christian perfection, of the Church
+triumphant in heaven.
+
+In an old church, a piscina is nearly always found in the chancel, and
+here, too, were the sedilia or seats for the officiating clergy, the
+prior, sub-prior, and the deacon, the last-named occupying the lowest
+seat.
+
+Founders' tombs also nearly always occupy positions in the chancel, and
+these tombs differ from all others in that they form an integral part
+of the structure, and could not have been added after the church was
+completed.
+
+Another thing sometimes to be seen is the ambery, or aumbry, a small
+cupboard let into the chancel wall, in which were kept the communion
+vessels, the chalice, paten, etc.
+
+The great object of interest, however, in the chancel, is the altar,
+which Archbishop Laud directed should be enclosed by rails, so that
+although the people may draw near, they cannot touch the holy table, but
+must accept from the hands of the priest those gifts of which he is the
+minister from God.
+
+Altars are fully described in a following chapter, but we may here note
+that the reredos, so universally found in our cathedrals, abbeys, and
+in many of our churches, forms no part of the altar, and the Court of
+Arches has decided that there are no altars in the Church of England,
+but only communion tables.
+
+Prominent among the external enrichments of our churches is the
+gargoyle, a word derived from the French, "gargouille," which in its
+turn comes from the Latin "gurgulio"--a water-spout. The earliest
+gargoyles are merely orifices with a lip to shoot the water well away
+from the fabric. The true gargoyle, however, was quickly evolved from
+this primitive form, and consists of two parts, the lower one forming
+the channel, the upper one being the cover. The full significance of the
+skill displayed by the old masons in the rare opportunity the gargoyle
+afforded them of representing the dragons, serpents, etc., in which
+their fancy revelled, is made apparent when we view the futile attempts
+of modern architects to introduce this feature in their churches, for
+modern gargoyles are generally grotesque caricatures, and anything but
+happy appendages to the buildings to which they are attached.
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Buttresses.
+ _Norman_             _Decorated_
+        _Flying Buttress_
+ _Early English_      _Perpendicular_
+ _Drawn by E. M. Heath._]
+
+The churchyard, so pleasing an adjunct to the House of God placed within
+it, is frequently approached through a lych-gate, which word is derived
+from the Saxon _lich_, a corpse. These gates in our country churchyards
+are often very picturesque little structures, and under them the corpse
+at a funeral awaited the officiating priest before being taken into the
+church. The churchyard is commonly regarded as a mere dependency of the
+church, and as having a history very inferior in interest to that of the
+temple to which it is the court. The truth is that many of our churchyards
+have an antiquity far greater than that of the churches, as many of them
+constituted the open-air meeting-places of our Saxon forefathers long
+before the erection of parish churches. In the common meeting-place a
+cross was set up, either of wood or stone, to mark and hallow the spot,
+and when a church was subsequently built it was usually in the immediate
+vicinity of the cross, which accounts for the fact that many churchyard
+crosses are of older date than the churches themselves.
+
+Wells of water are often found in old churchyards, and as the
+regulations of the Saxon church required immersion and not sprinkling,
+it is possible that these were the Saxon fonts.
+
+Such then is the necessarily brief attempt to describe the main lines on
+which our old churches were planned, and the motives and ideals which
+animated their builders, who, being impressed with the dignity and
+mystery of the works of God, made their churches symbolical of the
+portions of the Christian life; the porch signifying baptism, the nave
+the life militant on earth, and the chancel the life eternal; while
+every little ornament, piece of sculpture and enrichment was designed to
+remind the worshippers of their faith, of its hopes, blessed promises
+and rewards.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EARLY BRITISH CHURCHES.
+
+
+In dealing with the introduction of church architecture into our own
+land, the task would be much simplified if one could state with
+certainty when the first church was built on British soil. Some
+historians assert that the Church of England as it is constituted to-day
+dates no further back than the moment when S. Augustine and his
+followers landed on the shores of Kent in the year 596, yet one is
+probably justified in assuming that a church existed in these islands
+for centuries previous to the arrival of the Roman missionaries.
+Unfortunately we have no records to guide us as to the date of this
+earlier settlement, and the name of the first Christian missionary to
+heathen Britain has still to be discovered. "We see," says the quaint
+old historian, Thomas Fuller, "the light of the word shined here, but
+see not who kindled it." The first Christian building of which we have
+any record was probably that erected at Glastonbury before the year 300,
+but that this was the first Christian settlement cannot be alleged with
+certainty.
+
+There are many traditions concerning the introduction of Christianity
+into Britain, some of which may probably have some bearing on the truth,
+but the whole subject is involved in considerable obscurity. One of
+these numerous traditions is to the effect that the British King
+Caradoc, after being taken prisoner to Rome, was allowed to return, on
+condition that several members of his family remained as hostages; and
+whilst serving in this capacity, his mother, son, and daughter are
+stated to have become converts to Christianity, the doctrines of which
+faith they spread in their native land on their return thereto. Another
+tradition is to the effect that S. Paul himself visited Britain and laid
+the foundation of the Christian faith. We are also told by eminent
+church historians that the father and grandfather of S. Patrick were
+Christians, in which case S. Patrick himself would from a very early age
+have been brought up in the tenets of their faith. He is said to have
+been seized by pirates in the Clyde and taken to the north of Ireland,
+and eventually to Gaul. He was subsequently restored to his friends,
+whom he wished to convert to the Christian faith, and for this purpose
+his father sent him to be taught in the schools of Tours, Auxerre and
+Lerins. Eventually he was consecrated Bishop of the Irish and organized
+an efficient ecclesiastical system in Ireland.
+
+ [Illustration: A Rood Screen with a Restoration of the Rood.
+  Kenn, Devon. _Photograph by Chapman._]
+
+Before the coming of the Anglo-Saxons the church seems to have
+established a firm hold on the people, who held tenaciously to their
+possessions, both secular and religious, which were only wrested from
+them after a severe struggle. Their enthusiastic love of Christianity
+led them to make a heroic defence of the churches, rather than see them
+fall into the hands of the heathen Anglo-Saxons. The historian Bede
+tells us that all their buildings were destroyed, the priests' blood was
+spilt upon the altars, prelates and people were slain with the sword,
+and all the cities and churches were burnt to the ground. When all was
+lost and there was no longer a church or home to defend, the Britons
+retired to the country of their fellow-Christians, the secluded and
+almost impenetrable hills and forests of the west. The Anglo-Saxon love
+of gold was quickly recognised by the people of West Wales who saved
+their property and bought the right of worshipping after the manner of
+their fathers by the payment of an annual tribute to their conquerors.
+
+ [Side note: Church of S. Piran, Perranporth.]
+
+So ruthlessly indeed did the Anglo-Saxons rase to the ground the early
+churches, that, until a few years ago, but few traces of these early
+buildings were thought to exist. An accidental discovery, however, in
+the year 1835, brought to light an undoubted relic of an early British
+church in the west, this being the remains of a little church which had
+been until the date above mentioned completely buried in the sand
+on the sea coast near Perranporth in Cornwall. They are thought by
+ecclesiologists to be the remains of the original church erected to the
+memory of S. Piran, a Cornish missionary and a friend of S. Patrick, who
+was buried within its walls before the year 500 A.D. On removing the
+sand, the accumulated deposit of centuries, the church was found to have
+consisted of a nave and chancel containing a stone altar.
+
+ [Illustration: The Church of S. Martin, Canterbury.]
+
+The building measured 29 feet in length, 16-1/3 feet in width and 19
+feet from the floor to the roof, and probably shares with S. Mary's
+Church in Dover Castle, and S. Martin's, Canterbury, the honour of being
+one of the earliest links we possess with the ancient British Church. S.
+Mary's, Dover, appears to have been built of Roman bricks and cement, a
+combination which antiquaries consider is found only in those buildings
+which were erected during the Roman occupation.
+
+ [Side note: S. Martin's Canterbury.]
+
+S. Martin's Church, Canterbury has many claims to be considered one of
+our most interesting churches, no less on account of its associations
+than for its structural interest. The date of its building has been a
+source of endless controversy, as it contains many features attributable
+to either Roman or Saxon architecture. It is thought that it may
+possibly have been used for worship by the Christian soldiers of the
+Roman army. Be this as it may, it is established beyond doubt that it
+was the oratory of Queen Bertha, the first English Christian queen, who
+here worshipped, with her chaplain Liudhard, long before the advent of
+S. Augustine, who himself in later times preached here; and within the
+walls of this cradle of English Christianity, Ethelbert, King of Kent,
+the husband of Queen Bertha was baptized. The Venerable Bede, writing
+within a hundred years of the death of S. Augustine states that there
+was in 597 A.D. in Canterbury, a church "dedicated to the honour of S.
+Martin and built while the Romans still occupied Britain." On the
+departure of the Romans it is probable that the church was still used by
+a small band of Christian worshippers until the heathen Jutes overran
+the Isle of Thanet in 449.
+
+Little is known of the progress of Christianity on this island from that
+date until the landing of S. Augustine in 597, and the first fruits of
+his mission, as we have seen, was the conversion and baptism of King
+Ethelbert. As one would naturally expect, the aspect of the structure
+to-day, though suggestive of antiquity, is lacking in uniformity of
+treatment. The brick courses in the nave are at irregular intervals,
+varying from nine to twenty inches apart, the spaces being filled with
+Kentish rag-stone and occasional blocks of chalk. The chancel extends
+eighteen or twenty feet east of the arch and is composed of Roman
+bricks, evenly laid and averaging four bricks to a foot.
+
+ [Illustration: An Ancient Window built with Roman Brickwork.
+ Swanscombe, Kent. _Photograph Mr. G. H. Smith._]
+
+The chancel was lengthened at the beginning of the thirteenth century
+and again at a more recent date, so that its architecture to-day is
+of three distinct periods. Outside may be seen five flat pilaster
+buttresses and one semi-circular one, a square-headed Roman doorway, a
+Saxon doorway and two Early English porches; and there is also a nearly
+circular panel on the south side of the nave, and a Norman squint at the
+west end. There are many other features of interest which bear evidences
+of a great antiquity, and the only question which is seriously disputed
+is whether the earliest portion of the present nave was built about the
+end of the Roman occupation of Britain or during the mission of S.
+Augustine. The Rev. Charles F. Routledge, M.A., F.S.A., Hon. Canon of
+Canterbury Cathedral, writes: "Whatever may finally be determined to be
+the date of the church's foundation, it can never lose its unique
+association with S. Augustine, King Ethelbert and Queen Bertha, nor its
+undisputed claim to be the oldest existing church in England. From it
+flowed the tiny spring of English Christianity, which has since widened
+out into a mighty river, and penetrated the remotest parts of the
+civilized and uncivilized world."
+
+ [Side note: Other Early Churches.]
+
+Among other churches which show signs of having been built during the
+Roman occupation are those of Reculver, Richborough and Lyminge, while
+the foundations of an undoubted early church have been discovered in
+the old Roman city of Silchester, in Hampshire. _See frontispiece._ The
+old church at Reculver stood originally within the Roman castrum, the
+fortress which guarded the northern mouth of the Wantsume, now a small
+stream, but once an arm of the sea dividing the Isle of Thanet from the
+mainland. The greater part of this church was pulled down in 1809, but
+the western towers, known as "the sisters" were repaired by Trinity
+House, as they constitute a useful landmark for mariners, being visible
+at a great distance.
+
+Reculver church was built about A.D. 670, and from the existing walls
+and foundations it is clear that its plan was basilican. The church
+is now a ruin, but some stone pillars which supported the arches are
+preserved in the Cathedral Close at Canterbury.
+
+As Reculver guarded the northern mouth of the watercourse, so
+Richborough protected the south, and here traces of a chapel in the
+form of a cross are plainly discernible amongst ruins known to be of
+Roman workmanship. The old church at Lyminge in the same county is thus
+described by Canon Jenkyns, in his "_History of Lyminge_":--"The Roman
+foundations discoverable at the south-east angle of the chancel, together
+with the remarkable half-arch that intervenes, marked the site of the
+_aquilonalis porticus_--the title of basilica already given to it in the
+seventh century establishes its claim to great antiquity."
+
+We thus see that although remains of the actual buildings in which the
+British Christians worshipped are few in number, yet enough are left us
+to prove conclusively that there was a very active and zealous Christian
+community established in these islands during at least the period
+immediately preceding that in which Rome withdrew her legions from
+Britain in order to defend Italy against the Goths, and abandoned our
+island to the mercy of her foes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+EARLY CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+In the early years of the Christian Church, when its members became
+sufficiently free from persecution to erect buildings for the purpose of
+worship, they were naturally anxious to avoid any of the forms peculiar
+to either heathen or Jewish temples. Some model, however, was necessary,
+and their choice being limited, they appear to have adopted the
+simple style of the Roman basilica, or court of justice. There was an
+adaptability about the general plan of such a building which rendered
+its selection natural and not inappropriate, while the dignified
+simplicity of its construction and the object for which it was primarily
+founded--the dispensation of justice--commended it no doubt in the first
+instance as a model for the primitive Christian church. These basilicæ
+were usually enclosures surrounded by a colonnade, sometimes roofed, but
+more often open to the air, and designedly built for the purpose of
+being accessible to all members of the community at all times of the
+day. They appear occasionally to have been used for the transaction of
+ordinary business in which they would closely resemble our exchanges. Be
+this as it may, this form of architecture has left its impress on many
+Christian buildings, and the name of basilica, for a church, is still
+used in many parts of Italy.
+
+The Roman basilica was usually in the form of a parallelogram, with a
+seat for the judges at one end, and in their adaptation of this form of
+building, the early Christians devoted this place to the purposes of an
+altar. This, by an easy and natural transition, is thought to have given
+rise to the formation of the semi-circular recess at one end of the
+building, known as the apse (from the Latin _apsis_, a bow or arch),
+which is still to be found in some of our older churches.
+
+Being thus Roman in the nature of their ground plan, it is not
+surprising to find that other portions of the early Christian buildings
+show decided characteristics of a Roman style. On the destruction of the
+Pagan temples by order of the Emperor Constantine about the year 330,
+much of their material was built into the earliest Christian churches,
+and the Roman character of their design being prevalent, they formed a
+style of architecture which has been designated Romanesque, of which the
+later styles, known here as Saxon and Norman were largely modifications.
+There is no reason to doubt that the earliest Christian churches were
+very unpretentious in form and that some time elapsed before there was
+anything which could be called a definite church architecture, beyond
+that to which we have alluded. Nevertheless, as the Church strengthened
+her position and grew in security, more attention was devoted to the
+subject of its edifices, and the departure in time from the original
+ground plan furnished an opportunity for the introduction of a more
+symbolical and appropriate design. The plan of the old basilica was
+abandoned for one in the form of the cross, the accepted symbol of the
+Christian religion, which departure, however, did not involve any very
+great alteration from the old ground plan.
+
+We come then to the time when one or other of the forms known as the
+Latin or the Greek cross--whichever was most convenient--was usually
+employed in a building designed for Christian worship, and these forms
+are universally found in the most elaborate structures of which the
+Christian Church can boast.
+
+As time passed, these cruciform churches were surmounted with a dome,
+steeple, or tower at the point where the members of the cross
+intersected each other. At first the most prominent of these external
+adornments was the dome; a characteristic of the architecture of Eastern
+Europe, which acquired the name Byzantine, from its having been carried
+to great perfection in Byzantium (Constantinople), the capital of the
+Eastern Empire.
+
+The church of S. Sophia, which was built, much as it now exists, early
+in the sixth century, and was afterwards converted into a mosque, is an
+almost perfect example of the Byzantine style. In this building we find
+the Roman arch used in a variety of ways, while the dome itself is
+formed entirely of this arch used as the crowning work of the edifice.
+Eastern churches in this style usually took the form of the Greek cross,
+this form being better calculated to support the weight of the cupola.
+In Western Europe, however, where the flat squat tower afterwards
+developed into the steeple, as we shall see in a later chapter, the
+Latin cross was mostly used, and this, with a few notable exceptions, is
+the plan of most western churches.
+
+With writers of about fifty years ago, it was a favourite theory that
+the Christians converted the old basilicæ into churches, and that the
+"Halls of Justice" erected by the Romans in this country were also
+converted into Christian churches, and some authorities point to the
+walls and arches of Brixworth church in confirmation of this theory. The
+late Mr. J. W. Brewer, however, stated that unfortunately for this
+theory, no single example of a basilica being converted into a church
+has been found in this country and he himself held the theory that the
+word basilica was used by the Romans to describe any building which was
+supported by internal columns, and in that way the name came to be
+applied to Christian churches.
+
+As we have seen, the early Christians, after a short time, became
+dissatisfied with these buildings adapted from Pagan types, and the
+Byzantine form of church arose, the first people who practised this
+style of building being the Greeks. The style spread with rapidity all
+over the East, the great church of S. Sophia being its largest example
+and the smaller, but more perfect, church of S. Mark at Venice giving us
+the best idea of this form of church architecture. Largely modelled on
+this style, also, are the circular baptisteries of Italy and the round
+churches of England, France and Germany, the modern Russian churches and
+all the Mohammedan mosques. The Latin churches did not greatly favour
+this style and their use of it was confined, with few exceptions, to
+baptisteries, monumental chapels and the like, but for parochial,
+cathedral and monastic churches, the oblong plan was retained and
+ultimately developed into the Gothic church with its nave, transepts and
+chancel.
+
+The changes which the Christian basilica at first underwent were simple,
+_viz._, the use of the arch instead of the straight lintel, or the
+placing of an entablature between the columns; a little later, about the
+tenth century, the old wooden roof of the basilica gave place to the
+arched roof or vaulting, so called from its being composed of a series
+of vaults. The styles called Romanesque and Lombardic are but
+geographical varieties of the same architecture and from these the Saxon
+and Norman styles were soon to be developed. The vaulted basilica church
+soon became common over the north of Europe, the two most important and
+practically unaltered examples being the cathedrals of Speyer and Worms,
+in Germany, although our Anglo-Saxon cathedrals of Peterborough, Ely and
+Norwich may, so far as regards their naves, be justly regarded as the
+offspring of the vaulted basilica style of building.
+
+When the old basilica style of church with its heavy beam roof and its
+innumerable columns had ceased to satisfy the lofty aspirations of Latin
+Christianity, and when the Greeks had inaugurated a new style of church
+architecture, only two courses were left to the Latins, either to adopt
+the Greek style in its entirety, or to improve upon the basilica type.
+Fortunately, although after considerable hesitation, they chose the
+latter alternative, the result being the genesis of our glorious
+cathedrals with their long naves and aisles, deep transepts and
+beautiful variety of form and outline.
+
+ [Illustration: A Reputed Saxon Doorway.
+  Bishopstone, Sussex. _Photograph Mr. W. Hodgson._]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE SAXON AND NORMAN STYLES.
+
+
+As we have seen in the previous chapter, the whole subject of pre-Saxon
+church building is still very obscure, and for some considerable time
+after the Anglo-Saxon invasion little is known concerning church
+architecture, nor has it yet been fully ascertained whether any
+buildings of this period exist. By the year 588 the Saxons were in
+complete possession of the land. Christianity was to all appearance
+wiped out and the Church, to the superficial observer was dead. In his
+"_History of English Church Architecture_," Scott expresses the opinion
+that the oldest English churches may be divided into three groups.
+First, those which preceded the Danish invasion; secondly, those from
+the above epoch to the invasion of Sweyn; and thirdly, those onward to
+the Norman Conquest.
+
+ [Side note: Saxon Architecture.]
+
+What exactly constituted Saxon architecture has long been a
+controversial point and one which will probably never be definitely
+settled. Parker, in his "_Glossary of Architecture_," says:--
+
+    "For a considerable time, after they (the Anglo-Saxons) had
+    established themselves in this country, their buildings were
+    of wood, and this appears to have been the prevailing material
+    employed at the time of the Conquest, although stone had been
+    occasionally used several centuries earlier.... No timber-work
+    of Saxon date can be in existence at the present time, but it is
+    contended by some antiquaries that several of our churches exhibit
+    specimens of Saxon masonry; the truth of this theory, however, is
+    not fully established, nor has the subject of Saxon architecture
+    been yet sufficiently investigated to clear away the obscurity in
+    which it is involved."
+
+Probably few of our so-called Saxon churches were built earlier than
+thirty or forty years before the Norman Conquest, and it seems certain
+that for some years after they had settled in England, the Normans
+employed Saxon masons to build in the Saxon manner, as is seen by the
+tower of S. Michael's Church, Oxford, which, although showing all the
+characteristics of reputed Saxon masonry was built many years after the
+Battle of Hastings. Certain it is that these pre-Norman buildings in
+England were singularly rude and rough and show how much our Saxon
+ancestors were, at that period, behind the Italians, French and Germans
+in architectural skill.
+
+ [Side note: Saxon Churches.]
+
+Our best examples containing Saxon work are possibly the churches at
+Sompting and Bishopstone, Sussex; Bradford-on-Avon; Wootton Wawen
+(sub-structure of tower); Wing; Brixworth, and Barnack, Northants;
+Greenstead in Essex; and S. Martin's at Wareham, Dorset. Of towers of
+this date the best are possibly those of S. Mary's and S. Peter's,
+Lincoln and S. Benet's, Cambridge. Of crypts, the finest examples are
+at Ripon Cathedral, York Minster (part) and S. Mary's Church, York. In
+addition to these, many other churches have chancel arches, doorways or
+some other less important features which are considered to be of Saxon
+origin.
+
+These early buildings generally show the semi-circular arch on the
+doorways, but the windows usually have a triangular head; at Sompting
+church, however, the windows have the semi-circular arch. It is
+necessary to say a few words in detail about the more important churches
+of this era.
+
+ [Side note: S. Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon.]
+
+The church of S. Lawrence at Bradford-on-Avon is one of the oldest
+unaltered churches in England, and it seems to be beyond question that
+it is the actual church built by Ealdhelm at the beginning of the eighth
+century and dedicated by him to S. Lawrence. It consists of a chancel,
+nave and north porch, and among its remarkable features is its great
+height and the extreme narrowness of the round-headed arch between the
+nave and the chancel, a feature it has in common with the Saxon church
+of S. Martin at Wareham; the ground-plan measurements of both these
+churches are identical. At S. Lawrence's church, an incised arcade is
+seen outside the walls, and on either side of the west aspect of the
+chancel arch are two sculptured figures of angels, which are thought to
+represent the earliest extant fragments of church carving in England.
+
+ [Side note: Brixworth, Earls' Barton and Barnack.]
+
+Brixworth church is possibly older than S. Lawrence's and it is said to
+have been in continuous use for Divine Service ever since it was
+erected. The tower appears to be of rather later date than the nave and
+rests upon the walls of a "narthex" or portico, which may have extended
+along the whole breadth of the front, as is still to be seen in churches
+at Rome and Ravenna. The curious pile of masonry built up against the
+tower may have been added for defence, as it could hardly have formed
+part of the original design.
+
+ [Illustration: Tower of Earls' Barton Church.
+  Generally considered to show characteristics of Saxon masonry.]
+
+Earls' Barton and Barnack churches both have towers so covered with
+narrow projecting strips of stonework that the surface of the walls
+appears divided into rudely formed panels. The west doorways of both
+show primitive imitations of Roman mouldings in the imposts and
+architraves. The tower of Earls' Barton consists of four stages, each
+of which is slightly smaller than the one below. In that of Barnack
+church, the upper stages of the tower represent the period of transition
+from Norman to Early English.
+
+ [Illustration: An Example of a Norman Tower.
+  Bishopstone, Sussex. _Homeland Copyright._]
+
+S. Michael's, Oxford, has a massive tower of solid masonry, unpierced in
+its lowest stage by either door or window, the second stage shows but
+one window and the highest is pierced by several windows of more
+elaborate construction.
+
+ [Side note: St. Michael's Church, Oxford.]
+
+Although generally consisting of rubble and stone, Saxon churches were
+sometimes built of wood as we see from the existing nave of the parish
+church of Greenstead, Essex.
+
+ [Side note: Greenstead Church, Essex.]
+
+A brick chancel has been added at the east and a timber belfry at the
+west end, but the old Saxon portion is composed of large chestnut trees
+split asunder and set upright close to each other with the round side
+outwards. The ends are roughly hewn so as to fit into a sill at the
+bottom, and into a plate at the top, where they are fastened with wooden
+pins. There are 16 logs on the south side where are two doorposts, and
+on the north side twenty-one logs and two spaces now filled with rubble.
+There is a tradition that this church was erected to receive the body of
+S. Edmund, on its return from London to Bury, in 1013.
+
+The semi-circular arch has long been considered to be one of the most
+distinctive marks of Norman architecture, but Mr. Rickman, who made an
+exhaustive study of the early churches of France and England, says:--
+
+    "In various churches it has happened that a very plain arch
+    between nave and chancel has been left as the only Norman feature,
+    while both nave and chancel have been rebuilt at different times;
+    but each leaving the chancel arch standing. I am disposed to think
+    that some of these plain chancel arches, will, on minute
+    examination, turn out to be of Saxon origin."
+
+It would be tedious to enter into any more minute account of the
+Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical remains, and the reader whose enquiries
+conduct him to the more elaborate works on the subject will be startled
+by the contrary opinions that he will surely encounter.
+
+In concluding these brief remarks on early buildings, we must again
+quote from Parker's work to which reference has already been made:--
+
+    "The class of buildings referred to as being considered to belong
+    to this style contain some rather unusual features, and they
+    require to be particularly described, both because they are in
+    themselves remarkable, and because there is a probability that
+    some of them may be Saxon."
+
+ [Illustration: A Norman Pier Arcade.
+  Abbots Langley, Herts. _Photograph Mr. A. W. Anderson._]
+
+The Norman style of church architecture with its varied forms of
+columns, moulded and recessed arches and vaulting, may be roughly stated
+to have been introduced into England at the time of the Conquest. The
+Saxon masons do not appear to have understood vaulting sufficiently well
+to have roofed over any large space with stone, and for this reason
+alone the Saxon form of building was bound to give way before the
+Norman, which of all the earlier styles was the most advanced in this
+respect.
+
+ [Side note: Norman Architecture.]
+
+Generally speaking, Norman arches were semi-circular, but they were by
+no means universally so, for a form frequently found is one in which the
+spring of the arch does not take place from the abacus, or upper member
+of the capital, but at some distance above it and when it assumes this
+form it is called a "stilted" arch, suggested by some authorities to
+have been unintentional and the result of imperfect construction or
+planning. _See page 10._
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Norman Mouldings.
+  Chevron or Zig-zag.        Star.
+  Alternate Billet.          Square Billet.
+  Double Cone.               Lozenge.
+  Beak Head.                 Bird Head.]
+
+The main features in the ornamentation of this period are the sculptured
+bands worked round the arches, which, although generally called
+"mouldings," are more in the nature of decoration, and in some instances
+they appear to be additions carved on the originally unadorned surface
+of the masonry.
+
+ [Side note: Ornament.]
+
+The earliest and most general ornament is the chevron or zig-zag, which
+is frequently found doubled, trebled and quadrupled. The next most
+common form is the beak-head, consisting of a hollow and large round.
+In the hollow are placed heads of beasts or birds whose tongues or beaks
+encircle the round. On the west doorway of Iffley church, Oxford, are
+many of these beak-heads extending the whole length of the jamb down to
+the base moulding. They also figure prominently among the ornamentations
+of the hospital church of S. Cross, near Winchester. The zig-zag
+moulding is very common on Norman churches and is so easily recognised
+that no further description is needed here. The less prominent decorations
+of Norman mouldings include the alternate billet, the double cone, and
+the lozenge, together with an immense number of others less commonly
+found.
+
+ [Side note: Windows.]
+
+The Early Norman window was little better than a narrow slit finished
+with a plain semi-circular head, and was generally only a few inches
+wide. They were, it is believed, filled with oiled linen and the sides
+of the aperture were splayed towards the interior. Later in the period,
+the windows were enriched by the zig-zag and other mouldings and at a
+still later period an improvement was made by inserting nook-shafts in
+the jambs similar to those in doorways.
+
+ [Illustration: A Late Norman Parish Church.
+  Castle Rising, Norfolk. _Drawn by Gordon Home._]
+
+The towers of Norman churches often show windows of two lights separated
+by a central shaft, all enclosed under a large semi-circular arch, the
+spandrel of which is rarely pierced. Plain circular windows of small
+dimensions are sometimes found in other positions and in churches of
+later date, and occasionally in gable walls. Larger windows of the same
+form, with small shafts radiating from the centre and connected at the
+circumference by semi-circular or trefoiled arches, are also found as at
+Barfreston church, Kent, where there is a fine example.
+
+ [Side note: Doorways.]
+
+Norman doorways are found in great numbers and variety, even in churches
+which present no other features in this style. The most usual form
+consists of a semi-circular-headed aperture with a hood-mould springing
+from plain square-edged jambs. Frequently, however, the doorways are
+recessed, having a nook-shaft in the angle formed by a recession from
+the capital, in which case it presents two soffits and two faces,
+besides the hood-moulds. The depth of these doorways is largely due to
+the great thickness of the walls usual in buildings of this period, but
+in many cases that portion of the wall in which the entrance is inserted
+is made to project forward beyond the general face, which projection is
+finished either with plain horizontal capping, or a high-pitched gable.
+
+ [Illustration: _West Doorway Rochester Cathedral_
+  Duncan Moul.]
+
+Norman porches thus have generally but little projection, and are
+frequently so flat as to be little more than outer mouldings to the
+inner door. They are, however, often richly ornamented and have rooms
+above, which rooms are wrongly called "parvises." The shallow aperture
+often follows the form of the arch, but is frequently square-headed,
+having a semi-circular tympanum of masonry filling the space between the
+lintel of the door and the intrados of the arch.
+
+ [Illustration: Tympanum of Norman Doorway.
+  Fordington S. George, Dorset. _Drawn by E. M. Heath._]
+
+These tympana are usually sculptured in low relief with a representation
+of some scriptural or traditional event, while the assertion of the
+Apostle that "we must, through much tribulation, enter into the kingdom
+of God," may account for the fondness of the Norman sculptors in
+representing different stages of martyrdom on the tympana of their
+doors. A very singular tympanum is that on the door of the church of
+Fordington S. George, at Dorchester, whereon is represented some
+incident in the life of S. George. The principal figure is on horseback
+with a discus round his head. The other figures are in hauberks and
+chausses, and generally bear, in point of costume, much resemblance to
+the figures on the famous Bayeux tapestry. Barfreston church, Kent, has
+an interesting tympanum, as also has Patrixbourne church in the same
+county, where the sculpture shows the Saviour with dragons and at his
+feet a dog. At Alveston church, Warwickshire, the sculpture shows two
+quadrupeds with enormous tails, fighting, with between them a small
+bird, possibly intended for a dove. Our best example of a Norman doorway
+and tympanum is generally considered to be the west doorway of
+Rochester Cathedral, where the sculpture is of a very advanced character
+for its date, which is probably about 1130-40.
+
+ [Side note: Piers.]
+
+A distinctive feature of the Norman style are the massive pillars,
+usually circular, and with capitals either of the same form, or square;
+occasionally in plain buildings the pillars themselves are square with
+very little or no ornamentation. Towards the end of the period, an
+octagonal pillar was often used, having a much lighter appearance than
+the earlier forms.
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Capitals.
+      Norman.             Transitional.              Norman.
+  Crypt, Winchester.  Christ Church, Oxford.  Winchester Cathedral.]
+
+Besides these plain styles, compound or clustered piers are very
+numerous, differing considerably in plan; the simplest consists of a
+square having one or more rectangular recesses at each corner, but one
+more frequently met with has a small circular shaft in each of the
+recesses and a larger semi-circular one on each side of the square.
+
+ [Side note: Capitals.]
+
+Norman capitals are very varied, having many different forms of
+ornamentation; the commonest is one which resembles a bowl with the
+sides truncated, reducing the upper part to a square; sometimes the
+lower part is cut into round mouldings and ornamented, but it is
+frequently left plain. The Norman capital in its earliest style was of
+short proportions, but afterwards it became longer, with lighter
+ornamentation, gradually merging into the Early English.
+
+ [Illustration: A Curious Norman Capital. Seaford, Sussex.]
+
+The bishops and abbots of this period appear to have possessed
+considerable skill in architecture, for no fewer than fifteen of our
+English cathedrals contain some important Norman work, as the older
+portions of the cathedrals of Canterbury, Durham, Winchester,
+Gloucester, Peterborough, Ely, Norwich, Lincoln and Oxford.
+
+ [Side note: Norman Buttresses.]
+
+The Norman buttress, better described by Mr. Sharpe as a pilaster strip,
+unlike those of the later period, projects but very little from the
+wall, and this is especially so in buildings of the earlier part of the
+period. They are usually quite plain and are more used for finish than
+actual support; the Norman builder relying principally upon the thickness
+and weight of his walls to sustain any roof thrust (_see page 17_).
+
+ [Side note: The Round Churches.]
+
+There are in England a few round churches which are thought to have been
+built by the Knights Templars, a religious community banded together for
+the purpose of wresting the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem from the
+Saracens. Their object was to defend the Saviour's tomb and to guard
+Palestine, for which purpose they built numerous monasteries throughout
+the Holy Land and fortified them like castles.
+
+Another famous order which combined the religious instincts of the
+cloister with the military ardour of the warrior was that of the Knights
+of S. John Baptist or Knights Hospitallers, who, besides fighting, were
+to tend the sick and provide for the welfare of all Christian travellers.
+The churches belonging to the Templars were usually built in circular
+form in imitation of the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. They
+were capped with vaulted concave roofs said to be symbolical of the
+vast circuit and concave of the heavens. Our best example is the Temple
+Church, London, to which was added at a later period, a beautiful Early
+English Gothic extension. Other round churches are those of S. Sepulchre,
+Cambridge; S. Sepulchre, Northampton; Temple Balsall, Warwickshire, and
+of Little Maplestead, Essex, which last, although the smallest, is by no
+means the least interesting. It is attributed to the Hospitallers, an
+order founded about the year 1092, and introduced into England in the
+reign of Henry I. At Clerkenwell may still be seen the ancient gateway
+leading to their hospital. The order was suppressed in 1545. The church
+at Little Maplestead was built early in the 12th century, and in 1186
+the adjoining manor was given by Juliana Doisnel to this order, which
+gift was confirmed by King John and Henry III. This church is thought to
+reproduce with more fidelity than the others the original church of the
+Holy Sepulchre.
+
+ [Illustration: Norman and Early English Doorways.
+  Showing the transition from one style to another.
+  Dunstable Priory Church. _Drawn by Worthington G. Smith._]
+
+These famous Norman round-chancelled churches have much in common with
+the old basilica form.
+
+It must be pointed out that the arbitrary divisions into which
+architecture has been divided--Norman, Gothic, etc., are pure figures of
+the imagination, as by a series of easy transitions, one style became
+gradually merged into the next without any hard and fast dividing lines
+whatever. The periods during which one style became gradually blended
+into another are called the periods of transition.
+
+ [Side note: The Transition.]
+
+Architecture being progressive, it was only by the gradual development
+of one style from another that the art was enabled to advance with
+social progress, the literature and other arts of the country. The
+transition from the Norman to the Early English style may be ascribed to
+a period somewhat earlier than the 12th century, when a great change in
+the construction of the arch began to manifest itself. Alone, however,
+the form of the arch is no real test, for many pure Norman works have
+pointed arches. The square abacus may be taken as the best test. In its
+incipient state the pointed arch exhibited a change of form only, whilst
+the accessories and details remained the same as before; and although
+this change gradually led to the Early Pointed style in a pure state,
+with mouldings and features altogether distinct from those of the
+Norman, and to the general disuse, in the 13th century, of the
+semi-circular arch, it was for a while so intermixed as, from its first
+appearance to the close of the 12th century, to constitute that state of
+transition called the semi-Norman.
+
+
+ [Illustration: Windows showing the Origin of Tracery.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+The origin of what is loosely called Gothic architecture--which is
+generally considered to include the styles, with their transitions, from
+Early English to late Perpendicular, or Tudor-Gothic--is not free
+from obscurity, but it is certain that it began to be employed in
+ecclesiastical edifices about the time that the Goths settled in Italy,
+although all the available evidence goes to prove that the style
+originated and underwent its earliest developments in the north-west of
+Europe, and penetrated by slow degrees to the south and east.
+
+England was somewhat later than France in introducing this style of
+architecture, our earliest purely Gothic building being Salisbury
+Cathedral, begun in 1220, although the choirs of Rievaulx and Fountains
+Abbey were commenced a few years earlier. The Early English style in its
+earliest developments is nowhere seen to better advantage than in
+Salisbury Cathedral, and in its very latest forms at Westminster Abbey,
+the period of time being chronologically measured by the reigns of
+Richard I., John and Henry III.
+
+ [Illustration: An Early English Arch.
+  Rochester Cathedral. _Photograph Eastmead._]
+
+Most of our Gothic buildings were carried out under the supervision of a
+master-mason, but the most subordinate workman was left plenty of scope
+within reasonable limits for whatever artistic individuality he
+possessed, and the enrichments and ornaments of the Gothic era point out
+the noble aim, the delicate and graceful thought, the refined and
+exquisite taste expended upon every portion of their buildings by these
+Gothic masons.
+
+ [Side note: The Pointed Arch.]
+
+One of the chief differences between pure Gothic and Norman
+architecture is in the use of the pointed form of arch, yet in the study
+of the early buildings of this date it is curious to notice how evenly
+the balance is held between the pointed and the round arch, and how at
+one time it was quite an open question whether the Gothic style would be
+distinguished by a round or a pointed arch. In Germany and Italy the
+round arch held its own and continued to be used right through the
+Middle Ages. In England, however, the pointed arch soon gained a decided
+victory over its rival. Many theories have been put forward concerning
+the introduction of the pointed arch, one amongst them being that it was
+the result of the intersection of two circular arches such as is very
+commonly found in late Norman work; another theory is the poetical idea
+that it was copied from an avenue of trees. Whether or not either of
+these theories holds good, it is quite certain that this form of arch
+was known in the East for centuries before it reached Europe, being
+found in cisterns and tombs in Egypt and Arabia dating from long before
+the Christian era.
+
+It has also been suggested that it was introduced from the East by the
+Crusaders, in which case we should have found it making its first
+appearance in Hungary, Poland, Bohemia and Russia, but it so happens
+that these were the very last countries in Europe to adopt the pointed
+arch.
+
+ [Side note: The Transitional Period.]
+
+The first form of the pointed arch, known as the Early English, was used
+from about 1180 to 1300, including part of the reigns of Henry II.,
+Richard I., John, Henry III. and Edward I. "Nothing," says the Rev. J.
+M. Hutchinson, "could be more striking than the change from Norman to
+Early English. The two styles were the complete opposites of each other;
+the round arch was replaced by the pointed, often by the acute, lancet;
+the massive piers by graceful clustered shafts; the grotesque and
+rudely-sculptured capitals by foliage of the most exquisite character;
+and the heavy cylindrical mouldings by bands of deeply undercut
+members."
+
+ [Illustration: Arcading showing the junction of the Norman
+  and Early English Masonry. Dunstable Priory Church.
+ _Photograph H. A. Strange._]
+
+Gothic architecture differs from all previous forms in the economical
+use of material, and the small size of the stones used. Whereas in both
+Roman and Norman buildings the arrangement of the materials depended
+upon their strength in masses, the Gothic masons employed stones of
+small size in the construction of edifices of equal strength and of far
+greater magnificence; while in constructive properties the Gothic style
+was a great advance on anything that had gone before, as the buildings
+in this style did not depend for their stability on the vertical
+pressure of columns, but on the correct adjustment of the bearings and
+thrusts of different arches operating in various directions. Owing to
+the fact, then, that each portion of a Gothic Church helps to support
+something besides itself, it is obvious that such buildings could be
+erected with a far smaller quantity of material than was previously
+necessary. The various little shafts or columns are so disposed as to
+distribute the weight of the superstructure and thus relieve the greater
+columns or piers of some portion of the superincumbent weight; the
+aisles help to support the nave; the walls of the side chapels act
+as abutments against the walls of the aisles, while the towers are
+generally placed so as to resist the accumulated thrust of all the
+arches along the sides of the nave.
+
+ [Illustration: An Early English Doorway. Huntingdon.]
+
+The enrichments and little ornaments attached to mouldings, and
+particularly those placed in the hollows, are most characteristic of the
+various styles of Gothic architecture. The zig-zag is peculiar to the
+Norman, the nail head to the Transitional or semi-Norman, and the dog
+tooth to the Early English.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Ornament.]
+
+This last ornament represents a flower, looking like four sweet almonds
+arranged pyramidically, and there is no other ornament so distinctive of
+this period. Early English foliage is known by reason of the stalks
+always being shown as growing upwards from the lower ring of the
+capital, called the astrigal. These stalks are generally grouped
+together and curve forward in a very graceful manner. The plants mostly
+represented are the wild parsley, seakale and celery, and this foliage,
+called stiff-leaved foliage, is found at no other period than the end of
+the 12th century.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Mouldings.]
+
+Early English mouldings are very complicated and yet very beautiful, and
+consist of beads, keel and scroll patterns, separated by deep hollows
+giving a rich effect of light and shade round the arch. These deeply-cut
+hollows are also a distinctive mark of the style.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Windows.]
+
+The earliest windows of this period are long and narrow, with acutely
+pointed heads, the exterior angle being merely chamfered and the
+interior widely splayed. Somewhat later the introduction of tracery gave
+a highly beautiful appearance to the windows and from the character of
+this feature the date of the window can be fairly accurately determined.
+Where the tracery is formed by ornamental apertures pierced through a
+plate of stone, it is called plate tracery, and is certain to be of not
+later date than the earlier part of the 13th century. If it is bar
+tracery, with the bars forming plain circles, the work is also Early
+English, but if, on the other hand, the bars form other shapes filled in
+with patterns, or consisting of a single trefoil or quatrefoil, they are
+of later date.
+
+ [Illustration: The Church of St. Margaret, Lynn.
+  West Front showing the Early English work in the base of the Tower.
+ _Photograph Dexter & Son._]
+
+ [Illustration: Example of Group of Thirteenth Century Lancet Windows.
+  Ockham, Surrey. _Homeland Copyright._]
+
+The traceried window originated from the placing of a two-light narrow
+lancet window under one dripstone having a plain head, the introduction
+of tracery between the heads of the lancets and the dripstone
+becoming necessary for beauty and lightness of the form (_see page 47_).
+
+ [Side note: Early English Porches.]
+
+Early English porches project much further from the main walls than
+do the Norman doorways, and in large and important buildings they
+frequently have a room above. The gables are usually bold and high
+pitched, and the interiors quite as rich in design as are the
+exteriors.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Doorways.]
+
+The doorways of this period are usually pointed, though occasionally
+they have a semi-circular head. The mouldings are boldly cut and often
+enriched with dog tooth ornament. The jambs frequently contain a shaft
+or shafts with plain or foliated capitals (_see page 51_).
+
+ [Side note: Early English Capitals and Piers.]
+
+Early English capitals are usually bell-shaped, and are, in the smaller
+examples, quite devoid of ornament, with the exception of a necking and
+one or two mouldings round the abacus. The bell is generally deeply
+undercut, which, as in the mouldings, is a strong characteristic of the
+style. The nail head and dog tooth ornaments sometimes appear in the
+hollows between the mouldings. In the large examples the bell is covered
+with foliage, which, springing direct from the necking, curls over most
+gracefully beneath the abacus. In clustered piers the capitals follow
+the form of the pier, and they also adopt the same form in the single
+shaft, with the exception that multiangular shafts have often circular
+capitals. The base consists of a series of mouldings and frequently
+stands upon a double or single plinth, which in the earlier examples
+is square, but in later examples assumes the form of the base, and is
+either circular or polygonal. At Stone church, Kent, is a good example
+of an Early English capital, decorated with stiff-leaved foliage, and
+the dog tooth ornament, which in this case is seen between the mouldings
+of the arch, and is of a perforated character.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Buttresses.]
+
+The buttresses (_see page 17_) of this period are, as a rule, simple
+in form, and in small churches consist of two or more stages, each
+set-off or division being sloped at the top to carry off the rain. In
+larger buildings the buttress generally finishes with a triangular head
+or gable, and is frequently carried above the parapet, except where
+stone vaulting is used, in which case it is covered with a pinnacle
+either plain or ornamented. The edges are often chamfered or the
+angles ornamented with slender shafts. A niche to contain a statue is
+occasionally sunk in the face of the buttress, but this feature is
+more common in the next or Decorated period, although the change from
+one period to another was so gradual that the exact date of a niched
+buttress would be difficult to determine were there no other features to
+guide us.
+
+ [Illustration: Salisbury Cathedral. Begun in 1220.
+  The spire was added, 1350. _Drawn by Sidney Heath._]
+
+Flying buttresses were first introduced at this period, and are common
+in all large buildings with vaulted roofs. They are generally of simple
+design, with a plain capping and archivolt, and they spring from the
+wall buttress to the clerestory (_see page 17_).
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Early English Capitals and Ornament.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE DECORATED STYLE.
+
+
+The best examples of Gothic architecture may be said to have been
+erected between the years 1180 and 1300, and from the latter year many
+writers date the commencement of its decline. In England we owe nearly
+the whole of such magnificent buildings as the cathedrals of Lincoln,
+Salisbury, Worcester, and the abbey of Westminster to the 13th century,
+and there is scarcely a cathedral or abbey that does not owe some
+beautiful portion of its structure to the builders of the same period,
+the transepts and lady chapel of Hereford Cathedral, the eastern
+transepts of Durham, the nave and transepts of Wells, the transepts of
+York, the choir presbytery, central and eastern transepts of Rochester,
+the eastern portion of the choir of Ely, the west front of Peterborough,
+the choir of Southwell, the nave and transepts of Lichfield, and the
+choir of S. David's being a few of our most characteristic examples of
+this period. The style which followed the Early English is known as the
+Geometric or Early Decorated style, and it embraces roughly the end
+of the 13th century and the first twenty or thirty years of the 14th
+century, and continued in its later or Curvilinear form to near the end
+of that century. Perhaps the most perfect example of the Geometric style
+in the world is the cathedral church at Amiens, which is usually called
+the _mother church_ of this style, and although she has many daughters,
+none of them can be said to equal their parent in beauty.
+
+In England the most perfect examples are not to be looked for in
+cathedrals and large churches, but in their chapels, and the most superb
+specimen we possessed, S. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, has been
+destroyed within comparatively recent years. Those left to us include
+the chapel of the palace of the bishops of Ely, in Ely Place, Holborn,
+now the Roman Catholic Church of S. Etheldreda, a building almost
+identical in plan with the vanished chapel of S. Stephen. Trinity
+Church, Ely, once Our Lady's Chapel, and Prior Crawden's Chapel,
+in the same city, are lovely examples of the latest development of
+the Curvilinear style, while the former is considered the most
+highly-wrought building in England. Belonging to this period, also,
+is the choir of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, and Luton Church.
+
+The Decorated style may be divided as regards its windows into two
+classes--Geometric and Curvilinear. The first has tracery evolved
+entirely from the circle. The Curvilinear style is distinguished by
+traceries formed by curved and flowing lines. _See pages 15 and 59._
+
+ [Side note: Decorated Windows.]
+
+Decorated windows are usually large and contain from two to seven
+lights, although one sometimes finds a window with a single light, but
+of less elongated form than those of the Early English period.
+
+As we have seen in a previous chapter, tracery originated from the
+necessity of piercing that portion of the wall which was left vacant
+when two lights were gathered under a single arched dripstone, and
+therefore elementary tracery consisted merely of apertures in a flat
+surface. As the possibilities of this ornamental feature became better
+understood, the mullions were recessed from the face of the wall and the
+fine effect thus produced was, as the art progressed, much enhanced by
+the introduction of various orders of mullions, and by recessing certain
+portions of the tracery from the face of the mullions and their
+corresponding bars. The geometrical tracery, as we have seen, consists
+of various combinations of the circle, as the trefoil, based on the
+triangle, the quatrefoil on the square, the cinquefoil on the pentagon,
+etc.
+
+ [Illustration: A Late Decorated Window in a Parish Church.
+  East Sutton, Kent. _Photograph Gardner Waterman._]
+
+In Curvilinear windows the tracery, although based on the same forms and
+figures, is yet so blended into an intricate pattern that each figure
+does not stand out with the same individuality as in the Geometric.
+Among our most beautiful Geometric windows are those of the Lady Chapel
+at Exeter, Ely Chapel, and Merton Chapel, Oxford, and of the Curvilinear
+our best example is probably the east window of Carlisle Cathedral.
+
+It must be noted that beautiful as are Curvilinear windows, yet they
+mark a certain decadence in Gothic architecture, in that it is an
+irrational treatment of stone, and conveys the idea that the material
+was bent and not cut into the required shape, it being a well-established
+canon in art that when strength is sacrificed to mere elegance it marks
+a decline in that art.
+
+ [Side note: Decorated Capitals and Piers.]
+
+Decorated capitals as a rule follow the contour of the pier in clustered
+columns, and are either bell-shaped or octagonal. They are frequently
+only moulded, thus presenting rounds, ogees and hollows, on which the
+prevailing ornaments of the period, the ball and the square flower,
+are set. The foliated sculpture is most exquisite, and is gracefully
+wreathed around the bell, instead of rising from the astrigal or upper
+member of the capital, as in the earlier style.
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Decorated Ornament.
+  Finial                 Capital           Finial
+ (Wimborne Minster).    (York Minster).   (York Minster).
+                         Square Flower.
+                         Ball Flower.
+  Crocket                Cornice           Crockets
+ (Hereford Cathedral).  (Grantham).       (York Minster).
+ _Drawn by E. M. Heath._]
+
+Almost every variety of leaf and flower is represented, the oak, the
+vine and the rose being perhaps the most common, but the leaves of the
+maple, hazel, ivy and strawberry are all so beautifully rendered as to
+evidence their having been directly studied from nature. Plucked flowers
+too, are not uncommon, and sometimes the little stalks and foliage
+are accompanied by birds, lizards, squirrels and other creatures. The
+columns of this period are much more elaborate than those of the Early
+English style, and in plan have curved profiles with moulded members
+between the shafts. These mouldings are very varied, but the hollows not
+being so deeply undercut, the general effect is broader and less liney
+than in the Early English; while the Decorated arches are less sharply
+pointed than in the previous style.
+
+ [Side note: Decorated Doorways.]
+
+The doorways of this style possess much the same features as the last,
+but the mouldings, jamb shafts, etc., are more slender, and generally of
+finer proportions, the hollows being often filled with the ball flower
+and square flower instead of the dog tooth. Sometimes the doorways have
+no pillars, being entirely composed of mouldings which are continuous
+with those in the architrave. The large single doorways of this period
+are nearly as large as the double ones of Early English date, and on the
+sides small buttresses or niches are sometimes placed, and often one
+finds a series of niches carried up like a hollow moulding, and filled
+with figures. The figures of this period are not so good as in the
+previous style, the heads seem too large for the bodies, and in the
+female figures the breasts are represented as quite flat. Where there
+are no figures double foliated tracery is often found hanging from one
+of the outer mouldings, giving an effect of great richness.
+
+ [Side note: Decorated Buttresses.]
+
+The buttresses (_see page 17_) in the Decorated style are nearly always
+worked in stages, and a niche frequently figures on the face of the
+buttress. Crocketed canopies and other carved decorations are common,
+and in large buildings they usually terminate in pinnacles, which are
+sometimes of open work.
+
+A Gothic building attains its effect by the combination of numerous
+parts, each possessing an individual character of its own. In its
+loftiness, graceful outlines, and rich effect of light and shade, it
+speaks of noble aspirations, of freedom, of intellectual thought,
+of talent and skill, all generously given for a high purpose, the
+foundation of which was a strong religious enthusiasm, combined with
+an intense love of the work itself.
+
+ [Side note: Characteristics of Gothic Architecture.]
+
+Having now arrived at the point where Gothic architecture reached its
+climax, we may briefly sum up its leading characteristics. It is
+essentially pointed or vertical; its details are mostly geometrical in
+its window traceries, clusters of shafts and bases, but this geometric
+quality is only one of construction and form and not of its inner spirit
+and motive, for plants copied directly from nature were used in
+beautiful profusion.
+
+If we compare a large Gothic church with a comparatively small one, we
+shall find the columns, windows, ornaments of the former are not so very
+much larger than those of the latter, but that there are double or three
+times the number of them. This is not the case in a classical building,
+where each feature has to be enlarged in proportion to the size of the
+building. It is the constant sub-division of a Gothic Church which adds
+so to its apparent size.
+
+Ornamentally, the Gothic is the geometrical and pointed elements
+repeated to their utmost and afterwards combined with the elaboration of
+natural objects, plants, flowers, etc., growing in the neighbourhood of
+the work. This is a great feature, but the most striking point in all
+good Gothic work is the wonderful elaboration of geometric tracery,
+vesicas, trefoils, quatrefoils and an immense variety of other ornament.
+
+In regard to the sizes of our great churches it may be of interest to
+note that our longest English cathedral is Winchester. York and Lincoln,
+although not so long as Winchester, are in superficial area very much
+larger. The largest English church of a non-cathedral rank is
+Westminster Abbey, which has, moreover, the distinction of being the
+loftiest internally; the nave being 104 ft. in height. The largest
+parish church is that of S. Nicholas, Great Yarmouth, which exceeds in
+superficial area no fewer than eight of our cathedrals.
+
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Perpendicular Ornament.
+     Panel.                        Crocket.
+  Tudor Rose.      Portcullis.   Fleur de Lys.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE.
+
+
+Towards the close of the XIVth century a great change came over English
+Gothic architecture, a change which was to a certain extent a return to
+classical ideas. The curvilinear tracery gave place to a rigid vertical
+and horizontal form, with the result that windows and panels instead of
+being filled with curved bars of stone, were sub-divided by straight
+perpendicular bars and transoms or cross-bars.
+
+This style of architecture is popularly known as Perpendicular, but as
+the horizontal lines are quite as distinct a feature as are the vertical,
+it would perhaps be more correct to speak of it as Rectilinear. This
+change in architectural form made its appearance towards the close of
+the XIVth century, although it was by no means generally introduced at
+that period, for the old methods and styles were carried on side by side
+with the new for many years. For example, the eastern end of the choir
+of York Minster (1361-99) possesses a window the traceries of which
+contain both curvilinear and rectilinear lines, while Shottesbrook
+Church in Berkshire (1387), and Wimmington Church, Bedfordshire (1391)
+are examples of village churches neither of which has any feature of the
+Perpendicular style.
+
+ [Illustration: Yeovil Parish Church (A.D. 1376).
+  Early Perpendicular in style, without a clerestory, and called,
+  for its large window area, the "Lantern of the West."]
+
+In its earlier stages the Perpendicular style presented an effect at
+once good and bold; the mouldings, though not equal to the best of the
+Decorated style, were well defined, the enrichments effective, and the
+details delicate without extravagant minuteness. Subsequently the
+style underwent a gradual debasement; the arches became depressed; the
+mouldings impoverished, the details crowded and coarsely executed, and
+the whole style became wanting in the chaste and elegant effects for
+which the Decorated stands unapproached and unapproachable. The flowing
+contours and curved lines of the previous style now gave place in the
+windows to mullions running straight up from the bottom to the top, and
+crossed by transoms. As the arch became more and more depressed the
+mouldings became shallower and less effective. In early buildings of
+this period the drop arch is very prevalent, but as the period advanced
+a form known as the Tudor arch began to be used. It is an arch in which,
+as a rule, the centres of the upper portion lie immediately below those
+of the lower, but this is not always the case. Sometimes the whole of
+the upper portion uniting the arcs of the ends is struck from one centre,
+in which case the arch becomes a three-centred one, being, in fact, half
+an ellipse. Towards the close of the style the curvature of the upper
+portion is so slight that it can hardly be distinguished from a straight
+line, and as the debasement progressed it became really straight. Ogee
+arches are also found at this period, and foiled arches are very frequent.
+When the Tudor arch was not used, we generally find the low drop arch,
+these three last being mostly used for small openings.
+
+ [Illustration: A Fine Parish Church showing Rich Perpendicular Work.
+  Terrington St. Clement, Norfolk. _Photograph Dexter & Son._]
+
+The peculiar characteristics of the windows--the perpendicular
+mullions and horizontal transoms--we have already alluded to.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Windows.]
+
+The window heads, instead of being filled with flowing tracery, have
+slender mullions running from the heads of the lights between each
+mullion, and these again have smaller transoms, until the whole surface
+of the window becomes divided into a series of panels, the heads of
+which being arched, are trefoiled or cinquefoiled. In the later windows
+the transoms at the top are often furnished with a small ornamental
+battlement, causing the mullions to present a concave outline.
+
+ [Illustration: A Perpendicular Doorway.
+  Merton College Chapel. _Drawn by E. M. Heath._]
+
+The plans of churches in this style differ from all others in that they
+are more spacious, the columns more slender and wider apart, the windows
+much larger, and the walls loftier and thinner. Panelling is used most
+abundantly on walls, both internally and externally, and also on
+vaulting, while some buildings, as Henry the Seventh's Chapel at
+Westminster, are almost entirely covered with it. Fan tracery vaulting,
+a feature peculiar to this style, is almost invariably covered with
+panelling.
+
+The mouldings of this period are essentially different from those which
+preceded them. As a general rule they are cut on a slanting or chamfer
+plane, the groups of mouldings being separated by a shallow oval-shaped
+hollow, entirely different from those of the Decorated period.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Doorways.]
+
+The doorways of the early portion of this period had two-centred arches,
+but the characteristic form is the four-centred, enclosed in a square
+head, formed by the outer mouldings with a hood mould of the same shape,
+the spandrels being filled with quatrefoils, roses, shields, etc.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Capitals.]
+
+Perpendicular capitals are either circular or octagonal, but the necking
+is usually of the former shape, and the upper members of the abacus of
+the latter form. The bell portion is mostly plain, but is often enriched
+with foliage of a very conventional character, shallow and formal,
+without either the freedom or the boldness of the Early English, or the
+exquisite grace of the Decorated periods. A distinguishing feature in
+the ornamentation of this period is that called panel-tracery, with
+which the walls and vaulted ceilings are covered. The patterns are found
+in a variety of forms, as circles, squares, quatrefoils, etc.
+
+ [Side note: Fan Vaulting.]
+
+The rich vaulting called fan vaulting previously alluded to, is composed
+of pendant curved semi-cones, covered with foliated panel-work, which
+bears some resemblance to a fan spread open.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Ornament.]
+
+Another very characteristic ornament is the Tudor flower. It is formed
+by a series of flat leaves placed upright against the stalk. It was
+much used in late buildings as a crest or ornamental finishing to
+cornices, etc., to which it gave an embattled appearance. Cornices and
+brackets were frequently ornamented with busts of winged angels called
+angel-brackets, and angel-corbels. The portcullis and the Tudor
+rose--both badges of the house of Tudor--also figure prominently among
+the ornaments of the period. The crockets for the most part partake of
+the squareness which pervades all the foliage of this style. _See page
+64._
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Buttresses.]
+
+The buttresses are very similar to those preceding them in their plainer
+forms, but, in richer examples the faces are covered with panel work
+and are finished with square pinnacles sometimes set diagonally and
+terminated with a crocketed spire, or finished with an animal or other
+ornament. Parapets with square battlements are very common at this period,
+but they too are frequently panelled or pierced with tracery, or with
+trefoils or quatrefoils inserted in square, circular or triangular
+compartments.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Roofs.]
+
+The roofs of this period, both in ecclesiastical and secular buildings,
+are very magnificent, and have the whole of the framing exposed to view;
+many of them are of high pitch, the spaces between the timbers being
+filled with tracery, and the beams arched, moulded and ornamented in
+various ways; and frequently pendants, figures of angels, and other
+carvings are introduced. The flatter roofs are sometimes lined with
+boards and divided into panels by ribs, or have the timbers open, and
+all enriched with mouldings and carvings, as at Cirencester church,
+Gloucestershire.
+
+The gradual decline of the Gothic style is very evident in late
+Perpendicular churches, especially in those erected at the beginning
+of the XVIth century. The elements of Gothic architecture became much
+degraded and led to that mixture of features called the Debased Gothic
+in which every real principle of art and of beauty was lost.
+
+ [Illustration: A Perpendicular Porch.
+  S. Nicholas, King's Lynn. _Photograph Dexter & Son._]
+
+The chief characteristics, then, of the Perpendicular style are the
+vertical mullions, and the general flattening of arches, mouldings and
+carvings. Should there be no other guide, a Perpendicular church carries
+its style and period stamped upon its carvings. The plants represented
+are, almost without exception, the vine with or without grapes, and
+the oak with or without acorns. The leaves are generally full blown and
+crumpled. The earliest building showing the Perpendicular style is the
+beautiful little priory church of Edington, in Wilts, erected by William
+Edington, Bishop of Winchester. The same style, but more fully developed,
+is seen in the nave of Winchester Cathedral, at New College, Oxford, and
+at Winchester College.
+
+It is generally admitted that the Perpendicular style was, to a certain
+extent, a return to classical ideas, for Gothic architecture in its
+aspiring grace and feeling for motion was becoming a little unsteady in
+construction, and although the movement was started by Bishop Edington,
+it was left to William of Wykeham to save our English Gothic architecture
+from developing into the flamboyant[1] style so characteristic of the
+late Gothic buildings of France and Germany.
+
+It is little less than astounding that William of Wykeham, at once Prime
+Minister, diplomatist, scholar and energetic churchman, should have found
+time to introduce such far-reaching reforms into the art of building,
+and whatever his fame may be in other directions he will always be
+remembered by posterity as one of the most remarkable geniuses of the
+Middle Ages, a man of giant mind and immense physical energy, who
+carried into all his work a large and dignified character, stamping it
+with the unmistakable personality of a master mind.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Towers.]
+
+As builders and designers of church towers the masons of the
+Perpendicular era have never been approached, and all our finest English
+towers are of this style and period.
+
+ [Illustration: A Fine Perpendicular Tower.
+  St. Mary, Taunton. _Photograph H. Montague Cooper._]
+
+Considerations of space will only allow a few of these towers to be
+mentioned, but among the finest are those at Boston, Lincolnshire;
+Wrexham, Denbighshire; Wymondham, Heigham and S. Clement's in Norfolk;
+Southwold Church in Suffolk; Manchester Cathedral, S. Nicholas' Church,
+Newcastle, and S. Mary's Church, Taunton. Of Perpendicular date and
+style, also, are the great lantern towers of Worcester, Bristol,
+Gloucester, York and Durham Cathedrals, in addition to the fine
+bell-tower of Evesham Abbey.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Spires.]
+
+The spire, although less commonly used than formerly, was by no means
+abandoned, and beautiful examples of Perpendicular spires are those at
+S. Michael's, Coventry, and Rotherham Church, Yorkshire. Although
+nearly all our cathedrals have some portion of their fabric in the
+Perpendicular style, chantries, chapels, cloisters, vaulting, screens,
+etc., it was in our parochial churches that Perpendicular architecture
+reached its highest and finest development. Just as the XIIIth century
+was the great age for cathedral building, so the latter end of the XIVth
+and earlier half of the XVth centuries was the period to which we owe
+some of the most beautiful of our parish churches, as S. Michael's,
+Coventry (fin. 1395); S. Nicholas, Lynn (fin. 1400); Manchester
+Cathedral (formerly a collegiate church), (1422); Fotheringay Church,
+Northants (fin. 1435); Southwold Church, Suffolk (1440), and S. Mary
+Redcliffe, Bristol (about 1442). A little later came, among others,
+Wakefield Church, Yorkshire (1470), S. Stephen's, Bristol (1470), S.
+Mary's, Oxford, and its namesake at Cambridge (both in 1478) and Long
+Melford Church, Suffolk (1481).
+
+Apart from the actual buildings the Perpendicular architects, masons and
+sculptors have left us some beautiful work in the form of timber roofs,
+screens, stalls and seats. Among the more notable roofs of this period
+are those at S. Peter's, S. Andrew's and S. Mary's, Norwich, the one at
+Morton Church in Somerset, those at Saffron Walden and Thaxted, Essex,
+and a particularly fine one at S. David's Cathedral in Wales. Among the
+remarkable domestic roofs in this style are those at Westminster Hall
+and Eltham Palace.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE RENAISSANCE AND LATER.
+
+
+So far we have been considering Gothic churches, but we now come to the
+time when, from a variety of causes, the Italian architects, among them
+Palladio and Vitruvius, began to revive classical architecture, a
+movement which gradually spread over other parts of Europe.
+
+ [Side note: The Classic Revival.]
+
+The various causes which led to this apparently retrograde movement are
+still involved in considerable obscurity. The commercial prosperity of
+the age produced a class who travelled abroad and cultivated the fine
+arts, with the result that they desired to see erected in England
+buildings such as they had seen in Rome, Florence, Genoa and Padua. It
+is generally admitted that the ramifications of Gothic architecture had
+reached their utmost limit, and the style was getting out of hand, as
+is seen by the flamboyant buildings on the continent. The revival of
+classical literature in western Europe gave an impetus to the movement
+which was largely intended to enfold art within the shelter of an
+enlightened taste, and protect it from the licence of unordered
+enthusiasm. How far it succeeded is not a question that can be discussed
+at length here, but, however good their intentions may have been, the
+architects used little discrimination in the selection of buildings
+which were to serve as models for Christian churches, and although
+subsequently considerable improvements were made, yet, most of the
+defects in the pagan buildings of the ancients were retained in such as
+were intended to be utilized for Christian worship, and even considered
+purely as exercises in architecture it was not until the more chaste
+remains of antiquity began to be studied that the spirit and harmony of
+the good examples were attained. A greater contrast than the methods
+employed by the Gothic mason and the Renaissance architect could not
+well be imagined. The former shaped his material with his own hands; the
+foster mother of his art was tradition and its cradle the craftsman's
+bench; whereas the latter, with no builder's training, worked out his
+flawless and precise plans in the exotic atmosphere of the office and
+the study. The practice of making working drawings for every detail
+of the building was the cause of the decline of ornamental sculpture,
+with the result that all life and growth in the building ceased. Some
+authorities are very severe on the Renaissance movement. Dr. Fergusson,
+in his "_Modern Styles of Architecture_," says: "During the Gothic era
+the art of building was evolved by the simple exercise of man's reason,
+with the result that the work of this period is the instinctive natural
+growth of man's mind. The buildings, on the other hand, which were
+designed in the imitative styles, and produced on a totally different
+principle, present us with an entirely different result, and one
+which frequently degrades architecture from its high position of a
+quasi-natural production to that of a mere imitative art."
+
+ [Side note: Inigo Jones and Wren.]
+
+Be this as it may, the severe classical style introduced into England by
+Inigo Jones (who studied in Italy under Palladio), and continued by Sir
+Christopher Wren, soon swept everything before it.
+
+Our most remarkable church in this style is S. Paul's Cathedral, which
+in style has two very adverse circumstances to struggle against. In the
+first place, it bears so great a similarity to the great church of
+S. Peter, at Rome, that one cannot help comparing it with that fine
+example, and secondly, it is the only English cathedral which is not in
+the Gothic style. It must, of course, be acknowledged that S. Paul's
+falls far short of S. Peter's, especially in its lighting, but it does
+not deserve the condemnation of a great German critic, who said, "It is
+a building marked neither by elegance of form nor vigour of style."
+Although the interior of its dome and clerestory of the nave and choir
+are extremely gloomy when compared with those of S. Peter's, the church
+is generally acknowledged to be far superior to the latter in its
+architectural details, and few, if any, Italian churches can be said to
+surpass it, either in general composition or external effect, although
+it must be admitted that everything having been sacrificed to attain the
+latter quality, S. Paul's taken as a whole, is neither worthy of its
+fine situation nor of its great architect.
+
+Other churches which are excellent examples of this style are S.
+Stephen's, Walbrook, and S. Mary Abchurch, London. Both show remarkable
+skill. The former is divided into a nave and four aisles, transepts, and
+a shallow chancel, by four rows of Corinthian columns, with a small dome
+over the intersection. The interior is very beautiful, and this church
+is generally considered to be Wren's masterpiece. S. Mary Abchurch, is
+nearly square in plan, has no columns and is covered with a domical
+ceiling, but so skilfully treated that the effect is singularly
+pleasing.
+
+ [Side note: Hawkesmore.]
+
+Of the Elizabethan and Jacobean buildings it is necessary to say little,
+as at best they are but clumsy imitations of the Flemish, French and
+Italian Renaissance, while the style which we now call Queen Anne came
+in towards the close of the XVIIth century, and belongs of right to the
+reign of Charles II. Hawkesmore, a pupil and follower of Wren, was a
+strong architect who has left us Christ Church, Spitalfields, and S.
+Mary Woolnoth. He also designed the western towers of Westminster Abbey,
+often wrongly ascribed to Wren, and the second quadrangle of All Souls'
+College, Oxford. This architect, like the majority of his contemporaries,
+misunderstood and despised the Gothic style, with which he had little
+real sympathy; he drew out designs, which still exist, for converting
+Westminster Abbey into an Italian church, just as Inigo Jones had done
+with the exterior of the nave of old S. Paul's, but we cannot be too
+thankful that this abominable suggestion was never carried out.
+
+ [Illustration: An English Renaissance Church.
+  S. Stephen's, Walbrook, London. Generally considered to be
+  Sir Christopher Wren's masterpiece. _From an Engraving dated 1806._]
+
+With King George III. on the throne our ancestors contented themselves
+with dull, but substantial, buildings of which some hard things have
+been written, but they were at least respectable and free from sham,
+while the churches, although not elegant, were well-built and occasionally
+picturesque, as we see by the perfect little building of this date at
+Billesley, Warwickshire.
+
+The eighteenth century pseudo-classical abominations and sham Gothic, so
+favoured by Horace Walpole and his admirers, can be briefly dismissed.
+A more rampant piece of absurdity than that of erecting imitations of
+portions of Greek temples and adapting them for Christian worship it
+is difficult to imagine, and in the Pavilion at Brighton, Marylebone
+Church, and the "Extinguisher" Church in Langham Place we even surpassed
+in bad taste and vulgarity all the absurdities of the Continental
+architecture produced by the French Revolution.
+
+ [Side note: Barry and Pugin.]
+
+Two men now came on the scene who, united, were destined to bring some
+kind of order out of this chaos. Barry and Pugin were both scholars and
+architects, for while the former rather favoured the classical style he
+thoroughly understood the Gothic, while Pugin was a thorough mediævalist,
+a true artist, and a bold exponent in his "_Contrasts_" of a complete
+return to mediæval architecture as the only possible cure for the evils
+which had crept into the art of building.
+
+Barry's idea, which was perhaps the more practical, was to correct by
+careful study the errors into which the later exponents of both Classic
+and Gothic architecture had fallen, and endeavour by well thought out
+modifications to evolve a style more suitable to modern requirements.
+Pugin, however, would have none of the evil thing, and although he
+supplied his friend with designs for the details and woodwork of the
+Houses of Parliament which Barry was rebuilding, they did not collaborate
+in any further way, and both died before the Houses of Parliament
+were completed, in which, as a matter of fact, Barry's designs were
+completely ignored. The Reform Club is considered to be the best of
+Barry's classical buildings.
+
+Pugin's earlier works were mostly Roman Catholic churches, and they are
+acknowledged to be an immense advance on any Gothic work which had been
+seen for centuries. In the Roman Catholic Cathedral of S. Chad, at
+Birmingham, there is a dignity, loftiness and simplicity surpassed by
+few Gothic buildings when that style was at its zenith, and from the
+time Pugin designed this building, architecture--notwithstanding our
+exhaustive study of archæology, our immense resources of capital and
+labour, our science and labour-saving appliances, and the comparative
+accessibility of the finest materials--has neither developed nor advanced.
+The most erudite Gothic mason could have possessed but little art
+knowledge as compared with the modern architect, and yet with our
+learned societies, wonderful libraries, easily obtained photographs and
+plans of the best buildings in the world; with writers far superior in
+intellectual acquirements to those of the Middle Ages, our vast wealth,
+with our tools such as the mediæval craftsman could never have dreamed
+of, and with the experience of twenty centuries to guide us we have
+made no advance during more than half a century. Our best architects
+acknowledge that until we get a new method of building, originality in
+architecture is an impossibility, mainly because all the existing styles
+of architecture have been worked out to their legitimate conclusion,
+and have been perfected under circumstances and conditions with which
+we have entirely broken; the originality in detail which pervades and
+permeates our Gothic buildings and gives them the greater part of their
+charm, must, of necessity, be out of our reach until we blend the spirit
+of what we are pleased to call our practical age, with a certain amount
+of that spirit of poetry and romance, religious fervour and devoutness,
+which animated the builders and craftsmen of the past.
+
+
+ [Illustration: A Typical Cornish Font.
+  Probably of the late Norman period. Now at Maker, near Plymouth.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+CHURCH FURNITURE AND ORNAMENTS.
+
+
+The most important part of the internal furniture of a church is the
+altar, a name derived from the Latin _altare_, a high place. The altar
+is a raised structure on which propitiatory offerings are placed. In the
+Christian church the altar is a table or slab on which the instruments
+of the Eucharist are displayed.
+
+ [Side note: The Altar.]
+
+The early Christian altars were portable structures of wood, and the
+Church of Rome still allows the use of an altar of this description,
+although a consecrated stone, containing an authentic relic and regarded
+as the true altar, must be placed upon the wooden table. The slab
+forming the altar was sometimes supported on pillars, but more
+frequently on solid masonry, and previous to the Reformation it was
+marked with five crosses cut into the top, in allusion to the five
+wounds of Christ. From the period that stone altars were introduced it
+was usual to enclose within them the relics of saints, so that in some
+cases they were the actual tombs of saints. In England the altars were
+generally taken down about the year 1550, set up again in the beginning
+of the reign of Queen Mary, and again removed in the second year of
+Queen Elizabeth. In the church of Porlock, Somerset, the original high
+altar has been preserved, though not in use, being placed against the
+north wall of the chancel. In Dunster Church, in the same county, there
+is a solid stone altar, said to have been the original high altar, and
+in the ruined church of S. Mary Magdalene at Ripon, the high altar has
+escaped destruction. Of chantry altars we have several left, including
+those at Abbey Dore, Herefordshire; Grosmont, Monmouthshire; Chipping
+Norton, Oxon.; Warmington, Warwick; S. Giles's, Oxford; Lincoln
+Cathedral, and many others; and it is rare to find a Gothic church
+without some traces of altars in their various chapels, oratories or
+chantries.
+
+The altar is, of course, an adoption by the Christian church of a pagan
+aid to worship, and at S. Mary's church, Wareham, which is thought to
+stand on the site of a Roman temple, are some pieces of stone considered
+by antiquaries to be portions of a pagan altar, on which burnt offerings
+were placed.
+
+Above many Christian altars was placed a piece of sculpture or a
+painting representing some religious subject. These altar pieces
+sometimes consist of two pictures, when they are called "diptyches," and
+sometimes of three pictures, when they are called "triptyches," and
+both forms usually fold up or are provided with shutters. They are often
+rare examples of the Flemish and other schools of painting, and of great
+value.
+
+At the Reformation the stone altar was displaced by the communion table,
+which at first occupied the position vacated by the altar. This gave
+umbrage to the Puritan mind, and the communion table was then usually
+placed in the centre of the chancel, with seats all round for the
+communicants; which arrangement is still in vogue in some of our English
+churches and in Jersey, although at the Restoration the communion table
+was, as a general rule, replaced at the eastern wall of the Chancel.
+
+ [Illustration: _Durham Sanctuary Knocker._]
+
+Long before the Christian era the altar was regarded as a place of
+refuge for those fleeing from justice or oppression, and this custom or
+privilege of sanctuary was sanctioned by the English bishops and was
+retained for many centuries by the Christian Church. Many of our parish
+churches claim to possess old sanctuary rings or knockers, but it is
+doubtful if any of these were ever used by fugitives, for the reason
+that although in early days every parish church had the right to grant
+sanctuary, few possessed the means of feeding and housing a refugee,
+save in the church itself, which was expressly forbidden. This is why
+we find records of fugitives travelling many miles at the risk of their
+lives and passing hundreds of parish churches in their endeavour to reach
+Bury St. Edmunds, Hexham, Durham or some other of the well-recognised
+sanctuaries. The only sanctuary knocker remaining to-day, which is
+above suspicion, is that at Durham Cathedral. It is made of bronze and
+represents the grotesque head of a dragon, the ring coming from the
+mouth.
+
+ [Illustration: The Baptistery in Luton Church.
+ _Photograph Fredk. Thurston, F.R.P.S._]
+
+Above the door is a small room in which attendants watched by
+day and night, and when a fugitive was admitted a bell was rung to
+announce that someone had taken sanctuary.
+
+ [Side note: The Font.]
+
+The font, as we have seen, was originally placed in a separate building
+called the baptistery. The only known example of anything of the kind
+in England is that in S. Mary's Church, Luton, fully described in The
+Homeland Handbook, No. 47. It is in the Decorated style, dates from the
+time of Edward III., and is said to have been designed by William of
+Wykeham for Queen Philippa. It is composed of white stone with open
+panels, pierced by cinquefoils and quatrefoils, while the apex of each
+panel terminates in a foliated finial. The font inside is octagonal
+in form and of 13th century date, but it has been somewhat restored.
+Ancient fonts were always large enough to allow for total immersion,
+and our present custom of baptism by affusion, or sprinkling, is only
+permitted, not enjoined by the rubric. In early days the sacrament of
+baptism was only administered by the bishops at the great festivals of
+Pentecost and Easter, for the reason that this afforded the greater
+convenience for immediate confirmation, but with the increase in the
+number of churches the rite was administered by the priests in every
+village. The font was required by the canon to be of stone, but there
+are a few Norman fonts made of lead, among them those at S. Mary's
+Church, Wareham, Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey, and at Edburton, Parham,
+and Pyecombe, Sussex. A remarkable font is that at Dolton Church, Devon,
+made up of fragments of the churchyard cross, and there is also a
+somewhat similar one at Melbury Bubb, Dorset. By a constitution of
+Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury (1236), fonts were required to be
+covered and locked, and at first these covers were little more than
+plain lids, but they afterwards became highly ornamental and were
+enriched with buttresses, pinnacles, crockets, etc. It is doubtful if
+any fonts exist which can reasonably be supposed to be Saxon, although
+a few, like that at Little Billing, Northants, may possibly be of that
+era. Of Norman fonts we have large numbers. They are sometimes plain
+hollow cylinders; others are massive squares with a large pillar in
+the centre, and small shafts at the corners. These fonts are generally
+ornamented with rudely executed carvings, consisting of foliage and
+grotesque animals.
+
+
+ [Illustration: An Example of a Leaden Font of the late Norman period.
+  Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey.]
+
+The one in Winchester Cathedral is a good example, and there are three
+other very similar ones in Hampshire. Early English fonts are very often
+circular, and sometimes square, and they are often supported in much the
+same way as the Norman ones. In the Decorated and Perpendicular styles
+they are, with few exceptions, octagonal, and the details generally
+partake of the character of those used in the other architectural features
+of the period. There are hexagonal fonts of Decorated date at Rolvenden,
+Kent, and Heckington, Lincs. The font is usually placed close to a pillar
+near the entrance, generally that nearest but one to the tower in the
+south arcade, or, in larger buildings, in the middle of the nave.
+
+ [Side note: Stoups.]
+
+The holy-water stoups sometimes found in our old churches are generally
+small niches with stone basins formed in the wall either in or just
+outside the porch, or within the church close to the door, or in one of
+the pillars nearest to the door. These niches resemble piscinas, except
+that they differ in situation, are smaller and plainer, and rarely have
+a drain. A good example of an outside stoup is that at Broadmayne,
+Dorset, where there is also one inside the church. They are rarely found
+unmutilated, but there is one in perfect condition in the north porch of
+Thornham Church, Kent; and a rather elaborate example at Pylle Church,
+near Glastonbury.
+
+ [Illustration: A Reputed Saxon Font. Shaldon, Devon.]
+
+The piscina is a water-drain formerly placed near the altar and
+consisting of a shallow stone basin, or sink, with a drain to carry off
+whatever is poured into it.
+
+ [Side note: Piscinas.]
+
+It was used to receive the water in which the priest washed his hands,
+as well as for that with which the chalice was rinsed at the celebration
+of the mass. It was usually placed within a niche, although the basin
+often projects from the face of the wall, and is sometimes supported
+on a shaft rising from the floor. In the Early English and Decorated
+periods there are often two basins and two drains, and occasionally
+three. Within the niche a wooden or stone shelf is often found, called
+a credence-table, on which the sacred vessels were placed previous to
+their being required at the altar.
+
+ [Illustration: A Detached Holy-water Stoup of unusual design.
+  Wooton Courtenay, Som.]
+
+Piscinas are unknown in England of earlier date than the middle of the
+12th century, and of that date they are extremely rare. Of thirteenth
+and succeeding centuries we have many examples, more or less mutilated.
+Their forms and decorations are very various, but the character of their
+architectural features will always decide their approximate date.
+
+ [Side note: Sedilia.]
+
+The Sedilia, from the Latin _sedile_, a seat, has come to be applied in
+modern times to the seats used by the celebrants during the pauses in
+the mass. They were sometimes moveable, but more usually in this country
+were formed of masonry and recessed in the wall. They are generally three
+in number, for the priest, deacon and sub-deacon, while in a few rare
+instances they number four seats, as at Rothwell Church, Northants, and
+Furness Abbey; or even five, as at Southwell Minster. Sometimes a long
+single seat under one arch is found, and when three seats are used the
+two western ones are often on the same level and the eastern one raised
+above them. Numerous examples remain in our churches, some being as
+early as the latter part of the 12th century, but they are mostly later
+and extend to the end of the Perpendicular style. Some of them are
+separated by shafts, and profusely ornamented with panelling, niches,
+statues, pinnacles, tabernacle work, and crowned with canopies all more
+or less elaborately enriched.
+
+ [Side note: Stalls.]
+
+Stalls are fixed seats in the choir, either wholly or partially enclosed
+and used by the clergy. Previous to the Reformation all large and many
+small churches had a range of wooden stalls on each side and at the west
+end of the choir. In cathedrals they were enclosed at the back with
+panelling, and surmounted by overhanging canopies of tabernacle work,
+generally of oak, of which those at Winchester, Henry VII.'s Chapel at
+Westminster, and Manchester Cathedral are possibly our finest examples.
+When the stalls occupied both sides of the choir, return seats were
+placed at the ends for the prior, dean, precentor, and other of the
+officiating clergy.
+
+ [Illustration: Sedilia and Chantry. Luton, Beds.
+ _Photograph Fredk. Thurston, F.R.P.S._]
+
+Mr. Parker, in his "_Glossary of Architecture_," gives the following
+definition of the miserere, patience or pretella. "The projecting bracket
+on the underside of the seats of stalls in churches; these, when perfect,
+are fixed with hinges so they may be turned up, and when this is done the
+projection of the miserere is sufficient, without actually forming a
+seat, to afford very considerable rest to anyone leaning upon it. They
+were allowed as a relief to the infirm during the long services that
+were required to be performed by ecclesiastics in a standing posture."
+It is in the carving of these that one is frequently struck by the
+curious mixture of the sacred and the profane, the refined and the
+vulgar, for which it is difficult to find any adequate explanation. Of
+so coarse a nature are some of these carvings that it has been necessary
+to entirely remove them from the stalls. They are usually attributed to
+the mendicant and wandering monks, and they undoubtedly reflect the
+licentiousness which at one time pervaded the monastic and conventual
+establishments. Among our best examples are those at Christchurch
+Priory, Hants, and in Henry VII.'s Chapel. There is a remarkably
+complete set in Exeter Cathedral.
+
+ [Illustration: A Typical Somerset Bench-End.
+  Showing a Fuller at work with the implements of his trade. Spaxton.
+ _Photograph Mr. Page._]
+
+Of modern pews it is not necessary to say anything here, but previous
+to the Reformation the nave of a church was usually fitted with fixed
+seats, parted from each other by wainscoting, and partially enclosed at
+the ends by framed panelling, but more often by solid pieces of wood,
+either panelled or carved on the front. These bench-ends are very common
+in the West of England, in Somerset and Devon, and they are often very
+beautiful pieces of work and were in all probability executed by local
+craftsmen. They embrace a variety of subjects: figures, scrolls, dragons,
+serpents, etc., and frequently bear the arms of the family who owned the
+pew. Sometimes they terminate at the top with finials either in the form
+of heads, bunches of foliage, a chamfered _fleur-de-lys_ and a variety
+of other ornaments called Poppy-heads, from the French _Poupée_. No
+examples are known to exist earlier than the Decorated style, but of
+Perpendicular date specimens are very numerous, especially in our
+cathedrals and old abbey churches.
+
+ [Side note: Pulpits.]
+
+Pulpits were formerly placed, not only in churches, but in the
+refectories and occasionally in the cloisters of monasteries, and there
+is one in the outer court of Magdalen College, Oxford, and another at
+Shrewsbury. In former times pulpits were placed in the nave attached
+to a wall, pillar or screen, usually against the second pier from the
+chancel arch. Some are of wood, others of stone; the former are mostly
+polygonal, with the panels enriched with foliation or tracery. Few exist
+of earlier date than the Perpendicular style, but stone pulpits of
+Decorated date are sometimes met with as at Beaulieu, Hants, a very
+early specimen. Wooden pulpits are usually hexagonal or octagonal; some
+stand on slender wooden stems, others on stone bases. A few have canopies
+or sounding boards, and their dates can be fixed by the character of
+their ornamentation. At Kenton, Devon, there is an early pulpit which
+has retained its original paintings. Jacobean pulpits are very numerous,
+and are frequently gilded and painted; the one at S. Saviour's Church,
+Dartmouth, being a most elaborate example.
+
+ [Illustration: A Richly Carved Pulpit and Canopy.
+  Edlesborough, Bucks. _Photograph H. A. Strange._]
+
+Open-air preaching is anything but a modern invention, for long before
+the erection of parish churches it was the recognised method of addressing
+the people. There is a print of some popular bishop preaching in a
+pulpit at Paul's Cross in S. Paul's Churchyard, and in mediæval days
+open-air pulpits were erected near the roads, on bridges and often on
+the steps of the market crosses, which are often still known as
+preaching crosses.
+
+ [Side note: Squints.]
+
+In some of our churches is to be seen a squint, an opening in an oblique
+direction through a wall or pier for the purpose of enabling persons in
+the aisles or transepts to see the elevation of the Host at the high
+altar. They are of frequent occurrence in our churches and are very
+numerous in the neighbourhood of Tenby, South Wales, also in Devon and
+the West generally. They are usually without any ornament, but are
+sometimes arched and enriched with tracery. They are mostly found on one
+or both sides of the chancel arch, but they sometimes occur in rooms
+above porches, in side-chapels and the like; in every instance they were
+so situated that the altar could be seen. When they occur in porches or
+the rooms above they are thought to have been for the use of the acolyte
+appointed to ring the sanctus bell, who, viewing the performance of mass,
+would be thus able to sound the bell at the proper time. The name
+hagioscope has been used to describe these oblique openings.
+
+Cruciform marks are sometimes found on our churches, often on a stone in
+the porch; they are usually incised crosses or five dots in the form of
+a cross. They were, presumably, cut by the bishop when the building was
+consecrated, and are called consecration crosses.
+
+ [Side note: Screens.]
+
+The rood-screens, separating the chancel or choir of a church from the
+nave, usually supported the great Rood or Crucifix, not actually on the
+screen itself, but on a beam called the rood-beam, or by a gallery
+called the rood-loft, which last was approached from the inside of the
+church, by a small stone staircase in the wall, as can be seen in many
+of our churches to-day. Although rood-lofts have been generally destroyed
+in England, some beautiful examples remain at Long Sutton, Barnwell,
+Dunster and Minehead, Somerset; Kemsing, Kent; Newark, Nottingham;
+Uffendon, Collumpton, Dartmouth, Kenton, Plymtree and Hartland, Devon.
+The general construction of wooden screens is close panelling below,
+from which rise tall slender balusters, or wooden mullions supporting
+tracery rich with cornices and crestings, frequently painted and gilded.
+The lower panels often depict saints and martyrs. From the top of the
+screen certain parts of the services and the lessons were read. They
+were occasionally close together and glazed, as we see by a most beautiful
+example at Charlton-on-Otmoor, in Oxfordshire. These screens, many of
+which have been over-restored, are very common, and in addition to those
+above mentioned, are found at S. Mary's, Stamford, Ottery S. Mary,
+Chudleigh, Bovey, and in nearly all the Devon parish churches. At
+Dunstable a screen of Queen Mary's time separates the vestry from the
+chancel.
+
+ [Illustration: Screen with Rood Loft.
+  Kenton, Devon. _Photograph by Chapman._]
+
+Of stone screens space will permit of only the briefest mention. They
+were used in various situations, to enclose tombs and to separate
+chapels, and occasionally the rood-screen was of stone.
+
+ [Illustration: The Carved Oak Balustrade in Compton Church.
+  Held to be the oldest existing piece of carved woodwork in England.]
+
+The oldest piece of screen work in this country is that at Compton
+Church, Surrey; it is of wood and shows the transition from the Norman
+to the Early English styles. Stone screens are often massive structures
+enriched with niches, statues, tabernacles, pinnacles, crestings, etc.,
+as those at Canterbury, York and Gloucester.
+
+ [Side note: The Reredos.]
+
+The reredos forms no part of the altar, and is often highly enriched
+with niches, buttresses, pinnacles, and other ornaments. Not infrequently
+it extends across the whole breadth of the church, and is sometimes
+carried nearly up to the roof, as at S. Alban's Abbey, Durham and
+Gloucester Cathedrals, S. Saviour's, Southwark and in that remarkably
+fine example at Christchurch, Hants. In village churches they are mostly
+very simple, and generally have no ornaments formed in the wall, though
+niches and corbels are sometimes provided to carry images, and that part
+of the wall immediately over the altar is panelled, as at S. Michael's,
+Oxford; Solihull, Warwickshire; Euston and Hanwell, Oxfordshire, etc.
+
+It is interesting to note that the open fire-hearth, once used in
+domestic halls, was also called a "reredos."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+BELLS AND BELFRIES.
+
+
+The history of bells is lost in antiquity, and little is known about
+them previous to the XVth century. It is probable, however, that they
+were used in India and China centuries before they reached Europe.
+
+Bells were used by the Romans for many secular purposes, and although
+their use was sanctioned by the Christian Church about 400 A.D., they
+were not in general use in England until 650 A.D.
+
+The earliest bells were hand bells, quadrangular in shape, and made of
+thin plates of copper or iron riveted together, and their abominable
+sound when struck must have been one of their chief merits, as the early
+bells were much used for the purpose of frightening the devil and other
+evil spirits.
+
+Our oldest bells are hand bells, S. Patrick's bell at Belfast (1091) and
+S. Ninian's bell at Edinburgh, which is probably of even earlier date.
+From 1550 to 1750 was the golden age of production for bells, more
+especially so in Belgium and the Low Countries, where the bells of the
+towers and belfries were rung to arouse the country in times of danger
+and invasion. It is quite possible that the bells used for secular and
+religious purposes were kept distinct. Bells played a very important
+part in mediæval life, and next to cannon were regarded as the chief
+city guardians, for he who held the bells held the town, and the first
+thing done by the invader on taking a town was to melt the bells and
+thus destroy the means of communicating an alarm.
+
+In England our old towns, being almost entirely constructed of wood,
+were liable to periodic and devastating conflagrations, which fact
+suggested to that genius, William the Conqueror, the institution of
+Couvre-feu, or in its more popular form, Curfew, which rang at eight
+o'clock in the evening, when all lights were to be extinguished. The
+ringing of curfew has survived in many of our towns and villages to this
+day, but it is doubtful if the custom has been continuous from its first
+institution.
+
+The secular use of the bell is, however, only incidental, and it is in
+its connection with religious life that we are now concerned, for all
+church history, church doctrine and church custom and observances are
+set to bell music. Bells in fact may be said to sum up the short span of
+our mortal life, for the birthday, the wedding and the funeral, are all
+welded to religion by the church bell.
+
+Bells were used for ecclesiastical purposes in England long before the
+erection of our parish churches, for Bede, speaking of the death of S.
+Hilda, A.D. 680, says that "one of the sisters in the distant monastery
+of Hackness, thought she heard as she slept, the sound of the bell which
+called them to prayers," and Turketul gave to Croyland Abbey a great
+bell called Guthlac, and afterwards six others which he called Bartholomew
+and Betelin, Turketul and Tatwin, and Pega and Bega.
+
+S. Dunstan gave bells to many of the churches in Somerset, and he also
+seems to have introduced bell ringing into the monasteries.
+
+A few words may be of interest concerning the number and purposes of
+these monastic bells, with which the life of the monks must have been
+completely bound up. The _Signum_ woke up the whole community at
+day-break. The _Squilla_ announced the frugal meal in the refectory; but
+for those working in the gardens, the cloister-bell, or _Campanella_,
+was rung. The abbot's _Cordon_, or handbell, summoned the brothers and
+novices to their Superior; whilst the _Petasius_ was used to call in
+those working at a distance from the main building. At bed-time the
+_Tiniolum_ was sounded, and the _Noctula_ was rung at intervals throughout
+the night to call the monks to watch and pray. The _Corrigiumcula_ was
+the scourging bell, while the sweet-toned _Nota_, a choir bell, was rung
+at the consecration of the elements.
+
+The use of the bell-tower was recognised in the ancient Saxon law, which
+gave the title of thane to anyone who had a church with a bell-tower on
+his estate, and two of our most interesting Saxon churches, Brixworth
+and Brigstock, both in Northamptonshire, have each a semi-circular tower
+rising together with the bell-tower, and forming a staircase to it.
+
+One of the most beautiful campaniles or bell-towers still standing
+is that at Evesham, in Worcestershire, which is a good specimen of
+Perpendicular architecture. It was built by Abbot Lichfield, the last
+abbot but one of the abbey, and took six years in building, and was not
+quite completed when the famous abbey, of which it was a final ornament,
+was pulled down.
+
+In addition to this example at Evesham, detached bell-towers exist, or
+once existed, at Chichester, East Dereham, Glastonbury Abbey, Bruton, in
+Somerset, and in several other places.
+
+Markland, in his _Remarks on Churches_, says: "The great bell-tower
+which once formed part of the abbey church of S. Edmundsbury was
+commenced about 1436. From the year 1441 to 1500 legacies were still
+being given towards the building. In 1461 an individual, probably a
+benefactor, desired to be buried _in magno ostio novi campanilis_."
+
+In Protestant use church bells have been stripped of much of the former
+superstition and symbolism. They are no longer rung to announce the
+miracle of transubstantiation; neither are they called upon as of old
+for the purpose of scaring devils, demons, and other evil spirits which
+formed so prominent a feature in the faith of the early Christian
+communities.
+
+ [Illustration: Bell Turret for 3 Bells. Radipole, Dorset.]
+
+Closely connected with the subject of bells and belfries are the
+bell-gables or bell-turrets, so frequently found at the west ends of
+our smaller churches which have no towers. They usually contain but one
+bell, but are sometimes found with two, and at Radipole Church, near
+Weymouth, the bell-turret was originally designed to carry three bells.
+They are generally most picturesque little features of which a few may
+be of Norman date, but by far the greater number of them are Early
+English, a style in which they are frequently found. In addition to
+these bell-turrets at the western ends of our churches one sometimes
+finds a similar, but smaller, erection at the eastern end of the roof of
+the nave, but used for a very different purpose, for while the bell at
+the western end was rung to summon the parishioners to service, that at
+the eastern end, known as the Sanctus or Mass-bell, was rung on the
+elevation of the Host during the celebration of mass; although usually
+placed on the apex of the roof, this bell sometimes occupied a position
+in the lantern or tower, or in a turret of larger dimensions. In churches
+where no turret existed it was carried in the hand, and such is now the
+prevailing practice on the continent. The turret for the Sanctus bell
+still exists at Barnstaple, Devon, and St. Peter Port, Guernsey. The
+Sanctus bell was generally made of silver, and occasionally a number of
+little bells were hung in the middle of the church, and by means of a
+wheel they were all made to ring at once.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE SPIRE; ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT.
+
+
+Probably the most beautiful feature of a Gothic church is the spire,
+raising its tapering form far above the town or village and forming a
+prominent landmark, denoting the location of the House of God. Although
+found occasionally in other styles, the spire is essentially Gothic, and
+one of the most marked characteristics of this period. Spires are
+generally of two kinds, those constructed of timber and covered with
+slates, lead, tiles or shingles, and those built of stone or brick.
+Examples of both kinds are very numerous on the continent and in
+England, while shingle spires are especially common in Sussex.
+
+The spire is generally acknowledged to have originated from the small
+pyramidal roof so frequently found on Saxon and Norman towers. This
+gradually became elongated, and the towers were sometimes gabled on each
+side, as is the case with the remarkable Saxon church at Sompting, Sussex.
+This shows us very clearly the angles of the spire resting upon the apex
+of each gable, so that the spire itself is set obliquely to the square
+of the tower.
+
+ [Illustration: The best example of a Saxon Spire or Pyramidal Roof.
+  Sompting, Sussex. _Drawn by George Pearl._]
+
+Saxon and Norman spires are very rare in England, Sompting being our
+best example of the former and those on the eastern transepts of
+Canterbury Cathedral of the latter.
+
+Of Early English spires we have, fortunately, some good examples, among
+which are those at Oxford Cathedral, Wilford and Wansted, in the same
+county, and a very graceful one at Leighton Buzzard. These 13th century
+spires are very common in France, as at Chartres and S. Pierre, Caen.
+
+ [Illustration: Leighton Buzzard Church.
+  With Early English Tower and Spire. _Photograph H. A. Strange._]
+
+Of fourteenth century, or Decorated, spires, we have many examples, of
+which perhaps the best is the beautiful spire of Salisbury Cathedral,
+although the equally fine one at S. Mary's, Oxford, runs it close for
+premier position. The triple group at Lichfield Cathedral belong to this
+period, as do the spires of Ross, Heckington, Grantham, S. Mary's,
+Newark, King's Sutton, Bloxham and Snettisham, Norfolk. A peculiarity of
+the Salisbury spire is that it never formed part of the original design
+of the cathedral, being added seventy years later. It is the loftiest
+spire in England--404 feet--about 40 ft. higher than the cross of
+S. Paul's. It speaks well for the Gothic builders that such a vast
+superstructure as this tower and spire could be imposed upon walls and
+piers never intended to bear it. At an early period it was found to have
+deflected twenty-three inches from the perpendicular, but there has been
+no sign of any further movement. Barnack Church, in Northamptonshire,
+has a curious spire showing the transition from Norman to Early English.
+
+It will be noticed that the sides of a church spire are slightly curved,
+so that they swell out a little in the centre. This is called the
+entasis of the spire, and belongs to the study of optics in architecture.
+Where the spire has no entasis the same effect is produced by the
+introduction of small projecting gables, bands of carving, or a little
+coronal of pinnacles.
+
+One of the most clearly marked differences between English and continental
+spires is that the latter are much shorter than the towers which support
+them, the towers, as a rule, being twice as high as the spires. In
+England, on the contrary, the spire is generally very much loftier
+than the tower. At Shottesbrook, Berks, and Ledbury, Herefordshire, the
+spires occupy as much as three-fifths of the total elevation, and the
+usual rule in England is for the tower to be a little less in height
+than the spire.
+
+The masons lavished an extraordinary amount of care and skill on their
+spires. So much is this the case that there is hardly a mediæval spire
+in the country which can be called ill-designed or displeasing.
+
+Church spires are very common in some counties and very rare in others.
+There are, of course, exceptions, but it is in the flat counties that
+spires are most frequent, the most beautiful ones being found in
+Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Warwickshire,
+Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and Oxfordshire.
+
+The top of the spire is usually capped with a weather vane terminating
+in a cock. The custom of using a cock as the flag of the vane is of very
+early date, for Wolfstan, in his Life of S. Ethelwold, written towards
+the end of the 10th century, speaks of one which surmounted Winchester
+Cathedral. In the Bayeux Tapestry one is shown on the gable of Westminster
+Abbey, and one of the early Popes ordained that every church under the
+papal jurisdiction should be surmounted by a cock as emblematical of the
+sovereignty of the church over the whole world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+STAINED GLASS.
+
+
+The use of coloured glass in the windows of buildings devoted to
+religious purposes appears to have been employed as early as the ninth
+century, but no examples remain of anything like so old a date, and we
+have only illuminated missals and primitive drawings by members of the
+conventual bodies to guide us in determining the earliest styles of
+coloured glazing. It appears to have consisted of more or less primitive
+representations of the human form, with strong black lines to indicate
+the features and folds of the drapery. The backgrounds were generally
+masses of deep blue or red, and in the rare instances where landscapes
+were introduced positive colours only appear to have been used. Our
+oldest specimens in England are those in the choir aisles of Canterbury
+Cathedral, which appear to be of the 12th century, and it is thought
+that they are the remains of the original glazing that was put in when
+this part of the building was rebuilt after a fire in 1174. The general
+design is composed of panels of various forms, in which are depicted
+subjects from Holy Scripture, with backgrounds of deep blue or red; the
+spaces between the panels are filled with mosaic patterns in which blue
+and red colours predominate, and the whole design is framed in an
+elaborate border of leaves and scroll-work in brilliant colours.
+
+ [Illustration: A Parish Church with a Shingle Broach Spire.
+ (_See page 99_). Edenbridge, Kent. _Homeland Copyright._]
+
+Of thirteenth century windows we have some magnificent examples
+--unfortunately few unmutilated--as at York, where is the five-light
+lancet window situated in the north end of the transept, known as the
+Five Sisters of York. Of this date, also, are the large circular window
+of Lincoln Cathedral, and the windows at Chetwode, Bucks; Westwell,
+Kent; West Horsley, Surrey; and Beckett's Crown, Canterbury.
+
+A little later, in the Decorated period, we get the great east window
+of York Cathedral, 75 ft. high and 32 ft. broad; the east window of
+Gloucester Cathedral, 72 ft. high and 38 ft. broad; and other fine
+windows at Tewkesbury Abbey; Merton College, Oxford; Wroxhall
+Abbey, Warwickshire; and the churches of Chartham, Kent; Stanford,
+Leicestershire; Ashchurch, Glous.; Cranley, Surrey; Norbury, Derbyshire,
+and others. Salisbury Cathedral has retained portions, but very lovely
+portions, of the glazing of its west windows, and enough is left to show
+that it was little inferior to the great windows of York and Gloucester.
+Carlisle Cathedral, too, has preserved fragments of the original glass
+in the tracery of the great east window, but the lower part of the
+glazing is modern. Windows in the Decorated style continued to be
+arranged in panels, with the spaces between them filled with flowing
+patterns of foliage, in which the vine and ivy leaves predominate.
+Single figures are more common than in the previous style, and when used
+are generally shown beneath a simple pediment or canopy. In the early
+examples they only occupy a portion of the window light, but later they
+are found occupying nearly the whole of the surface and are surmounted
+by large and elaborate canopies. Quarries are much used in this style,
+sometimes quite plain, but more often with leaves or rosettes painted on
+them in black lines, or painted with the vine and ivy leaves so arranged
+that they form a repeating pattern over the whole window. At this
+period, too, heraldry began to be employed in the decoration of the
+windows to which it is always an appropriate and artistic adjunct, and
+many authentic and valuable examples of our national heraldry have thus
+been preserved for posterity.
+
+With the advent of the Perpendicular style the glazing became more
+uniform in character, the glass was thinner and lighter, the tints
+paler, and the whole effect more brilliant and transparent. The
+paintings for the most part consist of large figures under elaborate
+canopies, frequently occupying an entire light, and in the patterns and
+smaller decorations there is a greater freedom of design, and the whole
+treatment is more harmonious and artistic than in any other period. The
+use of heraldry became very common, and inscriptions on long narrow
+scrolls were frequently employed. Among the best examples of this period
+are the windows at S. Margaret's Church, Westminster; King's College
+Chapel, Cambridge; Fairford Church, Gloucestershire; and Morley Church,
+Derbyshire.
+
+The Reformation, with its vast social and political upheaval, was not
+conducive to the encouragement of the fine arts, and from this period
+the art of glazing in England declined beyond measure, and was not the
+only art that received its death-blow in the triumph of Puritanism. The
+art has, however, revived greatly during recent years, thanks, among
+other artists, to William Morris and Burne-Jones. A few words must
+be said about the "Jesse" window found in some of our cathedrals and
+churches. Strictly speaking, it is a representation of the genealogy of
+Christ, in which the different persons forming the descent are placed on
+scrolls of foliage branching out of each other, intended to represent a
+tree. It was also wrought into a branched candlestick, thence called a
+Jesse, a common piece of furniture in ancient churches. The subject is
+found on a window at Llanrhaiadr y Kinmerch, Denbighshire, on the stone
+work of one of the chancel windows at Dorchester Church, Oxfordshire,
+and in carved stone on the reredos of Christchurch Priory, Hants.
+
+It is not perhaps generally known that the actual colours used in early
+stained glass possessed each of them their own specific symbolism.
+Underlying the obvious story conveyed by the human figures or decorated
+devices, there was an inner story to be read with profit by those who
+understood the mystic symbolism concerning colours. Without entering at
+length into this interesting subject, it may yet be stated that green
+was the symbol of Regeneration, red of Divine Love, white of Divine
+Wisdom, yellow of Faith, and grey, or a mixture of black and white, the
+emblem of Terrestrial Death and Spiritual Immortality. These colours at
+different times or in different countries had other meanings as well,
+and ecclesiologists tell us that the colours chosen for depicting the
+robes of our Lord differ according to the period of His life which it
+was intended to represent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+CRYPTS.
+
+
+The crypts so generally found beneath our cathedrals and abbeys, and so
+frequently under our churches, rarely extend beyond the choir or chancel
+and its aisles, and are sometimes of very small dimensions. They are
+often coeval with the upper parts of the building, and although not so
+elaborate in ornamentation as the fabric they support, they are almost
+without exception well constructed and well finished pieces of building.
+In some cases the crypt is of much older date than any portion of
+the superstructure, as is the case at York, Worcester and Rochester
+cathedrals. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the roofs were
+often richly groined, and upheld by cylindrical columns or clustered
+piers, and furnished with handsome bases and decorated capitals. There
+is abundant evidence that crypts were at one time furnished with altars,
+piscinas, and the various fittings requisite for the celebration of the
+mass, and they were used as sepulchres, wherein the shrines of relics
+and martyrs were carefully preserved. Some authorities claim a purely
+Saxon origin for the crypts at Ripon Cathedral, Hexham Abbey, and Repton
+Church, Derbyshire. The Ripon example is a plain barrel-vaulted chamber,
+about 11 ft. long and 8 ft. wide, with no pillars or ornament of any
+kind. It is popularly known as S. Wilfrid's Needle, but the exact origin
+of the name is lost in obscurity. The Hexham crypt is very similar in
+character, but is somewhat longer, being more than 13 ft. long and 8 ft.
+wide. As at Ripon, there are hollows or shallow niches in the walls in
+which lamps may possibly have been placed. The third reputed Saxon crypt
+is that at Repton, but it has little in common with the other two, its
+superficial area being nearly twice as great and the roof is supported
+on four columns, with plain square capitals rudely carved, and bearing
+much similarity to early Norman work.
+
+The position of the crypt varies. At Beverley Minster it is on the
+south side of the south-west tower; in Hereford Cathedral it is under a
+side chapel, while at Lastingham, in Yorkshire, the crypt extends under
+the whole of the church, including the apse. At Wells the crypt is
+beneath the chapter-house, and Durham Cathedral has three crypts, one
+under what was the dormitory, another beneath the refectory, and the
+third under the prior's chapel. Of crypts of Norman date we have many
+examples, of which, perhaps, our best are those at Gloucester, Worcester,
+Canterbury and Winchester Cathedrals, while Canterbury is probably the
+largest of them all. Good crypts are also found at Wimborne Minster,
+Christchurch Priory, and in our smaller churches at Repton and S.
+Peter's-in-the-East, Oxford.
+
+The Wimborne crypt is lighted by four windows. The vaulting is supported
+by two pairs of pillars which form three aisles, each of three bays. Mr.
+Perkins, in his book on Wimborne Minster, says, "On each side of the
+place where the altar stood there are two openings into the choir
+aisles. The exteriors of these are of the same form and size as the
+crypt windows, but they are deeply splayed inside, and probably were
+used as hagioscopes or squints, to allow those kneeling in the choir
+aisles to see the priest celebrating mass at the crypt altar." The crypt
+at Christchurch is of Norman date, and now serves as a vault for the
+Malmesbury family. The crypt of Canterbury Cathedral is claimed and
+justly claimed, perhaps, as the largest and most beautiful in England.
+It is thought to contain fragments of Roman and Saxon work, and much of
+it dates from the days of S. Anselm (1096-1100). It was here that the
+remains of S. Thomas à Becket lay from 1170 to 1220, and "here that
+Henry II., fasting and discrowned, with naked feet, bared back, and
+streaming tears, performed on July 12th, 1174, the memorable penance for
+his share in the murder of the great Archbishop."
+
+It was here too, in later times that the Walloons were granted, by Queen
+Elizabeth, the privilege of carrying on their silk-weaving, and it was
+also reserved as a place of worship for French Protestants.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+HOW TO DESCRIBE AN OLD CHURCH.
+
+
+Having carefully read the foregoing chapters, it should be possible for
+anyone interested in the subject to be able to write a fairly accurate
+description of any old church. The record should, if possible, be
+amplified with sketches or photographs.
+
+In course of time, decay, neglect and restoration will deprive our
+ancient buildings of every visible stone of original work which they
+possess, and careful records of this kind, written, photographed and
+sketched, may be of the highest possible value to future generations of
+historians and architects, long after the objects themselves have ceased
+to exist. The work in itself is of absorbing interest, and the more one
+studies these works of past ages the stronger becomes the conviction
+that our old buildings, whether cathedral, castle or simple village
+church, are the landmarks of the nation's history, and a priceless
+inheritance of beauty and art the conservation of which is the duty of
+all generations.
+
+The principal points to be noted are--1. The name of the church. 2. Its
+situation. 3. Its dedication. 4. General plan. 5. The style of
+architecture to which each portion belongs. 6. Any peculiarity of the
+architecture, blocked up windows, etc. 7. Any ancient furniture,
+screens, bench-ends, glass. 8. Any monuments, tablets, or mural
+paintings. 9. Church plate, bells, registers. 10. Any local traditions.
+The record should be made somewhat in the following manner.
+
+The church of ---- is prettily situated on rising ground some quarter of
+a mile north of the village, and on the main road to ---- . It is
+approached by a picturesque timber lych-gate, and consists of nave,
+aisles and chancel, having a side chapel to the north and a single
+transept to the south. At the west end is a Decorated tower and spire.
+There are two porches, one on the north side and the other on the west,
+which last has a niche for a figure over the doorway and seats on either
+side. The nave is Perpendicular, as is the greater part of the rest of
+the fabric. Above the nave rises a lofty and noble clerestory, divided
+from the aisles by five rather obtusely-pointed arches supported by
+richly moulded piers with small moulded capitals. Each bay of the
+clerestory contains two three-light windows of late Perpendicular date.
+The roof is flat pitched and is of oak, the principals are adorned with
+panelled tracery and show vestiges of ancient colour decoration. The
+windows of the aisles are late Decorated in style; they are of three
+lights, the traceries elegant and richly moulded. The east window is
+Perpendicular and is much sub-divided by mullions and transoms; in the
+upper portions are some heraldic coats of arms, which appear to have
+formed part of a much earlier window. The chancel is divided from the
+nave by a fine open oak screen, coeval with the larger part of the
+building. It is richly carved and gilded, and in the right-hand side of
+the chancel arch are the steps which formerly led up to the top of it.
+The chancel, together with its chapel, is vaulted in stone with well
+marked ribs and carved bosses. The transept, late Perpendicular, opens
+into the south side of the nave by a four-centred arch, and has a
+rich flat ceiling. In the chancel is a piscina of Early English date,
+together with a sedilia of the same period. On the north side of the
+chancel, resting on the floor, is a cross-legged effigy, in chain mail,
+surcoat, etc., and bearing on his left arm a shield, but all much
+mutilated. There is a local tradition that it represents Sir ----, but
+there is no evidence by which he can be identified. Features of the
+church are the many highly carved bench ends, all in oak, representing a
+great variety of subjects, such as dragons, serpents, etc., while a few
+bear the arms of local families who probably bore the cost of the work.
+The pulpit is Jacobean, and has no special feature. The font, which
+stands in the centre of the nave, is square in form and is supported by
+a modern round plinth. It is constructed of marble, the four sides being
+carved in low relief with intersecting patterns. It is possibly of
+Norman date, and is the only existing feature of a much earlier church.
+The tower and spire are Decorated; the latter is of stone with four
+pinnacles at the base, and has a little coronal of pinnacles. The belfry
+windows are arranged in pairs on each side of the tower. The tower or
+western window is of five lights, richly Decorated in style.
+
+ Illustration:
+  KEY TO DIAGRAM OF THE INTERIOR ELEVATION OF A BAY OF A CHURCH.
+
+  CLERESTORY.
+
+   26 Boss.
+   25 Vaulting Rib.
+   24 Vault.
+   23 Vaulting Rib.
+   22 Tracery of C. Window.
+   21 Clerestory Window.
+   20 Sill of Clerestory Window.
+   19 Base of Jamb, C. Arch.
+   18 Jamb of C. Arch.
+   17 Clerestory String.
+
+  BLIND STOREY (TRIFORIUM).
+
+   16 Capital of Vaulting Shaft.
+   15 Tracery of Triforium.
+   14 Triforium Arch.
+   13 Capital of T. Pier.
+   12 Pier of Triforium.
+   11 Triforium String.
+
+  GROUND STOREY.
+
+   10 Tracery of Aisle Window.
+    9 Aisle Window.
+    8 Sill of Aisle Window.
+    7 Wall Arcade.
+    6 Vaulting Shaft.
+    5 Corbel.
+    4 Pier Arch.
+    3 Capital of Pier.
+    2 Pier.
+    1 Base of Pier.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES.
+
+1: So called from its "flame"-like appearance, producing forms which
+   resemble elongated tongues of flame. There is great beauty in much of
+   this work, but it is constructionally weak. The finest example is
+   Chartres Cathedral.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+A GLOSSARY OF THE PRINCIPAL TERMS USED IN ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+ ABACUS         Derived from the Greek _Abax_--a tray or flat board, an
+                essential feature of the Grecian and Roman orders, but
+                now used to describe the slab forming the upper part of
+                a column, pier, etc.
+
+ ABBEY          A term for a union of ecclesiastical buildings, for the
+                housing of those conventual bodies presided over by an
+                abbot or abbess, supposed to be derived from the Hebrew
+                _ab_, "father."
+
+ ACANTHUS       A plant, the leaves of which are represented in the
+                capitals of the Corinthian orders.
+
+ AISLE          French _aile_, a wing, the lateral division of a church.
+
+ ALMONRY        A room where alms were distributed.
+
+ ALTAR          An elevated table dedicated to the Sacrament of the Holy
+                Eucharist, and usually called the Communion Table.
+
+ ALMERY, AUMERY,
+ and AUMBREY    A recess or small cupboard in the wall of a church, used
+                to contain the chalices, patens, etc., for the use of
+                the priest. They are sometimes near the _piscina_, but
+                are usually on the opposite side of the chancel.
+
+ ANTE-CHAPEL    The outer part of a chapel.
+
+ APSE           The semi-circular or polygonal recess at the east end of
+                the choir or aisles of a church.
+
+ ARCADE         A series of arches, open or closed with masonry, and
+                supported by columns or piers.
+
+ ARCH           A construction of bricks or stones so placed as by
+                mutual pressure to support each other and a
+                superincumbent weight. They may be semi-circular,
+                segmental, elliptical, stilted, horse-shoe, pointed,
+                trefoiled, cinquefoiled, or ogee.
+
+ ARCHITRAVE     In classical architecture, the lowest division of the
+                entablature resting immediately on the abacus of the
+                capital. In Gothic buildings the ornamental mouldings
+                round the openings of doors, windows, etc.
+
+ ARCHIVOLT      The under surface of the curve of an arch, from impost
+                to impost.
+
+ ASHLAR         Shaped or squared stone used in building, as
+                distinguished from that in the rough.
+
+ ASTRAGAL       A small semi-circular bead or moulding.
+
+ BALL FLOWER    An ornament resembling a ball in a circular flower
+                with three enclosing petals. Dec.
+
+ BASE           The lower member of a column, pier, or wall.
+
+ BASILICA       A Roman law-court. Early Christian churches when
+                built on the same lines were called by the same name.
+
+ BILLET         An ornament much used in Norman work and formed by
+                cutting a moulding in notches, so that the remaining
+                parts resembled wooden billets or pieces of stick.
+
+ BLIND STOREY   See Triforium.
+
+ BOSSES         Ornamental projections usually of foliage and placed
+                at the intersection of the ribs of vaults, ceilings,
+                etc.
+
+ BRACES         Timbers which brace or support the main rafters. Also
+                called _struts_.
+
+ BROACH         A spire, generally octagonal and springing from the
+                square top of the tower, without a parapet. (_See
+                page 105_).
+
+ BUTTRESS       A projection from a wall, giving it additional strength.
+
+ CANOPY         In Gothic architecture an ornamental hood or projection
+                over doors, windows, niches, tombs, etc., and rarely
+                found except in the Dec. and Perp. styles.
+
+ CAPITAL        The head of a column or pilaster, found in a great
+                variety of shapes.
+
+ CATHEDRAL      A church presided over by a Bishop. The principal
+                church of a diocese.
+
+ CHALICE        The cup used for the wine at the celebration of the
+                Eucharist.
+
+ CHAMFER        The surface formed by cutting away the rectangular edge
+                of wood or stone work.
+
+ CHANCEL        The choir or eastern part of a church, appropriated to
+                the use of those who officiate in the performance of
+                the services.
+
+ CHANTRY        A chapel often containing a tomb of the founder, and
+                in which masses were said.
+
+ CHAPEL         A small building attached to cathedrals and large
+                churches.
+
+ CHAPTER-HOUSE  The room where the Dean and Prebendaries meet for the
+                transaction of business.
+
+ CHEVRON        An ornament characteristic of the Norman period and
+                divided into several equal portions chevron-wise or
+                zig-zag.
+
+ CHOIR          That part of a church to the east of the nave where the
+                services are celebrated, also called chancel, and
+                frequently separated from the nave by an open screen of
+                stone or wood.
+
+ CINQUEFOIL     An ornamental foliation used in arches, tracery, etc.,
+                and composed of projecting points or cusps, so arranged
+                that the opening resembles five leaves.
+
+ CLERESTORY     Possibly the _clear_ storey. An upper storey standing
+                above or clear of the adjacent roofs, and pierced by
+                windows to give increased light.
+
+ CLOISTER       A covered walk or ambulatory forming part of a
+                cathedral or college quadrangle.
+
+ CLUSTERED
+ COLUMN         A pier made up of several columns or shafts in a cluster.
+
+ COLONNADE      A row or rows of columns supporting a roof or building.
+
+ CORBEL         Usually a moulded or carved ornament projecting from the
+                walls, acting as a bracket and capable of bearing a
+                super-incumbent weight.
+
+ CORNICE        The horizontal termination of a building in the form of
+                a moulded projection.
+
+ COURSE         A continuous and regular line of stones or bricks in the
+                wall of a building.
+
+ CROCKETS       Projecting ornaments in the form of leaves, flowers,
+                etc., used to embellish the angles of pinnacles,
+                spires, gables, canopies, etc.
+
+ CROSS          The accepted symbol of the Christian religion and an
+                architectural church ornament usually placed upon the
+                apex of the gable. A large cross called a rood was at one
+                time always placed over the entrance to the chancel. The
+                cross was worn as a personal ornament ages before the
+                Christian era by the Assyrians, and we are told that the
+                Druids also used this symbol in very early times.
+
+ CRYPT          Sometimes called the Undercroft, a vaulted chamber,
+                usually underground and, in churches, rarely extending
+                beyond the area of the choir or chancel, and often of
+                less dimensions.
+
+ CUSPS          Projecting points giving the foliated appearance to
+                tracery, arches, panels, etc.
+
+ DORMER         A gabled window pierced through a sloping roof.
+
+ DRIPSTONE      A projecting ledge or narrow moulding over the heads of
+                doorways, windows, etc., to carry off the rain.
+
+ FAN-TRACERY    Tracery in which the ribs form a fan-like appearance and
+                diverge equally in every direction. (Peculiar to the
+                late Perp.)
+
+ FLAMBOYANT     Tracery whereof the curves assume flame-like waves and
+                shapes.
+
+ FLYING
+ BUTTRESS       A buttress in the form of a bridge, usually transferring
+                the thrust of the main roof from the clerestory walls to
+                the main or aisle buttresses.
+
+ FONT           The vessel for holding the consecrated water used in
+                baptism.
+
+ GARGOYLE       A projecting spout usually grotesquely carved and used
+                to throw the water from the roof well away from the
+                building.
+
+ GROIN          The line of intersection in vaulted roofs.
+
+ IMPOST         Horizontal mouldings, capping a column or pier, from
+                which the arch springs.
+
+ JAMB           The side of a window or door.
+
+ KEYSTONE       The central stone at the top of an arch. The bosses
+                in vaulted ceilings are frequently called keys.
+
+ LADY CHAPEL    A chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary,
+                called "Our Lady."
+
+ LANTERN        A small structure or erection surmounting a dome or
+                tower to admit light. These towers are known as Lantern
+                Towers.
+
+ LOZENGE        A name given in modern times to Norman mouldings which
+                partake of a lozenge formation.
+
+ LYCH-GATE      From the Anglo-Saxon _lich_, a corpse. A small and
+                often picturesque shelter at the entrance to a
+                churchyard.
+
+ MINSTER        The church usually of a monastery or abbey or one to
+                which such has been an appendant. York and Beverley,
+                however, are exceptions to this rule.
+
+ MISERERE       A small bracket on the undersides of the seats of
+                stalls.
+
+ MOULDING       A term generally applied to the contours given to angle
+                projections or hollows of arches, doors, windows, etc.
+
+ MULLION        The dividing bars of stone or wood between the lights
+                of windows, or the openings of screens.
+
+ MÜNSTER        has now lost its simple application.
+ (MONASTERY)
+
+ NAVE           From _navis_, a ship, the main body of a church west
+                of the chancel.
+
+ NICHE          An alcove or recess in a wall for holding a statue or
+                ornament.
+
+ OGEE           A moulding or arch formed of a curve or curves somewhat
+                like the letter S, the curve of contra-flexure, part
+                being concave and part convex.
+
+ ORDERS         In Gothic architecture, the receding mouldings of an
+                arch.
+
+ PARCLOSE       The screen or railings protecting a monument or chantry.
+
+ PARVISE        An open space or porch at the entrance to a church, and
+                often wrongly applied to the room over a church porch.
+
+ PATEN          The small plate or salver used to hold the Consecrated
+                Bread in the celebration of the Eucharist.
+
+ PENDANT        Ornaments which hang or _depend_ from a ceiling or roof.
+
+ PENTHOUSE      A covering projecting over a door, window, etc., as a
+                protection from the weather.
+
+ PIER           The masses or clusters of masonry between doors, windows,
+                etc.; the supports from which arches spring.
+
+ PILLAR         A term frequently confounded with column, but differing
+                from it in not being subservient to the rules of
+                classical architecture, and in not of necessity
+                consisting of a single circular shaft.
+
+ PINNACLE       A small turreted ornament tapering towards the top,
+                and used as a termination to many parts of Gothic
+                architecture.
+
+ PISCINA        The stone basin or sink in the chancel used for
+                cleansing the communion vessels.
+
+ PLINTH         The lower division of the base of a column, pier or wall.
+
+ POPPY-HEAD     An ornament boldly carved on the tops of bench ends, etc.
+
+ PRESBYTERY     A term sometimes used to include the whole of the choir,
+                but more often meant to refer to the eastern end of the
+                choir from which it is generally raised by several steps.
+
+ QUARRIES or
+ QUARRELS       The small diamond, square or other the shaped panes used
+                in plain glazing.
+
+ QUATREFOIL     The shape resembling four leaves formed in tracery or
+                panels by cusps.
+
+ QUOIN          The external angle of a building, generally of ashlar.
+
+ REREDOS        The wall or screen at the back of an altar, often
+                enriched with carving, niches, statues, etc.
+
+ ROOD-BEAM or
+ ROOD-LOFT      The loft or beam which, previous to the Reformation,
+                supported the Great Rood, or Crucifix.
+
+ ROSE WINDOW    A term often used to denote a circular window of
+                several lights.
+
+ ROTUNDA        A term used to describe a church or other building
+                which is of circular formation both within and without.
+
+ SACRISTRY      A room used in churches for storing the plate and
+                valuables.
+
+ SANCTUARY      See Presbytery.
+
+ SEDILIA        A seat or seats, generally canopied and situated on the
+                south side of the chancel and used in pre-Reformation
+                days by the officiating clergy during the pauses in the
+                mass.
+
+ SHAFT          The part of a column or pillar between the capital and
+                the base.
+
+ SHRINE         Often called the feretory. The place where relics were
+                deposited.
+
+ SOFFIT         The word means literally a ceiling, but is generally
+                used to describe the flat under-surface of arches,
+                cornices, stairways, etc.
+
+ SPANDRELS      The spaces between the arch of a doorway or window and
+                the rectangular mouldings over it. Early tracery
+                originated from the piercing of the spandrels of windows.
+
+ SPIRE          The acutely pointed termination of towers, etc.,
+                originating by the elongation of the early pyramidal
+                roofs.
+
+ SPLAY          The slanting or sloped surface of a window opening in the
+                thickness of the wall, also of doorways, etc.; the term
+                is also applied to bevels and other sloped surfaces.
+
+ SPRINGER       See Voussoir.
+
+ SQUINT         An oblique opening or slit in the wall of a church, for
+                the purpose of enabling persons in the aisles or
+                transepts to see the elevation of the Host at the High
+                Altar. They are mostly found on the sides of the chancel
+                arch, and are frequently called _hagioscopes_.
+
+ STOUP          A vessel for consecrated water, at or near the entrance
+                to a church.
+
+ STRING or
+ STRING COURSE. A horizontal projecting band of stone in the wall of a
+                building.
+
+ STRUT          See Brace.
+
+ TOOTH
+ ORNAMENT       An ornament used almost exclusively in the E.E. style,
+                resembling a square four-leaved flower, and thought to
+                be based on the dog-tooth violet.
+
+ TRANSOM        A horizontal cross-bar in a panel or window.
+
+ TRACERY        The ornamental stonework in the upper part of a window;
+                when formed by the mullions it is called bar tracery
+                and when the spandrel is pierced, plate tracery. Also
+                used largely on tombs, screens, doorways, etc.
+
+ TRANSEPTS      The projecting arms of a cruciform church, often wrongly
+                called "cross-aisles."
+
+ TRANSITION     A term used to describe the process of change from one
+                style of architecture to another. The three great periods
+                of transition are from the Romanesque and Norman to the
+                Early English; the Early English to the Decorated, and
+                the Decorated to the Perpendicular.
+
+ TREFOIL        An ornamental foliation in the heads of windows, panels,
+                etc., in which the spaces formed by the cusps resemble
+                three leaves.
+
+ TRIFORIUM      or Blind-Storey. An open gallery or arcade without
+                windows immediately above the pier arcade and under the
+                roof of the aisle.
+
+ TYMPANUM       The space between the top of a square-headed door and the
+                arch above it; frequently sculptured.
+
+ VAULT          Roofing of stone constructed on the principle of the
+                arch, the intersections of which are termed groins and
+                are in the pointed styles usually ribbed.
+
+ VAULTING
+ SHAFTS         Small shafts sometimes rising from the floor, sometimes
+                from the capital of a pillar and sometimes from a corbel,
+                and intended as supports for the ribs of a vault.
+
+ VESICA PISCIS  An oval shape or figure formed by two equal circles
+                cutting each other in their centres. Very commonly found
+                on episcopal and monastic seals.
+
+ VOUSSOIR       The wedge-shaped stones forming an arch, the centre one
+                of which is the _keystone_ and those at the impost or
+                starting point of the curve are the _springers_.
+
+ ZIG-ZAG        See Chevron.
+
+
+
+
+A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+ Adeline, J.       Art Dictionary of Terms.
+ Bland, W.         Arches, Piers, Buttresses, etc.
+ Blomfield, R.     Short History of Renaissance Architecture.
+ Bond, Francis     English Cathedrals Illustrated.
+ Bond, Francis     Gothic Architecture in England.
+ Bonney, T. G.     Cathedrals, Abbeys, and Churches of England and Wales.
+ Carter, J.        The Ancient Architecture of England.
+ Colling, J. K.    Details of Gothic Architecture.
+ Corroyer, E.      Gothic Architecture.
+ Cram, R. Adams    Church Building.
+ Davidson, E. A.   Gothic Stonework.
+ Fergusson, J.     Handbook of Architecture.
+ Fergusson, J.     History of Architecture.
+ Fairbairns, A.    Portfolio of English Cathedrals.
+ Garbett, E. L.    Principles of Design in Architecture.
+ Markland, J. H.   Remarks on Churches.
+ Moore, C. H.      Development and Character of Gothic Architecture.
+ Paley, F. A.      Manual of Gothic Architecture.
+ Paley, F. A.      Manual of Gothic Mouldings.
+ Parker, J. H.     A.B.C. of Gothic Architecture.
+ Parker, J. H.     Concise Glossary of Architecture.
+ Parker, J. H.     Introduction to the Study of Gothic Architecture.
+ Perkins, Rev. T.  Handbook of Gothic Architecture.
+ Prior, Ed. S.     History of Gothic Art.
+ Pugin, A. W.      Treatise on Chancel Screens and Rood Lofts.
+ Rickman, Thos.    Gothic Architecture.
+ Rickman, Thos.    Attempts to discriminate the Styles of Architecture
+                   in England.
+ Sharpe, Edmund    The Seven Periods of English Architecture.
+ Sharpe, Edmund    Treatise on the Rise and Progress of Window Tracery.
+ Scott, G.         History of Church Architecture.
+ Ruskin, John      Seven Lamps of Architecture.
+ Ruskin, John      Stones of Venice.
+ Ruskin, John      Poetry of Architecture.
+ Ruskin, John      Lectures on Architecture.
+ Wall, J. C.       Shrines of British Saints.
+ Winkle            British Cathedrals.
+ Wilson, S.        Romance of our Ancient Churches.
+
+ Bell's Cathedral Series.
+ "The Builder" Portfolio of English Cathedrals.
+ Murray's Handbooks to the Cathedrals.
+ S.P.C.K. Illustrated Notes on English Church History.
+      Swan, Sonnenschein & Co. Notes on the Cathedrals.
+     "Our English Minsters." Edited by Dean Farrar.
+
+This bibliography does not claim to be complete, but is a selection of
+the various books on the subject which should be studied by the student.
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+ All Souls' College, Oxford, 76
+ Altars, 80
+ Alveston Church, Warwickshire, 41
+ Amiens Cathedral, 57
+ Anne, Queen, 76
+ Apse, The, 27
+ Arches--
+   Saxon, 35
+   Norman, 37
+   Early English, 49
+   Decorated, 62
+   Perpendicular, 66
+ Ashchurch, Gloucestershire, 106
+
+ Baptistery, The, 84
+ Barfreston Church, Kent, 39, 41
+ Barnack Church, Northants 32, 33, 34, 101
+ Barnstaple, Devon, 98
+ Barnwell, 92
+ Barry, Sir C., 78, 79
+ Basilica, The, 26
+ Bayeux Tapestry, 41, 103
+ Beaulieu, Hants, 90
+ Beckett's Crown, Canterbury, 106
+ Bede (quoted), 21, 23, 96
+ Bells and Belfries, 95
+ Bench Ends, 89
+ Bertha, Queen, 23
+ Beverley Minster, 109
+ Billesley Church, Warwickshire, 78
+ Bishopstone, Sussex, 32
+ Bloxham Church, 101
+ Boston, Lincs, 72
+ Bovey Church, 92
+ Bradford-on-Avon, 32
+ Brewer, J. W. (quoted), 28
+ Brighton Pavilion, 78
+ Brigstock Church, Northants, 97
+ Bristol Cathedral, 70
+ British Churches, Early, 19
+ Brixworth Church, 28, 32, 33, 97
+ Broadmayne Church, 86
+ Bruton, Som., 97
+ Burne-Jones, Sir E., 107
+ Bury St. Edmunds, 82
+ Buttresses--
+   Norman, 43
+   Early English, 84
+   Decorated, 62
+   Perpendicular, 70
+ Byzantium, 27
+
+ Canterbury Cathedral, 43, 94, 101, 104, 110
+ Capitals--
+   Norman, 42
+   Early English, 54
+   Decorated, 60
+   Perpendicular, 69
+ Caradoc, King, 19
+ Carlisle Cathedral, 60, 106
+ Charles II., 76
+ Charlton-on-Otmoor, 92
+ Charlton Church, Kent, 106
+ Chartres Cathedral, 101
+ Chetwode, Bucks, 106
+ Chichester Cathedral, 97
+ Chipping Norton, Oxford, 81
+ Christchurch Priory, 88, 94, 107, 110
+ Christ Church, Spitalfields, 76
+ Chudleigh Church, Devon, 92
+ Church Furniture and Ornaments, 80
+ Cirencester Church, Glos., 70
+ Classic Reverse, The, 70
+ Clerkenwell, 44
+ Collumpton, Devon, 92
+ Compton Church, 94
+ Constantine, Emperor, 27
+ Constantinople, 27
+ Cranley, Surrey, 106
+ Crawden's Chapel, 58
+ Croyland Abbey, 96
+ Crypts, 109
+ Curfew, 96
+
+ Decorated Style, The, 57
+ Doisnel, Juliana, 44
+ Dolton Church, 84
+ Doorways--
+   Saxon, 30, 32
+   Norman, 39
+   Early English, 54
+   Decorated, 62
+   Perpendicular, 69
+ Dorchester Church, Oxford, 107
+ Dore Abbey, 81
+ Dunstable, 92
+ Dunster Church, 81, 92
+ Durham Cathedral, 43, 73, 82, 94, 112
+
+ Earl's Barton Church, 32, 33
+ Early English Style, The, 47
+ East Dereham, 97
+ Edburton Church, 84
+ Edington Church, Wilts, 72
+ Edington, Bp. William, 72
+ Edmund, Archbp. of Cant., 84
+ Edward I., 49
+ Edward III., 84
+ Elizabeth, Queen, 81, 110
+ Eltham Palace, 73
+ Ely Cathedral, 29, 43, 57
+ Ely Chapel, 60
+ Ethelbert, King of Kent, 23
+ Euston, Oxford, 94
+ Evesham Abbey, 73, 97
+ Exeter Cathedral, 89
+
+ Fairford Church, Glos., 107
+ Fan Vaulting, 69
+ Fergusson, Dr. (quoted), 75
+ Flying Buttresses, 56
+ Fonts, 84
+ Fordington S. George, Dorchester, 41
+ Fotheringay Church, Northants, 73
+ Fountains Abbey, 47
+ Fuller, Thos. (quoted), 19
+ Furness Abbey, 87
+ Furniture, Church, 80
+
+ Glass, Stained, 104
+ Glastonbury Abbey, 19, 97
+ Glossary, 115
+ Gloucester Cathedral, 43, 73, 94, 106, 110
+ Gothic Architecture, Leading Characteristics, 63
+ Gothic Styles, The, 47
+ Grantham, 101
+ Greenstead Church, Essex, 32, 34, 35
+ Grosmont, Monmouth, 81
+
+ Hackness, 96
+ Hanwell, Oxford, 94
+ Hartland Church, 92
+ Hawkesmore, 76
+ Heckington, 86, 101
+ Heigham, 72
+ Henry I., 44
+ Henry II., 49
+ Henry III., 44, 48, 49
+ Hereford Cathedral, 57, 110
+ Hexham, 82, 109
+ Hutchinson, Rev. J. M. (quoted), 49
+
+ Iffley Church, Oxford, 39
+
+ Jenkyns, Canon (quoted), 25
+ John, King, 44, 48, 49
+ Jones, Inigo, 75, 78
+
+ Kemsing, Kent, 92
+ Kenton Church, Devon, 90, 92
+ King's College Chapel, Cambridge, 107
+ King's Sutton, 101
+ Knights Hospitallers, 44
+ Knights Templars, 43
+
+ Lady Chapel, Exeter, 60
+ Langham Place, 78
+ Lastingham Church, York, 110
+ Laud, Archbishop, 16
+ Ledbury, Hereford, 103
+ Leighton Buzzard, 101
+ Lichfield, Abbot, 97
+ Lichfield, Cathedral, 57, 101
+ Lincoln Cathedral, 43, 52, 57, 63, 81, 106
+ Little Billing, 84
+ Little Maplestead, 44
+ Llanrhaiadr-y-Kinmerch, 107
+ Luidhard, Bishop, 23
+ Long Melford Church, Suffolk, 73
+ Long Sutton, 92
+ Luton Church, 58
+ Lyminge, 25
+
+ Magdalen College, Oxford, 90
+ Malmesbury (family), 110
+ Manchester Cathedral, 73, 88
+ Markland (quoted), 97
+ Mary, Queen, 81, 92
+ Marylebone Church, 78
+ Melbury Bubb, 84
+ Merton College, Oxford, 58, 60, 106
+ Minehead, 92
+ Morley Church, Derbyshire, 107
+ Morris, William, 107
+ Morton Church, Soms., 73
+ Mouldings--
+   Norman, 37
+   Early English, 52
+   Decorated, 62
+   Perpendicular, 69
+
+ Newark, Notts., 92
+ New College, Oxford, 72
+ Norbury, Derbyshire, 106
+ Norman Architecture, 35
+ Norwich Cathedral, 29, 43
+
+ Ornaments--
+   Norman, 37
+   Early English, 52
+   Decorated, 60, 62
+   Perpendicular, 68, 69, 70
+ Ornaments, Church, 80
+ Oxford Cathedral, 43, 101
+
+ Palladio, 74, 75
+ Parham, 84
+ Parker (quoted), 31, 35, 88
+ Parliament, Houses of, 78
+ Patrixbourne Church, Kent, 41
+ Perkins, Rev. T. (quoted), 110
+ Perpendicular Styles, 64
+ Perpendicular Towers, 72
+ Perpendicular Spires, 73
+ Peterborough Cathedral, 29, 43, 57
+ Philippa, Queen, 84
+ Piscinas, 87
+ Piers--
+   Norman, 42
+   Early English, 54
+   Decorated, 60
+   Perpendicular, 68
+ Plymtree, 92
+ Pointed Arch, The, 49
+ Porches, 53
+ Porlock Church, Somerset, 81
+ Pugin, 78, 79
+ Pulpits, 90
+ Pyecombe, 84
+ Pylle Church, 86
+
+ Radipole Church, Dorset, 98
+ Ravenna, 33
+ Reculver, 25
+ Reform Club, 79
+ Renaissance, The, 74
+ Repton Church, Derby, 109, 110
+ Reredos, The, 94
+ Richard I., 48, 49
+ Richborough, 25
+ Rickman (quoted), 35
+ Ripon Cathedral, 32, 109
+ Rievaulx, 47
+ Rochester Cathedral, 42, 57, 109
+ Rolvenden Church, Kent, 86
+ Romanesque Style, The, 27
+ Rome, 33
+ Ross, 101
+ Rotherham Church, Yorks., 70
+ Rothwell Church, 87
+ Round Churches, The, 44
+ Routledge, Rev. C. F., M.A., F.S.A., 24
+
+ Saffron Walden, 73
+ Saint Alban's Cathedral, 54, 94
+ Saint Andrew's, Norwich, 73
+ Saint Anselm, 110
+ Saint Augustine, 19
+ Saint Benet's, Cambridge, 32
+ Saint Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham, 79
+ Saint Clement's, Norfolk, 73
+ Saint Cross, Winchester, 39
+ Saint David's, Cathedral, 57, 73
+ Saint Dunstan, 96
+ Saint Edmundsbury, 97
+ Saint Edmund, Martyr, 35
+ Saint Etheldreda, 58
+ Saint Ethelwold, 103
+ Saint Giles', Oxford, 81
+ Saint Hilda, 96
+ Saint Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon, 32, 33
+ Saint Margaret's, Westminster, 107
+ Saint Mark's, Venice, 28
+ Saint Mary Abchurch, 76
+ Saint Mary Magdalene, Ripon, 81
+ Saint Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, 73
+ Saint Mary's, Cambridge, 73
+ Saint Mary's, Dover, 22
+ Saint Mary's, Lincoln, 32
+ Saint Mary's, Luton, 84
+ Saint Mary's, Newark, 101
+ Saint Mary's, Norwich, 73
+ Saint Mary's, Ottery, 92
+ Saint Mary's, Oxford, 73, 101
+ Saint Mary's, Stamford, 92
+ Saint Mary's, Taunton, 73
+ Saint Mary's, Wareham, 81, 84
+ Saint Mary's, Woolnoth, 76
+ Saint Mary's, York, 32
+ Saint Martin's, Canterbury, 22
+ Saint Martin's, Wareham, 32
+ Saint Michael's, Coventry, 73
+ Saint Michael's, Oxford, 32, 34, 94
+ Saint Nicholas, Lynn, 73
+ Saint Nicholas, Newcastle, 73
+ Saint Nicholas, Yarmouth, 63
+ Saint Paul the Apostle, 19
+ Saint Paul's Cathedral, 75, 76, 101
+ Saint Paul's Churchyard, 90
+ Saint Patrick, 21
+ Saint Peter Port, Guernsey, 98
+ Saint Peter's in the East, Oxford 110
+ Saint Peter's, Lincoln, 32
+ Saint Peter's, Norwich, 73
+ Saint Peter's, Rome, 75, 76
+ Saint Pierre, Caen, 101
+ Saint Piran's, Perranporth, 21
+ Saint Saviour's, Dartmouth, 90, 92
+ Saint Saviour's Southwark, 94
+ Saint Sepulchre, Cambridge, 44
+ Saint Sepulchre, Northampton, 44
+ Saint Sophia, Constantinople, 28
+ Saint Stephen's, Bristol, 73
+ Saint Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, 58
+ Saint Stephen's, Walbrook, 76
+ Saint Thomas à Becket, 110
+ Saint Wilfrid's Needle, 109
+ Saint Wolfstan, 103
+ Salisbury Cathedral, 47, 57, 101, 106
+ Sanctuary Knockers, 82
+ Saxon Architecture, 31
+ Saxon Churches, 32
+ Scott (quoted), 31
+ Screens, 92
+ Sedilia, 87
+ Shottesbrook Church, Berks, 66, 103
+ Shrewsbury, 90
+ Silchester, 25
+ Snettisham, Norfolk, 101
+ Solihull, Warwickshire, 94
+ Sompting, Sussex, 32, 99
+ Southwell, 57, 87
+ Southwold Church, Suffolk, 73
+ Speyer Cathedral, 29
+ Spires, 73, 99
+ Squints, 90
+ Stalls, 88
+ Stanford, Leicester, 106
+ Stone Church, Kent, 54
+ Stoups, 86
+
+ Temple Balsall, 44
+ Temple Church, London, 44
+ Tenby, 90
+ Tewkesbury Abbey, 106
+ Thaxted Church, Essex, 73
+ Thornham Church, Kent, 86
+ Towers, 33, 72
+ Transom, The, 46, 49
+ Trinity Church, Ely, 58
+ Tympana, 41
+
+ Uffendon, Devon, 92
+
+ Vitruvius, 74
+
+ Wakefield Church, Yorkshire, 73
+ Walpole, Horace, 78
+ Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey, 84
+ Wansted, Oxford, 101
+ Wantsume, 25
+ Warmington, Warwickshire, 81
+ Wells Cathedral, 53, 57, 110
+ West Horsley, Surrey, 106
+ Westminster Abbey, 48, 57, 63, 76, 78, 103
+ Westminster Hall, 73
+ Westminster, Henry's VII.'s Chapel, 68, 88, 89
+ Westwell, Kent, 106
+ Wilford Church, Oxford, 101
+ William the Conqueror, 96
+ Wimborne Minster, 110
+ Wimmington Church, Bedfordshire, 66
+ Winchester Cathedral, 43, 63, 72, 85, 88, 103, 110
+ Winchester College, 72
+ Windows--
+   Saxon, 32
+   Norman, 39
+   Early English, 52
+   Decorated, 58
+   Perpendicular, 68
+ Wing, 32
+ Wootton Wawen, 32
+ Worcester Cathedral, 57, 109, 110
+ Worms Cathedral, 29
+ Wren, Sir Christopher, 75, 76
+ Wrexham Church, 72
+ Wroxhall Abbey, 106
+ Wykeham, William of, 72, 84
+ Wymondham Church, 72
+
+ York Minster, 32, 57, 63, 66, 73, 94, 106, 109
+
+
+
+
+THE HOMELAND HANDBOOKS
+
+Copiously Illustrated and provided with Ordnance Maps and Plans.
+
+
+JANUARY, 1907.
+
+ No.                                                          Cloth. Paper.
+
+ 1 TONBRIDGE FOR THE ANGLER, THE HOLIDAY-MAKER, AND THE RESIDENT.
+     By Stanley Martin and Prescott Row                         1/-    6d.
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+     Prescott Row. Ordnance Map and Plans. Second Edition       1/-    6d.
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+ 38 HORSHAM AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Rev. W. Goodliffe, M.A.
+      Ordnance Map                                              2/-    1/-
+ 39 SEAFORD AND NEWHAVEN. By Geo. Day. Ordnance Map             1/-    6d.
+ 40 THE GREAT OUSE. HUNTINGDON, ST. NEOTS, AND ST IVES. By
+      H. L. Jackson, M.A., and G. R. Holt Shafto. Ordnance Map  2/-    1/-
+ 41 KING'S LYNN WITH ITS SURROUNDINGS, INCLUDING SANDRINGHAM.
+      By W. A. Dutt. Ordnance Map                               2/-    1/-
+ 42 WOKING AND RIPLEY WITH THEIR SURROUNDINGS.
+      By A. H. Anderson. Ordnance Map                           2/-    1/-
+ 43 HERTFORD AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By W. Graveson.
+      Ordnance Map.                                             2/-    1/-
+ 44 DORKING AND LEATHERHEAD.
+      By Joseph E. Morris, M.A. Ordnance Map                    2/-    1/-
+ 45 WALTHAM AND CHESHUNT. By Freeman Bunting. Ordnance Map      1/-    6d.
+ 46 DORCHESTER WITH ITS SURROUNDINGS. By F. W. and Sidney
+      Heath. with a Foreword by Thomas Hardy. Ordnance Map      2/-    1/-
+ 47 LUTON CHURCH. By Constance Isherwood. With Plan             1/-    6d.
+ 48 READING AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By A. H. Anderson.
+      Ordnance Map                                              2/-    1/-
+ 49 SUTTON AND ITS SURROUNDINGS.
+      By F. Richards. Ordnance Map                              2/-    1/-
+ 50 WATFORD AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Walter Moore.
+      Ordnance Map                                              2/-    1/-
+ 51 YEOVIL AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Frank Heath. Ordnance Map   2/-    1/-
+ 52 AYLESBURY AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Walter Moore.
+    Ordnance Map                                                2/-    1/-
+ 53 GRAVESEND AND ITS SURROUNDINGS.  By A. J. Philip.
+      Ordnance Map                                              2/-    1/-
+ 54 HIGH WYCOMBE AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. By Henry Harbour         --     --
+ 55 OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES, AND HOW TO STUDY THEM.
+      By Sidney Heath                                           2/-    --
+
+
+HANDBOOKS FOR MANY OTHER TOWNS AND DISTRICTS ARE IN ACTIVE PREPARATION.
+
+
+
+***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES AND HOW TO
+STUDY THEM***
+
+
+******* This file should be named 30290-8.txt or 30290-8.zip *******
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+<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Our Homeland Churches and How to Study Them, by Sidney Heath</title>
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+<body>
+<h1>The Project Gutenberg eBook, Our Homeland Churches and How to Study Them,
+by Sidney Heath, Illustrated by Sidney Heath and Ethel M. Heath</h1>
+<pre>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at <a href = "http://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a></pre>
+<p>Title: Our Homeland Churches and How to Study Them</p>
+<p>Author: Sidney Heath</p>
+<p>Release Date: October 19, 2009  [eBook #30290]</p>
+<p>Language: English</p>
+<p>Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1</p>
+<p>***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES AND HOW TO STUDY THEM***</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>E-text prepared by<br />
+    Delphine Lettau, Joseph E. Loewenstein, M.D., Paul Dring,<br />
+    and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team<br />
+    (http://www.pgdp.net)</h3>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="frontis" id="frontis">[Frontispiece]</a></span>
+<a name="Plate_1" id="Plate_1"></a></p>
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="ILLUSTRATION">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img1c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img1c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Foundations of Romano-British Church at Silchester" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+    <tr>
+		 <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><br />
+              <b>The Foundations of a Romano-British Church.</b><br />
+         Uncovered at Silchester.<br />
+				 <i>Photograph S. Vidor White &amp; Co.</i><br />
+Click to <a href="images/img1c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<small><i>The Homeland Handbooks</i>&mdash;No. 55.</small></p>
+
+<h1>OUR HOMELAND<br />
+CHURCHES</h1>
+<h3>AND HOW TO STUDY THEM.</h3>
+
+<h6>BY</h6>
+<h4>SIDNEY HEATH</h4>
+<h6>(Author of<br />
+"Some Dorset Manor Houses,"<br />
+etc.)</h6>
+
+<h5>ILLUSTRATED BY THE AUTHOR<br />
+AND</h5>
+<h5>ETHEL M. HEATH</h5>
+
+<h6>AND BY<br />
+PHOTOGRAPHS.</h6>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5>Published under the General Editorship of<br />
+Prescott Row and Arthur Henry Anderson,<br />
+by the Homeland Association for the Encouragement<br />
+of Touring in Great Britain.</h5>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5>London:<br />
+THE HOMELAND ASSOCIATION LTD.,<br />
+22, <span class="smallcaps">Bride Lane, Fleet Street, E.C.</span><br />
+<span class="smallcaps">First Edition.</span>1907.<br /></h5>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>EDITORIAL NOTE.</h3>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p><small>With a view to making future Editions of this Handbook as
+accurate and comprehensive as possible, suggestions for
+its improvement are cordially invited. If sent to <span class="smallcaps">The
+Editors</span>, The Homeland Association, Association House,
+22, Bride Lane, Fleet Street, E.C., they will be gratefully
+acknowledged.</small></p>
+
+<hr class="minimal" />
+
+<h3>COPYRIGHT.</h3>
+<p><small>This Book as a whole, with its contents, both Literary and
+Pictorial, is Copyrighted in Great Britain.</small></p>
+
+<hr class="minimal" />
+
+<h3>ADVERTISING.</h3>
+
+<p><small><span class="smallcaps">Local.</span>&mdash;Terms for Advertising in future issues of this Handbook
+will be forwarded on application to the General
+Manager of the Homeland Association, at the above
+address.</small></p>
+
+<p><small><span class="smallcaps">General.</span>&mdash;Contracts for the insertion of Advertisements
+through the whole series of Homeland Handbooks, more
+than fifty volumes, circulating through the country, can be
+arranged on application to the General Manager.</small></p>
+
+</blockquote>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3><i>CONTENTS</i></h3>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="1" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Pref"><i>Author's Preface</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Dedic"><i>Dedication</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Intro"><i>Introduction</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_I"><i>Chapter I.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Early British Churches</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_II"><i>Chapter II.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Early Church Architecture</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_III"><i>Chapter III.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Saxon and Norman Styles</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV"><i>Chapter IV.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Early English Style</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_V"><i>Chapter V.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Decorated Style</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI"><i>Chapter VI.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Perpendicular Style</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII"><i>Chapter VII.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Renaissance and Later</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII"><i>Chapter VIII.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Church Furniture and Ornaments</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX"><i>Chapter IX.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Bells and Belfries</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_X"><i>Chapter X.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Spire: Its Origin and Development</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI"><i>Chapter XI.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Stained Glass</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII"><i>Chapter XII.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Crypts</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII"><i>Chapter XIII.</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>How to describe an Old Church</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Appendix"><i>Appendix</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>A Glossary of the Principal Terms used in<br /> Ecclesiastical Architecture</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Biblio"><i>Bibliography</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Index"><i>Index</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><i>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.</i></h3>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="1" summary="Illustrations">
+
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Plate_1"><span class="smallcaps">Plate&nbsp;1</span></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Foundations of a Romano-British Church (Frontispiece)</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Plate_2"><span class="smallcaps">Plate&nbsp;2</span></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>The Church of St. Margaret, Lynn</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Plate_3"><span class="smallcaps">Plate&nbsp;3</span></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>A Fine Perpendicular Tower, St. Mary, Taunton</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Plate_4"><span class="smallcaps">Plate&nbsp;4</span></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Sedilia and Chantry, Luton</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img2"><i>The Various Forms of Arches</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img3"><i>Plan of a Typical Gothic Cruciform Parish Church, Luton</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img4"><i>Examples of Gothic Windows</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img5"><i>Examples of Buttresses</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img6"><i>A Rood Screen, with a Restoration of the Rood</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img7"><i>The Church of S. Martin, Canterbury</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img8"><i>Window Built with Roman Brick, Swanscombe</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img9"><i>A Reputed Saxon Doorway, Bishopstone</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img10"><i>Tower of Earls' Barton Church</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img11"><i>An Example of Norman Tower, Bishopstone</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img12"><i>A Norman Pier Arcade, Abbots Langley</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img13"><i>Examples of Norman Mouldings</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img14"><i>A Late Norman Parish Church, Castle Rising</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img15"><i>West Doorway, Rochester Cathedral</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img16"><i>Tympanum of Norman Doorway, Fordington St. George</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img17"><i>Examples of Norman Capitals</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img18"><i>A Curious Norman Capital, Seaford</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img19"><i>Norman and Early English Doorways, Dunstable Priory Church</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img20"><i>Windows, Showing the Origin of Tracery</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img21"><i>An Early English Arch, Rochester Cathedral</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img22"><i>Wall Arcading, Showing Junction of Norman and<br />
+<span class="ind2">&nbsp;</span>Early English Masonry,Dunstable Priory Church</i></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img23"><i>An Early English Doorway, Huntingdon</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img24"><i>A Group of Thirteenth Century Lancet Windows, Ockham</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img25"><i>Salisbury Cathedral</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img26"><i>Examples of Early English Capitals and Ornament</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img27"><i>A Late Decorated Window in a Parish Church, East Sutton</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img28"><i>Examples of Decorated Ornament</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img29"><i>Examples of Perpendicular Ornament</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img30"><i>Early Perpendicular Parish Church, Yeovil</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img31"><i>A Fine Parish Church, Showing Rich Perpendicular Work,<br />
+<span class="ind2">&nbsp;</span>Terrington St. Clement, Norfolk</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img32"><i>A Perpendicular Doorway, Merton College</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img33"><i>A Perpendicular Porch, King's Lynn</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img34"><i>An English Renaissance Church, S. Stephen, Walbrook</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img35"><i>A Typical Cornish Font</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img36"><i>The Sanctuary Knocker, Durham Cathedral</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img37"><i>The Baptistery in Luton Church</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img38"><i>An Example of a Leaden Font of the Late Norman Period</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img39"><i>A Reputed Saxon Font, Shaldon</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img40"><i>A Detached Holy-Water Stoup of Unusual Design</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img41"><i>A Typical Somerset Bench-End, Spaxton</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img42"><i>A Richly-Carved Pulpit and Canopy, Edlesborough</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img43"><i>Screen with Rood Loft, Kenton</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img44"><i>The Carved Oak Balustrade in Compton Church</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img45"><i>Bell Turret for Three Bells, Radipole</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img46"><i>The Best Example of a Saxon Spire or Pyramidal Roof, Sompting</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img47"><i>Leighton Buzzard Church, with Early English Tower and Spire</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img48"><i>A Parish Church with a Shingle Broach Spire, Edenbridge</i></a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="top">&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><a href="#img49"><i>Interior Elevation of a Bay of a Church</i></a></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3><i>STYLES OF ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE.</i></h3>
+
+<p><small>The following periods of architectural style may be of
+use for the purpose of reference, but it must be borne in mind
+that they are more or less approximate, as each style merged by
+slow degrees into the next.</small></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="small" style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="1" summary="Periods">
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Norman:</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">William I. to Stephen.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">1066-1154.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Transition Norman.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Henry II.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">1154-1189.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Early English Gothic.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Richard I. to Henry III.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">1189-1272.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Decorated.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Edward I., II., III.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">1272-1377.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Perpendicular.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Richard II. to Henry VII.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">1377-1485.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Tudor.</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Henry VIII. to Elizabeth.&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">1485-1600.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><small>Sharpe gives seven periods of English architecture
+up to the time of the Reformation, and dates them as
+follows:&mdash;</small></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="small" border="0" style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary="Periods">
+
+<tr><td colspan="4" valign="top"><i>ROMANESQUE.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">I.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Saxon</i></td><td align="right">from &mdash;&mdash; to 1066</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">II.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Norman</i></td><td align="right">from 1066 to 1145</td><td align="right">79 years</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">III.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Transitional</i></td><td align="right">from 1145 to 1190</td><td align="right">45 years</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td colspan="4" valign="top"><i>GOTHIC.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IV.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Lancet</i></td><td align="right">from 1190 to 1245</td><td align="right">55 years</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">V.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Geometrical</i></td><td align="right">from 1245 to 1315</td><td align="right">70 years</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VI.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Curvilinear</i></td><td align="right">from 1315 to 1360</td><td align="right">45 years</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VII.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left"><i>Rectilinear</i></td><td align="right">from 1360 to 1550</td><td align="right">190 years</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3><a name="Pref" id="Pref"></a>PREFACE.</h3>
+
+<p>It is a truism that the history of building is the
+history of the civilized world, for of all the arts
+practised by man, there is none which conveys to
+us a clearer conception of the religion, history, manners,
+customs, ideals and follies of past ages, than the art of
+building. This applies in a special sense to cathedrals
+and churches, which glorious relics reflect and perpetuate
+the noble aim, the delicate thought, the refined
+and exquisite taste, the patient and painstaking toil
+which have been expended upon them by the devout
+and earnest craftsmen of the past.</p>
+
+<p>There are very few of our ancient churches in village,
+town or city which do not offer some feature of interest
+to the visitor, and in the absence of anything more
+important, there is sure to be some door, window, font,
+screen, or other detail which will amply repay him for
+the small amount of time spent in seeing it.</p>
+
+<p>The aim of the author of this little volume has been
+to indicate the symbolism and meaning attaching to the
+various portions of our churches and cathedrals, and to
+endeavour briefly to describe, in language as simple as
+the subject will allow, the various styles of ecclesiastical
+architecture with their distinctive characteristics in such
+a way as will enable the reader to assign each portion
+and detail of a church to its respective period with an
+approximate degree of accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>He does not claim to be original, but endeavours to
+be useful and interesting. The best authorities have
+been consulted and freely drawn upon, but with the
+object in view of writing a book at once thus useful and
+interesting, no attempt has been made to deal with the
+subject in a strictly architectural, or a purely scientific
+manner.</p>
+<p>Weymouth, 1906.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3><a name="Dedic" id="Dedic"></a>DEDICATION.</h3>
+
+<p>To all those who love old buildings&mdash;cathedrals,
+abbeys, and village churches, which breathe the
+spirit of an age with which we have entirely
+broken&mdash;and who would fain hand down to posterity,
+unmutilated, the great building achievements of our forefathers,
+which we, with all our science, wealth, and
+means of curtailing labour, can no more imitate than
+we can reproduce the language of a Chaucer or a Shakespeare;
+this book is respectfully dedicated.</p>
+
+<p class="right">S. H.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="small" style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="1" summary="Poem">
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">"<i>Firm was their faith, the ancient bands,</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>The wise of heart in wood and stone,</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><i>Who reared with stern and trusting hands</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>Those dark grey towers of days unknown;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><i>They filled the aisles with many a thought,</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>They bade each nook some truth recall</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"><i>The pillared arch its legend brought,</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<i>A doctrine came with roof and wall.</i>"</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right" valign="bottom"><span class="smallcaps">&mdash;Hawker of Morwenstow.</span></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2><span class="wide">OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES<br />
+AND<br />
+HOW TO STUDY THEM.</span></h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h3><a name="Intro" id="Intro"></a>INTRODUCTION.</h3>
+
+<p>However much we may admire, considered purely
+as art, the Pagan temples of the Greeks and
+Romans, we must confess that they are lacking
+in those high ideals and those sustained and inspired
+motives which seem to penetrate and permeate the
+buildings and churches of the Christian era. Perfect as
+is Greek art within its somewhat narrow limits, it is,
+nevertheless, cold, precise and lifeless. The Gothic
+buildings on the contrary are pregnant with the very
+spirit of life.</p>
+
+<p>Prompted by a deep and fervent faith in their religion,
+the Gothic builders and sculptors unconsciously wove
+into the humblest of their architectural enrichments some
+portion of their daily life and personality. The slave-built
+temples of the Greeks offered no scope for the
+exercise of individual expression&mdash;such, in fact, would
+have been strongly resented&mdash;whereas the early Christian
+craftsman, revelling in his freedom, seized every opportunity
+of expressing in his work his joy, fear and hope
+of immortality.</p>
+
+<p>This is made apparent in the study of an old church,
+whereof every portion&mdash;door, window, bench-end,
+carving, gargoyle&mdash;has hidden about it some suggestion of
+beautiful thought, or some distinct and appropriate symbolism.
+The fact that symbolism underlies almost every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span>
+such indication of medi&aelig;val thought is made abundantly
+manifest in the study of medi&aelig;val literature. Open any
+12th century treatise on morals, science or history, and
+you become aware of the fact at once.<a name="img2" id="img2"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-1-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-1-1-t.jpg" height="84" alt="Norman" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-1-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-1-2-t.jpg" height="84" alt="Stilted" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-1-3.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-1-3-t.jpg" height="84" alt="Horse Shoe" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Norman.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      Stilted.
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Horse Shoe.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-2-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-2-1-t.jpg" height="125" alt="Equilateral" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-2-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-2-2-t.jpg" height="125" alt="Lancet" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-2-3.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-2-3-t.jpg" height="125" alt="Drop" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Equilateral.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Lancet.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Drop.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-3-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-3-1-t.jpg" height="116" alt="Trefoil" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-3-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-3-2-t.jpg" height="116" alt="Trefoil" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-3-3.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-3-3-t.jpg" height="116" alt="Cinquefoil" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Trefoil.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Trefoil.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Cinquefoil.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-4-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-4-1-t.jpg" height="83" alt="Ogee" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-4-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-4-2-t.jpg" height="83" alt="Four Centered" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/arch-4-3.jpg">
+      <img src="images/arch-4-3-t.jpg" height="83" alt="Tudor" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Ogee.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Four Centered.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Tudor.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;<br />
+      <span class="b"><b>The Various Forms of Arches</b></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The main-spring
+of this symbolism, of all Christian symbolism, turns on
+the parabolic meaning in the scheme of Creation. The
+early writers were far less concerned with recording the
+plain objective facts of history, than in pursuing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span>
+allegory and the love of the marvellous, and showing all
+those characteristics of what we now term an unscientific
+attitude of mind.</p>
+
+<p>In its widest sense, symbolism means the expression
+of belief, and if we would interpret history aright, we
+must grasp the fact that the key to the character and
+disposition of peoples of all ages lies in the knowledge of
+their beliefs; for out of the beliefs of one age most surely
+grow the beliefs of its successors, and in no work of man's
+hand are the beliefs held by various peoples in past ages
+more clearly defined than in our cathedrals and churches,
+which noble buildings in every civilized country indicate
+principles as well as facts, influences as well as results;
+and while presenting the finest materials for &aelig;sthetic
+study, are no less useful as indicating the psychological
+peculiarities of those builders of old to whose condition
+they bear witness.</p>
+
+<p>In our grand specimens of ecclesiastical architecture,
+we may read the world's later history, and to-day they
+breathe the sombre reverential influence of a faith
+which sought to satisfy itself with the visible symbolizing
+of those half-poetical, half-superstitious conceptions with
+which the religion of the Middle Ages was so deeply
+imbued.</p>
+
+<p>An early development of decorative symbolic art,
+known as Celtic, of which we have examples on old Irish
+crosses, and particularly on illuminated MSS. was wrought
+by the Christian monks of the 7th and 8th centuries, but
+what is generally understood as Christian symbolic art
+had its finest development about the 13th century. Gothic
+art is essentially symbolic and in many instances, its
+individual forms have specific significance. Thus the
+common equilateral triangle was used to symbolize the
+Holy Trinity, as are the two entwined triangles. Other
+symbols employed at this period setting forth the mystery
+of the Unity of the Trinity, without beginning and without
+end, are three interlaced circles, and a very curious one
+is that in which three faces are so combined as to form
+an ornamental figure. Baptism under the immediate
+sanction of the Divine Trinity was represented by three<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span>
+fishes placed together in the form of a triangle.<a name="img3" id="img3"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img3c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img3c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Plan of a Gothic Cruciform Parish Church" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><i><br /><b>Plan of a Typical Gothic Cruciform Parish Church.</b><br />
+         (St. Mary, Luton, fully described in No. 47 of this Series).<br />
+				 <small>Drawn by Ed. Craven Lee.</small></i>
+Click to <a href="images/img3c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+So numerous, indeed were such Christian symbols after the
+9th century that a mere enumeration of them would
+occupy considerable space. Every trefoil symbolized the
+Holy Trinity; every quatrefoil the four Evangelists;
+every cross the Crucifixion, or the martyrdom of some
+saint; and in Gothic ornament and decoration, we find
+the Chalice, the Crown of Thorns, the Dice, the Sop, the
+Hammer and Nails, the Flagellum and other symbols
+of our Lord's Passion.</p>
+
+<p>Although presenting the same characteristics in their
+external design, our town and village churches are very
+various. The simplest form, and the one most commonly
+found, is that of a nave and chancel, with a tower at the
+west end; to which plan may be added aisles and transepts,
+the latter often being wrongly called "cross-aisles."
+When the walls of the nave above the arcade
+rise above those of the aisles and are pierced with windows,
+the upper portion is called the clerestory, the meaning of
+which word is not free from obscurity; it seems probable
+that it indicates the clear story&mdash;the story which rises
+clear of the nave and aisles. In large buildings, they
+are important both for utility and beauty, but in small
+and early churches, they are of less importance.</p>
+
+<p>It is a well-known fact that the chancel and nave of
+a church generally stand east and west. This arrangement,
+called the orientation, is symbolic of the
+teaching that to the east we are to look for assistance
+and protection against the power of our enemy, and that
+as we pray we may look for the day-spring, symbolized
+to us in the rising sun that sheds light and warmth all
+over the earth.</p>
+
+<p>The public entrance to a church is generally at the west
+end (the priest usually had a door in the chancel for his
+own use). Through this door we enter the house of
+prayer, for as in the east we see the emblem of the Lord
+of Life and Light, so the west represents the seat of
+darkness and of the powers of evil.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest porches were those of the early Christian
+basilica churches; they were long and arcaded and were<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span>
+called "narthex." In later times, they assumed two
+forms, one the projecting erection, covering the entrance
+and divided into three or more doorways, and the other
+a kind of covered chamber open at the end and having
+small windows at the sides. These latter are generally
+found on the north and south sides of the nave. Formerly,
+when church government was more rigorous in
+discipline than is now the case, the porch was the appointed
+place for those who were under censure. Those also
+who were unbaptised, or who had not yet received the
+sacrament of regeneration, were not allowed beyond the
+porch, not quite excluded from the church and yet not
+permitted to enter fully. The porch also served as a
+path of admission for all Christians into the body of the
+church, so that they passed through the assembly of
+penitents and catechumens, who were wont to ask the
+prayers of the more highly privileged for their full restoration
+or admission to the communion of the faithful.</p>
+
+<p>With reference to our Lord's word, "I am the
+Door," we frequently find the tympana of church doors,
+particularly those of Norman date, adorned with representations
+of events from his life, but they often also depict
+the monsters, dragons and devils, that formed so strong
+an article in the faith of the early Christians.</p>
+
+<p>A more detailed account of these tympana will be
+found in a following chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Passing through the porch we enter the nave, which
+word is derived from the Latin <i>navis</i>, a ship. Its symbolic
+teaching is that of the Church riding triumphantly
+and buoyantly on the troubled and dark waters of the
+world. The first thing noticed on entering the nave is
+the font, which was formerly placed outside the church,
+in a separate building called the baptistery; a few of our
+churches have retained these little buildings which now
+form part of the churches proper.</p>
+
+<p>The reason in early days for placing the font outside
+the church was that the Christian was not admitted into
+the nave until he had been baptised and confirmed, the
+latter rite being administered immediately after baptism.</p>
+
+<p>From the western door there is a clear passage through<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span>
+the centre of the nave, called the aisle, signifying the
+straight and narrow way from the seat of darkness to
+immortal life. On each side of this aisle are seats for
+the laity, with room for standing and kneeling. The nave
+was usually divided from the chancel by an open screen
+of wood or stone, signifying that although the Christian
+might have some insight into the mysteries of the priest's
+office, at the same time these were to be partly concealed
+from his view. The rood screen was so called from
+the fact that the great Rood, or Crucifix, stood
+above it, not always on the screen itself, but on a
+separate beam, to which was often attached a rood loft
+or chamber. In early days, the lessons were read from
+the top of the rood screen, and in many of our churches
+the stairways leading thither have been retained.<a name="img4" id="img4"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/win-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/win-1-t.jpg" height="302" alt="Norman" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/win-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/win-2-t.jpg" height="302" alt="Stilted" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/win-3.jpg">
+      <img src="images/win-3-t.jpg" height="302" alt="Stilted" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Early English.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Decorated.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Perpendicular.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;<br /><span class="b"><b>Examples of Gothic Windows</b><br />
+      <small>See also page <a href="#Page_59">59</a></small>.</span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>In churches where the screen has vanished, the division
+of the nave from the rest of the church is plainly marked
+by the chancel arch. The chancel is emblematic of the
+Christian perfection, of the Church triumphant in heaven.</p>
+
+<p>In an old church, a piscina is nearly always found in
+the chancel, and here, too, were the sedilia or seats for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span>
+the officiating clergy, the prior, sub-prior, and the
+deacon, the last-named occupying the lowest seat.</p>
+
+<p>Founders' tombs also nearly always occupy positions
+in the chancel, and these tombs differ from all others in
+that they form an integral part of the structure, and
+could not have been added after the church was completed.</p>
+
+<p>Another thing sometimes to be seen is the ambery,
+or aumbry, a small cupboard let into the chancel wall,
+in which were kept the communion vessels, the chalice,
+paten, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The great object of interest, however, in the chancel,
+is the altar, which Archbishop Laud directed should be
+enclosed by rails, so that although the people may draw
+near, they cannot touch the holy table, but must accept
+from the hands of the priest those gifts of which he is
+the minister from God.</p>
+
+<p>Altars are fully described in a following chapter, but
+we may here note that the reredos, so universally found
+in our cathedrals, abbeys, and in many of our churches,
+forms no part of the altar, and the Court of Arches has
+decided that there are no altars in the Church of England,
+but only communion tables.</p>
+
+<p>Prominent among the external enrichments of our
+churches is the gargoyle, a word derived from the French,
+"gargouille," which in its turn comes from the Latin
+"gurgulio"&mdash;a water-spout. The earliest gargoyles are
+merely orifices with a lip to shoot the water well away
+from the fabric. The true gargoyle, however, was
+quickly evolved from this primitive form, and consists
+of two parts, the lower one forming the channel, the
+upper one being the cover. The full significance of the
+skill displayed by the old masons in the rare opportunity
+the gargoyle afforded them of representing the dragons,
+serpents, etc., in which their fancy revelled, is made
+apparent when we view the futile attempts of modern
+architects to introduce this feature in their churches, for
+modern gargoyles are generally grotesque caricatures,
+and anything but happy appendages to the buildings to
+which they are attached.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span>
+<a name="img5" id="img5"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="20" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/norman.jpg">
+            <img src="images/norman-t.jpg" height="322" alt="Norman" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Norman</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/early.jpg">
+            <img src="images/early-t.jpg" height="316" alt="Early English" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Early English</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/flying.jpg">
+            <img src="images/flying-t.jpg" height="566" alt="Flying Buttress" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Flying Buttress</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/decorated.jpg">
+            <img src="images/decorated-t.jpg" height="322" alt="Decorated" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Decorated</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/perpendic.jpg">
+            <img src="images/perpendic-t.jpg" height="316" alt="Perpendicular" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Perpendicular</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      <small><b>Examples of Buttresses</b><br />
+      <i>Drawn by E. M. Heath</i></small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The churchyard, so pleasing an adjunct to the House
+of God placed within it, is frequently approached through
+a lych-gate, which word is derived from the Saxon <i>lich</i>,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span>
+a corpse. These gates in our country churchyards are
+often very picturesque little structures, and under
+them the corpse at a funeral awaited the officiating
+priest before being taken into the church. The churchyard
+is commonly regarded as a mere dependency
+of the church, and as having a history very inferior
+in interest to that of the temple to which it is the
+court. The truth is that many of our churchyards
+have an antiquity far greater than that of the
+churches, as many of them constituted the open-air
+meeting-places of our Saxon forefathers long before the
+erection of parish churches. In the common meeting-place
+a cross was set up, either of wood or stone, to mark
+and hallow the spot, and when a church was subsequently
+built it was usually in the immediate vicinity of the cross,
+which accounts for the fact that many churchyard
+crosses are of older date than the churches themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Wells of water are often found in old churchyards,
+and as the regulations of the Saxon church required
+immersion and not sprinkling, it is possible that these
+were the Saxon fonts.</p>
+
+<p>Such then is the necessarily brief attempt to describe
+the main lines on which our old churches were planned,
+and the motives and ideals which animated their builders,
+who, being impressed with the dignity and mystery of
+the works of God, made their churches symbolical of the
+portions of the Christian life; the porch signifying
+baptism, the nave the life militant on earth, and the
+chancel the life eternal; while every little ornament,
+piece of sculpture and enrichment was designed to remind
+the worshippers of their faith, of its hopes, blessed
+promises and rewards.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span></h4>
+
+<h3>EARLY BRITISH CHURCHES.</h3>
+
+<p>In dealing with the introduction of church architecture
+into our own land, the task would be much
+simplified if one could state with certainty when
+the first church was built on British soil. Some historians
+assert that the Church of England as it is constituted
+to-day dates no further back than the moment
+when S. Augustine and his followers landed on the shores
+of Kent in the year 596, yet one is probably justified in
+assuming that a church existed in these islands for
+centuries previous to the arrival of the Roman missionaries.
+Unfortunately we have no records to guide us as
+to the date of this earlier settlement, and the name of
+the first Christian missionary to heathen Britain has still
+to be discovered. "We see," says the quaint old historian,
+Thomas Fuller, "the light of the word shined here,
+but see not who kindled it." The first Christian building
+of which we have any record was probably that erected
+at Glastonbury before the year 300, but that this was the
+first Christian settlement cannot be alleged with certainty.</p>
+
+<p>There are many traditions concerning the introduction
+of Christianity into Britain, some of which may probably
+have some bearing on the truth, but the whole subject
+is involved in considerable obscurity. One of these
+numerous traditions is to the effect that the British King
+Caradoc, after being taken prisoner to Rome, was allowed
+to return, on condition that several members of his family
+remained as hostages; and whilst serving in this capacity,
+his mother, son, and daughter are stated to have become
+converts to Christianity, the doctrines of which faith
+they spread in their native land on their return thereto.
+Another tradition is to the effect that S. Paul himself
+visited Britain and laid the foundation of the Christian
+faith.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a><a name="img6" id="img6"></a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img6c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img6c.jpg" height="330"
+      alt="Rood Screen" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><b>A Rood Screen with a Restoration of the Rood</b>.<br />
+                  Kenn, Devon.<br />
+              <i>Photograph by Chapman.</i><br />
+Click to <a href="images/img6c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>We are also told by eminent church historians<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>
+that the father and grandfather of S. Patrick were
+Christians, in which case S. Patrick himself would from
+a very early age have been brought up in the tenets of
+their faith. He is said to have been seized by pirates in
+the Clyde and taken to the north of Ireland, and eventually
+to Gaul. He was subsequently restored to his friends,
+whom he wished to convert to the Christian faith, and
+for this purpose his father sent him to be taught in the
+schools of Tours, Auxerre and Lerins. Eventually he
+was consecrated Bishop of the Irish and organized an
+efficient ecclesiastical system in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Before the coming of the Anglo-Saxons the church
+seems to have established a firm hold on the people, who
+held tenaciously to their possessions, both secular and
+religious, which were only wrested from them after a
+severe struggle. Their enthusiastic love of Christianity
+led them to make a heroic defence of the churches,
+rather than see them fall into the hands of the heathen
+Anglo-Saxons. The historian Bede tells us that all their
+buildings were destroyed, the priests' blood was spilt
+upon the altars, prelates and people were slain with the
+sword, and all the cities and churches were burnt to the
+ground. When all was lost and there was no longer a
+church or home to defend, the Britons retired to the
+country of their fellow-Christians, the secluded and
+almost impenetrable hills and forests of the west. The
+Anglo-Saxon love of gold was quickly recognised by the
+people of West Wales who saved their property and bought
+the right of worshipping after the manner of their fathers
+by the payment of an annual tribute to their conquerors.</p>
+
+<p>So ruthlessly indeed did the Anglo-Saxons rase to the
+ground the early churches, that, until a few years ago, but
+few traces of these early buildings were thought to exist.
+<span class="sidenote">Church of<br />
+S. Piran, Perranporth.</span>
+An accidental discovery, however, in the year 1835,
+brought to light an undoubted relic of an
+early British church in the west, this being
+the remains of a little church which had
+been until the date above mentioned completely
+buried in the sand on the sea coast
+near Perranporth in Cornwall. They are thought by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span>
+ecclesiologists to be the remains of the original church
+erected to the memory of S. Piran, a Cornish missionary
+and a friend of S. Patrick, who was buried within its
+walls before the year 500 A.D. On removing the sand,
+the accumulated deposit of centuries, the church was
+found to have consisted of a nave and chancel
+containing a stone altar.<a name="img7" id="img7"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img7c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img7c.jpg" height="300"
+      alt="Church of S. Martin, Canterbury" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption">The Church of S. Martin, Canterbury.<br />
+			    Click to <a href="images/img7c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The building measured 29
+feet in length, 16<sup>1</sup>&frasl;<sub>3</sub> feet in width and 19 feet from
+the floor to the roof, and probably shares with S.
+Mary's Church in Dover Castle, and S. Martin's, Canterbury,
+the honour of being one of the earliest links
+we possess with the ancient British Church. S. Mary's,
+Dover, appears to have been built of Roman bricks and
+cement, a combination which antiquaries consider is
+found only in those buildings which were erected during
+the Roman occupation.<span class="sidenote">S. Martin's, Canterbury.</span> S. Martin's Church, Canterbury
+has many claims to be considered one of
+our most interesting churches, no less on
+account of its associations than for its
+structural interest. The date of its building has been a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span>
+source of endless controversy, as it contains many features
+attributable to either Roman or Saxon architecture. It
+is thought that it may possibly have been used for worship
+by the Christian soldiers of the Roman army. Be this
+as it may, it is established beyond doubt that it was the
+oratory of Queen Bertha, the first English Christian queen,
+who here worshipped, with her chaplain Liudhard, long
+before the advent of S. Augustine, who himself in later
+times preached here; and within the walls of this cradle
+of English Christianity, Ethelbert, King of Kent, the
+husband of Queen Bertha was baptized. The Venerable
+Bede, writing within a hundred years of the death of S.
+Augustine states that there was in 597 A.D. in Canterbury,
+a church "dedicated to the honour of S. Martin and built
+while the Romans still occupied Britain." On the departure
+of the Romans it is probable that the church was
+still used by a small band of Christian worshippers until
+the heathen Jutes overran the Isle of Thanet in 449.</p>
+
+<p>Little is known of the progress of Christianity on this
+island from that date until the landing of S. Augustine in
+597, and the first fruits of his mission, as we have seen,
+was the conversion and baptism of King Ethelbert. As
+one would naturally expect, the aspect of the structure
+to-day, though suggestive of antiquity, is lacking in
+uniformity of treatment. The brick courses in the nave
+are at irregular intervals, varying from nine to twenty
+inches apart, the spaces being filled with Kentish rag-stone
+and occasional blocks of chalk. The chancel
+extends eighteen or twenty feet east of the arch and is
+composed of Roman bricks, evenly laid and averaging
+four bricks to a foot. The chancel was lengthened at
+the beginning of the thirteenth century and again at a
+more recent date, so that its architecture to-day is of
+three distinct periods. Outside may be seen five flat
+pilaster buttresses and one semi-circular one, a square-headed
+Roman doorway, a Saxon doorway and two Early
+English porches; and there is also a nearly circular
+panel on the south side of the nave, and a Norman
+squint at the west end. There are many other features
+of interest which bear evidences of a great antiquity, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span>
+the only question which is seriously disputed is whether
+the earliest portion of the present nave was built about
+the end of the Roman occupation of Britain or during the
+mission of S. Augustine.<a name="img8" id="img8"></a></p>
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img08c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img08c.jpg" height="300"
+      alt="Ancient Window built with Roman Brickwork" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><b>An Ancient Window built with Roman Brickwork.</b><br />
+               Swanscombe, Kent.<br />
+						<i>Photograph Mr. G. H. Smith.</i><br />
+			   Click to <a href="images/img08c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Rev. Charles F. Routledge,
+M.A., F.S.A., Hon. Canon of Canterbury Cathedral,
+writes: "Whatever may finally be determined to be the
+date of the church's foundation, it can never lose its
+unique association with S. Augustine, King Ethelbert and
+Queen Bertha, nor its undisputed claim to be the oldest
+existing church in England. From it flowed the tiny
+spring of English Christianity, which has since widened
+out into a mighty river, and penetrated the remotest parts
+of the civilized and uncivilized world."</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Among other churches which show signs of having<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>
+been built during the Roman occupation are those of<span class="sidenote">Other Early Churches.</span>
+Reculver, Richborough and Lyminge, while
+the foundations of an undoubted early
+church have been discovered in the old
+Roman city of Silchester, in Hampshire.
+<i>See <a href="#frontis">frontispiece.</a></i> The old church at Reculver
+stood originally within the Roman castrum, the fortress
+which guarded the northern mouth of the Wantsume, now
+a small stream, but once an arm of the sea dividing the
+Isle of Thanet from the mainland. The greater part of
+this church was pulled down in 1809, but the western
+towers, known as "the sisters" were repaired by Trinity
+House, as they constitute a useful landmark for
+mariners, being visible at a great distance.</p>
+
+<p>Reculver church was built about A.D. 670, and from
+the existing walls and foundations it is clear that its plan
+was basilican. The church is now a ruin, but some stone
+pillars which supported the arches are preserved in the
+Cathedral Close at Canterbury.</p>
+
+<p>As Reculver guarded the northern mouth of the watercourse,
+so Richborough protected the south, and here
+traces of a chapel in the form of a cross are plainly discernible
+amongst ruins known to be of Roman workmanship.
+The old church at Lyminge in the same county is
+thus described by Canon Jenkyns, in his "<i>History of
+Lyminge</i>":&mdash;"The Roman foundations discoverable at the
+south-east angle of the chancel, together with the remarkable
+half-arch that intervenes, marked the site of
+the <i>aquilonalis porticus</i>&mdash;the title of basilica already
+given to it in the seventh century establishes its claim to
+great antiquity."</p>
+
+<p>We thus see that although remains of the actual
+buildings in which the British Christians worshipped
+are few in number, yet enough are left us to prove
+conclusively that there was a very active and zealous
+Christian community established in these islands during
+at least the period immediately preceding that in
+which Rome withdrew her legions from Britain in order
+to defend Italy against the Goths, and abandoned our
+island to the mercy of her foes.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span></h4>
+
+<h3>EARLY CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.</h3>
+
+<p>In the early years of the Christian Church, when its
+members became sufficiently free from persecution
+to erect buildings for the purpose of worship, they
+were naturally anxious to avoid any of the forms peculiar
+to either heathen or Jewish temples. Some model, however,
+was necessary, and their choice being limited, they
+appear to have adopted the simple style of the Roman
+basilica, or court of justice. There was an adaptability
+about the general plan of such a building which rendered
+its selection natural and not inappropriate, while the
+dignified simplicity of its construction and the object for
+which it was primarily founded&mdash;the dispensation of
+justice&mdash;commended it no doubt in the first instance as
+a model for the primitive Christian church. These
+basilic&aelig; were usually enclosures surrounded by a colonnade,
+sometimes roofed, but more often open to the air,
+and designedly built for the purpose of being accessible
+to all members of the community at all times of the day.
+They appear occasionally to have been used for the transaction
+of ordinary business in which they would closely
+resemble our exchanges. Be this as it may, this form of
+architecture has left its impress on many Christian buildings,
+and the name of basilica, for a church, is still used
+in many parts of Italy.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman basilica was usually in the form of a
+parallelogram, with a seat for the judges at one end, and
+in their adaptation of this form of building, the early
+Christians devoted this place to the purposes of an altar.
+This, by an easy and natural transition, is thought to
+have given rise to the formation of the semi-circular
+recess at one end of the building, known as the apse (from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span>
+the Latin <i>apsis</i>, a bow or arch), which is still to be found in
+some of our older churches.</p>
+
+<p>Being thus Roman in the nature of their ground plan,
+it is not surprising to find that other portions of the early
+Christian buildings show decided characteristics of a
+Roman style. On the destruction of the Pagan temples
+by order of the Emperor Constantine about the year 330,
+much of their material was built into the earliest Christian
+churches, and the Roman character of their design being
+prevalent, they formed a style of architecture which has
+been designated Romanesque, of which the later styles,
+known here as Saxon and Norman were largely modifications.
+There is no reason to doubt that the earliest
+Christian churches were very unpretentious in form and
+that some time elapsed before there was anything which
+could be called a definite church architecture, beyond that
+to which we have alluded. Nevertheless, as the Church
+strengthened her position and grew in security, more
+attention was devoted to the subject of its edifices, and the
+departure in time from the original ground plan furnished
+an opportunity for the introduction of a more symbolical
+and appropriate design. The plan of the old basilica was
+abandoned for one in the form of the cross, the accepted
+symbol of the Christian religion, which departure, however,
+did not involve any very great alteration from the
+old ground plan.</p>
+
+<p>We come then to the time when one or other of the
+forms known as the Latin or the Greek cross&mdash;whichever
+was most convenient&mdash;was usually employed in a building
+designed for Christian worship, and these forms are
+universally found in the most elaborate structures of
+which the Christian Church can boast.</p>
+
+<p>As time passed, these cruciform churches were surmounted
+with a dome, steeple, or tower at the point
+where the members of the cross intersected each other.
+At first the most prominent of these external adornments
+was the dome; a characteristic of the architecture of
+Eastern Europe, which acquired the name Byzantine,
+from its having been carried to great perfection in Byzantium
+(Constantinople), the capital of the Eastern Empire.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The church of S. Sophia, which was built, much as it
+now exists, early in the sixth century, and was afterwards
+converted into a mosque, is an almost perfect example
+of the Byzantine style. In this building we find the
+Roman arch used in a variety of ways, while the dome
+itself is formed entirely of this arch used as the crowning
+work of the edifice. Eastern churches in this style
+usually took the form of the Greek cross, this form being
+better calculated to support the weight of the cupola. In
+Western Europe, however, where the flat squat tower
+afterwards developed into the steeple, as we shall see in
+a later chapter, the Latin cross was mostly used, and this,
+with a few notable exceptions, is the plan of most western
+churches.</p>
+
+<p>With writers of about fifty years ago, it was a favourite
+theory that the Christians converted the old basilic&aelig; into
+churches, and that the "Halls of Justice" erected by
+the Romans in this country were also converted into
+Christian churches, and some authorities point to the walls
+and arches of Brixworth church in confirmation of this
+theory. The late Mr. J. W. Brewer, however, stated that
+unfortunately for this theory, no single example of a
+basilica being converted into a church has been found
+in this country and he himself held the theory that the
+word basilica was used by the Romans to describe any
+building which was supported by internal columns, and
+in that way the name came to be applied to Christian
+churches.</p>
+
+<p>As we have seen, the early Christians, after a short
+time, became dissatisfied with these buildings adapted
+from Pagan types, and the Byzantine form of church
+arose, the first people who practised this style of building
+being the Greeks. The style spread with rapidity all
+over the East, the great church of S. Sophia being its
+largest example and the smaller, but more perfect, church
+of S. Mark at Venice giving us the best idea of this form
+of church architecture. Largely modelled on this style,
+also, are the circular baptisteries of Italy and the round
+churches of England, France and Germany, the modern
+Russian churches and all the Mohammedan mosques. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>
+Latin churches did not greatly favour this style and their
+use of it was confined, with few exceptions, to baptisteries,
+monumental chapels and the like, but for parochial,
+cathedral and monastic churches, the oblong plan was
+retained and ultimately developed into the Gothic church
+with its nave, transepts and chancel.</p>
+
+<p>The changes which the Christian basilica at first underwent
+were simple, <i>viz.</i>, the use of the arch instead of the
+straight lintel, or the placing of an entablature between
+the columns; a little later, about the tenth century, the
+old wooden roof of the basilica gave place to the arched
+roof or vaulting, so called from its being composed of a series
+of vaults. The styles called Romanesque and Lombardic
+are but geographical varieties of the same architecture
+and from these the Saxon and Norman styles were soon
+to be developed. The vaulted basilica church soon became
+common over the north of Europe, the two most
+important and practically unaltered examples being the
+cathedrals of Speyer and Worms, in Germany, although
+our Anglo-Saxon cathedrals of Peterborough, Ely and
+Norwich may, so far as regards their naves, be justly
+regarded as the offspring of the vaulted basilica style of
+building.</p>
+
+<p>When the old basilica style of church with its heavy
+beam roof and its innumerable columns had ceased to
+satisfy the lofty aspirations of Latin Christianity, and
+when the Greeks had inaugurated a new style of church
+architecture, only two courses were left to the Latins,
+either to adopt the Greek style in its entirety, or to improve
+upon the basilica type. Fortunately, although
+after considerable hesitation, they chose the latter alternative,
+the result being the genesis of our glorious
+cathedrals with their long naves and aisles, deep transepts
+and beautiful variety of form and outline.<a name="img9" id="img9"></a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img9c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img9c.jpg" height="400"
+      alt="REPUTED SAXON DOORWAY" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><b>A Reputed Saxon Doorway.</b><br />
+			              Bishopstone, Sussex.<br />
+			           <i>Photograph Mr. W. Hodgson.</i><br />
+         Click to <a href="images/img9c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span></h4>
+
+<h3>THE SAXON AND NORMAN STYLES.</h3>
+
+<p>As we have seen in the previous chapter, the whole
+subject of pre-Saxon church building is still very
+obscure, and for some considerable time after the
+Anglo-Saxon invasion little is known concerning church
+architecture, nor has it yet been fully ascertained whether
+any buildings of this period exist. By the year 588 the
+Saxons were in complete possession of the land. Christianity
+was to all appearance wiped out and the Church,
+to the superficial observer was dead. In his "<i>History of
+English Church Architecture</i>," Scott expresses the opinion
+that the oldest English churches may be divided into
+three groups. First, those which preceded the Danish
+invasion; secondly, those from the above epoch to the
+invasion of Sweyn; and thirdly, those onward to the
+Norman Conquest.</p>
+<div class="sidenote">Saxon<br />
+Archi&shy;tecture.</div>
+<p class="noindent">What exactly constituted Saxon architecture
+has long been a controversial point
+and one which will probably never be
+definitely settled. Parker, in his "<i>Glossary
+of Architecture</i>," says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p><small>"For a considerable time, after they (the Anglo-Saxons) had
+established themselves in this country, their buildings were of
+wood, and this appears to have been the prevailing material
+employed at the time of the Conquest, although stone had been
+occasionally used several centuries earlier&#8230;. No timber-work
+of Saxon date can be in existence at the present time, but
+it is contended by some antiquaries that several of our churches
+exhibit specimens of Saxon masonry; the truth of this theory,
+however, is not fully established, nor has the subject of Saxon
+architecture been yet sufficiently investigated to clear away the
+obscurity in which it is involved."</small>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Probably few of our so-called Saxon churches were
+built earlier than thirty or forty years before the Norman
+Conquest, and it seems certain that for some years after
+they had settled in England, the Normans employed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span>
+Saxon masons to build in the Saxon manner, as is seen
+by the tower of S. Michael's Church, Oxford, which,
+although showing all the characteristics of reputed Saxon
+masonry was built many years after the Battle of Hastings.
+Certain it is that these pre-Norman buildings in England
+were singularly rude and rough and show how much our
+Saxon ancestors were, at that period, behind the Italians,
+French and Germans in architectural skill.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Saxon
+Churches.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Our best examples containing Saxon work are possibly
+the churches at Sompting and Bishopstone, Sussex;
+Bradford-on-Avon; Wootton Wawen (sub-structure
+of tower); Wing; Brixworth, and
+Barnack, Northants; Greenstead in Essex;
+and S. Martin's at Wareham, Dorset.
+Of towers of this date the best are possibly those of
+S. Mary's and S. Peter's, Lincoln and S. Benet's,
+Cambridge. Of crypts, the finest examples are at Ripon
+Cathedral, York Minster (part) and S. Mary's Church,
+York. In addition to these, many other churches
+have chancel arches, doorways or some other less
+important features which are considered to be of
+Saxon origin.</p>
+
+<p>These early buildings generally show the semi-circular
+arch on the doorways, but the windows usually have a
+triangular head; at Sompting church, however, the
+windows have the semi-circular arch. It is necessary to
+say a few words in detail about the more important
+churches of this era.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">S. Lawrence,
+Bradford-on-Avon.</div>
+<p class="noindent">The church of S. Lawrence at Bradford-on-Avon
+is one of the oldest unaltered churches in England, and
+it seems to be beyond question that it is
+the actual church built by Ealdhelm at the
+beginning of the eighth century and dedicated
+by him to S. Lawrence. It consists
+of a chancel, nave and north porch, and
+among its remarkable features is its great height and the
+extreme narrowness of the round-headed arch between
+the nave and the chancel, a feature it has in common
+with the Saxon church of S. Martin at Wareham; the
+ground-plan measurements of both these churches are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span>
+identical. At S. Lawrence's church, an incised arcade
+is seen outside the walls, and on either side of the west
+aspect of the chancel arch are two sculptured figures of
+angels, which are thought to represent the earliest extant
+fragments of church carving in England.<a name="img10" id="img10"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img10c.jpg" width="250" alt="Tower of Earls' Barton Church." />
+<span class="caption"><b>Tower of Earls' Barton Church</b><br />
+Generally considered to have characteristics<br />
+of Saxon masonry.</span></div>
+<div class="sidenote">Brixworth,
+Earls' Barton
+and Barnack.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Brixworth church is possibly older than S. Lawrence's
+and it is said to have been in continuous use for Divine
+Service ever since it was erected. The
+tower appears to be of rather later date
+than the nave and rests upon the walls of a
+"narthex" or portico, which may have
+extended along the
+whole breadth of the
+front, as is still to be
+seen in churches at
+Rome and Ravenna.
+The curious pile of
+masonry built up
+against the tower may
+have been added for
+defence, as it could
+hardly have formed
+part of the original
+design.</p>
+
+<p>Earls' Barton and
+Barnack churches both
+have towers so covered
+with narrow projecting
+strips of stonework
+that the surface of the
+walls appears divided
+into rudely formed
+panels. The west doorways
+of both show
+primitive imitations of
+Roman mouldings in
+the imposts and architraves.
+The tower of
+Earls' Barton consists
+of four stages, each of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span>
+which is slightly smaller than the one below. In that of
+Barnack church, the upper stages of the tower represent
+the period of transition from Norman to Early English.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">S. Michael's
+Church, Oxford.</div>
+<p class="noindent">S. Michael's, Oxford, has a massive tower of solid
+masonry, unpierced in its lowest stage by either door or
+window, the second stage shows but one
+window and the highest is pierced by
+several windows of more elaborate construction. Although generally consisting
+of rubble and stone, Saxon churches were
+sometimes built of wood as we see from the existing nave
+of the parish church of Greenstead, Essex.<span class="sidenote">Greenstead
+Church, Essex.</span> A brick chancel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>
+has been added at the east and a timber belfry at the west
+end, but the old Saxon portion is composed
+of large chestnut trees split asunder and set
+upright close to each other with the round
+side outwards. The ends are roughly hewn
+so as to fit into a sill at the bottom, and
+into a plate at the top, where they are fastened with
+wooden pins. There are 16 logs on the south side where
+are two doorposts, and on the north side twenty-one logs
+and two spaces now filled with rubble. There is a
+tradition that this church was erected to receive the body
+of S. Edmund, on its return from London to Bury, in 1013.<a name="img11" id="img11"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img036c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img036c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Example of a Norman Tower" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><br /><b>An Example of a Norman Tower.</b><br />
+             Bishopstone, Sussex.<br />
+						 <i>Homeland Copyright.</i><br />
+         Click to <a href="images/img036c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The semi-circular arch has long been considered to be
+one of the most distinctive marks of Norman architecture,
+but Mr. Rickman, who made an exhaustive study of the
+early churches of France and England, says:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p><small>"In various churches it has happened that a very plain arch
+between nave and chancel has been left as the only Norman
+feature, while both nave and chancel have been rebuilt at
+different times; but each leaving the chancel arch standing.
+I am disposed to think that some of these plain chancel arches,
+will, on minute examination, turn out to be of Saxon origin."</small>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>It would be tedious to enter into any more minute
+account of the Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical remains, and
+the reader whose enquiries conduct him to the more
+elaborate works on the subject will be startled by the
+contrary opinions that he will surely encounter.</p>
+
+<p>In concluding these brief remarks on early buildings,
+we must again quote from Parker's work to which
+reference has already been made:&mdash;</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>
+<small>"The class of buildings referred to as being considered to
+belong to this style contain some rather unusual features, and
+they require to be particularly described, both because they are
+in themselves remarkable, and because there is a probability
+that some of them may be Saxon."</small>
+</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p class="noindent"><span class="sidenote">Norman<br />
+Archi&shy;tecture.</span>The Norman style of church architecture with its
+varied forms of columns, moulded and recessed arches
+and vaulting, may be roughly stated to
+have been introduced into England at the
+time of the Conquest. The Saxon masons
+do not appear to have understood vaulting
+sufficiently well to have roofed over any large space with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span>
+stone, and for this reason alone the Saxon form of building
+was bound to give way before the Norman, which of
+all the earlier styles was the most advanced in this
+respect.<a name="img12" id="img12"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img038c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img038c.jpg" height="500"
+      alt="Norman Pier Arcade" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><b>A Norman Pier Arcade.</b><br />
+			        Abbots Langley, Herts.<br />
+						<i>Photograph Mr. A. W. Anderson.</i><br />
+         Click to <a href="images/img038c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span>Generally speaking, Norman arches were semi-circular,
+but they were by no means universally so, for a
+form frequently found is one in which the spring of the
+arch does not take place from the abacus, or upper
+member of the capital, but at some distance above it and
+when it assumes this form it is called a "stilted" arch,
+suggested by some authorities to have been unintentional
+and the result of imperfect construction
+or planning. <i>See page <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</i><a name="img13" id="img13"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-1-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-1-1-t.jpg" height="77" alt="Chevron or Zig-zag" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-1-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-1-2-t.jpg" height="70" alt="Star" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Chevron or Zig-zag.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Star.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-2-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-2-1-t.jpg" height="84" alt="Alternate Billet" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-2-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-2-2-t.jpg" height="67" alt="Square Billet" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Alternate Billet.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Square Billet.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-3-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-3-1-t.jpg" height="71" alt="Double Cone" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-3-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-3-2-t.jpg" height="71" alt="Lozenge" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Double Cone.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Lozenge.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-4-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-4-1-t.jpg" height="68" alt="Beak Head" /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+      <a href="images/mould-4-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/mould-4-2-t.jpg" height="68" alt="Bird Head" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Beak Head.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Bird Head.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      <span class="b"><b>Examples of Norman Mouldings.</b></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Ornament.</div>
+<p class="noindent">The main features in the ornamentation of this period
+are the sculptured bands worked round the arches, which,
+although generally called "mouldings,"
+are more in the nature of decoration, and
+in some instances they appear to be additions
+carved on the originally unadorned surface of the
+masonry. The earliest and most general ornament
+is the chevron or zig-zag, which is frequently found
+doubled, trebled and quadrupled. The next most common
+form is the beak-head, consisting of a hollow and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span>
+large round.<a name="img14" id="img14"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img040c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img040c.jpg" height="550"
+      alt="Late Norman Parish Church" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><b>A Late Norman Parish Church.</b><br />
+             Castle Rising, Norfolk.<br />
+						<i>Drawn by Gordon Home.</i><br />
+         Click to <a href="images/img040c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span>In the hollow are placed heads of beasts
+or birds whose tongues or beaks encircle the round. On
+the west doorway of Iffley church, Oxford, are many
+of these beak-heads extending the whole length of the
+jamb down to the base moulding. They also figure
+prominently among the ornamentations of the hospital
+church of S. Cross, near Winchester. The zig-zag
+moulding is very common on Norman churches and is
+so easily recognised that no further description is needed
+here. The less prominent decorations of Norman mouldings
+include the alternate billet, the double cone, and the
+lozenge, together with an immense number of others
+less commonly found.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Windows.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The Early Norman window was little better than a
+narrow slit finished with a plain semi-circular head, and
+was generally only a few inches wide.
+They were, it is believed, filled with oiled
+linen and the sides of the aperture were
+splayed towards the interior. Later in the period, the
+windows were enriched by the zig-zag and other mouldings
+and at a still later period an improvement was made
+by inserting nook-shafts in the jambs similar to those
+in doorways.</p>
+
+<p>The towers of Norman churches often show windows
+of two lights separated by a central shaft, all enclosed
+under a large semi-circular arch, the spandrel of which
+is rarely pierced. Plain circular windows of small
+dimensions are sometimes found in other positions and in
+churches of later date, and occasionally in gable walls.
+Larger windows of the same form, with small shafts
+radiating from the centre and connected at the circumference
+by semi-circular or trefoiled arches, are also
+found as at Barfreston church, Kent, where there is a
+fine example.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Doorways.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Norman doorways are found in great numbers and
+variety, even in churches which present no other features
+in this style. The most usual form consists
+of a semi-circular-headed aperture with a
+hood-mould springing from plain square-edged
+jambs. Frequently, however, the doorways are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>
+recessed, having a nook-shaft in the angle formed by
+a recession from the capital, in which case it presents
+two soffits and two faces, besides the hood-moulds. The
+depth of these doorways is largely due to the great
+thickness of the walls usual in buildings of this
+period, but in many cases that portion of the wall
+in which the entrance is inserted is made to project
+forward beyond the general face, which projection is
+finished either with plain horizontal capping, or a high-pitched
+gable.<a name="img15" id="img15"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img042.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img042.jpg" height="500"
+      alt="West Doorway of Rochester Cathedral" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <span class="caption"><b>West Doorway of Rochester Cathedral</b><br />
+			Duncan Moul<br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img042.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Norman porches thus have generally but
+little projection, and are frequently so flat as to be little
+more than outer mouldings to the inner door. They are,
+however, often richly ornamented and have rooms above,
+which rooms are wrongly called "parvises." The
+shallow aperture often follows the form of the arch, but
+is frequently square-headed, having a semi-circular
+tympanum of masonry filling the space between the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>lintel of the door and the intrados of the arch. These
+tympana are usually sculptured in low relief with a
+representation of some scriptural or traditional event,
+while the assertion of the Apostle that "we must, through
+much tribulation, enter into the kingdom of God," may
+account for the fondness of the Norman sculptors in
+representing different stages of martyrdom on the tympana
+of their doors. A very singular tympanum is that
+on the door of the church of Fordington S. George, at
+Dorchester, whereon is represented some incident in the
+life of S. George.<a name="img16" id="img16"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img043c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img043c.jpg" height="250"
+      alt="Tympanum of Norman Doorway." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Tympanum of Norman Doorway.</b><br />
+      Fordington S. George, Dorset.<br />
+	 <i>Drawn by E. M. Heath.</i><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img043c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The principal figure is on horseback
+with a discus round his head. The other figures are in
+hauberks and chausses, and generally bear, in point of
+costume, much resemblance to the figures on the famous
+Bayeux tapestry. Barfreston church, Kent, has an
+interesting tympanum, as also has Patrixbourne church
+in the same county, where the sculpture shows the
+Saviour with dragons and at his feet a dog. At Alveston
+church, Warwickshire, the sculpture shows two quadrupeds
+with enormous tails, fighting, with between them
+a small bird, possibly intended for a dove. Our best
+example of a Norman doorway and tympanum is generally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span>
+considered to be the west doorway of Rochester Cathedral,
+where the sculpture is of a very advanced character for
+its date, which is probably about 1130-40.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Piers.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">A distinctive feature of the Norman style are the
+massive pillars, usually circular, and with capitals either
+of the same form, or square; occasionally
+in plain buildings the pillars themselves
+are square with very little or no ornamentation.
+Towards the end of the period, an octagonal
+pillar was often used, having a much lighter appearance
+than the earlier forms. Besides these plain styles, compound
+or clustered piers are very numerous, differing
+considerably in plan; the simplest consists of a square
+having one or more rectangular recesses at each corner,
+but one more frequently met with has a small circular
+shaft in each of the recesses and a larger semi-circular
+one on each side of the square.<a name="img17" id="img17"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/cap-1.jpg">
+      <img src="images/cap-1-t.jpg" height="200" alt="Norman.
+      Crypt, Winchester." /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/cap-2.jpg">
+      <img src="images/cap-2-t.jpg" height="200" alt="Traditional.
+      Christ Church, Oxford." /></a>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/cap-3.jpg">
+      <img src="images/cap-3-t.jpg" height="200" alt="Norman.
+      Winchester Cathedral." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Norman.<br />
+      Crypt, Winchester.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Traditional.<br />
+      Christ Church, Oxford.</small>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <small>Norman.<br />
+      Winchester Cathedral.</small>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;<br /><span class="b"><b>Examples of Capitals.</b></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Capitals.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Norman capitals are
+very varied, having many different forms of
+ornamentation; the commonest is one
+which resembles a bowl with the sides
+truncated, reducing the upper part to a square; sometimes
+the lower part is cut into round mouldings and
+ornamented, but it is frequently left plain.</p>
+
+<p>The Norman
+capital in its earliest style was of short proportions, but<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span>
+afterwards it became longer, with lighter ornamentation,
+gradually merging into the Early English. The bishops
+and abbots of this period appear to have possessed
+considerable skill in architecture, for no fewer than
+fifteen of our English cathedrals contain some important
+Norman work, as the older portions of the cathedrals of
+Canterbury, Durham, Winchester, Gloucester, Peterborough,
+Ely, Norwich, Lincoln and Oxford.<a name="img18" id="img18"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img045c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img045c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="CURIOUS NORMAN CAPITAL" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Curious Norman Capital.</b><br />
+     Seaford, Sussex.<br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img045c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Norman Buttresses.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The Norman buttress, better described by Mr. Sharpe
+as a pilaster strip, unlike those of the later period,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+projects but very little from the wall, and this is
+especially so in buildings of the earlier
+part of the period. They are usually
+quite plain and are more used for
+finish than actual support; the Norman
+builder relying principally upon the thickness and
+weight of his walls to sustain any roof thrust (<i>see page <a href="#Page_17">17</a></i>).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Round
+Churches.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">There are in England a few round churches which are
+thought to have been built by the Knights Templars, a
+religious community banded together for the purpose
+of wresting the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem
+from the Saracens. Their object
+was to defend the Saviour's tomb and to
+guard Palestine, for which purpose they
+built numerous monasteries throughout the Holy Land
+and fortified them like castles.</p>
+
+<p>Another famous order which combined the religious
+instincts of the cloister with the military ardour of the
+warrior was that of the Knights of S. John Baptist
+or Knights Hospitallers, who, besides fighting, were
+to tend the sick and provide for the welfare of
+all Christian travellers. The churches belonging
+to the Templars were usually built in circular form
+in imitation of the church of the Holy Sepulchre
+at Jerusalem. They were capped with vaulted concave
+roofs said to be symbolical of the vast circuit
+and concave of the heavens. Our best example is the
+Temple Church, London, to which was added at a later
+period, a beautiful Early English Gothic extension.
+Other round churches are those of S. Sepulchre, Cambridge;
+S. Sepulchre, Northampton; Temple Balsall,
+Warwickshire, and of Little Maplestead, Essex,
+which last, although the smallest, is by no means the
+least interesting. It is attributed to the Hospitallers,
+an order founded about the year 1092, and introduced
+into England in the reign of Henry I. At
+Clerkenwell may still be seen the ancient gateway leading
+to their hospital.<a name="img19" id="img19"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img046c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img046c.jpg" height="300"
+      alt="Norman and Early English Doorways" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Norman and Early English Doorways.</b><br />
+        Showing the transition from one style to another.<br />
+          Dunstable Priory Church.<br />
+           <i>Drawn by Worthington G. Smith.</i><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img046c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The order was suppressed in 1545.
+The church at Little Maplestead was built early in the
+12th century, and in 1186 the adjoining manor was given
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span>by
+Juliana Doisnel to this order, which gift was confirmed
+by King John and Henry III. This church is thought
+to reproduce with more fidelity than the others the
+original church of the Holy Sepulchre.</p>
+
+<p>These famous Norman round-chancelled churches have
+much in common with the old basilica form.</p>
+
+<p>It must be pointed out that the arbitrary divisions into
+which architecture has been divided&mdash;Norman, Gothic,
+etc., are pure figures of the imagination, as by a series
+of easy transitions, one style became gradually merged
+into the next without any hard and fast
+dividing lines whatever. The periods during
+which one style became gradually blended
+into another are called the periods of
+transition.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The
+Transition.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Architecture being progressive, it was only by the
+gradual development of one style from another that the
+art was enabled to advance with social progress, the literature
+and other arts of the country. The transition from the
+Norman to the Early English style may be ascribed to a
+period somewhat earlier than the 12th century, when a
+great change in the construction of the arch began to
+manifest itself. Alone, however, the form of the arch is no
+real test, for many pure Norman works have pointed arches.
+The square abacus may be taken as the best test. In its
+incipient state the pointed arch exhibited a change of
+form only, whilst the accessories and details remained
+the same as before; and although this change gradually
+led to the Early Pointed style in a pure state, with mouldings
+and features altogether distinct from those of the
+Norman, and to the general disuse, in the 13th century,
+of the semi-circular arch, it was for a while so intermixed
+as, from its first appearance to the close of the 12th
+century, to constitute that state of transition called the
+semi-Norman.<a name="img20" id="img20"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img049c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img049c.jpg" height="240"
+      alt="WINDOWS SHOWING ORIGINS OF TRACERY" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Windows showing the Origin of Tracery.</b><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img049c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.</h4>
+
+<h3>THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE.</h3>
+
+<p>The origin of what is loosely called Gothic
+architecture&mdash;which is generally considered to
+include the styles, with their transitions, from
+Early English to late Perpendicular, or Tudor-Gothic&mdash;is
+not free from obscurity, but it is certain that it
+began to be employed in ecclesiastical edifices about
+the time that the Goths settled in Italy, although
+all the available evidence goes to prove that the style
+originated and underwent its earliest developments in
+the north-west of Europe, and penetrated by slow
+degrees to the south and east.</p>
+
+<p>England was somewhat later than France in introducing
+this style of architecture, our earliest purely
+Gothic building being Salisbury Cathedral, begun in 1220,
+although the choirs of Rievaulx and Fountains Abbey
+were commenced a few years earlier. The Early English
+style in its earliest developments is nowhere seen to
+better advantage than in Salisbury Cathedral, and in its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span>
+very latest forms
+at Westminster
+Abbey, the period
+of time being
+chronologically
+measured by the
+reigns of Richard
+I., John and
+Henry III.<a name="img21" id="img21"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/img050c.jpg" width="220" alt="Early English Arch." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>An Early English Arch.</b><br />
+Rochester Cathedral.<br />
+<i>Photograph Eastmead.</i></span></div>
+
+<p>Most of our
+Gothic buildings
+were carried out
+under the supervision
+of a master-mason,
+but the
+most subordinate
+workman was left
+plenty of scope
+within reasonable
+limits for whatever
+artistic individuality
+he possessed,
+and the
+enrichments and
+ornaments of the
+Gothic era point
+out the noble aim,
+the delicate and
+graceful thought,
+the refined and
+exquisite taste
+expended upon
+every portion of
+their buildings
+by these Gothic
+masons.</p>
+
+<p>One of the
+chief differences
+between pure
+Gothic and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span>
+Norman architecture is in the use of the pointed form
+of arch, yet in the study of the early buildings
+of this date it is curious to notice how evenly the
+balance is held between the pointed
+and the round arch, and how at one time it
+was quite an open question whether the
+Gothic style would be distinguished by
+a round or a pointed arch. <span class="sidenote">The Pointed
+Arch.</span>In Germany and Italy
+the round arch held its own and continued to be
+used right through the Middle Ages. In England,
+however, the pointed arch soon gained a decided victory
+over its rival. Many theories have been put forward
+concerning the introduction of the pointed arch, one
+amongst them being that it was the result of the intersection
+of two circular arches such as is very commonly
+found in late Norman work; another theory is the
+poetical idea that it was copied from an avenue of trees.
+Whether or not either of these theories holds good,
+it is quite certain that this form of arch was known
+in the East for centuries before it reached Europe,
+being found in cisterns and tombs in Egypt and Arabia
+dating from long before the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>It has also been suggested that it was introduced
+from the East by the Crusaders, in which case we should
+have found it making its first appearance in Hungary,
+Poland, Bohemia and Russia, but it so happens that
+these were the very last countries in Europe to adopt
+the pointed arch.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><span class="sidenote">The
+Transitional
+Period.</span>The first form of the pointed arch, known as the
+Early English, was used from about 1180 to 1300,
+including part of the reigns of Henry II., Richard I.,
+John, Henry III. and Edward I. "Nothing," says
+the Rev. J. M. Hutchinson, "could be more striking
+than the change from Norman to Early
+English. The two styles were the complete
+opposites of each other; the round
+arch was replaced by the pointed, often
+by the acute, lancet; the massive piers
+by graceful clustered shafts; the grotesque and rudely-sculptured
+capitals by foliage of the most exquisite<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+character; and the heavy cylindrical mouldings by bands
+of deeply undercut members."<a name="img22" id="img22"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img052c.jpg" width="250" alt="Junction of Norman and Early English Masonry" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>Arcading showing the junction of the Norman<br />
+and Early English Masonry.</b><br />
+Dunstable Priory Church<br />
+<i>Photograph H. A. Strange.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Gothic architecture differs from all previous forms
+in the economical use of material, and the small size of
+the stones
+used. Whereas
+in both Roman
+and Norman
+buildings the
+arrangement
+of the materials
+depended
+upon their
+strength in
+masses, the
+Gothic masons
+employed
+stones of small
+size in the construction
+of
+edifices of
+equal strength
+and of far
+greater magnificence;
+while
+in constructive
+properties the
+Gothic style
+was a great
+advance on
+anything that
+had gone before,
+as the
+buildings in
+this style did
+not depend for their stability on the vertical pressure
+of columns, but on the correct adjustment of the
+bearings and thrusts of different arches operating in
+various directions. Owing to the fact, then, that each
+portion of a Gothic Church helps to support something<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span>
+besides itself, it is obvious that such buildings could
+be erected with a far smaller quantity of material than
+was previously necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The various little shafts or
+columns are so disposed as to distribute the weight
+of the superstructure and thus relieve the greater
+columns or
+piers of
+some portion
+of the
+superincumbent
+weight; the
+aisles help
+to support
+the nave;
+the walls of the
+side
+chapels act
+as abutments
+against
+the
+walls of the
+aisles, while
+the towers
+are generally
+placed
+so as to resist
+the accumulated
+thrust of all
+the arches
+along the
+sides of the
+nave.<a name="img23" id="img23"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;">
+<img src="images/img053cs.jpg" width="250" alt="Early English Doorway" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>An Early English Doorway.</b><br />
+Huntingdon.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The enrichments
+and little
+ornaments attached to mouldings, and particularly those
+placed in the hollows, are most characteristic of the
+various styles of Gothic architecture. The zig-zag is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span>
+peculiar to the Norman, the nail head to the Transitional
+or semi-Norman, and the dog tooth to
+the Early English.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early English Ornament.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">This last ornament
+represents a flower, looking like four
+sweet almonds arranged pyramidically,
+and there is no other ornament so
+distinctive of this period. Early English foliage is
+known by reason of the stalks always being shown as
+growing upwards from the lower ring of the capital,
+called the astrigal. These stalks are generally grouped
+together and curve forward in a very graceful manner.
+The plants mostly represented are the wild parsley, seakale
+and celery, and this foliage, called stiff-leaved foliage,
+is found at no other period than the end of the 12th
+century.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early English
+Mouldings.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Early English mouldings are very complicated and
+yet very beautiful, and consist of beads, keel and scroll
+patterns, separated by deep hollows giving
+a rich effect of light and shade round the
+arch. These deeply-cut hollows are also
+a distinctive mark of the style.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early English
+Windows.</div>
+
+<p>The earliest windows of this period are long and
+narrow, with acutely pointed heads, the exterior angle
+being merely chamfered and the interior
+widely splayed. Somewhat later the introduction
+of tracery gave a highly beautiful
+appearance to the windows and from the
+character of this feature the date of the window can be
+fairly accurately determined. Where the tracery is
+formed by ornamental apertures pierced through a plate
+of stone, it is called plate tracery, and is certain to be
+of not later date than the earlier part of the 13th
+century. If it is bar tracery, with the bars forming
+plain circles, the work is also Early English, but if, on
+the other hand, the bars form other shapes filled in
+with patterns, or consisting of a single trefoil or quatrefoil,
+they are of later date.<a name="Plate_2" id="Plate_2"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img055cs.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img055cs.jpg" height="450"
+      alt="Church of St. Margaret, Lynn" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>The Church of St. Margaret, Lynn.</b><br />
+         West Front showing the Early English work in the base of the Tower.<br />
+         <i>Photograph Dexter &amp; Son</i><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img055cs.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The traceried window originated from the placing
+of a two-light narrow lancet window under one dripstone
+having a plain head, the introduction of tracery<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span>
+between the heads of the lancets and the dripstone
+becoming necessary for beauty and lightness of the form
+(<i>see page <a href="#Page_47">47</a></i>.<a name="img24" id="img24"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img057cs.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img057cs.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Thirteenth Century Lancet Windows" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Example of Group of Thirteenth Century Lancet Windows.</b><br />
+Ockham, Surrey.<br />
+<i>Homeland Copyright.</i><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img057cs.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early English
+Porches.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Early English porches project much further from
+the main walls than do the Norman
+doorways, and in large and important
+buildings they frequently have a room
+above. The gables are usually bold and
+high pitched, and the interiors quite as rich in design<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span>
+as are the exteriors.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early English
+Doorways.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The doorways of this period are usually pointed,
+though occasionally they have a semi-circular
+head. The mouldings are boldly
+cut and often enriched with dog tooth
+ornament. The jambs frequently contain a shaft or
+shafts with plain or foliated capitals (<i>see page <a href="#Page_51">51</a></i>).</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early English
+Capitals and
+Piers.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Early English capitals are usually bell-shaped, and
+are, in the smaller examples, quite devoid of ornament,
+with the exception of a necking and
+one or two mouldings round the abacus.
+The bell is generally deeply undercut,
+which, as in the mouldings, is a strong
+characteristic of the style. The nail head
+and dog tooth ornaments sometimes appear in the
+hollows between the mouldings. In the large examples
+the bell is covered with foliage, which, springing direct
+from the necking, curls over most gracefully beneath
+the abacus. In clustered piers the capitals follow the
+form of the pier, and they also adopt the same form in
+the single shaft, with the exception that multiangular
+shafts have often circular capitals. The base consists
+of a series of mouldings and frequently stands upon a
+double or single plinth, which in the earlier examples
+is square, but in later examples assumes the form of
+the base, and is either circular or polygonal. At Stone
+church, Kent, is a good example of an Early English
+capital, decorated with stiff-leaved foliage, and the
+dog tooth ornament, which in this case is seen
+between the mouldings of the arch, and is of a
+perforated character.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Early
+English
+Buttresses.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The buttresses (<i>see page <a href="#Page_17">17</a></i>) of this period are, as a rule,
+simple in form, and in small churches consist of two or
+more stages, each set-off or division being
+sloped at the top to carry off the rain.
+In larger buildings the buttress generally
+finishes with a triangular head or gable,
+and is frequently carried above the parapet,
+except where stone vaulting is used, in which case it is
+covered with a pinnacle either plain or ornamented.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span>
+<a name="img25" id="img25"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img059bs.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img059bs.jpg" height="650"
+      alt="Salisbury Cathedral" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Salisbury Cathedral.</b><br />
+Begun in 1220. The spire was added, 1350.<br />
+<i>Drawn by Sidney Heath.</i><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img059bs.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span>The edges are often chamfered or the angles ornamented
+with slender shafts. A niche to contain a statue is
+occasionally sunk in the face of the buttress, but this
+feature is more common in the next or Decorated period,
+although the change from one period to another was so
+gradual that the exact date of a niched buttress would
+be difficult
+to determine
+were there
+no other
+features to
+guide us.<a name="img26" id="img26"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img060ca.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img060ca.jpg" height="600"
+      alt="Examples of Early English Capitals and Ornament" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Examples of Early English Capitals<br />
+		 and Ornament</b><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img060ca.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	   </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Flying
+buttresses
+were first
+introduced
+at this period,
+and are
+common in
+all large
+buildings
+with vaulted
+roofs.
+They are
+generally of
+simple design,
+with a
+plain capping
+and
+archivolt,
+and they
+spring from
+the wall
+buttress to
+the clerestory
+(<i>see
+page <a href="#Page_17">17</a></i>).</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.</h4>
+
+<h3>THE DECORATED STYLE.</h3>
+
+<p>The best examples of Gothic architecture may be
+said to have been erected between the years 1180
+and 1300, and from the latter year many writers
+date the commencement of its decline. In England we
+owe nearly the whole of such magnificent buildings as
+the cathedrals of Lincoln, Salisbury, Worcester, and the
+abbey of Westminster to the 13th century, and there is
+scarcely a cathedral or abbey that does not owe some
+beautiful portion of its structure to the builders of the
+same period, the transepts and lady chapel of Hereford
+Cathedral, the eastern transepts of Durham, the nave
+and transepts of Wells, the transepts of York, the choir
+presbytery, central and eastern transepts of Rochester,
+the eastern portion of the choir of Ely, the west front of
+Peterborough, the choir of Southwell, the nave and
+transepts of Lichfield, and the choir of S. David's being a
+few of our most characteristic examples of this period.
+The style which followed the Early English is known
+as the Geometric or Early Decorated style, and it embraces
+roughly the end of the 13th century and the first
+twenty or thirty years of the 14th century, and continued
+in its later or Curvilinear form to near the end of
+that century. Perhaps the most perfect example of the
+Geometric style in the world is the cathedral church at
+Amiens, which is usually called the <i>mother church</i> of
+this style, and although she has many daughters, none of
+them can be said to equal their parent in beauty.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In England the most perfect examples are not to be
+looked for in cathedrals and large churches, but in their
+chapels, and the most superb specimen we possessed,
+S. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, has been destroyed
+within comparatively recent years. Those left to us
+include the chapel of the palace of the bishops of Ely,
+in Ely Place, Holborn, now the Roman Catholic Church
+of S. Etheldreda, a building almost identical in plan
+with the vanished chapel of S. Stephen. Trinity Church,
+Ely, once Our Lady's Chapel, and Prior Crawden's
+Chapel, in the same city, are lovely examples of the
+latest development of the Curvilinear style, while the
+former is considered the most highly-wrought building
+in England. Belonging to this period, also, is the
+choir of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, and Luton
+Church.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decorated
+Windows.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The Decorated style may be divided as regards its
+windows into two classes&mdash;Geometric and Curvilinear.
+The first has tracery evolved entirely from
+the circle. The Curvilinear style is distinguished
+by traceries formed by curved
+and flowing lines. <i>See pages <a href="#Page_15">15</a> and <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</i></p>
+
+<p>Decorated windows are usually large and contain
+from two to seven lights, although one sometimes finds a
+window with a single light, but of less elongated form
+than those of the Early English period.</p>
+
+<p>As we have seen in a previous chapter, tracery
+originated from the necessity of piercing that portion
+of the wall which was left vacant when two lights were
+gathered under a single arched dripstone, and therefore
+elementary tracery consisted merely of apertures in a
+flat surface. As the possibilities of this ornamental
+feature became better understood, the mullions were
+recessed from the face of the wall and the fine effect
+thus produced was, as the art progressed, much enhanced
+by the introduction of various orders of mullions, and
+by recessing certain portions of the tracery from the
+face of the mullions and their corresponding bars. The
+geometrical tracery, as we have seen, consists of various
+combinations of the circle, as the trefoil, based on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span>
+triangle, the quatrefoil on the square, the cinquefoil on
+the pentagon, etc.<a name="img27" id="img27"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img063c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img063c.jpg" height="550"
+      alt="Late Decorated Window in a Parish Church" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Late Decorated Window in a Parish Church.</b><br />
+		 East Sutton, Kent.<br />
+		 <i>Photograph Gardner Waterman</i><br />
+			Click to <a href="images/img063c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span>In Curvilinear windows the tracery, although based on
+the same forms and figures, is yet so blended into an
+intricate pattern that each figure does not stand out
+with the same individuality as in the Geometric. Among
+our most beautiful Geometric windows are those of the
+Lady Chapel at Exeter, Ely Chapel, and Merton Chapel,
+Oxford, and of the Curvilinear our best example is
+probably the east window of Carlisle Cathedral.</p>
+
+<p>It must be noted that beautiful as are Curvilinear
+windows, yet they mark a certain decadence in Gothic
+architecture, in that it is an irrational treatment of
+stone, and conveys the idea that the material was
+bent and not cut into the required shape, it being a
+well-established canon in art that when strength is
+sacrificed to mere elegance it marks a decline in that
+art.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decorated<br />
+Capitals<br />
+and Piers.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Decorated capitals as a rule follow the contour of the
+pier in clustered columns, and are either bell-shaped
+or octagonal. They are frequently only
+moulded, thus presenting rounds, ogees
+and hollows, on which the prevailing
+ornaments of the period, the ball and the
+square flower, are set. The foliated sculpture
+is most exquisite, and is gracefully wreathed around
+the bell, instead of rising from the astrigal or upper
+member of the capital, as in the earlier style. Almost
+every variety of leaf and flower is represented, the oak,
+the vine and the rose being perhaps the most common,
+but the leaves of the maple, hazel, ivy and strawberry
+are all so beautifully rendered as to evidence their having
+been directly studied from nature. Plucked flowers
+too, are not uncommon, and sometimes the little stalks
+and foliage are accompanied by birds, lizards, squirrels
+and other creatures. The columns of this period are
+much more elaborate than those of the Early English style,
+and in plan have curved profiles with moulded members
+between the shafts. These mouldings are very varied,
+but the hollows not being so deeply undercut, the general
+effect is broader and less liney than in the Early English;
+while the Decorated arches are less sharply pointed than in
+the previous style.<a name="img28" id="img28"></a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-1-1.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-1-1-t.jpg" height="177" alt="Finial
+            (Winborne Minster)" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Finial<br />
+            (Winborne Minster).</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;<br />&nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-1-2.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-1-2-t.jpg" height="121" alt="Crocket
+            (Hereford Cathedral)" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Crocket<br />
+            (Hereford Cathedral).</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-2-1.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-2-1-t.jpg" height="195" alt="Capital
+            (York Minster)" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Capital<br />
+            (York Minster).</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-2-2.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-2-2-t.jpg" height="92" alt="Square Flower" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Square Flower.</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-2-3.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-2-3-t.jpg" height="81" alt="Ball Flower" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Ball Flower.</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-2-4.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-2-4-t.jpg" height="72" alt="Cornice
+            (Grantham)" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Cornice<br />
+            (Grantham).</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-3-1.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-3-1-t.jpg" height="134" alt="Finial
+            (York Minster)" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Finial<br />
+            (York Minster).</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="middle">
+            <a href="images/orn-3-2.jpg">
+            <img src="images/orn-3-2-t.jpg" height="213" alt="Crockets
+            (York Minster)" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Crockets<br />
+            (York Minster).</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;<br /><span class="b"><b>Examples of Decorated Ornament</b></span><br />
+      <i>Drawn by E. M. Heath</i>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decorated
+Doorways.</div>
+<p class="noindent"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span>The doorways of this style possess much the same
+features as the last, but the mouldings, jamb shafts, etc.,
+are more slender, and generally of finer
+proportions, the hollows being often filled
+with the ball flower and square flower
+instead of the dog tooth. Sometimes the
+doorways have no pillars, being entirely composed of
+mouldings which are continuous with those in the architrave.
+The large single doorways of this period are
+nearly as large as the double ones of Early English date,
+and on the sides small buttresses or niches are sometimes
+placed, and often one finds a series of niches carried
+up like a hollow moulding, and filled with figures. The
+figures of this period are not so good as in the previous
+style, the heads seem too large for the bodies, and in
+the female figures the breasts are represented as quite flat.
+Where there are no figures double foliated tracery is
+often found hanging from one of the outer mouldings,
+giving an effect of great richness.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Decorated<br />
+Buttresses.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The buttresses (<i>see page <a href="#Page_17">17</a></i>) in the Decorated style are
+nearly always worked in stages, and a niche frequently
+figures on the face of the buttress.
+Crocketed canopies and other carved
+decorations are common, and in large buildings
+they usually terminate in pinnacles,
+which are sometimes of open work.</p>
+
+<p>A Gothic building attains its effect by the combination
+of numerous parts, each possessing an individual
+character of its own. In its loftiness, graceful outlines,
+and rich effect of light and shade, it speaks of noble
+aspirations, of freedom, of intellectual thought,
+of talent and skill, all generously given for a high
+purpose, the foundation of which was a strong
+religious enthusiasm, combined with an intense love
+of the work itself.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Characte&shy;ristics<br />
+of Gothic<br />
+Architecture.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Having now arrived at the point where Gothic architecture
+reached its climax, we may briefly sum up its leading<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span>
+characteristics. It is essentially pointed or vertical;
+its details are mostly geometrical in its
+window traceries, clusters of shafts and
+bases, but this geometric quality is only
+one of construction and form and not of
+its inner spirit and motive, for plants
+copied directly from nature were used in beautiful
+profusion.</p>
+
+<p>If we compare a large Gothic church with a comparatively
+small one, we shall find the columns, windows,
+ornaments of the former are not so very much larger
+than those of the latter, but that there are double or
+three times the number of them. This is not the case in
+a classical building, where each feature has to be enlarged
+in proportion to the size of the building. It is the
+constant sub-division of a Gothic Church which adds
+so to its apparent size.</p>
+
+<p>Ornamentally, the Gothic is the geometrical and
+pointed elements repeated to their utmost and afterwards
+combined with the elaboration of natural objects, plants,
+flowers, etc., growing in the neighbourhood of the work.
+This is a great feature, but the most striking point in
+all good Gothic work is the wonderful elaboration of
+geometric tracery, vesicas, trefoils, quatrefoils and
+an immense variety of other ornament.</p>
+
+<p>In regard to the sizes of our great churches it may
+be of interest to note that our longest English cathedral
+is Winchester. York and Lincoln, although not so
+long as Winchester, are in superficial area very much
+larger. The largest English church of a non-cathedral
+rank is Westminster Abbey, which has, moreover, the
+distinction of being the loftiest internally; the nave being
+104 ft. in height. The largest parish church is that of
+S. Nicholas, Great Yarmouth, which exceeds in superficial
+area no fewer than eight of our cathedrals.
+<a name="img29" id="img29"></a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" summary="illo">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" colspan="3">
+            <a href="images/perporn-l-1.jpg">
+            <img src="images/perporn-l-1-t.jpg" height="130" alt="Panel" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" colspan="3">
+            <small>Panel.</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            &nbsp;
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <a href="images/perporn-l-2-1.jpg">
+            <img src="images/perporn-l-2-1-t.jpg" height="116" alt="Tudor Rose" /></a>
+          </td>
+          <td align="center">
+            <a href="images/perporn-l-2-2.jpg">
+            <img src="images/perporn-l-2-2-t.jpg" height="116" alt="Portcullis" /></a>
+          </td>
+          <td align="center">
+            <a href="images/perporn-l-2-3.jpg">
+            <img src="images/perporn-l-2-3-t.jpg" height="116" alt="Fleur de Lys" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Tudor Rose.</small>
+          </td>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Portcullis.</small>
+          </td>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Fleur de Lys.</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+    <td align="center">
+      <table style="margin: 0 auto" summary="illo">
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center" valign="bottom">
+            <a href="images/perporn-r.jpg">
+            <img src="images/perporn-r-t.jpg" height="232" alt="Crocket" /></a>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+        <tr>
+          <td align="center">
+            <small>Crocket.</small>
+          </td>
+        </tr>
+      </table>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center" colspan="3">
+      &nbsp;<br /><span class="b"><b>Examples of Perpendicular Ornament.</b></span>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.</h4>
+
+<h3>THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE.</h3>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the XIVth century a great
+change came over English Gothic architecture, a
+change which was to a certain extent a return to
+classical ideas. The curvilinear tracery gave place to
+a rigid vertical and horizontal form, with the result that
+windows and panels instead of being filled with curved
+bars of stone, were sub-divided by straight perpendicular
+bars and transoms or cross-bars.</p>
+
+<p>This style of architecture is popularly known as
+Perpendicular, but as the horizontal lines are quite as
+distinct a feature as are the vertical, it would perhaps
+be more correct to speak of it as Rectilinear. This
+change in architectural form made its appearance towards
+the close of the XIVth century, although it was by no
+means generally introduced at that period, for the old
+methods and styles were carried on side by side with the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span>
+new for many years.<a name="img30" id="img30"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img069c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img069c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Yeovil Parish Church (A.D. 1376)" /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Yeovil Parish Church (A.D. 1376).</b><br />
+		 Early Perpendicular in style, without a clerestory,<br />
+      and called, for its large window area, the "Lantern of the West."<br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img069c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span>For example, the eastern end of
+the choir of York Minster (1361-99) possesses a window
+the traceries of which contain both curvilinear and
+rectilinear lines, while Shottesbrook Church in Berkshire
+(1387), and Wimmington Church, Bedfordshire
+(1391) are examples of village churches neither of which
+has any feature of the Perpendicular style.</p>
+
+<p>In its earlier stages the Perpendicular style presented
+an effect at once good and bold; the mouldings, though
+not equal to the best of the Decorated style, were well
+defined, the enrichments effective, and the details
+delicate without extravagant minuteness. Subsequently
+the style underwent a gradual debasement; the arches
+became depressed; the mouldings impoverished, the
+details crowded and coarsely executed, and the whole
+style became wanting in the chaste and elegant effects
+for which the Decorated stands unapproached and
+unapproachable. The flowing contours and curved lines
+of the previous style now gave place in the windows
+to mullions running straight up from the bottom to the
+top, and crossed by transoms. As the arch became
+more and more depressed the mouldings became shallower
+and less effective. In early buildings of this period the
+drop arch is very prevalent, but as the period advanced
+a form known as the Tudor arch began to be used. It
+is an arch in which, as a rule, the centres of the upper
+portion lie immediately below those of the lower, but
+this is not always the case. Sometimes the whole of
+the upper portion uniting the arcs of the ends is struck
+from one centre, in which case the arch becomes a
+three-centred one, being, in fact, half an ellipse.
+Towards the close of the style the curvature of the
+upper portion is so slight that it can hardly be distinguished
+from a straight line, and as the debasement
+progressed it became really straight. Ogee arches
+are also found at this period, and foiled arches are very
+frequent. When the Tudor arch was not used, we
+generally find the low drop arch, these three last being
+mostly used for small openings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span>
+<a name="img31" id="img31"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img071c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img071c.jpg" height="500"
+      alt="A Fine Parish Church showing Rich Perpendicular Work." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Fine Parish Church showing Rich Perpendicular Work.</b><br />
+		 Terrington St. Clement, Norfolk.<br />
+      <i>Photograph Dexter &amp; Son.</i><br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img071c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular
+Windows.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>The
+peculiar characteristics of the windows&mdash;the
+perpendicular mullions and horizontal transoms&mdash;we have
+already alluded to. The window heads,
+instead of being filled with flowing tracery,
+have slender mullions running from the
+heads of the lights between each mullion,
+and these again have smaller transoms, until the whole
+surface of the window becomes divided into a series of
+panels, the heads of which being arched, are trefoiled
+or cinquefoiled. In the later windows the transoms at
+the top are often furnished with a small ornamental
+battlement, causing the mullions to present a concave
+outline.<a name="img32" id="img32"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img072c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img072c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="A Perpendicular Doorway." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Perpendicular Doorway.</b><br />
+		 Merton College Chapel.<br />
+      <i>Drawn by E. M. Heath.</i><br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img072c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The plans of churches in this style differ from all
+others in that they are more spacious, the columns more
+slender and wider apart, the windows much larger, and
+the walls loftier and thinner. Panelling is used most
+abundantly on walls, both internally and externally, and
+also on vaulting, while some buildings, as Henry the
+Seventh's Chapel at Westminster, are almost entirely
+covered with it. Fan tracery vaulting, a feature peculiar<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span>
+to this style, is almost invariably covered with panelling.</p>
+
+<p>The mouldings of this period are essentially different
+from those which preceded them. As a general rule
+they are cut on a slanting or chamfer plane, the groups
+of mouldings being separated by a shallow oval-shaped
+hollow, entirely different from those of the Decorated
+period.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular
+Doorways.</div>
+<p class="noindent">The doorways of the early portion of this period had
+two-centred arches, but the characteristic form is the
+four-centred, enclosed in a square head,
+formed by the outer mouldings with a
+hood mould of the same shape, the spandrels
+being filled with quatrefoils, roses,
+shields, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular
+Capitals.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Perpendicular capitals are either circular or octagonal,
+but the necking is usually of the former shape, and the
+upper members of the abacus of the latter
+form. The bell portion is mostly plain,
+but is often enriched with foliage of a
+very conventional character, shallow and
+formal, without either the freedom or the boldness
+of the Early English, or the exquisite grace of the Decorated
+periods. A distinguishing feature in the ornamentation
+of this period is that called panel-tracery,
+with which the walls and vaulted ceilings are covered.
+<span class="sidenote">Fan
+Vaulting.</span>The patterns are found in a variety of forms, as circles,
+squares, quatrefoils, etc. The rich vaulting
+called fan vaulting previously alluded
+to, is composed of pendant curved semi-cones,
+covered with foliated panel-work,
+which bears some resemblance to a fan spread open.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular
+Ornament.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Another very characteristic ornament is the Tudor
+flower. It is formed by a series of flat leaves placed
+upright against the stalk. It was much
+used in late buildings as a crest or ornamental
+finishing to cornices, etc., to which
+it gave an embattled appearance. Cornices
+and brackets were frequently ornamented with busts of
+winged angels called angel-brackets, and angel-corbels.
+The portcullis and the Tudor rose&mdash;both badges of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span>
+house of Tudor&mdash;also figure prominently among the
+ornaments of the period. The crockets for the most
+part partake of the squareness which pervades all the
+foliage of this style. <i>See page <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</i></p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular
+Buttresses.</div>
+<p class="noindent">The buttresses are very similar to those preceding
+them in their plainer forms, but, in richer examples
+the faces are covered with panel work
+and are finished with square pinnacles
+sometimes set diagonally and terminated
+with a crocketed spire, or finished with an
+animal or other ornament. Parapets with square battlements
+are very common at this period, but they too are
+frequently panelled or pierced with tracery, or with
+trefoils or quatrefoils inserted in square, circular or
+triangular compartments.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular
+Roofs.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The roofs of this period, both in ecclesiastical and
+secular buildings, are very magnificent, and have the
+whole of the framing exposed to view;
+many of them are of high pitch, the
+spaces between the timbers being filled
+with tracery, and the beams arched,
+moulded and ornamented in various ways; and frequently
+pendants, figures of angels, and other carvings
+are introduced. The flatter roofs are sometimes lined
+with boards and divided into panels by ribs, or have
+the timbers open, and all enriched with mouldings and
+carvings, as at Cirencester church, Gloucestershire.</p>
+
+<p>The gradual decline of the Gothic style is very evident
+in late Perpendicular churches, especially in those
+erected at the beginning of the XVIth century. The
+elements of Gothic architecture became much degraded
+and led to that mixture of features called the Debased
+Gothic in which every real principle of art and of beauty
+was lost.</p>
+
+<p>The chief characteristics, then, of the Perpendicular
+style are the vertical mullions, and the general flattening
+of arches, mouldings and carvings. Should there be
+no other guide, a Perpendicular church carries its style
+and period stamped upon its carvings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span>
+<a name="img33" id="img33"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img075c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img075c.jpg" height="450"
+      alt="A Perpendicular Porch." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Perpendicular Porch.</b><br />
+		 S. Nicholas, King's Lynn.<br />
+      <i>Photograph Dexter &amp; Son.</i><br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img075c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The plants
+represented are, almost without exception, the vine
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>with or without grapes, and the oak with or without
+acorns. The leaves are generally full blown and crumpled.
+The earliest building showing the Perpendicular style is
+the beautiful little priory church of Edington, in Wilts,
+erected by William Edington, Bishop of Winchester.
+The same style, but more fully developed, is seen in
+the nave of Winchester Cathedral, at New College,
+Oxford, and at Winchester College.</p>
+
+<p>It is generally admitted that the Perpendicular style
+was, to a certain extent, a return to classical ideas, for
+Gothic architecture in its aspiring grace and feeling for
+motion was becoming a little unsteady in construction,
+and although the movement was started by Bishop
+Edington, it was left to William of Wykeham to save
+our English Gothic architecture from developing into
+the flamboyant<a href="#fn1" class="fnanchor"><small><sup>1</sup></small></a> style so characteristic of the late Gothic
+buildings of France and Germany.</p>
+
+<p>It is little less than astounding that William of Wykeham,
+at once Prime Minister, diplomatist, scholar and
+energetic churchman, should have found time to introduce
+such far-reaching reforms into the art of building,
+and whatever his fame may be in other directions he
+will always be remembered by posterity as one of the
+most remarkable geniuses of the Middle Ages, a man
+of giant mind and immense physical energy, who carried
+into all his work a large and dignified character,
+stamping it with the unmistakable personality of a
+master mind.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular Towers.</div>
+<p class="noindent">As builders and designers of church towers the masons
+of the Perpendicular era have never been approached,
+and all our finest English towers are of
+this style and period. Considerations of
+space will only allow a few of these towers
+to be mentioned, but among the finest
+are those at Boston, Lincolnshire; Wrexham,
+Denbighshire; Wymondham, Heigham and S.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>Clement's in Norfolk; Southwold Church in Suffolk;
+Manchester Cathedral, S. Nicholas' Church, Newcastle,
+and S. Mary's Church, Taunton.<a name="Plate_3" id="Plate_3"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img077c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img077c.jpg" height="550"
+      alt="A Fine Perpendicular Tower." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Fine Perpendicular Tower.</b><br />
+		 St. Mary, Taunton.<br />
+      <i>Photograph H. Montague Cooper.</i><br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img077c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of Perpendicular date
+and style, also, are the great lantern towers of Worcester,
+Bristol, Gloucester, York and Durham Cathedrals, in
+addition to the fine bell-tower of Evesham Abbey.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Perpen&shy;dicular Spires.</div>
+<p class="noindent">The
+spire, although less commonly used than
+formerly, was by no means abandoned,
+and beautiful examples of Perpendicular
+spires are those at S. Michael's, Coventry,
+and Rotherham Church, Yorkshire. Although nearly
+all our cathedrals have some portion of their fabric in
+the Perpendicular style, chantries, chapels, cloisters,
+vaulting, screens, etc., it was in our parochial churches
+that Perpendicular architecture reached its highest
+and finest development. Just as the XIIIth century
+was the great age for cathedral building, so the latter end
+of the XIVth and earlier half of the XVth centuries was
+the period to which we owe some of the most beautiful
+of our parish churches, as S. Michael's, Coventry
+(fin. 1395); S. Nicholas, Lynn (fin. 1400); Manchester
+Cathedral (formerly a collegiate church), (1422); Fotheringay
+Church, Northants (fin. 1435); Southwold Church,
+Suffolk (1440), and S. Mary Redcliffe, Bristol (about
+1442). A little later came, among others, Wakefield
+Church, Yorkshire (1470), S. Stephen's, Bristol (1470),
+S. Mary's, Oxford, and its namesake at Cambridge (both
+in 1478) and Long Melford Church, Suffolk (1481).</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the actual buildings the Perpendicular
+architects, masons and sculptors have left us some
+beautiful work in the form of timber roofs, screens,
+stalls and seats. Among the more notable roofs of this
+period are those at S. Peter's, S. Andrew's and S. Mary's,
+Norwich, the one at Morton Church in Somerset, those
+at Saffron Walden and Thaxted, Essex, and a particularly
+fine one at S. David's Cathedral in Wales. Among the
+remarkable domestic roofs in this style are those at
+Westminster Hall and Eltham Palace.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><a name="fn1" id="fn1">1</a>: So called from its "flame"-like appearance, producing forms
+which resemble elongated tongues of flame. There is great
+beauty in much of this work, but it is constructionally weak.
+The finest example is Chartres Cathedral.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.</h4>
+<h3>THE RENAISSANCE AND LATER.</h3>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The Classic Revival.</div>
+<p class="noindent">So far we have been considering Gothic churches,
+but we now come to the time when, from a
+variety of causes, the Italian architects, among
+them Palladio and Vitruvius, began to revive classical
+architecture, a movement which gradually
+spread over other parts of Europe.
+The various causes which led to this
+apparently retrograde movement are still
+involved in considerable obscurity. The
+commercial prosperity of the age produced a class
+who travelled abroad and cultivated the fine arts,
+with the result that they desired to see erected in
+England buildings such as they had seen in Rome,
+Florence, Genoa and Padua. It is generally admitted
+that the ramifications of Gothic architecture had
+reached their utmost limit, and the style was getting
+out of hand, as is seen by the flamboyant buildings on
+the continent. The revival of classical literature in
+western Europe gave an impetus to the movement
+which was largely intended to enfold art within the
+shelter of an enlightened taste, and protect it from the
+licence of unordered enthusiasm. How far it succeeded
+is not a question that can be discussed at length here,
+but, however good their intentions may have been, the
+architects used little discrimination in the selection of
+buildings which were to serve as models for Christian
+churches, and although subsequently considerable improvements
+were made, yet, most of the defects in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span>
+pagan buildings of the ancients were retained in such as
+were intended to be utilized for Christian worship, and even
+considered purely as exercises in architecture it was not
+until the more chaste remains of antiquity began to be
+studied that the spirit and harmony of the good examples
+were attained. A greater contrast than the methods
+employed by the Gothic mason and the Renaissance
+architect could not well be imagined. The former
+shaped his material with his own hands; the foster
+mother of his art was tradition and its cradle the craftsman's
+bench; whereas the latter, with no builder's
+training, worked out his flawless and precise plans in
+the exotic atmosphere of the office and the study. The
+practice of making working drawings for every detail
+of the building was the cause of the decline of ornamental
+sculpture, with the result that all life and growth in the
+building ceased. Some authorities are very severe on
+the Renaissance movement. Dr. Fergusson, in his
+"<i>Modern Styles of Architecture</i>," says: "During the
+Gothic era the art of building was evolved by the simple
+exercise of man's reason, with the result that the work
+of this period is the instinctive natural growth of man's
+mind. The buildings, on the other hand, which were
+designed in the imitative styles, and produced on a
+totally different principle, present us with an entirely
+different result, and one which frequently degrades
+architecture from its high position of a quasi-natural
+production to that of a mere imitative art."</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Inigo Jones<br />
+and Wren.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Be this as it may, the severe classical style introduced
+into England by Inigo Jones (who studied
+in Italy under Palladio), and continued by
+Sir Christopher Wren, soon swept everything
+before it.</p>
+
+<p>Our most remarkable church in this style is S.
+Paul's Cathedral, which in style has two very adverse circumstances
+to struggle against. In the first place, it
+bears so great a similarity to the great church of S.
+Peter, at Rome, that one cannot help comparing it with
+that fine example, and secondly, it is the only English
+cathedral which is not in the Gothic style. It must, of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+course, be acknowledged that S. Paul's falls far short
+of S. Peter's, especially in its lighting, but it does not
+deserve the condemnation of a great German critic, who
+said, "It is a building marked neither by elegance of
+form nor vigour of style." Although the interior of its
+dome and clerestory of the nave and choir are extremely
+gloomy when compared with those of S. Peter's, the
+church is generally acknowledged to be far superior
+to the latter in its architectural details, and few, if any,
+Italian churches can be said to surpass it, either in
+general composition or external effect, although it must
+be admitted that everything having been sacrificed to
+attain the latter quality, S. Paul's taken as a whole, is
+neither worthy of its fine situation nor of its great architect.</p>
+
+<p>Other churches which are excellent examples of this
+style are S. Stephen's, Walbrook, and S. Mary Abchurch,
+London. Both show remarkable skill. The former is
+divided into a nave and four aisles, transepts, and a shallow
+chancel, by four rows of Corinthian columns, with a
+small dome over the intersection. The interior is very
+beautiful, and this church is generally considered to be
+Wren's masterpiece. S. Mary Abchurch, is nearly
+square in plan, has no columns and is covered with a
+domical ceiling, but so skilfully treated that the effect
+is singularly pleasing.</p>
+<div class="sidenote">Hawkes&shy;more.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Of the Elizabethan and Jacobean buildings it is necessary
+to say little, as at best they are but clumsy imitations
+of the Flemish, French and Italian Renaissance, while
+the style which we now call Queen Anne came in towards
+the close of the XVIIth century, and belongs of right to the
+reign of Charles II.</p>
+
+<p>Hawkesmore, a pupil
+and follower of Wren, was a strong architect
+who has left us Christ Church, Spitalfields,
+and S. Mary Woolnoth. He also designed the western
+towers of Westminster Abbey, often wrongly ascribed
+to Wren, and the second quadrangle of All Saints'
+College, Oxford. This architect, like the majority of
+his contemporaries, misunderstood and despised the
+Gothic style, with which he had little real sympathy;
+he drew out designs, which still exist, for converting<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span>
+Westminster Abbey into an Italian church, just as Inigo
+Jones had done with the exterior of the nave of old S.
+Paul's, but we cannot be too thankful that this abominable
+suggestion was never carried out.<a name="img34" id="img34"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img083cs.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img083cs.jpg" height="500"
+      alt="An English Renaissance Church." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>An English Renaissance Church.</b><br />
+		 S. Stephen's, Walbrook, London.<br />
+      Generally considered to be Sir Christopher Wren's masterpiece.<br />
+      <i>From an Engraving dated 1806.</i><br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img083cs.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>With King George III. on the throne our ancestors
+contented themselves with dull, but substantial, buildings
+of which some hard things have been written, but they
+were at least respectable and free from sham, while
+the churches, although not elegant, were well-built and
+occasionally picturesque, as we see by the perfect little
+building of this date at Billesley, Warwickshire.</p>
+
+<p>The eighteenth century pseudo-classical abominations
+and sham Gothic, so favoured by Horace Walpole and
+his admirers, can be briefly dismissed. A more rampant
+piece of absurdity than that of erecting imitations of
+portions of Greek temples and adapting them for Christian
+worship it is difficult to imagine, and in the Pavilion
+at Brighton, Marylebone Church, and the "Extinguisher"
+Church in Langham Place we even surpassed in bad
+taste and vulgarity all the absurdities of the Continental
+architecture produced by the French Revolution.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Barry and<br />
+Pugin.</div>
+<p class="noindent">Two men now came on the scene who, united, were
+destined to bring some kind of order out of this chaos.
+Barry and Pugin were both scholars and
+architects, for while the former rather
+favoured the classical style he thoroughly
+understood the Gothic, while Pugin was
+a thorough medi&aelig;valist, a true artist, and a bold exponent
+in his "<i>Contrasts</i>" of a complete return to medi&aelig;val
+architecture as the only possible cure for the evils which
+had crept into the art of building.</p>
+
+<p>Barry's idea, which was perhaps the more practical,
+was to correct by careful study the errors into which the
+later exponents of both Classic and Gothic architecture
+had fallen, and endeavour by well thought out modifications
+to evolve a style more suitable to modern requirements.
+Pugin, however, would have none of the evil
+thing, and although he supplied his friend with designs
+for the details and woodwork of the Houses of Parliament
+which Barry was rebuilding, they did not collaborate<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span>
+in any further way, and both died before the Houses
+of Parliament were completed, in which, as a matter of
+fact, Barry's designs were completely ignored. The
+Reform Club is considered to be the best of Barry's
+classical buildings.</p>
+
+<p>Pugin's earlier works were mostly Roman Catholic
+churches, and they are acknowledged to be an immense
+advance on any Gothic work which had been seen for
+centuries. In the Roman Catholic Cathedral of S. Chad,
+at Birmingham, there is a dignity, loftiness and simplicity
+surpassed by few Gothic buildings when that style was
+at its zenith, and from the time Pugin designed this
+building, architecture&mdash;notwithstanding our exhaustive
+study of arch&aelig;ology, our immense resources of capital
+and labour, our science and labour-saving appliances, and
+the comparative accessibility of the finest materials&mdash;has
+neither developed nor advanced. The most erudite
+Gothic mason could have possessed but little art knowledge
+as compared with the modern architect, and yet
+with our learned societies, wonderful libraries, easily
+obtained photographs and plans of the best buildings
+in the world; with writers far superior in intellectual
+acquirements to those of the Middle Ages, our vast
+wealth, with our tools such as the medi&aelig;val craftsman
+could never have dreamed of, and with the experience
+of twenty centuries to guide us we have made no
+advance during more than half a century. Our best
+architects acknowledge that until we get a new method
+of building, originality in architecture is an impossibility,
+mainly because all the existing styles of architecture
+have been worked out to their legitimate conclusion,
+and have been perfected under circumstances and conditions
+with which we have entirely broken; the originality
+in detail which pervades and permeates our Gothic
+buildings and gives them the greater part of their charm,
+must, of necessity, be out of our reach until we blend
+the spirit of what we are pleased to call our practical
+age, with a certain amount of that spirit of poetry and
+romance, religious fervour and devoutness, which
+animated the builders and craftsmen of the past.<a name="img35" id="img35"></a>
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img086c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img086c.jpg" height="300"
+      alt="A Typical Cornish Font." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Typical Cornish Font.</b><br />
+		 Probably of the late Norman period. Now at Maker, near Plymouth.<br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img086c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII.</h4>
+
+<h3>CHURCH FURNITURE AND ORNAMENTS.</h3>
+
+<p>The most important part of the internal furniture of
+a church is the altar, a name derived from the
+Latin <i>altare</i>, a high place. <span class="sidenote">The Altar.</span>The altar is a raised
+structure on which propitiatory offerings are placed. In the
+Christian church the altar is a table or slab on which the
+instruments of the Eucharist are displayed. The early<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span>
+Christian altars were portable structures of wood, and
+the Church of Rome still allows the use
+of an altar of this description, although a
+consecrated stone, containing an authentic
+relic and regarded as the true altar, must be placed
+upon the wooden table. The slab forming the altar
+was sometimes supported on pillars, but more frequently
+on solid masonry, and previous to the Reformation it
+was marked with five crosses cut into the top, in allusion
+to the five wounds of Christ. From the period that
+stone altars were introduced it was usual to enclose
+within them the relics of saints, so that in some cases
+they were the actual tombs of saints. In England the
+altars were generally taken down about the year 1550,
+set up again in the beginning of the reign of Queen
+Mary, and again removed in the second year of Queen
+Elizabeth. In the church of Porlock, Somerset, the
+original high altar has been preserved, though not in
+use, being placed against the north wall of the chancel.
+In Dunster Church, in the same county, there is a solid
+stone altar, said to have been the original high altar,
+and in the ruined church of S. Mary Magdalene at Ripon,
+the high altar has escaped destruction. Of chantry
+altars we have several left, including those at Abbey
+Dore, Herefordshire; Grosmont, Monmouthshire; Chipping
+Norton, Oxon.; Warmington, Warwick; S. Giles's,
+Oxford; Lincoln Cathedral, and many others; and it
+is rare to find a Gothic church without some traces of
+altars in their various chapels, oratories or chantries.</p>
+
+<p>The altar is, of course, an adoption by the Christian
+church of a pagan aid to worship, and at S. Mary's
+church, Wareham, which is thought to stand on the
+site of a Roman temple, are some pieces of stone considered
+by antiquaries to be portions of a pagan altar,
+on which burnt offerings were placed.</p>
+
+<p>Above many Christian altars was placed a piece of
+sculpture or a painting representing some religious
+subject. These altar pieces sometimes consist of two
+pictures, when they are called "diptyches," and sometimes
+of three pictures, when they are called "triptyches,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span>
+and both forms usually fold up or are provided with
+shutters. They are often rare examples of the Flemish
+and other schools of painting, and of great value.</p>
+
+<p>At the Reformation the stone altar was displaced by
+the communion table, which at first occupied the position
+vacated by the altar. This gave umbrage to the Puritan
+mind, and the communion table was then usually placed
+in the centre of the chancel, with seats all round for the
+communicants; which arrangement is still in vogue
+in some of our English churches and in Jersey, although
+at the Restoration the communion
+table was, as a
+general rule, replaced at the
+eastern wall of the Chancel.<a name="img36" id="img36"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/img088c.jpg" width="150" alt="Durham Sanctuary Knocker." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>Durham Sanctuary Knocker</b></span></div>
+
+<p>Long before the Christian
+era the altar was regarded as
+a place of refuge for those fleeing
+from justice or oppression,
+and this custom or privilege
+of sanctuary was sanctioned
+by the English bishops
+and was retained for many
+centuries by the Christian
+Church. Many of our parish
+churches claim to possess old
+sanctuary rings or knockers,
+but it is doubtful if any of these were ever used by fugitives,
+for the reason that although in early days every parish
+church had the right to grant sanctuary, few possessed
+the means of feeding and housing a refugee, save in the
+church itself, which was expressly forbidden. This is
+why we find records of fugitives travelling many miles
+at the risk of their lives and passing hundreds of parish
+churches in their endeavour to reach Bury St. Edmunds,
+Hexham, Durham or some other of the well-recognised
+sanctuaries. The only sanctuary knocker remaining
+to-day, which is above suspicion, is that at Durham
+Cathedral. It is made of bronze and represents the
+grotesque head of a dragon, the ring coming from the
+mouth. Above the door is a small room in which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span>
+attendants watched by day and night, and when a fugitive
+was admitted a bell was rung to announce that someone
+had taken sanctuary.<a name="img37" id="img37"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img089c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img089c.jpg" height="500"
+      alt="The Baptistery in Luton Church." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>The Baptistery in Luton Church.</b><br />
+		 		  <i>Photograph Fredk. Thurston, F.R.P.S.</i><br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img089c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span>The font, as we have seen, was originally placed in
+a separate building called the baptistery.<span class="sidenote">The Font.</span> The only
+known example of anything of the kind
+in England is that in S. Mary's Church,
+Luton, fully described in The Homeland
+Handbook, No. 47. It is in the Decorated style, dates
+from the time of Edward III., and is said to have been
+designed by William of Wykeham for Queen Philippa.
+It is composed of white stone with open panels, pierced
+by cinquefoils and quatrefoils, while the apex of each
+panel terminates in a foliated finial. The font inside
+is octagonal in form and of 13th century date, but it
+has been somewhat restored. Ancient fonts were
+always large enough to allow for total immersion, and
+our present custom of baptism by affusion, or sprinkling,
+is only permitted, not enjoined by the rubric. In early
+days the sacrament of baptism was only administered
+by the bishops at the great festivals of Pentecost and
+Easter, for the reason that this afforded the greater
+convenience for immediate confirmation, but with the
+increase in the number of churches the rite was administered
+by the priests in every village.</p>
+
+<p>The font was
+required by the canon to be of stone, but there are a
+few Norman fonts made of lead, among them those at
+S. Mary's Church, Wareham, Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey,
+and at Edburton, Parham, and Pyecombe, Sussex. A
+remarkable font is that at Dolton Church, Devon, made
+up of fragments of the churchyard cross, and there is
+also a somewhat similar one at Melbury Bubb, Dorset.
+By a constitution of Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury
+(1236), fonts were required to be covered and locked,
+and at first these covers were little more than plain lids,
+but they afterwards became highly ornamental and were
+enriched with buttresses, pinnacles, crockets, etc. It is
+doubtful if any fonts exist which can reasonably be supposed
+to be Saxon, although a few, like that at Little Billing,
+Northants, may possibly be of that era. Of Norman<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span>
+fonts we have large numbers. They are sometimes
+plain hollow cylinders; others are massive squares
+with a large pillar in the centre, and small shafts at the
+corners. These fonts are generally ornamented with
+rudely executed carvings, consisting of foliage and
+grotesque animals.<a name="img38" id="img38"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img091cs.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img091cs.jpg" height="400"
+      alt="An Example of a late Norman Leaden Font." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>An Example of a Leaden Font of the late Norman period.</b><br />
+		 		  Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey<br />
+		 		Click to <a href="images/img091cs.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>The one in Winchester Cathedral
+is a good example, and there are three other very
+similar ones in Hampshire. Early English fonts are
+very often circular, and sometimes square, and they are
+often supported in much the same way as the Norman
+ones. In the Decorated and Perpendicular styles they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span>
+are, with few exceptions, octagonal, and the details
+generally partake of the character of those used in the
+other architectural features of the period. There are
+hexagonal fonts of Decorated date at Rolvenden, Kent,
+and Heckington, Lincs. The font is usually placed close
+to a pillar near the entrance, generally that nearest but
+one to the tower in the south arcade, or, in larger buildings,
+in the middle of the nave.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Stoups.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The holy-water stoups sometimes found in our old
+churches are generally small niches with stone basins
+formed in the wall either in or just outside
+the porch, or within the church close to
+the door, or in one of the pillars nearest
+to the door. These niches resemble piscinas, except
+that they differ in
+situation, are smaller
+and plainer, and rarely
+have a drain. A good
+example of an outside
+stoup is that at Broadmayne,
+Dorset, where
+there is also one inside
+the church. They are
+rarely found unmutilated,
+but there is one
+in perfect condition in
+the north porch of
+Thornham Church,
+Kent; and a rather
+elaborate example at
+Pylle Church, near
+Glastonbury.<a name="img39" id="img39"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 150px;">
+<img src="images/img092c.jpg" width="150" alt="A Reputed Saxon Font." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>A Reputed Saxon Font.</b><br />
+Shaldon, Devon.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The piscina is a
+water-drain formerly
+placed near the altar
+and consisting of a
+shallow stone basin, or
+sink, with a drain to
+carry off whatever is
+poured into it. It was used to receive the water in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span>
+which the priest washed his hands, as well as for that
+with which the chalice was rinsed at the
+celebration of the mass. It was usually
+placed within a niche, although the basin often projects
+from the face of the wall, and is sometimes supported on
+a shaft rising from the floor. In the Early English and
+Decorated periods there are often two basins and two
+drains, and occasionally three. Within the niche a
+wooden or stone shelf is often found, called a credence-table,
+on which the sacred
+vessels were placed previous to
+their being required at the altar.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Piscinas.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Piscinas are unknown in
+England of earlier date than
+the middle of the 12th century,
+and of that date they are
+extremely rare. Of thirteenth
+and succeeding centuries we
+have many examples, more or
+less mutilated. Their forms and
+decorations are very various,
+but the character of their architectural
+features will always
+decide their approximate date.<a name="img40" id="img40"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/img093c.jpg" width="200" alt="A Detached Holy-water Stoup." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>A Detached Holy-water Stoup<br />
+of unusual design.</b><br />
+Wooton Courtenay, Som.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The Sedilia, from the Latin
+<i>sedile</i>, a seat, has come to be
+applied in modern times to the
+seats used by the celebrants
+during the pauses in the mass. <span class="sidenote">Sedilia.</span>They were sometimes
+moveable, but more usually in this country
+were formed of masonry and recessed
+in the wall. They are generally three
+in number, for the priest, deacon and sub-deacon, while
+in a few rare instances they number four seats, as
+at Rothwell Church, Northants, and Furness Abbey;
+or even five, as at Southwell Minster. Sometimes
+a long single seat under one arch is found, and
+when three seats are used the two western ones are
+often on the same level and the eastern one raised above
+them. Numerous examples remain in our churches,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span>
+some being as early as the latter part of the 12th century,
+but they are mostly later and extend to the end of the
+Perpendicular style. Some of them are separated by
+shafts, and profusely ornamented with panelling,
+niches, statues, pinnacles, tabernacle work, and crowned
+with canopies all more or less elaborately enriched.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Stalls.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Stalls are fixed seats in the choir, either wholly or
+partially enclosed and used by the clergy. Previous to
+the Reformation all large and many small
+churches had a range of wooden stalls on
+each side and at the west end of the choir.
+In cathedrals they were enclosed at the back with panelling,
+and surmounted by overhanging canopies of tabernacle
+work, generally of oak, of which those at Winchester,
+Henry VII.'s Chapel at Westminster, and
+Manchester Cathedral are possibly our finest examples.
+When the stalls occupied both sides of the choir, return
+seats were placed at the ends for the prior, dean, precentor,
+and other of the officiating clergy.<a name="Plate_4" id="Plate_4"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img095c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img095c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Sedilia and Chantry." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Sedilia and Chantry.</b><br />
+		 		  Luton, Beds.<br />
+		 		<i>Photograph Fredk. Thurston, F.R.P.S.</i><br />
+       Click to <a href="images/img095c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mr. Parker, in his "<i>Glossary of Architecture</i>," gives
+the following definition of the miserere, patience or
+pretella. "The projecting bracket on the underside
+of the seats of stalls in churches; these, when perfect,
+are fixed with hinges so they may be turned up, and
+when this is done the projection of the miserere is
+sufficient, without actually forming a seat, to afford
+very considerable rest to anyone leaning upon it. They
+were allowed as a relief to the infirm during the long
+services that were required to be performed by ecclesiastics
+in a standing posture." It is in the carving of these
+that one is frequently struck by the curious mixture
+of the sacred and the profane, the refined and the vulgar,
+for which it is difficult to find any adequate explanation.
+Of so coarse a nature are some of these carvings that it
+has been necessary to entirely remove them from the
+stalls. They are usually attributed to the mendicant
+and wandering monks, and they undoubtedly reflect the
+licentiousness which at one time pervaded the monastic
+and conventual establishments. Among our best examples
+are those at Christchurch Priory, Hants, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span>
+in Henry VII.'s Chapel. There is a remarkably complete
+set in Exeter Cathedral.<a name="img41" id="img41"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/img097cs.jpg" width="280" alt="Typical Somerset Bench-End." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>A Typical Somerset Bench-End,</b><br />
+Showing a Fuller at work with the<br />
+implements of his trade.<br />
+Spaxton.<br />
+<i>Photograph Mr. Page.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of modern pews it is not necessary to say anything
+here, but previous to
+the Reformation the
+nave of a church was
+usually fitted with
+fixed seats, parted
+from each other by
+wainscoting, and
+partially enclosed at
+the ends by framed
+panelling, but more
+often by solid pieces
+of wood, either
+panelled or carved
+on the front. These
+bench-ends are very
+common in the
+West of England, in
+Somerset and Devon,
+and they are often
+very beautiful pieces
+of work and were
+in all probability
+executed by local
+craftsmen. They
+embrace a variety
+of subjects: figures,
+scrolls, dragons,
+serpents, etc., and
+frequently bear the
+arms of the family
+who owned the pew.
+Sometimes they terminate
+at the top
+with finials either
+in the form of heads, bunches of foliage, a chamfered
+<i>fleur-de-lys</i> and a variety of other ornaments called
+Poppy-heads, from the French <i>Poup&eacute;e</i>. No examples<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>
+are known to exist earlier than the Decorated style, but
+of Perpendicular date specimens are very numerous,
+especially in our cathedrals and old abbey churches.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Pulpits.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">Pulpits were formerly placed, not only in churches,
+but in the refectories and occasionally in the cloisters of
+monasteries, and there is one in the outer
+court of Magdalen College, Oxford, and
+another at Shrewsbury. In former times
+pulpits were placed in the nave attached to a wall, pillar
+or screen, usually against the second pier from the
+chancel arch. Some are of wood, others of stone; the
+former are mostly polygonal, with the panels enriched
+with foliation or tracery. Few exist of earlier date
+than the Perpendicular style, but stone pulpits of Decorated
+date are sometimes met with as at Beaulieu, Hants,
+a very early specimen. Wooden pulpits are usually
+hexagonal or octagonal; some stand on slender wooden
+stems, others on stone bases. A few have canopies
+or sounding boards, and their dates can be fixed by the
+character of their ornamentation. At Kenton, Devon,
+there is an early pulpit which has retained its original
+paintings. Jacobean pulpits are very numerous, and are
+frequently gilded and painted; the one at S. Saviour's
+Church, Dartmouth, being a most elaborate example.</p>
+
+<p>Open-air preaching is anything but a modern invention,
+for long before the erection of parish churches it
+was the recognised method of addressing the people.
+There is a print of some popular bishop preaching in
+a pulpit at Paul's Cross in S. Paul's Churchyard, and in
+medi&aelig;val days open-air pulpits were erected near the
+roads, on bridges and often on the steps of the market
+crosses, which are often still known as preaching
+crosses.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Squints.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">In some of our churches is to be seen a squint, an
+opening in an oblique direction through a wall or pier for
+the purpose of enabling persons in the aisles
+or transepts to see the elevation of the
+Host at the high altar. They are of
+frequent occurrence in our churches and are very numerous
+in the neighbourhood of Tenby, South Wales, also<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+in Devon
+and the
+West generally.<a name="img42" id="img42"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 220px;">
+<img src="images/img099c.jpg" width="220" alt="A Richly Carved Pulpit and Canopy." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>A Richly Carved Pulpit and Canopy.</b><br />
+Edlesborough, Bucks.<br />
+<i>Photograph H. A. Strange.</i></span>
+</div>
+
+<p>They
+are usually
+without any
+ornament,
+but are
+sometimes
+arched and
+enriched
+with tracery.
+They
+are mostly
+found on
+one or both
+sides of the
+chancel
+arch, but
+they sometimes
+occur
+in rooms
+above porches,
+in
+side-chapels
+and the like;
+in every instance
+they
+were so situated
+that
+the altar
+could be
+seen. When
+they occur
+in porches
+or the rooms
+above they
+are thought
+to have been
+for the use<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>
+of the acolyte appointed to ring the sanctus bell, who,
+viewing the performance of mass, would be thus able to
+sound the bell at the proper time. The name hagioscope
+has been used to describe these oblique openings.</p>
+
+<p>Cruciform marks are sometimes found on our churches,
+often on a stone in the porch; they are usually incised
+crosses or five dots in the form of a cross. They were,
+presumably, cut by the bishop when the building was
+consecrated, and are called consecration crosses.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">Screens.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The rood-screens, separating the chancel or choir
+of a church from the nave, usually supported the great
+Rood or Crucifix, not actually on the
+screen itself, but on a beam called the
+rood-beam, or by a gallery called the
+rood-loft, which last was approached from the inside
+of the church, by a small stone staircase in the wall,
+as can be seen in many of our churches to-day. Although
+rood-lofts have been generally destroyed in England,
+some beautiful examples remain at Long Sutton, Barnwell,
+Dunster and Minehead, Somerset; Kemsing,
+Kent; Newark, Nottingham; Uffendon, Collumpton,
+Dartmouth, Kenton, Plymtree and Hartland, Devon.
+The general construction of wooden screens is
+close panelling below, from which rise tall slender
+balusters, or wooden mullions supporting tracery rich
+with cornices and crestings, frequently painted and gilded.
+The lower panels often depict saints and martyrs. From
+the top of the screen certain parts of the services and the
+lessons were read. They were occasionally close together
+and glazed, as we see by a most beautiful example at
+Charlton-on-Otmoor, in Oxfordshire. These screens,
+many of which have been over-restored, are very common,
+and in addition to those above mentioned, are found
+at S. Mary's, Stamford, Ottery S. Mary, Chudleigh,
+Bovey, and in nearly all the Devon parish churches.
+At Dunstable a screen of Queen Mary's time separates
+the vestry from the chancel.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span>
+<a name="img43" id="img43"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img101c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img101c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Screen with Rood Loft." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Screen with Rood Loft.</b><br />
+		 		  Kenton, Devon.<br />
+		 		<i>Photograph by Chapman.</i><br />
+       Click to <a href="images/img101c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Of stone screens space will permit of only the briefest
+mention. They were used in various situations, to
+enclose tombs and to separate chapels, and occasionally the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span>
+rood-screen was of stone. The oldest piece of screen work
+in this country is that at Compton Church, Surrey; it
+is of wood and shows the transition from the Norman to
+the Early English styles.<a name="img44" id="img44"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;">
+<img src="images/img102c.jpg" width="200" alt="Carved Oak Balustrade" title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>The Carved Oak Balustrade in<br />
+Compton Church.</b><br />
+Held to be the oldest existing piece<br />
+of carved woodwork in England.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Stone screens are often massive
+structures enriched with niches, statues, tabernacles, pinnacles,
+crestings, etc.,
+as those at Canterbury,
+York and Gloucester.</p>
+
+<div class="sidenote">The
+Reredos.</div>
+
+<p class="noindent">The reredos forms
+no part of the altar,
+and is often highly enriched
+with
+niches, buttresses,
+pinnacles,
+and
+other ornaments. Not
+infrequently it extends
+across the whole
+breadth of the church,
+and is sometimes
+carried nearly up to
+the roof, as at S.
+Alban's Abbey, Durham
+and Gloucester Cathedrals,
+S. Saviour's,
+Southwark and in that
+remarkably fine example
+at Christchurch,
+Hants. In village
+churches they are mostly very simple, and generally
+have no ornaments formed in the wall, though niches
+and corbels are sometimes provided to carry images, and
+that part of the wall immediately over the altar is
+panelled, as at S. Michael's, Oxford; Solihull, Warwickshire;
+Euston and Hanwell, Oxfordshire, etc.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to note that the open fire-hearth, once
+used in domestic halls, was also called a "reredos."</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX.</h4>
+
+<h3>BELLS AND BELFRIES.</h3>
+
+<p>The history of bells is lost in antiquity, and little
+is known about them previous to the XVth
+century. It is probable, however, that they were
+used in India and China centuries before they reached
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Bells were used by the Romans for many secular
+purposes, and although their use was sanctioned by
+the Christian Church about 400 A.D., they were not
+in general use in England until 650 A.D.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest bells were hand bells, quadrangular in
+shape, and made of thin plates of copper or iron riveted
+together, and their abominable sound when struck
+must have been one of their chief merits, as the early
+bells were much used for the purpose of frightening
+the devil and other evil spirits.</p>
+
+<p>Our oldest bells are hand bells, S. Patrick's bell at
+Belfast (1091) and S. Ninian's bell at Edinburgh, which
+is probably of even earlier date. From 1550 to 1750
+was the golden age of production for bells, more especially
+so in Belgium and the Low Countries, where the bells
+of the towers and belfries were rung to arouse the country
+in times of danger and invasion. It is quite possible that
+the bells used for secular and religious purposes were kept
+distinct. Bells played a very important part in medi&aelig;val
+life, and next to cannon were regarded as the chief city
+guardians, for he who held the bells held the town, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span>
+the first thing done by the invader on taking a town
+was to melt the bells and thus destroy the means of
+communicating an alarm.</p>
+
+<p>In England our old towns, being almost entirely constructed
+of wood, were liable to periodic and devastating
+conflagrations, which fact suggested to that genius,
+William the Conqueror, the institution of Couvre-feu,
+or in its more popular form, Curfew, which rang at
+eight o'clock in the evening, when all lights were to be
+extinguished. The ringing of curfew has survived in
+many of our towns and villages to this day, but it is
+doubtful if the custom has been continuous from its
+first institution.</p>
+
+<p>The secular use of the bell is, however, only incidental,
+and it is in its connection with religious life that we are
+now concerned, for all church history, church doctrine
+and church custom and observances are set to bell music.
+Bells in fact may be said to sum up the short span of
+our mortal life, for the birthday, the wedding and the
+funeral, are all welded to religion by the church bell.</p>
+
+<p>Bells were used for ecclesiastical purposes in England
+long before the erection of our parish churches, for
+Bede, speaking of the death of S. Hilda, A.D. 680, says
+that "one of the sisters in the distant monastery of
+Hackness, thought she heard as she slept, the sound
+of the bell which called them to prayers," and Turketul
+gave to Croyland Abbey a great bell called Guthlac,
+and afterwards six others which he called Bartholomew
+and Betelin, Turketul and Tatwin, and Pega and Bega.</p>
+
+<p>S. Dunstan gave bells to many of the churches in
+Somerset, and he also seems to have introduced bell
+ringing into the monasteries.</p>
+
+<p>A few words may be of interest concerning the number
+and purposes of these monastic bells, with which the
+life of the monks must have been completely bound up.
+The <i>Signum</i> woke up the whole community at day-break.
+The <i>Squilla</i> announced the frugal meal in the
+refectory; but for those working in the gardens, the
+cloister-bell, or <i>Campanella</i>, was rung. The abbot's
+<i>Cordon</i>, or handbell, summoned the brothers and novices<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>
+to their Superior; whilst the <i>Petasius</i> was used to call in
+those working at a distance from the main building. At
+bed-time the <i>Tiniolum</i> was sounded, and the <i>Noctula</i>
+was rung at intervals throughout the night to call the
+monks to watch and pray. The <i>Corrigiumcula</i> was the
+scourging bell, while the sweet-toned <i>Nota</i>, a choir bell,
+was rung at the consecration of the elements.</p>
+
+<p>The use of the bell-tower was recognised in the ancient
+Saxon law, which gave the title of thane to anyone who
+had a church with a bell-tower on his estate, and two
+of our most interesting Saxon churches, Brixworth
+and Brigstock, both in Northamptonshire, have each a
+semi-circular tower rising together with the bell-tower,
+and forming a staircase to it.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most beautiful campaniles or bell-towers
+still standing is that at Evesham, in Worcestershire,
+which is a good specimen of Perpendicular architecture.
+It was built by Abbot Lichfield, the last abbot but one
+of the abbey, and took six years in building, and was
+not quite completed when the famous abbey, of which
+it was a final ornament, was pulled down.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to this example at Evesham, detached
+bell-towers exist, or once existed, at Chichester, East
+Dereham, Glastonbury Abbey, Bruton, in Somerset, and
+in several other places.</p>
+
+<p>Markland, in his <i>Remarks on Churches</i>, says: "The
+great bell-tower which once formed part of the abbey
+church of S. Edmundsbury was commenced about 1436.
+From the year 1441 to 1500 legacies were still being
+given towards the building. In 1461 an individual,
+probably a benefactor, desired to be buried <i>in magno
+ostio novi campanilis</i>."<a name="img45" id="img45"></a></p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 160px;">
+<img src="images/img106c.jpg" width="160" alt="Bell Turret for 3 Bells." title="" />
+<span class="caption"><b>Bell Turret for 3 Bells.</b><br />
+Radipole, Dorset.</span>
+</div>
+<p>In Protestant use church bells have been stripped
+of much of the former superstition and symbolism.
+They are no longer rung to announce the miracle of
+transubstantiation; neither are they called upon as
+of old for the purpose of scaring devils, demons, and
+other evil spirits which formed so prominent a feature
+in the faith of the early Christian communities. Closely
+connected with the subject of bells and belfries are the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span>
+bell-gables or bell-turrets, so frequently found at the
+west ends of our smaller churches which have no towers.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">They usually contain but one
+bell, but are sometimes found
+with two, and at Radipole
+Church, near Weymouth, the
+bell-turret was originally
+designed to carry three bells.
+They are generally most
+picturesque little features of
+which a few may be of
+Norman date, but by far the
+greater number of them are
+Early English, a style in
+which they are frequently
+found. In addition to these
+bell-turrets at the western
+ends of our churches one
+sometimes finds a similar,
+but smaller, erection at the
+eastern end of the roof of the
+nave, but used for a very
+different purpose, for while
+the bell at the western end
+was rung to summon the
+parishioners to service, that
+at the eastern end, known
+as the Sanctus or Mass-bell,
+was rung on the elevation of the Host during the celebration
+of mass; although usually placed on the apex
+of the roof, this bell sometimes occupied a position in
+the lantern or tower, or in a turret of larger dimensions.
+In churches where no turret existed it was carried in
+the hand, and such is now the prevailing practice on the
+continent. The turret for the Sanctus bell still exists
+at Barnstaple, Devon, and St. Peter Port, Guernsey.
+The Sanctus bell was generally made of silver, and
+occasionally a number of little bells were hung in the
+middle of the church, and by means of a wheel they
+were all made to ring at once.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span></p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X.</h4>
+
+<h3>THE SPIRE; ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT.</h3>
+
+<p>Probably the most beautiful feature of a Gothic
+church is the spire, raising its tapering form far
+above the town or village and forming a prominent
+landmark, denoting the location of the House
+of God. Although found occasionally in other styles,
+the spire is essentially Gothic, and one of the most
+marked characteristics of this period. Spires are generally
+of two kinds, those constructed of timber and
+covered with slates, lead, tiles or shingles, and those
+built of stone or brick. Examples of both kinds are very
+numerous on the continent and in England, while shingle
+spires are especially common in Sussex.</p>
+
+<p>The spire is generally acknowledged to have originated
+from the small pyramidal roof so frequently found on
+Saxon and Norman towers. This gradually became
+elongated, and the towers were sometimes gabled on
+each side, as is the case with the remarkable Saxon church
+at Sompting, Sussex. This shows us very clearly the
+angles of the spire resting upon the apex of each
+gable, so that the spire itself is set obliquely to the
+square of the tower.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+<a name="img46" id="img46"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img108c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img108c.jpg" height="550"
+      alt="Saxon Spire or Pyramidal Roof." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>The best example of a Saxon Spire or
+           Pyramidal Roof.</b><br />
+		 		  Sompting, Sussex.<br />
+		 		<i>Drawn by George Pearl.</i><br />
+       Click to <a href="images/img108c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>Saxon and Norman spires are very rare in England,
+Sompting being our best example of the former and
+thoseon
+the eastern transepts of Canterbury Cathedral of the
+latter.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span>Of
+Early English spires we have, fortunately, some good
+examples, among which are those at Oxford Cathedral,
+Wilford and Wansted, in the same county, and a very
+graceful one at Leighton Buzzard. These 13th century
+spires are very common in France, as at Chartres and
+S. Pierre, Caen.</p>
+
+<p>Of fourteenth century, or Decorated, spires, we have
+many examples, of which perhaps the best is the beautiful
+spire of Salisbury Cathedral, although the equally fine
+one at S. Mary's, Oxford, runs it close for premier position.
+The triple group at Lichfield Cathedral belong to this
+period, as do the spires of Ross, Heckington, Grantham, S.
+Mary's, Newark, King's Sutton, Bloxham and Snettisham,
+Norfolk. A peculiarity of the Salisbury spire is
+that it never formed part of the original design of the
+cathedral, being added seventy years later. It is the
+loftiest spire in England&mdash;404 feet&mdash;about 40 ft. higher
+than the cross of S. Paul's. It speaks well for the Gothic
+builders that such a vast superstructure as this tower
+and spire could be imposed upon walls and piers never
+intended to bear it. At an early period it was found to
+have deflected twenty-three inches from the perpendicular,
+but there has been no sign of any further
+movement. Barnack Church, in Northamptonshire, has
+a curious spire showing the transition from Norman to
+Early English.</p>
+
+<p>It will be noticed that the sides of a church spire are
+slightly curved, so that they swell out a little in the centre.
+This is called the entasis of the spire, and belongs to the
+study of optics in architecture. Where the spire has no
+entasis the same effect is produced by the introduction
+of small projecting gables, bands of carving, or a little
+coronal of pinnacles.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most clearly marked differences between
+English and continental spires is that the latter are
+much shorter than the towers which support them, the
+towers, as a rule, being twice as high as the
+spires.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>
+<a name="img47" id="img47"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img110c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img110c.jpg" height="500"
+      alt="Leighton Buzzard Church." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>Leighton Buzzard Church.</b><br />
+           With Early English Tower and Spire.<br />
+			 		<i>Photograph H. A. Strange.</i><br />
+       Click to <a href="images/img110c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>In England, on the contrary, the spire is generally very<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span>
+much loftier than the tower. At Shottesbrook, Berks,
+and Ledbury, Herefordshire, the spires occupy as much
+as three-fifths of the total elevation, and the usual rule
+in England is for the tower to be a little less in height
+than the spire.</p>
+
+<p>The masons lavished an extraordinary amount of
+care and skill on their spires. So much is this the case
+that there is hardly a medi&aelig;val spire in the country
+which can be called ill-designed or displeasing.</p>
+
+<p>Church spires are very common in some counties and
+very rare in others. There are, of course, exceptions,
+but it is in the flat counties that spires are most frequent,
+the most beautiful ones being found in Northamptonshire,
+Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Warwickshire, Staffordshire,
+Nottinghamshire and Oxfordshire.</p>
+
+<p>The top of the spire is usually capped with a weather
+vane terminating in a cock. The custom of using a cock
+as the flag of the vane is of very early date, for Wolfstan,
+in his Life of S. Ethelwold, written towards the end of
+the 10th century, speaks of one which surmounted Winchester
+Cathedral. In the Bayeux Tapestry one is shown
+on the gable of Westminster Abbey, and one of the early
+Popes ordained that every church under the papal jurisdiction
+should be surmounted by a cock as emblematical
+of the sovereignty of the church over the whole world.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span></p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI.</h4>
+
+<h3>STAINED GLASS.</h3>
+
+<p>The use of coloured glass in the windows of buildings
+devoted to religious purposes appears to have
+been employed as early as the ninth century, but
+no examples remain of anything like so old a date, and
+we have only illuminated missals and primitive drawings
+by members of the conventual bodies to guide us in
+determining the earliest styles of coloured glazing. It
+appears to have consisted of more or less primitive
+representations of the human form, with strong black
+lines to indicate the features and folds of the drapery.
+The backgrounds were generally masses of deep blue
+or red, and in the rare instances where landscapes were
+introduced positive colours only appear to have been used.
+Our oldest specimens in England are those in the choir
+aisles of Canterbury Cathedral, which appear to be of
+the 12th century, and it is thought that they are the
+remains of the original glazing that was put in when
+this part of the building was rebuilt after a fire in 1174.
+The general design is composed of panels of various
+forms, in which are depicted subjects from Holy Scripture,
+with backgrounds of deep blue or red; the spaces between
+the panels are filled with mosaic patterns in which
+blue and red colours predominate, and the whole design
+is framed in an elaborate border of leaves and scroll-work
+in brilliant colours.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>
+<a name="img48" id="img48"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="4" summary="Illustration">
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center">
+      <a href="images/img113c.jpg">
+      <img src="images/img113c.jpg" height="350"
+      alt="Leighton Buzzard Church." /></a>
+    </td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td align="center"><span class="caption"><b>A Parish Church with a Shingle Broach Spire.</b> (<i>See page <a href="#Page_99">99</a></i>)<br />
+           Edenbridge, Kent.<br />
+			 		<i>Homeland Copyright.</i><br />
+       Click to <a href="images/img113c.jpg">ENLARGE</a></span>
+	  </td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span>Of thirteenth century windows we have some magnificent
+examples&mdash;unfortunately few unmutilated&mdash;as at
+York, where is the five-light lancet window situated in
+the north end of the transept, known as the Five
+Sisters of York. Of this date, also, are the large circular
+window of Lincoln Cathedral, and the windows at
+Chetwode, Bucks; Westwell, Kent; West Horsley,
+Surrey; and Beckett's Crown, Canterbury.</p>
+
+<p>A little later, in the Decorated period, we get the great
+east window of York Cathedral, 75 ft. high and 32 ft.
+broad; the east window of Gloucester Cathedral, 72 ft.
+high and 38 ft. broad; and other fine windows at Tewkesbury
+Abbey; Merton College, Oxford; Wroxhall Abbey,
+Warwickshire; and the churches of Chartham, Kent;
+Stanford, Leicestershire; Ashchurch, Glous.; Cranley,
+Surrey; Norbury, Derbyshire, and others. Salisbury
+Cathedral has retained portions, but very lovely portions,
+of the glazing of its west windows, and enough is left
+to show that it was little inferior to the great windows
+of York and Gloucester. Carlisle Cathedral, too, has
+preserved fragments of the original glass in the tracery
+of the great east window, but the lower part of the
+glazing is modern. Windows in the Decorated style
+continued to be arranged in panels, with the spaces
+between them filled with flowing patterns of foliage, in
+which the vine and ivy leaves predominate. Single
+figures are more common than in the previous style, and
+when used are generally shown beneath a simple pediment
+or canopy. In the early examples they only
+occupy a portion of the window light, but later they are
+found occupying nearly the whole of the surface and are
+surmounted by large and elaborate canopies. Quarries
+are much used in this style, sometimes quite plain, but
+more often with leaves or rosettes painted on them in
+black lines, or painted with the vine and ivy leaves so
+arranged that they form a repeating pattern over the
+whole window. At this period, too, heraldry began
+to be employed in the decoration of the windows to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span>
+which it is always an appropriate and artistic adjunct,
+and many authentic and valuable examples of our
+national heraldry have thus been preserved for posterity.</p>
+
+<p>With the advent of the Perpendicular style the glazing
+became more uniform in character, the glass was thinner
+and lighter, the tints paler, and the whole effect more
+brilliant and transparent. The paintings for the most
+part consist of large figures under elaborate canopies,
+frequently occupying an entire light, and in the patterns
+and smaller decorations there is a greater freedom
+of design, and the whole treatment is more harmonious
+and artistic than in any other period. The use of heraldry
+became very common, and inscriptions on long narrow
+scrolls were frequently employed. Among the best
+examples of this period are the windows at S. Margaret's
+Church, Westminster; King's College Chapel, Cambridge;
+Fairford Church, Gloucestershire; and Morley
+Church, Derbyshire.</p>
+
+<p>The Reformation, with its vast social and political
+upheaval, was not conducive to the encouragement of
+the fine arts, and from this period the art of glazing in
+England declined beyond measure, and was not the only
+art that received its death-blow in the triumph of
+Puritanism. The art has, however, revived greatly
+during recent years, thanks, among other artists, to
+William Morris and Burne-Jones. A few words must
+be said about the "Jesse" window found in some
+of our cathedrals and churches. Strictly speaking,
+it is a representation of the genealogy of Christ, in
+which the different persons forming the descent are
+placed on scrolls of foliage branching out of each
+other, intended to represent a tree. It was also wrought
+into a branched candlestick, thence called a Jesse,
+a common piece of furniture in ancient churches.
+The subject is found on a window at Llanrhaiadr y
+Kinmerch, Denbighshire, on the stone work of one of
+the chancel windows at Dorchester Church, Oxfordshire,
+and in carved stone on the reredos of Christchurch
+Priory, Hants.</p>
+
+<p>It is not perhaps generally known that the actual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span>
+colours used in early stained glass possessed each of
+them their own specific symbolism. Underlying the
+obvious story conveyed by the human figures or
+decorated devices, there was an inner story to be read
+with profit by those who understood the mystic symbolism
+concerning colours. Without entering at length
+into this interesting subject, it may yet be stated that
+green was the symbol of Regeneration, red of Divine
+Love, white of Divine Wisdom, yellow of Faith, and
+grey, or a mixture of black and white, the emblem of
+Terrestrial Death and Spiritual Immortality. These
+colours at different times or in different countries had
+other meanings as well, and ecclesiologists tell us that
+the colours chosen for depicting the robes of our Lord
+differ according to the period of His life which it was
+intended to represent.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII.</h4>
+
+<h3>CRYPTS.</h3>
+
+<p>The crypts so generally found beneath our cathedrals
+and abbeys, and so frequently under our churches,
+rarely extend beyond the choir or chancel and its
+aisles, and are sometimes of very small dimensions.
+They are often coeval with the upper parts of the building,
+and although not so elaborate in ornamentation
+as the fabric they support, they are almost without
+exception well constructed and well finished pieces of
+building. In some cases the crypt is of much older
+date than any portion of the superstructure, as is the
+case at York, Worcester and Rochester cathedrals.
+During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the roofs
+were often richly groined, and upheld by cylindrical
+columns or clustered piers, and furnished with handsome
+bases and decorated capitals. There is abundant evidence
+that crypts were at one time furnished with altars,
+piscinas, and the various fittings requisite for the celebration
+of the mass, and they were used as sepulchres,
+wherein the shrines of relics and martyrs were carefully
+preserved. Some authorities claim a purely Saxon
+origin for the crypts at Ripon Cathedral, Hexham Abbey,
+and Repton Church, Derbyshire. The Ripon example
+is a plain barrel-vaulted chamber, about 11 ft. long and
+8 ft. wide, with no pillars or ornament of any kind.
+It is popularly known as S. Wilfrid's Needle, but the exact
+origin of the name is lost in obscurity. The Hexham
+crypt is very similar in character, but is somewhat longer,
+being more than 13 ft. long and 8 ft. wide. As at Ripon,
+there are hollows or shallow niches in the walls in which
+lamps may possibly have been placed. The third reputed
+Saxon crypt is that at Repton, but it has little in common
+with the other two, its superficial area being nearly
+twice as great and the roof is supported on four columns,
+with plain square capitals rudely carved, and bearing
+much similarity to early Norman work.</p>
+
+<p>The position of the crypt varies. At Beverley Minster<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span>
+it is on the south side of the south-west tower; in Hereford
+Cathedral it is under a side chapel, while at Lastingham,
+in Yorkshire, the crypt extends under the whole
+of the church, including the apse. At Wells the crypt
+is beneath the chapter-house, and Durham Cathedral
+has three crypts, one under what was the dormitory,
+another beneath the refectory, and the third under the
+prior's chapel. Of crypts of Norman date we have many
+examples, of which, perhaps, our best are those at
+Gloucester, Worcester, Canterbury and Winchester
+Cathedrals, while Canterbury is probably the largest
+of them all. Good crypts are also found at Wimborne
+Minster, Christchurch Priory, and in our smaller churches
+at Repton and S. Peter's-in-the-East, Oxford.</p>
+
+<p>The Wimborne crypt is lighted by four windows.
+The vaulting is supported by two pairs of pillars which
+form three aisles, each of three bays. Mr. Perkins, in
+his book on Wimborne Minster, says, "On each side of
+the place where the altar stood there are two openings
+into the choir aisles. The exteriors of these are of the
+same form and size as the crypt windows, but they
+are deeply splayed inside, and probably were used as
+hagioscopes or squints, to allow those kneeling in the
+choir aisles to see the priest celebrating mass at the
+crypt altar." The crypt at Christchurch is of Norman date,
+and now serves as a vault for the Malmesbury family.
+The crypt of Canterbury Cathedral is claimed and justly
+claimed, perhaps, as the largest and most beautiful in
+England. It is thought to contain fragments of Roman
+and Saxon work, and much of it dates from the days of
+S. Anselm (1096-1100). It was here that the remains
+of S. Thomas &agrave; Becket lay from 1170 to 1220, and "here
+that Henry II., fasting and discrowned, with naked feet,
+bared back, and streaming tears, performed on July
+12th, 1174, the memorable penance for his share in the
+murder of the great Archbishop."</p>
+
+<p>It was here too, in later times that the Walloons were
+granted, by Queen Elizabeth, the privilege of carrying on
+their silk-weaving, and it was also reserved as a place of
+worship for French Protestants.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII.</h4>
+
+<h3>HOW TO DESCRIBE AN OLD CHURCH.</h3>
+
+<p>Having carefully read the foregoing chapters, it
+should be possible for anyone interested in the
+subject to be able to write a fairly accurate
+description of any old church. The record should, if
+possible, be amplified with sketches or photographs.</p>
+
+<p>In course of time, decay, neglect and restoration will
+deprive our ancient buildings of every visible stone of
+original work which they possess, and careful records
+of this kind, written, photographed and sketched, may
+be of the highest possible value to future generations
+of historians and architects, long after the objects themselves
+have ceased to exist. The work in itself is of
+absorbing interest, and the more one studies these works
+of past ages the stronger becomes the conviction that
+our old buildings, whether cathedral, castle or simple
+village church, are the landmarks of the nation's history,
+and a priceless inheritance of beauty and art the conservation
+of which is the duty of all generations.</p>
+
+<p>The principal points to be noted are&mdash;1. The name of
+the church. 2. Its situation. 3. Its dedication. 4.
+General plan. 5. The style of architecture to which
+each portion belongs. 6. Any peculiarity of the architecture,
+blocked up windows, etc. 7. Any ancient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+furniture, screens, bench-ends, glass. 8. Any monuments,
+tablets, or mural paintings. 9. Church plate,
+bells, registers. 10. Any local traditions. The record
+should be made somewhat in the following manner.</p>
+
+<p>The church of&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;is prettily situated on rising
+ground some quarter of a mile north of the village, and
+on the main road to&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;. It is approached by a picturesque
+timber lych-gate, and consists of nave, aisles
+and chancel, having a side chapel to the north and a
+single transept to the south. At the west end is a Decorated
+tower and spire. There are two porches, one on
+the north side and the other on the west, which last
+has a niche for a figure over the doorway and seats on
+either side. The nave is Perpendicular, as is the greater
+part of the rest of the fabric. Above the nave rises
+a lofty and noble clerestory, divided from the aisles by
+five rather obtusely-pointed arches supported by richly
+moulded piers with small moulded capitals. Each
+bay of the clerestory contains two three-light windows of
+late Perpendicular date. The roof is flat pitched and is of
+oak, the principals are adorned with panelled tracery
+and show vestiges of ancient colour decoration. The
+windows of the aisles are late Decorated in style; they
+are of three lights, the traceries elegant and richly
+moulded. The east window is Perpendicular and is
+much sub-divided by mullions and transoms; in the
+upper portions are some heraldic coats of arms, which
+appear to have formed part of a much earlier window.
+The chancel is divided from the nave by a fine open
+oak screen, coeval with the larger part of the building.
+It is richly carved and gilded, and in the right-hand side
+of the chancel arch are the steps which formerly led up
+to the top of it. The chancel, together with its chapel,
+is vaulted in stone with well marked ribs and carved
+bosses. The transept, late Perpendicular, opens into
+the south side of the nave by a four-centred arch, and
+has a rich flat ceiling. In the chancel is a piscina of
+Early English date, together with a sedilia of the same
+period. On the north side of the chancel, resting on the
+floor, is a cross-legged effigy, in chain mail, surcoat, etc.,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span>
+and bearing on his left arm a shield, but all much mutilated.
+There is a local tradition that it represents
+Sir&nbsp;<span class="nowrap">&mdash;&mdash;</span>, but there is no evidence by which he can be
+identified. Features of the church are the many highly
+carved bench ends, all in oak, representing a great variety
+of subjects, such as dragons, serpents, etc., while a few
+bear the arms of local families who probably bore the
+cost of the work. The pulpit is Jacobean, and has no
+special feature. The font, which stands in the centre of
+the nave, is square in form and is supported by a modern
+round plinth. It is constructed of marble, the four sides
+being carved in low relief with intersecting patterns. It
+is possibly of Norman date, and is the only existing
+feature of a much earlier church. The tower and spire
+are Decorated; the latter is of stone with four pinnacles
+at the base, and has a little coronal of pinnacles. The
+belfry windows are arranged in pairs on each side of
+the tower. The tower or western window is of five
+lights, richly Decorated in style.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span>
+<a name="img49" id="img49"></a></p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="1" summary="diagram">
+<tr><td><div class="figleft" style="width: 300px;">
+<img src="images/img122c.jpg" width="300" alt="Interior Elevation of a Bay of a Church." title="" />
+</div></td><td align="left"><p class="noindent"><small><b>Key to Diagram of the<br />
+Interior Elevation of a<br />
+Bay of a Church.</b><br />
+<br />
+<b>Clerestory.</b><br />
+26 Boss.<br />
+25 Vaulting Rib.<br />
+24 Vault.<br />
+23 Vaulting Rib.<br />
+22 Tracery of C. Window.<br />
+21 Clerestory Window.<br />
+20 Sill of Clerestory Window.<br />
+19 Base of Jamb, C. Arch.<br />
+18 Jamb of C. Arch.<br />
+17 Clerestory String.<br />
+<br />
+<b>Blind Storey (Triforium).</b><br />
+16 Capital of Vaulting Shaft.<br />
+15 Tracery of Triforium.<br />
+14 Triforium Arch.<br />
+13 Capital of T. Pier.<br />
+12 Pier of Triforium.<br />
+11 Triforium String.<br />
+<br />
+<b>Ground Storey.</b><br />
+10 Tracery of Aisle Window.<br />
+9 Aisle Window.<br />
+8 Sill of Aisle Window.<br />
+7 Wall Arcade.<br />
+6 Vaulting Shaft.<br />
+5 Corbel.<br />
+4 Pier Arch.<br />
+3 Capital of Pier.<br />
+2 Pier.<br />
+1 Base of Pier.<br /></small>
+</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="Appendix" id="Appendix"></a>APPENDIX.</h3>
+
+<div class="center">
+ <p class="noindent">A GLOSSARY OF THE PRINCIPAL TERMS USED<br />
+ IN ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="sm" style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="5" summary="Glossary">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ABACUS</td><td align="left">Derived from the Greek <i>Abax</i>&mdash;a tray or
+flat board, an essential feature of the Grecian and Roman orders, but now
+used to describe the slab forming theupper part of a column, pier, etc. </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ABBEY</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term for a union of ecclesiastical buildings,
+for the housing of those conventual bodies presided over by an abbot or
+abbess, supposed to be derived from the Hebrew <i>ab</i>, "father."</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ACANTHUS</td><td align="left" valign="top"> A plant, the leaves of which are
+represented in the capitals of the Corinthian orders.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">AISLE</td><td align="left" valign="top">French <i>aile</i>, a wing, the lateral division of a church.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ALMONRY</td><td align="left" valign="top">A room where alms were distributed.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ALTAR</td><td align="left" valign="top">An elevated table dedicated to the Sacrament of the Holy Eucharist,
+and usually called the Communion Table.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ALMERY, AUMERY,<br />
+and AUMBREY </td><td align="left" valign="top">A recess or small cupboard in the wall of a church, used to contain
+the chalices, patens, etc., for the use of the priest. They are sometimes near
+the <i>piscina</i>, but are usually on the opposite side of the chancel.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ANTE-CHAPEL</td><td align="left" valign="top">The outer part of a chapel.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">APSE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The semi-circular or polygonal recess at
+the east end of the choir or aisles of a church.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ARCADE </td><td align="left" valign="top">A series of arches, open or closed with
+masonry, and supported by columns or piers.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ARCH</td><td align="left" valign="top">A construction of bricks or stones so placed
+as by mutual pressure to support each
+other and a superincumbent weight.
+They may be semi-circular, segmental,
+elliptical, stilted, horse-shoe, pointed,
+trefoiled, cinquefoiled, or ogee<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">116</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ARCHITRAVE</td><td align="left" valign="top">In classical architecture, the lowest division
+of the entablature resting immediately
+on the abacus of the capital. In Gothic
+buildings the ornamental mouldings
+round the openings of doors, windows, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ARCHIVOLT</td><td align="left" valign="top">The under surface of the curve of an arch,
+from impost to impost.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ASHLAR</td><td align="left" valign="top">Shaped or squared stone used in building,
+as distinguished from that in the rough.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ASTRAGAL</td><td align="left" valign="top">A small semi-circular bead or moulding.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BALL FLOWER </td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornament resembling a ball in a circular
+flower with three enclosing petals. Dec.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BASE </td><td align="left" valign="top">The lower member of a column, pier, or wall.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BASILICA</td><td align="left" valign="top">A Roman law-court. Early Christian
+churches when built on the same lines
+were called by the same name.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BILLET</td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornament much used in Norman work
+and formed by cutting a moulding in
+notches, so that the remaining parts
+resembled wooden billets or pieces of
+stick.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BLIND STOREY</td><td align="left" valign="top">See Triforium.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BOSSES</td><td align="left" valign="top">Ornamental projections usually of foliage
+and placed at the intersection of the
+ribs of vaults, ceilings, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BRACES</td><td align="left" valign="top">Timbers which brace or support the main
+rafters. Also called <i>struts</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BROACH</td><td align="left" valign="top">A spire, generally octagonal and springing
+from the square top of the tower, without
+a parapet. (<i>See page <a href="#Page_105">105</a></i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">BUTTRESS</td><td align="left" valign="top">A projection from a wall, giving it additional
+strength.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CANOPY</td><td align="left" valign="top">In Gothic architecture an ornamental hood
+or projection over doors, windows, niches,
+tombs, etc., and rarely found except in
+the Dec. and Perp. styles.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CAPITAL</td><td align="left" valign="top">The head of a column or pilaster, found in
+a great variety of shapes.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CATHEDRAL</td><td align="left" valign="top">A church presided over by a Bishop. The
+principal church of a diocese.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHALICE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The cup used for the wine at the celebration
+of the Eucharist.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHAMFER</td><td align="left" valign="top">The surface formed by cutting away the
+rectangular edge of wood or stone work.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHANCEL </td><td align="left" valign="top">The choir or eastern part of a church,
+appropriated to the use of those who
+officiate in the performance of the
+services.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHANTRY</td><td align="left" valign="top">A chapel often containing a tomb of the
+founder, and in which masses were said.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHAPEL</td><td align="left" valign="top">A small building attached to cathedrals and
+large churches.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHAPTER-HOUSE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The room where the Dean and Prebendaries
+meet for the transaction of
+business.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHEVRON</td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornament characteristic of the Norman
+period and divided into several equal
+portions chevron-wise or zig-zag.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CHOIR</td><td align="left" valign="top">That part of a church to the east of the
+nave where the services are celebrated,
+also called chancel, and frequently
+separated from the nave by an open
+screen of stone or wood.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CINQUEFOIL</td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornamental foliation used in arches,
+tracery, etc., and composed of projecting
+points or cusps, so arranged that the
+opening resembles five leaves.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CLERESTORY</td><td align="left" valign="top">Possibly the <i>clear</i> storey. An upper storey
+standing above or clear of the adjacent
+roofs, and pierced by windows to give
+increased light.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CLOISTER</td><td align="left" valign="top">A covered walk or ambulatory forming
+part of a cathedral or college quadrangle.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CLUSTERED COLUMN</td><td align="left" valign="top">A pier made up of several columns or
+shafts in a cluster.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">COLONNADE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A row or rows of columns supporting a
+roof or building</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CORBEL</td><td align="left" valign="top">Usually a moulded or carved ornament
+projecting from the walls, acting as a
+bracket and capable of bearing a super-incumbent
+weight.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CORNICE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The horizontal termination of a building
+in the form of a moulded projection.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">COURSE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A continuous and regular line of stones or
+bricks in the wall of a building.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CROCKETS</td><td align="left" valign="top">Projecting ornaments in the form of leaves,
+flowers, etc., used to embellish the angles
+of pinnacles, spires, gables, canopies, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CROSS</td><td align="left" valign="top">The accepted symbol of the Christian religion
+and an architectural church ornament
+usually placed upon the apex of
+the gable. A large cross called a rood
+was at one time always placed over the
+entrance to the chancel. The cross was
+worn as a personal ornament ages before
+the Christian era by the Assyrians, and
+we are told that the Druids also used this
+symbol in very early times.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CRYPT</td><td align="left" valign="top">Sometimes called the Undercroft, a vaulted
+chamber, usually underground and in,
+churches, rarely extending beyond the
+area of the choir or chancel, and often of
+less dimensions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">CUSPS</td><td align="left" valign="top">Projecting points giving the foliated appearance
+to tracery, arches, panels, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">DORMER </td><td align="left" valign="top">A gabled window pierced through a sloping
+roof.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">DRIPSTONE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A projecting ledge or narrow moulding
+over the heads of doorways, windows,
+etc., to carry off the rain.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">FAN-TRACERY </td><td align="left" valign="top">Tracery in which the ribs form a fan-like
+appearance and diverge equally in every
+direction. (Peculiar to the late Perp.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">FLAMBOYANT</td><td align="left" valign="top">Tracery whereof the curves assume flame-like
+waves and shapes.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">FLYING BUTTRESS</td><td align="left" valign="top">A buttress in the form of a bridge, usually
+transferring the thrust of the main roof
+from the clerestory walls to the main or
+aisle buttresses</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">FONT</td><td align="left" valign="top">The vessel for holding the consecrated
+water used in baptism.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">GARGOYLE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A projecting spout usually grotesquely
+carved and used to throw the water from
+the roof well away from the building.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">GROIN</td><td align="left" valign="top">The line of intersection in vaulted roofs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">IMPOST</td><td align="left" valign="top">Horizontal mouldings, capping a column or
+pier, from which the arch springs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">JAMB</td><td align="left" valign="top">The side of a window or door.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">KEYSTONE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The central stone at the top of an arch.
+The bosses in vaulted ceilings are frequently
+called keys.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">LADY CHAPEL</td><td align="left" valign="top">A chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin
+Mary, called "Our Lady."</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">LANTERN</td><td align="left" valign="top">A small structure or erection surmounting
+a dome or tower to admit light. These
+towers are known as Lantern Towers.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">LOZENGE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A name given in modern times to Norman
+mouldings which partake of a lozenge
+formation.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">LYCH-GATE </td><td align="left" valign="top">From the Anglo-Saxon <i>lich</i>, a corpse. A
+small and often picturesque shelter at
+the entrance to a churchyard.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MINSTER</td><td align="left" valign="top">The church usually of a monastery or abbey
+or one to which such has been an appendant.
+York and Beverley, however, are
+exceptions to this rule.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MISERERE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A small bracket on the undersides of the
+seats of stalls.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MOULDING</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term generally applied to the contours
+given to angle projections or hollows of
+arches, doors, windows, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">MULLION</td><td align="left" valign="top">The dividing bars of stone or wood between
+the lights of windows, or the openings of
+screens.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">M&Uuml;NSTER (MONASTERY)</td><td align="left" valign="top">has now lost its
+simple application.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">NAVE</td><td align="left" valign="top">From <i>navis</i>, a ship, the main body of a
+church west of the chancel.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">NICHE</td><td align="left" valign="top">An alcove or recess in a wall for holding
+a statue or ornament.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">OGEE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A moulding or arch formed of a curve or
+curves somewhat like the letter S, the
+curve of contra-flexure, part being concave
+and part convex.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ORDERS</td><td align="left" valign="top">In Gothic architecture, the receding mouldings
+of an arch.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PARCLOSE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The screen or railings protecting a monument
+or chantry.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PARVISE</td><td align="left" valign="top">An open space or porch at the entrance to
+a church, and often wrongly applied to
+the room over a church porch.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PATEN</td><td align="left" valign="top">The small plate or salver used to hold the
+Consecrated Bread in the celebration of
+the Eucharist.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PENDANT</td><td align="left" valign="top">Ornaments which hang or <i>depend</i> from a
+ceiling or roof.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PENTHOUSE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A covering projecting over a door, window,
+etc., as a protection from the weather.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PIER</td><td align="left" valign="top">The masses or clusters of masonry between
+doors, windows, etc.; the supports from
+which arches spring.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PILLAR</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term frequently confounded with column,
+but differing from it in not being subservient
+to the rules of classical architecture,
+and in not of necessity consisting of a
+single circular shaft.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PINNACLE</td><td align="left" valign="top">A small turreted ornament tapering
+towards the top, and used as a termination
+to many parts of Gothic architecture.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PISCINA</td><td align="left" valign="top">The stone basin or sink in the chancel used
+for cleansing the communion vessels.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PLINTH</td><td align="left" valign="top">The lower division of the base of a column,
+pier or wall.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">POPPY-HEAD</td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornament boldly carved on the tops of
+bench ends, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">PRESBYTERY</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term sometimes used to include the
+whole of the choir, but more often
+meant to refer to the eastern end of the
+choir from which it is generally raised
+by several steps.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">QUARRIES or QUARRELS</td><td align="left" valign="top">The small diamond, square or other
+shaped panes used in plain glazing.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">QUATREFOIL</td><td align="left" valign="top">The shape resembling four leaves formed
+in tracery or panels by cusps.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">QUOIN</td><td align="left" valign="top">The external angle of a building, generally
+of ashlar.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">REREDOS</td><td align="left" valign="top">The wall or screen at the back of an altar,
+often enriched with carving, niches,
+statues, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ROOD-BEAM or<br />
+ROOD-LOFT </td><td align="left" valign="top">The loft or beam which, previous to the
+Reformation, supported the Great Rood,
+or Crucifix.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ROSE WINDOW</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term often used to denote a circular
+window of several lights.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ROTUNDA</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term used to describe a church or other
+building which is of circular formation
+both within and without.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SACRISTRY</td><td align="left" valign="top">A room used in churches for storing the
+plate and valuables.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SANCTUARY</td><td align="left" valign="top">See Presbytery.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SEDILIA </td><td align="left" valign="top">A seat or seats, generally canopied and
+situated on the south side of the chancel
+and used in pre-Reformation days by
+the officiating clergy during the pauses
+in the mass.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SHAFT</td><td align="left" valign="top">The part of a column or pillar between the
+capital and the base.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SHRINE</td><td align="left" valign="top">Often called the feretory. The place where
+relics were deposited.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SOFFIT</td><td align="left" valign="top">The word means literally a ceiling, but is
+generally used to describe the flat under-surface
+of arches, cornices, stairways, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SPANDRELS</td><td align="left" valign="top">The spaces between the arch of a doorway
+or window and the rectangular mouldings
+over it. Early tracery originated from
+the piercing of the spandrels of windows.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SPIRE</td><td align="left" valign="top">The acutely pointed termination of towers,
+etc., originating by the elongation of
+the early pyramidal roofs.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SPLAY</td><td align="left" valign="top">The slanting or sloped surface of a window
+opening in the thickness of the wall,
+also of doorways, etc.; the term is also
+applied to bevels and other sloped
+surfaces.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SPRINGER</td><td align="left" valign="top">See Voussoir.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">SQUINT</td><td align="left" valign="top">An oblique opening or slit in the wall of
+a church, for the purpose of enabling
+persons in the aisles or transepts to see
+the elevation of the Host at the High
+Altar. They are mostly found on the
+sides of the chancel arch, and are frequently
+called <i>hagioscopes</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">STOUP</td><td align="left" valign="top">A vessel for consecrated water, at or near
+the entrance to a church.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">STRING or<br />
+STRING COURSE.</td><td align="left" valign="top">A horizontal projecting band
+of stone in the wall of a building.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">STRUT</td><td align="left" valign="top">See Brace.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TOOTH&nbsp;ORNAMENT</td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornament used almost exclusively in
+the E.E. style, resembling a square four-leaved
+flower, and thought to be based
+on the dog-tooth violet.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TRANSOM</td><td align="left" valign="top">A horizontal cross-bar in a panel or window.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TRACERY</td><td align="left" valign="top">The ornamental stonework in the upper
+part of a window; when formed by the
+mullions it is called bar tracery and when
+the spandrel is pierced, plate tracery.
+Also used largely on tombs, screens,
+doorways, etc.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TRANSEPTS</td><td align="left" valign="top">The projecting arms of a cruciform church,
+often wrongly called "cross-aisles."</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TRANSITION</td><td align="left" valign="top">A term used to describe the process of
+change from one style of architecture to
+another. The three great periods of
+transition are from the Romanesque and
+Norman to the Early English; the
+Early English to the Decorated, and the
+Decorated to the Perpendicular.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TREFOIL</td><td align="left" valign="top">An ornamental foliation in the heads of
+windows, panels, etc., in which the
+spaces formed by the cusps resemble
+three leaves.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TRIFORIUM</td><td align="left" valign="top">or Blind-Storey. An open gallery
+arcade without windows immediately
+above the pier arcade and under the
+roof of the aisle.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">TYMPANUM</td><td align="left" valign="top">The space between the top of a square-headed
+door and the arch above it;
+frequently sculptured.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">VAULT</td><td align="left" valign="top">Roofing of stone constructed on the principle
+of the arch, the intersections of
+which are termed groins and are in the
+pointed styles usually ribbed.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">VAULTING SHAFTS</td><td align="left" valign="top">Small shafts sometimes rising from the
+floor, sometimes from the capital of a
+pillar and sometimes from a corbel, and
+intended as supports for the ribs of a
+vault.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">VESICA PISCIS</td><td align="left" valign="top">An oval shape or figure formed by two
+equal circles cutting each other in their
+centres. Very commonly found on
+episcopal and monastic seals.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">VOUSSOIR</td><td align="left" valign="top">The wedge-shaped stones forming an arch,
+the centre one of which is the <i>keystone</i>
+and those at the impost or starting point
+of the curve are the <i>springers</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">ZIG-ZAG</td><td align="left" valign="top">See Chevron.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3><a name="Biblio" id="Biblio"></a>A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH<br />
+ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span></h3>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="2" summary="Bibliography">
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Adeline, J.</td><td align="left">Art Dictionary of Terms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bland, W.</td><td align="left">Arches, Piers, Buttresses, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Blomfield, R.</td><td align="left">Short History of Renaissance Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bond, Francis</td><td align="left">English Cathedrals Illustrated.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bond, Francis </td><td align="left">Gothic Architecture in England.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Bonney, T. G.</td><td align="left">Cathedrals, Abbeys, and Churches of<br />
+England and Wales.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Carter, J.</td><td align="left">The Ancient Architecture of England.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Colling, J. K.</td><td align="left">Details of Gothic Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Corroyer, E.</td><td align="left">Gothic Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Cram, R. Adams&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="left">Church Building.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Davidson, E. A.</td><td align="left">Gothic Stonework.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fergusson, J.</td><td align="left">Handbook of Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fergusson, J.</td><td align="left">History of Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Fairbairns, A.</td><td align="left">Portfolio of English Cathedrals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Garbett, E. L.</td><td align="left">Principles of Design in Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Markland, J. H.</td><td align="left">Remarks on Churches.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Moore, C. H.</td><td align="left">Development and Character of Gothic<br />
+Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Paley, F. A.</td><td align="left">Manual of Gothic Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Paley, F. A.</td><td align="left">Manual of Gothic Mouldings.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Parker, J. H.</td><td align="left">A.B.C. of Gothic Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Parker, J. H.</td><td align="left">Concise Glossary of Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Parker, J. H.</td><td align="left">Introduction to the Study of Gothic<br />
+Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Perkins, Rev. T.</td><td align="left">Handbook of Gothic Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Prior, Ed. S.</td><td align="left">History of Gothic Art.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Pugin, A. W.</td><td align="left">Treatise on Chancel Screens and Rood Lofts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rickman, Thos.</td><td align="left">Gothic Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Rickman, Thos.</td><td align="left">Attempts to discriminate the Styles<br />
+of Architecture in England.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sharpe, Edmund</td><td align="left">The Seven Periods of English Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Sharpe, Edmund</td><td align="left">Treatise on the Rise and Progress of Window<br />
+Tracery.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Scott, G.</td><td align="left">History of Church Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ruskin, John</td><td align="left">Seven Lamps of Architecture</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ruskin, John</td><td align="left">Stones of Venice.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ruskin, John </td><td align="left">Poetry of Architecture.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Ruskin, John</td><td align="left">Lectures on Architecture</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wall, J. C.</td><td align="left">Shrines of British Saints.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Winkle</td><td align="left">British Cathedrals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">Wilson, S.</td><td align="left">Romance of our Ancient Churches.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top"></td><td align="left"></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left">Bell's Cathedral Series.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left">"The Builder" Portfolio of English Cathedrals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left">Murray's Handbooks to the Cathedrals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left">S.P.C.K. Illustrated Notes on English Church History.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Swan, Sonnenschein &amp; Co. Notes on the Cathedrals.<br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;"Our English Minsters." Edited by Dean Farrar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="left"></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>This bibliography does not claim to be complete, but is a selection
+of the various books on the subject which should be studied by
+the student.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2><a name="Index" id="Index"></a>Index</h2>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table class="sm" style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="2" summary="Index">
+
+<tr><td align="left"><b>A</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">All Souls' College, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Altars,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Alveston Church, Warwickshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Amiens Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Anne, Queen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Apse, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Arches&mdash;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Saxon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ashchurch, Gloucestershire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>B</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Baptistery, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Barfreston Church, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Barnack Church, Northants</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Barnstaple, Devon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Barnwell,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Barry, Sir C.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Basilica, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bayeux Tapestry,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beaulieu, Hants,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beckett's Crown, Canterbury,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bede (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bells and Belfries,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bench Ends,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bertha, Queen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Beverley Minster,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Billesley Church, Warwickshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bishopstone, Sussex,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bloxham Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Boston, Lincs,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bovey Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bradford-on-Avon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brewer, J. W. (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brighton Pavilion,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brigstock Church, Northants,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bristol Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">British Churches, Early,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Brixworth Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Broadmayne Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bruton, Som.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Burne-Jones, Sir E.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Bury St. Edmunds,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Buttresses&mdash;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Byzantium,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>C</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Canterbury Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
+<a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Capitals&mdash;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Caradoc, King,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Carlisle Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Charles II.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Charlton-on-Otmoor,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Charlton Church, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chartres Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chetwode, Bucks,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chichester Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chipping Norton, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Christchurch Priory,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Christ Church, Spitalfields,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Chudleigh Church, Devon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Church Furniture and Ornaments,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cirencester Church, Glos.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Classic Reverse, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Clerkenwell,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Collumpton, Devon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Compton Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Constantine, Emperor,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Constantinople,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Cranley, Surrey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Crawden's Chapel,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Croyland Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Crypts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Curfew,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>D</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Decorated Style, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Doisnel, Juliana,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dolton Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Doorways&mdash;</td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Saxon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dorchester Church, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dore Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dunstable,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Dunster Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Durham Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
+<a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>E</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Earl's Barton Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Early English Style, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">East Dereham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Edburton Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Edington Church, Wilts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Edington, Bp. William,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Edmund, Archbp. of Cant.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Edward I.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Edward III.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Elizabeth, Queen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Eltham Palace,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ely Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ely Chapel,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ethelbert, King of Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Euston, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Evesham Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Exeter Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>F</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fairford Church, Glos.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fan Vaulting,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fergusson, Dr. (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Flying Buttresses,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fonts,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fordington S. George, Dorchester,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fotheringay Church, Northants,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fountains Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Fuller, Thos. (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Furness Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Furniture, Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>G</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glass, Stained,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glastonbury Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Glossary,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115</a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gloucester Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
+<a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gothic Architecture,
+<br />Leading Characteristics,</td><td align="right" valign="top"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Gothic Styles, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Grantham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Greenstead Church, Essex,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Grosmont, Monmouth,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>H</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hackness,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hanwell, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hartland Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hawkesmore,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Heckington,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Heigham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Henry I.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Henry II.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Henry III.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hereford Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hexham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Hutchinson, Rev. J. M. (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>I</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Iffley Church, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>J</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Jenkyns, Canon (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">John, King,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Jones, Inigo,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>K</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Kemsing, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Kenton Church, Devon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">King's College Chapel, Cambridge,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">King's Sutton,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Knights Hospitallers,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Knights Templars,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>L</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lady Chapel, Exeter,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Langham Place,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lastingham Church, York,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Laud, Archbishop,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ledbury, Hereford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Leighton Buzzard,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lichfield, Abbot,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lichfield, Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lincoln Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,
+<a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Little Billing,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Little Maplestead,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Llanrhaiadr-y-Kinmerch,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Luidhard, Bishop,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Long Melford Church, Suffolk,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Long Sutton,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Luton Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Lyminge,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>M</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Magdalen College, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Malmesbury (family),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Manchester Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Markland (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mary, Queen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Marylebone Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Melbury Bubb,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Merton College, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Minehead,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Morley Church, Derbyshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Morris, William,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Morton Church, Soms.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Mouldings&mdash;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>N</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Newark, Notts.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">New College, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Norbury, Derbyshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Norman Architecture,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Norwich Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>O</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ornaments&mdash;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ornaments, Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Oxford Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>P</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Palladio,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Parham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Parker (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Parliament, Houses of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Patrixbourne Church, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Perkins, Rev. T. (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Perpendicular Styles,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Perpendicular Towers,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Perpendicular Spires,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Peterborough Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Philippa, Queen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Piscinas,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Piers&mdash;</td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Plymtree,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pointed Arch, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Porches,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Porlock Church, Somerset,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pugin,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pulpits,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pyecombe,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Pylle Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>R</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Radipole Church, Dorset,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ravenna,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Reculver,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Reform Club,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Renaissance, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Repton Church, Derby,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Reredos, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Richard I.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Richborough,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rickman (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ripon Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rievaulx,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rochester Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rolvenden Church, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Romanesque Style, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rome,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Ross,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rotherham Church, Yorks.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Rothwell Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Round Churches, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Routledge, Rev. C. F., M.A., F.S.A.,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>S</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saffron Walden,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Alban's Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Andrew's, Norwich,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Anselm,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Augustine,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Benet's, Cambridge,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Clement's, Norfolk,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Cross, Winchester,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint David's, Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Dunstan,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Edmundsbury,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Edmund, Martyr,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_35">35</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Etheldreda,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Ethelwold,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Giles', Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Hilda,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Margaret's, Westminster,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mark's, Venice,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary Abchurch,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary Magdalene, Ripon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary Redcliffe, Bristol,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Cambridge,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Dover,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Lincoln,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Luton,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Newark,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Norwich,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Ottery,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Stamford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Taunton,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Wareham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, Woolnoth,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Mary's, York,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Martin's, Canterbury,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Martin's, Wareham,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Michael's, Coventry,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Michael's, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Nicholas, Lynn,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Nicholas, Newcastle,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Nicholas, Yarmouth,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Paul the Apostle,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Paul's Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Paul's Churchyard,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Patrick,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Peter Port, Guernsey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Peter's in the East, Oxford</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Peter's, Lincoln,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Peter's, Norwich,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Peter's, Rome,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Pierre, Caen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Piran's, Perranporth,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Saviour's, Dartmouth,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Saviour's, Southwark,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Sepulchre, Cambridge,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Sepulchre, Northampton,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Sophia, Constantinople,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Stephen's, Bristol,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Stephen's Chapel, Westminster,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Stephen's, Walbrook,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Thomas &agrave; Becket,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Wilfrid's Needle,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saint Wolfstan,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Salisbury Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,
+<a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sanctuary Knockers,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saxon Architecture,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Saxon Churches,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Scott (quoted),</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Screens,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sedilia,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shottesbrook Church, Berks,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Shrewsbury,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Silchester,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Snettisham, Norfolk,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Solihull, Warwickshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Sompting, Sussex,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Southwell,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Southwold Church, Suffolk,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Speyer Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Spires,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Squints,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stalls,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stanford, Leicester,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stone Church, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Stoups,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>T</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Temple Balsall,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Temple Church, London,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tenby,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tewkesbury Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Thaxted Church, Essex,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Thornham Church, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Towers,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Transom, The,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Trinity Church, Ely,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Tympana,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>U</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Uffendon, Devon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>V</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Vitruvius,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>W</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wakefield Church, Yorkshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Walpole, Horace,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wansted, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wantsume,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Warmington, Warwickshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wells Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">West Horsley, Surrey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Westminster Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>,
+<a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Westminster Hall,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Westminster, Henry's VII.'s Chapel,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>,
+<a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Westwell, Kent,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wilford Church, Oxford,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">William the Conqueror,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wimborne Minster,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wimmington Church, Bedfordshire,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Winchester Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><a href="#Page_72">72</a>,
+<a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Winchester College,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Windows&mdash;</td><td align="right"></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Saxon,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Norman,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Early English,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Decorated,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">&nbsp;&nbsp;Perpendicular,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wing,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wootton Wawen,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Worcester Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Worms Cathedral,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wren, Sir Christopher,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wrexham Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wroxhall Abbey,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wykeham, William of,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">Wymondham Church,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><b>Y</b></td><td align="right">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">York Minster,</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>,
+<a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="narrow" />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h3>THE HOMELAND HANDBOOKS</h3>
+
+<h4>Copiously Illustrated and provided<br />
+with Ordnance Maps and Plans.</h4>
+<div class="center">
+<table class="sm" style="margin: 0 auto" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="ad">
+<tr><td colspan="4" align="left">JANUARY, 1907.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left">No.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">Cloth.</td><td align="right">Paper.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">1</td><td align="left"><b>Tonbridge for the Angler, the Holiday-maker, and the Resident.</b><br />
+By Stanley Martin and Prescott Row</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">2</td><td align="left"><b>Tunbridge Wells of To-Day.</b>By Stanley Martin and Prescott Row.<br />
+Ordnance Map and Plans. Second Edition;</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">3</td><td align="left"><b>"London Town."</b> By Eric Hammond<br />
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">4</td><td align="left"><b>"Lyonesse": The Isles of Scilly.</b> By J. C. Tonkin and Prescott<br />
+Row. Fourth Edition. Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">5</td><td align="left"><b>"Wolfe-Land": The Westerham District, Kent.</b> By Gibson<br />
+Thompson. Third Edition. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">6</td><td align="left"><b>"Kent's Capital": Maidstone.</b> By Stanley Martin and Prescott<br />
+Row. Second Edition. With Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">7</td><td align="left"><b>Croydon, New and Old.</b> By Edward A. Martin, F.G.S., and J. E.<br />
+Morris, B.A. Third Edition. With Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">8</td><td align="left"><b>Dartmoor and Its Surroundings.</b> By Beatrix F. Cresswell. Edited<br />
+by William Crossing. Fourth Edition. Ordnance Maps</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">9</td><td align="left"><b>Rochester and Chatham with Pen and Camera.</b> By A. G. Munro,<br />
+B.A. Second Edition. With Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">10</td><td align="left"><b>Reigate and Redhill.</b> By T. F. W. Hamilton and W. Hodgson.<br />
+Second Edition. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">11</td><td align="left"><b>"Surrey's Capital": Guildford and District.</b> By J. E. Morris, B.A.<br />
+Third Edition. With Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">12</td><td align="left"><b>Dulverton and District: The Country of the Wild Red Deer.</b> By F. J.<br />
+Snell, B.A. Second Edition. Cloth Edition contains Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">13</td><td align="left"><b>Farnham and Its Surroundings.</b> By Gordon Home. With Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">14</td><td align="left"><b>Godalming and its Surroundings.</b> Edited by Prescott Row. Second<br />
+Edition. With Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">15</td><td align="left"><b>Teignmouth and its Surroundings.</b> By Beatrix F. Cresswell. Second<br />
+Edition. With Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">16</td><td align="left"><b>Hastings and St. Leonards.</b> By W. H. Sanders. With Plan
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">17</td><td align="left"><b>Epsom and Its Surroundings.</b> By Gordon Home. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>9d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">18</td><td align="left"><b>Minehead, Porlock, and Dunster: The Sea-board of Exmoor.</b> By<br />
+C. E. Larter. Second Edition. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">19</td><td align="left"><b>Cranbrook: The Town of the Kentish Weald.</b> By Stanley Martin.<br />
+Second Edition. With Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">20</td><td align="left"><b>Dawlish, and the Estuary of the Exe.</b> By Beatrix F. Cresswell.<br />
+Cloth Edition contains Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">21</td><td align="left"><b>St. Albans: Its Abbey and Its Surroundings.</b> By C. H. Ashdown,<br />
+F.R.G.S., F.C.S. With Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">22</td><td align="left"><b>Bromley, Beckenham, and Chislehurst.</b> By George Clinch, F.G.S.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">23</td><td align="left"><b>Exeter and Its Cathedral.</b> By Beatrix F. Cresswell. With Plan<br />
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">24</td><td align="left"><b>Kingston-upon-Thames and Surbiton.</b> By Dr. W. E. St. L. Finny<br />
+With Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">25</td><td align="left"><b>Evesham and its Neighbourhood, Including Broadway.</b> By William<br />
+Smith. With Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">26</td><td align="left"><b>Petworth and Mid West Sussex.</b> By L. C. Barnes. With Map.<br />
+(Cloth only)</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>&mdash;</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">27</td><td align="left"><b>Newquay, the Vale of Lanherne, and Perranzabuloe.</b> By Fannie<br />
+Goddard. Second Edition. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">28</td><td align="left"><b>Haslemere and Hindhead with their Surroundings.</b> By J. E. Morris,<br />
+B.A. Second Edition. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">29</td><td align="left"><b>Taunton and Taunton Deane.</b> By Beatrix F. Cresswell.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">30</td><td align="left"><b>Littlehampton, Arundel, and Amberley.</b> By Rev. W. Goodliffe,<br />
+.A. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">31</td><td align="left"><b>"The Western Gate of Dartmoor": Tavistock and the District.</b><br />
+By William Crossing. With Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">32</td><td align="left"><b>Plymouth: "The Metropolis of the West."</b> By W. H. K. Wright.<br />
+With Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">33</td><td align="left"><b>The Chalfont Country (South Bucks).</b> By S. Graveson.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">34</td><td align="left"><b>Dunstable, the Downs, and the District.</b> By. G. Worthington<br />
+Smith, F.L.S., etc. With Maps</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">35</td><td align="left"><b>The Quantock Hills, their Combes and Villages.</b> By Beatrix F.<br />
+Cresswell. Ordnance Map. (Cloth only)</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;6</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>&mdash;</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">36</td><td align="left"><b>Oxted, Limpsfield, and Edenbridge.</b> By Gordon Home.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">37</td><td align="left"><b>Lynton, Lynmouth, and the Lorna Doone Country.</b> By J. E. Morris,<br />
+B.A. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">38</td><td align="left"><b>Horsham and its Surroundings.</b> By Rev. W. Goodliffe, M.A.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">39</td><td align="left"><b>Seaford and Newhaven.</b> By Geo. Day. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">40</td><td align="left"><b>The Great Ouse. Huntingdon, St. Neots, and St Ives.</b> By H. L.<br />
+Jackson, M.A., and G. R. Holt Shafto. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">41</td><td align="left"><b>King's Lynn with Its Surroundings, including Sandringham.</b><br />
+By W. A. Dutt. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">42</td><td align="left"><b>Woking and Ripley with their Surroundings.</b> By A. H. Anderson.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">43</td><td align="left"><b>Hertford and Its Surroundings.</b> By W. Graveson. Ordnance Map.
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">44</td><td align="left"><b>Dorking and Leatherhead.</b> By Joseph E. Morris, M.A.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">45</td><td align="left"><b>Waltham and Cheshunt.</b> By Freeman Bunting. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">46</td><td align="left"><b>Dorchester with its Surroundings.</b> By F. W. and Sidney Heath.<br />
+with a Foreword by Thomas Hardy. Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">47</td><td align="left"><b>Luton Church.</b> By Constance Isherwood. With Plan
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>6d.</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">48</td><td align="left"><b>Reading and its Surroundings.</b> By A. H. Anderson. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b><br /></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">49</td><td align="left"><b>Sutton and its Surroundings.</b> By F. Richards. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">50</td><td align="left"><b>Watford and its Surroundings.</b> By Walter Moore. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">51</td><td align="left"><b>Yeovil and its Surroundings.</b> By Frank Heath. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">52</td><td align="left"><b>Aylesbury and its Surroundings.</b> By Walter Moore. Ordnance Map
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">53</td><td align="left"><b>Gravesend and Its Surroundings.</b>  By A. J. Philip.<br />
+Ordnance Map</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>1&frasl;-</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">54</td><td align="left"><b>High Wycombe and Its Surroundings.</b> By Henry Harbour
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>&mdash;</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>&mdash;</b></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td align="left" valign="top">55</td><td align="left"><b>Our Homeland Churches, and How to Study Them.</b> By Sidney Heath
+</td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>2&frasl;-</b></td><td align="right" valign="top"><b>&mdash;</b></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="4">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4"><b>Handbooks for many other Towns and Districts are in active preparation.</b></td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr class="full" />
+<p>***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES AND HOW TO STUDY THEM***</p>
+<p>******* This file should be named 30290-h.txt or 30290-h.zip *******</p>
+<p>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:<br />
+<a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/0/2/9/30290">http://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/2/9/30290</a></p>
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+The Project Gutenberg eBook, Our Homeland Churches and How to Study Them,
+by Sidney Heath, Illustrated by Sidney Heath and Ethel M. Heath
+
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+
+
+
+Title: Our Homeland Churches and How to Study Them
+
+
+Author: Sidney Heath
+
+
+
+Release Date: October 19, 2009  [eBook #30290]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-646-US (US-ASCII)
+
+
+***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES AND HOW TO
+STUDY THEM***
+
+
+E-text prepared by Delphine Lettau, Joseph E. Loewenstein, M.D., Paul
+Dring, and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+(http://www.pgdp.net)
+
+
+
+Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this
+      file which includes the numerous original illustrations.
+      See 30290-h.htm or 30290-h.zip:
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30290/30290-h/30290-h.htm)
+      or
+      (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/30290/30290-h.zip)
+
+
+
+
+
+_The Homeland Handbooks_--No. 55.
+
+OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES AND HOW TO STUDY THEM.
+
+by
+
+SIDNEY HEATH
+(Author of "Some Dorset Manor Houses," etc.)
+
+Illustrated by the Author and Ethel M. Heath
+
+And by Photographs.
+
+Published under the General Editorship
+of Prescott Row and Arthur Henry Anderson,
+by the Homeland Association for the
+Encouragement of Touring in Great Britain.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ [Illustration: The Foundations of a Romano-British Church.
+  Uncovered at Silchester. _Photograph S. Victor White & Co._]
+
+
+
+London:
+The Homeland Association Ltd.,
+22, Bride Lane, Fleet Street, E.C.
+
+First Edition.
+1907.
+
+
+
+
+EDITORIAL NOTE.
+
+
+With a view to making future Editions of this Handbook as accurate and
+comprehensive as possible, suggestions for its improvement are cordially
+invited. If sent to THE EDITORS, The Homeland Association, Association
+House, 22, Bride Lane, Fleet Street, E.C., they will be gratefully
+acknowledged.
+
+
+COPYRIGHT.
+
+This Book as a whole, with its contents, both Literary and Pictorial, is
+Copyrighted in Great Britain.
+
+
+ADVERTISING.
+
+LOCAL.--Terms for Advertising in future issues of this Handbook
+    will be forwarded on application to the General Manager of the
+    Homeland Association, at the above address.
+
+GENERAL.--Contracts for the insertion of Advertisements through
+    the whole series of Homeland Handbooks, more than fifty volumes,
+    circulating through the country, can be arranged on application to
+    the General Manager.
+
+
+
+
+ _CONTENTS._
+
+
+ _Author's Preface_                                7
+ _Dedication_                                      8
+ _Introduction_                                    9
+
+    _I.--Early British Churches_                  19
+   _II.--Early Church Architecture_               26
+  _III.--The Saxon and Norman Styles_             31
+   _IV.--The Early English Style_                 47
+    _V.--The Decorated Style_                     57
+   _VI.--The Perpendicular Style_                 64
+  _VII.--The Renaissance and Later_               74
+ _VIII.--Church Furniture and Ornaments_          80
+   _IX.--Bells and Belfries_                      95
+    _X.--The Spire: Its Origin and Development_   99
+   _XI.--Stained Glass_                          104
+  _XII.--Crypts_                                 109
+ _XIII.--How to describe an Old Church_          111
+
+ _Appendix--A Glossary of the Principal Terms
+  used in Ecclesiastical Architecture_           115
+ _Bibliography_                                  123
+ _Index_                                         124
+
+
+
+
+_LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS._
+
+PLATES.
+
+ 1 _Foundations of a Romano-British Church_               _Frontispiece_
+ 2 _The Church of St. Margaret, Lynn_                                52
+ 3 _A Fine Perpendicular Tower, St. Mary, Taunton_                   72
+ 4 _Sedilia and Chantry, Luton_                                      88
+       *       *       *       *       *
+   _The Various Forms of Arches_                                     10
+   _Plan of a Typical Gothic Cruciform Parish Church, Luton_         12
+   _Examples of Gothic Windows_                                      15
+   _Examples of Buttresses_                                          17
+   _A Rood Screen, with a Restoration of the Rood_                   20
+   _The Church of S. Martin, Canterbury_                             22
+   _Window Built with Roman Brick, Swanscombe_                       24
+   _A Reputed Saxon Doorway, Bishopstone_                            30
+   _Tower of Earls' Barton Church_                                   33
+   _An Example of Norman Tower, Bishopstone_                         34
+   _A Norman Pier Arcade, Abbots Langley_                            36
+   _Examples of Norman Mouldings_                                    37
+   _A Late Norman Parish Church, Castle Rising_                      38
+   _West Doorway, Rochester Cathedral_                               40
+   _Tympanum of Norman Doorway, Fordington St. George_               41
+   _Examples of Norman Capitals_                                     42
+   _A Curious Norman Capital, Seaford_                               43
+   _Norman and Early English Doorways, Dunstable Priory Church_      45
+   _Windows, Showing the Origin of Tracery_                          47
+   _An Early English Arch, Rochester Cathedral_                      48
+   _Wall Arcading, Showing Junction of Norman and Early English
+      Masonry, Dunstable Priory Church_                              50
+   _An Early English Doorway, Huntingdon_                            51
+   _A Group of Thirteenth Century Lancet Windows, Ockham_            53
+   _Salisbury Cathedral_                                             55
+   _Examples of Early English Capitals and Ornament_                 56
+   _A Late Decorated Window in a Parish Church, East Sutton_         59
+   _Examples of Decorated Ornament_                                  61
+   _Examples of Perpendicular Ornament_                              64
+   _Early Perpendicular Parish Church, Yeovil_                       65
+   _A Fine Parish Church, Showing Rich Perpendicular Work,
+      Terrington St. Clement, Norfolk_                               67
+   _A Perpendicular Doorway, Merton College_                         68
+   _A Perpendicular Porch, King's Lynn_                              71
+   _An English Renaissance Church, S. Stephen, Walbrook_             78
+   _A Typical Cornish Font_                                          80
+   _The Sanctuary Knocker, Durham Cathedral_                         82
+   _The Baptistery in Luton Church_                                  83
+   _An Example of a Leaden Font of the Late Norman Period_           85
+   _A Reputed Saxon Font, Shaldon_                                   86
+   _A Detached Holy-Water Stoup of Unusual Design_                   87
+   _A Typical Somerset Bench-End, Spaxton_                           89
+   _A Richly-Carved Pulpit and Canopy, Edlesborough_                 91
+   _Screen with Rood Loft, Kenton_                                   93
+   _The Carved Oak Balustrade in Compton Church_                     94
+   _Bell Turret for Three Bells, Radipole_                           98
+   _The Best Example of a Saxon Spire or Pyramidal Roof, Sompting_  100
+   _Leighton Buzzard Church, with Early English Tower and Spire_    102
+   _A Parish Church with a Shingle Broach Spire, Edenbridge_        105
+   _Interior Elevation of a Bay of a Church_                        114
+
+
+
+
+_STYLES OF ENGLISH ARCHITECTURE._
+
+
+The following periods of architectural style may be of use for the
+purpose of reference, but it must be borne in mind that they are more or
+less approximate, as each style merged by slow degrees into the next.
+
+
+ _Norman._--William I. to Stephen. 1066-1154.
+ _Transition Norman._--Henry II. 1154-1189.
+ _Early English Gothic._--Richard I. to Henry III. 1189-1272
+ _Decorated._--Edward I., II., III. 1272-1377.
+ _Perpendicular._--Richard II. to Henry VII. 1377-1485.
+ _Tudor._--Henry VIII. to Elizabeth. 1485-1600.
+
+
+Mr. Edmund Sharpe gives seven periods of English architecture up to the
+time of the Reformation, and dates them as follows:--
+
+
+ _ROMANESQUE._
+
+   I. _Saxon_              from ---- to 1066
+  II. _Norman_               "  1066  " 1145       79 years
+ III. _Transitional_         "  1145  " 1190       45   "
+
+
+ _GOTHIC._
+
+  IV. _Lancet_             from 1190 to 1245       55 years
+   V. _Geometrical_          "  1245  " 1315       70   "
+  VI. _Curvilinear_          "  1315  " 1360       45   "
+ VII. _Rectilinear_          "  1360  " 1550      190   "
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+It is a truism that the history of building is the history of the
+civilized world, for of all the arts practised by man, there is none
+which conveys to us a clearer conception of the religion, history,
+manners, customs, ideals and follies of past ages, than the art of
+building. This applies in a special sense to cathedrals and churches,
+which glorious relics reflect and perpetuate the noble aim, the delicate
+thought, the refined and exquisite taste, the patient and painstaking
+toil which have been expended upon them by the devout and earnest
+craftsmen of the past.
+
+There are very few of our ancient churches in village, town or city
+which do not offer some feature of interest to the visitor, and in the
+absence of anything more important, there is sure to be some door,
+window, font, screen, or other detail which will amply repay him for the
+small amount of time spent in seeing it.
+
+The aim of the author of this little volume has been to indicate the
+symbolism and meaning attaching to the various portions of our churches
+and cathedrals, and to endeavour briefly to describe, in language as
+simple as the subject will allow, the various styles of ecclesiastical
+architecture with their distinctive characteristics in such a way as
+will enable the reader to assign each portion and detail of a church to
+its respective period with an approximate degree of accuracy.
+
+He does not claim to be original, but endeavours to be useful and
+interesting. The best authorities have been consulted and freely drawn
+upon, but with the object in view of writing a book at once thus useful
+and interesting, no attempt has been made to deal with the subject in a
+strictly architectural, or a purely scientific manner.
+
+Weymouth, 1906.
+
+
+
+
+DEDICATION.
+
+
+To all those who love old buildings--cathedrals, abbeys, and village
+churches, which breathe the spirit of an age with which we have entirely
+broken--and who would fain hand down to posterity, unmutilated, the
+great building achievements of our forefathers, which we, with all our
+science, wealth, and means of curtailing labour, can no more imitate
+than we can reproduce the language of a Chaucer or a Shakespeare; this
+book is respectfully dedicated.
+
+S. H.
+
+
+  "_Firm was their faith, the ancient bands,
+    The wise of heart in wood and stone,
+  Who reared with stern and trusting hands
+    Those dark grey towers of days unknown;
+  They filled the aisles with many a thought,
+    They bade each nook some truth recall
+  The pillared arch its legend brought,
+    A doctrine came with roof and wall._"
+                          --HAWKER OF MORWENSTOW.
+
+
+
+
+OUR HOMELAND CHURCHES AND HOW TO STUDY THEM.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+
+However much we may admire, considered purely as art, the Pagan temples
+of the Greeks and Romans, we must confess that they are lacking in those
+high ideals and those sustained and inspired motives which seem to
+penetrate and permeate the buildings and churches of the Christian era.
+Perfect as is Greek art within its somewhat narrow limits, it is,
+nevertheless, cold, precise and lifeless. The Gothic buildings on the
+contrary are pregnant with the very spirit of life.
+
+Prompted by a deep and fervent faith in their religion, the Gothic
+builders and sculptors unconsciously wove into the humblest of their
+architectural enrichments some portion of their daily life and
+personality. The slave-built temples of the Greeks offered no scope for
+the exercise of individual expression--such, in fact, would have been
+strongly resented--whereas the early Christian craftsman, revelling in
+his freedom, seized every opportunity of expressing in his work his joy,
+fear and hope of immortality.
+
+This is made apparent in the study of an old church, whereof every
+portion--door, window, bench-end, carving, gargoyle--has hidden about it
+some suggestion of beautiful thought, or some distinct and appropriate
+symbolism. The fact that symbolism underlies almost every such
+indication of mediaeval thought is made abundantly manifest in the study
+of mediaeval literature. Open any 12th century treatise on morals,
+science or history, and you become aware of the fact at once. The
+main-spring of this symbolism, of all Christian symbolism, turns on the
+parabolic meaning in the scheme of Creation. The early writers were far
+less concerned with recording the plain objective facts of history, than
+in pursuing the allegory and the love of the marvellous, and showing
+all those characteristics of what we now term an unscientific attitude
+of mind.
+
+ [Illustration: The Various Forms of Arches.
+
+  Norman.          Stilted.        Horse Shoe.
+  Equilateral.     Lancet.         Drop.
+  Trefoil.         Trefoil.        Cinquefoil.
+  Ogee.            Four Centered.  Tudor.]
+
+In its widest sense, symbolism means the expression of belief, and if we
+would interpret history aright, we must grasp the fact that the key to
+the character and disposition of peoples of all ages lies in the
+knowledge of their beliefs; for out of the beliefs of one age most
+surely grow the beliefs of its successors, and in no work of man's hand
+are the beliefs held by various peoples in past ages more clearly
+defined than in our cathedrals and churches, which noble buildings in
+every civilized country indicate principles as well as facts, influences
+as well as results; and while presenting the finest materials for
+aesthetic study, are no less useful as indicating the psychological
+peculiarities of those builders of old to whose condition they bear
+witness.
+
+In our grand specimens of ecclesiastical architecture, we may read the
+world's later history, and to-day they breathe the sombre reverential
+influence of a faith which sought to satisfy itself with the visible
+symbolizing of those half-poetical, half-superstitious conceptions with
+which the religion of the Middle Ages was so deeply imbued.
+
+An early development of decorative symbolic art, known as Celtic, of
+which we have examples on old Irish crosses, and particularly on
+illuminated MSS. was wrought by the Christian monks of the 7th and 8th
+centuries, but what is generally understood as Christian symbolic art
+had its finest development about the 13th century. Gothic art is
+essentially symbolic and in many instances, its individual forms have
+specific significance. Thus the common equilateral triangle was used to
+symbolize the Holy Trinity, as are the two entwined triangles. Other
+symbols employed at this period setting forth the mystery of the Unity
+of the Trinity, without beginning and without end, are three interlaced
+circles, and a very curious one is that in which three faces are so
+combined as to form an ornamental figure. Baptism under the immediate
+sanction of the Divine Trinity was represented by three fishes placed
+together in the form of a triangle. So numerous, indeed were such
+Christian symbols after the 9th century that a mere enumeration of them
+would occupy considerable space. Every trefoil symbolized the Holy
+Trinity; every quatrefoil the four Evangelists; every cross the
+Crucifixion, or the martyrdom of some saint; and in Gothic ornament and
+decoration, we find the Chalice, the Crown of Thorns, the Dice, the Sop,
+the Hammer and Nails, the Flagellum and other symbols of our Lord's
+Passion.
+
+ [Illustration: Plan of a Typical Gothic Cruciform Parish Church.
+ (St. Mary, Luton, fully described in No. 47 of this Series).
+  _Drawn by Ed. Craven Lee._]
+
+Although presenting the same characteristics in their external design,
+our town and village churches are very various. The simplest form, and
+the one most commonly found, is that of a nave and chancel, with a tower
+at the west end; to which plan may be added aisles and transepts, the
+latter often being wrongly called "cross-aisles." When the walls of the
+nave above the arcade rise above those of the aisles and are pierced
+with windows, the upper portion is called the clerestory, the meaning
+of which word is not free from obscurity; it seems probable that it
+indicates the clear story--the story which rises clear of the nave and
+aisles. In large buildings, they are important both for utility and
+beauty, but in small and early churches, they are of less importance.
+
+It is a well-known fact that the chancel and nave of a church generally
+stand east and west. This arrangement, called the orientation, is
+symbolic of the teaching that to the east we are to look for assistance
+and protection against the power of our enemy, and that as we pray we
+may look for the day-spring, symbolized to us in the rising sun that
+sheds light and warmth all over the earth.
+
+The public entrance to a church is generally at the west end (the priest
+usually had a door in the chancel for his own use). Through this door we
+enter the house of prayer, for as in the east we see the emblem of the
+Lord of Life and Light, so the west represents the seat of darkness and
+of the powers of evil.
+
+The earliest porches were those of the early Christian basilica churches;
+they were long and arcaded and were called "narthex." In later times,
+they assumed two forms, one the projecting erection, covering the
+entrance and divided into three or more doorways, and the other a kind
+of covered chamber open at the end and having small windows at the
+sides. These latter are generally found on the north and south sides
+of the nave. Formerly, when church government was more rigorous in
+discipline than is now the case, the porch was the appointed place for
+those who were under censure. Those also who were unbaptised, or who had
+not yet received the sacrament of regeneration, were not allowed beyond
+the porch, not quite excluded from the church and yet not permitted
+to enter fully. The porch also served as a path of admission for all
+Christians into the body of the church, so that they passed through the
+assembly of penitents and catechumens, who were wont to ask the prayers
+of the more highly privileged for their full restoration or admission to
+the communion of the faithful.
+
+With reference to our Lord's word, "I am the Door," we frequently find
+the tympana of church doors, particularly those of Norman date, adorned
+with representations of events from his life, but they often also depict
+the monsters, dragons and devils, that formed so strong an article in
+the faith of the early Christians.
+
+A more detailed account of these tympana will be found in a following
+chapter.
+
+Passing through the porch we enter the nave, which word is derived from
+the Latin _navis_, a ship. Its symbolic teaching is that of the Church
+riding triumphantly and buoyantly on the troubled and dark waters of the
+world. The first thing noticed on entering the nave is the font, which
+was formerly placed outside the church, in a separate building called
+the baptistery; a few of our churches have retained these little
+buildings which now form part of the churches proper.
+
+The reason in early days for placing the font outside the church was
+that the Christian was not admitted into the nave until he had been
+baptised and confirmed, the latter rite being administered immediately
+after baptism.
+
+From the western door there is a clear passage through the centre of
+the nave, called the aisle, signifying the straight and narrow way from
+the seat of darkness to immortal life. On each side of this aisle are
+seats for the laity, with room for standing and kneeling. The nave was
+usually divided from the chancel by an open screen of wood or stone,
+signifying that although the Christian might have some insight into the
+mysteries of the priest's office, at the same time these were to be
+partly concealed from his view. The rood screen was so called from the
+fact that the great Rood, or Crucifix, stood above it, not always on the
+screen itself, but on a separate beam, to which was often attached a
+rood loft or chamber. In early days, the lessons were read from the top
+of the rood screen, and in many of our churches the stairways leading
+thither have been retained.
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Gothic Windows.
+  Early English.  Decorated.  Perpendicular.
+  See also page 59.]
+
+In churches where the screen has vanished, the division of the nave
+from the rest of the church is plainly marked by the chancel arch.
+The chancel is emblematic of the Christian perfection, of the Church
+triumphant in heaven.
+
+In an old church, a piscina is nearly always found in the chancel, and
+here, too, were the sedilia or seats for the officiating clergy, the
+prior, sub-prior, and the deacon, the last-named occupying the lowest
+seat.
+
+Founders' tombs also nearly always occupy positions in the chancel, and
+these tombs differ from all others in that they form an integral part
+of the structure, and could not have been added after the church was
+completed.
+
+Another thing sometimes to be seen is the ambery, or aumbry, a small
+cupboard let into the chancel wall, in which were kept the communion
+vessels, the chalice, paten, etc.
+
+The great object of interest, however, in the chancel, is the altar,
+which Archbishop Laud directed should be enclosed by rails, so that
+although the people may draw near, they cannot touch the holy table, but
+must accept from the hands of the priest those gifts of which he is the
+minister from God.
+
+Altars are fully described in a following chapter, but we may here note
+that the reredos, so universally found in our cathedrals, abbeys, and
+in many of our churches, forms no part of the altar, and the Court of
+Arches has decided that there are no altars in the Church of England,
+but only communion tables.
+
+Prominent among the external enrichments of our churches is the
+gargoyle, a word derived from the French, "gargouille," which in its
+turn comes from the Latin "gurgulio"--a water-spout. The earliest
+gargoyles are merely orifices with a lip to shoot the water well away
+from the fabric. The true gargoyle, however, was quickly evolved from
+this primitive form, and consists of two parts, the lower one forming
+the channel, the upper one being the cover. The full significance of the
+skill displayed by the old masons in the rare opportunity the gargoyle
+afforded them of representing the dragons, serpents, etc., in which
+their fancy revelled, is made apparent when we view the futile attempts
+of modern architects to introduce this feature in their churches, for
+modern gargoyles are generally grotesque caricatures, and anything but
+happy appendages to the buildings to which they are attached.
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Buttresses.
+ _Norman_             _Decorated_
+        _Flying Buttress_
+ _Early English_      _Perpendicular_
+ _Drawn by E. M. Heath._]
+
+The churchyard, so pleasing an adjunct to the House of God placed within
+it, is frequently approached through a lych-gate, which word is derived
+from the Saxon _lich_, a corpse. These gates in our country churchyards
+are often very picturesque little structures, and under them the corpse
+at a funeral awaited the officiating priest before being taken into the
+church. The churchyard is commonly regarded as a mere dependency of the
+church, and as having a history very inferior in interest to that of the
+temple to which it is the court. The truth is that many of our churchyards
+have an antiquity far greater than that of the churches, as many of them
+constituted the open-air meeting-places of our Saxon forefathers long
+before the erection of parish churches. In the common meeting-place a
+cross was set up, either of wood or stone, to mark and hallow the spot,
+and when a church was subsequently built it was usually in the immediate
+vicinity of the cross, which accounts for the fact that many churchyard
+crosses are of older date than the churches themselves.
+
+Wells of water are often found in old churchyards, and as the
+regulations of the Saxon church required immersion and not sprinkling,
+it is possible that these were the Saxon fonts.
+
+Such then is the necessarily brief attempt to describe the main lines on
+which our old churches were planned, and the motives and ideals which
+animated their builders, who, being impressed with the dignity and
+mystery of the works of God, made their churches symbolical of the
+portions of the Christian life; the porch signifying baptism, the nave
+the life militant on earth, and the chancel the life eternal; while
+every little ornament, piece of sculpture and enrichment was designed to
+remind the worshippers of their faith, of its hopes, blessed promises
+and rewards.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+EARLY BRITISH CHURCHES.
+
+
+In dealing with the introduction of church architecture into our own
+land, the task would be much simplified if one could state with
+certainty when the first church was built on British soil. Some
+historians assert that the Church of England as it is constituted to-day
+dates no further back than the moment when S. Augustine and his
+followers landed on the shores of Kent in the year 596, yet one is
+probably justified in assuming that a church existed in these islands
+for centuries previous to the arrival of the Roman missionaries.
+Unfortunately we have no records to guide us as to the date of this
+earlier settlement, and the name of the first Christian missionary to
+heathen Britain has still to be discovered. "We see," says the quaint
+old historian, Thomas Fuller, "the light of the word shined here, but
+see not who kindled it." The first Christian building of which we have
+any record was probably that erected at Glastonbury before the year 300,
+but that this was the first Christian settlement cannot be alleged with
+certainty.
+
+There are many traditions concerning the introduction of Christianity
+into Britain, some of which may probably have some bearing on the truth,
+but the whole subject is involved in considerable obscurity. One of
+these numerous traditions is to the effect that the British King
+Caradoc, after being taken prisoner to Rome, was allowed to return, on
+condition that several members of his family remained as hostages; and
+whilst serving in this capacity, his mother, son, and daughter are
+stated to have become converts to Christianity, the doctrines of which
+faith they spread in their native land on their return thereto. Another
+tradition is to the effect that S. Paul himself visited Britain and laid
+the foundation of the Christian faith. We are also told by eminent
+church historians that the father and grandfather of S. Patrick were
+Christians, in which case S. Patrick himself would from a very early age
+have been brought up in the tenets of their faith. He is said to have
+been seized by pirates in the Clyde and taken to the north of Ireland,
+and eventually to Gaul. He was subsequently restored to his friends,
+whom he wished to convert to the Christian faith, and for this purpose
+his father sent him to be taught in the schools of Tours, Auxerre and
+Lerins. Eventually he was consecrated Bishop of the Irish and organized
+an efficient ecclesiastical system in Ireland.
+
+ [Illustration: A Rood Screen with a Restoration of the Rood.
+  Kenn, Devon. _Photograph by Chapman._]
+
+Before the coming of the Anglo-Saxons the church seems to have
+established a firm hold on the people, who held tenaciously to their
+possessions, both secular and religious, which were only wrested from
+them after a severe struggle. Their enthusiastic love of Christianity
+led them to make a heroic defence of the churches, rather than see them
+fall into the hands of the heathen Anglo-Saxons. The historian Bede
+tells us that all their buildings were destroyed, the priests' blood was
+spilt upon the altars, prelates and people were slain with the sword,
+and all the cities and churches were burnt to the ground. When all was
+lost and there was no longer a church or home to defend, the Britons
+retired to the country of their fellow-Christians, the secluded and
+almost impenetrable hills and forests of the west. The Anglo-Saxon love
+of gold was quickly recognised by the people of West Wales who saved
+their property and bought the right of worshipping after the manner of
+their fathers by the payment of an annual tribute to their conquerors.
+
+ [Side note: Church of S. Piran, Perranporth.]
+
+So ruthlessly indeed did the Anglo-Saxons rase to the ground the early
+churches, that, until a few years ago, but few traces of these early
+buildings were thought to exist. An accidental discovery, however, in
+the year 1835, brought to light an undoubted relic of an early British
+church in the west, this being the remains of a little church which had
+been until the date above mentioned completely buried in the sand
+on the sea coast near Perranporth in Cornwall. They are thought by
+ecclesiologists to be the remains of the original church erected to the
+memory of S. Piran, a Cornish missionary and a friend of S. Patrick, who
+was buried within its walls before the year 500 A.D. On removing the
+sand, the accumulated deposit of centuries, the church was found to have
+consisted of a nave and chancel containing a stone altar.
+
+ [Illustration: The Church of S. Martin, Canterbury.]
+
+The building measured 29 feet in length, 16-1/3 feet in width and 19
+feet from the floor to the roof, and probably shares with S. Mary's
+Church in Dover Castle, and S. Martin's, Canterbury, the honour of being
+one of the earliest links we possess with the ancient British Church. S.
+Mary's, Dover, appears to have been built of Roman bricks and cement, a
+combination which antiquaries consider is found only in those buildings
+which were erected during the Roman occupation.
+
+ [Side note: S. Martin's Canterbury.]
+
+S. Martin's Church, Canterbury has many claims to be considered one of
+our most interesting churches, no less on account of its associations
+than for its structural interest. The date of its building has been a
+source of endless controversy, as it contains many features attributable
+to either Roman or Saxon architecture. It is thought that it may
+possibly have been used for worship by the Christian soldiers of the
+Roman army. Be this as it may, it is established beyond doubt that it
+was the oratory of Queen Bertha, the first English Christian queen, who
+here worshipped, with her chaplain Liudhard, long before the advent of
+S. Augustine, who himself in later times preached here; and within the
+walls of this cradle of English Christianity, Ethelbert, King of Kent,
+the husband of Queen Bertha was baptized. The Venerable Bede, writing
+within a hundred years of the death of S. Augustine states that there
+was in 597 A.D. in Canterbury, a church "dedicated to the honour of S.
+Martin and built while the Romans still occupied Britain." On the
+departure of the Romans it is probable that the church was still used by
+a small band of Christian worshippers until the heathen Jutes overran
+the Isle of Thanet in 449.
+
+Little is known of the progress of Christianity on this island from that
+date until the landing of S. Augustine in 597, and the first fruits of
+his mission, as we have seen, was the conversion and baptism of King
+Ethelbert. As one would naturally expect, the aspect of the structure
+to-day, though suggestive of antiquity, is lacking in uniformity of
+treatment. The brick courses in the nave are at irregular intervals,
+varying from nine to twenty inches apart, the spaces being filled with
+Kentish rag-stone and occasional blocks of chalk. The chancel extends
+eighteen or twenty feet east of the arch and is composed of Roman
+bricks, evenly laid and averaging four bricks to a foot.
+
+ [Illustration: An Ancient Window built with Roman Brickwork.
+ Swanscombe, Kent. _Photograph Mr. G. H. Smith._]
+
+The chancel was lengthened at the beginning of the thirteenth century
+and again at a more recent date, so that its architecture to-day is
+of three distinct periods. Outside may be seen five flat pilaster
+buttresses and one semi-circular one, a square-headed Roman doorway, a
+Saxon doorway and two Early English porches; and there is also a nearly
+circular panel on the south side of the nave, and a Norman squint at the
+west end. There are many other features of interest which bear evidences
+of a great antiquity, and the only question which is seriously disputed
+is whether the earliest portion of the present nave was built about the
+end of the Roman occupation of Britain or during the mission of S.
+Augustine. The Rev. Charles F. Routledge, M.A., F.S.A., Hon. Canon of
+Canterbury Cathedral, writes: "Whatever may finally be determined to be
+the date of the church's foundation, it can never lose its unique
+association with S. Augustine, King Ethelbert and Queen Bertha, nor its
+undisputed claim to be the oldest existing church in England. From it
+flowed the tiny spring of English Christianity, which has since widened
+out into a mighty river, and penetrated the remotest parts of the
+civilized and uncivilized world."
+
+ [Side note: Other Early Churches.]
+
+Among other churches which show signs of having been built during the
+Roman occupation are those of Reculver, Richborough and Lyminge, while
+the foundations of an undoubted early church have been discovered in
+the old Roman city of Silchester, in Hampshire. _See frontispiece._ The
+old church at Reculver stood originally within the Roman castrum, the
+fortress which guarded the northern mouth of the Wantsume, now a small
+stream, but once an arm of the sea dividing the Isle of Thanet from the
+mainland. The greater part of this church was pulled down in 1809, but
+the western towers, known as "the sisters" were repaired by Trinity
+House, as they constitute a useful landmark for mariners, being visible
+at a great distance.
+
+Reculver church was built about A.D. 670, and from the existing walls
+and foundations it is clear that its plan was basilican. The church
+is now a ruin, but some stone pillars which supported the arches are
+preserved in the Cathedral Close at Canterbury.
+
+As Reculver guarded the northern mouth of the watercourse, so
+Richborough protected the south, and here traces of a chapel in the
+form of a cross are plainly discernible amongst ruins known to be of
+Roman workmanship. The old church at Lyminge in the same county is thus
+described by Canon Jenkyns, in his "_History of Lyminge_":--"The Roman
+foundations discoverable at the south-east angle of the chancel, together
+with the remarkable half-arch that intervenes, marked the site of the
+_aquilonalis porticus_--the title of basilica already given to it in the
+seventh century establishes its claim to great antiquity."
+
+We thus see that although remains of the actual buildings in which the
+British Christians worshipped are few in number, yet enough are left us
+to prove conclusively that there was a very active and zealous Christian
+community established in these islands during at least the period
+immediately preceding that in which Rome withdrew her legions from
+Britain in order to defend Italy against the Goths, and abandoned our
+island to the mercy of her foes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+EARLY CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+In the early years of the Christian Church, when its members became
+sufficiently free from persecution to erect buildings for the purpose of
+worship, they were naturally anxious to avoid any of the forms peculiar
+to either heathen or Jewish temples. Some model, however, was necessary,
+and their choice being limited, they appear to have adopted the
+simple style of the Roman basilica, or court of justice. There was an
+adaptability about the general plan of such a building which rendered
+its selection natural and not inappropriate, while the dignified
+simplicity of its construction and the object for which it was primarily
+founded--the dispensation of justice--commended it no doubt in the first
+instance as a model for the primitive Christian church. These basilicae
+were usually enclosures surrounded by a colonnade, sometimes roofed, but
+more often open to the air, and designedly built for the purpose of
+being accessible to all members of the community at all times of the
+day. They appear occasionally to have been used for the transaction of
+ordinary business in which they would closely resemble our exchanges. Be
+this as it may, this form of architecture has left its impress on many
+Christian buildings, and the name of basilica, for a church, is still
+used in many parts of Italy.
+
+The Roman basilica was usually in the form of a parallelogram, with a
+seat for the judges at one end, and in their adaptation of this form of
+building, the early Christians devoted this place to the purposes of an
+altar. This, by an easy and natural transition, is thought to have given
+rise to the formation of the semi-circular recess at one end of the
+building, known as the apse (from the Latin _apsis_, a bow or arch),
+which is still to be found in some of our older churches.
+
+Being thus Roman in the nature of their ground plan, it is not
+surprising to find that other portions of the early Christian buildings
+show decided characteristics of a Roman style. On the destruction of the
+Pagan temples by order of the Emperor Constantine about the year 330,
+much of their material was built into the earliest Christian churches,
+and the Roman character of their design being prevalent, they formed a
+style of architecture which has been designated Romanesque, of which the
+later styles, known here as Saxon and Norman were largely modifications.
+There is no reason to doubt that the earliest Christian churches were
+very unpretentious in form and that some time elapsed before there was
+anything which could be called a definite church architecture, beyond
+that to which we have alluded. Nevertheless, as the Church strengthened
+her position and grew in security, more attention was devoted to the
+subject of its edifices, and the departure in time from the original
+ground plan furnished an opportunity for the introduction of a more
+symbolical and appropriate design. The plan of the old basilica was
+abandoned for one in the form of the cross, the accepted symbol of the
+Christian religion, which departure, however, did not involve any very
+great alteration from the old ground plan.
+
+We come then to the time when one or other of the forms known as the
+Latin or the Greek cross--whichever was most convenient--was usually
+employed in a building designed for Christian worship, and these forms
+are universally found in the most elaborate structures of which the
+Christian Church can boast.
+
+As time passed, these cruciform churches were surmounted with a dome,
+steeple, or tower at the point where the members of the cross
+intersected each other. At first the most prominent of these external
+adornments was the dome; a characteristic of the architecture of Eastern
+Europe, which acquired the name Byzantine, from its having been carried
+to great perfection in Byzantium (Constantinople), the capital of the
+Eastern Empire.
+
+The church of S. Sophia, which was built, much as it now exists, early
+in the sixth century, and was afterwards converted into a mosque, is an
+almost perfect example of the Byzantine style. In this building we find
+the Roman arch used in a variety of ways, while the dome itself is
+formed entirely of this arch used as the crowning work of the edifice.
+Eastern churches in this style usually took the form of the Greek cross,
+this form being better calculated to support the weight of the cupola.
+In Western Europe, however, where the flat squat tower afterwards
+developed into the steeple, as we shall see in a later chapter, the
+Latin cross was mostly used, and this, with a few notable exceptions, is
+the plan of most western churches.
+
+With writers of about fifty years ago, it was a favourite theory that
+the Christians converted the old basilicae into churches, and that the
+"Halls of Justice" erected by the Romans in this country were also
+converted into Christian churches, and some authorities point to the
+walls and arches of Brixworth church in confirmation of this theory. The
+late Mr. J. W. Brewer, however, stated that unfortunately for this
+theory, no single example of a basilica being converted into a church
+has been found in this country and he himself held the theory that the
+word basilica was used by the Romans to describe any building which was
+supported by internal columns, and in that way the name came to be
+applied to Christian churches.
+
+As we have seen, the early Christians, after a short time, became
+dissatisfied with these buildings adapted from Pagan types, and the
+Byzantine form of church arose, the first people who practised this
+style of building being the Greeks. The style spread with rapidity all
+over the East, the great church of S. Sophia being its largest example
+and the smaller, but more perfect, church of S. Mark at Venice giving us
+the best idea of this form of church architecture. Largely modelled on
+this style, also, are the circular baptisteries of Italy and the round
+churches of England, France and Germany, the modern Russian churches and
+all the Mohammedan mosques. The Latin churches did not greatly favour
+this style and their use of it was confined, with few exceptions, to
+baptisteries, monumental chapels and the like, but for parochial,
+cathedral and monastic churches, the oblong plan was retained and
+ultimately developed into the Gothic church with its nave, transepts and
+chancel.
+
+The changes which the Christian basilica at first underwent were simple,
+_viz._, the use of the arch instead of the straight lintel, or the
+placing of an entablature between the columns; a little later, about the
+tenth century, the old wooden roof of the basilica gave place to the
+arched roof or vaulting, so called from its being composed of a series
+of vaults. The styles called Romanesque and Lombardic are but
+geographical varieties of the same architecture and from these the Saxon
+and Norman styles were soon to be developed. The vaulted basilica church
+soon became common over the north of Europe, the two most important and
+practically unaltered examples being the cathedrals of Speyer and Worms,
+in Germany, although our Anglo-Saxon cathedrals of Peterborough, Ely and
+Norwich may, so far as regards their naves, be justly regarded as the
+offspring of the vaulted basilica style of building.
+
+When the old basilica style of church with its heavy beam roof and its
+innumerable columns had ceased to satisfy the lofty aspirations of Latin
+Christianity, and when the Greeks had inaugurated a new style of church
+architecture, only two courses were left to the Latins, either to adopt
+the Greek style in its entirety, or to improve upon the basilica type.
+Fortunately, although after considerable hesitation, they chose the
+latter alternative, the result being the genesis of our glorious
+cathedrals with their long naves and aisles, deep transepts and
+beautiful variety of form and outline.
+
+ [Illustration: A Reputed Saxon Doorway.
+  Bishopstone, Sussex. _Photograph Mr. W. Hodgson._]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE SAXON AND NORMAN STYLES.
+
+
+As we have seen in the previous chapter, the whole subject of pre-Saxon
+church building is still very obscure, and for some considerable time
+after the Anglo-Saxon invasion little is known concerning church
+architecture, nor has it yet been fully ascertained whether any
+buildings of this period exist. By the year 588 the Saxons were in
+complete possession of the land. Christianity was to all appearance
+wiped out and the Church, to the superficial observer was dead. In his
+"_History of English Church Architecture_," Scott expresses the opinion
+that the oldest English churches may be divided into three groups.
+First, those which preceded the Danish invasion; secondly, those from
+the above epoch to the invasion of Sweyn; and thirdly, those onward to
+the Norman Conquest.
+
+ [Side note: Saxon Architecture.]
+
+What exactly constituted Saxon architecture has long been a
+controversial point and one which will probably never be definitely
+settled. Parker, in his "_Glossary of Architecture_," says:--
+
+    "For a considerable time, after they (the Anglo-Saxons) had
+    established themselves in this country, their buildings were
+    of wood, and this appears to have been the prevailing material
+    employed at the time of the Conquest, although stone had been
+    occasionally used several centuries earlier.... No timber-work
+    of Saxon date can be in existence at the present time, but it is
+    contended by some antiquaries that several of our churches exhibit
+    specimens of Saxon masonry; the truth of this theory, however, is
+    not fully established, nor has the subject of Saxon architecture
+    been yet sufficiently investigated to clear away the obscurity in
+    which it is involved."
+
+Probably few of our so-called Saxon churches were built earlier than
+thirty or forty years before the Norman Conquest, and it seems certain
+that for some years after they had settled in England, the Normans
+employed Saxon masons to build in the Saxon manner, as is seen by the
+tower of S. Michael's Church, Oxford, which, although showing all the
+characteristics of reputed Saxon masonry was built many years after the
+Battle of Hastings. Certain it is that these pre-Norman buildings in
+England were singularly rude and rough and show how much our Saxon
+ancestors were, at that period, behind the Italians, French and Germans
+in architectural skill.
+
+ [Side note: Saxon Churches.]
+
+Our best examples containing Saxon work are possibly the churches at
+Sompting and Bishopstone, Sussex; Bradford-on-Avon; Wootton Wawen
+(sub-structure of tower); Wing; Brixworth, and Barnack, Northants;
+Greenstead in Essex; and S. Martin's at Wareham, Dorset. Of towers of
+this date the best are possibly those of S. Mary's and S. Peter's,
+Lincoln and S. Benet's, Cambridge. Of crypts, the finest examples are
+at Ripon Cathedral, York Minster (part) and S. Mary's Church, York. In
+addition to these, many other churches have chancel arches, doorways or
+some other less important features which are considered to be of Saxon
+origin.
+
+These early buildings generally show the semi-circular arch on the
+doorways, but the windows usually have a triangular head; at Sompting
+church, however, the windows have the semi-circular arch. It is
+necessary to say a few words in detail about the more important churches
+of this era.
+
+ [Side note: S. Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon.]
+
+The church of S. Lawrence at Bradford-on-Avon is one of the oldest
+unaltered churches in England, and it seems to be beyond question that
+it is the actual church built by Ealdhelm at the beginning of the eighth
+century and dedicated by him to S. Lawrence. It consists of a chancel,
+nave and north porch, and among its remarkable features is its great
+height and the extreme narrowness of the round-headed arch between the
+nave and the chancel, a feature it has in common with the Saxon church
+of S. Martin at Wareham; the ground-plan measurements of both these
+churches are identical. At S. Lawrence's church, an incised arcade is
+seen outside the walls, and on either side of the west aspect of the
+chancel arch are two sculptured figures of angels, which are thought to
+represent the earliest extant fragments of church carving in England.
+
+ [Side note: Brixworth, Earls' Barton and Barnack.]
+
+Brixworth church is possibly older than S. Lawrence's and it is said to
+have been in continuous use for Divine Service ever since it was
+erected. The tower appears to be of rather later date than the nave and
+rests upon the walls of a "narthex" or portico, which may have extended
+along the whole breadth of the front, as is still to be seen in churches
+at Rome and Ravenna. The curious pile of masonry built up against the
+tower may have been added for defence, as it could hardly have formed
+part of the original design.
+
+ [Illustration: Tower of Earls' Barton Church.
+  Generally considered to show characteristics of Saxon masonry.]
+
+Earls' Barton and Barnack churches both have towers so covered with
+narrow projecting strips of stonework that the surface of the walls
+appears divided into rudely formed panels. The west doorways of both
+show primitive imitations of Roman mouldings in the imposts and
+architraves. The tower of Earls' Barton consists of four stages, each
+of which is slightly smaller than the one below. In that of Barnack
+church, the upper stages of the tower represent the period of transition
+from Norman to Early English.
+
+ [Illustration: An Example of a Norman Tower.
+  Bishopstone, Sussex. _Homeland Copyright._]
+
+S. Michael's, Oxford, has a massive tower of solid masonry, unpierced in
+its lowest stage by either door or window, the second stage shows but
+one window and the highest is pierced by several windows of more
+elaborate construction.
+
+ [Side note: St. Michael's Church, Oxford.]
+
+Although generally consisting of rubble and stone, Saxon churches were
+sometimes built of wood as we see from the existing nave of the parish
+church of Greenstead, Essex.
+
+ [Side note: Greenstead Church, Essex.]
+
+A brick chancel has been added at the east and a timber belfry at the
+west end, but the old Saxon portion is composed of large chestnut trees
+split asunder and set upright close to each other with the round side
+outwards. The ends are roughly hewn so as to fit into a sill at the
+bottom, and into a plate at the top, where they are fastened with wooden
+pins. There are 16 logs on the south side where are two doorposts, and
+on the north side twenty-one logs and two spaces now filled with rubble.
+There is a tradition that this church was erected to receive the body of
+S. Edmund, on its return from London to Bury, in 1013.
+
+The semi-circular arch has long been considered to be one of the most
+distinctive marks of Norman architecture, but Mr. Rickman, who made an
+exhaustive study of the early churches of France and England, says:--
+
+    "In various churches it has happened that a very plain arch
+    between nave and chancel has been left as the only Norman feature,
+    while both nave and chancel have been rebuilt at different times;
+    but each leaving the chancel arch standing. I am disposed to think
+    that some of these plain chancel arches, will, on minute
+    examination, turn out to be of Saxon origin."
+
+It would be tedious to enter into any more minute account of the
+Anglo-Saxon ecclesiastical remains, and the reader whose enquiries
+conduct him to the more elaborate works on the subject will be startled
+by the contrary opinions that he will surely encounter.
+
+In concluding these brief remarks on early buildings, we must again
+quote from Parker's work to which reference has already been made:--
+
+    "The class of buildings referred to as being considered to belong
+    to this style contain some rather unusual features, and they
+    require to be particularly described, both because they are in
+    themselves remarkable, and because there is a probability that
+    some of them may be Saxon."
+
+ [Illustration: A Norman Pier Arcade.
+  Abbots Langley, Herts. _Photograph Mr. A. W. Anderson._]
+
+The Norman style of church architecture with its varied forms of
+columns, moulded and recessed arches and vaulting, may be roughly stated
+to have been introduced into England at the time of the Conquest. The
+Saxon masons do not appear to have understood vaulting sufficiently well
+to have roofed over any large space with stone, and for this reason
+alone the Saxon form of building was bound to give way before the
+Norman, which of all the earlier styles was the most advanced in this
+respect.
+
+ [Side note: Norman Architecture.]
+
+Generally speaking, Norman arches were semi-circular, but they were by
+no means universally so, for a form frequently found is one in which the
+spring of the arch does not take place from the abacus, or upper member
+of the capital, but at some distance above it and when it assumes this
+form it is called a "stilted" arch, suggested by some authorities to
+have been unintentional and the result of imperfect construction or
+planning. _See page 10._
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Norman Mouldings.
+  Chevron or Zig-zag.        Star.
+  Alternate Billet.          Square Billet.
+  Double Cone.               Lozenge.
+  Beak Head.                 Bird Head.]
+
+The main features in the ornamentation of this period are the sculptured
+bands worked round the arches, which, although generally called
+"mouldings," are more in the nature of decoration, and in some instances
+they appear to be additions carved on the originally unadorned surface
+of the masonry.
+
+ [Side note: Ornament.]
+
+The earliest and most general ornament is the chevron or zig-zag, which
+is frequently found doubled, trebled and quadrupled. The next most
+common form is the beak-head, consisting of a hollow and large round.
+In the hollow are placed heads of beasts or birds whose tongues or beaks
+encircle the round. On the west doorway of Iffley church, Oxford, are
+many of these beak-heads extending the whole length of the jamb down to
+the base moulding. They also figure prominently among the ornamentations
+of the hospital church of S. Cross, near Winchester. The zig-zag
+moulding is very common on Norman churches and is so easily recognised
+that no further description is needed here. The less prominent decorations
+of Norman mouldings include the alternate billet, the double cone, and
+the lozenge, together with an immense number of others less commonly
+found.
+
+ [Side note: Windows.]
+
+The Early Norman window was little better than a narrow slit finished
+with a plain semi-circular head, and was generally only a few inches
+wide. They were, it is believed, filled with oiled linen and the sides
+of the aperture were splayed towards the interior. Later in the period,
+the windows were enriched by the zig-zag and other mouldings and at a
+still later period an improvement was made by inserting nook-shafts in
+the jambs similar to those in doorways.
+
+ [Illustration: A Late Norman Parish Church.
+  Castle Rising, Norfolk. _Drawn by Gordon Home._]
+
+The towers of Norman churches often show windows of two lights separated
+by a central shaft, all enclosed under a large semi-circular arch, the
+spandrel of which is rarely pierced. Plain circular windows of small
+dimensions are sometimes found in other positions and in churches of
+later date, and occasionally in gable walls. Larger windows of the same
+form, with small shafts radiating from the centre and connected at the
+circumference by semi-circular or trefoiled arches, are also found as at
+Barfreston church, Kent, where there is a fine example.
+
+ [Side note: Doorways.]
+
+Norman doorways are found in great numbers and variety, even in churches
+which present no other features in this style. The most usual form
+consists of a semi-circular-headed aperture with a hood-mould springing
+from plain square-edged jambs. Frequently, however, the doorways are
+recessed, having a nook-shaft in the angle formed by a recession from
+the capital, in which case it presents two soffits and two faces,
+besides the hood-moulds. The depth of these doorways is largely due to
+the great thickness of the walls usual in buildings of this period, but
+in many cases that portion of the wall in which the entrance is inserted
+is made to project forward beyond the general face, which projection is
+finished either with plain horizontal capping, or a high-pitched gable.
+
+ [Illustration: _West Doorway Rochester Cathedral_
+  Duncan Moul.]
+
+Norman porches thus have generally but little projection, and are
+frequently so flat as to be little more than outer mouldings to the
+inner door. They are, however, often richly ornamented and have rooms
+above, which rooms are wrongly called "parvises." The shallow aperture
+often follows the form of the arch, but is frequently square-headed,
+having a semi-circular tympanum of masonry filling the space between the
+lintel of the door and the intrados of the arch.
+
+ [Illustration: Tympanum of Norman Doorway.
+  Fordington S. George, Dorset. _Drawn by E. M. Heath._]
+
+These tympana are usually sculptured in low relief with a representation
+of some scriptural or traditional event, while the assertion of the
+Apostle that "we must, through much tribulation, enter into the kingdom
+of God," may account for the fondness of the Norman sculptors in
+representing different stages of martyrdom on the tympana of their
+doors. A very singular tympanum is that on the door of the church of
+Fordington S. George, at Dorchester, whereon is represented some
+incident in the life of S. George. The principal figure is on horseback
+with a discus round his head. The other figures are in hauberks and
+chausses, and generally bear, in point of costume, much resemblance to
+the figures on the famous Bayeux tapestry. Barfreston church, Kent, has
+an interesting tympanum, as also has Patrixbourne church in the same
+county, where the sculpture shows the Saviour with dragons and at his
+feet a dog. At Alveston church, Warwickshire, the sculpture shows two
+quadrupeds with enormous tails, fighting, with between them a small
+bird, possibly intended for a dove. Our best example of a Norman doorway
+and tympanum is generally considered to be the west doorway of
+Rochester Cathedral, where the sculpture is of a very advanced character
+for its date, which is probably about 1130-40.
+
+ [Side note: Piers.]
+
+A distinctive feature of the Norman style are the massive pillars,
+usually circular, and with capitals either of the same form, or square;
+occasionally in plain buildings the pillars themselves are square with
+very little or no ornamentation. Towards the end of the period, an
+octagonal pillar was often used, having a much lighter appearance than
+the earlier forms.
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Capitals.
+      Norman.             Transitional.              Norman.
+  Crypt, Winchester.  Christ Church, Oxford.  Winchester Cathedral.]
+
+Besides these plain styles, compound or clustered piers are very
+numerous, differing considerably in plan; the simplest consists of a
+square having one or more rectangular recesses at each corner, but one
+more frequently met with has a small circular shaft in each of the
+recesses and a larger semi-circular one on each side of the square.
+
+ [Side note: Capitals.]
+
+Norman capitals are very varied, having many different forms of
+ornamentation; the commonest is one which resembles a bowl with the
+sides truncated, reducing the upper part to a square; sometimes the
+lower part is cut into round mouldings and ornamented, but it is
+frequently left plain. The Norman capital in its earliest style was of
+short proportions, but afterwards it became longer, with lighter
+ornamentation, gradually merging into the Early English.
+
+ [Illustration: A Curious Norman Capital. Seaford, Sussex.]
+
+The bishops and abbots of this period appear to have possessed
+considerable skill in architecture, for no fewer than fifteen of our
+English cathedrals contain some important Norman work, as the older
+portions of the cathedrals of Canterbury, Durham, Winchester,
+Gloucester, Peterborough, Ely, Norwich, Lincoln and Oxford.
+
+ [Side note: Norman Buttresses.]
+
+The Norman buttress, better described by Mr. Sharpe as a pilaster strip,
+unlike those of the later period, projects but very little from the
+wall, and this is especially so in buildings of the earlier part of the
+period. They are usually quite plain and are more used for finish than
+actual support; the Norman builder relying principally upon the thickness
+and weight of his walls to sustain any roof thrust (_see page 17_).
+
+ [Side note: The Round Churches.]
+
+There are in England a few round churches which are thought to have been
+built by the Knights Templars, a religious community banded together for
+the purpose of wresting the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem from the
+Saracens. Their object was to defend the Saviour's tomb and to guard
+Palestine, for which purpose they built numerous monasteries throughout
+the Holy Land and fortified them like castles.
+
+Another famous order which combined the religious instincts of the
+cloister with the military ardour of the warrior was that of the Knights
+of S. John Baptist or Knights Hospitallers, who, besides fighting, were
+to tend the sick and provide for the welfare of all Christian travellers.
+The churches belonging to the Templars were usually built in circular
+form in imitation of the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. They
+were capped with vaulted concave roofs said to be symbolical of the
+vast circuit and concave of the heavens. Our best example is the Temple
+Church, London, to which was added at a later period, a beautiful Early
+English Gothic extension. Other round churches are those of S. Sepulchre,
+Cambridge; S. Sepulchre, Northampton; Temple Balsall, Warwickshire, and
+of Little Maplestead, Essex, which last, although the smallest, is by no
+means the least interesting. It is attributed to the Hospitallers, an
+order founded about the year 1092, and introduced into England in the
+reign of Henry I. At Clerkenwell may still be seen the ancient gateway
+leading to their hospital. The order was suppressed in 1545. The church
+at Little Maplestead was built early in the 12th century, and in 1186
+the adjoining manor was given by Juliana Doisnel to this order, which
+gift was confirmed by King John and Henry III. This church is thought to
+reproduce with more fidelity than the others the original church of the
+Holy Sepulchre.
+
+ [Illustration: Norman and Early English Doorways.
+  Showing the transition from one style to another.
+  Dunstable Priory Church. _Drawn by Worthington G. Smith._]
+
+These famous Norman round-chancelled churches have much in common with
+the old basilica form.
+
+It must be pointed out that the arbitrary divisions into which
+architecture has been divided--Norman, Gothic, etc., are pure figures of
+the imagination, as by a series of easy transitions, one style became
+gradually merged into the next without any hard and fast dividing lines
+whatever. The periods during which one style became gradually blended
+into another are called the periods of transition.
+
+ [Side note: The Transition.]
+
+Architecture being progressive, it was only by the gradual development
+of one style from another that the art was enabled to advance with
+social progress, the literature and other arts of the country. The
+transition from the Norman to the Early English style may be ascribed to
+a period somewhat earlier than the 12th century, when a great change in
+the construction of the arch began to manifest itself. Alone, however,
+the form of the arch is no real test, for many pure Norman works have
+pointed arches. The square abacus may be taken as the best test. In its
+incipient state the pointed arch exhibited a change of form only, whilst
+the accessories and details remained the same as before; and although
+this change gradually led to the Early Pointed style in a pure state,
+with mouldings and features altogether distinct from those of the
+Norman, and to the general disuse, in the 13th century, of the
+semi-circular arch, it was for a while so intermixed as, from its first
+appearance to the close of the 12th century, to constitute that state of
+transition called the semi-Norman.
+
+
+ [Illustration: Windows showing the Origin of Tracery.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE EARLY ENGLISH STYLE.
+
+
+The origin of what is loosely called Gothic architecture--which is
+generally considered to include the styles, with their transitions, from
+Early English to late Perpendicular, or Tudor-Gothic--is not free
+from obscurity, but it is certain that it began to be employed in
+ecclesiastical edifices about the time that the Goths settled in Italy,
+although all the available evidence goes to prove that the style
+originated and underwent its earliest developments in the north-west of
+Europe, and penetrated by slow degrees to the south and east.
+
+England was somewhat later than France in introducing this style of
+architecture, our earliest purely Gothic building being Salisbury
+Cathedral, begun in 1220, although the choirs of Rievaulx and Fountains
+Abbey were commenced a few years earlier. The Early English style in its
+earliest developments is nowhere seen to better advantage than in
+Salisbury Cathedral, and in its very latest forms at Westminster Abbey,
+the period of time being chronologically measured by the reigns of
+Richard I., John and Henry III.
+
+ [Illustration: An Early English Arch.
+  Rochester Cathedral. _Photograph Eastmead._]
+
+Most of our Gothic buildings were carried out under the supervision of a
+master-mason, but the most subordinate workman was left plenty of scope
+within reasonable limits for whatever artistic individuality he
+possessed, and the enrichments and ornaments of the Gothic era point out
+the noble aim, the delicate and graceful thought, the refined and
+exquisite taste expended upon every portion of their buildings by these
+Gothic masons.
+
+ [Side note: The Pointed Arch.]
+
+One of the chief differences between pure Gothic and Norman
+architecture is in the use of the pointed form of arch, yet in the study
+of the early buildings of this date it is curious to notice how evenly
+the balance is held between the pointed and the round arch, and how at
+one time it was quite an open question whether the Gothic style would be
+distinguished by a round or a pointed arch. In Germany and Italy the
+round arch held its own and continued to be used right through the
+Middle Ages. In England, however, the pointed arch soon gained a decided
+victory over its rival. Many theories have been put forward concerning
+the introduction of the pointed arch, one amongst them being that it was
+the result of the intersection of two circular arches such as is very
+commonly found in late Norman work; another theory is the poetical idea
+that it was copied from an avenue of trees. Whether or not either of
+these theories holds good, it is quite certain that this form of arch
+was known in the East for centuries before it reached Europe, being
+found in cisterns and tombs in Egypt and Arabia dating from long before
+the Christian era.
+
+It has also been suggested that it was introduced from the East by the
+Crusaders, in which case we should have found it making its first
+appearance in Hungary, Poland, Bohemia and Russia, but it so happens
+that these were the very last countries in Europe to adopt the pointed
+arch.
+
+ [Side note: The Transitional Period.]
+
+The first form of the pointed arch, known as the Early English, was used
+from about 1180 to 1300, including part of the reigns of Henry II.,
+Richard I., John, Henry III. and Edward I. "Nothing," says the Rev. J.
+M. Hutchinson, "could be more striking than the change from Norman to
+Early English. The two styles were the complete opposites of each other;
+the round arch was replaced by the pointed, often by the acute, lancet;
+the massive piers by graceful clustered shafts; the grotesque and
+rudely-sculptured capitals by foliage of the most exquisite character;
+and the heavy cylindrical mouldings by bands of deeply undercut
+members."
+
+ [Illustration: Arcading showing the junction of the Norman
+  and Early English Masonry. Dunstable Priory Church.
+ _Photograph H. A. Strange._]
+
+Gothic architecture differs from all previous forms in the economical
+use of material, and the small size of the stones used. Whereas in both
+Roman and Norman buildings the arrangement of the materials depended
+upon their strength in masses, the Gothic masons employed stones of
+small size in the construction of edifices of equal strength and of far
+greater magnificence; while in constructive properties the Gothic style
+was a great advance on anything that had gone before, as the buildings
+in this style did not depend for their stability on the vertical
+pressure of columns, but on the correct adjustment of the bearings and
+thrusts of different arches operating in various directions. Owing to
+the fact, then, that each portion of a Gothic Church helps to support
+something besides itself, it is obvious that such buildings could be
+erected with a far smaller quantity of material than was previously
+necessary. The various little shafts or columns are so disposed as to
+distribute the weight of the superstructure and thus relieve the greater
+columns or piers of some portion of the superincumbent weight; the
+aisles help to support the nave; the walls of the side chapels act
+as abutments against the walls of the aisles, while the towers are
+generally placed so as to resist the accumulated thrust of all the
+arches along the sides of the nave.
+
+ [Illustration: An Early English Doorway. Huntingdon.]
+
+The enrichments and little ornaments attached to mouldings, and
+particularly those placed in the hollows, are most characteristic of the
+various styles of Gothic architecture. The zig-zag is peculiar to the
+Norman, the nail head to the Transitional or semi-Norman, and the dog
+tooth to the Early English.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Ornament.]
+
+This last ornament represents a flower, looking like four sweet almonds
+arranged pyramidically, and there is no other ornament so distinctive of
+this period. Early English foliage is known by reason of the stalks
+always being shown as growing upwards from the lower ring of the
+capital, called the astrigal. These stalks are generally grouped
+together and curve forward in a very graceful manner. The plants mostly
+represented are the wild parsley, seakale and celery, and this foliage,
+called stiff-leaved foliage, is found at no other period than the end of
+the 12th century.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Mouldings.]
+
+Early English mouldings are very complicated and yet very beautiful, and
+consist of beads, keel and scroll patterns, separated by deep hollows
+giving a rich effect of light and shade round the arch. These deeply-cut
+hollows are also a distinctive mark of the style.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Windows.]
+
+The earliest windows of this period are long and narrow, with acutely
+pointed heads, the exterior angle being merely chamfered and the
+interior widely splayed. Somewhat later the introduction of tracery gave
+a highly beautiful appearance to the windows and from the character of
+this feature the date of the window can be fairly accurately determined.
+Where the tracery is formed by ornamental apertures pierced through a
+plate of stone, it is called plate tracery, and is certain to be of not
+later date than the earlier part of the 13th century. If it is bar
+tracery, with the bars forming plain circles, the work is also Early
+English, but if, on the other hand, the bars form other shapes filled in
+with patterns, or consisting of a single trefoil or quatrefoil, they are
+of later date.
+
+ [Illustration: The Church of St. Margaret, Lynn.
+  West Front showing the Early English work in the base of the Tower.
+ _Photograph Dexter & Son._]
+
+ [Illustration: Example of Group of Thirteenth Century Lancet Windows.
+  Ockham, Surrey. _Homeland Copyright._]
+
+The traceried window originated from the placing of a two-light narrow
+lancet window under one dripstone having a plain head, the introduction
+of tracery between the heads of the lancets and the dripstone
+becoming necessary for beauty and lightness of the form (_see page 47_).
+
+ [Side note: Early English Porches.]
+
+Early English porches project much further from the main walls than
+do the Norman doorways, and in large and important buildings they
+frequently have a room above. The gables are usually bold and high
+pitched, and the interiors quite as rich in design as are the
+exteriors.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Doorways.]
+
+The doorways of this period are usually pointed, though occasionally
+they have a semi-circular head. The mouldings are boldly cut and often
+enriched with dog tooth ornament. The jambs frequently contain a shaft
+or shafts with plain or foliated capitals (_see page 51_).
+
+ [Side note: Early English Capitals and Piers.]
+
+Early English capitals are usually bell-shaped, and are, in the smaller
+examples, quite devoid of ornament, with the exception of a necking and
+one or two mouldings round the abacus. The bell is generally deeply
+undercut, which, as in the mouldings, is a strong characteristic of the
+style. The nail head and dog tooth ornaments sometimes appear in the
+hollows between the mouldings. In the large examples the bell is covered
+with foliage, which, springing direct from the necking, curls over most
+gracefully beneath the abacus. In clustered piers the capitals follow
+the form of the pier, and they also adopt the same form in the single
+shaft, with the exception that multiangular shafts have often circular
+capitals. The base consists of a series of mouldings and frequently
+stands upon a double or single plinth, which in the earlier examples
+is square, but in later examples assumes the form of the base, and is
+either circular or polygonal. At Stone church, Kent, is a good example
+of an Early English capital, decorated with stiff-leaved foliage, and
+the dog tooth ornament, which in this case is seen between the mouldings
+of the arch, and is of a perforated character.
+
+ [Side note: Early English Buttresses.]
+
+The buttresses (_see page 17_) of this period are, as a rule, simple
+in form, and in small churches consist of two or more stages, each
+set-off or division being sloped at the top to carry off the rain. In
+larger buildings the buttress generally finishes with a triangular head
+or gable, and is frequently carried above the parapet, except where
+stone vaulting is used, in which case it is covered with a pinnacle
+either plain or ornamented. The edges are often chamfered or the
+angles ornamented with slender shafts. A niche to contain a statue is
+occasionally sunk in the face of the buttress, but this feature is
+more common in the next or Decorated period, although the change from
+one period to another was so gradual that the exact date of a niched
+buttress would be difficult to determine were there no other features to
+guide us.
+
+ [Illustration: Salisbury Cathedral. Begun in 1220.
+  The spire was added, 1350. _Drawn by Sidney Heath._]
+
+Flying buttresses were first introduced at this period, and are common
+in all large buildings with vaulted roofs. They are generally of simple
+design, with a plain capping and archivolt, and they spring from the
+wall buttress to the clerestory (_see page 17_).
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Early English Capitals and Ornament.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE DECORATED STYLE.
+
+
+The best examples of Gothic architecture may be said to have been
+erected between the years 1180 and 1300, and from the latter year many
+writers date the commencement of its decline. In England we owe nearly
+the whole of such magnificent buildings as the cathedrals of Lincoln,
+Salisbury, Worcester, and the abbey of Westminster to the 13th century,
+and there is scarcely a cathedral or abbey that does not owe some
+beautiful portion of its structure to the builders of the same period,
+the transepts and lady chapel of Hereford Cathedral, the eastern
+transepts of Durham, the nave and transepts of Wells, the transepts of
+York, the choir presbytery, central and eastern transepts of Rochester,
+the eastern portion of the choir of Ely, the west front of Peterborough,
+the choir of Southwell, the nave and transepts of Lichfield, and the
+choir of S. David's being a few of our most characteristic examples of
+this period. The style which followed the Early English is known as the
+Geometric or Early Decorated style, and it embraces roughly the end
+of the 13th century and the first twenty or thirty years of the 14th
+century, and continued in its later or Curvilinear form to near the end
+of that century. Perhaps the most perfect example of the Geometric style
+in the world is the cathedral church at Amiens, which is usually called
+the _mother church_ of this style, and although she has many daughters,
+none of them can be said to equal their parent in beauty.
+
+In England the most perfect examples are not to be looked for in
+cathedrals and large churches, but in their chapels, and the most superb
+specimen we possessed, S. Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, has been
+destroyed within comparatively recent years. Those left to us include
+the chapel of the palace of the bishops of Ely, in Ely Place, Holborn,
+now the Roman Catholic Church of S. Etheldreda, a building almost
+identical in plan with the vanished chapel of S. Stephen. Trinity
+Church, Ely, once Our Lady's Chapel, and Prior Crawden's Chapel,
+in the same city, are lovely examples of the latest development of
+the Curvilinear style, while the former is considered the most
+highly-wrought building in England. Belonging to this period, also,
+is the choir of Merton College Chapel, Oxford, and Luton Church.
+
+The Decorated style may be divided as regards its windows into two
+classes--Geometric and Curvilinear. The first has tracery evolved
+entirely from the circle. The Curvilinear style is distinguished by
+traceries formed by curved and flowing lines. _See pages 15 and 59._
+
+ [Side note: Decorated Windows.]
+
+Decorated windows are usually large and contain from two to seven
+lights, although one sometimes finds a window with a single light, but
+of less elongated form than those of the Early English period.
+
+As we have seen in a previous chapter, tracery originated from the
+necessity of piercing that portion of the wall which was left vacant
+when two lights were gathered under a single arched dripstone, and
+therefore elementary tracery consisted merely of apertures in a flat
+surface. As the possibilities of this ornamental feature became better
+understood, the mullions were recessed from the face of the wall and the
+fine effect thus produced was, as the art progressed, much enhanced by
+the introduction of various orders of mullions, and by recessing certain
+portions of the tracery from the face of the mullions and their
+corresponding bars. The geometrical tracery, as we have seen, consists
+of various combinations of the circle, as the trefoil, based on the
+triangle, the quatrefoil on the square, the cinquefoil on the pentagon,
+etc.
+
+ [Illustration: A Late Decorated Window in a Parish Church.
+  East Sutton, Kent. _Photograph Gardner Waterman._]
+
+In Curvilinear windows the tracery, although based on the same forms and
+figures, is yet so blended into an intricate pattern that each figure
+does not stand out with the same individuality as in the Geometric.
+Among our most beautiful Geometric windows are those of the Lady Chapel
+at Exeter, Ely Chapel, and Merton Chapel, Oxford, and of the Curvilinear
+our best example is probably the east window of Carlisle Cathedral.
+
+It must be noted that beautiful as are Curvilinear windows, yet they
+mark a certain decadence in Gothic architecture, in that it is an
+irrational treatment of stone, and conveys the idea that the material
+was bent and not cut into the required shape, it being a well-established
+canon in art that when strength is sacrificed to mere elegance it marks
+a decline in that art.
+
+ [Side note: Decorated Capitals and Piers.]
+
+Decorated capitals as a rule follow the contour of the pier in clustered
+columns, and are either bell-shaped or octagonal. They are frequently
+only moulded, thus presenting rounds, ogees and hollows, on which the
+prevailing ornaments of the period, the ball and the square flower,
+are set. The foliated sculpture is most exquisite, and is gracefully
+wreathed around the bell, instead of rising from the astrigal or upper
+member of the capital, as in the earlier style.
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Decorated Ornament.
+  Finial                 Capital           Finial
+ (Wimborne Minster).    (York Minster).   (York Minster).
+                         Square Flower.
+                         Ball Flower.
+  Crocket                Cornice           Crockets
+ (Hereford Cathedral).  (Grantham).       (York Minster).
+ _Drawn by E. M. Heath._]
+
+Almost every variety of leaf and flower is represented, the oak, the
+vine and the rose being perhaps the most common, but the leaves of the
+maple, hazel, ivy and strawberry are all so beautifully rendered as to
+evidence their having been directly studied from nature. Plucked flowers
+too, are not uncommon, and sometimes the little stalks and foliage
+are accompanied by birds, lizards, squirrels and other creatures. The
+columns of this period are much more elaborate than those of the Early
+English style, and in plan have curved profiles with moulded members
+between the shafts. These mouldings are very varied, but the hollows not
+being so deeply undercut, the general effect is broader and less liney
+than in the Early English; while the Decorated arches are less sharply
+pointed than in the previous style.
+
+ [Side note: Decorated Doorways.]
+
+The doorways of this style possess much the same features as the last,
+but the mouldings, jamb shafts, etc., are more slender, and generally of
+finer proportions, the hollows being often filled with the ball flower
+and square flower instead of the dog tooth. Sometimes the doorways have
+no pillars, being entirely composed of mouldings which are continuous
+with those in the architrave. The large single doorways of this period
+are nearly as large as the double ones of Early English date, and on the
+sides small buttresses or niches are sometimes placed, and often one
+finds a series of niches carried up like a hollow moulding, and filled
+with figures. The figures of this period are not so good as in the
+previous style, the heads seem too large for the bodies, and in the
+female figures the breasts are represented as quite flat. Where there
+are no figures double foliated tracery is often found hanging from one
+of the outer mouldings, giving an effect of great richness.
+
+ [Side note: Decorated Buttresses.]
+
+The buttresses (_see page 17_) in the Decorated style are nearly always
+worked in stages, and a niche frequently figures on the face of the
+buttress. Crocketed canopies and other carved decorations are common,
+and in large buildings they usually terminate in pinnacles, which are
+sometimes of open work.
+
+A Gothic building attains its effect by the combination of numerous
+parts, each possessing an individual character of its own. In its
+loftiness, graceful outlines, and rich effect of light and shade, it
+speaks of noble aspirations, of freedom, of intellectual thought,
+of talent and skill, all generously given for a high purpose, the
+foundation of which was a strong religious enthusiasm, combined with
+an intense love of the work itself.
+
+ [Side note: Characteristics of Gothic Architecture.]
+
+Having now arrived at the point where Gothic architecture reached its
+climax, we may briefly sum up its leading characteristics. It is
+essentially pointed or vertical; its details are mostly geometrical in
+its window traceries, clusters of shafts and bases, but this geometric
+quality is only one of construction and form and not of its inner spirit
+and motive, for plants copied directly from nature were used in
+beautiful profusion.
+
+If we compare a large Gothic church with a comparatively small one, we
+shall find the columns, windows, ornaments of the former are not so very
+much larger than those of the latter, but that there are double or three
+times the number of them. This is not the case in a classical building,
+where each feature has to be enlarged in proportion to the size of the
+building. It is the constant sub-division of a Gothic Church which adds
+so to its apparent size.
+
+Ornamentally, the Gothic is the geometrical and pointed elements
+repeated to their utmost and afterwards combined with the elaboration of
+natural objects, plants, flowers, etc., growing in the neighbourhood of
+the work. This is a great feature, but the most striking point in all
+good Gothic work is the wonderful elaboration of geometric tracery,
+vesicas, trefoils, quatrefoils and an immense variety of other ornament.
+
+In regard to the sizes of our great churches it may be of interest to
+note that our longest English cathedral is Winchester. York and Lincoln,
+although not so long as Winchester, are in superficial area very much
+larger. The largest English church of a non-cathedral rank is
+Westminster Abbey, which has, moreover, the distinction of being the
+loftiest internally; the nave being 104 ft. in height. The largest
+parish church is that of S. Nicholas, Great Yarmouth, which exceeds in
+superficial area no fewer than eight of our cathedrals.
+
+
+ [Illustration: Examples of Perpendicular Ornament.
+     Panel.                        Crocket.
+  Tudor Rose.      Portcullis.   Fleur de Lys.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE PERPENDICULAR STYLE.
+
+
+Towards the close of the XIVth century a great change came over English
+Gothic architecture, a change which was to a certain extent a return to
+classical ideas. The curvilinear tracery gave place to a rigid vertical
+and horizontal form, with the result that windows and panels instead of
+being filled with curved bars of stone, were sub-divided by straight
+perpendicular bars and transoms or cross-bars.
+
+This style of architecture is popularly known as Perpendicular, but as
+the horizontal lines are quite as distinct a feature as are the vertical,
+it would perhaps be more correct to speak of it as Rectilinear. This
+change in architectural form made its appearance towards the close of
+the XIVth century, although it was by no means generally introduced at
+that period, for the old methods and styles were carried on side by side
+with the new for many years. For example, the eastern end of the choir
+of York Minster (1361-99) possesses a window the traceries of which
+contain both curvilinear and rectilinear lines, while Shottesbrook
+Church in Berkshire (1387), and Wimmington Church, Bedfordshire (1391)
+are examples of village churches neither of which has any feature of the
+Perpendicular style.
+
+ [Illustration: Yeovil Parish Church (A.D. 1376).
+  Early Perpendicular in style, without a clerestory, and called,
+  for its large window area, the "Lantern of the West."]
+
+In its earlier stages the Perpendicular style presented an effect at
+once good and bold; the mouldings, though not equal to the best of the
+Decorated style, were well defined, the enrichments effective, and the
+details delicate without extravagant minuteness. Subsequently the
+style underwent a gradual debasement; the arches became depressed; the
+mouldings impoverished, the details crowded and coarsely executed, and
+the whole style became wanting in the chaste and elegant effects for
+which the Decorated stands unapproached and unapproachable. The flowing
+contours and curved lines of the previous style now gave place in the
+windows to mullions running straight up from the bottom to the top, and
+crossed by transoms. As the arch became more and more depressed the
+mouldings became shallower and less effective. In early buildings of
+this period the drop arch is very prevalent, but as the period advanced
+a form known as the Tudor arch began to be used. It is an arch in which,
+as a rule, the centres of the upper portion lie immediately below those
+of the lower, but this is not always the case. Sometimes the whole of
+the upper portion uniting the arcs of the ends is struck from one centre,
+in which case the arch becomes a three-centred one, being, in fact, half
+an ellipse. Towards the close of the style the curvature of the upper
+portion is so slight that it can hardly be distinguished from a straight
+line, and as the debasement progressed it became really straight. Ogee
+arches are also found at this period, and foiled arches are very frequent.
+When the Tudor arch was not used, we generally find the low drop arch,
+these three last being mostly used for small openings.
+
+ [Illustration: A Fine Parish Church showing Rich Perpendicular Work.
+  Terrington St. Clement, Norfolk. _Photograph Dexter & Son._]
+
+The peculiar characteristics of the windows--the perpendicular
+mullions and horizontal transoms--we have already alluded to.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Windows.]
+
+The window heads, instead of being filled with flowing tracery, have
+slender mullions running from the heads of the lights between each
+mullion, and these again have smaller transoms, until the whole surface
+of the window becomes divided into a series of panels, the heads of
+which being arched, are trefoiled or cinquefoiled. In the later windows
+the transoms at the top are often furnished with a small ornamental
+battlement, causing the mullions to present a concave outline.
+
+ [Illustration: A Perpendicular Doorway.
+  Merton College Chapel. _Drawn by E. M. Heath._]
+
+The plans of churches in this style differ from all others in that they
+are more spacious, the columns more slender and wider apart, the windows
+much larger, and the walls loftier and thinner. Panelling is used most
+abundantly on walls, both internally and externally, and also on
+vaulting, while some buildings, as Henry the Seventh's Chapel at
+Westminster, are almost entirely covered with it. Fan tracery vaulting,
+a feature peculiar to this style, is almost invariably covered with
+panelling.
+
+The mouldings of this period are essentially different from those which
+preceded them. As a general rule they are cut on a slanting or chamfer
+plane, the groups of mouldings being separated by a shallow oval-shaped
+hollow, entirely different from those of the Decorated period.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Doorways.]
+
+The doorways of the early portion of this period had two-centred arches,
+but the characteristic form is the four-centred, enclosed in a square
+head, formed by the outer mouldings with a hood mould of the same shape,
+the spandrels being filled with quatrefoils, roses, shields, etc.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Capitals.]
+
+Perpendicular capitals are either circular or octagonal, but the necking
+is usually of the former shape, and the upper members of the abacus of
+the latter form. The bell portion is mostly plain, but is often enriched
+with foliage of a very conventional character, shallow and formal,
+without either the freedom or the boldness of the Early English, or the
+exquisite grace of the Decorated periods. A distinguishing feature in
+the ornamentation of this period is that called panel-tracery, with
+which the walls and vaulted ceilings are covered. The patterns are found
+in a variety of forms, as circles, squares, quatrefoils, etc.
+
+ [Side note: Fan Vaulting.]
+
+The rich vaulting called fan vaulting previously alluded to, is composed
+of pendant curved semi-cones, covered with foliated panel-work, which
+bears some resemblance to a fan spread open.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Ornament.]
+
+Another very characteristic ornament is the Tudor flower. It is formed
+by a series of flat leaves placed upright against the stalk. It was
+much used in late buildings as a crest or ornamental finishing to
+cornices, etc., to which it gave an embattled appearance. Cornices and
+brackets were frequently ornamented with busts of winged angels called
+angel-brackets, and angel-corbels. The portcullis and the Tudor
+rose--both badges of the house of Tudor--also figure prominently among
+the ornaments of the period. The crockets for the most part partake of
+the squareness which pervades all the foliage of this style. _See page
+64._
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Buttresses.]
+
+The buttresses are very similar to those preceding them in their plainer
+forms, but, in richer examples the faces are covered with panel work
+and are finished with square pinnacles sometimes set diagonally and
+terminated with a crocketed spire, or finished with an animal or other
+ornament. Parapets with square battlements are very common at this period,
+but they too are frequently panelled or pierced with tracery, or with
+trefoils or quatrefoils inserted in square, circular or triangular
+compartments.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Roofs.]
+
+The roofs of this period, both in ecclesiastical and secular buildings,
+are very magnificent, and have the whole of the framing exposed to view;
+many of them are of high pitch, the spaces between the timbers being
+filled with tracery, and the beams arched, moulded and ornamented in
+various ways; and frequently pendants, figures of angels, and other
+carvings are introduced. The flatter roofs are sometimes lined with
+boards and divided into panels by ribs, or have the timbers open, and
+all enriched with mouldings and carvings, as at Cirencester church,
+Gloucestershire.
+
+The gradual decline of the Gothic style is very evident in late
+Perpendicular churches, especially in those erected at the beginning
+of the XVIth century. The elements of Gothic architecture became much
+degraded and led to that mixture of features called the Debased Gothic
+in which every real principle of art and of beauty was lost.
+
+ [Illustration: A Perpendicular Porch.
+  S. Nicholas, King's Lynn. _Photograph Dexter & Son._]
+
+The chief characteristics, then, of the Perpendicular style are the
+vertical mullions, and the general flattening of arches, mouldings and
+carvings. Should there be no other guide, a Perpendicular church carries
+its style and period stamped upon its carvings. The plants represented
+are, almost without exception, the vine with or without grapes, and
+the oak with or without acorns. The leaves are generally full blown and
+crumpled. The earliest building showing the Perpendicular style is the
+beautiful little priory church of Edington, in Wilts, erected by William
+Edington, Bishop of Winchester. The same style, but more fully developed,
+is seen in the nave of Winchester Cathedral, at New College, Oxford, and
+at Winchester College.
+
+It is generally admitted that the Perpendicular style was, to a certain
+extent, a return to classical ideas, for Gothic architecture in its
+aspiring grace and feeling for motion was becoming a little unsteady in
+construction, and although the movement was started by Bishop Edington,
+it was left to William of Wykeham to save our English Gothic architecture
+from developing into the flamboyant[1] style so characteristic of the
+late Gothic buildings of France and Germany.
+
+It is little less than astounding that William of Wykeham, at once Prime
+Minister, diplomatist, scholar and energetic churchman, should have found
+time to introduce such far-reaching reforms into the art of building,
+and whatever his fame may be in other directions he will always be
+remembered by posterity as one of the most remarkable geniuses of the
+Middle Ages, a man of giant mind and immense physical energy, who
+carried into all his work a large and dignified character, stamping it
+with the unmistakable personality of a master mind.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Towers.]
+
+As builders and designers of church towers the masons of the
+Perpendicular era have never been approached, and all our finest English
+towers are of this style and period.
+
+ [Illustration: A Fine Perpendicular Tower.
+  St. Mary, Taunton. _Photograph H. Montague Cooper._]
+
+Considerations of space will only allow a few of these towers to be
+mentioned, but among the finest are those at Boston, Lincolnshire;
+Wrexham, Denbighshire; Wymondham, Heigham and S. Clement's in Norfolk;
+Southwold Church in Suffolk; Manchester Cathedral, S. Nicholas' Church,
+Newcastle, and S. Mary's Church, Taunton. Of Perpendicular date and
+style, also, are the great lantern towers of Worcester, Bristol,
+Gloucester, York and Durham Cathedrals, in addition to the fine
+bell-tower of Evesham Abbey.
+
+ [Side note: Perpendicular Spires.]
+
+The spire, although less commonly used than formerly, was by no means
+abandoned, and beautiful examples of Perpendicular spires are those at
+S. Michael's, Coventry, and Rotherham Church, Yorkshire. Although
+nearly all our cathedrals have some portion of their fabric in the
+Perpendicular style, chantries, chapels, cloisters, vaulting, screens,
+etc., it was in our parochial churches that Perpendicular architecture
+reached its highest and finest development. Just as the XIIIth century
+was the great age for cathedral building, so the latter end of the XIVth
+and earlier half of the XVth centuries was the period to which we owe
+some of the most beautiful of our parish churches, as S. Michael's,
+Coventry (fin. 1395); S. Nicholas, Lynn (fin. 1400); Manchester
+Cathedral (formerly a collegiate church), (1422); Fotheringay Church,
+Northants (fin. 1435); Southwold Church, Suffolk (1440), and S. Mary
+Redcliffe, Bristol (about 1442). A little later came, among others,
+Wakefield Church, Yorkshire (1470), S. Stephen's, Bristol (1470), S.
+Mary's, Oxford, and its namesake at Cambridge (both in 1478) and Long
+Melford Church, Suffolk (1481).
+
+Apart from the actual buildings the Perpendicular architects, masons and
+sculptors have left us some beautiful work in the form of timber roofs,
+screens, stalls and seats. Among the more notable roofs of this period
+are those at S. Peter's, S. Andrew's and S. Mary's, Norwich, the one at
+Morton Church in Somerset, those at Saffron Walden and Thaxted, Essex,
+and a particularly fine one at S. David's Cathedral in Wales. Among the
+remarkable domestic roofs in this style are those at Westminster Hall
+and Eltham Palace.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE RENAISSANCE AND LATER.
+
+
+So far we have been considering Gothic churches, but we now come to the
+time when, from a variety of causes, the Italian architects, among them
+Palladio and Vitruvius, began to revive classical architecture, a
+movement which gradually spread over other parts of Europe.
+
+ [Side note: The Classic Revival.]
+
+The various causes which led to this apparently retrograde movement are
+still involved in considerable obscurity. The commercial prosperity of
+the age produced a class who travelled abroad and cultivated the fine
+arts, with the result that they desired to see erected in England
+buildings such as they had seen in Rome, Florence, Genoa and Padua. It
+is generally admitted that the ramifications of Gothic architecture had
+reached their utmost limit, and the style was getting out of hand, as
+is seen by the flamboyant buildings on the continent. The revival of
+classical literature in western Europe gave an impetus to the movement
+which was largely intended to enfold art within the shelter of an
+enlightened taste, and protect it from the licence of unordered
+enthusiasm. How far it succeeded is not a question that can be discussed
+at length here, but, however good their intentions may have been, the
+architects used little discrimination in the selection of buildings
+which were to serve as models for Christian churches, and although
+subsequently considerable improvements were made, yet, most of the
+defects in the pagan buildings of the ancients were retained in such as
+were intended to be utilized for Christian worship, and even considered
+purely as exercises in architecture it was not until the more chaste
+remains of antiquity began to be studied that the spirit and harmony of
+the good examples were attained. A greater contrast than the methods
+employed by the Gothic mason and the Renaissance architect could not
+well be imagined. The former shaped his material with his own hands; the
+foster mother of his art was tradition and its cradle the craftsman's
+bench; whereas the latter, with no builder's training, worked out his
+flawless and precise plans in the exotic atmosphere of the office and
+the study. The practice of making working drawings for every detail
+of the building was the cause of the decline of ornamental sculpture,
+with the result that all life and growth in the building ceased. Some
+authorities are very severe on the Renaissance movement. Dr. Fergusson,
+in his "_Modern Styles of Architecture_," says: "During the Gothic era
+the art of building was evolved by the simple exercise of man's reason,
+with the result that the work of this period is the instinctive natural
+growth of man's mind. The buildings, on the other hand, which were
+designed in the imitative styles, and produced on a totally different
+principle, present us with an entirely different result, and one
+which frequently degrades architecture from its high position of a
+quasi-natural production to that of a mere imitative art."
+
+ [Side note: Inigo Jones and Wren.]
+
+Be this as it may, the severe classical style introduced into England by
+Inigo Jones (who studied in Italy under Palladio), and continued by Sir
+Christopher Wren, soon swept everything before it.
+
+Our most remarkable church in this style is S. Paul's Cathedral, which
+in style has two very adverse circumstances to struggle against. In the
+first place, it bears so great a similarity to the great church of
+S. Peter, at Rome, that one cannot help comparing it with that fine
+example, and secondly, it is the only English cathedral which is not in
+the Gothic style. It must, of course, be acknowledged that S. Paul's
+falls far short of S. Peter's, especially in its lighting, but it does
+not deserve the condemnation of a great German critic, who said, "It is
+a building marked neither by elegance of form nor vigour of style."
+Although the interior of its dome and clerestory of the nave and choir
+are extremely gloomy when compared with those of S. Peter's, the church
+is generally acknowledged to be far superior to the latter in its
+architectural details, and few, if any, Italian churches can be said to
+surpass it, either in general composition or external effect, although
+it must be admitted that everything having been sacrificed to attain the
+latter quality, S. Paul's taken as a whole, is neither worthy of its
+fine situation nor of its great architect.
+
+Other churches which are excellent examples of this style are S.
+Stephen's, Walbrook, and S. Mary Abchurch, London. Both show remarkable
+skill. The former is divided into a nave and four aisles, transepts, and
+a shallow chancel, by four rows of Corinthian columns, with a small dome
+over the intersection. The interior is very beautiful, and this church
+is generally considered to be Wren's masterpiece. S. Mary Abchurch, is
+nearly square in plan, has no columns and is covered with a domical
+ceiling, but so skilfully treated that the effect is singularly
+pleasing.
+
+ [Side note: Hawkesmore.]
+
+Of the Elizabethan and Jacobean buildings it is necessary to say little,
+as at best they are but clumsy imitations of the Flemish, French and
+Italian Renaissance, while the style which we now call Queen Anne came
+in towards the close of the XVIIth century, and belongs of right to the
+reign of Charles II. Hawkesmore, a pupil and follower of Wren, was a
+strong architect who has left us Christ Church, Spitalfields, and S.
+Mary Woolnoth. He also designed the western towers of Westminster Abbey,
+often wrongly ascribed to Wren, and the second quadrangle of All Souls'
+College, Oxford. This architect, like the majority of his contemporaries,
+misunderstood and despised the Gothic style, with which he had little
+real sympathy; he drew out designs, which still exist, for converting
+Westminster Abbey into an Italian church, just as Inigo Jones had done
+with the exterior of the nave of old S. Paul's, but we cannot be too
+thankful that this abominable suggestion was never carried out.
+
+ [Illustration: An English Renaissance Church.
+  S. Stephen's, Walbrook, London. Generally considered to be
+  Sir Christopher Wren's masterpiece. _From an Engraving dated 1806._]
+
+With King George III. on the throne our ancestors contented themselves
+with dull, but substantial, buildings of which some hard things have
+been written, but they were at least respectable and free from sham,
+while the churches, although not elegant, were well-built and occasionally
+picturesque, as we see by the perfect little building of this date at
+Billesley, Warwickshire.
+
+The eighteenth century pseudo-classical abominations and sham Gothic, so
+favoured by Horace Walpole and his admirers, can be briefly dismissed.
+A more rampant piece of absurdity than that of erecting imitations of
+portions of Greek temples and adapting them for Christian worship it
+is difficult to imagine, and in the Pavilion at Brighton, Marylebone
+Church, and the "Extinguisher" Church in Langham Place we even surpassed
+in bad taste and vulgarity all the absurdities of the Continental
+architecture produced by the French Revolution.
+
+ [Side note: Barry and Pugin.]
+
+Two men now came on the scene who, united, were destined to bring some
+kind of order out of this chaos. Barry and Pugin were both scholars and
+architects, for while the former rather favoured the classical style he
+thoroughly understood the Gothic, while Pugin was a thorough mediaevalist,
+a true artist, and a bold exponent in his "_Contrasts_" of a complete
+return to mediaeval architecture as the only possible cure for the evils
+which had crept into the art of building.
+
+Barry's idea, which was perhaps the more practical, was to correct by
+careful study the errors into which the later exponents of both Classic
+and Gothic architecture had fallen, and endeavour by well thought out
+modifications to evolve a style more suitable to modern requirements.
+Pugin, however, would have none of the evil thing, and although he
+supplied his friend with designs for the details and woodwork of the
+Houses of Parliament which Barry was rebuilding, they did not collaborate
+in any further way, and both died before the Houses of Parliament
+were completed, in which, as a matter of fact, Barry's designs were
+completely ignored. The Reform Club is considered to be the best of
+Barry's classical buildings.
+
+Pugin's earlier works were mostly Roman Catholic churches, and they are
+acknowledged to be an immense advance on any Gothic work which had been
+seen for centuries. In the Roman Catholic Cathedral of S. Chad, at
+Birmingham, there is a dignity, loftiness and simplicity surpassed by
+few Gothic buildings when that style was at its zenith, and from the
+time Pugin designed this building, architecture--notwithstanding our
+exhaustive study of archaeology, our immense resources of capital and
+labour, our science and labour-saving appliances, and the comparative
+accessibility of the finest materials--has neither developed nor advanced.
+The most erudite Gothic mason could have possessed but little art
+knowledge as compared with the modern architect, and yet with our
+learned societies, wonderful libraries, easily obtained photographs and
+plans of the best buildings in the world; with writers far superior in
+intellectual acquirements to those of the Middle Ages, our vast wealth,
+with our tools such as the mediaeval craftsman could never have dreamed
+of, and with the experience of twenty centuries to guide us we have
+made no advance during more than half a century. Our best architects
+acknowledge that until we get a new method of building, originality in
+architecture is an impossibility, mainly because all the existing styles
+of architecture have been worked out to their legitimate conclusion,
+and have been perfected under circumstances and conditions with which
+we have entirely broken; the originality in detail which pervades and
+permeates our Gothic buildings and gives them the greater part of their
+charm, must, of necessity, be out of our reach until we blend the spirit
+of what we are pleased to call our practical age, with a certain amount
+of that spirit of poetry and romance, religious fervour and devoutness,
+which animated the builders and craftsmen of the past.
+
+
+ [Illustration: A Typical Cornish Font.
+  Probably of the late Norman period. Now at Maker, near Plymouth.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII.
+
+CHURCH FURNITURE AND ORNAMENTS.
+
+
+The most important part of the internal furniture of a church is the
+altar, a name derived from the Latin _altare_, a high place. The altar
+is a raised structure on which propitiatory offerings are placed. In the
+Christian church the altar is a table or slab on which the instruments
+of the Eucharist are displayed.
+
+ [Side note: The Altar.]
+
+The early Christian altars were portable structures of wood, and the
+Church of Rome still allows the use of an altar of this description,
+although a consecrated stone, containing an authentic relic and regarded
+as the true altar, must be placed upon the wooden table. The slab
+forming the altar was sometimes supported on pillars, but more
+frequently on solid masonry, and previous to the Reformation it was
+marked with five crosses cut into the top, in allusion to the five
+wounds of Christ. From the period that stone altars were introduced it
+was usual to enclose within them the relics of saints, so that in some
+cases they were the actual tombs of saints. In England the altars were
+generally taken down about the year 1550, set up again in the beginning
+of the reign of Queen Mary, and again removed in the second year of
+Queen Elizabeth. In the church of Porlock, Somerset, the original high
+altar has been preserved, though not in use, being placed against the
+north wall of the chancel. In Dunster Church, in the same county, there
+is a solid stone altar, said to have been the original high altar, and
+in the ruined church of S. Mary Magdalene at Ripon, the high altar has
+escaped destruction. Of chantry altars we have several left, including
+those at Abbey Dore, Herefordshire; Grosmont, Monmouthshire; Chipping
+Norton, Oxon.; Warmington, Warwick; S. Giles's, Oxford; Lincoln
+Cathedral, and many others; and it is rare to find a Gothic church
+without some traces of altars in their various chapels, oratories or
+chantries.
+
+The altar is, of course, an adoption by the Christian church of a pagan
+aid to worship, and at S. Mary's church, Wareham, which is thought to
+stand on the site of a Roman temple, are some pieces of stone considered
+by antiquaries to be portions of a pagan altar, on which burnt offerings
+were placed.
+
+Above many Christian altars was placed a piece of sculpture or a
+painting representing some religious subject. These altar pieces
+sometimes consist of two pictures, when they are called "diptyches," and
+sometimes of three pictures, when they are called "triptyches," and
+both forms usually fold up or are provided with shutters. They are often
+rare examples of the Flemish and other schools of painting, and of great
+value.
+
+At the Reformation the stone altar was displaced by the communion table,
+which at first occupied the position vacated by the altar. This gave
+umbrage to the Puritan mind, and the communion table was then usually
+placed in the centre of the chancel, with seats all round for the
+communicants; which arrangement is still in vogue in some of our English
+churches and in Jersey, although at the Restoration the communion table
+was, as a general rule, replaced at the eastern wall of the Chancel.
+
+ [Illustration: _Durham Sanctuary Knocker._]
+
+Long before the Christian era the altar was regarded as a place of
+refuge for those fleeing from justice or oppression, and this custom or
+privilege of sanctuary was sanctioned by the English bishops and was
+retained for many centuries by the Christian Church. Many of our parish
+churches claim to possess old sanctuary rings or knockers, but it is
+doubtful if any of these were ever used by fugitives, for the reason
+that although in early days every parish church had the right to grant
+sanctuary, few possessed the means of feeding and housing a refugee,
+save in the church itself, which was expressly forbidden. This is why
+we find records of fugitives travelling many miles at the risk of their
+lives and passing hundreds of parish churches in their endeavour to reach
+Bury St. Edmunds, Hexham, Durham or some other of the well-recognised
+sanctuaries. The only sanctuary knocker remaining to-day, which is
+above suspicion, is that at Durham Cathedral. It is made of bronze and
+represents the grotesque head of a dragon, the ring coming from the
+mouth.
+
+ [Illustration: The Baptistery in Luton Church.
+ _Photograph Fredk. Thurston, F.R.P.S._]
+
+Above the door is a small room in which attendants watched by
+day and night, and when a fugitive was admitted a bell was rung to
+announce that someone had taken sanctuary.
+
+ [Side note: The Font.]
+
+The font, as we have seen, was originally placed in a separate building
+called the baptistery. The only known example of anything of the kind
+in England is that in S. Mary's Church, Luton, fully described in The
+Homeland Handbook, No. 47. It is in the Decorated style, dates from the
+time of Edward III., and is said to have been designed by William of
+Wykeham for Queen Philippa. It is composed of white stone with open
+panels, pierced by cinquefoils and quatrefoils, while the apex of each
+panel terminates in a foliated finial. The font inside is octagonal
+in form and of 13th century date, but it has been somewhat restored.
+Ancient fonts were always large enough to allow for total immersion,
+and our present custom of baptism by affusion, or sprinkling, is only
+permitted, not enjoined by the rubric. In early days the sacrament of
+baptism was only administered by the bishops at the great festivals of
+Pentecost and Easter, for the reason that this afforded the greater
+convenience for immediate confirmation, but with the increase in the
+number of churches the rite was administered by the priests in every
+village. The font was required by the canon to be of stone, but there
+are a few Norman fonts made of lead, among them those at S. Mary's
+Church, Wareham, Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey, and at Edburton, Parham,
+and Pyecombe, Sussex. A remarkable font is that at Dolton Church, Devon,
+made up of fragments of the churchyard cross, and there is also a
+somewhat similar one at Melbury Bubb, Dorset. By a constitution of
+Edmund, Archbishop of Canterbury (1236), fonts were required to be
+covered and locked, and at first these covers were little more than
+plain lids, but they afterwards became highly ornamental and were
+enriched with buttresses, pinnacles, crockets, etc. It is doubtful if
+any fonts exist which can reasonably be supposed to be Saxon, although
+a few, like that at Little Billing, Northants, may possibly be of that
+era. Of Norman fonts we have large numbers. They are sometimes plain
+hollow cylinders; others are massive squares with a large pillar in
+the centre, and small shafts at the corners. These fonts are generally
+ornamented with rudely executed carvings, consisting of foliage and
+grotesque animals.
+
+
+ [Illustration: An Example of a Leaden Font of the late Norman period.
+  Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey.]
+
+The one in Winchester Cathedral is a good example, and there are three
+other very similar ones in Hampshire. Early English fonts are very often
+circular, and sometimes square, and they are often supported in much the
+same way as the Norman ones. In the Decorated and Perpendicular styles
+they are, with few exceptions, octagonal, and the details generally
+partake of the character of those used in the other architectural features
+of the period. There are hexagonal fonts of Decorated date at Rolvenden,
+Kent, and Heckington, Lincs. The font is usually placed close to a pillar
+near the entrance, generally that nearest but one to the tower in the
+south arcade, or, in larger buildings, in the middle of the nave.
+
+ [Side note: Stoups.]
+
+The holy-water stoups sometimes found in our old churches are generally
+small niches with stone basins formed in the wall either in or just
+outside the porch, or within the church close to the door, or in one of
+the pillars nearest to the door. These niches resemble piscinas, except
+that they differ in situation, are smaller and plainer, and rarely have
+a drain. A good example of an outside stoup is that at Broadmayne,
+Dorset, where there is also one inside the church. They are rarely found
+unmutilated, but there is one in perfect condition in the north porch of
+Thornham Church, Kent; and a rather elaborate example at Pylle Church,
+near Glastonbury.
+
+ [Illustration: A Reputed Saxon Font. Shaldon, Devon.]
+
+The piscina is a water-drain formerly placed near the altar and
+consisting of a shallow stone basin, or sink, with a drain to carry off
+whatever is poured into it.
+
+ [Side note: Piscinas.]
+
+It was used to receive the water in which the priest washed his hands,
+as well as for that with which the chalice was rinsed at the celebration
+of the mass. It was usually placed within a niche, although the basin
+often projects from the face of the wall, and is sometimes supported
+on a shaft rising from the floor. In the Early English and Decorated
+periods there are often two basins and two drains, and occasionally
+three. Within the niche a wooden or stone shelf is often found, called
+a credence-table, on which the sacred vessels were placed previous to
+their being required at the altar.
+
+ [Illustration: A Detached Holy-water Stoup of unusual design.
+  Wooton Courtenay, Som.]
+
+Piscinas are unknown in England of earlier date than the middle of the
+12th century, and of that date they are extremely rare. Of thirteenth
+and succeeding centuries we have many examples, more or less mutilated.
+Their forms and decorations are very various, but the character of their
+architectural features will always decide their approximate date.
+
+ [Side note: Sedilia.]
+
+The Sedilia, from the Latin _sedile_, a seat, has come to be applied in
+modern times to the seats used by the celebrants during the pauses in
+the mass. They were sometimes moveable, but more usually in this country
+were formed of masonry and recessed in the wall. They are generally three
+in number, for the priest, deacon and sub-deacon, while in a few rare
+instances they number four seats, as at Rothwell Church, Northants, and
+Furness Abbey; or even five, as at Southwell Minster. Sometimes a long
+single seat under one arch is found, and when three seats are used the
+two western ones are often on the same level and the eastern one raised
+above them. Numerous examples remain in our churches, some being as
+early as the latter part of the 12th century, but they are mostly later
+and extend to the end of the Perpendicular style. Some of them are
+separated by shafts, and profusely ornamented with panelling, niches,
+statues, pinnacles, tabernacle work, and crowned with canopies all more
+or less elaborately enriched.
+
+ [Side note: Stalls.]
+
+Stalls are fixed seats in the choir, either wholly or partially enclosed
+and used by the clergy. Previous to the Reformation all large and many
+small churches had a range of wooden stalls on each side and at the west
+end of the choir. In cathedrals they were enclosed at the back with
+panelling, and surmounted by overhanging canopies of tabernacle work,
+generally of oak, of which those at Winchester, Henry VII.'s Chapel at
+Westminster, and Manchester Cathedral are possibly our finest examples.
+When the stalls occupied both sides of the choir, return seats were
+placed at the ends for the prior, dean, precentor, and other of the
+officiating clergy.
+
+ [Illustration: Sedilia and Chantry. Luton, Beds.
+ _Photograph Fredk. Thurston, F.R.P.S._]
+
+Mr. Parker, in his "_Glossary of Architecture_," gives the following
+definition of the miserere, patience or pretella. "The projecting bracket
+on the underside of the seats of stalls in churches; these, when perfect,
+are fixed with hinges so they may be turned up, and when this is done the
+projection of the miserere is sufficient, without actually forming a
+seat, to afford very considerable rest to anyone leaning upon it. They
+were allowed as a relief to the infirm during the long services that
+were required to be performed by ecclesiastics in a standing posture."
+It is in the carving of these that one is frequently struck by the
+curious mixture of the sacred and the profane, the refined and the
+vulgar, for which it is difficult to find any adequate explanation. Of
+so coarse a nature are some of these carvings that it has been necessary
+to entirely remove them from the stalls. They are usually attributed to
+the mendicant and wandering monks, and they undoubtedly reflect the
+licentiousness which at one time pervaded the monastic and conventual
+establishments. Among our best examples are those at Christchurch
+Priory, Hants, and in Henry VII.'s Chapel. There is a remarkably
+complete set in Exeter Cathedral.
+
+ [Illustration: A Typical Somerset Bench-End.
+  Showing a Fuller at work with the implements of his trade. Spaxton.
+ _Photograph Mr. Page._]
+
+Of modern pews it is not necessary to say anything here, but previous
+to the Reformation the nave of a church was usually fitted with fixed
+seats, parted from each other by wainscoting, and partially enclosed at
+the ends by framed panelling, but more often by solid pieces of wood,
+either panelled or carved on the front. These bench-ends are very common
+in the West of England, in Somerset and Devon, and they are often very
+beautiful pieces of work and were in all probability executed by local
+craftsmen. They embrace a variety of subjects: figures, scrolls, dragons,
+serpents, etc., and frequently bear the arms of the family who owned the
+pew. Sometimes they terminate at the top with finials either in the form
+of heads, bunches of foliage, a chamfered _fleur-de-lys_ and a variety
+of other ornaments called Poppy-heads, from the French _Poupee_. No
+examples are known to exist earlier than the Decorated style, but of
+Perpendicular date specimens are very numerous, especially in our
+cathedrals and old abbey churches.
+
+ [Side note: Pulpits.]
+
+Pulpits were formerly placed, not only in churches, but in the
+refectories and occasionally in the cloisters of monasteries, and there
+is one in the outer court of Magdalen College, Oxford, and another at
+Shrewsbury. In former times pulpits were placed in the nave attached
+to a wall, pillar or screen, usually against the second pier from the
+chancel arch. Some are of wood, others of stone; the former are mostly
+polygonal, with the panels enriched with foliation or tracery. Few exist
+of earlier date than the Perpendicular style, but stone pulpits of
+Decorated date are sometimes met with as at Beaulieu, Hants, a very
+early specimen. Wooden pulpits are usually hexagonal or octagonal; some
+stand on slender wooden stems, others on stone bases. A few have canopies
+or sounding boards, and their dates can be fixed by the character of
+their ornamentation. At Kenton, Devon, there is an early pulpit which
+has retained its original paintings. Jacobean pulpits are very numerous,
+and are frequently gilded and painted; the one at S. Saviour's Church,
+Dartmouth, being a most elaborate example.
+
+ [Illustration: A Richly Carved Pulpit and Canopy.
+  Edlesborough, Bucks. _Photograph H. A. Strange._]
+
+Open-air preaching is anything but a modern invention, for long before
+the erection of parish churches it was the recognised method of addressing
+the people. There is a print of some popular bishop preaching in a
+pulpit at Paul's Cross in S. Paul's Churchyard, and in mediaeval days
+open-air pulpits were erected near the roads, on bridges and often on
+the steps of the market crosses, which are often still known as
+preaching crosses.
+
+ [Side note: Squints.]
+
+In some of our churches is to be seen a squint, an opening in an oblique
+direction through a wall or pier for the purpose of enabling persons in
+the aisles or transepts to see the elevation of the Host at the high
+altar. They are of frequent occurrence in our churches and are very
+numerous in the neighbourhood of Tenby, South Wales, also in Devon and
+the West generally. They are usually without any ornament, but are
+sometimes arched and enriched with tracery. They are mostly found on one
+or both sides of the chancel arch, but they sometimes occur in rooms
+above porches, in side-chapels and the like; in every instance they were
+so situated that the altar could be seen. When they occur in porches or
+the rooms above they are thought to have been for the use of the acolyte
+appointed to ring the sanctus bell, who, viewing the performance of mass,
+would be thus able to sound the bell at the proper time. The name
+hagioscope has been used to describe these oblique openings.
+
+Cruciform marks are sometimes found on our churches, often on a stone in
+the porch; they are usually incised crosses or five dots in the form of
+a cross. They were, presumably, cut by the bishop when the building was
+consecrated, and are called consecration crosses.
+
+ [Side note: Screens.]
+
+The rood-screens, separating the chancel or choir of a church from the
+nave, usually supported the great Rood or Crucifix, not actually on the
+screen itself, but on a beam called the rood-beam, or by a gallery
+called the rood-loft, which last was approached from the inside of the
+church, by a small stone staircase in the wall, as can be seen in many
+of our churches to-day. Although rood-lofts have been generally destroyed
+in England, some beautiful examples remain at Long Sutton, Barnwell,
+Dunster and Minehead, Somerset; Kemsing, Kent; Newark, Nottingham;
+Uffendon, Collumpton, Dartmouth, Kenton, Plymtree and Hartland, Devon.
+The general construction of wooden screens is close panelling below,
+from which rise tall slender balusters, or wooden mullions supporting
+tracery rich with cornices and crestings, frequently painted and gilded.
+The lower panels often depict saints and martyrs. From the top of the
+screen certain parts of the services and the lessons were read. They
+were occasionally close together and glazed, as we see by a most beautiful
+example at Charlton-on-Otmoor, in Oxfordshire. These screens, many of
+which have been over-restored, are very common, and in addition to those
+above mentioned, are found at S. Mary's, Stamford, Ottery S. Mary,
+Chudleigh, Bovey, and in nearly all the Devon parish churches. At
+Dunstable a screen of Queen Mary's time separates the vestry from the
+chancel.
+
+ [Illustration: Screen with Rood Loft.
+  Kenton, Devon. _Photograph by Chapman._]
+
+Of stone screens space will permit of only the briefest mention. They
+were used in various situations, to enclose tombs and to separate
+chapels, and occasionally the rood-screen was of stone.
+
+ [Illustration: The Carved Oak Balustrade in Compton Church.
+  Held to be the oldest existing piece of carved woodwork in England.]
+
+The oldest piece of screen work in this country is that at Compton
+Church, Surrey; it is of wood and shows the transition from the Norman
+to the Early English styles. Stone screens are often massive structures
+enriched with niches, statues, tabernacles, pinnacles, crestings, etc.,
+as those at Canterbury, York and Gloucester.
+
+ [Side note: The Reredos.]
+
+The reredos forms no part of the altar, and is often highly enriched
+with niches, buttresses, pinnacles, and other ornaments. Not infrequently
+it extends across the whole breadth of the church, and is sometimes
+carried nearly up to the roof, as at S. Alban's Abbey, Durham and
+Gloucester Cathedrals, S. Saviour's, Southwark and in that remarkably
+fine example at Christchurch, Hants. In village churches they are mostly
+very simple, and generally have no ornaments formed in the wall, though
+niches and corbels are sometimes provided to carry images, and that part
+of the wall immediately over the altar is panelled, as at S. Michael's,
+Oxford; Solihull, Warwickshire; Euston and Hanwell, Oxfordshire, etc.
+
+It is interesting to note that the open fire-hearth, once used in
+domestic halls, was also called a "reredos."
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX.
+
+BELLS AND BELFRIES.
+
+
+The history of bells is lost in antiquity, and little is known about
+them previous to the XVth century. It is probable, however, that they
+were used in India and China centuries before they reached Europe.
+
+Bells were used by the Romans for many secular purposes, and although
+their use was sanctioned by the Christian Church about 400 A.D., they
+were not in general use in England until 650 A.D.
+
+The earliest bells were hand bells, quadrangular in shape, and made of
+thin plates of copper or iron riveted together, and their abominable
+sound when struck must have been one of their chief merits, as the early
+bells were much used for the purpose of frightening the devil and other
+evil spirits.
+
+Our oldest bells are hand bells, S. Patrick's bell at Belfast (1091) and
+S. Ninian's bell at Edinburgh, which is probably of even earlier date.
+From 1550 to 1750 was the golden age of production for bells, more
+especially so in Belgium and the Low Countries, where the bells of the
+towers and belfries were rung to arouse the country in times of danger
+and invasion. It is quite possible that the bells used for secular and
+religious purposes were kept distinct. Bells played a very important
+part in mediaeval life, and next to cannon were regarded as the chief
+city guardians, for he who held the bells held the town, and the first
+thing done by the invader on taking a town was to melt the bells and
+thus destroy the means of communicating an alarm.
+
+In England our old towns, being almost entirely constructed of wood,
+were liable to periodic and devastating conflagrations, which fact
+suggested to that genius, William the Conqueror, the institution of
+Couvre-feu, or in its more popular form, Curfew, which rang at eight
+o'clock in the evening, when all lights were to be extinguished. The
+ringing of curfew has survived in many of our towns and villages to this
+day, but it is doubtful if the custom has been continuous from its first
+institution.
+
+The secular use of the bell is, however, only incidental, and it is in
+its connection with religious life that we are now concerned, for all
+church history, church doctrine and church custom and observances are
+set to bell music. Bells in fact may be said to sum up the short span of
+our mortal life, for the birthday, the wedding and the funeral, are all
+welded to religion by the church bell.
+
+Bells were used for ecclesiastical purposes in England long before the
+erection of our parish churches, for Bede, speaking of the death of S.
+Hilda, A.D. 680, says that "one of the sisters in the distant monastery
+of Hackness, thought she heard as she slept, the sound of the bell which
+called them to prayers," and Turketul gave to Croyland Abbey a great
+bell called Guthlac, and afterwards six others which he called Bartholomew
+and Betelin, Turketul and Tatwin, and Pega and Bega.
+
+S. Dunstan gave bells to many of the churches in Somerset, and he also
+seems to have introduced bell ringing into the monasteries.
+
+A few words may be of interest concerning the number and purposes of
+these monastic bells, with which the life of the monks must have been
+completely bound up. The _Signum_ woke up the whole community at
+day-break. The _Squilla_ announced the frugal meal in the refectory; but
+for those working in the gardens, the cloister-bell, or _Campanella_,
+was rung. The abbot's _Cordon_, or handbell, summoned the brothers and
+novices to their Superior; whilst the _Petasius_ was used to call in
+those working at a distance from the main building. At bed-time the
+_Tiniolum_ was sounded, and the _Noctula_ was rung at intervals throughout
+the night to call the monks to watch and pray. The _Corrigiumcula_ was
+the scourging bell, while the sweet-toned _Nota_, a choir bell, was rung
+at the consecration of the elements.
+
+The use of the bell-tower was recognised in the ancient Saxon law, which
+gave the title of thane to anyone who had a church with a bell-tower on
+his estate, and two of our most interesting Saxon churches, Brixworth
+and Brigstock, both in Northamptonshire, have each a semi-circular tower
+rising together with the bell-tower, and forming a staircase to it.
+
+One of the most beautiful campaniles or bell-towers still standing
+is that at Evesham, in Worcestershire, which is a good specimen of
+Perpendicular architecture. It was built by Abbot Lichfield, the last
+abbot but one of the abbey, and took six years in building, and was not
+quite completed when the famous abbey, of which it was a final ornament,
+was pulled down.
+
+In addition to this example at Evesham, detached bell-towers exist, or
+once existed, at Chichester, East Dereham, Glastonbury Abbey, Bruton, in
+Somerset, and in several other places.
+
+Markland, in his _Remarks on Churches_, says: "The great bell-tower
+which once formed part of the abbey church of S. Edmundsbury was
+commenced about 1436. From the year 1441 to 1500 legacies were still
+being given towards the building. In 1461 an individual, probably a
+benefactor, desired to be buried _in magno ostio novi campanilis_."
+
+In Protestant use church bells have been stripped of much of the former
+superstition and symbolism. They are no longer rung to announce the
+miracle of transubstantiation; neither are they called upon as of old
+for the purpose of scaring devils, demons, and other evil spirits which
+formed so prominent a feature in the faith of the early Christian
+communities.
+
+ [Illustration: Bell Turret for 3 Bells. Radipole, Dorset.]
+
+Closely connected with the subject of bells and belfries are the
+bell-gables or bell-turrets, so frequently found at the west ends of
+our smaller churches which have no towers. They usually contain but one
+bell, but are sometimes found with two, and at Radipole Church, near
+Weymouth, the bell-turret was originally designed to carry three bells.
+They are generally most picturesque little features of which a few may
+be of Norman date, but by far the greater number of them are Early
+English, a style in which they are frequently found. In addition to
+these bell-turrets at the western ends of our churches one sometimes
+finds a similar, but smaller, erection at the eastern end of the roof of
+the nave, but used for a very different purpose, for while the bell at
+the western end was rung to summon the parishioners to service, that at
+the eastern end, known as the Sanctus or Mass-bell, was rung on the
+elevation of the Host during the celebration of mass; although usually
+placed on the apex of the roof, this bell sometimes occupied a position
+in the lantern or tower, or in a turret of larger dimensions. In churches
+where no turret existed it was carried in the hand, and such is now the
+prevailing practice on the continent. The turret for the Sanctus bell
+still exists at Barnstaple, Devon, and St. Peter Port, Guernsey. The
+Sanctus bell was generally made of silver, and occasionally a number of
+little bells were hung in the middle of the church, and by means of a
+wheel they were all made to ring at once.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X.
+
+THE SPIRE; ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT.
+
+
+Probably the most beautiful feature of a Gothic church is the spire,
+raising its tapering form far above the town or village and forming a
+prominent landmark, denoting the location of the House of God. Although
+found occasionally in other styles, the spire is essentially Gothic, and
+one of the most marked characteristics of this period. Spires are
+generally of two kinds, those constructed of timber and covered with
+slates, lead, tiles or shingles, and those built of stone or brick.
+Examples of both kinds are very numerous on the continent and in
+England, while shingle spires are especially common in Sussex.
+
+The spire is generally acknowledged to have originated from the small
+pyramidal roof so frequently found on Saxon and Norman towers. This
+gradually became elongated, and the towers were sometimes gabled on each
+side, as is the case with the remarkable Saxon church at Sompting, Sussex.
+This shows us very clearly the angles of the spire resting upon the apex
+of each gable, so that the spire itself is set obliquely to the square
+of the tower.
+
+ [Illustration: The best example of a Saxon Spire or Pyramidal Roof.
+  Sompting, Sussex. _Drawn by George Pearl._]
+
+Saxon and Norman spires are very rare in England, Sompting being our
+best example of the former and those on the eastern transepts of
+Canterbury Cathedral of the latter.
+
+Of Early English spires we have, fortunately, some good examples, among
+which are those at Oxford Cathedral, Wilford and Wansted, in the same
+county, and a very graceful one at Leighton Buzzard. These 13th century
+spires are very common in France, as at Chartres and S. Pierre, Caen.
+
+ [Illustration: Leighton Buzzard Church.
+  With Early English Tower and Spire. _Photograph H. A. Strange._]
+
+Of fourteenth century, or Decorated, spires, we have many examples, of
+which perhaps the best is the beautiful spire of Salisbury Cathedral,
+although the equally fine one at S. Mary's, Oxford, runs it close for
+premier position. The triple group at Lichfield Cathedral belong to this
+period, as do the spires of Ross, Heckington, Grantham, S. Mary's,
+Newark, King's Sutton, Bloxham and Snettisham, Norfolk. A peculiarity of
+the Salisbury spire is that it never formed part of the original design
+of the cathedral, being added seventy years later. It is the loftiest
+spire in England--404 feet--about 40 ft. higher than the cross of
+S. Paul's. It speaks well for the Gothic builders that such a vast
+superstructure as this tower and spire could be imposed upon walls and
+piers never intended to bear it. At an early period it was found to have
+deflected twenty-three inches from the perpendicular, but there has been
+no sign of any further movement. Barnack Church, in Northamptonshire,
+has a curious spire showing the transition from Norman to Early English.
+
+It will be noticed that the sides of a church spire are slightly curved,
+so that they swell out a little in the centre. This is called the
+entasis of the spire, and belongs to the study of optics in architecture.
+Where the spire has no entasis the same effect is produced by the
+introduction of small projecting gables, bands of carving, or a little
+coronal of pinnacles.
+
+One of the most clearly marked differences between English and continental
+spires is that the latter are much shorter than the towers which support
+them, the towers, as a rule, being twice as high as the spires. In
+England, on the contrary, the spire is generally very much loftier
+than the tower. At Shottesbrook, Berks, and Ledbury, Herefordshire, the
+spires occupy as much as three-fifths of the total elevation, and the
+usual rule in England is for the tower to be a little less in height
+than the spire.
+
+The masons lavished an extraordinary amount of care and skill on their
+spires. So much is this the case that there is hardly a mediaeval spire
+in the country which can be called ill-designed or displeasing.
+
+Church spires are very common in some counties and very rare in others.
+There are, of course, exceptions, but it is in the flat counties that
+spires are most frequent, the most beautiful ones being found in
+Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, Warwickshire,
+Staffordshire, Nottinghamshire and Oxfordshire.
+
+The top of the spire is usually capped with a weather vane terminating
+in a cock. The custom of using a cock as the flag of the vane is of very
+early date, for Wolfstan, in his Life of S. Ethelwold, written towards
+the end of the 10th century, speaks of one which surmounted Winchester
+Cathedral. In the Bayeux Tapestry one is shown on the gable of Westminster
+Abbey, and one of the early Popes ordained that every church under the
+papal jurisdiction should be surmounted by a cock as emblematical of the
+sovereignty of the church over the whole world.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI.
+
+STAINED GLASS.
+
+
+The use of coloured glass in the windows of buildings devoted to
+religious purposes appears to have been employed as early as the ninth
+century, but no examples remain of anything like so old a date, and we
+have only illuminated missals and primitive drawings by members of the
+conventual bodies to guide us in determining the earliest styles of
+coloured glazing. It appears to have consisted of more or less primitive
+representations of the human form, with strong black lines to indicate
+the features and folds of the drapery. The backgrounds were generally
+masses of deep blue or red, and in the rare instances where landscapes
+were introduced positive colours only appear to have been used. Our
+oldest specimens in England are those in the choir aisles of Canterbury
+Cathedral, which appear to be of the 12th century, and it is thought
+that they are the remains of the original glazing that was put in when
+this part of the building was rebuilt after a fire in 1174. The general
+design is composed of panels of various forms, in which are depicted
+subjects from Holy Scripture, with backgrounds of deep blue or red; the
+spaces between the panels are filled with mosaic patterns in which blue
+and red colours predominate, and the whole design is framed in an
+elaborate border of leaves and scroll-work in brilliant colours.
+
+ [Illustration: A Parish Church with a Shingle Broach Spire.
+ (_See page 99_). Edenbridge, Kent. _Homeland Copyright._]
+
+Of thirteenth century windows we have some magnificent examples
+--unfortunately few unmutilated--as at York, where is the five-light
+lancet window situated in the north end of the transept, known as the
+Five Sisters of York. Of this date, also, are the large circular window
+of Lincoln Cathedral, and the windows at Chetwode, Bucks; Westwell,
+Kent; West Horsley, Surrey; and Beckett's Crown, Canterbury.
+
+A little later, in the Decorated period, we get the great east window
+of York Cathedral, 75 ft. high and 32 ft. broad; the east window of
+Gloucester Cathedral, 72 ft. high and 38 ft. broad; and other fine
+windows at Tewkesbury Abbey; Merton College, Oxford; Wroxhall
+Abbey, Warwickshire; and the churches of Chartham, Kent; Stanford,
+Leicestershire; Ashchurch, Glous.; Cranley, Surrey; Norbury, Derbyshire,
+and others. Salisbury Cathedral has retained portions, but very lovely
+portions, of the glazing of its west windows, and enough is left to show
+that it was little inferior to the great windows of York and Gloucester.
+Carlisle Cathedral, too, has preserved fragments of the original glass
+in the tracery of the great east window, but the lower part of the
+glazing is modern. Windows in the Decorated style continued to be
+arranged in panels, with the spaces between them filled with flowing
+patterns of foliage, in which the vine and ivy leaves predominate.
+Single figures are more common than in the previous style, and when used
+are generally shown beneath a simple pediment or canopy. In the early
+examples they only occupy a portion of the window light, but later they
+are found occupying nearly the whole of the surface and are surmounted
+by large and elaborate canopies. Quarries are much used in this style,
+sometimes quite plain, but more often with leaves or rosettes painted on
+them in black lines, or painted with the vine and ivy leaves so arranged
+that they form a repeating pattern over the whole window. At this
+period, too, heraldry began to be employed in the decoration of the
+windows to which it is always an appropriate and artistic adjunct, and
+many authentic and valuable examples of our national heraldry have thus
+been preserved for posterity.
+
+With the advent of the Perpendicular style the glazing became more
+uniform in character, the glass was thinner and lighter, the tints
+paler, and the whole effect more brilliant and transparent. The
+paintings for the most part consist of large figures under elaborate
+canopies, frequently occupying an entire light, and in the patterns and
+smaller decorations there is a greater freedom of design, and the whole
+treatment is more harmonious and artistic than in any other period. The
+use of heraldry became very common, and inscriptions on long narrow
+scrolls were frequently employed. Among the best examples of this period
+are the windows at S. Margaret's Church, Westminster; King's College
+Chapel, Cambridge; Fairford Church, Gloucestershire; and Morley Church,
+Derbyshire.
+
+The Reformation, with its vast social and political upheaval, was not
+conducive to the encouragement of the fine arts, and from this period
+the art of glazing in England declined beyond measure, and was not the
+only art that received its death-blow in the triumph of Puritanism. The
+art has, however, revived greatly during recent years, thanks, among
+other artists, to William Morris and Burne-Jones. A few words must
+be said about the "Jesse" window found in some of our cathedrals and
+churches. Strictly speaking, it is a representation of the genealogy of
+Christ, in which the different persons forming the descent are placed on
+scrolls of foliage branching out of each other, intended to represent a
+tree. It was also wrought into a branched candlestick, thence called a
+Jesse, a common piece of furniture in ancient churches. The subject is
+found on a window at Llanrhaiadr y Kinmerch, Denbighshire, on the stone
+work of one of the chancel windows at Dorchester Church, Oxfordshire,
+and in carved stone on the reredos of Christchurch Priory, Hants.
+
+It is not perhaps generally known that the actual colours used in early
+stained glass possessed each of them their own specific symbolism.
+Underlying the obvious story conveyed by the human figures or decorated
+devices, there was an inner story to be read with profit by those who
+understood the mystic symbolism concerning colours. Without entering at
+length into this interesting subject, it may yet be stated that green
+was the symbol of Regeneration, red of Divine Love, white of Divine
+Wisdom, yellow of Faith, and grey, or a mixture of black and white, the
+emblem of Terrestrial Death and Spiritual Immortality. These colours at
+different times or in different countries had other meanings as well,
+and ecclesiologists tell us that the colours chosen for depicting the
+robes of our Lord differ according to the period of His life which it
+was intended to represent.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII.
+
+CRYPTS.
+
+
+The crypts so generally found beneath our cathedrals and abbeys, and so
+frequently under our churches, rarely extend beyond the choir or chancel
+and its aisles, and are sometimes of very small dimensions. They are
+often coeval with the upper parts of the building, and although not so
+elaborate in ornamentation as the fabric they support, they are almost
+without exception well constructed and well finished pieces of building.
+In some cases the crypt is of much older date than any portion of
+the superstructure, as is the case at York, Worcester and Rochester
+cathedrals. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the roofs were
+often richly groined, and upheld by cylindrical columns or clustered
+piers, and furnished with handsome bases and decorated capitals. There
+is abundant evidence that crypts were at one time furnished with altars,
+piscinas, and the various fittings requisite for the celebration of the
+mass, and they were used as sepulchres, wherein the shrines of relics
+and martyrs were carefully preserved. Some authorities claim a purely
+Saxon origin for the crypts at Ripon Cathedral, Hexham Abbey, and Repton
+Church, Derbyshire. The Ripon example is a plain barrel-vaulted chamber,
+about 11 ft. long and 8 ft. wide, with no pillars or ornament of any
+kind. It is popularly known as S. Wilfrid's Needle, but the exact origin
+of the name is lost in obscurity. The Hexham crypt is very similar in
+character, but is somewhat longer, being more than 13 ft. long and 8 ft.
+wide. As at Ripon, there are hollows or shallow niches in the walls in
+which lamps may possibly have been placed. The third reputed Saxon crypt
+is that at Repton, but it has little in common with the other two, its
+superficial area being nearly twice as great and the roof is supported
+on four columns, with plain square capitals rudely carved, and bearing
+much similarity to early Norman work.
+
+The position of the crypt varies. At Beverley Minster it is on the
+south side of the south-west tower; in Hereford Cathedral it is under a
+side chapel, while at Lastingham, in Yorkshire, the crypt extends under
+the whole of the church, including the apse. At Wells the crypt is
+beneath the chapter-house, and Durham Cathedral has three crypts, one
+under what was the dormitory, another beneath the refectory, and the
+third under the prior's chapel. Of crypts of Norman date we have many
+examples, of which, perhaps, our best are those at Gloucester, Worcester,
+Canterbury and Winchester Cathedrals, while Canterbury is probably the
+largest of them all. Good crypts are also found at Wimborne Minster,
+Christchurch Priory, and in our smaller churches at Repton and S.
+Peter's-in-the-East, Oxford.
+
+The Wimborne crypt is lighted by four windows. The vaulting is supported
+by two pairs of pillars which form three aisles, each of three bays. Mr.
+Perkins, in his book on Wimborne Minster, says, "On each side of the
+place where the altar stood there are two openings into the choir
+aisles. The exteriors of these are of the same form and size as the
+crypt windows, but they are deeply splayed inside, and probably were
+used as hagioscopes or squints, to allow those kneeling in the choir
+aisles to see the priest celebrating mass at the crypt altar." The crypt
+at Christchurch is of Norman date, and now serves as a vault for the
+Malmesbury family. The crypt of Canterbury Cathedral is claimed and
+justly claimed, perhaps, as the largest and most beautiful in England.
+It is thought to contain fragments of Roman and Saxon work, and much of
+it dates from the days of S. Anselm (1096-1100). It was here that the
+remains of S. Thomas a Becket lay from 1170 to 1220, and "here that
+Henry II., fasting and discrowned, with naked feet, bared back, and
+streaming tears, performed on July 12th, 1174, the memorable penance for
+his share in the murder of the great Archbishop."
+
+It was here too, in later times that the Walloons were granted, by Queen
+Elizabeth, the privilege of carrying on their silk-weaving, and it was
+also reserved as a place of worship for French Protestants.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII.
+
+HOW TO DESCRIBE AN OLD CHURCH.
+
+
+Having carefully read the foregoing chapters, it should be possible for
+anyone interested in the subject to be able to write a fairly accurate
+description of any old church. The record should, if possible, be
+amplified with sketches or photographs.
+
+In course of time, decay, neglect and restoration will deprive our
+ancient buildings of every visible stone of original work which they
+possess, and careful records of this kind, written, photographed and
+sketched, may be of the highest possible value to future generations of
+historians and architects, long after the objects themselves have ceased
+to exist. The work in itself is of absorbing interest, and the more one
+studies these works of past ages the stronger becomes the conviction
+that our old buildings, whether cathedral, castle or simple village
+church, are the landmarks of the nation's history, and a priceless
+inheritance of beauty and art the conservation of which is the duty of
+all generations.
+
+The principal points to be noted are--1. The name of the church. 2. Its
+situation. 3. Its dedication. 4. General plan. 5. The style of
+architecture to which each portion belongs. 6. Any peculiarity of the
+architecture, blocked up windows, etc. 7. Any ancient furniture,
+screens, bench-ends, glass. 8. Any monuments, tablets, or mural
+paintings. 9. Church plate, bells, registers. 10. Any local traditions.
+The record should be made somewhat in the following manner.
+
+The church of ---- is prettily situated on rising ground some quarter of
+a mile north of the village, and on the main road to ---- . It is
+approached by a picturesque timber lych-gate, and consists of nave,
+aisles and chancel, having a side chapel to the north and a single
+transept to the south. At the west end is a Decorated tower and spire.
+There are two porches, one on the north side and the other on the west,
+which last has a niche for a figure over the doorway and seats on either
+side. The nave is Perpendicular, as is the greater part of the rest of
+the fabric. Above the nave rises a lofty and noble clerestory, divided
+from the aisles by five rather obtusely-pointed arches supported by
+richly moulded piers with small moulded capitals. Each bay of the
+clerestory contains two three-light windows of late Perpendicular date.
+The roof is flat pitched and is of oak, the principals are adorned with
+panelled tracery and show vestiges of ancient colour decoration. The
+windows of the aisles are late Decorated in style; they are of three
+lights, the traceries elegant and richly moulded. The east window is
+Perpendicular and is much sub-divided by mullions and transoms; in the
+upper portions are some heraldic coats of arms, which appear to have
+formed part of a much earlier window. The chancel is divided from the
+nave by a fine open oak screen, coeval with the larger part of the
+building. It is richly carved and gilded, and in the right-hand side of
+the chancel arch are the steps which formerly led up to the top of it.
+The chancel, together with its chapel, is vaulted in stone with well
+marked ribs and carved bosses. The transept, late Perpendicular, opens
+into the south side of the nave by a four-centred arch, and has a
+rich flat ceiling. In the chancel is a piscina of Early English date,
+together with a sedilia of the same period. On the north side of the
+chancel, resting on the floor, is a cross-legged effigy, in chain mail,
+surcoat, etc., and bearing on his left arm a shield, but all much
+mutilated. There is a local tradition that it represents Sir ----, but
+there is no evidence by which he can be identified. Features of the
+church are the many highly carved bench ends, all in oak, representing a
+great variety of subjects, such as dragons, serpents, etc., while a few
+bear the arms of local families who probably bore the cost of the work.
+The pulpit is Jacobean, and has no special feature. The font, which
+stands in the centre of the nave, is square in form and is supported by
+a modern round plinth. It is constructed of marble, the four sides being
+carved in low relief with intersecting patterns. It is possibly of
+Norman date, and is the only existing feature of a much earlier church.
+The tower and spire are Decorated; the latter is of stone with four
+pinnacles at the base, and has a little coronal of pinnacles. The belfry
+windows are arranged in pairs on each side of the tower. The tower or
+western window is of five lights, richly Decorated in style.
+
+ Illustration:
+  KEY TO DIAGRAM OF THE INTERIOR ELEVATION OF A BAY OF A CHURCH.
+
+  CLERESTORY.
+
+   26 Boss.
+   25 Vaulting Rib.
+   24 Vault.
+   23 Vaulting Rib.
+   22 Tracery of C. Window.
+   21 Clerestory Window.
+   20 Sill of Clerestory Window.
+   19 Base of Jamb, C. Arch.
+   18 Jamb of C. Arch.
+   17 Clerestory String.
+
+  BLIND STOREY (TRIFORIUM).
+
+   16 Capital of Vaulting Shaft.
+   15 Tracery of Triforium.
+   14 Triforium Arch.
+   13 Capital of T. Pier.
+   12 Pier of Triforium.
+   11 Triforium String.
+
+  GROUND STOREY.
+
+   10 Tracery of Aisle Window.
+    9 Aisle Window.
+    8 Sill of Aisle Window.
+    7 Wall Arcade.
+    6 Vaulting Shaft.
+    5 Corbel.
+    4 Pier Arch.
+    3 Capital of Pier.
+    2 Pier.
+    1 Base of Pier.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES.
+
+1: So called from its "flame"-like appearance, producing forms which
+   resemble elongated tongues of flame. There is great beauty in much of
+   this work, but it is constructionally weak. The finest example is
+   Chartres Cathedral.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX.
+
+A GLOSSARY OF THE PRINCIPAL TERMS USED IN ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+ ABACUS         Derived from the Greek _Abax_--a tray or flat board, an
+                essential feature of the Grecian and Roman orders, but
+                now used to describe the slab forming the upper part of
+                a column, pier, etc.
+
+ ABBEY          A term for a union of ecclesiastical buildings, for the
+                housing of those conventual bodies presided over by an
+                abbot or abbess, supposed to be derived from the Hebrew
+                _ab_, "father."
+
+ ACANTHUS       A plant, the leaves of which are represented in the
+                capitals of the Corinthian orders.
+
+ AISLE          French _aile_, a wing, the lateral division of a church.
+
+ ALMONRY        A room where alms were distributed.
+
+ ALTAR          An elevated table dedicated to the Sacrament of the Holy
+                Eucharist, and usually called the Communion Table.
+
+ ALMERY, AUMERY,
+ and AUMBREY    A recess or small cupboard in the wall of a church, used
+                to contain the chalices, patens, etc., for the use of
+                the priest. They are sometimes near the _piscina_, but
+                are usually on the opposite side of the chancel.
+
+ ANTE-CHAPEL    The outer part of a chapel.
+
+ APSE           The semi-circular or polygonal recess at the east end of
+                the choir or aisles of a church.
+
+ ARCADE         A series of arches, open or closed with masonry, and
+                supported by columns or piers.
+
+ ARCH           A construction of bricks or stones so placed as by
+                mutual pressure to support each other and a
+                superincumbent weight. They may be semi-circular,
+                segmental, elliptical, stilted, horse-shoe, pointed,
+                trefoiled, cinquefoiled, or ogee.
+
+ ARCHITRAVE     In classical architecture, the lowest division of the
+                entablature resting immediately on the abacus of the
+                capital. In Gothic buildings the ornamental mouldings
+                round the openings of doors, windows, etc.
+
+ ARCHIVOLT      The under surface of the curve of an arch, from impost
+                to impost.
+
+ ASHLAR         Shaped or squared stone used in building, as
+                distinguished from that in the rough.
+
+ ASTRAGAL       A small semi-circular bead or moulding.
+
+ BALL FLOWER    An ornament resembling a ball in a circular flower
+                with three enclosing petals. Dec.
+
+ BASE           The lower member of a column, pier, or wall.
+
+ BASILICA       A Roman law-court. Early Christian churches when
+                built on the same lines were called by the same name.
+
+ BILLET         An ornament much used in Norman work and formed by
+                cutting a moulding in notches, so that the remaining
+                parts resembled wooden billets or pieces of stick.
+
+ BLIND STOREY   See Triforium.
+
+ BOSSES         Ornamental projections usually of foliage and placed
+                at the intersection of the ribs of vaults, ceilings,
+                etc.
+
+ BRACES         Timbers which brace or support the main rafters. Also
+                called _struts_.
+
+ BROACH         A spire, generally octagonal and springing from the
+                square top of the tower, without a parapet. (_See
+                page 105_).
+
+ BUTTRESS       A projection from a wall, giving it additional strength.
+
+ CANOPY         In Gothic architecture an ornamental hood or projection
+                over doors, windows, niches, tombs, etc., and rarely
+                found except in the Dec. and Perp. styles.
+
+ CAPITAL        The head of a column or pilaster, found in a great
+                variety of shapes.
+
+ CATHEDRAL      A church presided over by a Bishop. The principal
+                church of a diocese.
+
+ CHALICE        The cup used for the wine at the celebration of the
+                Eucharist.
+
+ CHAMFER        The surface formed by cutting away the rectangular edge
+                of wood or stone work.
+
+ CHANCEL        The choir or eastern part of a church, appropriated to
+                the use of those who officiate in the performance of
+                the services.
+
+ CHANTRY        A chapel often containing a tomb of the founder, and
+                in which masses were said.
+
+ CHAPEL         A small building attached to cathedrals and large
+                churches.
+
+ CHAPTER-HOUSE  The room where the Dean and Prebendaries meet for the
+                transaction of business.
+
+ CHEVRON        An ornament characteristic of the Norman period and
+                divided into several equal portions chevron-wise or
+                zig-zag.
+
+ CHOIR          That part of a church to the east of the nave where the
+                services are celebrated, also called chancel, and
+                frequently separated from the nave by an open screen of
+                stone or wood.
+
+ CINQUEFOIL     An ornamental foliation used in arches, tracery, etc.,
+                and composed of projecting points or cusps, so arranged
+                that the opening resembles five leaves.
+
+ CLERESTORY     Possibly the _clear_ storey. An upper storey standing
+                above or clear of the adjacent roofs, and pierced by
+                windows to give increased light.
+
+ CLOISTER       A covered walk or ambulatory forming part of a
+                cathedral or college quadrangle.
+
+ CLUSTERED
+ COLUMN         A pier made up of several columns or shafts in a cluster.
+
+ COLONNADE      A row or rows of columns supporting a roof or building.
+
+ CORBEL         Usually a moulded or carved ornament projecting from the
+                walls, acting as a bracket and capable of bearing a
+                super-incumbent weight.
+
+ CORNICE        The horizontal termination of a building in the form of
+                a moulded projection.
+
+ COURSE         A continuous and regular line of stones or bricks in the
+                wall of a building.
+
+ CROCKETS       Projecting ornaments in the form of leaves, flowers,
+                etc., used to embellish the angles of pinnacles,
+                spires, gables, canopies, etc.
+
+ CROSS          The accepted symbol of the Christian religion and an
+                architectural church ornament usually placed upon the
+                apex of the gable. A large cross called a rood was at one
+                time always placed over the entrance to the chancel. The
+                cross was worn as a personal ornament ages before the
+                Christian era by the Assyrians, and we are told that the
+                Druids also used this symbol in very early times.
+
+ CRYPT          Sometimes called the Undercroft, a vaulted chamber,
+                usually underground and, in churches, rarely extending
+                beyond the area of the choir or chancel, and often of
+                less dimensions.
+
+ CUSPS          Projecting points giving the foliated appearance to
+                tracery, arches, panels, etc.
+
+ DORMER         A gabled window pierced through a sloping roof.
+
+ DRIPSTONE      A projecting ledge or narrow moulding over the heads of
+                doorways, windows, etc., to carry off the rain.
+
+ FAN-TRACERY    Tracery in which the ribs form a fan-like appearance and
+                diverge equally in every direction. (Peculiar to the
+                late Perp.)
+
+ FLAMBOYANT     Tracery whereof the curves assume flame-like waves and
+                shapes.
+
+ FLYING
+ BUTTRESS       A buttress in the form of a bridge, usually transferring
+                the thrust of the main roof from the clerestory walls to
+                the main or aisle buttresses.
+
+ FONT           The vessel for holding the consecrated water used in
+                baptism.
+
+ GARGOYLE       A projecting spout usually grotesquely carved and used
+                to throw the water from the roof well away from the
+                building.
+
+ GROIN          The line of intersection in vaulted roofs.
+
+ IMPOST         Horizontal mouldings, capping a column or pier, from
+                which the arch springs.
+
+ JAMB           The side of a window or door.
+
+ KEYSTONE       The central stone at the top of an arch. The bosses
+                in vaulted ceilings are frequently called keys.
+
+ LADY CHAPEL    A chapel dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary,
+                called "Our Lady."
+
+ LANTERN        A small structure or erection surmounting a dome or
+                tower to admit light. These towers are known as Lantern
+                Towers.
+
+ LOZENGE        A name given in modern times to Norman mouldings which
+                partake of a lozenge formation.
+
+ LYCH-GATE      From the Anglo-Saxon _lich_, a corpse. A small and
+                often picturesque shelter at the entrance to a
+                churchyard.
+
+ MINSTER        The church usually of a monastery or abbey or one to
+                which such has been an appendant. York and Beverley,
+                however, are exceptions to this rule.
+
+ MISERERE       A small bracket on the undersides of the seats of
+                stalls.
+
+ MOULDING       A term generally applied to the contours given to angle
+                projections or hollows of arches, doors, windows, etc.
+
+ MULLION        The dividing bars of stone or wood between the lights
+                of windows, or the openings of screens.
+
+ MUeNSTER        has now lost its simple application.
+ (MONASTERY)
+
+ NAVE           From _navis_, a ship, the main body of a church west
+                of the chancel.
+
+ NICHE          An alcove or recess in a wall for holding a statue or
+                ornament.
+
+ OGEE           A moulding or arch formed of a curve or curves somewhat
+                like the letter S, the curve of contra-flexure, part
+                being concave and part convex.
+
+ ORDERS         In Gothic architecture, the receding mouldings of an
+                arch.
+
+ PARCLOSE       The screen or railings protecting a monument or chantry.
+
+ PARVISE        An open space or porch at the entrance to a church, and
+                often wrongly applied to the room over a church porch.
+
+ PATEN          The small plate or salver used to hold the Consecrated
+                Bread in the celebration of the Eucharist.
+
+ PENDANT        Ornaments which hang or _depend_ from a ceiling or roof.
+
+ PENTHOUSE      A covering projecting over a door, window, etc., as a
+                protection from the weather.
+
+ PIER           The masses or clusters of masonry between doors, windows,
+                etc.; the supports from which arches spring.
+
+ PILLAR         A term frequently confounded with column, but differing
+                from it in not being subservient to the rules of
+                classical architecture, and in not of necessity
+                consisting of a single circular shaft.
+
+ PINNACLE       A small turreted ornament tapering towards the top,
+                and used as a termination to many parts of Gothic
+                architecture.
+
+ PISCINA        The stone basin or sink in the chancel used for
+                cleansing the communion vessels.
+
+ PLINTH         The lower division of the base of a column, pier or wall.
+
+ POPPY-HEAD     An ornament boldly carved on the tops of bench ends, etc.
+
+ PRESBYTERY     A term sometimes used to include the whole of the choir,
+                but more often meant to refer to the eastern end of the
+                choir from which it is generally raised by several steps.
+
+ QUARRIES or
+ QUARRELS       The small diamond, square or other the shaped panes used
+                in plain glazing.
+
+ QUATREFOIL     The shape resembling four leaves formed in tracery or
+                panels by cusps.
+
+ QUOIN          The external angle of a building, generally of ashlar.
+
+ REREDOS        The wall or screen at the back of an altar, often
+                enriched with carving, niches, statues, etc.
+
+ ROOD-BEAM or
+ ROOD-LOFT      The loft or beam which, previous to the Reformation,
+                supported the Great Rood, or Crucifix.
+
+ ROSE WINDOW    A term often used to denote a circular window of
+                several lights.
+
+ ROTUNDA        A term used to describe a church or other building
+                which is of circular formation both within and without.
+
+ SACRISTRY      A room used in churches for storing the plate and
+                valuables.
+
+ SANCTUARY      See Presbytery.
+
+ SEDILIA        A seat or seats, generally canopied and situated on the
+                south side of the chancel and used in pre-Reformation
+                days by the officiating clergy during the pauses in the
+                mass.
+
+ SHAFT          The part of a column or pillar between the capital and
+                the base.
+
+ SHRINE         Often called the feretory. The place where relics were
+                deposited.
+
+ SOFFIT         The word means literally a ceiling, but is generally
+                used to describe the flat under-surface of arches,
+                cornices, stairways, etc.
+
+ SPANDRELS      The spaces between the arch of a doorway or window and
+                the rectangular mouldings over it. Early tracery
+                originated from the piercing of the spandrels of windows.
+
+ SPIRE          The acutely pointed termination of towers, etc.,
+                originating by the elongation of the early pyramidal
+                roofs.
+
+ SPLAY          The slanting or sloped surface of a window opening in the
+                thickness of the wall, also of doorways, etc.; the term
+                is also applied to bevels and other sloped surfaces.
+
+ SPRINGER       See Voussoir.
+
+ SQUINT         An oblique opening or slit in the wall of a church, for
+                the purpose of enabling persons in the aisles or
+                transepts to see the elevation of the Host at the High
+                Altar. They are mostly found on the sides of the chancel
+                arch, and are frequently called _hagioscopes_.
+
+ STOUP          A vessel for consecrated water, at or near the entrance
+                to a church.
+
+ STRING or
+ STRING COURSE. A horizontal projecting band of stone in the wall of a
+                building.
+
+ STRUT          See Brace.
+
+ TOOTH
+ ORNAMENT       An ornament used almost exclusively in the E.E. style,
+                resembling a square four-leaved flower, and thought to
+                be based on the dog-tooth violet.
+
+ TRANSOM        A horizontal cross-bar in a panel or window.
+
+ TRACERY        The ornamental stonework in the upper part of a window;
+                when formed by the mullions it is called bar tracery
+                and when the spandrel is pierced, plate tracery. Also
+                used largely on tombs, screens, doorways, etc.
+
+ TRANSEPTS      The projecting arms of a cruciform church, often wrongly
+                called "cross-aisles."
+
+ TRANSITION     A term used to describe the process of change from one
+                style of architecture to another. The three great periods
+                of transition are from the Romanesque and Norman to the
+                Early English; the Early English to the Decorated, and
+                the Decorated to the Perpendicular.
+
+ TREFOIL        An ornamental foliation in the heads of windows, panels,
+                etc., in which the spaces formed by the cusps resemble
+                three leaves.
+
+ TRIFORIUM      or Blind-Storey. An open gallery or arcade without
+                windows immediately above the pier arcade and under the
+                roof of the aisle.
+
+ TYMPANUM       The space between the top of a square-headed door and the
+                arch above it; frequently sculptured.
+
+ VAULT          Roofing of stone constructed on the principle of the
+                arch, the intersections of which are termed groins and
+                are in the pointed styles usually ribbed.
+
+ VAULTING
+ SHAFTS         Small shafts sometimes rising from the floor, sometimes
+                from the capital of a pillar and sometimes from a corbel,
+                and intended as supports for the ribs of a vault.
+
+ VESICA PISCIS  An oval shape or figure formed by two equal circles
+                cutting each other in their centres. Very commonly found
+                on episcopal and monastic seals.
+
+ VOUSSOIR       The wedge-shaped stones forming an arch, the centre one
+                of which is the _keystone_ and those at the impost or
+                starting point of the curve are the _springers_.
+
+ ZIG-ZAG        See Chevron.
+
+
+
+
+A SHORT BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE.
+
+
+ Adeline, J.       Art Dictionary of Terms.
+ Bland, W.         Arches, Piers, Buttresses, etc.
+ Blomfield, R.     Short History of Renaissance Architecture.
+ Bond, Francis     English Cathedrals Illustrated.
+ Bond, Francis     Gothic Architecture in England.
+ Bonney, T. G.     Cathedrals, Abbeys, and Churches of England and Wales.
+ Carter, J.        The Ancient Architecture of England.
+ Colling, J. K.    Details of Gothic Architecture.
+ Corroyer, E.      Gothic Architecture.
+ Cram, R. Adams    Church Building.
+ Davidson, E. A.   Gothic Stonework.
+ Fergusson, J.     Handbook of Architecture.
+ Fergusson, J.     History of Architecture.
+ Fairbairns, A.    Portfolio of English Cathedrals.
+ Garbett, E. L.    Principles of Design in Architecture.
+ Markland, J. H.   Remarks on Churches.
+ Moore, C. H.      Development and Character of Gothic Architecture.
+ Paley, F. A.      Manual of Gothic Architecture.
+ Paley, F. A.      Manual of Gothic Mouldings.
+ Parker, J. H.     A.B.C. of Gothic Architecture.
+ Parker, J. H.     Concise Glossary of Architecture.
+ Parker, J. H.     Introduction to the Study of Gothic Architecture.
+ Perkins, Rev. T.  Handbook of Gothic Architecture.
+ Prior, Ed. S.     History of Gothic Art.
+ Pugin, A. W.      Treatise on Chancel Screens and Rood Lofts.
+ Rickman, Thos.    Gothic Architecture.
+ Rickman, Thos.    Attempts to discriminate the Styles of Architecture
+                   in England.
+ Sharpe, Edmund    The Seven Periods of English Architecture.
+ Sharpe, Edmund    Treatise on the Rise and Progress of Window Tracery.
+ Scott, G.         History of Church Architecture.
+ Ruskin, John      Seven Lamps of Architecture.
+ Ruskin, John      Stones of Venice.
+ Ruskin, John      Poetry of Architecture.
+ Ruskin, John      Lectures on Architecture.
+ Wall, J. C.       Shrines of British Saints.
+ Winkle            British Cathedrals.
+ Wilson, S.        Romance of our Ancient Churches.
+
+ Bell's Cathedral Series.
+ "The Builder" Portfolio of English Cathedrals.
+ Murray's Handbooks to the Cathedrals.
+ S.P.C.K. Illustrated Notes on English Church History.
+      Swan, Sonnenschein & Co. Notes on the Cathedrals.
+     "Our English Minsters." Edited by Dean Farrar.
+
+This bibliography does not claim to be complete, but is a selection of
+the various books on the subject which should be studied by the student.
+
+
+
+
+Index
+
+
+ All Souls' College, Oxford, 76
+ Altars, 80
+ Alveston Church, Warwickshire, 41
+ Amiens Cathedral, 57
+ Anne, Queen, 76
+ Apse, The, 27
+ Arches--
+   Saxon, 35
+   Norman, 37
+   Early English, 49
+   Decorated, 62
+   Perpendicular, 66
+ Ashchurch, Gloucestershire, 106
+
+ Baptistery, The, 84
+ Barfreston Church, Kent, 39, 41
+ Barnack Church, Northants 32, 33, 34, 101
+ Barnstaple, Devon, 98
+ Barnwell, 92
+ Barry, Sir C., 78, 79
+ Basilica, The, 26
+ Bayeux Tapestry, 41, 103
+ Beaulieu, Hants, 90
+ Beckett's Crown, Canterbury, 106
+ Bede (quoted), 21, 23, 96
+ Bells and Belfries, 95
+ Bench Ends, 89
+ Bertha, Queen, 23
+ Beverley Minster, 109
+ Billesley Church, Warwickshire, 78
+ Bishopstone, Sussex, 32
+ Bloxham Church, 101
+ Boston, Lincs, 72
+ Bovey Church, 92
+ Bradford-on-Avon, 32
+ Brewer, J. W. (quoted), 28
+ Brighton Pavilion, 78
+ Brigstock Church, Northants, 97
+ Bristol Cathedral, 70
+ British Churches, Early, 19
+ Brixworth Church, 28, 32, 33, 97
+ Broadmayne Church, 86
+ Bruton, Som., 97
+ Burne-Jones, Sir E., 107
+ Bury St. Edmunds, 82
+ Buttresses--
+   Norman, 43
+   Early English, 84
+   Decorated, 62
+   Perpendicular, 70
+ Byzantium, 27
+
+ Canterbury Cathedral, 43, 94, 101, 104, 110
+ Capitals--
+   Norman, 42
+   Early English, 54
+   Decorated, 60
+   Perpendicular, 69
+ Caradoc, King, 19
+ Carlisle Cathedral, 60, 106
+ Charles II., 76
+ Charlton-on-Otmoor, 92
+ Charlton Church, Kent, 106
+ Chartres Cathedral, 101
+ Chetwode, Bucks, 106
+ Chichester Cathedral, 97
+ Chipping Norton, Oxford, 81
+ Christchurch Priory, 88, 94, 107, 110
+ Christ Church, Spitalfields, 76
+ Chudleigh Church, Devon, 92
+ Church Furniture and Ornaments, 80
+ Cirencester Church, Glos., 70
+ Classic Reverse, The, 70
+ Clerkenwell, 44
+ Collumpton, Devon, 92
+ Compton Church, 94
+ Constantine, Emperor, 27
+ Constantinople, 27
+ Cranley, Surrey, 106
+ Crawden's Chapel, 58
+ Croyland Abbey, 96
+ Crypts, 109
+ Curfew, 96
+
+ Decorated Style, The, 57
+ Doisnel, Juliana, 44
+ Dolton Church, 84
+ Doorways--
+   Saxon, 30, 32
+   Norman, 39
+   Early English, 54
+   Decorated, 62
+   Perpendicular, 69
+ Dorchester Church, Oxford, 107
+ Dore Abbey, 81
+ Dunstable, 92
+ Dunster Church, 81, 92
+ Durham Cathedral, 43, 73, 82, 94, 112
+
+ Earl's Barton Church, 32, 33
+ Early English Style, The, 47
+ East Dereham, 97
+ Edburton Church, 84
+ Edington Church, Wilts, 72
+ Edington, Bp. William, 72
+ Edmund, Archbp. of Cant., 84
+ Edward I., 49
+ Edward III., 84
+ Elizabeth, Queen, 81, 110
+ Eltham Palace, 73
+ Ely Cathedral, 29, 43, 57
+ Ely Chapel, 60
+ Ethelbert, King of Kent, 23
+ Euston, Oxford, 94
+ Evesham Abbey, 73, 97
+ Exeter Cathedral, 89
+
+ Fairford Church, Glos., 107
+ Fan Vaulting, 69
+ Fergusson, Dr. (quoted), 75
+ Flying Buttresses, 56
+ Fonts, 84
+ Fordington S. George, Dorchester, 41
+ Fotheringay Church, Northants, 73
+ Fountains Abbey, 47
+ Fuller, Thos. (quoted), 19
+ Furness Abbey, 87
+ Furniture, Church, 80
+
+ Glass, Stained, 104
+ Glastonbury Abbey, 19, 97
+ Glossary, 115
+ Gloucester Cathedral, 43, 73, 94, 106, 110
+ Gothic Architecture, Leading Characteristics, 63
+ Gothic Styles, The, 47
+ Grantham, 101
+ Greenstead Church, Essex, 32, 34, 35
+ Grosmont, Monmouth, 81
+
+ Hackness, 96
+ Hanwell, Oxford, 94
+ Hartland Church, 92
+ Hawkesmore, 76
+ Heckington, 86, 101
+ Heigham, 72
+ Henry I., 44
+ Henry II., 49
+ Henry III., 44, 48, 49
+ Hereford Cathedral, 57, 110
+ Hexham, 82, 109
+ Hutchinson, Rev. J. M. (quoted), 49
+
+ Iffley Church, Oxford, 39
+
+ Jenkyns, Canon (quoted), 25
+ John, King, 44, 48, 49
+ Jones, Inigo, 75, 78
+
+ Kemsing, Kent, 92
+ Kenton Church, Devon, 90, 92
+ King's College Chapel, Cambridge, 107
+ King's Sutton, 101
+ Knights Hospitallers, 44
+ Knights Templars, 43
+
+ Lady Chapel, Exeter, 60
+ Langham Place, 78
+ Lastingham Church, York, 110
+ Laud, Archbishop, 16
+ Ledbury, Hereford, 103
+ Leighton Buzzard, 101
+ Lichfield, Abbot, 97
+ Lichfield, Cathedral, 57, 101
+ Lincoln Cathedral, 43, 52, 57, 63, 81, 106
+ Little Billing, 84
+ Little Maplestead, 44
+ Llanrhaiadr-y-Kinmerch, 107
+ Luidhard, Bishop, 23
+ Long Melford Church, Suffolk, 73
+ Long Sutton, 92
+ Luton Church, 58
+ Lyminge, 25
+
+ Magdalen College, Oxford, 90
+ Malmesbury (family), 110
+ Manchester Cathedral, 73, 88
+ Markland (quoted), 97
+ Mary, Queen, 81, 92
+ Marylebone Church, 78
+ Melbury Bubb, 84
+ Merton College, Oxford, 58, 60, 106
+ Minehead, 92
+ Morley Church, Derbyshire, 107
+ Morris, William, 107
+ Morton Church, Soms., 73
+ Mouldings--
+   Norman, 37
+   Early English, 52
+   Decorated, 62
+   Perpendicular, 69
+
+ Newark, Notts., 92
+ New College, Oxford, 72
+ Norbury, Derbyshire, 106
+ Norman Architecture, 35
+ Norwich Cathedral, 29, 43
+
+ Ornaments--
+   Norman, 37
+   Early English, 52
+   Decorated, 60, 62
+   Perpendicular, 68, 69, 70
+ Ornaments, Church, 80
+ Oxford Cathedral, 43, 101
+
+ Palladio, 74, 75
+ Parham, 84
+ Parker (quoted), 31, 35, 88
+ Parliament, Houses of, 78
+ Patrixbourne Church, Kent, 41
+ Perkins, Rev. T. (quoted), 110
+ Perpendicular Styles, 64
+ Perpendicular Towers, 72
+ Perpendicular Spires, 73
+ Peterborough Cathedral, 29, 43, 57
+ Philippa, Queen, 84
+ Piscinas, 87
+ Piers--
+   Norman, 42
+   Early English, 54
+   Decorated, 60
+   Perpendicular, 68
+ Plymtree, 92
+ Pointed Arch, The, 49
+ Porches, 53
+ Porlock Church, Somerset, 81
+ Pugin, 78, 79
+ Pulpits, 90
+ Pyecombe, 84
+ Pylle Church, 86
+
+ Radipole Church, Dorset, 98
+ Ravenna, 33
+ Reculver, 25
+ Reform Club, 79
+ Renaissance, The, 74
+ Repton Church, Derby, 109, 110
+ Reredos, The, 94
+ Richard I., 48, 49
+ Richborough, 25
+ Rickman (quoted), 35
+ Ripon Cathedral, 32, 109
+ Rievaulx, 47
+ Rochester Cathedral, 42, 57, 109
+ Rolvenden Church, Kent, 86
+ Romanesque Style, The, 27
+ Rome, 33
+ Ross, 101
+ Rotherham Church, Yorks., 70
+ Rothwell Church, 87
+ Round Churches, The, 44
+ Routledge, Rev. C. F., M.A., F.S.A., 24
+
+ Saffron Walden, 73
+ Saint Alban's Cathedral, 54, 94
+ Saint Andrew's, Norwich, 73
+ Saint Anselm, 110
+ Saint Augustine, 19
+ Saint Benet's, Cambridge, 32
+ Saint Chad's Cathedral, Birmingham, 79
+ Saint Clement's, Norfolk, 73
+ Saint Cross, Winchester, 39
+ Saint David's, Cathedral, 57, 73
+ Saint Dunstan, 96
+ Saint Edmundsbury, 97
+ Saint Edmund, Martyr, 35
+ Saint Etheldreda, 58
+ Saint Ethelwold, 103
+ Saint Giles', Oxford, 81
+ Saint Hilda, 96
+ Saint Lawrence, Bradford-on-Avon, 32, 33
+ Saint Margaret's, Westminster, 107
+ Saint Mark's, Venice, 28
+ Saint Mary Abchurch, 76
+ Saint Mary Magdalene, Ripon, 81
+ Saint Mary Redcliffe, Bristol, 73
+ Saint Mary's, Cambridge, 73
+ Saint Mary's, Dover, 22
+ Saint Mary's, Lincoln, 32
+ Saint Mary's, Luton, 84
+ Saint Mary's, Newark, 101
+ Saint Mary's, Norwich, 73
+ Saint Mary's, Ottery, 92
+ Saint Mary's, Oxford, 73, 101
+ Saint Mary's, Stamford, 92
+ Saint Mary's, Taunton, 73
+ Saint Mary's, Wareham, 81, 84
+ Saint Mary's, Woolnoth, 76
+ Saint Mary's, York, 32
+ Saint Martin's, Canterbury, 22
+ Saint Martin's, Wareham, 32
+ Saint Michael's, Coventry, 73
+ Saint Michael's, Oxford, 32, 34, 94
+ Saint Nicholas, Lynn, 73
+ Saint Nicholas, Newcastle, 73
+ Saint Nicholas, Yarmouth, 63
+ Saint Paul the Apostle, 19
+ Saint Paul's Cathedral, 75, 76, 101
+ Saint Paul's Churchyard, 90
+ Saint Patrick, 21
+ Saint Peter Port, Guernsey, 98
+ Saint Peter's in the East, Oxford 110
+ Saint Peter's, Lincoln, 32
+ Saint Peter's, Norwich, 73
+ Saint Peter's, Rome, 75, 76
+ Saint Pierre, Caen, 101
+ Saint Piran's, Perranporth, 21
+ Saint Saviour's, Dartmouth, 90, 92
+ Saint Saviour's Southwark, 94
+ Saint Sepulchre, Cambridge, 44
+ Saint Sepulchre, Northampton, 44
+ Saint Sophia, Constantinople, 28
+ Saint Stephen's, Bristol, 73
+ Saint Stephen's Chapel, Westminster, 58
+ Saint Stephen's, Walbrook, 76
+ Saint Thomas a Becket, 110
+ Saint Wilfrid's Needle, 109
+ Saint Wolfstan, 103
+ Salisbury Cathedral, 47, 57, 101, 106
+ Sanctuary Knockers, 82
+ Saxon Architecture, 31
+ Saxon Churches, 32
+ Scott (quoted), 31
+ Screens, 92
+ Sedilia, 87
+ Shottesbrook Church, Berks, 66, 103
+ Shrewsbury, 90
+ Silchester, 25
+ Snettisham, Norfolk, 101
+ Solihull, Warwickshire, 94
+ Sompting, Sussex, 32, 99
+ Southwell, 57, 87
+ Southwold Church, Suffolk, 73
+ Speyer Cathedral, 29
+ Spires, 73, 99
+ Squints, 90
+ Stalls, 88
+ Stanford, Leicester, 106
+ Stone Church, Kent, 54
+ Stoups, 86
+
+ Temple Balsall, 44
+ Temple Church, London, 44
+ Tenby, 90
+ Tewkesbury Abbey, 106
+ Thaxted Church, Essex, 73
+ Thornham Church, Kent, 86
+ Towers, 33, 72
+ Transom, The, 46, 49
+ Trinity Church, Ely, 58
+ Tympana, 41
+
+ Uffendon, Devon, 92
+
+ Vitruvius, 74
+
+ Wakefield Church, Yorkshire, 73
+ Walpole, Horace, 78
+ Walton-on-the-Hill, Surrey, 84
+ Wansted, Oxford, 101
+ Wantsume, 25
+ Warmington, Warwickshire, 81
+ Wells Cathedral, 53, 57, 110
+ West Horsley, Surrey, 106
+ Westminster Abbey, 48, 57, 63, 76, 78, 103
+ Westminster Hall, 73
+ Westminster, Henry's VII.'s Chapel, 68, 88, 89
+ Westwell, Kent, 106
+ Wilford Church, Oxford, 101
+ William the Conqueror, 96
+ Wimborne Minster, 110
+ Wimmington Church, Bedfordshire, 66
+ Winchester Cathedral, 43, 63, 72, 85, 88, 103, 110
+ Winchester College, 72
+ Windows--
+   Saxon, 32
+   Norman, 39
+   Early English, 52
+   Decorated, 58
+   Perpendicular, 68
+ Wing, 32
+ Wootton Wawen, 32
+ Worcester Cathedral, 57, 109, 110
+ Worms Cathedral, 29
+ Wren, Sir Christopher, 75, 76
+ Wrexham Church, 72
+ Wroxhall Abbey, 106
+ Wykeham, William of, 72, 84
+ Wymondham Church, 72
+
+ York Minster, 32, 57, 63, 66, 73, 94, 106, 109
+
+
+
+
+THE HOMELAND HANDBOOKS
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