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diff --git a/30073.txt b/30073.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..796c599 --- /dev/null +++ b/30073.txt @@ -0,0 +1,7840 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 8, Slice 3, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 8, Slice 3 + "Destructors" to "Diameter" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: September 24, 2009 [EBook #30073] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 3 *** + + + + +Produced by Don Kretz, Marius Borror, Juliet Sutherland +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + +Transcriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they + are listed at the end of the text. Due to space constraints, italics + denoting underscores were not used in the tables. + + + THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + VOLUME VIII slice III + + Destructor to Diameter + + + + +DESTRUCTOR (_continued from volume 8, slice 2, page 0108._) + ... in main flues, &c. (g) The chimney draught must be assisted with + forced draught from fans or steam jet to a pressure of 1 1/2 in. to 2 + in. under grates by water-gauge. (h) Where a destructor is required to + work without risk of nuisance to the neighbouring inhabitants, its + efficiency as a refuse destructor plant must be primarily kept in view + in designing the works, steam-raising being regarded as a secondary + consideration. Boilers should not be placed immediately over a furnace + so as to present a large cooling surface, whereby the temperature of + the gases is reduced before the organic matter has been thoroughly + burned. (i) Where steam-power and a high fuel efficiency are desired a + large percentage of CO_{2} should be sought in the furnaces with as + little excess of air as possible, and the flue gases should be + utilized in heating the air-supply to the grates, and the feed-water + to the boilers. (j) Ample boiler capacity and hot-water storage + feed-tanks should be included in the design where steam-power is + required. + + [Sidenote: Cost.] + + As to the initial cost of the erection of refuse destructors, few + trustworthy data can be given. The outlay necessarily depends, amongst + other things, upon the difficulty of preparing the site, upon the + nature of the foundations required, the height of the chimney-shaft, + the length of the inclined or approach roadway, and the varying prices + of labour and materials in different localities. As an example may be + mentioned the case of Bristol, where, in 1892, the total cost of + constructing a 16-cell Fryer destructor was L11,418, of which L2909 + was expended on foundations, and L1689 on the chimney-shaft; the cost + of the destructor proper, buildings and approach road was therefore + L6820, or about L426 per cell. The cost per ton of burning refuse in + destructors depends mainly upon--(a) The price of labour in the + locality, and the number of "shifts" or changes of workmen per day; + (b) the type of furnace adopted; (c) the nature of the material to be + consumed; (d) the interest on and repayment of capital outlay. The + cost of burning ton for ton consumed, in high-temperature furnaces, + including labour and repairs, is not greater than in slow-combustion + destructors. The average cost of burning refuse at twenty-four + different towns throughout England, exclusive of interest on the cost + of the works, is 1s. 1 1/2d. per ton burned; the minimum cost is 6d. per + ton at Bradford, and the maximum cost 2s. 10d. per ton at Battersea. + At Shoreditch the cost per ton for the year ending on the 25th of + March 1899, including labour, supervision, stores, repairs, &c. (but + exclusive of interest on cost of works), was 2s. 6.9d. The quantity of + refuse burned per cell per day of 24 hours varies from about 4 tons up + to 20 tons. The ordinary low-temperature destructor, with 25 sq. ft. + grate area, burns about 20 lb. of refuse per square foot of grate + area per hour, or between 5 and 6 tons per cell per 24 hours. The + Meldrum destructor furnaces at Rochdale burn as much as 66 lb. per + square foot of grate area per hour, and the Beaman and Deas destructor + at Llandudno 71.7 lb. per square foot per hour. The amount, however, + always depends materially on the care observed in stoking, the nature + of the material, the frequency of removal of clinker, and on the + question whether the whole of the refuse passed into the furnace is + thoroughly cremated. + + [Sidenote: Residues:] + + The amount of residue in the shape of clinker and fine ash varies from + 22 to 37% of the bulk dealt with. From 25 to 30% is a very usual + amount. At Shoreditch, where the refuse consists of about 8% of straw, + paper, shavings, &c., the residue contains about 29% clinker, 2.7% + fine ash, .5% flue dust, and .6% old tins, making a total residue of + 32.8%. As the residuum amounts to from one-fourth to one-third of the + total bulk of the refuse dealt with, it is a question of the utmost + importance that some profitable, or at least inexpensive, means should + be devised for its regular disposal. Among other purposes, it has been + used for bottoming for macadamized roads, for the manufacture of + concrete, for making paving slabs, for forming suburban footpaths or + cinder footwalks, and for the manufacture of mortar. The last is a + very general, and in many places profitable, mode of disposal. An + entirely new outlet has also arisen for the disposal of good + well-vitrified destructor clinker in connexion with the construction + of bacteria beds for sewage disposal, and in many districts its value + has, by this means, become greatly enhanced. + + [Sidenote: Forced draught.] + + Through defects in the design and management of many of the early + destructors complaints of nuisance frequently arose, and these have, + to some extent, brought destructor installations into disrepute. + Although some of the older furnaces were decided offenders in this + respect, that is by no means the case with the modern improved type of + high-temperature furnace; and often, were it not for the great + prominence in the landscape of a tall chimney-shaft, the existence of + a refuse destructor in a neighbourhood would not be generally known to + the inhabitants. A modern furnace, properly designed and worked, will + give rise to no nuisance, and may be safely erected in the midst of a + populous neighbourhood. To ensure the perfect cremation of the refuse + and of the gases given off, forced draught is essential. This is + supplied either as air draught delivered from a rapidly revolving fan, + or as steam blast, as in the Horsfall steam jet or the Meldrum blower. + With a forced blast less air is required to obtain complete combustion + than by chimney draught. The forced draught grate requires little more + than the quantity theoretically necessary, while with chimney draught + more than double the theoretical amount of air must be supplied. With + forced draught, too, a much higher temperature is attained, and if it + is properly worked, little or no cold air will enter the furnaces + during stoking operations. As far as possible a balance of pressure in + the cells during clinkering should be maintained just sufficient to + prevent an inrush of cold air through the flues. The forced draught + pressure should not exceed 2 in. water-gauge. The efficiency of the + combustion in the furnace is conveniently measured by the + "Econometer," which registers continuously and automatically the + proportion of CO_{2} passing away in the waste gases; the higher the + percentage of CO_{2} the more efficient the furnace, provided there is + no formation of CO, the presence of which would indicate incomplete + combustion. The theoretical maximum of CO_{2} for refuse burning is + about 20%; and, by maintaining an even clean fire, by admitting + secondary air over the fire, and by regulating the dampers or the + air-pressure in the ash-pit, an amount approximating to this + percentage may be attained in a well-designed furnace if properly + worked. If the proportion of free oxygen (i.e. excess of air) is + large, more air is passed through the furnace than is required for + complete combustion, and the heating of this excess is clearly a waste + of heat. The position of the econometer in testing should be as near + the furnace as possible, as there may be considerable air leakage + through the brickwork of the flues. + + The air supply to modern furnaces is usually delivered hot, the inlet + air being first passed through an air-heater the temperature of which + is maintained by the waste gases in the main flue. + + [Sidenote: Calorific value.] + + The modern high-temperature destructor, to render the refuse and gases + perfectly innocuous and harmless, is worked at a temperature varying + from 1250 deg. to 2000 deg. F., and the maintenance of such temperatures + has very naturally suggested the possibility of utilizing this + heat-energy for the production of steam-power. Experience shows that a + considerable amount of energy may be derived from steam-raising + destructor stations, amply justifying a reasonable increase of + expenditure on plant and labour. The actual calorific value of the + refuse material necessarily varies, but, as a general average, with + suitably designed and properly managed plant, an evaporation of 1 lb. + of water per pound of refuse burned is a result which may be readily + attained, and affords a basis of calculation which engineers may + safely adopt in practice. Many destructor steam-raising plants, + however, give considerably higher results, evaporations approaching 2 + lb. of water per pound of refuse being often met with under + favourable conditions. + + From actual experience it may be accepted, therefore, that the + calorific value of unscreened house refuse varies from 1 to 2 lb. of + water evaporated per pound of refuse burned, the exact proportion + depending upon the quality and condition of the material dealt with. + Taking the evaporative power of coal at 10 lb. of water per pound of + coal, this gives for domestic house refuse a value of from {1/10} to + {1/5} that of coal; or, with coal at 20s. per ton, refuse has a + commercial value of from 2s. to 4s. per ton. In London the quantity of + house refuse amounts to about 1 1/4 million tons per annum, which is + equivalent to from 4 cwt. to 5 cwt. per head per annum. If it be + burned in furnaces giving an evaporation of 1 lb. of water per pound + of refuse, it would yield a total power annually of about 138 million + brake horse-power hours, and equivalent cost of coal at 20s. per ton + for this amount of power even when calculated upon the very low + estimate of 2 lb.[1] of coal per brake horse-power hour, works out at + over L123,000. On the same basis, the refuse of a medium-sized town, + with, say, a population of 70,000 yielding refuse at the rate of 5 + cwt. per head per annum, would afford 112 indicated horse-power per + ton burned, and the total indicated horse-power hours per annum would + be + + 70,000 x 5 cwt. + --------------- x 112 = 1,960,000 I.H.P. hours annually. + 20 + + If this were applied to the production of electric energy, the + electrical horse-power hours would be (with a dynamo efficiency of + 90%) + + 1,960,000 x 90 + -------------- = 1,764,000 E.H.P. hours per annum; + 100 + + and the watt-hours per annum at the central station would be + + 1,764,000 x 746 = 1,315,944,000. + + Allowing for a loss of 10% in distribution, this would give + 1,184,349,600 watt-hours available in lamps, or with 8-candle-power + lamps taking 30 watts of current per lamp, we should have + + 1,184,349,600 watt-hours + ------------------------ = 39,478,320 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum; + 30 watts + + 39,478,320 + that is, ----------------- = 563 8-c.p. lamp hours per annum per + 70,000 population head of population. + + Taking the loss due to the storage which would be necessary at 20% on + three-quarters of the total or 15% upon the whole, there would be 478 + 8-c.p. lamp-hours per annum per head of the population: i.e. if the + power developed from the refuse were fully utilized, it would supply + electric light at the rate of one 8-c.p. lamp per head of the + population for about 1{1/3} hours for every night of the year. + + [Sidenote: Difficulties.] + + In actual practice, when the electric energy is for the purposes of + lighting only, difficulty has been experienced in fully utilizing the + thermal energy from a destructor plant owing to the want of adequate + means of storage either of the thermal or of the electric energy. A + destructor station usually yields a fairly definite amount of thermal + energy uniformly throughout the 24 hours, while the consumption of + electric-lighting current is extremely irregular, the maximum demand + being about four times the mean demand. The period during which the + demand exceeds the mean is comparatively short, and does not exceed + about 6 hours out of the 24, while for a portion of the time the + demand may not exceed {1/20}th of the maximum. This difficulty, at + first regarded as somewhat grave, is substantially minimized by the + provision of ample boiler capacity, or by the introduction of feed + thermal storage vessels in which hot feed-water may be stored during + the hours of light load (say 18 out of the 24), so that at the time of + maximum load the boiler may be filled directly from these vessels, + which work at the same pressure and temperature as the boiler. + Further, the difficulty above mentioned will disappear entirely at + stations where there is a fair day load which practically ceases at + about the hour when the illuminating load comes on, thus equalizing + the demand upon both destructor and electric plant throughout the 24 + hours. This arises in cases where current is consumed during the day + for motors, fans, lifts, electric tramways, and other like purposes, + and, as the employment of electric energy for these services is + rapidly becoming general, no difficulty need be anticipated in the + successful working of combined destructor and electric plants where + these conditions prevail. The more uniform the electrical demand + becomes, the more fully may the power from a destructor station be + utilized. + + In addition to combination with electric-lighting works, refuse + destructors are now very commonly installed in conjunction with + various other classes of power-using undertakings, including tramways, + water-works, sewage-pumping, artificial slab-making and + clinker-crushing works and others; and the increasingly large sums + which are being yearly expended in combined undertakings of this + character is perhaps the strongest evidence of the practical value of + such combinations where these several classes of work must be carried + on. + + For further information on the subject, reference should be made to + William H. Maxwell, _Removal and Disposal of Town Refuse, with an + exhaustive treatment of Refuse Destructor Plants_ (London, 1899), with + a special _Supplement_ embodying later results (London, 1905). + + See also the _Proceedings of the Incorporated Association of Municipal + and County Engineers_, vols. xiii. p. 216, xxii. p. 211, xxiv. p. 214 + and xxv. p. 138; also the _Proceedings of the Institution of Civil + Engineers_, vols. cxxii. p. 443, cxxiv. p. 469, cxxxi. p. 413, + cxxxviii. p. 508, cxxix. p. 434, cxxx. pp. 213 and 347, cxxiii. pp. + 369 and 498, cxxviii. p. 293 and cxxxv. p. 300. (W. H. MA.) + +[1] With medium-sized steam plants, a consumption of 4 lb. of coal per +brake horse-power per hour is a very usual performance. + + +DE TABLEY, JOHN BYRNE LEICESTER WARREN, 3rd BARON (1835-1895), English +poet, eldest son of George Fleming Leicester (afterwards Warren), 2nd +Baron De Tabley, was born on the 26th of April 1835. He was educated at +Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree in 1856 with +second classes in classics and in law and modern history. In the autumn +of 1858 he went to Turkey as unpaid attache to Lord Stratford de +Redcliffe, and two years later was called to the bar. He became an +officer in the Cheshire Yeomanry, and unsuccessfully contested +Mid-Cheshire in 1868 as a Liberal. After his father's second marriage in +1871 he removed to London, where he became a close friend of Tennyson +for several years. From 1877 till his succession to the title in 1887 he +was lost to his friends, assuming the life of a recluse. It was not till +1892 that he returned to London life, and enjoyed a sort of renaissance +of reputation and friendship. During the later years of his life Lord De +Tabley made many new friends, besides reopening old associations, and he +almost seemed to be gathering around him a small literary company when +his health broke, and he died on the 22nd of November 1895 at Ryde, in +his sixty-first year. He was buried at Little Peover in Cheshire. +Although his reputation will live almost exclusively as that of a poet, +De Tabley was a man of many studious tastes. He was at one time an +authority on numismatics; he wrote two novels; published _A Guide to the +Study of Book Plates_ (1880); and the fruit of his careful researches in +botany was printed posthumously in his elaborate _Flora of Cheshire_ +(1899). Poetry, however, was his first and last passion, and to that he +devoted the best energies of his life. De Tabley's first impulse towards +poetry came from his friend George Fortescue, with whom he shared a +close companionship during his Oxford days, and whom he lost, as +Tennyson lost Hallam, within a few years of their taking their degrees. +Fortescue was killed by falling from the mast of Lord Drogheda's yacht +in November 1859, and this gloomy event plunged De Tabley into deep +depression. Between 1859 and 1862 De Tabley issued four little volumes +of pseudonymous verse (by G. F. Preston), in the production of which he +had been greatly stimulated by the sympathy of Fortescue. Once more he +assumed a pseudonym--his _Praeterita_ (1863) bearing the name of William +Lancaster. In the next year he published _Eclogues and Monodramas_, +followed in 1865 by _Studies in Verse_. These volumes all displayed +technical grace and much natural beauty; but it was not till the +publication of _Philoctetes_ in 1866 that De Tabley met with any wide +recognition. _Philoctetes_ bore the initials "M.A.," which, to the +author's dismay, were interpreted as meaning Matthew Arnold. He at once +disclosed his identity, and received the congratulations of his friends, +among whom were Tennyson, Browning and Gladstone. In 1867 he published +_Orestes_, in 1870 _Rehearsals_ and in 1873 _Searching the Net_. These +last two bore his own name, John Leicester Warren. He was somewhat +disappointed by their lukewarm reception, and when in 1876 _The Soldier +of Fortune_, a drama on which he had bestowed much careful labour, +proved a complete failure, he retired altogether from the literary +arena. It was not until 1893 that he was persuaded to return, and the +immediate success in that year of his _Poems, Dramatic and Lyrical_, +encouraged him to publish a second series in 1895, the year of his +death. The genuine interest with which these volumes were welcomed did +much to lighten the last years of a somewhat sombre and solitary life. +His posthumous poems were collected in 1902. The characteristics of De +Tabley's poetry are pre-eminently magnificence of style, derived from +close study of Milton, sonority, dignity, weight and colour. His passion +for detail was both a strength and a weakness: it lent a loving fidelity +to his description of natural objects, but it sometimes involved him in +a loss of simple effect from over-elaboration of treatment. He was +always a student of the classic poets, and drew much of his inspiration +directly from them. He was a true and a whole-hearted artist, who, as a +brother poet well said, "still climbed the clear cold altitudes of +song." His ambition was always for the heights, a region naturally +ice-bound at periods, but always a country of clear atmosphere and +bright, vivid outlines. + + See an excellent sketch by E. Gosse in his _Critical Kit-Kats_ (1896). + (A. WA.) + + +DETAILLE, JEAN BAPTISTE EDOUARD (1848- ), French painter, was born in +Paris on the 5th of October 1848. After working as a pupil of +Meissonier's, he first exhibited, in the Salon of 1867, a picture +representing "A Corner of Meissonier's Studio." Military life was from +the first a principal attraction to the young painter, and he gained his +reputation by depicting the scenes of a soldier's life with every detail +truthfully rendered. He exhibited "A Halt" (1868); "Soldiers at rest, +during the Manoeuvres at the Camp of Saint Maur" (1869); "Engagement +between Cossacks and the Imperial Guard, 1814" (1870). The war of +1870-71 furnished him with a series of subjects which gained him +repeated successes. Among his more important pictures may be named "The +Conquerors" (1872); "The Retreat" (1873); "The Charge of the 9th +Regiment of Cuirassiers in the Village of Morsbronn, 6th August 1870" +(1874); "The Marching Regiment, Paris, December 1874" (1875); "A +Reconnaissance" (1876); "Hail to the Wounded!" (1877); "Bonaparte in +Egypt" (1878); the "Inauguration of the New Opera House"--a +water-colour; the "Defence of Champigny by Faron's Division" (1879). He +also worked with Alphonse de Neuville on the panorama of Rezonville. In +1884 he exhibited at the Salon the "Evening at Rezonville," a panoramic +study, and "The Dream" (1888), now in the Luxemburg. Detaille recorded +other events in the military history of his country: the "Sortie of the +Garrison of Huningue" (now in the Luxemburg), the "Vincendon Brigade," +and "Bizerte," reminiscences of the expedition to Tunis. After a visit +to Russia, Detaille exhibited "The Cossacks of the Ataman" and "The +Hereditary Grand Duke at the Head of the Hussars of the Guard." Other +important works are: "Victims to Duty," "The Prince of Wales and the +Duke of Connaught" and "Pasteur's Funeral." In his picture of "Chalons, +9th October 1896," exhibited in the Salon, 1898, Detaille painted the +emperor and empress of Russia at a review, with M. Felix Faure. Detaille +became a member of the French Institute in 1898. + + See Marius Vachon, _Detaille_ (Paris, 1898); Frederic Masson, + _Edouard Detaille and his work_ (Paris and London, 1891); J. Claretie, + _Peintres et sculpteurs contemporains_ (Paris, 1876); G. Goetschy, + _Les Jeunes peintres militaires_ (Paris, 1878). + + +DETAINER (from _detain_, Lat. _detinere_), in law, the act of keeping a +person against his will, or the wrongful keeping of a person's goods, or +other real or personal property. A writ of detainer was a form for the +beginning of a personal action against a person already lodged within +the walls of a prison; it was superseded by the Judgment Act 1838. + + +DETERMINANT, in mathematics, a function which presents itself in the +solution of a system of simple equations. + +1. Considering the equations + + ax + by + cz = d, + a'x + b'y + c'z = d', + a"x + b"y + c"z = d", + +and proceeding to solve them by the so-called method of cross +multiplication, we multiply the equations by factors selected in such a +manner that upon adding the results the whole coefficient of y becomes = +0, and the whole coefficient of z becomes = 0; the factors in question +are b'c" - b"c', b"c - bc", bc' - b'c (values which, as at once seen, +have the desired property); we thus obtain an equation which contains on +the left-hand side only a multiple of x, and on the right-hand side a +constant term; the coefficient of x has the value + + a(b'c" - b"c') + a'(b"c - bc") + a"(bc' - b'c), + +and this function, represented in the form + + |a, b, c |, + |a', b', c'| + |a", b", c"| + +is said to be a determinant; or, the number of elements being 3 squared, it is +called a determinant of the third order. It is to be noticed that the +resulting equation is + + |a, b, c | x = |d, b, c | + |a', b', c'| |d', b', c'| + |a", b", c"| |d", b", c"| + +where the expression on the right-hand side is the like function with d, +d', d" in place of a, a', a" respectively, and is of course also a +determinant. Moreover, the functions b'c" - b"c', b"c - bc", bc' - b'c +used in the process are themselves the determinants of the second order + + |b', c'|, |b", c"|, |b, c |. + |b", c"| |b, c | |b', c'| + +We have herein the suggestion of the rule for the derivation of the +determinants of the orders 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., each from the preceding one, +viz. we have + + |a| = a, + + |a, b | = a|b'| - a'|b|. + |a', b'| + + |a, b, c | = a|b', c'| + a'|b", c"| + a"|b, c |, + |a', b', c'| |b", c"| |b , c | |b', c'| + |a", b", c"| + + |a, b , c , d | = a|b', c', d' | - a'|b" , c" , d" | + + |a', b' , c' , d' | |b", c", d" | |b"', c"', d"'| + |a", b" , c" , d" | |b"', c"', d"'| |b , c , d | + |a"', b"', c"', d"'| + + + a"|b"', c"', d"'| - a"'|b , c, d |, + |b , c , d | |b', c', d'| + |b' , c' , d' | |b", c", d"| + +and so on, the terms being all + for a determinant of an odd order, but +alternately + and - for a determinant of an even order. + +2. It is easy, by induction, to arrive at the general results:-- + +A determinant of the order n is the sum of the 1.2.3...n products which +can be formed with n elements out of n squared elements arranged in the form of +a square, no two of the n elements being in the same line or in the same +column, and each such product having the coefficient +- unity. + +The products in question may be obtained by permuting in every possible +manner the columns (or the lines) of the determinant, and then taking +for the factors the n elements in the dexter diagonal. And we thence +derive the rule for the signs, viz. considering the primitive +arrangement of the columns as positive, then an arrangement obtained +therefrom by a single interchange (inversion, or derangement) of two +columns is regarded as negative; and so in general an arrangement is +positive or negative according as it is derived from the primitive +arrangement by an even or an odd number of interchanges. [This implies +the theorem that a given arrangement can be derived from the primitive +arrangement only by an odd number, or else only by an even number of +interchanges,--a theorem the verification of which may be easily +obtained from the theorem (in fact a particular case of the general +one), an arrangement can be derived from itself only by an even number +of interchanges.] And this being so, each product has the sign belonging +to the corresponding arrangement of the columns; in particular, a +determinant contains with the sign + the product of the elements in its +dexter diagonal. It is to be observed that the rule gives as many +positive as negative arrangements, the number of each being = 1/2 1.2...n. + +The rule of signs may be expressed in a different form. Giving to the +columns in the primitive arrangement the numbers 1, 2, 3 ... n, to +obtain the sign belonging to any other arrangement we take, as often as +a lower number succeeds a higher one, the sign -, and, compounding +together all these minus signs, obtain the proper sign, + or - as the +case may be. + +Thus, for three columns, it appears by either rule that 123, 231, 312 +are positive; 213, 321, 132 are negative; and the developed expression +of the foregoing determinant of the third order is + + = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" + a"bc' - a"b'c. + +3. It further appears that a determinant is a linear function[1] of the +elements of each column thereof, and also a linear function of the +elements of each line thereof; moreover, that the determinant retains +the same value, only its sign being altered, when any two columns are +interchanged, or when any two lines are interchanged; more generally, +when the columns are permuted in any manner, or when the lines are +permuted in any manner, the determinant retains its original value, with +the sign + or - according as the new arrangement (considered as derived +from the primitive arrangement) is positive or negative according to the +foregoing rule of signs. It at once follows that, if two columns are +identical, or if two lines are identical, the value of the determinant +is = 0. It may be added, that if the lines are converted into columns, +and the columns into lines, in such a way as to leave the dexter +diagonal unaltered, the value of the determinant is unaltered; the +determinant is in this case said to be _transposed_. + +4. By what precedes it appears that there exists a function of the n squared +elements, linear as regards the terms of each column (or say, for +shortness, linear as to each column), and such that only the sign is +altered when any two columns are interchanged; these properties +completely determine the function, except as to a common factor which +may multiply all the terms. If, to get rid of this arbitrary common +factor, we assume that the product of the elements in the dexter +diagonal has the coefficient +1, we have a complete definition of the +determinant, and it is interesting to show how from these properties, +assumed for the definition of the determinant, it at once appears that +the determinant is a function serving for the solution of a system of +linear equations. Observe that the properties show at once that if any +column is = 0 (that is, if the elements in the column are each = 0), +then the determinant is = 0; and further, that if any two columns are +identical, then the determinant is = 0. + +5. Reverting to the system of linear equations written down at the +beginning of this article, consider the determinant + + |ax + by + cz - d , b , c |; + |a'x + b'y + c'z - d', b', c'| + |a"x + b"y + c"z - d", b", c"| + +it appears that this is + + = x|a , b , c | + y|b , b , c | + z|c , b , c | - |d , b , c |; + |a', b', c'| |b', b', c'| |c', b', c'| |d', b', c'| + |a", b", c"| |b", b", c"| |c", b", c"| |d", b", c"| + +viz. the second and third terms each vanishing, it is + + = x|a , b , c | - |d , b , c |. + |a', b', c'| |d', b', c'| + |a", b", c"| |d", b", c"| + +But if the linear equations hold good, then the first column of the +original determinant is = 0, and therefore the determinant itself is = 0; +that is, the linear equations give + + x|a , b , c | - |d , b , c | = 0; + |a', b', c'| |d', b', c'| + |a", b", c"| |d", b", c"| + +which is the result obtained above. + +We might in a similar way find the values of y and z, but there is a +more symmetrical process. Join to the original equations the new +equation + + [alpha]x + [beta]y + [gamma]z = [delta]; + +a like process shows that, the equations being satisfied, we have + + |[alpha], [beta], [gamma], [delta]| = 0; + | a , b , c , d | + | a' , b' , c' , d' | + | a" , b" , c" , d" | + +or, as this may be written, + + |[alpha], [beta], [gamma] | - [delta]| a , b , c | = 0: + | a , b , c , d | | a', b', c'| + | a' , b' , c' , d'| | a", b", c"| + | a" , b" , c" , d"| | | + +which, considering [delta] as standing herein for its value [alpha]x + +[beta]y + [gamma]z, is a consequence of the original equations only: we +have thus an expression for [alpha]x + [beta]y + [gamma]z, an arbitrary +linear function of the unknown quantities x, y, z; and by comparing the +coefficients of [alpha], [beta], [gamma] on the two sides respectively, +we have the values of x, y, z; in fact, these quantities, each +multiplied by + + |a , b , c |, + |a', b', c'| + |a", b", c"| + +are in the first instance obtained in the forms + + |1 |, | 1 |, | 1 |; + |a , b , c , d | |a , b , c , d | |a , b , c , d | + |a', b', c', d'| |a', b', c', d'| |a', b', c', d'| + |a", b", c", d"| |a", b", c", d"| |a", b", c", d"| + +but these are + + = |b , c , d |, - |c , d , a |, |d , a , b |, + |b', c', d'| |c', d', a'| |d', a', b'| + |b", c", d"| |c", d", a"| |d", a", b"| + +or, what is the same thing, + + = |b , c , d |, |c , a , d |, |a , b , d | + |b', c', d'| |c', a', d'| |a', b', d'| + |b", c", d"| |c", a", d"| |a", b", d"| + +respectively. + +6. _Multiplication of two Determinants of the same Order._--The theorem +is obtained very easily from the last preceding definition of a +determinant. It is most simply expressed thus-- + + ([alpha], [alpha]', [alpha]"), + ([beta],[beta]',[beta]"), + ([gamma],[gamma]',[gamma]") + +---------------------------------------+ + (a , b , c )| " " " | = + (a', b', c')| " " " | + (a", b", c")| " " " | + + = |a , b , c |. |[alpha] , [beta] , [gamma] |, + |a', b', c'| |[alpha]', [beta]', [gamma]'| + |a", b", c"| |[alpha]", [beta]", [gamma]"| + +where the expression on the left side stands for a determinant, the +terms of the first line being (a, b, c)([alpha], [alpha]', [alpha]"), +that is, a[alpha] + b[alpha]' + c[alpha]", (a, b, c)([beta], [beta]', +[beta]"), that is, a[beta] + b[beta]' + c[beta]", (a, b, c)([gamma], +[gamma]', [gamma]"), that is a[gamma] + b[gamma]' + c[gamma]"; and +similarly the terms in the second and third lines are the life functions +with (a', b', c') and (a", b", c") respectively. + +There is an apparently arbitrary transposition of lines and columns; the +result would hold good if on the left-hand side we had written ([alpha], +[beta], [gamma]), ([alpha]', [beta]', [gamma]'), ([alpha]", [beta]", +[gamma]"), or what is the same thing, if on the right-hand side we had +transposed the second determinant; and either of these changes would, it +might be thought, increase the elegance of the form, but, for a reason +which need not be explained,[2] the form actually adopted is the +preferable one. + +To indicate the method of proof, observe that the determinant on the +left-hand side, _qua_ linear function of its columns, may be broken up +into a sum of (3 cubed =) 27 determinants, each of which is either of some +such form as + + = [alpha][beta][gamma]'|a , a , b |, + |a', a', b'| + |a", a", b"| + + +where the term [alpha][beta][gamma]' is not a term of the +[alpha][beta][gamma]-determinant, and its coefficient (as a determinant +with two identical columns) vanishes; or else it is of a form such as + + = [alpha][beta]'[gamma]"|a , b , c |, + |a', b', c'| + |a", b", c"| + +that is, every term which does not vanish contains as a factor the +abc-determinant last written down; the sum of all other factors +- +[alpha][beta]'[gamma]" is the [alpha][beta][gamma]-determinant of the +formula; and the final result then is, that the determinant on the +left-hand side is equal to the product on the right-hand side of the +formula. + +7. _Decomposition of a Determinant into complementary +Determinants._--Consider, for simplicity, a determinant of the fifth +order, 5 = 2 + 3, and let the top two lines be + + a , b , c , d , e + a', b', c', d', e' + +then, if we consider how these elements enter into the determinant, it +is at once seen that they enter only through the determinants of the +second order |a , b |, &c., which can be formed by selecting any two + |a', b'| +columns at pleasure. Moreover, representing the remaining three lines by + + a" , b" , c" , d" , e" + a"', b"', c"', d"', e"' + a"", b"", c"", d"", e"" + +it is further seen that the factor which multiplies the determinant +formed with any two columns of the first set is the determinant of the +third order formed with the complementary three columns of the second +set; and it thus appears that the determinant of the fifth order is a +sum of all the products of the form + + = |a , b | |c" , d" , e" |, + |a', b"| |c"', d"', e"'| + |c"", d"", e""| + +the sign +- being in each case such that the sign of the term +- +ab'c"d'"e"" obtained from the diagonal elements of the component +determinants may be the actual sign of this term in the determinant of +the fifth order; for the product written down the sign is obviously +. + +Observe that for a determinant of the n-th order, taking the +decomposition to be 1 + (n - 1), we fall back upon the equations given +at the commencement, in order to show the genesis of a determinant. + +8. Any determinant |a , b | formed out of the elements of the original + |a', b'| +determinant, by selecting the lines and columns at pleasure, is termed a +_minor_ of the original determinant; and when the number of lines and +columns, or order of the determinant, is n-1, then such determinant is +called a _first minor_; the number of the first minors is = n squared, the +first minors, in fact, corresponding to the several elements of the +determinant--that is, the coefficient therein of any term whatever is +the corresponding first minor. The first minors, each divided by the +determinant itself, form a system of elements _inverse_ to the elements +of the determinant. + +A determinant is _symmetrical_ when every two elements symmetrically +situated in regard to the dexter diagonal are equal to each other; if +they are equal and opposite (that is, if the sum of the two elements be += 0), this relation not extending to the diagonal elements themselves, +which remain arbitrary, then the determinant is _skew_; but if the +relation does extend to the diagonal terms (that is, if these are each = +0), then the determinant is _skew symmetrical_; thus the determinants + + |a, h, g|; | a , [nu], - [mu]|; | 0, [nu], - [mu]| + |h, b, f| |- [nu], b,[lambda]| |- [nu], 0,[lambda]| + |g, f, c| | [mu],-[lambda], c | | [mu],- [lambda], 0| + +are respectively symmetrical, skew and skew symmetrical: + +The theory admits of very extensive algebraic developments, and +applications in algebraical geometry and other parts of mathematics. For +further developments of the theory of determinants see ALGEBRAIC FORMS. + (A. CA.) + + 9. _History._--These functions were originally known as "resultants," + a name applied to them by Pierre Simon Laplace, but now replaced by + the title "determinants," a name first applied to certain forms of + them by Carl Friedrich Gauss. The germ of the theory of determinants + is to be found in the writings of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1693), + who incidentally discovered certain properties when reducing the + eliminant of a system of linear equations. Gabriel Cramer, in a note + to his _Analyse des lignes courbes algebriques_ (1750), gave the rule + which establishes the sign of a product as _plus_ or _minus_ according + as the number of displacements from the typical form has been even or + odd. Determinants were also employed by Etienne Bezout in 1764, but + the first connected account of these functions was published in 1772 + by Charles Auguste Vandermonde. Laplace developed a theorem of + Vandermonde for the expansion of a determinant, and in 1773 Joseph + Louis Lagrange, in his memoir on _Pyramids_, used determinants of the + third order, and proved that the square of a determinant was also a + determinant. Although he obtained results now identified with + determinants, Lagrange did not discuss these functions systematically. + In 1801 Gauss published his _Disquisitiones arithmeticae_, which, + although written in an obscure form, gave a new impetus to + investigations on this and kindred subjects. To Gauss is due the + establishment of the important theorem, that the product of two + determinants both of the second and third orders is a determinant. The + formulation of the general theory is due to Augustin Louis Cauchy, + whose work was the forerunner of the brilliant discoveries made in the + following decades by Hoene-Wronski and J. Binet in France, Carl Gustav + Jacobi in Germany, and James Joseph Sylvester and Arthur Cayley in + England. Jacobi's researches were published in _Crelle's Journal_ + (1826-1841). In these papers the subject was recast and enriched by + new and important theorems, through which the name of Jacobi is + indissolubly associated with this branch of science. The far-reaching + discoveries of Sylvester and Cayley rank as one of the most important + developments of pure mathematics. Numerous new fields were opened up, + and have been diligently explored by many mathematicians. + Skew-determinants were studied by Cayley; axisymmetric-determinants by + Jacobi, V. A. Lebesque, Sylvester and O. Hesse, and centro-symmetric + determinants by W. R. F. Scott and G. Zehfuss. Continuants have been + discussed by Sylvester; alternants by Cauchy, Jacobi, N. Trudi, H. + Nagelbach and G. Garbieri; circulants by E. Catalan, W. Spottiswoode + and J. W. L. Glaisher, and Wronskians by E. B. Christoffel and G. + Frobenius. Determinants composed of binomial coefficients have been + studied by V. von Zeipel; the expression of definite integrals as + determinants by A. Tissot and A. Enneper, and the expression of + continued fractions as determinants by Jacobi, V. Nachreiner, S. + Guenther and E. Fuerstenau. (See T. Muir, _Theory of Determinants_, + 1906). + +[1] The expression, a linear function, is here used in its narrowest +sense, a linear function without constant term; what is meant is that +the determinant is in regard to the elements a, a', a", ... of any +column or line thereof, a function of the form Aa + A'a' + A"a" + ... +without any term independent of a, a', a" ... + +[2] The reason is the connexion with the corresponding theorem for the +multiplication of two matrices. + + +DETERMINISM (Lat. _determinare_, to prescribe or limit), in ethics, the +name given to the theory that all moral choice, so called, is the +determined or necessary result of psychological and other conditions. It +is opposed to the various doctrines of Free-Will, known as voluntarism, +libertarianism, indeterminism, and is from the ethical standpoint more +or less akin to necessitarianism and fatalism. There are various degrees +of determinism. It may be held that every action is causally connected +not only externally with the sum of the agent's environment, but also +internally with his motives and impulses. In other words, if we could +know exactly all these conditions, we should be able to forecast with +mathematical certainty the course which the agent would pursue. In this +theory the agent cannot be held responsible for his action in any sense. +It is the extreme antithesis of Indeterminism or Indifferentism, the +doctrine that a man is absolutely free to choose between alternative +courses (the _liberum arbitrium indifferentiae_). Since, however, the +evidence of ordinary consciousness almost always goes to prove that the +individual, especially in relation to future acts, regards himself as +being free within certain limitations to make his own choice of +alternatives, many determinists go so far as to admit that there may be +in any action which is neither reflex nor determined by external causes +solely an element of freedom. This view is corroborated by the +phenomenon of remorse, in which the agent feels that he ought to, and +could, have chosen a different course of action. These two kinds of +determinism are sometimes distinguished as "hard" and "soft" +determinism. The controversy between determinism and libertarianism +hinges largely on the significance of the word "motive"; indeed in no +other philosophical controversy has so much difficulty been caused by +purely verbal disputation and ambiguity of expression. How far, and in +what sense, can action which is determined by motives be said to be +free? For a long time the advocates of free-will, in their eagerness to +preserve moral responsibility, went so far as to deny all motives as +influencing moral action. Such a contention, however, clearly defeats +its own object by reducing all action to chance. On the other hand, the +scientific doctrine of evolution has gone far towards obliterating the +distinction between external and internal compulsion, e.g. motives, +character and the like. In so far as man can be shown to be the product +of, and a link in, a long chain of causal development, so far does it +become impossible to regard him as self-determined. Even in his motives +and his impulses, in his mental attitude towards outward surroundings, +in his appetites and aversions, inherited tendency and environment have +been found to play a very large part; indeed many thinkers hold that the +whole of a man's development, mental as well as physical, is determined +by external conditions. + +In the Bible the philosophical-religious problem is nowhere discussed, +but Christian ethics as set forth in the New Testament assumes +throughout the freedom of the human will. It has been argued by +theologians that the doctrine of divine fore-knowledge, coupled with +that of the divine origin of all things, necessarily implies that all +human action was fore-ordained from the beginning of the world. Such an +inference is, however, clearly at variance with the whole doctrine of +sin, repentance and the atonement, as also with that of eternal reward +and punishment, which postulates a real measure of human responsibility. + +For the history of the free-will controversy see the articles, WILL, +PREDESTINATION (for the theological problems), ETHICS. + + +DETINUE (O. Fr. _detenue_, from _detenir_, to hold back), in law, an +action whereby one who has an absolute or a special property in goods +seeks to recover from another who is in actual possession and refuses to +redeliver them. If the plaintiff succeeds in an action of detinue, the +judgment is that he recover the chattel or, if it cannot be had, its +value, which is assessed by the judge and jury, and also certain damages +for detaining the same. An order for the restitution of the specific +goods may be enforced by a special writ of execution, called a writ of +delivery. (See CONTRACT; TROVER.) + + +DETMOLD, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of +Lippe-Detmold, beautifully situated on the east slope of the Teutoburger +Wald, 25 m. S. of Minden, on the Herford-Altenbeken line of the Prussian +state railways. Pop. (1905) 13,164. The residential chateau of the +princes of Lippe-Detmold (1550), in the Renaissance style, is an +imposing building, lying with its pretty gardens nearly in the centre of +the town; whilst at the entrance to the large park on the south is the +New Palace (1708-1718), enlarged in 1850, used as the dower-house. +Detmold possesses a natural history museum, theatre, high school, +library, the house in which the poet Ferdinand Freiligrath (1810-1876) +was born, and that in which the dramatist Christian Dietrich Grabbe +(1801-1836), also a native, died. The leading industries are +linen-weaving, tanning, brewing, horse-dealing and the quarrying of +marble and gypsum. About 3 m. to the south-west of the town is the +Grotenburg, with Ernst von Bandel's colossal statue of Hermann or +Arminius, the leader of the Cherusci. Detmold (Thiatmelli) was in 783 +the scene of a conflict between the Saxons and the troops of +Charlemagne. + + +DETROIT, the largest city of Michigan, U.S.A., and the county-seat of +Wayne county, on the Detroit river opposite Windsor, Canada, about 4 m. +W. from the outlet of Lake St Clair and 18 m. above Lake Erie. Pop. +(1880) 116,340; (1890) 205,876; (1900) 285,704, of whom 96,503 were +foreign-born and 4111 were negroes; (1910 census) 465,766. Of the +foreign-born in 1900, 32,027 were Germans and 10,703 were German Poles, +25,403 were English Canadians and 3541 French Canadians, 6347 were +English and 6412 were Irish. Detroit is served by the Michigan Central, +the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Wabash, the Grand Trunk, the +Pere Marquette, the Detroit & Toledo Shore Line, the Detroit, Toledo & +Ironton and the Canadian Pacific railways. Two belt lines, one 2 m. to 3 +m., and the other 6 m. from the centre of the city, connect the factory +districts with the main railway lines. Trains are ferried across the +river to Windsor, and steamboats make daily trips to Cleveland, +Wyandotte, Mount Clemens, Port Huron, to less important places between, +and to several Canadian ports. Detroit is also the S. terminus for +several lines to more remote lake ports, and electric lines extend from +here to Port Huron, Flint, Pontiac, Jackson, Toledo and Grand Rapids. + +The city extended in 1907 over about 41 sq. m., an increase from 29 sq. +m. in 1900 and 36 sq. m. in 1905. Its area in proportion to its +population is much greater than that of most of the larger cities of the +United States. Baltimore, for example, had in 1904 nearly 70% more +inhabitants (estimated), while its area at that time was a little less +and in 1907 was nearly one-quarter less than that of Detroit. The ground +within the city limits as well as that for several miles farther back is +quite level, but rises gradually from the river bank, which is only a +few feet in height. The Detroit river, along which the city extends for +about 10 m., is here 1/2 m. wide and 30 ft. to 40 ft. deep; its current is +quite rapid; its water, a beautiful clear blue; at its mouth it has a +width of about 10 m., and in the river there are a number of islands, +which during the summer are popular resorts. The city has a 3 m. +frontage on the river Rouge, an estuary of the Detroit, with a 16 ft. +channel. Before the fire by which the city was destroyed in 1805, the +streets were only 12 ft. wide and were unpaved and extremely dirty. But +when the rebuilding began, several avenues from 100 ft. to 200 ft. wide +were--through the influence of Augustus B. Woodward (c. 1775-1827), one +of the territorial judges at the time and an admirer of the plan of the +city of Washington--made to radiate from two central points. From a half +circle called the Grand Circus there radiate avenues 120 ft. and 200 ft. +wide. About 1/4 m. toward the river from this was established another +focal point called the Campus Martius, 600 ft. long and 400 ft. wide, at +which commence radiating or cross streets 80 ft. and 100 ft. wide. +Running north from the river through the Campus Martius and the Grand +Circus is Woodward Avenue, 120 ft. wide, dividing the present city, as +it did the old town, into nearly equal parts. Parallel with the river is +Jefferson Avenue, also 120 ft. wide. The first of these avenues is the +principal retail street along its lower portion, and is a residence +avenue for 4 m. beyond this. Jefferson is the principal wholesale street +at the lower end, and a fine residence avenue E. of this. Many of the +other residence streets are 80 ft. wide. The setting of shade trees was +early encouraged, and large elms and maples abound. The intersections of +the diagonal streets left a number of small, triangular parks, which, as +well as the larger ones, are well shaded. The streets are paved mostly +with asphalt and brick, though cedar and stone have been much used, and +kreodone block to some extent. In few, if any, other American cities of +equal size are the streets and avenues kept so clean. The Grand +Boulevard, 150 ft. to 200 ft. in width and 12 m. in length, has been +constructed around the city except along the river front. A very large +proportion of the inhabitants of Detroit own their homes: there are no +large congested tenement-house districts; and many streets in various +parts of the city are faced with rows of low and humble cottages often +having a garden plot in front. + +Of the public buildings the city hall (erected 1868-1871), overlooking +the Campus Martius, is in Renaissance style, in three storeys; the +flagstaff from the top of the tower reaches a height of 200 ft. On the +four corners above the first section of the tower are four figures, each +14 ft. in height, to represent Justice, Industry, Art and Commerce, and +on the same level with these is a clock weighing 7670 lb--one of the +largest in the world. In front of the building stands the Soldiers' and +Sailors' monument, 60 ft. high, designed by Randolph Rogers (1825-1892) +and unveiled in 1872. At each of the four corners in each of three +sections rising one above the other are bronze eagles and figures +representing the United States Infantry, Marine, Cavalry and Artillery, +also Victory, Union, Emancipation and History; the figure by which the +monument is surmounted was designed to symbolize Michigan. A larger and +more massive and stately building than the city hall is the county +court house, facing Cadillac Square, with a lofty tower surmounted by a +gilded dome. The Federal building is a massive granite structure, finely +decorated in the interior. Among the churches of greatest architectural +beauty are the First Congregational, with a fine Byzantine interior, St +John's Episcopal, the Woodward Avenue Baptist and the First +Presbyterian, all on Woodward Avenue, and St. Anne's and Sacred Heart of +Mary, both Roman Catholic. The municipal museum of art, in Jefferson +Avenue, contains some unusually interesting Egyptian and Japanese +collections, the Scripps' collection of old masters, other valuable +paintings, and a small library; free lectures on art are given here +through the winter. The public library had 228,500 volumes in 1908, +including one of the best collections of state and town histories in the +country. A large private collection, owned by C. M. Burton and relating +principally to the history of Detroit, is also open to the public. The +city is not rich in outdoor works of art. The principal ones are the +Merrill fountain and the soldiers' monument on the Campus Martius, and a +statue of Mayor Pingree in West Grand Circus Park. + +The parks of Detroit are numerous and their total area is about 1200 +acres. By far the most attractive is Belle Isle, an island in the river +at the E. end of the city, purchased in 1879 and having an area of more +than 700 acres. The Grand Circus Park of 4 1/2 acres, with its trees, +flowers and fountains, affords a pleasant resting place in the busiest +quarter of the city. Six miles farther out on Woodward Avenue is Palmer +Park of about 140 acres, given to the city in 1894 and named in honour +of the donor. Clark Park (28 acres) is in the W. part of the city, and +there are various smaller parks. The principal cemeteries are Elmwood +(Protestant) and Mount Elliott (Catholic), which lie adjoining in the E. +part of the city; Woodmere in the W. and Woodlawn in the N. part of the +city. + +_Charity and Education._--Among the charitable institutions are the +general hospitals (Harper, Grace and St Mary's); the Detroit Emergency, +the Children's Free and the United States Marine hospitals; St Luke's +hospital, church home, and orphanage; the House of Providence (a +maternity hospital and infant asylum); the Woman's hospital and +foundling's home; the Home for convalescent children, &c. In 1894 the +mayor, Hazen Senter Pingree (1842-1901), instituted the practice of +preparing, through municipal aid and supervision, large tracts of vacant +land in and about the city for the growing of potatoes and other +vegetables and then, in conjunction with the board of poor +commissioners, assigning it in small lots to families of the unemployed, +and furnishing them with seed for planting. This plan served an +admirable purpose through three years of industrial depression, and was +copied in other cities; it was abandoned when, with the renewal of +industrial activity, the necessity for it ceased. The leading penal +institution of the city is the Detroit House of Correction, noted for +its efficient reformatory work; the inmates are employed ten hours a +day, chiefly in making furniture. The house of correction pays the city +a profit of $35,000 to $40,000 a year. The educational institutions, in +addition to those of the general public school system, include several +parochial schools, schools of art and of music, and commercial colleges; +Detroit College (Catholic), opened in 1877; the Detroit College of +Medicine, opened in 1885; the Michigan College of Medicine and Surgery, +opened in 1888; the Detroit College of law, founded in 1891, and a city +normal school. + +_Commerce._--Detroit's location gives to the city's shipping and +shipbuilding interests a high importance. All the enormous traffic +between the upper and lower lakes passes through the Detroit river. In +1907 the number of vessels recorded was 34,149, with registered tonnage +of 53,959,769, carrying 71,226,895 tons of freight, valued at +$697,311,302. This includes vessels which delivered part or all of their +cargo at Detroit. The largest item in the freights is iron ore on +vessels bound down. The next is coal on vessels up bound. Grain and +lumber are the next largest items. Detroit is a port of entry, and its +foreign commerce, chiefly with Canada, is of growing importance. The +city's exports increased from $11,325,807 in 1896 to $37,085,027 in +1909. The imports were $3,153,609 in 1896 and $7,100,659 in 1909. + +As a manufacturing city, Detroit holds high rank. The total number of +manufacturing establishments in 1890 was 1746, with a product for the +year valued at $77,351,546; in 1900 there were 2847 establishments with +a product for the year valued at $100,892,838; or an increase of 30.4% +in the decade. In 1900 the establishments under the factory system, +omitting the hand trades and neighbourhood industries, numbered 1259 and +produced goods valued at $88,365,924; in 1904 establishments under the +factory system numbered 1363 and the product had increased 45.7% to +$128,761,658. In the district subsequently annexed the product in 1904 +was about $12,000,000, making a total of $140,000,000. The output for +1906 was estimated at $180,000,000. The state factory inspectors in 1905 +visited 1721 factories having 83,231 employees. In 1906 they inspected +1790 factories with 93,071 employees. Detroit is the leading city in the +country in the manufacture of automobiles. In 1904 the value of its +product was one-fifth that for the whole country. In 1906 the city had +twenty automobile factories, with an output of 11,000 cars, valued at +$12,000,000. Detroit is probably the largest manufacturer in the country +of freight cars, stoves, pharmaceutical preparations, varnish, soda ash +and similar alkaline products. Other important manufactures are ships, +paints, foundry and machine shop products, brass goods, furniture, boots +and shoes, clothing, matches, cigars, malt liquors and fur goods; and +slaughtering and meat packing is an important industry. + +The Detroit Board of Commerce, organized in 1903, brought into one +association the members of three former bodies, making a compact +organization with civic as well as commercial aims. The board has +brought into active co-operation nearly all the leading business men of +the city and many of the professional men. Their united efforts have +brought many new industries to the city, have improved industrial +conditions, and have exerted a beneficial influence upon the municipal +administration. Other business organizations are the Board of Trade, +devoted to the grain trade and kindred lines, the Employers' +Association, which seeks to maintain satisfactory relations between +employer and employed, the Builders' & Traders' Exchange, and the Credit +Men's Association. + +_Administration._--Although the city received its first charter in 1806, +and another in 1815, the real power rested in the hands of the governor +and judges of the territory until 1824; the charters of 1824 and 1827 +centred the government in a council and made the list of elective +officers long; the charter of 1827 was revised in 1857 and again in 1859 +and the present charter dates from 1883. Under this charter only three +administrative officers are elected,--the mayor, the city clerk and the +city treasurer,--elections being biennial. The administration of the +city departments is largely in the hands of commissions. There is one +commissioner each, appointed by the mayor, for the parks and boulevards, +police and public works departments. The four members of the health +board are nominated by the governor and confirmed by the state senate. +The school board is an independent body, consisting of one elected +member from each ward holding office for four years, but the mayor has +the veto power over its proceedings as well as those of the common +council. In each case a two-thirds vote overrules his veto. The other +principal officers and commissions, appointed by the mayor and confirmed +by the council, are controller, corporation counsel, board of three +assessors, fire commission (four members), public lighting commission +(six members), water commission (five members), poor commission (four +members), and inspectors of the house of correction (four in number). +The members of the public library commission, six in number, are elected +by the board of education. Itemized estimates of expenses for the next +fiscal year are furnished by the different departments to the controller +in February. He transmits them to the common council with his +recommendations. The council has four weeks in which to consider them. +It may reduce or increase the amounts asked, and may add new items. The +budget then goes to the board of estimates, which has a month for its +consideration. This body consists of two members elected from each ward +and five elected at large. The mayor and heads of departments are +advisory members, and may speak but not vote. The members of the board +of estimates can hold no other office and they have no appointing power, +the intention being to keep them as free as possible from all political +motives and influences. They may reduce or cut out any estimates +submitted, but cannot increase any or add new ones. No bonds can be +issued without the assent of the board of estimates. The budget is +apportioned among twelve committees which have almost invariably given +close and conscientious examination to the actual needs of the +departments. A reduction of $1,000,000 to $1,500,000, without impairing +the service, has been a not unusual result of their deliberations. +Prudent management under this system has placed the city in the highest +rank financially. Its debt limit is 2% on the assessed valuation, and +even that low maximum is not often reached. The debt in 1907 was only +about $5,500,000, a smaller _per capita_ debt than that of any other +city of over 100,000 inhabitants in the country; the assessed valuation +was $330,000,000; the city tax, $14.70 on the thousand dollars of +assessed valuation. Both the council and the estimators are hampered in +their work by legislative interference. Nearly all the large salaries +and many of those of the second grade are made mandatory by the +legislature, which has also determined many affairs of a purely +administrative character. + +Detroit has made three experiments with municipal ownership. On account +of inadequate and unsatisfactory service by a private company, the city +bought the water-works as long ago as 1836. The works have been twice +moved and enlargements have been made in advance of the needs of the +city. In 1907 there were six engines in the works with a pumping +capacity of 152,000,000 gallons daily. The daily average of water used +during the preceding year was 61,357,000 gallons. The water is pumped +from Lake St Clair and is of exceptional purity. The city began its own +public lighting in April 1895, having a large plant on the river near +the centre of the city. It lights the streets and public buildings, but +makes no provision for commercial business. The lighting is excellent, +and the cost is probably less than could be obtained from a private +company. The street lighting is done partly from pole and arm lights, +but largely from steel towers from 100 ft. to 180 ft. in height, with +strong reflected lights at the top. The city also owns two portable +asphalt plants, and thus makes a saving in the cost of street repairing +and resurfacing. With a view of effecting the reduction of street car +fares to three cents, the state legislature in 1899 passed an act for +purchasing or leasing the street railways of the city, but the Supreme +Court pronounced this act unconstitutional on the ground that, as the +constitution prohibited the state from engaging in a work of internal +improvement, the state could not empower a municipality to do so. +Certain test votes indicated an almost even division on the question of +municipal ownership of the railways. + +_History._--Detroit was founded in 1701 by Antoine Laumet de la Mothe +Cadillac (c. 1661-1730), who had pointed out the importance of the place +as a strategic point for determining the control of the fur trade and +the possession of the North-west and had received assistance from the +French government soon after Robert Livingston (1654-1725), the +secretary of the Board of Indian Commissioners in New York, had urged +the English government to establish a fort at the same place. Cadillac +arrived on the 24th of July with about 100 followers. They at once built +a palisade fort about 200 ft. square S. of what is now Jefferson Avenue +and between Griswold and Shelby streets, and named it Fort Pontchartrain +in honour of the French colonial minister. Indians at once came to the +place in large numbers, but they soon complained of the high price of +French goods; there was serious contention between Cadillac and the +French Canadian Fur Company, to which a monopoly of the trade had been +granted, as well as bitter rivalry between him and the Jesuits. After +the several parties had begun to complain to the home government the +monopoly of the fur trade was transferred to Cadillac and he was +exhorted to cease quarrelling with the Jesuits. Although the +inhabitants then increased to 200 or more, dissatisfaction with the +paternal rule of the founder increased until 1710, when he was made +governor of Louisiana. The year before, the soldiers had been withdrawn; +by the second year after there was serious trouble with the Indians, and +for several years following the population was greatly reduced and the +post threatened with extinction. But in 1722, when the Mississippi +country was opened, the population once more increased, and again in +1748, when the settlement of the Ohio Valley began, the governor-general +of Canada offered special inducements to Frenchmen to settle at Detroit, +with the result that the population was soon more than 1000 and the +cultivation of farms in the vicinity was begun. In 1760, however, the +place was taken by the British under Colonel Robert Rogers and an +English element was introduced into the population which up to this time +had been almost exclusively French. Three years later, during the +conspiracy of Pontiac, the fort first narrowly escaped capture and then +suffered from a siege lasting from the 9th of May until the 12th of +October. Under English rule it continued from this time on as a military +post with its population usually reduced to less than 500. In 1778 a new +fort was built and named Fort Lernault, and during the War of +Independence the British sent forth from here several Indian expeditions +to ravage the frontiers. With the ratification of the treaty which +concluded that war the title to the post passed to the United States in +1783, but the post itself was not surrendered until the 11th of January +1796, in accordance with Jay's Treaty of 1794. It was then named Fort +Shelby; but in 1802 it was incorporated as a town and received its +present name. In 1805 all except one or two buildings were destroyed by +fire. General William Hull (1753-1825), a veteran of the War of American +Independence, governor of Michigan territory in 1805-1812, as commander +of the north-western army in 1812 occupied the city. Failing to hear +immediately of the declaration of war between the United States and +Great Britain, he was cut off from his supplies shipped by Lake Erie. He +made from Detroit on the 12th of July an awkward and futile advance into +Canada, which, if more vigorous, might have resulted in the capture of +Malden and the establishment of American troops in Canada, and then +retired to his fortifications. On the 16th of August 1812, without any +resistance and without consulting his officers, he surrendered the city +to General Brock, for reasons of humanity, and afterwards attempted to +justify himself by criticism of the War Department in general and in +particular of General Henry Dearborn's armistice with Prevost, which had +not included in its terms Hull, whom Dearborn had been sent out to +reinforce.[1] After Perry's victory on the 14th of September on Lake +Erie, Detroit on the 29th of September was again occupied by the forces +of the United States. Its growth was rather slow until 1830, but since +then its progress has been unimpeded. Detroit was the capital of +Michigan from 1805 to 1847. + + AUTHORITIES.--Silas Farmer, _The History of Detroit and Michigan_ + (Detroit, 1884 and 1889), and "Detroit, the Queen City," in L. P. + Powell's _Historic Towns of the Western States_ (New York and London, + 1901); D. F. Wilcox, "Municipal Government in Michigan and Ohio," in + _Columbia University Studies_ (New York, 1896); C. M. Burton, + _"Cadillac's Village" or Detroit under Cadillac_ (Detroit, 1896); + Francis Parkman, _A Half Century of Conflict_ (Boston, 1897); and _The + Conspiracy of Pontiac_ (Boston, 1898); and the annual _Reports_ of the + Detroit Board of Commerce (1904 sqq.). + +[1] Hull was tried at Albany in 1814 by court martial, General Dearborn +presiding, was found guilty of treason, cowardice, neglect of duty and +unofficerlike conduct, and was sentenced to be shot; the president +remitted the sentence because of Hull's services in the Revolution. + + +DETTINGEN, a village of Germany in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the Main, +and on the Frankfort-on-Main-Aschaffenburg railway, 10 m. N.W. of +Aschaffenburg. It is memorable as the scene of a decisive battle on the +27th of June 1743, when the English, Hanoverians and Austrians (the +"Pragmatic army"), 42,000 men under the command of George II. of +England, routed the numerically superior French forces under the duc de +Noailles. It was in memory of this victory that Handel composed his +_Dettingen Te Deum_. + + +DEUCALION, in Greek legend, son of Prometheus, king of Phthia in +Thessaly, husband of Pyrrha, and father of Hellen, the mythical ancestor +of the Hellenic race. When Zeus had resolved to destroy all mankind by a +flood, Deucalion constructed a boat or ark, in which, after drifting +nine days and nights, he landed on Mount Parnassus (according to others, +Othrys, Aetna or Athos) with his wife. Having offered sacrifice and +inquired how to renew the human race, they were ordered to cast behind +them the "bones of the great mother," that is, the stones from the +hillside. The stones thrown by Deucalion became men, those thrown by +Pyrrha, women. + + See Apollodorus i. 7, 2; Ovid, _Metam._ i. 243-415; Apollonius Rhodius + iii. 1085 ff.; H. Usener, _Die Sintflutsagen_ (1899). + + +DEUCE (a corruption of the Fr. _deux_, two), a term applied to the "two" +of any suit of cards, or of dice. It is also a term used in tennis when +both sides have each scored three points in a game, or five games in a +set; to win the game or set two points or games must then be won +consecutively. The earliest instances in English of the use of the slang +expression "the deuce," in exclamations and the like, date from the +middle of the 17th century. The meaning was similar to that of "plague" +or "mischief" in such phrases as "plague on you," "mischief take you" +and the like. The use of the word as an euphemism for "the devil" is +later. According to the _New English Dictionary_ the most probable +derivation is from a Low German _das daus_, i.e. the "deuce" in dice, +the lowest and therefore the most unlucky throw. The personification, +with a consequent change of gender, to _der daus_, came later. The word +has also been identified with the name of a giant or goblin in Teutonic +mythology. + + +DEUS, JOAO DE (1830-1896), the greatest Portuguese poet of his +generation, was born at San Bartholomeu de Messines in the province of +Algarve on the 8th of March 1830. Matriculating in the faculty of law at +the university of Coimbra, he did not proceed to his degree but settled +in the city, dedicating himself wholly to the composition of verses, +which circulated among professors and undergraduates in manuscript +copies. In the volume of his art, as in the conduct of life, he +practised a rigorous self-control. He printed nothing previous to 1855, +and the first of his poems to appear in a separate form was _La Lata_, +in 1860. In 1862 he left Coimbra for Beja, where he was appointed editor +of _O Bejense_, the chief newspaper in the province of Alemtejo, and +four years later he edited the _Folha do Sul_. As the pungent satirical +verses entitled _Eleicoes_ prove, he was not an ardent politician, and, +though he was returned as Liberal deputy for the constituency of Silves +in 1869, he acted independently of all political parties and promptly +resigned his mandate. The renunciation implied in the act, which cut him +off from all advancement, is in accord with nearly all that is known of +his lofty character. In the year of his election as deputy, his friend +Jose Antonio Garcia Blanco collected from local journals the series of +poems, _Flores do campo_, which is supplemented by the _Ramo de flores_ +(1869). This is Joao de Deus's masterpiece. _Pires de Marmalada_ (1869) +is an improvisation of no great merit. The four theatrical +pieces--_Amemos o nosso proximo_, _Ser apresentado_, _Ensaio de +Casamento_, and _A Viuva inconsolavel_--are prose translations from +Mery, cleverly done, but not worth the doing. _Horacio e Lydia_ (1872), +a translation from Ronsard, is a good example of artifice in +manipulating that dangerously monotonous measure, the Portuguese +couplet. As an indication of a strong spiritual reaction three prose +fragments (1873)--_Anna, Mae de Maria_, _A Virgem Maria_ and _A Mulher +do Levita de Ephrain_--translated from Darboy's _Femmes de la Bible_, +are full of significance. The _Folhas soltas_ (1876) is a collection of +verse in the manner of _Flores do campo_, brilliantly effective and +exquisitely refined. Within the next few years the writer turned his +attention to educational problems, and in his _Cartilha maternal_ (1876) +first expressed the conclusions to which his study of Pestalozzi and +Froebel had led him. This patriotic, pedagogical apostolate was a +misfortune for Portuguese literature; his educational mission absorbed +Joao de Deus completely, and is responsible for numerous controversial +letters, for a translation of Theodore-Henri Barrau's treatise, _Des +devoirs des enfants envers leurs parents_, for a prosodic dictionary +and for many other publications of no literary value. A copy of verses +in Antonio Vieira's _Grinalda de Maria_ (1877), the _Loas a Virgem_ +(1878) and the _Proverbios de Salomao_ are evidence of a complete return +to orthodoxy during the poet's last years. By a lamentable error of +judgment some worthless pornographic verses entitled _Cryptinas_ have +been inserted in the completest edition of Joao de Deus's poems--_Campo +de Flores_ (Lisbon, 1893). He died at Lisbon on the 11th of January +1896, was accorded a public funeral and was buried in the National +Pantheon, the Jeronymite church at Belem, where repose the remains of +Camoens, Herculano and Garrett. His scattered minor prose writings and +correspondence have been posthumously published by Dr Theophilo Braga +(Lisbon, 1898). + +Next to Camoens and perhaps Garrett, no Portuguese poet has been more +widely read, more profoundly admired than Joao de Deus; yet no poet in +any country has been more indifferent to public opinion and more +deliberately careless of personal fame. He is not responsible for any +single edition of his poems, which were put together by pious but +ill-informed enthusiasts, who ascribed to him verses that he had not +written; he kept no copies of his compositions, seldom troubled to write +them himself, and was content for the most part to dictate them to +others. He has no great intellectual force, no philosophic doctrine, is +limited in theme as in outlook, is curiously uncertain in his touch, +often marring a fine poem with a slovenly rhyme or with a misplaced +accent; and, on the only occasion when he was induced to revise a set of +proofs, his alterations were nearly all for the worse. And yet, though +he never appealed to the patriotic spirit, though he wrote nothing at +all comparable in force or majesty to the restrained splendour of _Os +Lusiadas_, the popular instinct which links his name with that of his +great predecessor is eminently just. For Camoens was his model; not the +Camoens of the epic, but the Camoens of the lyrics and the sonnets, +where the passion of tenderness finds its supreme utterance. Braga has +noted five stages of development in Joao de Deus's artistic life--the +imitative, the idyllic, the lyric, the pessimistic and the devout +phases. Under each of these divisions is included much that is of +extreme interest, especially to contemporaries who have passed through +the same succession of emotional experience, and it is highly probable +that _Caturras_ and _Gaspar_, pieces as witty as anything in Bocage but +free from Bocage's coarse impiety, will always interest literary +students. But it is as the singer of love that Joao de Deus will delight +posterity as he delighted his own generation. The elegiac music of +_Rachel_ and of _Marina_, the melancholy of _Adeus_ and of _Remoinho_, +the tenderness and sincerity of _Meu casta lirio_, of _Lagrima celeste_, +of _Descalca_ and a score more songs are distinguished by the large, +vital simplicity which withstands time. It is precisely in the quality +of unstudied simplicity that Joao de Deus is incomparably strong. The +temptations to a display of virtuosity are almost irresistible for a +Portuguese poet; he has the tradition of virtuosity in his blood, he has +before him the example of all contemporaries, and he has at hand an +instrument of wonderful sonority and compass. Yet not once is Joao de +Deus clamorous or rhetorical, not once does he indulge in idle ornament. +His prevailing note is that of exquisite sweetness and of reverent +purity; yet with all his caressing softness he is never sentimental, +and, though he has not the strength for a long fight, emotion has seldom +been set to more delicate music. Had he included among his other gifts +the gift of selection, had he continued the poetic discipline of his +youth instead of dedicating his powers to a task which, well as he +performed it, might have been done no less well by a much lesser man, +there is scarcely any height to which he might not have risen. + + See also Maxime Formont, _Le Mouvement poetique contemporain en + Portugal_ (Lyon, 1892). (J. F.-K.) + + +DEUTERONOMY, the name of one of the books of the Old Testament. This +book was long the storm-centre of Pentateuchal criticism, orthodox +scholars boldly asserting that any who questioned its Mosaic authorship +reduced it to the level of a pious fraud. But Biblical facts have at +last triumphed over tradition, and the non-Mosaic authorship of +Deuteronomy is now a commonplace of criticism. It is still instructive, +however, to note the successive phases through which scholarly opinion +regarding the composition and date of his book has passed. + +In the 17th century the characteristics which so clearly mark off +Deuteronomy from the other four books of the Pentateuch were frankly +recognized, but the most advanced critics of that age were inclined to +pronounce it the earliest and most authentic of the five. In the +beginning of the 19th century de Wette startled the religious world by +declaring that Deuteronomy, so far from being Mosaic, was not known till +the time of Josiah. This theory he founded on 2 Kings xxii.; and ever +since, this chapter has been one of the recognized foci of Biblical +criticism. The only other single chapter of the Bible which is +responsible for having brought about a somewhat similar revolution in +critical opinion is Ezek. xliv. From this chapter, some seventy years +after de Wette's discovery, Wellhausen with equal acumen inferred that +Leviticus was not known to Ezekiel, the priest, and therefore could not +have been in existence in his day; for had Leviticus been the recognized +Law-book of his nation Ezekiel could not have represented as a +degradation the very position which that Law-book described as a special +honour conferred on the Levites by Yahweh himself. Hence Leviticus, so +far from belonging to an earlier stratum of the Pentateuch than +Deuteronomy, as de Wette thought, must belong to a much later stratum, +and be at least exilic, if not post-exilic. + +The title "Deuteronomy" is due to a mistranslation by the Septuagint of +the clause in chap. xvii. 18, rendered "and he shall write out for +himself this Deuteronomy." The Hebrew really means "and he [the king] +shall write out for himself a copy of this law," where there is not the +slightest suggestion that the author intended to describe "this law" +delivered on the plains of Moab as a second code in contradistinction to +the first code given on Sinai thirty-eight years earlier. Moreover the +phrase "this law" is so ambiguous as to raise a much greater difficulty +than that caused by the Greek mistranslation of the Hebrew word for +"copy." How much does "this law" include? It was long supposed to mean +the whole of our present Deuteronomy; indeed, it is on that supposition +that the traditional view of the Mosaic authorship is based. But the +context alone can determine the question; and that is often so ambiguous +that a sure inference is impossible. We may safely assert, however, that +nowhere need "this law" mean the whole book. In fact, it invariably +means very much less, and sometimes, as in xxvii. 3, 8, so little that +it could all be engraved in large letters on a few plastered stones set +up beside an altar. + +Deuteronomy is not the work of any single writer but the result of a +long process of development. The fact that it is legislative as well as +hortatory is enough to prove this, for most of the laws it contains are +found elsewhere in the Pentateuch, sometimes in less developed, +sometimes in more developed forms, a fact which is conclusive proof of +prolonged historical development. According to the all-pervading law of +evolution, the less complex form must have preceded the more complex. +Still, the book does bear the stamp of one master-mind. Its style is as +easily recognized as that of Deutero-Isaiah, being as remarkable for its +copious diction as for its depths of moral and religious feeling. + +The original Deuteronomy, D, read to King Josiah, cannot have been so +large as our present book, for not only could it be read at a single +sitting, but it could be easily read twice in one day. On the day it was +found, Shaphan first read it himself, and then went to the king and read +it aloud to him. But perhaps the most conclusive proof of its brevity is +that it was read publicly to the assembled people immediately before +they, as well as their king, pledged themselves to obey it; and not a +word is said as to the task of reading it aloud, so as to be heard by +such a great multitude, being long or difficult. + +The legislative part of D consists of fifteen chapters (xii.-xxvi.), +which, however, contain many later insertions. But the impression made +upon Josiah by what he heard was far too deep to have been produced by +the legislative part alone. The king must have listened to the curses as +well as the blessings in chap, xxviii., and no doubt also to the +exhortations in chaps. v.-xi. Hence we may conclude that the original +book consisted of a central mass of religious, civil and social laws, +preceded by a hortatory introduction and followed by an effective +peroration. The book read to Josiah must therefore have comprised most +of what is found in Deut. v.-xxvi., xxvii. 9, 10 and xxviii. But +something like two centuries elapsed before the book reached its present +form, for in the closing chapter, as well as elsewhere, e.g. i. 41-43 +(where the joining is not so deftly done as usual) and xxxii. 48-52, +there are undoubted traces of the Priestly Code, P, which is generally +acknowledged to be post-exilic. + +The following is an analysis of the main divisions of the book as we now +have it. There are two introductions, the first i.-iv. 44, more +historical than hortatory; the second v.-xi., more hortatory than +historical. These may at first have been prefixed to separate editions +of the legislative portion, but were eventually combined. Then, before D +was united to P, five appendices of very various dates and embracing +poetry as well as prose, were added so as to give a fuller account of +the last days of Moses and thus lead up to the narrative of his death +with which the book closes. (1) Chap. xxvii., where the elders of Israel +are introduced for the first time as acting along with Moses (xxvii. 1) +and then the priests, the Levites (xxvii. 9). Some of the curses refer +to laws given not in D but in Lev. xxx., so that the date of this +chapter must be later than Leviticus or at any rate than the laws +codified in the Law of Holiness (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.). (2) The second +appendix, chaps, xxix.-xxxi. 29, xxxii. 45-47, gives us the farewell +address of Moses and is certainly later than D. Moses is represented as +speaking not with any hope of preventing Israel's apostasy but because +he knows that the people will eventually prove apostate (xxxi. 29), a +point of view very different from D's. (3) The Song of Moses, chap. +xxxii. That this didactic poem must have been written late in the +nation's history, and not at its very beginning, is evident from v. 7: +"Remember the days of old, Consider the years of many generations." Such +words cannot be interpreted so as to fit the lips of Moses. It must have +been composed in a time of natural gloom and depression, after Yahweh's +anger had been provoked by "a very froward generation," certainly not +before the Assyrian Empire had loomed up against the political horizon, +aggressive and menacing. Some critics bring the date down even to the +time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel. (4) The Blessing of Moses, chap, xxxiii. +The first line proves that this poem is not by D, who speaks invariably +of Horeb, never of Sinai. The situation depicted is in striking contrast +with that of the Song. Everything is bright because of promises +fulfilled, and the future bids fair to be brighter still. Bruston +maintains with reason that the Blessing, strictly so called, consists +only of vv. 6-25, and has been inserted in a Psalm celebrating the +goodness of Jehovah to his people on their entrance into Canaan (vv. +1-5, 26-29). The special prominence given to Joseph (Ephraim and +Manasseh) in vv. 13-17 has led many critics to assign this poem to the +time of the greatest warrior-king of Northern Israel, Jeroboam II. (5) +The account of Moses' death, chap. xxxiv. This appendix, containing, as +it does, manifest traces of P, proves that even Deuteronomy was not put +into its present form until after the exile. + +From the many coincidences between D and the Book of the Covenant (Ex. +xx.-xxiii.) it is clear that D was acquainted with E, the prophetic +narrative of the Northern kingdom; but it is not quite clear whether D +knew E as an independent work, or after its combination with J, the +somewhat earlier prophetic narrative of the Southern kingdom, the +combined form of which is now indicated by the symbol JE. Kittel +certainly puts it too strongly when he asserts that D quotes always from +E and never from J, for some of the passages alluded to in D may just as +readily be ascribed to J as to E, cf. Deut. i. 7 and Gen. xv. 18; Deut. +x. 14 and Ex. xxxiv. 1-4. Consequently D must have been written +certainly after E and possibly after E was combined with J. + +In Amos, Hosea and Isaiah there are no traces of D's ideas, whereas in +Jeremiah and Ezekiel their influence is everywhere manifest. Hence this +school of thought arose between the age of Isaiah and that of Jeremiah; +but how long D itself may have been in existence before it was read in +622 to Josiah cannot be determined with certainty. Many argue that D was +written immediately before it was found and that, in fact, it was put +into the temple for the purpose of being "found." This theory gives some +plausibility to the charge that the book is a pious fraud. But the +narrative in 2 Kings xxii. warrants no such inference. The more natural +explanation is that it was written not in the early years of Josiah's +reign, and with the cognizance of the temple priests then in office, but +some time during the long reign of Manasseh, probably when his policy +was most reactionary and when he favoured the worship of the "host of +heaven" and set up altars to strange gods in Jerusalem itself. This +explains why the author did not publish his work immediately, but placed +it where he hoped it would be safely preserved till opportunity should +arise for its publication. One need not suppose that he actually foresaw +how favourable that opportunity would prove, and that, as soon as +discovered, his work would be promulgated as law by the king and +willingly accepted by the people. The author believed that everything he +wrote was in full accordance with the mind of Moses, and would +contribute to the national weal of Yahweh's covenant people, and +therefore he did not scruple to represent Moses as the speaker. It is +not to be expected that modern scholars should be able to fix the exact +year or even decade in which such a book was written. It is enough to +determine with something like probability the century or half-century +which best fits its historical data; and these appear to point to the +reign of Manasseh. + +Between D and P there are no verbal parallels; but in the historical +resumes JE is followed closely, whole clauses and even verses being +copied practically verbatim. As Dr Driver points out in his careful +analysis, there are only three facts in D which are not also found in +JE, viz. the number of the spies, the number of souls that went down +into Egypt with Jacob, and the ark being made of acacia wood. But even +these may have been in J or E originally, and left out when JE was +combined with P. Steuernagel divides the legal as well as the hortatory +parts of D between two authors, one of whom uses the 2nd person plural +when addressing Israel, and the other the 2nd person singular; but as a +similar alternation is constantly found in writings universally +acknowledged to be by the same author, this clue seems anything but +trustworthy, depending as it does on the presence or absence of a single +Hebrew letter, and resulting, as it frequently does, in the division of +verses which otherwise seem to be from the same pen (cf. xx. 2). The +inference as to diversity of authorship is much more conclusive when +difference of standpoint can be proved, cf. v. 3, xi. 2 ff. with viii. +2. The first two passages represent Moses as addressing the generation +that was alive at Horeb, whereas the last represents him as speaking to +those who were about to pass over Jordan a full generation later; and it +may well be that the one author may, in the historical and hortatory +parts, have preferred the 2nd plural and the other the 2nd singular; +without the further inference being justified that every law in which +the 2nd singular is used must be assigned to the latter, and every law +in which the 2nd plural occurs must be due to the former. + +The law of the Single Sanctuary, one of D's outstanding characteristics, +is, for him, an innovation, but an innovation towards which events had +long been tending. 2 Kings xxiii. 9 shows that even the zeal of Josiah +could not carry out the instructions laid down in D xviii. 6-8. Josiah's +acceptance of D made it the first canonical book of scripture. Thus the +religion of Judah became henceforward a religion which enabled its +adherents to learn from a book exactly what was required of them. D +requires the destruction not only of the high places and the idols, but +of the Asheras (wooden posts) and the Mazzebas (stone pillars) often set +up beside the altar of Jehovah (xvi. 21). These reforms made too heavy +demands upon the people, as was proved by the reaction which set in at +Josiah's death. Indeed the country people would look on the destruction +of the high places with their Asheras and Mazzebas as sacrilege and +would consider Josiah's death in battle as a divine punishment for his +sacrilegious deeds. On the other hand, the destruction of Jerusalem and +the exile of the people would appear to those who had obeyed D's +instructions as a well-merited punishment for national apostasy. + +Moreover, D regarded religion as of the utmost moment to each individual +Israelite; and it is certainly not by accident that the declaration of +the individual's duty towards God immediately follows the emphatic +intimation to Israel of Yahweh's unity. "Hear, O Israel, Yahweh is our +God, Yahweh is one: and thou shalt love Yahweh thy God with all thine +heart and with all thy soul and with all thy strength" (vi. 4, 5). + +In estimating the religious value of Deuteronomy it should never be +forgotten that upon this passage the greatest eulogy ever pronounced on +any scripture was pronounced by Christ himself, when he said "on these +words hang all the law and the prophets," and it is also well to +remember that when tempted in the wilderness he repelled each suggestion +of the Tempter by a quotation from Deuteronomy. + +Nevertheless even such a writer as D could not escape the influence of +the age and atmosphere in which he lived; and despite the spirit of love +which breathes so strongly throughout the book, especially for the poor, +the widow and the fatherless, the stranger and the homeless Levite +(xxiv. 10-22), and the humanity shown towards both beasts and birds +(xxii. 1, 4, 6 f., xxv. 4), there are elements in D which go far to +explain the intense exclusiveness and the religious intolerance +characteristic of Judaism. Should a man's son or friend dear to him as +his own soul seek to tempt him from the faith of his fathers, D's +pitiless order to that man is "Thou shalt surely kill him; thine hand +shall be first upon him to put him to death." From this single instance +we see not only how far mankind has travelled along the path of +religious toleration since Deuteronomy was written, but also how very +far the criticism implied in Christ's method of dealing with what "was +said to them of old time" may be legitimately carried. (J. A. P.*) + + +DEUTSCH, IMMANUEL OSCAR MENAHEM (1829-1873), German oriental scholar, +was born on the 28th of October 1829, at Neisse in Prussian Silesia, of +Jewish extraction. On reaching his sixteenth year he began his studies +at the university of Berlin, paying special attention to theology and +the Talmud. He also mastered the English language and studied English +literature. In 1855 Deutsch was appointed assistant in the library of +the British Museum. He worked intensely on the Talmud and contributed no +less than 190 papers to _Chambers's Encyclopaedia_, in addition to +essays in Kitto's and Smith's Biblical Dictionaries, and articles in +periodicals. In October 1867 his article on "The Talmud," published in +the _Quarterly Review_, made him known. It was translated into French, +German, Russian, Swedish, Dutch and Danish. He died at Alexandria on the +12th of May 1873. + + His _Literary Remains_, edited by Lady Strangford, were published in + 1874, consisting of nineteen papers on such subjects as "The Talmud," + "Islam," "Semitic Culture," "Egypt, Ancient and Modern," "Semitic + Languages," "The Targums," "The Samaritan Pentateuch," and "Arabic + Poetry." + + +DEUTSCHKRONE, a town of Germany, kingdom of Prussia, between the two +lakes of Arens and Radau, 15 m. N.W. of Schneidemuehl, a railway junction +60 m. north of Posen. Pop. (1905) 7282. It is the seat of the public +offices for the district, possesses an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic +church, a synagogue, and a gymnasium established in the old Jesuit +college, and has manufactures of machinery, woollens, tiles, brandy and +beer. + + +DEUTZ (anc. _Divitio_), formerly an independent town of Germany, in the +Prussian Rhine Province, on the right bank of the Rhine, opposite to +Cologne, with which it has been incorporated since 1888. It contains the +church of St Heribert, built in the 17th century, cavalry barracks, +artillery magazines, and gas, porcelain, machine and carriage factories. +It has a handsome railway station on the banks of the Rhine, negotiating +the local traffic with Elberfeld and Koenigswinter. The fortifications of +the town form part of the defences of Cologne. To the east is the +manufacturing suburb of Kalk. + +The old castle in Deutz was in 1002 made a Benedictine monastery by +Heribert, archbishop of Cologne. Permission to fortify the town was in +1230 granted to the citizens by the archbishop of Cologne, between whom +and the counts of Berg it was in 1240 divided. It was burnt in 1376, +1445 and 1583; and in 1678, after the peace of Nijmwegen, the +fortifications were dismantled; rebuilt in 1816, they were again razed +in 1888. + + +DEUX-SEVRES, an inland department of western France, formed in 1790 +mainly of the three districts of Poitou, Thouarsais, Gatine and +Niortais, added to a small portion of Saintonge and a still smaller +portion of Aunis. Area, 2337 sq. m. Pop. (1906) 339,466. It is bounded +N. by Maine-et-Loire, E. by Vienne, S.E. by Charente, S. by +Charente-Inferieure and W. by Vendee. The department takes its name from +two rivers--the Sevre of Niort which traverses the southern portion, and +the Sevre of Nantes (an affluent of the Loire) which drains the +north-west. There are three regions--the Gatine, occupying the north and +centre of the department, the Plaine in the south and the +Marais,--distinguished by their geological character and their general +physical appearance. The Gatine, formed of primitive rocks (granite and +schists), is the continuation of the "Bocage" of Vendee and +Maine-et-Loire. Its surface is irregular and covered with hedges and +clumps of wood or forests. The systematic application of lime has much +improved the soil, which is naturally poor. The Plaine, resting on +oolite limestone, is treeless but fertile. The Marais, a low-lying +district in the extreme south-west, consists of alluvial clays which also +are extremely productive when properly drained. The highest points, +several of which exceed 700 ft., are found in a line of hills which +begins in the centre of the department, to the south of Parthenay, and +stretches north-west into the neighbouring department of Vendee. It +divides the region drained by the Sevre Nantaise and the Thouet (both +affluents of the Loire) in the north from the basins of the Sevre +Niortaise and the Charente in the south. The climate is mild, the annual +temperature at Niort being 54 deg. Fahr., and the rainfall nearly 25 in. +The winters are colder in the Gatine, the summers warmer in the Plaine. + +Three-quarters of the entire area of Deux-Sevres, which is primarily an +agricultural department, consists of arable land. Wheat and oats are the +main cereals. Potatoes and mangold-wurzels are the chief root-crops. +Niort is a centre for the growing Of vegetables (onions, asparagus, +artichokes, &c.) and of angelica. Considerable quantities of beetroot +are raised to supply the distilleries of Melle. Colza, hemp, rape and +flax are also cultivated. Vineyards are numerous in the neighbourhood of +Bressuire in the north, and of Niort and Melle in the south. The +department is well known for the Parthenay breed of cattle and the +Poitou breed of horses; and the mules reared in the southern +arrondissements are much sought after both in France and in Spain. The +system of co-operative dairying is practised in some localities. The +apple-trees of the Gatine and the walnut-trees of the Plaine bring a +good return. Coal is mined, and the department produces building-stone +and lime. A leading industry is the manufacture of textiles (serges, +druggets, linen, handkerchiefs, flannels, swan-skins and knitted goods). +Tanning and leather-dressing are carried on at Niort and other places, +and gloves are made at Niort. Wool and cotton spinning, hat and shoe +making, distilling, brewing, flour-milling and oil-refining are also +main industries. The department exports cattle and sheep to Paris and +Poitiers; also cereals, oils, wines, vegetables and its industrial +products. + +The Sevre Niortaise and its tributary the Mignon furnish 19 m. of +navigable waterway. The department is served by the Ouest-Etat railway. +It contains a large proportion of Protestants, especially in the +south-east. The four arrondissements are Niort, Bressuire, Melle and +Parthenay; the cantons number 31, and the communes 356. Deux-Sevres is +part of the region of the IX. army corps, and of the diocese and the +academie (educational circumscription) of Poitiers, where also is its +court of appeal. + +Niort (the capital), Bressuire, Melle, Parthenay, St Maixent, Thouars +and Oiron are the principal places in the department. Several other +towns contain features of interest. Among these are Airvault, where +there is a church of the 12th and 14th centuries which once belonged to +the abbey of St Pierre, and an ancient bridge built by the monks; +Celles-sur-Belle, where there is an old church rebuilt by Louis XI., and +again in the 17th century; and St Jouin-de-Marnes, with a fine +Romanesque church with Gothic restoration, which belonged to one of the +most ancient abbeys of Gaul. + + +DEVA (Sanskrit "heavenly"), in Hindu and Buddhist mythology, spirits of +the light and air, and minor deities generally beneficent. In Persian +mythology, however, the word is used for evil spirits or demons. +According to Zoroaster the devas were created by Ahriman. + + +DEVA (mod. _Chester_), a Roman legionary fortress in Britain on the Dee. +It was occupied by Roman troops about A.D. 48 and held probably till the +end of the Roman dominion. Its garrison was the Legio XX. Valeria +Victrix, with which another legion (II. Adjutrix) was associated for a +few years, about A.D. 75-85. It never developed, like many Roman +legionary fortresses, into a town, but remained military throughout. +Parts of its north and east walls (from Morgan's Mount to Peppergate) +and numerous inscriptions remain to indicate its character and area. + + See F. J. Haverfield, _Catalogue of the Grosvenor Museum, Chester_ + (Chester, 1900), Introduction. + + +DEVADATTA, the son of Suklodana, who was younger brother to the father +of the Buddha (_Mah[=a]vastu_, iii. 76). Both he and his brother +[=A]nanda, who were considerably younger than the Buddha, joined the +brotherhood in the twentieth year of the Buddha's ministry. Four other +cousins of theirs, chiefs of the S[=a]kiya clan, and a barber named +Up[=a]li, were admitted to the order at the same time; and at their own +request the barber was admitted first, so that as their senior in the +order he should take precedence of them (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 228). All +the others continued loyal disciples, but Devadatta, fifteen years +afterwards, having gained over the crown prince of Magadha, +Aj[=a]tasattu, to his side, made a formal proposition, at the meeting of +the order, that the Buddha should retire, and hand over the leadership +to him, Devadatta (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 238; _J[=a]taka_, i. 142). This +proposal was rejected, and Devadatta is said in the tradition to have +successfully instigated the prince to the execution of his aged father +and to have made three abortive attempts to bring about the death of the +Buddha (_Vinaya Texts_, iii. 241-250; _J[=a]taka_, vi. 131), shortly +afterwards, relying upon the feeling of the people in favour of +asceticism, he brought forward four propositions for ascetic rules to be +imposed on the order. These being refused, he appealed to the people, +started an order of his own, and gained over 500 of the Buddha's +community to join in the secession. We hear nothing further about the +success or otherwise of the new order, but it may possibly be referred +to under the name of the Gotamakas, in the _Anguttara_ (see _Dialogues +of the Buddha_ i. 222), for Devadatta's family name was Gotama. But his +community was certainly still in existence in the 4th century A.D., for +it is especially mentioned by Fa Hien, the Chinese pilgrim (Legge's +translation, p. 62). And it possibly lasted till the 7th century, for +Hsuean Tsang mentions that in a monastery in Bengal the monks then +followed a certain regulation of Devadatta's (T. Watters, _On Yuan +Chwang_, ii. 191). There is no mention in the canon as to how or when +Devadatta died; but the commentary on the _J[=a]taka_, written in the +5th century A.D., has preserved a tradition that he was swallowed up by +the earth near S[=a]vatthi, when on his way to ask pardon of the Buddha +(_J[=a]taka_, iv. 158). The spot where this occurred was shown to both +the pilgrims just mentioned (Fa Hien, loc. cit. p. 60; and T. Watters, +_On Yuan Chwang_, i. 390). It is a striking example of the way in which +such legends grow, that it is only the latest of these authorities, +Hsuean Tsang, who says that, though ostensibly approaching the Buddha +with a view to reconciliation, Devadatta had concealed poison in his +nail with the object of murdering the Buddha. + + AUTHORITIES.--_Vinaya Texts_, translated by Rhys Davids and H. + Oldenberg (3 vols., Oxford, 1881-1885); _The J[=a]taka_, edited by V. + Fausboell (7 vols., London, 1877-1897); T. Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_ + (ed. Rhys Davids and Bushell, 2 vols., London, 1904-1905); _Fa Hian_, + translated by J. Legge (Oxford, 1886); _Mah[=a]vastu_ (ed. Tenant, 3 + vols., Paris, 1882-1897). (T. W. R. D.) + + +DEVAPRAYAG (DEOPRAYAG), a village in Tehri State of the United +Provinces, India. It is situated at the spot where the rivers Alaknanda +and Bhagirathi unite and form the Ganges, and as one of the five sacred +confluences in the hills is a great place of pilgrimage for devout +Hindus. Devaprayag stands at an elevation of 2265 ft. on the side of a +hill which rises above it 800 ft. On a terrace in the upper part of the +village is the temple of Raghunath, built of huge uncemented stones, +pyramidical in form and capped by a white cupola. + + +DEVENS, CHARLES (1820-1891), American lawyer and jurist, was born in +Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 4th of April 1820. He graduated at +Harvard College in 1838, and at the Harvard law school in 1840, and was +admitted to the bar in Franklin county, Mass., where he practised from +1841 to 1849. In the year 1848 he was a Whig member of the state senate, +and from 1849 to 1853 was United States marshal for Massachusetts, in +which capacity he was called upon in 1851 to remand the fugitive slave, +Thomas Sims, to slavery. This he felt constrained to do, much against +his personal desire; and subsequently he attempted in vain to purchase +Sims's freedom, and many years later appointed him to a position in the +department of justice at Washington. Devens practised law at Worcester +from 1853 until 1861, and throughout the Civil War served in the Federal +army, becoming colonel of volunteers in July 1861 and brigadier-general +of volunteers in April 1862. At the battle of Ball's Bluff (1861) he was +severely wounded; he was again wounded at Fair Oaks (1862) and at +Chancellorsville (1863), where he commanded a division. He later +distinguished himself at Cold Harbor, and commanded a division in +Grant's final campaign in Virginia (1864-65), his troops being the first +to occupy Richmond after its fall. Breveted major-general in 1865, he +remained in the army for a year as commander of the military district of +Charleston, South Carolina. He was a judge of the Massachusetts superior +court from 1867 to 1873, and was an associate justice of the supreme +court of the state from 1873 to 1877, and again from 1881 to 1891. From +1877 to 1881 he was attorney-general of the United States in the cabinet +of President Hayes. He died at Boston, Mass., on the 7th of January +1891. + + See his _Orations and Addresses_, with a memoir by John Codman Ropes + (Boston, 1891). + + +DEVENTER, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, on the right bank +of the Ysel, at the confluence of the Schipbeek, and a junction station +10 m. N. of Zutphen by rail. It is also connected by steam tramway S.E. +with Brokulo. Pop. (1900) 26,212. Deventer is a neat and prosperous town +situated in the midst of prettily wooded environs, and containing many +curious old buildings. There are three churches of special interest: the +Groote Kerk (St Lebuinus), which dates from 1334, and occupies the site +of an older structure of which the 11th-century crypt remains; the Roman +Catholic Broederkerk, or Brothers' Church, containing among its relics +three ancient gospels said to have been written by St Lebuinus (Lebwin), +the English apostle of the Frisians and Westphalians (d. c. 773); and +the Bergkerk, dedicated in 1206, which has two late Romanesque towers. +The town hall (1693) contains a remarkable painting of the town council +by Terburg. In the fine square called the Brink is the old weigh-house, +now a school (gymnasium), built in 1528, with a large external staircase +(1644). The gymnasium is descended from the Latin school of which the +celebrated Alexander Hegius was master in the third quarter of the 15th +century, when the young Erasmus was sent to it, and at which Adrian +Floreizoon, afterwards Pope Adrian VI., is said to have been a pupil +about the same time. Another famous educational institution was the +"Athenaeum" or high school, founded in 1630, at which Henri Renery (d. +1639) taught philosophy, while Johann Friedrich Gronov (Gronovius) +(1611-1671) taught rhetoric and history in the middle of the same +century. The "Athenaeum" disappeared in 1876. In modern times Deventer +possessed a famous teacher in Dr Burgersdyk (d. 1900), the Dutch +translator of Shakespeare. The town library, also called the library of +the Athenaeum, includes many MSS. and _incunabula_, and a 13th-century +copy of _Reynard the Fox_. The archives of the town are of considerable +value. Besides a considerable agricultural trade, Deventer has important +iron foundries and carpet factories (the royal manufactory of Smyrna +carpets being especially famous); while cotton-printing, rope-making and +the weaving of woollens and silks are also carried on. A public official +is appointed to supervise the proper making of a form of gingerbread +known as "_Deventer Koek_," which has a reputation throughout Holland. +In the church of Bathmen, a village 5 m. E. of Deventer, some +14th-century frescoes were discovered in 1870. + +In the 14th century Deventer was the centre of the famous religious and +educational movement associated with the name of GERHARD GROOT (q.v.), +who was a native of the town (see BROTHERS OF COMMON LIFE). + + +DE VERE, AUBREY THOMAS (1814-1902), Irish poet and critic, was born at +Curragh Chase, Co. Limerick, on the 10th of January 1814, being the +third son of Sir Aubrey de Vere Hunt (1788-1846). In 1832 his father +dropped the final name by royal licence. Sir Aubrey was himself a poet. +Wordsworth called his sonnets the "most perfect of the age." These and +his drama, _Mary Tudor_, were published by his son in 1875 and 1884. +Aubrey de Vere was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and in his +twenty-eighth year published _The Waldenses_, which he followed up in +the next year by _The Search after Proserpine_. Thenceforward he was +continually engaged, till his death on the 20th of January 1902, in the +production of poetry and criticism. His best-known works are: in verse, +_The Sisters_ (1861); _The Infant Bridal_ (1864); _Irish Odes_ (1869); +_Legends of St Patrick_ (1872); and _Legends of the Saxon Saints_ +(1879); and in prose, _Essays chiefly on Poetry_ (1887); and _Essays +chiefly Literary and Ethical_ (1889). He also wrote a picturesque volume +of travel-sketches, and two dramas in verse, _Alexander the Great_ +(1874); and _St Thomas of Canterbury_ (1876); both of which, though they +contain fine passages, suffer from diffuseness and a lack of dramatic +spirit. The characteristics of Aubrey de Vere's poetry are "high +seriousness" and a fine religious enthusiasm. His research in questions +of faith led him to the Roman Church; and in many of his poems, notably +in the volume of sonnets called _St Peter's Chains_ (1888), he made rich +additions to devotional verse. He was a disciple of Wordsworth, whose +calm meditative serenity he often echoed with great felicity; and his +affection for Greek poetry, truly felt and understood, gave dignity and +weight to his own versions of mythological idylls. But perhaps he will +be chiefly remembered for the impulse which he gave to the study of +Celtic legend and literature. In this direction he has had many +followers, who have sometimes assumed the appearance of pioneers; but +after Matthew Arnold's fine lecture on "Celtic Literature," nothing +perhaps did more to help the Celtic revival than Aubrey de Vere's tender +insight into the Irish character, and his stirring reproductions of the +early Irish epic poetry. + + A volume of _Selections_ from his poems was edited in 1894 (New York + and London) by G. E. Woodberry. + + +DEVICE, a scheme, plan, simple mechanical contrivance; also a pattern or +design, particularly an heraldic design or emblem, often combined with a +motto or legend. "Device" and its doublet "devise" come from the two Old +French forms _devis_ and _devise_ of the Latin _divisa_, things divided, +from _dividere_, to separate, used in the sense of to arrange, set out, +apportion. "Devise," as a substantive, is now only used as a legal term +for a disposition of property by will, by a modern convention restricted +to a disposition of real property, the term "bequest" being used of +personalty (see WILL). This use is directly due to the Medieval Latin +meaning of _dividere_ = _testamento disponere_. In its verbal form, +"devise" is used not only in the legal sense, but also in the sense of +to plan, arrange, scheme. + + +DEVIL (Gr. [Greek: diabolos], "slanderer," from [Greek: diaballein], to +slander), the generic name for a spirit of evil, especially the supreme +spirit of evil, the foe of God and man. The word is used for minor evil +spirits in much the same sense as "demon." From the various +characteristics associated with this idea, the term has come to be +applied by analogy in many different senses. From the idea of evil as +degraded, contemptible and doomed to failure, the term is applied to +persons in evil plight, or of slight consideration. In English legal +phraseology "devil" and "devilling" are used of barristers who act as +substitutes for others. Any remuneration which the legal "devil" may +receive is purely a matter of private arrangement between them. In the +chancery division such remuneration is generally in the proportion of +one half of the fee which the client pays; "in the king's bench division +remuneration for 'devilling' of briefs or assisting in drafting and +opinions is not common" (see _Annual Practice_, 1907, p. 717). In a +similar sense an author may have his materials collected and arranged by +a literary hack or "devil." The term "printer's devil" for the errand +boy in a printing office probably combines this idea with that of his +being black with ink. The common notions of the devil as black, +ill-favoured, malicious, destructive and the like, have occasioned the +application of the term to certain animals (the Tasmanian devil, the +devil-fish, the coot), to mechanical contrivances (for tearing up cloth +or separating wool), to pungent, highly seasoned dishes, broiled or +fried. In this article we are concerned with the primary sense of the +word, as used in mythology and religion. + +The primitive philosophy of animism involves the ascription of all +phenomena to personal agencies. As phenomena are good or evil, produce +pleasure or pain, cause weal or woe, a distinction in the character of +these agencies is gradually recognized; the agents of good become gods, +those of evil, demons. A tendency towards the simplification and +organization of the evil as of the good forces, leads towards belief in +outstanding leaders among the forces of evil. When the divine is most +completely conceived as unity, the demonic is also so conceived; and +over against God stands Satan, or the devil. + +Although it is in connexion with Hebrew and Christian monotheism that +this belief in the devil has been most fully developed, yet there are +approaches to the doctrine in other religions. In Babylonian mythology +"the old serpent goddess 'the lady Nina' was transformed into the +embodiment of all that was hostile to the powers of heaven" (Sayce's +_Hibbert Lectures_, p. 283), and was confounded with the dragon Tiamat, +"a terrible monster, reappearing in the Old Testament writings as Rahab +and Leviathan, the principle of chaos, the enemy of God and man" +(Tennant's _The Fall and Original Sin_, p. 43), and according to Gunkel +(_Schoepfung und Chaos_, p. 383) "the original of the 'old serpent' of +Rev. xii. 9." In Egyptian mythology the serpent Apap with an army of +monsters strives daily to arrest the course of the boat of the luminous +gods. While the Greek mythology described the Titans as "enchained once +for all in their dark dungeons" yet Prometheus' threat remained to +disturb the tranquillity of the Olympian Zeus. In the German mythology +the army of darkness is led by Hel, the personification of twilight, +sunk to the goddess who enchains the dead and terrifies the living, and +Loki, originally the god of fire, but afterwards "looked upon as the +father of the evil powers, who strips the goddess of earth of her +adornments, who robs Thor of his fertilizing hammer, and causes the +death of Balder the beneficent sun." In Hindu mythology the Maruts, +Indra, Agni and Vishnu wage war with the serpent Ahi to deliver the +celestial cows or spouses, the waters held captive in the caverns of the +clouds. In the _Trimurti_, Brahm[=a] (the impersonal) is manifested as +Brahm[=a] (the personal creator), Vishnu (the preserver), and Siva (the +destroyer). In Siva is perpetuated the belief in the god of Vedic times +Rudra, who is represented as "the wild hunter who storms over the earth +with his bands, and lays low with arrows the men who displease him" +(Chantepie de la Saussaye's _Religionsgeschichte_, 2nd ed., vol. ii. p. +25). The evil character of Siva is reflected in his wife, who as Kali +(the black) is the wild and cruel goddess of destruction and death. The +opposition of good and evil is most fully carried out in Zoroastrianism. +Opposed to Ormuzd, the author of all good, is Ahriman, the source of all +evil; and the opposition runs through the whole universe (D'Alviella's +_Hibbert Lectures_, pp. 158-164). + +The conception of _Satan_ (Heb. [Hebrew: Satan], the adversary, Gr. +[Greek: Satanas], or [Greek: Satan], 2 Cor. xii. 7) belongs to the +post-exilic period of Hebrew development, and probably shows traces of +the influence of Persian on Jewish thought, but it has also its roots +in much older beliefs. An "evil spirit" possesses Saul (1 Sam. xvi. 14), +but it is "from the Lord." The same agency produces discord between +Abimelech and the Shechemites (Judges ix. 23). "A lying spirit in the +mouth of all his prophets" as Yahweh's messenger entices Ahab to his +doom (1 Kings xxii. 22). Growing human corruption is traced to the +fleshy union of angels and women (Gen. vi. 1-4). But generally evil, +whether as misfortune or as sin, is assigned to divine causality (1 Sam. +xviii. 10; 2 Sam. xxiv. 1; 1 Kings xxii. 20; Isa. vi. 10, lxiii. 17). +After the Exile there is a tendency to protect the divine transcendence +by the introduction of mediating angelic agency, and to separate all +evil from God by ascribing its origin to Satan, the enemy of God and +man. In the prophecy of Zechariah (iii. 1-2) he stands as the adversary +of Joshua, the high priest, and is rebuked by Yahweh for desiring that +Jerusalem should be further punished. In the book of Job he presents +himself before the Lord among the sons of God (ii. 1), yet he is +represented both as accuser and tempter. He disbelieves in Job's +integrity, and desires him to be so tried that he may fall into sin. +While, according to 2 Sam. xxiv. 1, God himself tests David in regard to +the numbering of the people, according to 1 Chron. xxi. 1 it is Satan +who tempts him. + +The development of the conception continued in later Judaism, which was +probably more strongly influenced by Persian dualism. It is doubtful, +however, whether the Asmodeus (q.v.) of the book of Tobit is the same as +the A[=e]shma Da[=e]wa of the Bundahesh. He is the evil spirit who slew +the seven husbands of Sara (iii. 8), and the name probably means +"Destroyer." In the book of Enoch Satan is represented as the ruler of a +rival kingdom of evil, but here are also mentioned Satans, who are +distinguished from the fallen angels and who have a threefold function, +to tempt, to accuse and to punish. Satan possesses the ungodly +(Ecclesiasticus xxi. 27), is identified with the serpent of Gen. iii. +(Wisdom ii. 24), and is probably also represented by Asmodeus, to whom +lustful qualities are assigned (Tobit vi. 14); Gen. iii. is probably +referred to in Psalms of Solomon xvii. 49, "a serpent speaking with the +words of transgressors, words of deceit to pervert wisdom." The _Book of +the Secrets of Enoch_ not only identifies Satan with the Serpent, but +also describes his revolt against God, and expulsion from heaven. In the +Jewish _Targums_ Sammael, "the highest angel that stands before God's +throne, caused the serpent to seduce the woman"; he coalesces with +Satan, and has inferior Satans as his servants. The birth of Cain is +ascribed to a union of Satan with Eve. As accuser affecting man's +standing before God he is greatly feared. + +This doctrine, stripped of much of its grossness, is reproduced in the +New Testament. Satan is the [Greek: diabolos] (Matt. xiii. 39; John +xiii. 2; Eph. iv. 27; Heb. ii. 14; Rev. ii. 10), slanderer or accuser, +the [Greek: peirazon] (Matt. iv. 3; 1 Thess. iii. 5), the tempter, the +[Greek: poneros] (Matt. v. 37; John xvii. 15; Eph. vi. 16), the evil +one, and the [Greek: echthros] (Matt. xiii. 39), the enemy. He is +apparently identified with Beelzebub (or Beelzebul) in Matt. xii. 26, +27. Jesus appears to recognize the existence of demons belonging to a +kingdom of evil under the leadership of Satan "the prince of demons" +(Matt. xii. 24, 26, 27), whose works in demonic possessions it is his +function to destroy (Mark i. 34, iii. 11, vi. 7; Luke x. 17-20). But he +himself conquers Satan in resisting his temptations (Matt. iv. 1-11). +Simon is warned against him, and Judas yields to him as tempter (Luke +xxii. 31; John xiii. 27). Jesus's cures are represented as a triumph +over Satan (Luke x. 18). This Jewish doctrine is found in Paul's letters +also. Satan rules over a world of evil, supernatural agencies, whose +dwelling is in the lower heavens (Eph. vi. 12): hence he is the "prince +of the power of the air" (ii. 2). He is the tempter (1 Thess. iii. 5; 1 +Cor. vii. 5), the destroyer (x. 10), to whom the offender is to be +handed over for bodily destruction (v. 5), identified with the serpent +(Rom. xvi. 20; 2 Cor. xi. 3), and probably with Beliar or Belial (vi. +15); and the surrender of man to him brought death into the world (Rom. +v. 17). Paul's own "stake in the flesh" is Satan's messenger (2 Cor. +xii. 7). According to Hebrews Satan's power over death Jesus destroys by +dying (ii. 14). Revelation describes the war in heaven between God with +his angels and Satan or the dragon, the "old serpent," the deceiver of +the whole world (xii. 9), with his hosts of darkness. After the +overthrow of the Beast and the kings of the earth, Satan is imprisoned +in the bottomless pit a thousand years (xx. 2). Again loosed to deceive +the nations, he is finally cast into the lake of fire and brimstone (xx. +10; cf. Enoch liv. 5, 6; 2 Peter ii. 4). In John's Gospel and Epistles +Satan is opposed to Christ. Sinner and murderer from the beginning (1 +John iii. 8) and liar by nature (John viii. 44), he enslaves men to sin +(viii. 34), causes death (verse 44), rules the present world (xiv. 30), +but has no power over Christ or those who are his (xiv. 30, xvi. 11; 1 +John v. 18). He will be destroyed by Christ with all his works (John +xvi. 33; 1 John iii. 8). + +In the common faith of the Gentile churches after the Apostolic Age "the +present dominion of evil demons, or of one evil demon, was just as +generally presupposed as man's need of redemption, which was regarded as +a result of that dominion. The tenacity of this belief may be explained +among other things by the living impression of the polytheism that +surrounded the communities on every side. By means of this assumption +too, humanity seemed to be unburdened, and the presupposed capacity for +redemption could, therefore, be justified in its widest range" +(Harnack's _History of Dogma_, i. p. 181). While Christ's First Advent +delivered believers from Satan's bondage, his overthrow would be +completed only by the Second Advent. The Gnostics held that "the present +world sprang from a fall of man, or from an undertaking hostile to God, +and is, therefore, the product of an evil or intermediate being" (p. +257). Some taught that while the future had been assigned by God to +Christ, the devil had received the present age (p. 309). The fathers +traced all doctrines not held by the Catholic Church to the devil, and +the virtues of heretics were regarded as an instance of the devil +transforming himself into an angel of light (ii. 91). Irenaeus ascribes +Satan's fall to "pride and arrogance and envy of God's creation"; and +traces man's deliverance from Satan to Christ's victory in resisting his +temptations; but also, guided by certain Pauline passages, represents +the death of Christ "as a ransom paid to the 'apostasy' for men who had +fallen into captivity" (ii. 290). He does not admit that Satan has any +lawful claim on man, or that God practised a deceit on him, as later +fathers taught. This theory of the _atonement_ was formulated by Origen. +"By his successful temptation the devil acquired a right over men. God +offered Christ's soul for that of men. But the devil was duped, as +Christ overcame both him and death" (p. 367). It was held by Gregory of +Nyssa, Ambrose, who uses the phrase _pia fraus_, Augustine, Leo I., and +Gregory I., who expresses it in its worst form. "The humanity of Christ +was the bait; the fish, the devil, snapped at it, and was left hanging +on the invisible hook, Christ's divinity" (iii. 307). In Athanasius the +relation of the work of Christ to Satan retires into the background, +Gregory of Nazianzus and John of Damascus felt scruples about this view. +It is expressly repudiated by Anselm and Abelard. Peter the Lombard +asserted it, disregarding these objections. Bernard represents man's +bondage to Satan "as righteously permitted as a just retribution for +sin," he being "the executioner of the divine justice." Another theory +of Origen's found less acceptance. The devil, as a being resulting from +God's will, cannot always remain a devil. The possibility of his +redemption, however, was in the 5th century branded as a heresy. Persian +dualism was brought into contact with Christian thought in the doctrine +of Mani; and it is permissible to believe that the gloomy views of +Augustine regarding man's condition are due in some measure to this +influence. Mani taught that Satan with his demons, sprung from the +kingdom of darkness, attacked the realm of light, the earth, defeated +man sent against him by the God of light, but was overthrown by the God +of light, who then delivered the primeval man (iii. 324). "During the +middle ages," says Tulloch, "the belief in the devil was +absorbing--saints conceived themselves and others to be in constant +conflict with him." This superstition, perhaps at its strongest in the +13th to the 15th century, passed into Protestantism. Luther was always +conscious of the presence and opposition of Satan. "As I found he was +about to begin again," says Luther, "I gathered together my books, and +got into bed. Another time in the night I heard him above my cell +walking on the cloister, but as I knew it was the devil I paid no +attention to him and went to sleep." He held that this world will pass +away with its pleasures, as there can be no real improvement in it, for +the devil continues in it to ply his daring and seductive devices (vii. +191). I. A. Dorner (_Christian Doctrine_, iii. p. 93) sums up Protestant +doctrine as follows:--"He is brought into relation with natural +sinfulness, and the impulse to evil thoughts and deeds is ascribed to +him. The dominion of evil over men is also represented as a slavery to +Satan, and this as punishment. He has his full power in the +extra-Christian world. But his power is broken by Christ, and by his +word victory over him is to be won. The power of creating anything is +also denied the devil, and only the power of corrupting substances is +conceded to him. But it is only at the Last Judgment that his power is +wholly annihilated; he is himself delivered up to eternal punishment." +This belief in the devil was specially strong in Scotland among both +clergy and laity in the 17th century. "The devil was always and +literally at hand," says Buckle, "he was haunting them, speaking to +them, and tempting them. Go where they would he was there." + +In more recent times a great variety of opinions has been expressed on +this subject. J. S. Semler denied the reality of demonic possession, and +held that Christ in his language accommodated himself to the views of +the sick whom he was seeking to cure. Kant regarded the devil as a +personification of the radical evil in man. Daub in his _Judas +Ishcarioth_ argued that a finite evil presupposes an absolute evil, and +the absolute evil as real must be in a person. Schelling regarded the +devil as, not a person, but a real principle, a spirit let loose by the +freedom of man. Schleiermacher was an uncompromising opponent of the +common belief. "The problem remains to seek evil rather in self than in +Satan, Satan only showing the limits of our self-knowledge." Dorner has +formulated a theory which explains the development of the conception of +Satan in the Holy Scriptures as in correspondence with an evolution in +the character of Satan. "Satan appears in Scripture under four leading +characters:--first as the tempter of freedom, who desires to bring to +decision, secondly as the accuser, who by virtue of the law retorts +criminality on man; thirdly as the instrument of the Divine, which +brings evil and death upon men; fourthly and lastly he is described, +especially in the New Testament, as the enemy of God and man." He +supposes "a change in Satan in the course of the history of the divine +revelation, in conflict with which he came step by step to be a sworn +enemy of God and man, especially in the New Testament times, in which, +on the other hand, his power is broken at the root by Christ." He argues +that "the world-order, being in process as a moral order, permits +breaches everywhere into which Satan can obtain entrance" (pp. 99, 102). +H. L. Martensen gives even freer rein to speculation. "The evil +principle," he says, "has in itself no personality, but attains a +progressively universal personality in its kingdom; it has no individual +personality, save only in individual creatures, who in an especial +manner make themselves its organs; but among these is one creature in +whom the principle is so hypostasized that he has become the centre and +head of the kingdom of evil" (_Dogmatics_, p. 199). A. Ritschl gives no +place in his constructive doctrine to the belief in the devil; but +recognizes that the mutual action of individual sinners on one another +constitutes a kingdom of sin, opposed to the Kingdom of God (A. E. +Garvie, _The Ritschlian Theology_, p. 304). Kaftan affirms that a +"doctrine about Satan can as little be established as about angels, as +faith can say nothing about it, and nothing is gained by it for the +dogmatic explanation of evil. This whole province must be left to the +immediate world-view of the pious. The idea of Satan will on account of +the Scriptures not disappear from it, and it would be arrogant to wish +to set it aside. Only let everyone keep the thought that Satan also +stands under the commission of the Almighty God, and that no one must +suppose that by leading back his sins to a Satanic temptation he can get +rid of his own guilt. To transgress these limits is to assail faith" +(_Dogmatik_, p. 348). In the book entitled _Evil and Evolution_ there is +"an attempt to turn the light of modern science on to the ancient +mystery of evil." The author contends that the existence of evil is best +explained by assuming that God is confronted with Satan, who in the +process of evolution interferes with the divine designs, an interference +which the instability of such an evolving process makes not incredible. +Satan is, however, held to be a creature who has by abuse of his freedom +been estranged from, and opposed to his Creator, and who at last will be +conquered by moral means. W. M. Alexander in his book on demonic +possession maintains that "the confession of Jesus as the Messiah or Son +of God is the classical criterion of genuine demonic possession" (p. +150), and argues that, as "the Incarnation indicated the establishment +of the kingdom of heaven upon earth," there took place "a counter +movement among the powers of darkness," of which "genuine demonic +possession was one of the manifestations" (p. 249). + +Interesting as these speculations are, it may be confidently affirmed +that belief in Satan is not now generally regarded as an essential +article of the Christian faith, nor is it found to be an indispensable +element of Christian experience. On the one hand science has so +explained many of the processes of outer nature and of the inner life of +man as to leave no room for Satanic agency. On the other hand the modern +view of the inspiration of the Scriptures does not necessitate the +acceptance of the doctrine of the Scriptures on this subject as finally +and absolutely authoritative. The teaching of Jesus even in this matter +may be accounted for as either an accommodation to the views of those +with whom he was dealing, or more probably as a proof of the limitation +of knowledge which was a necessary condition of the Incarnation, for it +cannot be contended that as revealer of God and redeemer of men it was +imperative that he should either correct or confirm men's beliefs in +this respect. The possibility of the existence of evil spirits, +organized under one leader Satan to tempt man and oppose God, cannot be +denied; the sufficiency of the evidence for such evil agency may, +however, be doubted; the necessity of any such belief for Christian +thought and life cannot, therefore, be affirmed. (See also DEMONOLOGY; +POSSESSION.) (A. E. G.*) + + +DEVIZES, a market town and municipal borough in the Devizes +parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 86 m. W. by S. of London +by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 6532. Its castle was built on +a tongue of land flanked by two deep ravines, and behind this the town +grew up in a semicircle on a stretch of bare and exposed tableland. Its +main streets, in which a few ancient timbered houses are left, radiate +from the market place, where stands a Gothic cross, the gift of Lord +Sidmouth in 1814. The Kennet and Avon Canal skirts the town on the N., +passing over the high ground through a chain of thirty-nine locks. St +John's church, one of the most interesting in Wiltshire, is cruciform, +with a massive central tower, based upon two round and two pointed +arches. It was originally Norman of the 12th century, and the chancel +arch and low vaulted chancel, in this style, are very fine. In the +interior several ancient monuments of the Suttons and Heathcotes are +preserved, besides some beautiful carved stone work, and two rich +ceilings of oak over the chapels. St Mary's, a smaller church, is partly +Norman, but was rebuilt in the 15th and again in the 19th century. Its +lofty clerestoried nave has an elaborately carved timber roof, and the +south porch, though repaired in 1612, preserves its Norman mouldings. +The woollen industries of Devizes have lost their prosperity; but there +is a large grain trade, with engineering works, breweries, and +manufactures of silk, snuff, tobacco and agricultural implements. The +town is governed by a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. +Area, 906 acres. + +Devizes (_Divisis_, _la Devise_, _De Vies_) does not appear in any +historical document prior to the reign of Henry I., when the +construction of a castle of exceptional magnificence by Roger, bishop of +Salisbury, at once constituted the town an important political centre, +and led to its speedy development. After the disgrace of Roger in 1139 +the castle was seized by the Crown; in the 14th century it formed part +of the dowry of the queens of England, and figured prominently in +history until its capture and demolition by Cromwell in the Civil War of +the 17th century. Devizes became a borough by prescription, and the +first charter from Matilda, confirmed by successive later sovereigns, +merely grants exemption from certain tolls and the enjoyment of +undisturbed peace. Edward III. added a clause conferring on the town the +liberties of Marlborough, and Richard II. instituted a coroner. A gild +merchant was granted by Edward I., Edward II. and Edward III., and in +1614 was divided into the three companies of drapers, mercers and +leathersellers. The present governing charters were issued by James I. +and Charles I., the latter being little more than a confirmation of the +former, which instituted a common council consisting of a mayor, a town +clerk and thirty-six capital burgesses. These charters were surrendered +to Charles II., and a new one was conferred by James II., but abandoned +three years later in favour of the original grant. Devizes returned two +members to parliament from 1295, until deprived of one member by the +Representation of the People Act of 1867, and of the other by the +Redistribution Act of 1885. The woollen manufacture was the staple +industry of the town from the reign of Edward III. until the middle of +the 18th century, when complaints as to the decay of trade began to be +prevalent. In the reign of Elizabeth the market was held on Monday, and +there were two annual fairs at the feasts of the Purification of the +Virgin and the Decollation of John the Baptist. The market was +transferred to Thursday in the next reign, and the fairs in the 18th +century had become seven in number. + + See _Victoria County History, Wiltshire_; _History of Devizes_ (Devizes, + 1859). + + +DEVOLUTION, WAR OF (1667-68), the name applied to the war which arose +out of Louis XIV.'s claims to certain Spanish territories in right of +his wife Maria Theresa, upon whom the ownership was alleged to have +"devolved." (See, for the military operations, DUTCH WARS.) The war was +ended by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668. + + +DEVON, EARLS OF. From the family of De Redvers (De Ripuariis; Riviers), +who had been earls of Devon from about 1100, this title passed to Hugh +de Courtenay (c. 1275-1340), the representative of a prominent family in +the county (see Gibbon's "digression" in chap. lxi. of the _Decline and +Fall_, ed. Bury), but was subsequently forfeited by Thomas Courtenay +(1432-1462), a Lancastrian who was beheaded after the battle of Towton. +It was revived in 1485 in favour of Edward Courtenay (d. 1509), whose +son Sir William (d. 1511) married Catherine, daughter of Edward IV. Too +great proximity to the throne led to his attainder, but his son Henry +(c. 1498-1539) was restored in blood in 1517 as earl of Devon, and in +1525 was created marquess of Exeter; his second wife was a daughter of +William Blount, 4th Lord Mountjoy. The title again suffered forfeiture +on Henry's execution, but in 1553 it was recreated for his son Edward +(1526-1556). At the latter's death it became dormant in the Courtenay +family, till in 1831 a claim by a collateral branch was allowed by the +House of Lords, and the earldom of Devon was restored to the peerage, +still being held by the head of the Courtenays. The earlier earls of +Devon were referred to occasionally as earls of Devonshire, but the +former variant has prevailed, and the latter is now solely used for the +earldom and dukedom held by the Cavendishes (see DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND +DUKES OF, and also the article COURTENAY). + + +DEVONIAN SYSTEM, in geology, the name applied to series of stratified +fossiliferous and igneous rocks that were formed during the Devonian +period, that is, in the interval of time between the close of the +Silurian period and the beginning of the Carboniferous; it includes the +marine Devonian and an estuarine Old Red Sandstone series of strata. The +name "Devonian" was introduced in 1829 by Sir R. Murchison and A. +Sedgwick to describe the older rocks of Cornwall and Devon which W. +Lonsdale had shown, from an examination of the fossils, to be +intermediate between the Silurian and Carboniferous. The same two +workers also carried on further researches upon the same rocks of the +continent, where already several others, F. Roemer, H. E. Beyrich, &c., +were endeavouring to elucidate the succession of strata in this portion +of the "Transition Series." The labours of these earlier workers, +including in addition to those already mentioned, the brothers F. and G. +von Sandberger, A. Dumont, J. Gosselet, E. J. A. d'Archiac, E. P. de +Verneuil and H. von Dechen, although somewhat modified by later +students, formed the foundation upon which the modern classification of +the Devonian rocks is based. + +[Illustration: Distribution of Devonian Rocks] + + _Stratigraphy of the Devonian Facies._ + + Notwithstanding the fact that it was in Devonshire and Cornwall that + the Devonian rocks were first distinguished, it is in central Europe + that the succession of strata is most clearly made out, and here, too, + their geological position was first indicated by the founders of the + system, Sedgwick and Murchison. + + _Continental Europe._--Devonian rocks occupy a large area in the + centre of Europe, extending from the Ardennes through the south of + Belgium across Rhenish Prussia to Darmstadt. They are best known from + the picturesque gorges which have been cut through them by the Rhine + below Bingen and by the Moselle below Treves. They reappear from under + younger formations in Brittany, in the Harz and Thuringia, and are + exposed in Franconia, Saxony, Silesia, North Moravia and eastern + Galicia. The principal subdivisions of the system in the more typical + areas are indicated in Table I. + + This threefold subdivision, with a central mass of calcareous strata, + is traceable westwards through Belgium (where the Calcaire de Givet + represents the _Stringocephalus_ limestone of the Eifel) and eastwards + into the Harz. The rocks reappear with local petrographical + modifications, but with a remarkable persistence of general + palaeontological characters, in Eastern Thuringia, Franconia, Saxony, + Silesia, the north of Moravia and East Galicia. Devonian rocks have + been detected among the crumpled rocks of the Styrian Alps by means of + the evidence of abundant corals, cephalopods, gasteropods, + lamellibranchs and other organic remains. Perhaps in other tracts of + the Alps, as well as in the Carpathian range, similar shales, + limestones and dolomites, though as yet unfossiliferous, but + containing ores of silver, lead, mercury, zinc, cobalt and other + metals, may be referable to the Devonian system. + + In the centre of Europe, therefore, the Devonian rocks consist of a + vast thickness of dark-grey sandy and shaly rocks, with occasional + seams of limestone, and in particular with one thick central + calcareous zone. These rocks are characterized in the lower zones by + numerous broad-winged spirifers and by peculiar trilobites (_Phacops_, + _Homalonotus_, &c.) which, though generically like those of the + Silurian system, are specifically distinct. The central calcareous + zone abounds in corals and crinoids as well as in numerous + brachiopods. In the highest bands a profusion of coiled cephalopods + (_Clymenia_) occurs in some of the limestones, while the shales are + crowded with a small but characteristic ostracod crustacean + (_Cypridina_). Here and there traces of fishes have been found, more + especially in the Eifel, but seldom in such a state of preservation as + to warrant their being assigned to any definite place in the + zoological scale. Subsequently, however, E. Beyrich has described from + Gerolstein in the Eifel an undoubted species of _Pterichthys_, which, + as it cannot be certainly identified with any known form, he names _P. + Rhenanus_. A _Coccosteus_ has been described by F. A. Roemer from the + Harz, and still later one has been cited from Bicken near Herborn by + V. Koenen; but, as Beyrich points out, there may be some doubt as to + whether the latter is not a _Pterichthys_. A _Ctenacanthus_, seemingly + undistinguishable from the _C. Bohemicus_ of Barrande's Etage G, has + also been obtained from the Lower Devonian "Nereitenschichten" of + Thuringia. The characteristic _Holoptychius nobilissimus_ has been + detected in the Psammite de Condroz, which in Belgium forms a + characteristic sandy portion of the Upper Devonian rocks. These are + interesting facts, as helping to link the Devonian and Old Red + Sandstone types together. But they are as yet too few and unsupported + to warrant any large deduction as to the correlations between these + types. + + It is in the north-east of Europe that the Devonian and Old Red + Sandstone appear to be united into one system, where the limestones + and marine organisms of the one are interstratified with the + fish-bearing sandstones and shales of the other. In Russia, as was + shown in the great work _Russia and the Ural Mountains_ by Murchison, + De Verneuil and Keyserling, rocks intermediate between the Upper + Silurian and Carboniferous Limestone formations cover an extent of + surface larger than the British Islands. This wide development arises + not from the thickness but from the undisturbed horizontal character + of the strata. Like the Silurian formations described elsewhere, they + remain to this day nearly as flat and unaltered as they were + originally laid down. Judged by mere vertical depth, they present but + a meagre representative of the massive Devonian greywacke and + limestone of Germany, or of the Old Red Sandstone of Britain. Yet vast + though the area is over which they form the surface rock, it is + probably only a small portion of their total extent; for they are + found turned up from under the newer formations along the flank of the + Ural chain. It would thus seem that they spread continuously across + the whole breadth of Russia in Europe. Though almost everywhere + undisturbed, they afford evidence of some terrestrial oscillation + between the time of their formation and that of the Silurian rocks on + which they rest, for they are found gradually to overlap Upper and + Lower Silurian formations. + + TABLE I. + + +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + | | | | Brittany and | | | + | Stages. | Ardennes. | Rhineland. | Normandy. | Bohemia. | Harz. | + / +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + | | | Limestone of | Cypridina slates. | Slates of | | Cypridina | + U | | | Etroeungt. | Poen sandstone (Sauerland). | Rostellec. | | slates. | + P | | Famennien | Psammites of | Crumbly limestone (Kramen- | | | Clymenia | + P | | (Clymenia | Condroz (sandy | zelkalk) with Clymenia. | | | limestone and | + E | | beds). | series). | Neheim slates in Sauerland, | | | limestone of | + R | | | Slates of Famenne | and diabases, tuffs, &c., | | | Altenau. | + | | | (shaly series). | in Dillmulde, &c. | | | | + D / +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + E \ | | Slates of | Adorf limestone of Waldeck | Limestone of | | Iberg limestone | + V | | | Matagne. | and shales with Goniatites | Cop-Choux | | and Winterberg | + O | | Frasnien | Limestones, marls | (Eifel and Aix) = | and green | | limestone; | + N | |(Intumesce- | and shale of | Budesheimer shales. | slates of | | also Adorf | + I | | cens beds). | Frasne, and | Marls, limestone and dolomite| Travuliors. | | limestone and | + A | | | red marble of | with Rhynchonella cuboides | | | shales | + N | | | Flanders. | (Flinz in part). | | | (Budesheim). | + . | | | | Iberg limestone of Dillmulde.| | | | + \ +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + / | | Limestone of | Stringocephalus limestone, |Limestones | H_{2} (of | Stringocephalus | + M | | | Givet. | ironstone of Brilon and | of Chalonnes,| Barrande) dark | shales with | + I | | Giverien | | Lahnmulde. | Montjean and | plant-bearing | Flaser and | + D | |(Stringocep- | | Upper Lenne shales, crinoidal| l'Ecochere. | shales. | Knollenkalk. | + D | | halus beds).| | limestone of Eifel, red | | | Wissenbach | + L | | | | sandstones of Aix. | | | slates. | + E | | | | Tuffs and diabases of Brilon | | H_{1}. | | + | | | | and Lahnmulde. | | | | + D / | | | Red conglomerate of Aix. | | | | + E \ +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + V | | | Calceola slates | Calceola beds, Wissenbach | Slates of | G_{3} Cephalo- | Calceola beds. | + O | | | and limestones | slates, Lower Lenne beds, | Porsguen, | pod limestone. | Nereite slates, | + N | | Eifelien | of Couvin. | Guentroder limestone and | greywacke | G_{2} Tentacu- | slates of | + I | | (Calceola | Greywacke with | clay slate of Lahnmulde, | of Fret. | lite limestone.| Wieda and | + A | | beds). | Spirifer | Dillmulde, Wildungen, | | G_{3} Knollen- | limestones of | + N | | | cultrijugatus. | Griefenstein limestone, | | kalk and | Hasselfeld. | + . | | | | Ballersbach limestone. | | mottled Mnenian| | + \ | | | | | limestone. | | + +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + / | Coblentzien |Greywacke of | Upper Coblentz slates. | Limestones | | Haupt quartzite | + L | | | Hierges. | Red sandstone of Eifel, | of Erbray, | | (of Lossen) = | + O | | |Shales and conglom-| Coblentz quartzite, lower | Brulon, Vire| | Rammelsberg | + W | | | erate of Burnot | Coblentz slates. | and Nehou, | | slates, Schal- | + E | | | with quartzite, | Hunsrueck and Siegener | greywacke | | lker slates = | + R | | | of Bierle and | greywacke and slates. | of Faou, | | Kahleberg | + | | | red slates of | Taunus quartzite and | sandstone | | sandstone. | + D | | | Vireux, greywacke | greywacke. | of Gahard. | F-{2} of | Hercynian slates| + E / | | of Montigny, | | | Barrande. | and lime- | + V \ | | sandstone of Anor.| | | White Konjeprus | stones. | + O | +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+ Limestone with | | + N | | Gedinnien |Slates of St Hubert| Slates of Gedinne. | Slates and | Hercynian | | + I | | | and Fooz, slates | | quartzites | fauna. | | + A | | | of Mondrepuits, | | of Plou- | | | + N | | | arkose of Weis- | | gastel. | | | + . | | | mes, conglomerate | | | | | + | | | of Fepin. | | | | | + \ +-------------+-------------------+------------------------------+--------------+-----------------+-----------------+ + + The chief interest of the Russian rocks of this age lies in the fact, + first signalized by Murchison and his associates, that they unite + within themselves the characters of the Devonian and the Old Red + Sandstone types. In some districts they consist largely of limestones, + in others of red sandstones and marls. In the former they present + molluscs and other marine organisms of known Devonian species; in the + latter they afford remains of fishes, some of which are specifically + identical with those of the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. The + distribution of these two palaeontological types in Russia is traced + by Murchison to the lithological characters of the rocks, and + consequent original diversities of physical conditions, rather than to + differences of age. Indeed cases occur where in the same band of rock + Devonian shells and Old Red Sandstone fishes lie commingled. In the + belt of the formation which extends southwards from Archangel and the + White Sea, the strata consist of sands and marls, and contain only + fish remains. Traced through the Baltic provinces, they are found to + pass into red and green marls, clays, thin limestones and sandstones, + with beds of gypsum. In some of the calcareous bands such fossils + occur as _Orthis striatula_, _Spiriferina prisca_, _Leptaena + productoides_, _Spirifer calcaratus_, _Spirorbis omphaloides_ and + _Orthoceras subfusiforme_. In the higher beds _Holoptychius_ and other + well-known fishes of the Old Red Sandstone occur. Followed still + farther to the south, as far as the watershed between Orel and + Voronezh, the Devonian rocks lose their red colour and sandy + character, and become thin-bedded yellow limestones, and dolomites + with soft green and blue marls. Traces of salt deposits are indicated + by occasional saline springs. It is evident that the geographical + conditions of the Russian area during the Devonian period must have + closely resembled those of the Rhine basin and central England during + the Triassic period. The Russian Devonian rocks have been classified + in Table II. There is an unquestionable passage of the uppermost + Devonian rocks of Russia into the base of the Carboniferous system. + + TABLE II. + + +---------------------------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+ + | North-West Russia. | Central Russia. | Petchoraland. | Ural Region. | + / +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+ + U | | Red sandstone | Limestones with | Limestones with | Domanik slates | Cypridina slates, Clymenia | + P | | (Old Red). | Spirifer | Arca oreliana. | and limestones | limestones (Famennien). | + P < | | Verneuili and | Limestones with | with Sp. | Limestones with Gephyoceras | + E | | | Sp. Archiaci. | Sp. Verneuili | Verneuili. | intumescens and | + R | | | | and Sp. | | Rhynchonella cuboides | + | | | | Archiaci. | | (Frasnien). | + \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+ + M / | Dolomites and limestones | Marl with | Limestones and slates with | + I | | with | Spirifer Anossofi | Sp. Anossofi (Givetien). | + D < | Spirifer Anossofi. | and corals. | Limestones and slates with | + D | | | Pentamerus baschkiricus | + L | | Lower sandstone (Old Red). | (Eifelien). | + E \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+ + / | | | | Limestones and slates of | + L | | | | | the Yuresan and Ufa rivers,| + O | | Absent. | | | slate and quartzite, | + W < | | | | marble of Byclaya and | + E | | | | | of Bogoslovsk, phyllitic | + R | | | | | schists and quartzite. | + \ +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+------------------+-----------------------------+ + + The Lower Devonian of the Harz contains a fauna which is very + different from that of the Rhenish region; to this facies the name + "Hercynian" has been applied, and the correlation of the strata has + been a source of prolonged discussion among continental geologists. A + similar fauna appears in Lower Devonian of Bohemia, in Brittany + (limestone of Erbray) and in the Urals. The Upper Devonian of the Harz + passes up into the Culm. + + In the eastern Thuringian Fichtelgebirge the upper division is + represented by _Clymenia_ limestone and _Cypridina_ slates with Adorf + limestone, diabase and Planschwitzer tuff in the lower part. The + middle division has diabases and tuffs at the top with Tentaculite and + Nereite shales and limestones below. The upper part of the Lower + Devonian, the sandy shale of Steinach, rests unconformably upon + Silurian rocks. In the Carnic Alps are coral reef limestones, the + equivalents of the Iberg limestone, which attain an enormous + thickness; these are underlain by coral limestones with fossils + similar to those of the Konjeprus limestone of Bohemia; below these + are shales and nodular limestones with goniatites. The Devonian rocks + of Poland are sandy in the lower, and more calcareous in the upper + parts. They are of interest because while the upper portions agree + closely with the Rhenish facies, from the top of the Coblentzien + upwards, in the sandy beds near the base Old Red Sandstone fishes + (_Coccosteus_, &c.) are found. In France Devonian rocks are found well + developed in Brittany, as indicated in the table, also in Normandy and + Maine; in the Boulonnais district only the middle and upper divisions + are known. In south France in the neighbourhood of Cabrieres, about + Montpellier and in the Montagne Noire, all three divisions are found + in a highly calcareous condition. Devonian rocks are recognized, + though frequently much metamorphosed, on both the northern and + southern flanks of the Pyrenees; while on the Spanish peninsula they + are extensively developed. In Asturias they are no less than 3280 ft. + thick, all three divisions and most of the central European + subdivisions are present. In general, the Lower Devonian fossils of + Spain bear a marked resemblance to those of Brittany. + + _Asia._--From the Ural Mountains eastward, Devonian rocks have been + traced from point to point right across Asia. In the Altai Mountains + they are represented by limestones of Coblentzien age with a fauna + possessing Hercynian features. The same features are observed in the + Devonian of the Kougnetsk basin, and in Turkestan. Well-developed + quartzites with slates and diabases are found south of Yarkand and + Khotan. Middle and Upper Devonian strata are widespread in China. + Upper Devonian rocks are recorded from Persia, and from the Hindu Kush + on the right bank of the Chitral river. + + _England._--In England the original Devonian rocks are developed in + Devon and Cornwall and west Somerset. In north Devonshire these rocks + consist of sandstones, grits and slates, while in south Devon there + are, in addition, thick beds of massive limestone, and intercalations + of lavas and tuffs. The interpretation of the stratigraphy in this + region is a difficult matter, partly on account of the absence of good + exposures with fossils, and partly through the disturbed condition of + the rocks. The system has been subdivided as shown in Table III. + + TABLE III. + + +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+ + | North Devon and West | | + | Somerset. | South Devon. | + +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+ + / | Pilton group. Grits, slates | Ashburton slates. | + U | | and thin limestones. | Livaton slates. | + P | | Baggy group. Sandstones | Red and green Entomis slates | + P < | and slates. | (Famennien). | + E | | Pickwell Down group. | Red and grey slates with | + R | | Dark slates and grits. | tuffs. | + . | | Morte slates (?). | Chudleigh goniatite limestone | + \ | | Petherwyn beds (Frasnien). | + M +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+ + I / | Ilfracombe slates with | Torquay and Plymouth | + D | | lenticles of limestone. | limestones and Ashprington | + D < | Combe Martin grits and | volcanic series. (Givetien | + L | | slates. | and Eifelien.) | + E | | | Slates and limestones of | + . \ | | Hope's Nose. | + +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+ + L / | Hangman grits and slates. | Looe beds (Cornwall). | + O | | Lynton group, grits and | Meadfoot, Cockington and | + W < | calcareous slates. | Warberry series of slates | + E | | Foreland grits and slates. | and greywackes. (Coblentzien | + R | | | and Gedinnien.) | + . \ +-----------------------------+-------------------------------+ + + The fossil evidence clearly shows the close agreement of the Rhenish + and south Devonshire areas. In north Devonshire the Devonian rocks + pass upward without break into the Culm. + + _North America._--In North America the Devonian rocks are extensively + developed; they have been studied most closely in the New York region, + where they are classified according to Table IV. + + The classification below is not capable of application over the states + generally and further details are required from many of the regions + where Devonian rocks have been recognized, but everywhere the broad + threefold division seems to obtain. In Maryland the following + arrangement has been adopted--(1) Helderberg = Coeymans; (2) Oriskany; + (3) Romney = Erian; (4) Jennings = Genesee and Portage; (5) Hampshire + = Catskill in part. In the interior the Helderbergian is missing and + the system commences with (1) Oriskany, (2) Onondaga, (3) Hamilton, + (4) Portage (and Genesee), (5) Chemung. + + The Helderbergian series is mainly confined to the eastern part of the + continent; there is a northern development in Maine, and in Canada + (Gaspe, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Montreal); an Appalachian belt, + and a lower Mississippian region. The series as a whole is mainly + calcareous (2000 ft. in Gaspe), and thins out towards the west. The + fauna has Hercynian affinities. The Oriskany formation consists + largely of coarse sandstones; it is thin in New York, but in Maryland + and Virginia it is several hundred feet thick. It is more widespread + than the underlying Helderbergian. The Lower Devonian appears to be + thick in northern Maine and in Gaspe, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, + but neither the palaeontology nor the stratigraphy has been completely + worked out. + + In the Middle Devonian the thin clastic deposits at the base, Esopus + and Schoharie grits, have not been differentiated west of the + Appalachian region; but the Onondaga limestones are much more + extensive. The Erian series is often described as the Hamilton series + outside the New York district, where the _Marcellus_ shales are + grouped together with the Hamilton shales, and numerous local + subdivisions are included, as in Ohio, Kentucky and Tennessee. The + rocks are mostly shales or slates, but limestones predominate in the + western development. In Pennsylvania the Hamilton series is from 1500 + ft. to 5000 ft. thick, but in the more calcareous western extension it + is much thinner. The _Marcellus_ shales are bituminous in places. + + The Senecan series is composed of shallow-water deposits; the Tully + limestone, a local bed in New York, thins out in places into a layer + of pyrites which contains a remarkable dwarfed fauna. The bituminous + Genesee shales are thickest in Pennsylvania (300 ft.); 25 ft. on Lake + Erie. The shales and sandstones of the Portage formation reach 1000 + ft. to 1400 ft. in western New York. In the Chautauquan series the + Chemung formation is not always clearly separable from the Portage + beds, it is a sandstone and conglomerate formation which reaches its + maximum thickness (8000 ft.) in Pennsylvania, but thins rapidly + towards the west. In the Catskill region the Upper Devonian has an Old + Red facies--red shales and sandstones with a freshwater and brackish + fauna. + + TABLE IV. + + +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+ + | | | Probable | + | Groups. | Formations. | European | + | | | Equivalent. | + +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+ + / | Chautauquan. | Chemung beds with Catskill | Famennien. | + U | | | as a local facies. | | + P | | | | | + P < | ( | Portage beds (Naples, Ithaca | Frasnien. | + E | | ( | and Oneonta shales as local | | + R | | Senecan. < | facies). | | + . | | ( | Genesee shales. | | + \ | ( | Tully limestone. | | + +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+ + M / | Erian. ( | Hamilton shale. | Givetien. | + I | | ( | Marcellus shale. | | + D | | | | | + D < | ( | Onondaga (Corniferous) | Eifelien. | + L | | Ulsterian. ( | limestone. | | + E | | < | Schoharie grit. | | + . \ | ( | Esopus grit (Caudagalli grit).| | + +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+ + L / | Oriskanian. | Oriskany sandstone. | Coblentzien.| + O | | | | | + W | | ( | Kingston beds. | Gedinnien. | + E < |Helderbe- ( | Becraft limestone. | | + R | | rgian. < | New Scotland beds. | | + . | | ( | Coeymans limestone. | | + \ +---------------+-------------------------------+-------------+ + + Although the correlation of the strata has only advanced a short + distance, there is no doubt as to the presence of undifferentiated + Devonian rocks in many parts of the continent. In the Great Plains + this system appears to be absent, but it is represented in Colorado, + Utah, Nevada, Wyoming, Montana, California and Arizona; Devonian rocks + occur between the Sierras and the Rocky Mountains, in the Arbuckle + Mountains of Oklahoma and in Texas. In the western interior limestones + predominate; 6000 ft. of limestone are found at Eureka, Nevada, + beneath 2000 ft. of shale. On the Pacific coast metamorphism of the + rocks is common, and lava-flows and tuffs occur in them. + + In Canada, besides the occurrences previously mentioned in the eastern + region, Devonian strata are found in considerable force along the + course of the Mackenzie river and the Canadian Rockies, whence they + stretch out into Alaska. It is probable, however, that much that is + now classed as Devonian in Canada will prove on fossil evidence to be + Carboniferous. + + _South America, Africa, Australia, &c._--In South America the Devonian + is well developed; in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and the + Falkland Islands, the palaeontological horizon is about the junction + of the Lower and Middle divisions, and the fauna has affinities with + the Hamilton shales of North America. Nearly allied to the South + American Devonian is that of South Africa, where they are represented + by the Bokkeveld beds in the Cape system. In Australia we find Lower + Devonian consisting of coarse littoral deposits with volcanic rocks; + and a Middle division with coral limestones in Victoria, New South + Wales and Queensland; an Upper division has also been observed. In New + Zealand the Devonian is well exposed in the Reefton mining field; and + it has been suggested that much of the highly metamorphosed rock may + belong to this system. + + _Stratigraphy of the Old Red Sandstone Facies._ + + The Old Red Sandstone of Britain, according to Sir Archibald Geikie, + "consists of two subdivisions, the lower of which passes down + conformably into the Upper Silurian deposits, the upper shading off + in the same manner into the base of the Carboniferous system, while + they are separated from each other by an unconformability." The Old + Red strata appear to have been deposited in a number of elongated + lakes or lagoons, approximately parallel to one another, with a + general alignment in a N.E.-S.W. direction. To these areas of deposit + Sir A. Geikie has assigned convenient distinctive names. + + In Scotland the two divisions of the system are sharply separated by a + pronounced unconformability which is probably indicative of a + prolonged interval of erosion. In the central valley between the base + of the Highlands and the southern uplands lay "Lake Caledonia." Here + the lower division is made up of some 20,000 ft. of shallow-water + deposits, reddish-brown, yellow and grey sandstones and conglomerates, + with occasional "cornstones," and thin limestones. The grey flagstones + with shales are almost confined to Forfarshire, and are known as the + "Arbroath flags." Interbedded volcanic rocks, andesites, dacites, + diabases, with agglomerates and tuffs constitute an important feature, + and attain a thickness of 6000 ft. in the Pentland and Ochil hills. A + line of old volcanic vents may be traced in a direction roughly + parallel to the trend of the great central valley. On the northern + side of the Highlands was "Lake Orcadie," presumably much larger than + the foregoing lake, though its boundaries are not determinable. It lay + over Moray Firth and the east of Ross and Sutherland, and extended + from Caithness to the Orkney Islands and S. Shetlands. It may even + have stretched across to Norway, where similar rocks are found in + Sognefjord and Dalsfjord, and may have had communications with some + parts of northern Russia. Very characteristic of this area are the + Caithness flags, dark grey and bituminous, which, with the red + sandstones and conglomerates at their base, probably attain a + thickness of 16,000 ft. The somewhat peculiar fauna of this series led + Murchison to class the flags as Middle Devonian. In the Shetland + Islands contemporaneous volcanic rocks have been observed. Over the + west of Argyllshire lay "Lake Lorne"; here the volcanic rocks + predominate, they are intercalated with shallow-water deposits. A + similar set of rocks occupy the Cheviot district. + + The upper division of the Old Red Sandstone is represented in + Shropshire and South Wales by a great series of red rocks, shales, + sandstones and marls, some 10,000 ft. thick. They contain few fossils, + and no break has yet been found in the series. In Scotland this series + was deposited in basins which correspond only partially with those of + the earlier period. They are well developed in central Scotland over + the lowlands bordering the Moray Firth. Interbedded lavas and tuffs + are found in the island of Hoy. An interesting feature of this series + is the occurrence of great crowds of fossil fishes in some localities, + notably at Dura Den in Fife. In the north of England this series rests + unconformably upon the Lower Old Red and the Silurian. + + Flanking the Silurian high ground of Cumberland and Westmorland, and + also in the Lammermuir hills and in Flint and Anglesey, a brecciated + conglomerate, presenting many of the characters of a glacial deposit + in places, has often been classed with the Old Red Sandstone, but in + parts, at least, it is more likely to belong to the base of the + Carboniferous system. In Ireland the lower division appears to be + represented by the Dingle beds and Glengariff grits, while the Kerry + rocks and the Kiltorcan beds of Cork are the equivalents of the upper + division. Rocks of Old Red type, both lower and upper, are found in + Spitzbergen and in Bear Island. In New Brunswick and Nova Scotia the + Old Red facies is extensively developed. The Gaspe sandstones have + been estimated at 7036 ft. thick. In parts of western Russia Old Red + Sandstone fossils are found in beds intercalated with others + containing marine fauna of the Devonian facies. + + _Devonian and Old Red Sandstone Faunas._ + + The two types of sediment formed during this period--the _marine_ + Devonian and the _lagoonal_ Old Red Sandstone--representing as they do + two different but essentially contemporaneous phases of physical + condition, are occupied by two strikingly dissimilar faunas. Doubtless + at all times there were regions of the earth that were marked off no + less clearly from the normal marine conditions of which we have + records; but this period is the earliest in which these variations of + environment are made obvious. In some respects the faunal break + between the older Silurian below and the younger Carboniferous above + is not strongly marked; and in certain areas a very close relationship + can be shown to exist between the older Devonian and the former, and + the younger Devonian and the latter. Nevertheless, taken as a whole, + the life of this period bears a distinct stamp of individuality. + + The two most prominent features of the Devonian seas are presented by + corals and brachiopods. The corals were abundant individually and + varied in form; and they are so distinctive of the period that no + Devonian species has yet been found either in the Silurian or in the + Carboniferous. They built reefs, as in the present day, and + contributed to the formation of limestone masses in Devonshire, on the + continent of Europe and in North America. Rugose and tabulate forms + prevailed; among the former the cyathophyllids (_Cyathophyllum_) were + important, _Phillipsastraea_, _Zaphrentis_, _Acervularia_ and the + curious _Calceola_ (_sandalina_), an operculate genus which has given + palaeontologists much trouble in its diagnosis, for it has been + regarded as a pelecypod (hippurite) and a brachiopod. The tabulate + corals were represented by _Favosites_, _Michelinia_, _Pleurodictyum_, + _Fistulipora_, _Pachypora_ and others. _Heliolites_ and _Plasmopora_ + represent the alcyonarians. Stromatoporoids were important reef + builders. A well-known fossil is _Receptaculites_, a genus to which it + has been difficult to assign a definite place; it has been thought to + be a sponge, it may be a calcareous alga, or a curious representative + of the foraminifera. + + In the Devonian period the brachiopods reached the climax of their + development: they compose three-quarters of the known fauna, and more + than 1100 species have been described. Changes were taking place from + the beginning of the period in the relative importance of genera; + several Silurian forms dropped out, and new types were coming in. A + noticeable feature was the development of broad-winged shells in the + genus _Spirifer_, other spiriferids were _Ambocoelia_, _Uncites_, + _Verneuilia_. Orthids and pentamerids were waning in importance, while + the productids (_Productella_, _Chonetes_, _Strophalosia_) were + increasing. The strophomenids were still flourishing, represented by + the genera _Leptaena_, _Stropheodonta_, _Kayserella_, and others. The + ancient _Lingula_, along with _Crania_ and _Orbiculoidea_, occur among + the inarticulate forms. Another long-lived and wide-ranging species is + _Atrypa reticularis_. The athyrids were very numerous (_Athyris_, + _Retzia_, _Merista_, _Meristella_, _Kayserina_, &c.); and the + rhynchonellids were well represented by _Pugnax_, _Hypothyris_, and + several other genera. The important group of terebratulids appears in + this system; amongst them _Stringocephalus_ is an eminently + characteristic Devonian brachiopod; others are _Dielasma_, + _Cryptonella_, _Rensselaeria_ and _Oriskania_. + + The pelecypod molluscs were represented by _Pterinea_, abundant in the + lower members along with other large-winged forms, and by + _Cucullella_, _Buchiola_ and _Curtonotus_ in the upper members of the + system. Other genera are _Actinodesma_, _Cardiola_, _Nucula_, + _Megalodon_, _Aviculopecten_, &c. Gasteropods were becoming more + important, but the simple capulid forms prevailed: _Platyceras_ + (_Capulus_), _Straparollus_, _Pleurotomaria_, _Murchisonia_, + _Macrocheilina_, _Euomphalus_. Among the pteropods, _Tentaculites_ was + very abundant in some quarters; others were _Conularia_ and + _Styliolina_. In the Devonian period the cephalopods began to make a + distinct advance in numbers, and in development. The goniatites appear + with the genera _Anarcestes_, _Agoniatites_, _Tornoceras_, _Bactrites_ + and others; and in the upper strata the clymenoids, forerunners of the + later ammonoids, began to take definite shape. While several new + nautiloids (_Homaloceras_, _Ryticeras_, &c.) made their appearance + several of the older genera still lived on (_Orthoceras_, + _Poterioceras_, _Actinoceras_). + + Crinoids were very abundant in some parts of the Devonian sea, though + they were relatively scarce in others; they include the genera + _Melocrinus_, _Haplocrinus_, _Cupressocrinus_, _Calceocrinus_ and + _Eleuthrocrinus_. The cystideans were falling off (_Proteocystis_, + _Tiaracrinus_), but blastoids were in the ascendant (_Nucleocrinus_, + _Codaster_, &c.). Both brittle-stars, _Ophiura_, _Palaeophiura_, + _Eugaster_, and true starfishes, _Palaeaster_, _Aspidosoma_, were + present, as well as urchins (_Lepidocentrus_). + + When we turn to the crustaceans we have to deal with two distinct + assemblages, one purely marine, trilobitic, the other mainly + lacustrine or lagoonal with a eurypteridian facies. The trilobites had + already begun to decline in importance, and as happens not + infrequently with degenerating races of beasts and men, they began to + develop strange eccentricities of ornamentation in some of their + genera. A number of Silurian genera lived on into the Devonian period, + and some gradually developed into new and distinctive forms; such were + _Proetus_, _Harpes_, _Cheirurus_, _Bronteus_ and others. Distinct + species of _Phacops_ mark the Lower and Upper Devonian respectively, + while the genus _Dalmania_ (_Odontochile_) was represented by species + with an almost world-wide range. The Ostracod _Entomis_ (_Cypridina_) + was extremely abundant in places--_Cypridinen-Schiefer_--while the + true _Cypridina_ was also present along with _Beyrichia_, + _Leperditia_, &c. The Phyllocarids, _Echinocaris_, _Eleuthrocaris_, + _Tropidocaris_, are common in the United States. It is in the Old Red + Sandstone that the eurypterids are best preserved; foremost among + these was _Pterygotus_; _P. anglicus_ has been found in Scotland with + a length of nearly 6 ft.; _Eurypterus_, _Slimonia_, _Stylonurus_ were + other genera. + + Insects appear well developed, including both orthopterous and + neuropterous forms, in the New Brunswick rocks. Mr Scudder believed he + had obtained a specimen of Orthoptera in which a stridulating organ + was present. A species of _Ephemera_, allied to the modern may-fly, + had a spread of wing extending to 5 in. In the Scottish Old Red + Sandstone myriapods, _Kampecaris_ and _Archidesmus_, have been + described; they are somewhat simpler than more recent forms, each + segment being separate, and supplied with only one pair of walking + legs. Spiders and scorpions also lived upon the land. + + The great number of fish remains in the Devonian and Old Red strata, + coupled with the truly remarkable characters possessed by some of the + forms, has caused the period to be described as the "age of fishes." + As in the case of the crustaceans, referred to above, we find one + assemblage more or less peculiar to the freshwater or brackish + conditions of the Old Red, and another characteristic of the marine + Devonian; on the whole the former is the richer in variety, but there + seems little doubt that quite a number of genera were capable of + living in either environment, whatever may have been the real + condition of the Old Red waters. Foremost in interest are the curious + ostracoderms, a remarkable group of creatures possessing many of the + characteristics of fishes, but more probably belonging to a distinct + class of organisms, which appears to link the vertebrates with the + arthropods. They had come into existence late in Silurian times; but + it is in the Old Red strata that their remains are most fully + preserved. They were abundant in the fresh or brackish waters of + Scotland, England, Wales, Russia and Canada, and are represented by + such forms as _Pteraspis_, _Cephalaspis_, _Cyathaspis_, _Tremataspis_, + _Bothriolepis_ and _Pterichthys_. + + In the lower members of the Old Red series _Dipterus_, and in the + upper members _Phaneropleuron_, represented the dipnoid lung-fishes; + and it is of extreme interest to note that a few of these curious + forms still survive in the African _Protopterus_, the Australian + _Ceratodus_ and the South American _Lepidosiren_,--all freshwater + fishes. Distantly related to the lung-fishes were the singular + arthrodirans, a group possessing the unusual faculty of moving the + head in a vertical plane. These comprise the wide-ranging _Coccosteus_ + with _Homosteus_ and _Dinichthys_, the largest fish of the period. The + latter probably reached 20 ft. in length; it was armed with + exceedingly powerful jaws provided with turtle-like beaks. Sharks were + fairly prominent denizens of the sea; some were armed with cutting + teeth, others with crushing dental plates; and although they were on + the whole marine fishes, they were evidently able to live in fresher + waters, like some of their modern representatives, for their remains, + mostly teeth and large dermal spines, are found both in the Devonian + and Old Red rocks. _Mesacanthus_, _Diplacanthus_, _Climatius_, + _Cheiracanthus_ are characteristic genera. The crossopterygians, + ganoids with a scaly lobe in the centre of the fins, were represented + by _Holoptychius_ and _Glyptopomus_ in the Upper Old Red, and by such + genera as _Diplopterus_, _Osteolepis_, _Gyroptychius_ in the lower + division. The _Polypterus_ of the Nile and _Calamoichthys_ of South + Africa are the modern exemplars of this group. _Cheirolepis_, found in + the Old Red of Scotland and Canada, is the only Devonian + representative of the actinopterygian fishes. The cyclostome fishes + have, so far, been discovered only in Scotland, in the tiny + _Palaeospondylus_. Amphibian remains have been found in the Devonian + of Belgium; and footprints supposed to belong to a creature of the + same class (_Thinopus antiquus_) have been described by Professor + Marsh from the Chemung formation of Pennsylvania. + + _Plant Life._--In the lacustrine deposits of the Old Red Sandstone we + find the earliest well-defined assemblage of terrestrial plants. In + some regions so abundant are the vegetable remains that in places they + form thin seams of veritable coal. These plants evidently flourished + around the shores of the lakes and lagoons in which their remains were + buried along with the other forms of life. Lycopods and ferns were the + predominant types; and it is important to notice that both groups were + already highly developed. The ferns include the genera _Sphenopteris_, + _Megalopteris_, _Archaeopteris_, _Neuropteris_. Among the Lycopods are + _Lycopodites_, _Psilophyton_, _Lepidodendron_. Modern horsetails are + represented by _Calamocladus_, _Asterocalamites_, _Annularia_. Of + great interest are the genera _Cordaites_, _Araucarioxylon_, &c., + which were synthetic types, uniting in some degree the Coniferae and + the Cycadofilicales. With the exception of obscure markings, aquatic + plants are not so well represented as might have been expected; + _Parka_, a common fossil, has been regarded as a water plant with a + creeping stem and two kinds of sporangia in sessile sporocarps. + +_Physical Conditions, &c._--Perhaps the most striking fact that is +brought out by a study of the Devonian rocks and their fossils is the +gradual transgression of the sea over the land, which took place quietly +in every quarter of the globe shortly after the beginning of the period. +While in most places the Lower Devonian sediments succeed the Silurian +formations in a perfectly conformable manner, the Middle and Upper +divisions, on account of this encroachment of the sea, rest +unconformably upon the older rocks, the Lower division being +unrepresented. This is true over the greater part of South America, so +far as our limited knowledge goes, in much of the western side of North +America, in western Russia, in Thuringia and other parts of central +Europe. Of the distribution of land and sea and the position of the +coast lines in Devonian times we can state nothing with precision. The +known deposits all point to shallow waters of epicontinental seas; no +abyssal formations have been recognized. E. Kayser has pointed out the +probability of a Eurasian sea province extending through Europe towards +the east, across north and central Asia towards Manitoba in Canada, and +an American sea province embracing the United States, South America and +South Africa. At the same time there existed a great North Atlantic land +area caused partly by the uplift of the Caledonian range just before the +beginning of the period, which stretched across north Europe to eastern +Canada; on the fringe of this land the Old Red Sandstone was formed. + +In the European area C. Barrois has indicated the existence of three +zones of deposition: (1) A northern, Old Red, region, including Great +Britain, Scandinavia, European Russia and Spitzbergen; here the land was +close at hand; great brackish lagoons prevailed, which communicated more +or less directly with the open sea. In European Russia, during its +general advance, the sea occasionally gained access to wide areas, only +to be driven off again, during pauses in the relative subsidence of the +land, when the continued terrigenous sedimentation once more established +the lagoonal conditions. These alternating phases were frequently +repeated. (2) A middle region, covering Devonshire and Cornwall, the +Ardennes, the northern part of the lower Rhenish mountains, and the +upper Harz to the Polish Mittelgebirge; here we find evidence of a +shallow sea, clastic deposits and a sublittoral fauna. (3) A southern +region reaching from Brittany to the south of the Rhenish mountains, +lower Harz, Thuringia and Bohemia; here was a deeper sea with a more +pelagic fauna. It must be borne in mind that the above-mentioned regions +are intended to refer to the time when the extension of the Devonian sea +was near its maximum. In the case of North America it has been shown +that in early and middle Devonian time more or less distinct faunas +invaded the continent from five different centres, viz. the Helderberg, +the Oriskany, the Onondaga, the southern Hamilton and the north-western +Hamilton; these reached the interior approximately in the order given. + +Towards the close of the period, when the various local faunas had +mingled one with another and a more generalized life assemblage had been +evolved, we find many forms with a very wide range, indicating great +uniformity of conditions. Thus we find identical species of brachiopods +inhabiting the Devonian seas of England, France, Belgium, Germany, +Russia, southern Asia and China; such are, _Hypothyris_ (_Rhynchonella_) +_cuboides_, _Spirifer disjunctus_ and others. The fauna of the +_Calceola_ shales can be traced from western Europe to Armenia and +Siberia; the _Stringocephalus_ limestones are represented in Belgium, +England, the Urals and Canada; and the (_Gephyroceras_) _intumescens_ +shales are found in western Europe and in Manitoba. + +The Devonian period was one of comparative quietude; no violent crustal +movements seem to have taken place, and while some changes of level +occurred towards its close in Great Britain, Bohemia and Russia, +generally the passage from Devonian to Carboniferous conditions was +quite gradual. In later periods these rocks have suffered considerable +movement and metamorphism, as in the Harz, Devonshire and Cornwall, and +in the Belgian coalfields, where they have frequently been thrust over +the younger Carboniferous rocks. Volcanic activity was fairly +widespread, particularly during the middle portion of the period. In the +Old Red rocks of Scotland there is a great thickness (6000 ft.) of +igneous rocks, including diabases and andesitic lavas with agglomerates +and tuffs. In Devonshire diabases and tuffs are found in the middle +division. In west central Europe volcanic rocks are found at many +horizons, the most common rocks are diabases and diabase tuffs, +_schalstein_. Felsitic lavas and tuffs occur in the Middle Devonian of +Australia. Contemporaneous igneous rocks are generally absent in the +American Devonian, but in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick there appear to +be some. + +There is little evidence as to the climate of this period, but it is +interesting to observe that local glacial conditions _may_ have existed +in places, as is suggested by the coarse conglomerate with striated +boulders in the upper Old Red of Scotland. On the other hand, the +prevalence of reef-building corals points to moderately warm +temperatures in the Middle Devonian seas. + +The economic products of Devonian rocks are of some importance: in many +of the metamorphosed regions veins of tin, lead, copper, iron are +exploited, as in Cornwall, Devon, the Harz; in New Zealand, gold veins +occur. Anthracite of Devonian age is found in China and a little coal in +Germany, while the Upper Devonian is the chief source of oil and gas of +western Pennsylvania and south-western New York. In Ontario the middle +division is oil-bearing. Black phosphates are worked in central +Tennessee, and in England the marls of the "Old Red" are employed for +brick-making. + + REFERENCES.--The literature of the Devonian rocks and fossils is very + extensive; important papers have been contributed by the following + geologists: J. Barrande, C. Barrois, F. Beclard, E. W. Benecke, L. + Beushausen, A. Champernowne, J. M. Clarke, Sir J. W. Dawson, A. + Denckmann, J. S. Diller, E. Dupont, F. Frech, J. Fournet, Sir A. + Geikie, G. Guerich, R. Hoernes, E. Kayser, C. and M. Koch, A. von + Koenen, Hugh Miller, D. P. Oehlert, C. S. Prosser, P. de Rouville, C. + Schuchert, T. Tschernyschew, E. O. Ulrich, W. A. E. Ussher, P. N. + Wenjukoff, G. F. Whidborne, J. F. Whiteaves and H. S. Williams. + Sedgwick and Murchison's original description appeared in the _Trans. + Geol. Soc._ (2nd series, vol. v., 1839). Good general accounts will be + found in Sir A. Geikie's _Text-Book of Geology_ (vol. ii., 4th ed., + 1903), in E. Kayser's _Lehrbuch der Geologie_ (vol. ii., 2nd ed., + 1902), and, for North America, in Chamberlin and Salisbury's _Geology_ + (vol. ii., 1906). See the _Index to the Geological Magazine_ + (1864-1903), and in subsequent annual volumes; _Geological Literature + added to the Geological Society's Library_ (London), annually since + 1893; and the _Neues Jahrbuch fuer Min., Geologie und Palaeontologie_ + (Stuttgart, 2 annual volumes). The U.S. Geological Survey publishes at + intervals a _Bibliography and Index of North American Geology, &c._, + and this (e.g. Bulletin 301,--the _Bibliog. and Index_ for 1901-1905) + contains numerous references for the Devonian system in North America. + (J. A. H.) + + +DEVONPORT, a municipal, county and parliamentary borough of Devonshire, +England, contiguous to East Stonehouse and Plymouth, the seat of one of +the royal dockyards, and an important naval and military station. Pop. +(1901) 70,437. It is situated immediately above the N.W. angle of +Plymouth Sound, occupying a triangular peninsula formed by Stonehouse +Pool on the E. and the Hamoaze on the W. It is served by the Great +Western and the London & South Western railways. The town proper was +formerly enclosed by a line of ramparts and a ditch excavated out of the +limestone, but these are in great part demolished. Adjoining Devonport +are East Stonehouse (an urban district, pop. 15,111), Stoke and Morice +Town, the two last being suburbs of Devonport. The town hall, erected in +1821-1822 partly after the design of the Parthenon, is distinguished by +a Doric portico; while near it are the public library, in Egyptian +style, and a conspicuous Doric column built of Devonshire granite. This +monument, which is 100 ft. high, was raised in commemoration of the +naming of the town in 1824. Other institutions are the Naval Engineering +College, Keyham (1880); the municipal technical schools, opened in 1899, +the majority of the students being connected with the dockyard; the +naval barracks, Keyham (1885); the Raglan barracks and the naval and +military hospitals. On Mount Wise, which was formerly defended by a +battery (now a naval signalling station), stands the military residence, +or Government House, occupied by the commander of the Plymouth Coast +Defences; and near at hand is the principal naval residence, the naval +commander-in-chief's house. The prospect from Mount Wise over the +Hamoaze to Mount Edgecumbe on the opposite shore is one of the finest in +the south of England. The most noteworthy feature of Devonport, however, +is the royal dockyard, originally established by William III. in 1689 +and until 1824 known as Plymouth Dock. It is situated within the old +town boundary and contains four docks. To this in 1853 was added Keyham +steamyard, situated higher up the Hamoaze beyond the old boundary and +connected with the Devonport yard by a tunnel. In 1896 further +extensions were begun at the Keyham yard, which became known as +Devonport North yard. Before these were begun the yard comprised two +basins, the northern one being 9 acres and the southern 7 acres in area, +and three docks, having floor-lengths of 295, 347 and 413 ft., together +with iron and brass foundries, machinery shops, engineer students' shop, +&c. The new extensions, opened by the Prince of Wales on the 21st of +February 1907, cover a total area of 118 acres lying to the northward in +front of the Naval Barracks, and involved the reclamation of 77 acres of +mudflats lying below high-water mark. The scheme presented three leading +features--a tidal basin, a group of three graving docks with entrance +lock, and a large enclosed basin with a coaling depot at the north end. +The tidal basin, close to the old Keyham north basin, is 740 ft. long +with a mean width of 590 ft., and has an area of 10 acres, the depth +being 32 ft. at low water of spring tides. It affords access to two +graving docks, one with a floor-length of 745 ft. and 20 1/2 ft. of water +over the sill, and the other with a length of 741 ft. and 32 ft. of +water over the sill. Each of these can be subdivided by means of an +intermediate caisson, and (when unoccupied) may serve as an entrance to +the closed basin. The lock which leads from the tidal to the closed +basin is 730 ft. long, and if necessary can be used as a dock. The +closed basin, out of which opens a third graving dock, 660 ft. long, +measures 1550 ft. by 1000 ft. and has an area of 35 1/2 acres, with a depth +of 32 ft. at low-water springs; it has a direct entrance from the +Hamoaze, closed by a caisson. The foundations of the walls are carried +down to the rock, which in some places lies covered with mud 100 ft. or +more below coping level. Compressed air is used to work the sliding +caissons which close the entrances of the docks and closed basin. A +ropery at Devonport produces half the hempen ropes used in the navy. + +By the Reform Act of 1832 Devonport was erected into a parliamentary +borough including East Stonehouse and returning two members. The ground +on which it stands is for the most part the property of the St Aubyn +family (Barons St Levan), whose steward holds a court leet and a court +baron annually. The town is governed by a mayor, sixteen aldermen and +forty-eight councillors. Area, 3044 acres. + + +DEVONPORT, EAST and WEST, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, situated on +both sides of the mouth of the river Mersey, 193 m. by rail N.W. of +Hobart. Pop. (1901), East Devonport, 673, West Devonport, 2101. There is +regular communication from this port to Melbourne and Sydney, and it +ranks as the third port in Tasmania. A celebrated regatta is held on the +Mersey annually on New Year's day. + + +DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The Devonshire title, now in the +Cavendish family, had previously been held by Charles Blount +(1563-1606), 8th Lord Mountjoy, great-grandson of the 4th Lord Mountjoy +(d. 1534), the pupil of Erasmus; he was created earl of Devonshire in +1603 for his services in Ireland, where he became famous in subduing the +rebellion between 1600 and 1603; but the title became extinct at his +death. In the Cavendish line the 1st earl of Devonshire was William (d. +1626), second son of Sir William Cavendish (q.v.), and of Elizabeth +Hardwick, who afterwards married the 6th earl of Shrewsbury. He was +created earl of Devonshire in 1618 by James I., and was succeeded by +William, 2nd earl (1591-1628), and the latter by his son William +(1617-1684), a prominent royalist, and one of the original members of +the Royal Society, who married a daughter of the 2nd earl of Salisbury. + +WILLIAM CAVENDISH, 1st duke of Devonshire (1640-1707), English +statesman, eldest son of the earl of Devonshire last mentioned, was born +on the 25th of January 1640. After completing his education he made the +tour of Europe according to the custom of young men of his rank, being +accompanied on his travels by Dr Killigrew. On his return he obtained, +in 1661, a seat in parliament for Derbyshire, and soon became +conspicuous as one of the most determined and daring opponents of the +general policy of the court. In 1678 he was one of the committee +appointed to draw up articles of impeachment against the lord treasurer +Danby. In 1679 he was re-elected for Derby, and made a privy councillor +by Charles II.; but he soon withdrew from the board with his friend Lord +Russell, when he found that the Roman Catholic interest uniformly +prevailed. He carried up to the House of Lords the articles of +impeachment against Lord Chief-Justice Scroggs, for his arbitrary and +illegal proceedings in the court of King's bench; and when the king +declared his resolution not to sign the bill for excluding the duke of +York, afterwards James II., he moved in the House of Commons that a bill +might be brought in for the association of all his majesty's Protestant +subjects. He also openly denounced the king's counsellors, and voted for +an address to remove them. He appeared in defence of Lord Russell at his +trial, at a time when it was scarcely more criminal to be an accomplice +than a witness. After the condemnation he gave the utmost possible proof +of his attachment by offering to exchange clothes with Lord Russell in +the prison, remain in his place, and so allow him to effect his escape. +In November 1684 he succeeded to the earldom on the death of his father. +He opposed arbitrary government under James II. with the same +consistency and high spirit as during the previous reign. He was +withdrawn from public life for a time, however, in consequence of a +hasty and imprudent act of which his enemies knew how to avail +themselves. Fancying that he had received an insulting look in the +presence chamber from Colonel Colepepper, a swaggerer whose attendance +at court the king encouraged, he immediately avenged the affront by +challenging the colonel, and, on the challenge being refused, striking +him with his cane. This offence was punished by a fine of L30,000, which +was an enormous sum even to one of the earl's princely fortune. Not +being able to pay he was imprisoned in the king's bench, from which he +was released only on signing a bond for the whole amount. This was +afterwards cancelled by King William. After his discharge the earl went +for a time to Chatsworth, where he occupied himself with the erection of +a new mansion, designed by William Talman, with decorations by Verrio, +Thornhill and Grinling Gibbons. The Revolution again brought him into +prominence. He was one of the seven who signed the original paper +inviting the prince of Orange from Holland, and was the first nobleman +who appeared in arms to receive him at his landing. He received the +order of the Garter on the occasion of the coronation, and was made lord +high steward of the new court. In 1690 he accompanied King William on +his visit to Holland. He was created marquis of Hartington and duke of +Devonshire in 1694 by William and Mary, on the same day on which the +head of the house of Russell was created duke of Bedford. Thus, to quote +Macaulay, "the two great houses of Russell and Cavendish, which had long +been closely connected by friendship and by marriage, by common +opinions, common sufferings and common triumphs, received on the same +day the highest honour which it is in the power of the crown to confer." +His last public service was assisting to conclude the union with +Scotland, for negotiating which he and his eldest son, the marquis of +Hartington, had been appointed among the commissioners by Queen Anne. He +died on the 18th of August 1707, and ordered the following inscription +to be put on his monument:- + + Willielmus Dux Devon, + Bonorum Principum Fidelis Subditus, + Inimicus et Invisus Tyrannis. + +He had married in 1661 the daughter of James, duke of Ormonde, and he +was succeeded by his eldest son William as 2nd duke, and by the latter's +son William as 3rd duke (viceroy of Ireland, 1737-1744). The latter's +son William (1720-1764) succeeded in 1755 as 4th duke; he married the +daughter and heiress of Richard Boyle, earl of Burlington and Cork, who +brought Lismore Castle and the Irish estates into the family; and from +November 1756 to May 1757 he was prime minister, mainly in order that +Pitt, who would not then serve under the duke of Newcastle, should be in +power. His son William (1748-1811), 5th duke, is memorable as the +husband of the beautiful Georgiana Spencer, duchess of Devonshire +(1757-1806), and of the intellectual Elizabeth Foster, duchess of +Devonshire (1758-1824), both of whom Gainsborough painted. His son +William, 6th duke (1790-1858), who died unmarried, was sent on a special +mission to the coronation of the tsar Nicholas at Moscow in 1826, and +became famous for his expenditure on that occasion; and it was he who +employed Sir Joseph Paxton at Chatsworth. The title passed in 1858 to +his cousin William (1808-1891), 2nd earl of Burlington, as 7th duke, a +man who, without playing a prominent part in public affairs, exercised +great influence, not only by his position but by his distinguished +abilities. At Cambridge in 1829 he was second wrangler, first Smith's +prizeman, and eighth classic, and subsequently he became chancellor of +the university. + +SPENCER COMPTON CAVENDISH, 8th duke (1833-1908), born on the 23rd of +July 1833, was the son of the 7th duke (then earl of Burlington) and his +wife Lady Blanche Howard (sister of the earl of Carlisle). In 1854 Lord +Cavendish, as he then was, took his degree at Trinity College, +Cambridge; in 1856 he was attached to the special mission to Russia for +the new tsar's accession; and in 1857 he was returned to parliament as +Liberal member for North Lancashire. At the opening of the new +parliament of 1859 the marquis of Hartington (as he had now become) +moved the amendment to the address which overthrew the government of +Lord Derby. In 1863 he became first a lord of the admiralty, and then +under-secretary for war, and on the formation of the Russell-Gladstone +administration at the death of Lord Palmerston he entered it as war +secretary. He retired with his colleagues in July 1866; but upon Mr +Gladstone's return to power in 1868 he became postmaster-general, an +office which he exchanged in 1871 for that of secretary for Ireland. +When Mr Gladstone, after his defeat and resignation in 1874, temporarily +withdrew from the leadership of the Liberal party in January 1875, Lord +Hartington was chosen Liberal leader in the House of Commons, Lord +Granville being leader in the Lords. Mr W. E. Forster, who had taken a +much more prominent part in public life, was the only other possible +nominee, but he declined to stand. Lord Hartington's rank no doubt told +in his favour, and Mr Forster's education bill had offended the +Nonconformist members, who would probably have withheld their support. +Lord Hartington's prudent management in difficult circumstances laid his +followers under great obligations, since not only was the opposite party +in the ascendant, but his own former chief was indulging in the freedom +of independence. After the complete defeat of the Conservatives in the +general election of 1880, a large proportion of the party would have +rejoiced if Lord Hartington could have taken the Premiership instead of +Mr Gladstone, and the queen, in strict conformity with constitutional +usage (though Gladstone himself thought Lord Granville should have had +the preference), sent for him as leader of the Opposition. Mr Gladstone, +however, was clearly master of the situation: no cabinet could be formed +without him, nor could he reasonably be expected to accept a subordinate +post. Lord Hartington, therefore, gracefully abdicated the leadership, +and became secretary of state for India, from which office, in December +1882, he passed to the war office. His administration was memorable for +the expeditions of General Gordon and Lord Wolseley to Khartum, and a +considerable number of the Conservative party long held him chiefly +responsible for the "betrayal of Gordon." His lethargic manner, apart +from his position as war minister, helped to associate him in their +minds with a disaster which emphasized the fact that the government +acted "too late"; but Gladstone and Lord Granville were no less +responsible than he. In June 1885 he resigned along with his colleagues, +and in December was elected for the Rossendale Division of Lancashire, +created by the new reform bill. Immediately afterwards the great +political opportunity of Lord Hartington's life came to him in Mr +Gladstone's conversion to home rule for Ireland. Lord Hartington's +refusal to follow his leader in this course inevitably made him the +chief of the new Liberal Unionist party, composed of a large and +influential section of the old Liberals. In this capacity he moved the +first resolution at the famous public meeting at the opera house, and +also, in the House of Commons, moved the rejection of Mr Gladstone's +Bill on the second reading. During the memorable electoral contest which +followed, no election excited more interest than Lord Hartington's for +the Rossendale division, where he was returned by a majority of nearly +1500 votes. In the new parliament he held a position much resembling +that which Sir Robert Peel had occupied after his fall from power, the +leader of a small, compact party, the standing and ability of whose +members were out of all proportion to their numbers, generally esteemed +and trusted beyond any other man in the country, yet in his own opinion +forbidden to think of office. Lord Salisbury's offers to serve under him +as prime minister (both after the general election, and again when Lord +Randolph Churchill resigned) were declined, and Lord Hartington +continued to discharge the delicate duties of the leader of a middle +party with no less judgment than he had shown when leading the Liberals +during the interregnum of 1875-1880. It was not until 1895, when the +differences between Conservatives and Liberal Unionists had become +almost obliterated by changed circumstances, and the habit of acting +together, that the duke of Devonshire, as he had become by the death of +his father in 1891, consented to enter Lord Salisbury's third ministry +as president of the council. The duke thus was the nominal +representative of education in the cabinet at a time when educational +questions were rapidly becoming of great importance; and his own +technical knowledge of this difficult and intricate question being +admittedly superficial, a good deal of criticism from time to time +resulted. He had however by this time an established position in public +life, and a reputation for weight of character, which procured for him +universal respect and confidence, and exempted him from bitter attack, +even from his most determined political opponents. Wealth and rank +combined with character to place him in a measure above party; and his +succession to his father as chancellor of the university of Cambridge in +1892 indicated his eminence in the life of the country. In the same year +he had married the widow of the 7th duke of Manchester. + +He continued to hold the office of lord president of the council till +the 3rd of October 1903, when he resigned on account of differences with +Mr BALFOUR (q.v.) over the latter's attitude towards free trade. As Mr +Chamberlain had retired from the cabinet, and the duke had not thought +it necessary to join Lord George Hamilton and Mr Ritchie in resigning a +fortnight earlier, the defection was unanticipated and was sharply +criticized by Mr Balfour, who, in the rearrangement of his ministry, had +only just appointed the duke's nephew and heir, Mr Victor Cavendish, to +be secretary to the treasury. But the duke had come to the conclusion +that while he himself was substantially a free-trader,[1] Mr Balfour did +not mean the same thing by the term. He necessarily became the leader of +the Free Trade Unionists who were neither Balfourites nor +Chamberlainites, and his weight was thrown into the scale against any +association of Unionism with the constructive policy of tariff reform, +which he identified with sheer Protection. A struggle at once began +within the Liberal Unionist organization between those who followed the +duke and those who followed Mr CHAMBERLAIN (q.v.); but the latter were +in the majority and a reorganization in the Liberal Unionist Association +took place, the Unionist free-traders seceding and becoming a separate +body. The duke then became president of the new organizations, the +Unionist Free Food League and the Unionist Free Trade Club. In the +subsequent developments the duke played a dignified but somewhat silent +part, and the Unionist rout in 1906 was not unaffected by his open +hostility to any taint of compromise with the tariff reform movement. +But in the autumn of 1907 his health gave way, and grave symptoms of +cardiac weakness necessitated his abstaining from public effort and +spending the winter abroad. He died, rather suddenly, at Cannes on the +24th of March 1908. + +The head of an old and powerful family, a wealthy territorial magnate, +and an Englishman with thoroughly national tastes for sport, his weighty +and disinterested character made him a statesman of the first rank in +his time, in spite of the absence of showy or brilliant qualities. He +had no self-seeking ambitions, and on three occasions preferred not to +become prime minister. Though his speeches were direct and forcible, he +was not an orator, nor "clever"; and he lacked all subtlety of +intellect; but he was conspicuous for solidity of mind and +straightforwardness of action, and for conscientious application as an +administrator, whether in his public or private life. The fact that he +once yawned in the middle of a speech of his own was commonly quoted as +characteristic; but he combined a great fund of common sense and +knowledge of the average opinion with a patriotic sense of duty towards +the state. Throughout his career he remained an old-fashioned Liberal, +or rather Whig, of a type which in his later years was becoming +gradually more and more rare. + +There was no issue of his marriage, and he was succeeded as 9th duke by +his nephew VICTOR CHRISTIAN CAVENDISH (b. 1868), who had been Liberal +Unionist member for West Derbyshire since 1891, and was treasurer of the +household (1900 to 1903) and financial secretary to the treasury (1903 +to 1905); in 1892 he married a daughter of the marquess of Lansdowne, by +whom he had two sons. (H. CH.) + +[1] His own words to Mr Balfour at the time were: "I believe that +our present system of free imports is on the whole the most advantageous +to the country, though I do not contend that the principles on +which it rests possess any such authority or sanctity as to forbid any +departure from it, for sufficient reasons." + + +DEVONSHIRE (DEVON), a south-western county of England, bounded N.W. and +N. by the Bristol Channel, N.E. by Somerset and Dorset, S.E. and S. by +the English Channel, and W. by Cornwall. The area, 2604.9 sq. m., is +exceeded only by those of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire among the English +counties. Nearly the whole of the surface is uneven and hilly. The +county contains the highest land in England south of Derbyshire +(excepting points on the south Welsh border); and the scenery, much +varied, is in most parts striking and picturesque. The heather-clad +uplands of Exmoor, though chiefly within the borders of Somerset, extend +into North Devon, and are still the haunt of red deer, and of the small +hardy ponies called after the district. Here, as on Dartmoor, the +streams are rich in trout. Dartmoor, the principal physical feature of +the county, is a broad and lofty expanse of moorland which rises in the +southern part. Its highest point, 2039 ft., is found in the +north-western portion. Its rough wastes contrast finely with the wild +but wooded region which immediately surrounds the granite of which it is +composed, and with the rich cultivated country lying beyond. Especially +noteworthy in this fertile tract are the South Hams, a fruitful district +of apple orchards, lying between the Erme and the Dart; the rich +meadow-land around Crediton, in the vale of Exeter; and the red rocks +near Sidmouth. Two features which lend a characteristic charm to the +Devonshire landscape are the number of picturesque old cottages roofed +with thatch; and the deep lanes, sunk below the common level of the +ground, bordered by tall hedges, and overshadowed by an arch of boughs. +The north and south coasts of the county differ much in character, but +both have grand cliff and rock scenery, not surpassed by any in England +or Wales, resembling the Mediterranean seaboard in its range of colour. +As a rule the long combes or glens down which the rivers flow seaward +are densely wooded, and the country immediately inland is of great +beauty. Apart from the Tamar, which constitutes the boundary between +Devon and Cornwall, and flows into the English Channel, after forming in +its estuary the harbours of Devonport and Plymouth, the principal rivers +rise on Dartmoor. These include the Teign, Dart, Plym and Tavy, falling +into the English Channel, and the Taw flowing north towards Bideford +Bay. The river Torridge, also discharging northward, receives part of +its waters from Dartmoor through the Okement, but itself rises in the +angle of high land near Hartland point on the north coast, and makes a +wide sweep southward. The lesser Dartmoor streams are the Avon, the Erme +and the Vealm, all running south. The Exe rises on Exmoor in +Somersetshire; but the main part of its course is through Devonshire +(where it gives name to Exeter), and it is joined on its way to the +English Channel by the lesser streams of the Culm, the Creedy and the +Clyst. The Otter, rising on the Blackdown Hills, also runs south, and +the Axe, for part of its course, divides the counties of Devon and +Dorset. These eastern streams are comparatively slow; while the rivers +of Dartmoor have a shorter and more rapid course. + + _Geology._--The greatest area occupied by any one group of rocks in + Devonshire is that covered by the Culm, a series of slates, grits and + greywackes, with some impure limestones and occasional radiolarian + cherts as at Codden Hill; beds of "culm," an impure variety of coal, + are found at Bideford and elsewhere. This series of rocks occurs at + Bampton, Exeter and Chudleigh and extends thence to the western + boundary. North and south of the Culm an older series of slates, grits + and limestones appears; it was considered so characteristic of the + county that it was called the DEVONIAN SYSTEM (q.v.), the marine + equivalent of the Old Red Sandstone of Hereford and Scotland. It lies + in the form of a trough with its axis running east and west. In the + central hollow the Culm reposes, while the northern and southern rims + rise to the surface respectively north of the latitude of Barnstaple + and South Molton and south of the latitude of Tavistock. These + Devonian rocks have been subdivided into upper, middle and lower + divisions, but the stratigraphy is difficult to follow as the beds + have suffered much crumpling; fine examples of contorted strata may be + seen almost anywhere on the north coast, and in the south, at Bolt + Head and Start Point they have undergone severe metamorphism. + Limestones are only poorly developed in the north, but in the south + important masses occur, in the middle and at the base of the upper + subdivisions, about Plymouth, Torquay, Brixham and between Newton + Abbot and Totnes. Fossil corals abound in these limestones, which are + largely quarried and when polished are known as Devonshire marbles. + + On the eastern side of the county is found an entirely different set + of rocks which cover the older series and dip away from them gently + towards the east. The lower and most westerly situated members of the + younger rocks is a series of breccias, conglomerates, sandstones and + marls which are probably of lower Bunter age, but by some geologists + have been classed as Permian. These red rocks are beautifully exposed + on the coast by Dawlish and Teignmouth, and they extend inland, + producing a red soil, past Exeter and Tiverton. A long narrow strip of + the same formation reaches out westward on the top of the Culm as far + as Jacobstow. Farther east, the Bunter pebble beds are represented by + the well-known pebble deposit of Budleigh Salterton, whence they are + traceable inland towards Rockbeare. These are succeeded by the Keuper + marls and sandstones, well exposed at Sidmouth, where the upper + Greensand plateau is clearly seen to overlie them. The Greensand + covers all the high ground northward from Sidmouth as far as the + Blackdown Hills. At Beer Head and Axmouth the Chalk is seen, and at + the latter place is a famous landslip on the coast, caused by the + springs which issue from the Greensand below the Chalk. The Lower + Chalk at Beer has been mined for building stone and was formerly in + considerable demand. At the extreme east of the county, Rhaetic and + Lias beds make their appearance, the former with a "bone" bed bearing + the remains of saurians and fish. + + Dartmoor is a mass of granite that was intruded into the Culm and + Devonian strata in post-Carboniferous times and subsequently exposed + by denudation. Evidences of Devonian volcanic activity are abundant in + the masses of diabase, dolerite, &c., at Bradford and Trusham, south + of Exeter, around Plymouth and at Ashprington. Perhaps the most + interesting is the Carboniferous volcano of Brent Tor near Tavistock. + An Eocene deposit, the product of the denudation of the Dartmoor + Hills, lies in a small basin at Bovey Tracey (see BOVEY BEDS); it + yields beds of lignite and valuable clays. + + Raised beaches occur at Hope's Nose and the Thatcher Stone near + Torquay and at other points, and a submerged forest lies in the bay + south of the same place. The caves and fissures in the Devonian + limestone at Kent's Hole near Torquay, Brixham and Oreston are famous + for the remains of extinct mammals; bones of the elephant, rhinoceros, + bear and hyaena have been found as well as flint implements of early + man. + + _Minerals._--Silver-lead was formerly worked at Combe Martin near the + north coast, and elsewhere. Tin has been worked on Dartmoor (in stream + works) from an unknown period. Copper was not much worked before the + end of the 18th century. Tin occurs in the granite of Dartmoor, and + along its borders, but rather where the Devonian than where the + Carboniferous rocks border the granite. It is found most plentifully + in the district which surrounds Tavistock, which, for tin and other + ores, is in effect the great mining district of the county. Here, + about 4 m. from Tavistock, are the Devon Great Consols mines, which + from 1843 to 1871 were among the richest copper mines in the world, + and by far the largest and most profitable in the kingdom. The divided + profits during this period amounted to L1,192,960. But the mining + interests of Devonshire are affected by the same causes, and in the + same way, as those of Cornwall. The quantity of ore has greatly + diminished, and the cost of raising it from the deep mines prevents + competition with foreign markets. In many mines tin underlies the + general depth of the copper, and is worked when the latter has been + exhausted. The mineral products of the Tavistock district are various, + and besides tin and copper, ores of zinc and iron are largely + distributed. Great quantities of refined arsenic have been produced at + the Devon Great Consols mine, by elimination from the iron pyrites + contained in the various lodes. Manganese occurs in the neighbourhood + of Exeter, in the valley of the Teign and in N. Devon; but the most + profitable mines, which are shallow, are, like those of tin and + copper, in the Tavistock district. + + The other mineral productions of the county consist of marbles, + building stones, slates and potters' clay. Among building stones, the + granite of Dartmoor holds the foremost place. It is much quarried near + Princetown, near Moreton Hampstead on the N.E. of Dartmoor and + elsewhere. The annual export is considerable. Hard traps, which occur + in many places, are also much used, as are the limestones of + Buckfastleigh and of Plymouth. The Roborough stone, used from an early + period in Devonshire churches, is found near Tavistock, and is a hard, + porphyritic elvan, taking a fine polish. Excellent roofing slates + occur in the Devonian series round the southern part of Dartmoor. The + chief quarries are near Ashburton and Plymouth (Cann quarry). Potters' + clay is worked at King's Teignton, whence it is largely exported; at + Bovey Tracey; and at Watcombe near Torquay. The Watcombe clay is of + the finest quality. China clay or kaolin is found on the southern side + of Dartmoor, at Lee Moor, and near Trowlesworthy. There is a large + deposit of umber close to Ashburton. + +_Climate and Agriculture._--The climate varies greatly in different +parts of the county, but everywhere it is more humid than that of the +eastern or south-eastern parts of England. The mean annual temperature +somewhat exceeds that of the midlands, but the average summer heat is +rather less than that of the southern counties to the east. The air of +the Dartmoor highlands is sharp and bracing. Mists are frequent, and +snow often lies long. On the south coast frost is little known, and many +half hardy plants, such as hydrangeas, myrtles, geraniums and +heliotropes, live through the winter without protection. The climate of +Sidmouth, Teignmouth, Torquay and other watering places on this coast is +very equable, the mean temperature in January being 43.6 deg. at Plymouth. +The north coast, exposed to the storms and swell of the Atlantic, is +more bracing; although there also, in the more sheltered nooks (as at +Combe Martin), myrtles of great size and age flower freely, and produce +their annual crop of berries. + +Rather less than three-quarters of the total area of the county is under +cultivation; the cultivated area falling a little below the average of +the English counties. There are, however, about 160,000 acres of hill +pasture in addition to the area in permanent pasture, which is more than +one-half that of the cultivated area. The Devon breed of cattle is well +adapted both for fattening and for dairy purposes; while sheep are kept +in great numbers on the hill pastures. Devonshire is one of the chief +cattle-farming and sheep-farming counties. It is specially famous for +two products of the dairy--the clotted cream to which it gives its name, +and junket. Of the area under grain crops, oats occupy about three times +the acreage under wheat or barley. The bulk of the acreage under green +crops is occupied by turnips, swedes and mangold. Orchards occupy a +large acreage, and consist chiefly of apple-trees, nearly every farm +maintaining one for the manufacture of cider. + +_Fisheries._--Though the fisheries of Devon are less valuable than those +of Cornwall, large quantities of the pilchard and herrings caught in +Cornish waters are landed at Plymouth. Much of the fishing is carried on +within the three-mile limit; and it may be asserted that trawling is the +main feature of the Devonshire industry, whereas seining and driving +characterize that of Cornwall. Pilchard, cod, sprats, brill, plaice, +soles, turbot, shrimps, lobsters, oysters and mussels are met with, +besides herring and mackerel, which are fairly plentiful. After +Plymouth, the principal fishing station is at Brixham, but there are +lesser stations in every bay and estuary. + +_Other Industries._--The principal industrial works in the county are +the various Government establishments at Plymouth and Devonport. Among +other industries may be noted the lace-works at Tiverton; the +manufacture of pillow-lace for which Honiton and its neighbourhood has +long been famous; and the potteries and terra-cotta works of Bovey +Tracey and Watcombe. Woollen goods and serges are made at Buckfastleigh +and Ashburton, and boots and shoes at Crediton. Convict labour is +employed in the direction of agriculture, quarrying, &c., in the great +prison of Dartmoor. + +_Communications._--The main line of the Great Western railway, entering +the county in the east from Taunton, runs to Exeter, skirts the coast as +far as Teignmouth, and continues a short distance inland by Newton Abbot +to Plymouth, after which it crosses the estuary of the Tamar by a great +bridge to Saltash in Cornwall. Branches serve Torquay and other seaside +resorts of the south coast; and among other branches are those from +Taunton to Barnstaple and from Plymouth northward to Tavistock and +Launceston. The main line of the London & South-Western railway between +Exeter and Plymouth skirts the north and west of Dartmoor by Okehampton +and Tavistock. A branch from Yeoford serves Barnstaple, Ilfracombe, +Bideford and Torrington, while the Lynton & Barnstaple and the Bideford, +Westward Ho & Appledore lines serve the districts indicated by their +names. The branch line to Princetown from the Plymouth-Tavistock line of +the Great Western company in part follows the line of a very early +railway--that constructed to connect Plymouth with the Dartmoor prison +in 1819-1825, which was worked with horse cars. The only waterways of +any importance are the Tamar, which is navigable up to Gunnislake (3 m. +S.W. of Tavistock), and the Exeter ship canal, noteworthy as one of the +oldest in England, for it was originally cut in the reign of Elizabeth. + +_Population and Administration._--The area of the ancient county is +1,667,154 acres, with a population in 1891 of 631,808, and 1901 of +661,314. The area of the administrative county is 1,671,168 acres. The +county contains 33 hundreds. The municipal boroughs are Barnstaple (pop. +14,137), Bideford (8754), Dartmouth (6579), Devonport, a county borough +(70,437), Exeter, a city and county borough (47,185), Torrington, +officially Great Torrington (3241), Honiton (3271), Okehampton (2569), +Plymouth, a county borough (107,636), South Molton (2848), Tiverton +(10,382), Torquay (33,625), Totnes (4035). The other urban districts are +Ashburton (2628), Bampton (1657), Brixham (8092), Buckfastleigh (2520), +Budleigh Salterton (1883), Crediton (3974), Dawlish (4003), East +Stonehouse (15,111), Exmouth (10,485), Heavitree (7529), Holsworthy +(1371), Ilfracombe (8557), Ivybridge (1575), Kingsbridge (3025), Lynton +(1641), Newton Abbot (12,517), Northam (5355), Ottery St Mary (3495), +Paignton (8385), Salcombe (1710), Seaton (1325), Sidmouth (4201), +Tavistock (4728), Teignmouth (8636). The county is in the western +circuit, and assizes are held at Exeter. It has one court of quarter +sessions, and is divided into twenty-four petty sessional divisions. The +boroughs of Barnstaple, Bideford, Devonport, Exeter, Plymouth, South +Molton, and Tiverton have separate commissions of the peace and courts +of quarter sessions, and those of Dartmouth, Great Torrington, Torquay +and Totnes have commissions of the peace only. There are 461 civil +parishes. Devonshire is in the diocese of Exeter, with the exception of +small parts in those of Salisbury and Truro; and there are 516 +ecclesiastical parishes or districts wholly or in part within the +county. The parliamentary divisions are the Eastern or Honiton, +North-eastern or Tiverton, Northern or South Molton, North-western or +Barnstaple, Western or Tavistock, Southern or Totnes, Torquay, and Mid +or Ashburton, each returning one member; and the county also contains +the parliamentary boroughs of Devonport and Plymouth, each returning two +members, and that of Exeter, returning one member. + +_History._--The Saxon conquest of Devonshire must have begun some time +before the 8th century, for in 700 there existed at Exeter a famous +Saxon school. By this time, however, the Saxons had become Christians, +and established their supremacy, not by destructive inroads, but by a +gradual process of colonization, settling among the native Welsh and +allowing them to hold lands under equal laws. The final incorporation of +the district which is now Devonshire with the kingdom of Wessex must +have taken place about 766, but the county, and even Exeter, remained +partly Welsh until the time of AEthelstan. At the beginning of the 9th +century Wessex was divided into definite _pagi_, probably corresponding +to the later shires, and the Saxon Chronicle mentions Devonshire by name +in 823, when a battle was fought between the Welsh in Cornwall and the +people of Devonshire at Camelford. During the Danish invasions of the +9th century aldermen of Devon are frequently mentioned. In 851 the +invaders were defeated by the fyrd and aldermen of Devon, and in 878, +when the Danes under Hubba were harrying the coast with a squadron of +twenty-three ships, they were again defeated with great slaughter by the +fyrd. The modern hundreds of Devonshire correspond in position very +nearly with those given in the Domesday Survey, though the names have in +many cases been changed, owing generally to alterations in their places +of meeting. The hundred of Bampton formerly included estates west of the +Exe, now transferred to the hundred of Witheridge. Ten of the modern +hundreds have been formed by the union of two or more Domesday hundreds, +while the Domesday hundred of Liston has had the new hundred of +Tavistock severed from it since 1114. Many of the hundreds were +separated by tracts of waste and forest land, of which Devonshire +contained a vast extent, until in 1204 the inhabitants paid 5000 marks +to have the county disafforested, with the exception only of Dartmoor +and Exmoor. + +Devonshire in the 7th century formed part of the vast bishopric of +Dorchester-on-Thames. In 705 it was attached to the newly created +diocese of Sherborne, and in 910 Archbishop Plegmund constituted +Devonshire a separate diocese, and placed the see at Crediton. About +1030 the dioceses of Devonshire and Cornwall were united, and in 1049 +the see was fixed at Exeter. The archdeaconries of Exeter, Barnstaple +and Totnes are all mentioned in the 12th century and formerly comprised +twenty-four deaneries. The deaneries of Three Towns, Collumpton and +Ottery have been created since the 16th century, while those of +Tamerton, Dunkeswell, Dunsford and Plymptre have been abolished, +bringing the present number to twenty-three. + +At the time of the Norman invasion Devonshire showed an active hostility +to Harold, and the easy submission which it rendered to the Conqueror +accounts for the exceptionally large number of Englishmen who are found +retaining lands after the Conquest. The many vast fiefs held by Norman +barons were known as honours, chief among them being Plympton, +Okehampton, Barnstaple, Harberton and Totnes. The honour of Plympton was +bestowed in the 12th century on the Redvers family, together with the +earldom of Devon; in the 13th century it passed to the Courtenay family, +who had already become possessed of the honour of Okehampton, and who in +1335 obtained the earldom. The dukedom of Exeter was bestowed in the +14th century on the Holland family, which became extinct in the reign of +Edward IV. The ancestors of Sir Walter Raleigh, who was born at +Budleigh, had long held considerable estates in the county. + +Devonshire had an independent sheriff, the appointment being at first +hereditary, but afterwards held for one year only. In 1320 complaint was +made that all the hundreds of Devonshire were in the hands of the great +lords, who did not appoint a sufficiency of bailiffs for their proper +government. The miners of Devon had independent courts, known as +stannary courts, for the regulation of mining affairs, the four stannary +towns being Tavistock, Ashburton, Chagford, and Plympton. The ancient +miners' parliament was held in the open air at Crockern's Tor. + +The castles of Exeter and Plympton were held against Stephen by Baldwin +de Redvers, and in the 14th and 15th centuries the French made frequent +attacks on the Devonshire coast, being repulsed in 1404 by the people of +Dartmouth. In the Wars of the Roses the county was much divided, and +frequent skirmishes took place between the earl of Devon and Lord +Bonville, the respective champions of the Lancastrian and Yorkist +parties. Great disturbances in the county followed the Reformation of +the 16th century and in 1549 a priest was compelled to say mass at +Sampford Courtney. On the outbreak of the Civil War the county as a +whole favoured the parliament, but the prevailing desire was for peace, +and in 1643 a treaty for the cessation of hostilities in Devonshire and +Cornwall was agreed upon. Skirmishes, however, continued until the +capture of Dartmouth and Exeter in 1646 put an end to the struggle. In +1688 the prince of Orange landed at Torbay and was entertained for +several days at Ford and at Exeter. + +The tin mines of Devon have been worked from time immemorial, and in the +14th century mines of tin, copper, lead, gold and silver are mentioned. +Agriculturally the county was always poor, and before the +disafforestation rendered especially so through the ravages committed by +the herds of wild deer. At the time of the Domesday Survey the salt +industry was important, and there were ninety-nine mills in the county +and thirteen fisheries. From an early period the chief manufacture was +that of woollen cloth, and a statute 4 Ed. IV. permitted the manufacture +of cloths of a distinct make in certain parts of Devonshire. About 1505 +Anthony Bonvis, an Italian, introduced an improved method of spinning +into the county, and cider-making is mentioned in the 16th century. In +1680 the lace industry was already flourishing at Colyton and Ottery St +Mary, and flax, hemp and malt were largely produced in the 17th and 18th +centuries. + +Devonshire returned two members to parliament in 1290, and in 1295 +Barnstaple, Exeter, Plympton, Tavistock, Torrington and Totnes were also +represented. In 1831 the county with its boroughs returned a total of +twenty-six members, but under the Reform Act of 1832 it returned four +members in two divisions, and with ten boroughs was represented by a +total of eighteen members. Under the act of 1868 the county returned six +members in three divisions, and four of the boroughs were disfranchised, +making a total of seventeen members. + +_Antiquities._--In primeval antiquities Devonshire is not so rich as +Cornwall; but Dartmoor abounds in remains of the highest interest, the +most peculiar of which are the long parallel alignments of upright +stones, which, on a small scale, resemble those of Carnac in Brittany. +On Dartmoor the lines are invariably straight, and are found in direct +connexion with cairns, and with circles which are probably sepulchral. +These stone avenues are very numerous. Of the so-called sacred circles +the best examples are the "Longstones" on Scorhill Down, and the "Grey +Wethers" under Sittaford Tor. By far the finest cromlech is the +"Spinster's Rock" at Drewsteignton, a three-pillared cromlech which may +well be compared with those of Cornwall. There are numerous menhirs or +single upright stones; a large dolmen or holed stone lies in the bed of +the Teign, near the Scorhill circle; and rock basins occur on the summit +of nearly every tor on Dartmoor (the largest are on Kestor, and on +Heltor, above the Teign). It is, however, tolerably evident that these +have been produced by the gradual disintegration of the granite, and +that the dolmen in the Teign is due to the action of the river. Clusters +of hut foundations, circular, and formed of rude granite blocks, are +frequent; the best example of such a primitive village is at Batworthy, +near Chagford; the type resembles that of East Cornwall. Walled +enclosures, or pounds, occur in many places; Grimspound is the most +remarkable. Boundary lines, also called trackways, run across Dartmoor +in many directions; and the rude bridges, formed of great slabs of +granite, deserve notice. All these remains are on Dartmoor. Scattered +over the county are numerous large hill castles and camps,--all +earthworks, and all apparently of the British period. Roman relics have +been found from time to time at Exeter (_Isca Damnoniorum_), the only +large Roman station in the county. + +The churches are for the most part of the Perpendicular period, dating +from the middle of the 14th to the end of the 15th century. Exeter +cathedral is of course an exception, the whole (except the Norman +towers) being very beautiful Decorated work. The special features of +Devonshire churches, however, are the richly carved pulpits and chancel +screens of wood, in which this county exceeded every other in England, +with the exception of Norfolk and Suffolk. The designs are rich and +varied, and the skill displayed often very great. Granite crosses are +frequent, the finest and earliest being that of Coplestone, near +Crediton. Monastic remains are scanty; the principal are those at Tor, +Buckfast, Tavistock and Buckland Abbeys. Among domestic buildings the +houses of Wear Gilford, Bradley and Dartington of the 15th century; +Bradfield and Holcombe Rogus (Elizabethan), and Forde (Jacobean), +deserve notice. The ruined castles of Okehampton (Edward I.), Exeter, +with its vast British earthworks, Berry Pomeroy (Henry III., with ruins +of a large Tudor mansion), Totnes (Henry III.) and Compton (early 15th +century), are all interesting and picturesque. + + AUTHORITIES.--T. Westcote, _Survey of Devon_, written about 1630, and + first printed in 1845; J. Prince, _Worthies of Devon_ (Exeter, 1701); + Sir W. Pole, _Collections towards a History of the County of Devon_ + (London, 1791); R. Polwhele, _History of Devonshire_ (3 vols. Exeter, + 1797, 1798-1800); T. Moore, _History of Devon from the Earliest Period + to the Present Time_ (vols, i., ii., London, 1829-1831); G. Oliver, + _Historic Collections relating to the Monasteries in Devon_ (Exeter, + 1820); D. and S. Lysons, _Magna Britannia_ (vol. vi., London, 1822); + _Ecclesiastical Antiquities in Devon_ (Exeter, 1844); Mrs Bray, + _Traditions of Devonshire_, in a series of letters to Robert Southey + (London, 1838); G. C. Boase, _Devonshire Bibliography_ (London, 1883); + Sir W. R. Drake, _Devonshire Notes and Notelets_ (London, 1888); S. + Hewett, _Peasant Speech of Devon_ (London, 1892); R. N. Worth, + _History of Devonshire_ (London, 1886, new edition, 1895); C. Worthy, + _Devonshire Parishes_ (Exeter, 1887); _Devonshire Wills_ (London, + 1896); _Victoria County History, Devonshire_. + + +DEVRIENT, the name of a family of German actors. + +LUDWIG DEVRIENT (1784-1832), born in Berlin on the 15th of December +1784, was the son of a silk merchant. He was apprenticed to an +upholsterer, but, suddenly leaving his employment, joined a travelling +theatrical company, and made his first appearance on the stage at Gera +in 1804 as the messenger in Schiller's _Braut von Messina_. By the +interest of Count Bruehl, he appeared at Rudolstadt as Franz Moor in +Schiller's _Raeuber_, so successfully that he obtained a permanent +engagement at the ducal theatre in Dessau, where he played until 1809. +He then received a call to Breslau, where he remained for six years. So +brilliant was his success in the title-parts of several of Shakespeare's +plays, that Iffland began to fear for his own reputation; yet that great +artist was generous enough to recommend the young actor as his only +possible successor. On Iffland's death Devrient was summoned to Berlin, +where he was for fifteen years the popular idol. He died there on the +30th of December 1832. Ludwig Devrient was equally great in comedy and +tragedy. Falstaff, Franz Moor, Shylock, King Lear and Richard II. were +among his best parts. Karl von Holtei in his _Reminiscences_ has given a +graphic picture of him and the "demoniac fascination" of his acting. + + See Z. Funck, _Aus dem Leben zweier Schauspieler, Ifflands und + Devrients_ (Leipzig, 1838); H. Smidt in _Devrient-Novellen_ (3rd ed., + Berlin, 1882); R. Springer in the novel _Devrient und Hoffmann_ + (Berlin, 1873), and Eduard Devrient's _Geschichte der deutschen + Schauspielkunst_ (Leipzig, 1861). + +Three of the nephews of Ludwig Devrient, sons of his brother, a +merchant, were also connected with the stage. KARL AUGUST DEVRIENT +(1797-1872) was born at Berlin on the 5th of April 1797. After being for +a short time in business, he entered a cavalry regiment as volunteer and +fought at Waterloo. He then joined the stage, making his first +appearance on the stage in 1819 at Brunswick. In 1821 he received an +engagement at the court theatre in Dresden, where, in 1823, he married +Wilhelmine Schroeder (see SCHROeDER-DEVRIENT). In 1835 he joined the +company at Karlsruhe, and in 1839 that at Hanover. His best parts were +Wallenstein and King Lear. He died on the 5th of April 1872. His brother +PHILIPP EDUARD DEVRIENT (1801-1877), born at Berlin on the 11th of +August 1801, was for a time an opera singer. Turning his attention to +theatrical management, he was from 1844 to 1846 director of the court +theatre in Dresden. Appointed to Karlsruhe in 1852, he began a thorough +reorganization of the theatre, and in the course of seventeen years of +assiduous labour, not only raised it to a high position, but enriched +its repertory by many noteworthy librettos, among which _Die Gunst des +Augenblicks_ and _Verirrungen_ are the best known. But his chief work is +his history of the German stage--_Geschichte der deutschen +Schauspielkunst_ (Leipzig, 1848-1874). He died on the 4th of October +1877. A complete edition of his works--_Dramatische und dramaturgische +Schriften_--was published in ten volumes (Leipzig, 1846-1873). + +The youngest and the most famous of the three nephews of Ludwig Devrient +was GUSTAV EMIL DEVRIENT (1803-1872), born in Berlin on the 4th of +September 1803. He made his first appearance on the stage in 1821, at +Brunswick, as Raoul in Schiller's _Jungfrau von Orleans_. After a short +engagement in Leipzig, he received in 1829 a call to Hamburg, but after +two years accepted a permanent appointment at the court theatre in +Dresden, to which he belonged until his retirement in 1868. His chief +characters were Hamlet, Uriel Acosta (in Karl Gutzkow's play), Marquis +Posa (in Schiller's _Don Carlos_), and Goethe's Torquato Tasso. He acted +several times in London, where his Hamlet was considered finer than +Kemble's or Edmund Kean's. He died on the 7th of August 1872. + +OTTO DEVRIENT (1838-1894), another actor, born in Berlin on the 3rd of +October 1838, was the son of Philipp Eduard Devrient. He joined the +stage in 1856 at Karlsruhe, and acted successively in Stuttgart, Berlin +and Leipzig, until he received a fixed appointment at Karlsruhe, in +1863. In 1873 he became stage manager at Weimar, where he gained great +praise for his _mise en scene_ of Goethe's _Faust_. After being manager +of the theatres in Mannheim and Frankfort he retired to Jena, where in +1883 he was given the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1884 +he was appointed director of the court theatre in Oldenburg, and in +1889 director of dramatic plays in Berlin. He died at Stettin on the +23rd of June 1894. + + +DEW. The word "dew" (O.E. _deaw_; cf. Ger. _Tau_) is a very ancient one +and its meaning must therefore be defined on historical principles. +According to the _New English Dictionary_, it means "the moisture +deposited in minute drops upon any cool surface by condensation of the +vapour of the atmosphere; formed after a hot day, during or towards +night and plentiful in the early morning." Huxley in his _Physiography_ +makes the addition "without production of mist." The formation of mist +is not necessary for the formation of dew, nor does it necessarily +prevent it. If the deposit of moisture is in the form of ice instead of +water it is called hoarfrost. The researches of Aitken suggest that the +words "by condensation of the vapour in the atmosphere" might be omitted +from the definition. He has given reasons for believing that the large +dewdrops on the leaves of plants, the most characteristic of all the +phenomena of dew, are to be accounted for, in large measure at least, by +the exuding of drops of water from the plant through the pores of the +leaves themselves. The formation of dewdrops in such cases is the +continuation of the irrigation process of the plant for supplying the +leaves with water from the soil. The process is set up in full vigour in +the daytime to maintain tolerable thermal conditions at the surface of +the leaf in the hot sun, and continued after the sun has gone. + +On the other hand, the most typical physical experiment illustrating the +formation of dew is the production of a deposit of moisture, in minute +drops, upon the exterior surface of a glass or polished metal vessel by +the cooling of a liquid contained in the vessel. If the liquid is water, +it can be cooled by pieces of ice; if volatile like ether, by bubbling +air through it. No deposit is formed by this process until the +temperature is reduced to a point which, from that circumstance, has +received a special name, although it depends upon the state of the air +round the vessel. So generally accepted is the physical analogy between +the natural formation of dew and its artificial production in the manner +described, that the point below which the temperature of a surface must +be reduced in order to obtain the deposit is known as the "dew-point." + +In the view of physicists the dew-point is the temperature at which, _by +being cooled without change of pressure_, the air becomes saturated with +water vapour, not on account of any increase of supply of that compound, +but by the diminution of the capacity of the air for holding it in the +gaseous condition. Thus, when the dew-point temperature has been +determined, the pressure of water vapour in the atmosphere at the time +of the deposit is given by reference to a table of saturation pressures +of water vapour at different temperatures. As it is a well-established +proposition that the pressure of the water vapour in the air does not +vary while the air is being cooled without change of its total external +pressure, the saturation pressure at the dew-point gives the pressure of +water vapour in the air when the cooling commenced. Thus the artificial +formation of dew and consequent determination of the dew-point is a +recognized method of measuring the pressure, and thence the amount of +water vapour in the atmosphere. The dew-point method is indeed in some +ways a fundamental method of hygrometry. + +The dew-point is a matter of really vital consequence in the question of +the oppressiveness of the atmosphere or its reverse. So long as the +dew-point is low, high temperature does not matter, but when the +dew-point begins to approach the normal temperature of the human body +the atmosphere becomes insupportable. + +The physical explanation of the formation of dew consists practically in +determining the process or processes by which leaves, blades of grass, +stones, and other objects in the open air upon which dew may be +observed, become cooled "below the dew-point." + +Formerly, from the time of Aristotle at least, dew was supposed to +"fall." That view of the process was not extinct at the time of +Wordsworth and poets might even now use the figure without reproach. To +Dr Charles Wells of London belongs the credit of bringing to a focus the +ideas which originated with the study of radiation at the beginning of +the 19th century, and which are expressed by saying that the cooling +necessary to produce dew on exposed surfaces is to be attributed to the +radiation from the surfaces to a clear sky. He gave an account of the +theory of automatic cooling by radiation, which has found a place in all +text-books of physics, in his first _Essay on Dew_ published in 1818. +The theory is supported in that and in a second essay by a number of +well-planned observations, and the essays are indeed models of +scientific method. The process of the formation of dew as represented by +Wells is a simple one. It starts from the point of view that all bodies +are constantly radiating heat, and cool automatically unless they +receive a corresponding amount of heat from other bodies by radiation or +conduction. Good radiators, which are at the same time bad conductors of +heat, such as blades of grass, lose heat rapidly on a clear night by +radiation to the sky and become cooled below the dew-point of the +atmosphere. + +The question was very fully studied by Melloni and others, but little +more was added to the explanation given by Wells until 1885, when John +Aitken of Falkirk called attention to the question whether the water of +dewdrops on plants or stones came from the air or the earth, and +described a number of experiments to show that under the conditions of +observation in Scotland, it was the earth from which the moisture was +probably obtained, either by the operation of the vascular system of +plants in the formation of exuded dewdrops, or by evaporation and +subsequent condensation in the lowest layer of the atmosphere. Some +controversy was excited by the publication of Aitken's views, and it is +interesting to revert to it because it illustrates a proposition which +is of general application in meteorological questions, namely, that the +physical processes operative in the evolution of meteorological +phenomena are generally complex. It is not radiation alone that is +necessary to produce dew, nor even radiation from a body which does not +conduct heat. The body must be surrounded by an atmosphere so fully +supplied with moisture that the dew-point can be passed by the cooling +due to radiation. Thus the conditions favourable for the formation of +dew are (1) a good radiating surface, (2) a still atmosphere, (3) a +clear sky, (4) thermal insulation of the radiating surface, (5) warm +moist ground or some other provision to produce a supply of moisture in +the surface layers of air. + +Aitken's contribution to the theory of dew shows that in considering the +supply of moisture we must take into consideration the ground as well as +the air and concern ourselves with the temperature of both. Of the five +conditions mentioned, the first four may be considered necessary, but +the fifth is very important for securing a copious deposit. It can +hardly be maintained that no dew could form unless there were a supply +of water by evaporation from warm ground, but, when such a supply is +forthcoming, it is evident that in place of the limited process of +condensation which deprives the air of its moisture and is therefore +soon terminable, we have the process of distillation which goes on as +long as conditions are maintained. This distinction is of some practical +importance for it indicates the protecting power of wet soil in favour +of young plants as against night frost. If distillation between the +ground and the leaves is set up, the temperature of the leaves cannot +fall much below the original dew-point because the supply of water for +condensation is kept up; but if the compensation for loss of heat by +radiation is dependent simply on the condensation of water from the +atmosphere, without renewal of the supply, the dew-point will gradually +get lower as the moisture is deposited and the process of cooling will +go on. + +In these questions we have to deal with comparatively large changes +taking place within a small range of level. It is with the layer a few +inches thick on either side of the surface that we are principally +concerned, and for an adequate comprehension of the conditions close +consideration is required. To illustrate this point reference may be +made to figs. 1 and 2, which represent the condition of affairs at 10.40 +P.M. on about the 20th of October 1885, according to observations by +Aitken. Vertical distances represent heights in feet, while the +temperatures of the air and the dew-point are represented by horizontal +distances and their variations with height by the curved lines of the +diagram. The line marked 0 is the ground level itself, a rather +indefinite quantity when the surface is grass. The whole vertical +distance represented is from 4 ft. above ground to 1 ft. below ground, +and the special phenomena which we are considering take place in the +layer which represents the rapid transition between the temperature of +the ground 3 in. below the surface and that of the air a few inches +above ground. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The point of interest is to determine where the dew-point curve and +dry-bulb curve will cut. If they cut above the surface, mist will +result; if they cut at the surface, dew will be formed. Below the +surface, it may be assumed that the air is saturated with moisture and +any difference in temperature of the dew-point is accompanied by +distillation. It may be remarked, by the way, that such distillation +between soil layers of different temperatures must be productive of the +transference of large quantities of water between different levels in +the soil either upward or downward according to the time of year. + +These diagrams illustrate the importance of the warmth and moisture of +the ground in the phenomena which have been considered. From the surface +there is a continual loss of heat going on by radiation and a continual +supply of warmth and moisture from below. But while the heat can escape, +the moisture cannot. Thus the dry-bulb line is deflected to the left as +it approaches the surface, the dew-point line to the right. Thus the +effect of the moisture of the ground is to cause the lines to approach. +In the case of grass, fig. 2, the deviation of the dry-bulb line to the +left to form a sharp minimum of temperature at the surface is well +shown. The dew-point line is also shown diverted to the left to the same +point as the dry-bulb; but that could only happen if there were so +copious a condensation from the atmosphere as actually to make the air +drier at the surface than up above. In diagram 1, for soil, the effect +on air temperature and moisture is shown; the two lines converge to cut +at the surface where a dew deposit will be formed. Along the underground +line there must be a gradual creeping of heat and moisture towards the +surface by distillation, the more rapid the greater the temperature +gradient. + +The amount of dew deposited is considerable, and, in tropical countries, +is sometimes sufficiently heavy to be collected by gutters and spouts, +but it is not generally regarded as a large percentage of the total +rainfall. Loesche estimates the amount of dew for a single night on the +Loango coast at 3 mm., but the estimate seems a high one. Measurements +go to show that the depth of water corresponding with the aggregate +annual deposit of dew is 1 in. to 1.5 in. near London (G. Dines), 1.2 +in. at Munich (Wollny), 0.3 in. at Montpellier (Crova), 1.6 in. at +Tenbury, Worcestershire (Badgley). + +With the question of the amount of water collected as dew, that of the +maintenance of "dew ponds" is intimately associated. The name is given +to certain isolated ponds on the upper levels of the chalk downs of the +south of England and elsewhere. Some of these ponds are very ancient, as +the title of a work on _Neolithic Dewponds_ by A. J. and G. Hubbard +indicates. Their name seems to imply the hypothesis that they depend +upon dew and not entirely upon rain for their maintenance as a source of +water supply for cattle, for which they are used. The question has been +discussed a good deal, but not settled; the balance of evidence seems to +be against the view that dew deposits make any important contribution to +the supply of water. The construction of dew ponds is, however, still +practised on traditional lines, and it is said that a new dew pond has +first to be filled artificially. It does not come into existence by the +gradual accumulation of water in an impervious basin. + + AUTHORITIES.--For _Dew_, see the two essays by Dr Charles Wells + (London, 1818), also "An Essay on Dew," edited by Casella (London, + 1866), Longmans', with additions by Strachan; Melloni, _Pogg. Ann._ + lxxi. pp. 416, 424 and lxxiii. p. 467; Jamin, "Complements a la + theorie de la rosee," _Journal de physique_, viii. p. 41; J. Aitken, + on "Dew," _Trans. Roy. Soc. of Edinburgh_, xxxiii., part i. 2, and + "Nature," vol. xxxiii. p. 256; C. Tomlinson, "Remarks on a new Theory + of Dew," _Phil. Mag._ (1886), 5th series, vol. 21, p. 483 and vol. 22, + p. 270; Russell, _Nature_, vol 47, p. 210; also _Met. Zeit._ (1893), + p. 390; Homen, _Bodenphysikalische und meteorologische Beobachtungen_ + (Berlin, 1894), iii.; _Taubildung_, p. 88, &c.; Rubenson, "Die + Temperatur-und Feuchtigkeitsverhaeltnisse in den unteren Luftschichten + bei der Taubildung," _Met. Zeit._ xi. (1876), p. 65; H. E. Hamberg, + "Temperature et humidite de l'air a differentes hauteurs a Upsal," + _Soc. R. des sciences d'Upsal_ (1876); review in _Met. Zeit._ xii. + (1877), p. 105. + + For _Dew Ponds_, see Stephen Hales, _Statical Essays_, vol. i., + experiment xix., pp. 52-57 (2nd ed., London, 1731); Gilbert White, + _Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne_, letter xxix. (London, + 1789); Dr C. Wells, _An Essay on Dew_ (London, 1818, 1821 and 1866); + Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck, "Prize Essay on Water Supply," _Journ. Roy. + Agric. Soc._, 2nd series, vol. i. pp. 271-287 (1865); Field and + Symons, "Evaporation from the Surface of Water," _Brit. Assoc. Rep._ + (1869), sect., pp. 25, 26; J. Lucas, "Hydrogeology: One of the + Developments of Modern Practical Geology," _Trans. Inst. Surveyors_, + vol. ix. pp. 153-232 (1877); H. P. Slade, "A Short Practical Treatise + on Dew Ponds" (London, 1877); Clement Reid, "The Natural History of + Isolated Ponds," _Trans. Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society_, + vol. v. pp. 272-286 (1892); Professor G. S. Brady, _On the Nature and + Origin of Freshwater Faunas_ (1899); Professor L. C. Miall, "Dew + Ponds," _Reports of the British Association_ (Bradford Meeting, 1900), + pp. 579-585; A. J. and G. Hubbard, "Neolithic Dewponds and + Cattle-Ways" (London, 1904, 1907). (W. N. S.) + + +DEWAN or DIWAN, an Oriental term for finance minister. The word is +derived from the Arabian _diwan_, and is commonly used in India to +denote a minister of the Mogul government, or in modern days the prime +minister of a native state. It was in the former sense that the grant of +the _dewanny_ to the East India Company in 1765 became the foundation of +the British empire in India. + + +DEWAR, SIR JAMES (1842- ), British chemist and physicist, was born at +Kincardine-on-Forth, Scotland, on the 20th of September 1842. He was +educated at Dollar Academy and Edinburgh University, being at the latter +first a pupil, and afterwards the assistant, of Lord Playfair, then +professor of chemistry; he also studied under Kekule at Ghent. In 1875 +he was elected Jacksonian professor of natural experimental philosophy +at Cambridge, becoming a fellow of Peterhouse, and in 1877 he succeeded +Dr J. H. Gladstone as Fullerian professor of chemistry in the Royal +Institution, London. He was president of the Chemical Society in 1897, +and of the British Association in 1902, served on the Balfour Commission +on London Water Supply (1893-1894), and as a member of the Committee on +Explosives (1888-1891) invented cordite jointly with Sir Frederick Abel. +His scientific work covers a wide field. Of his earlier papers, some +deal with questions of organic chemistry, others with Graham's +hydrogenium and its physical constants, others with high temperatures, +e.g. the temperature of the sun and of the electric spark, others again +with electro-photometry and the chemistry of the electric arc. With +Professor J. G. M'Kendrick, of Glasgow, he investigated the +physiological action of light, and examined the changes which take place +in the electrical condition of the retina under its influence. With +Professor G. D. Liveing, one of his colleagues at Cambridge, he began in +1878 a long series of spectroscopic observations, the later of which +were devoted to the spectroscopic examination of various gaseous +constituents separated from atmospheric air by the aid of low +temperatures; and he was joined by Professor J. A. Fleming, of +University College, London, in the investigation of the electrical +behaviour of substances cooled to very low temperatures. His name is +most widely known in connexion with his work on the liquefaction of the +so-called permanent gases and his researches at temperatures approaching +the zero of absolute temperature. His interest in this branch of inquiry +dates back at least as far as 1874, when he discussed the "Latent Heat +of Liquid Gases" before the British Association. In 1878 he devoted a +Friday evening lecture at the Royal Institution to the then recent work +of L. P. Cailletet and R. P. Pictet, and exhibited for the first time in +Great Britain the working of the Cailletet apparatus. Six years later, +in the same place, he described the researches of Z. F. Wroblewski and +K. S. Olszewski, and illustrated for the first time in public the +liquefaction of oxygen and air, by means of apparatus specially designed +for optical projection so that the actions taking place might be visible +to the audience. Soon afterwards he constructed a machine from which the +liquefied gas could be drawn off through a valve for use as a cooling +agent, and he showed its employment for this purpose in connexion with +some researches on meteorites; about the same time he also obtained +oxygen in the solid state. By 1891 he had designed and erected at the +Royal Institution an apparatus which yielded liquid oxygen by the pint, +and towards the end of that year he showed that both liquid oxygen and +liquid ozone are strongly attracted by a magnet. About 1892 the idea +occurred to him of using vacuum-jacketed vessels for the storage of +liquid gases, and so efficient did this device prove in preventing the +influx of external heat that it is found possible not only to preserve +the liquids for comparatively long periods, but also to keep them so +free from ebullition that examination of their optical properties +becomes possible. He next experimented with a high-pressure hydrogen jet +by which low temperatures were realized through the Thomson-Joule +effect, and the successful results thus obtained led him to build at the +Royal Institution the large refrigerating machine by which in 1898 +hydrogen was for the first time collected in the liquid state, its +solidification following in 1899. Later he investigated the +gas-absorbing powers of charcoal when cooled to low temperatures, and +applied them to the production of high vacua and to gas analysis (see +LIQUID GASES). The Royal Society in 1894 bestowed the Rumford medal upon +him for his work in the production of low temperatures, and in 1899 he +became the first recipient of the Hodgkins gold medal of the Smithsonian +Institution, Washington, for his contributions to our knowledge of the +nature and properties of atmospheric air. In 1904 he was the first +British subject to receive the Lavoisier medal of the French Academy of +Sciences, and in 1906 he was the first to be awarded the Matteucci medal +of the Italian Society of Sciences. He was knighted in 1904, and in 1908 +he was awarded the Albert medal of the Society of Arts. + + +DEWAS, two native states of India, in the Malwa Political Charge of +Central India, founded in the first half of the 18th century by two +brothers, Punwar Mahrattas, who came into Malwa with the peshwa, Baji +Rao, in 1728. Their descendants are known as the senior and junior +branches of the family, and since 1841 each has ruled his own portion as +a separate state, though the lands belonging to each are so intimately +entangled, that even in Dewas, the capital town, the two sides of the +main street are under different administrations and have different +arrangements for water supply and lighting. The senior branch has an +area of 446 sq. m. and a population of 62,312, while the area of the +junior branch is 440 sq. m. and its population 54,904. + + +DEWBERRY, _Rubus caesius_, a trailing plant, allied to the bramble, of +the natural order Rosaceae. It is common in woods, hedges and the +borders of fields in England and other countries of Europe. The leaves +have three leaflets, are hairy beneath, and of a dusky green; the +flowers which appear in June and July are white, or pale rose-coloured. +The fruit is large, and closely embraced by the calyx, and consists of a +few drupules, which are black, with a glaucous bloom; it has an +agreeable acid taste. + + +DEW-CLAW, the rudimentary toes, two in number, or the "false hoof" of +the deer, sometimes also called the "nails." In dogs the dew-claw is the +rudimentary toe or hallux (corresponding to the big toe in man) hanging +loosely attached to the skin, low down on the hinder part of the leg. +The origin of the word is unknown, but it has been fancifully suggested +that, while the other toes touch the ground in walking, the dew-claw +merely brushes the dew from the grass. + + +D'EWES, SIR SIMONDS, Bart. (1602-1650), English antiquarian, eldest son +of Paul D'Ewes of Milden, Suffolk, and of Cecilia, daughter and heir of +Richard Simonds, of Coaxdon or Coxden, Dorsetshire, was born on the 18th +of December 1602, and educated at the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds, +and at St John's College, Cambridge. He had been admitted to the Middle +Temple in 1611, and was called to the bar in 1623, when he immediately +began his collections of material and his studies in history and +antiquities. In 1626 he married Anne, daughter and heir of Sir William +Clopton, of Luton's Hall in Suffolk, through whom he obtained a large +addition to his already considerable fortune. On the 6th of December he +was knighted. He took an active part as a strong Puritan and member of +the moderate party in the opposition to the king's arbitrary government +in the Long Parliament of 1640, in which he sat as member for Sudbury. +On the 15th of July he was created a baronet by the king, but +nevertheless adhered to the parliamentary party when war broke out, and +in 1643 took the Covenant. He was one of the members expelled by Pride's +Purge in 1648, and died on the 18th of April 1650. He had married +secondly Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Henry Willoughby, Bart., of Risley +in Derbyshire, by whom he had a son, who succeeded to his estates and +title, the latter becoming extinct on the failure of male issue in 1731. +D'Ewes appears to have projected a work of very ambitious scope, no less +than the whole history of England based on original documents. But +though excelling as a collector of materials, and as a laborious, +conscientious and accurate transcriber, he had little power of +generalization or construction, and died without publishing anything +except an uninteresting tract, _The Primitive Practice for Preserving +Truth_ (1645), and some speeches. His _Journals of all the Parliaments +during the Reign of Queen Elizabeth_, however, a valuable work, was +published in 1682. His large collections, including transcripts from +ancient records, many of the originals of which are now dispersed or +destroyed, are in the Harleian collection in the British Museum. His +unprinted Diaries from 1621-1624 and from 1643-1647, the latter valuable +for the notes of proceedings in parliament, are often the only authority +for incidents and speeches during that period, and are amusing from the +glimpses the diarist affords of his own character, his good estimation +of himself and his little jealousies; some are in a cipher and some in +Latin. + + Extracts from his _Autobiography and Correspondence_ from the MSS. in + the British Museum were published by J. O. Halliwell-Phillips in 1845, + by Hearne in the appendix to his _Historia vitae et regni Ricardi II._ + (1729), and in the _Bibliotheca topographica Britannica_, No. xv. vol. + vi. (1783); and from a Diary of later date, _College Life in the Time + of James I._ (1851). His Diaries have been extensively drawn upon by + Forster, Gardiner, and by Sanford in his _Studies of the Great + Rebellion_. Some of his speeches have been reprinted in the Harleian + Miscellany and in the Somers Tracts. + + +DE WET, CHRISTIAN (1854- ), Boer general and politician, was born on the +7th of October 1854 at Leeuwkop, Smithfield district (Orange Free +State), and later resided at Dewetsdorp. He served in the first +Anglo-Boer War of 1880-81 as a field cornet, and from 1881 to 1896 he +lived on his farm, becoming in 1897 member of the Volksraad. He took +part in the earlier battles of the Boer War of 1899 in Natal as a +commandant and later, as a general, he went to serve under Cronje in the +west. His first successful action was the surprise of Sanna's Post near +Bloemfontein, which was followed by the victory of Reddersburg a little +later. Thenceforward he came to be regarded more and more as the most +formidable leader of the Boers in their guerrilla warfare. Sometimes +severely handled by the British, sometimes escaping only by the +narrowest margin of safety from the columns which attempted to surround +him, and falling upon and annihilating isolated British posts, De Wet +continued to the end of the war his successful career, striking heavily +where he could do so and skilfully evading every attempt to bring him to +bay. He took an active part in the peace negotiations of 1902, and at +the conclusion of the war he visited Europe with the other Boer +generals. While in England the generals sought, unavailingly, a +modification of the terms of peace concluded at Pretoria. De Wet wrote +an account of his campaigns, an English version of which appeared in +November 1902 under the title _Three Years' War_. In November, 1907 he +was elected a member of the first parliament of the Orange River Colony +and was appointed minister of agriculture. In 1908-9 he was a delegate +to the Closer Union Convention. + + +DE WETTE, WILHELM MARTIN LEBERECHT (1780-1849), German theologian, was +born on the 12th of January 1780, at Ulla, near Weimar, where his father +was pastor. He was sent to the gymnasium at Weimar, then at the height +of its literary glory. Here he was much influenced by intercourse with +Johann Gottfried Herder, who frequently examined at the school. In 1799 +he entered on his theological studies at Jena, his principal teachers +being J. J. Griesbach and H. E. G. Paulus, from the latter of whom he +derived his tendency to free critical inquiry. Both in methods and in +results, however, he occupied an almost solitary position among German +theologians. Having taken his doctor's degree, he became _privat-docent_ +at Jena; in 1807 professor of theology at Heidelberg, where he came +under the influence of J. F. Fries (1773-1843); and in 1810 was +transferred to a similar chair in the newly founded university of +Berlin, where he enjoyed the friendship of Schleiermacher. He was, +however, dismissed from Berlin in 1819 on account of his having written +a letter of consolation to the mother of Karl Ludwig Sand, the murderer +of Kotzebue. A petition in his favour presented by the senate of the +university was unsuccessful, and a decree was issued not only depriving +him of the chair, but banishing him from the Prussian kingdom. He +retired for a time to Weimar, where he occupied his leisure in the +preparation of his edition of Luther, and in writing the romance +_Theodor oder die Weihe des Zweiflers_ (Berlin, 1822), in which he +describes the education of an evangelical pastor. During this period he +made his first essay in preaching, and proved himself to be possessed of +very popular gifts. But in 1822 he accepted the chair of theology in the +university of Basel, which had been reorganized four years before. +Though his appointment had been strongly opposed by the orthodox party, +De Wette soon won for himself great influence both in the university and +among the people generally. He was admitted a citizen, and became rector +of the university, which owed to him much of its recovered strength, +particularly in the theological faculty. He died on the 16th of June +1849. + +De Wette has been described by Julius Wellhausen as "the epoch-making +opener of the historical criticism of the Pentateuch." He prepared the +way for the Supplement-theory. But he also made valuable contributions +to other branches of theology. He had, moreover, considerable poetic +faculty, and wrote a drama in three acts, entitled _Die Entsagung_ +(Berlin, 1823). He had an intelligent interest in art, and studied +ecclesiastical music and architecture. As a Biblical critic he is +sometimes classed with the destructive school, but, as Otto Pfleiderer +says (_Development of Theology_, p. 102), he "occupied as free a +position as the Rationalists with regard to the literal authority of the +creeds of the church, but that he sought to give their due value to the +religious feelings, which the Rationalists had not done, and, with a +more unfettered mind towards history, to maintain the connexion of the +present life of the church with the past." His works are marked by +exegetical skill, unusual power of condensation and uniform fairness. +Accordingly they possess value which is little affected by the progress +of criticism. + + The most important of his works are:--_Beitraege zur Einleitung in das + Alte Testament_ (2 vols., 1806-1807); _Kommentar ueber die Psalmen_ + (1811), which has passed through several editions, and is still + regarded as of high authority; _Lehrbuch der hebraeisch-juedischen + Archaeologie_ (1814); _Ueber Religion und Theologie_ (1815); a work of + great importance as showing its author's general theological position; + _Lehrbuch der christlichen Dogmatik_ (1813-1816); _Lehrbuch der + historisch-kritischen Einleitung in die Bibel_ (1817); _Christliche + Sittenlehre_ (1819-1821); _Einleitung in das Neue Testament_ (1826); + _Religion, ihr Wesen, ihre Erscheinungsform, und ihr Einfluss auf das + Leben_ (1827); _Das Wesen des christlichen Glaubens_ (1846); and + _Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Neuen Testament_ (1836-1848). + De Wette also edited Luther's works (5 vols., 1825-1828). + + See K. R. Hagenbach in _Herzog's Realencyklopaedie_; G. C. F. Luecke's + _W. M. L. De Wette, zur freundschaftlicher Erinnerung_ (1850); and D. + Schenkel's _W. M. L. De Wette und die Bedeutung seiner Theologie fuer + unsere Zeit_ (1849). Rudolf Staehelin, _De Wette nach seiner theol. + Wirksamkeit und Bedeutung_ (1880); F. Lichtenberger, _History of + German Theology in the Nineteenth Century_ (1889); Otto Pfleiderer, + _Development of Theology_ (1890), pp. 97 ff.; T. K. Cheyne, _Founders + of the Old Testament Criticism_, pp. 31 ff. + + +DEWEY, DAVIS RICH (1858- ), American economist and statistician, was +born at Burlington, Vermont, U.S.A., on the 7th of April 1858. He was +educated at the university of Vermont and at Johns Hopkins University, +and afterwards became professor of economics and statistics at the +Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He was chairman of the state +board on the question of the unemployed (1895), member of the +Massachusetts commission on public, charitable and reformatory interests +(1897), special expert agent on wages for the 12th census, and member of +a state commission (1904) on industrial relations. He wrote an excellent +_Syllabus on Political History since 1815_ (1887), a _Financial History +of the U.S._ (1902), and _National Problems_ (1907). + + +DEWEY, GEORGE (1837- ), American naval officer, was born at Montpelier, +Vermont, on the 26th of December 1837. He studied at Norwich University, +then at Norwich, Vermont, and graduated at the United States Naval +Academy in 1858. He was commissioned lieutenant in April 1861, and in +the Civil War served on the steamsloop "Mississippi" (1861-1863) during +Farragut's passage of the forts below New Orleans in April 1862, and at +Port Hudson in March 1863; took part in the fighting below +Donaldsonville, Louisiana, in July 1863; and in 1864-1865 served on the +steam-gunboat "Agawam" with the North Atlantic blockading squadron and +took part in the attacks on Fort Fisher in December 1864 and January +1865. In March 1865 he became a lieutenant-commander. He was with the +European squadron in 1866-1867; was an instructor in the United States +Naval Academy in 1868-1869; was in command of the "Narragansett" in +1870-1871 and 1872-1875, being commissioned commander in 1872; was +light-house inspector in 1876-1877; and was secretary of the light-house +board in 1877-1882. In 1884 he became a captain; in 1889-1893 was chief +of the bureau of equipment and recruiting; in 1893-1895 was a member of +the light-house board; and in 1895-1897 was president of the board of +inspection and survey, being promoted to the rank of commodore in +February 1896. In November 1897 he was assigned, at his own request, to +sea service, and sent to Asiatic waters. In April 1898, while with his +fleet at Hong Kong, he was notified by cable that war had begun between +the United States and Spain, and was ordered to "capture or destroy the +Spanish fleet" then in Philippine waters. On the 1st of May he +overwhelmingly defeated the Spanish fleet under Admiral Montojo in +Manila Bay, a victory won without the loss of a man on the American +ships (see SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR). Congress, in a joint resolution, +tendered its thanks to Commodore Dewey, and to the officers and men +under his command, and authorized "the secretary of the navy to present +a sword of honor to Commodore George Dewey, and cause to be struck +bronze medals commemorating the battle of Manila Bay, and to distribute +such medals to the officers and men of the ships of the Asiatic squadron +of the United States." He was promoted rear-admiral on the 10th of May +1898. On the 18th of August his squadron assisted in the capture of the +city of Manila. After remaining in the Philippines under orders from his +government to maintain control, Dewey received the rank of admiral +(March 3, 1899)--that title, formerly borne only by Farragut and Porter, +having been revived by act of Congress (March 2, 1899),--and returned +home, arriving in New York City, where, on the 3rd of October 1899, he +received a great ovation. He was a member (1899) of the Schurman +Philippine Commission, and in 1899 and 1900 was spoken of as a possible +Democratic candidate for the presidency. He acted as president of the +Schley court of inquiry in 1901, and submitted a minority report on a +few details. + + +DEWEY, MELVIL (1851- ), American librarian, was born at Adams Center, +New York, on the 10th of December 1851. He graduated in 1874 at Amherst +College, where he was assistant librarian from 1874 to 1877. In 1877 he +removed to Boston, where he founded and became editor of _The Library +Journal_, which became an influential factor in the development of +libraries in America, and in the reform of their administration. He was +also one of the founders of the American Library Association, of which +he was secretary from 1876 to 1891, and president in 1891 and 1893. In +1883 he became librarian of Columbia College, and in the following year +founded there the School of Library Economy, the first institution for +the instruction of librarians ever organized. This school, which was +very successful, was removed to Albany in 1890, where it was +re-established as the State Library School under his direction; from +1888 to 1906 he was director of the New York State Library and from 1888 +to 1900 was secretary of the University of the State of New York, +completely reorganizing the state library, which he made one of the most +efficient in America, and establishing the system of state travelling +libraries and picture collections. His "Decimal System of +Classification" for library cataloguing, first proposed in 1876, is +extensively used. + + +DEWING, THOMAS WILMER (1851- ), American figure painter, was born in +Boston, Massachusetts, on the 4th of May 1851. He was a pupil of Jules +Lefebvre in Paris from 1876 to 1879; was elected a full member of the +National Academy of Design in 1888; was a member of the society of Ten +American Painters, New York; and received medals at the Paris Exhibition +(1889), at Chicago (1893), at Buffalo (1901) and at St Louis (1904). His +decorative genre pictures are notable for delicacy and finish. Among his +portraits are those of Mrs Stanford White and of his own wife. Mrs +Dewing (b, 1855), _nee_ Maria Oakey, a figure and flower painter, was a +pupil of John La Farge in New York, and of Couture in Paris. + + +DE WINT, PETER (1784-1849), English landscape painter, of Dutch +extraction, son of an English physician, was born at Stone, +Staffordshire, on the 21st of January 1784. He studied art in London, +and in 1809 entered the Academy schools. In 1812 he became a member of +the Society of Painters in Watercolours, where he exhibited largely for +many years, as well as at the Academy. He married in 1810 the sister of +William Hilton, R.A. He died in London on the 30th of January 1849. De +Wint's life was devoted to art; he painted admirably in oils, and he +ranks as one of the chief English water-colourists. A number of his +pictures are in the National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum. + + +DE WINTER, JAN WILLEM (1750-1812), Dutch admiral, was born at Kampen, +and in 1761 entered the naval service at the age of twelve years. He +distinguished himself by his zeal and courage, and at the revolution of +1787 he had reached the rank of lieutenant. The overthrow of the +"patriot" party forced him to fly for his safety to France. Here he +threw himself heart and soul into the cause of the Revolution, and took +part under Dumouriez and Pichegru in the campaigns of 1792 and 1793, and +was soon promoted to the rank of brigadier-general. When Pichegru in +1795 overran Holland, De Winter returned with the French army to his +native country. The states-general now utilized the experience he had +gained as a naval officer by giving him the post of adjunct-general for +the reorganization of the Dutch navy. In 1796 he was appointed +vice-admiral and commander-in-chief of the fleet. He spared no efforts +to strengthen it and improve its condition, and on the 11th of October +1797 he ventured upon an encounter off Camperdown with the British fleet +under Admiral Duncan. After an obstinate struggle the Dutch were +defeated, and De Winter himself was taken prisoner. He remained in +England until December, when he was liberated by exchange. His conduct +in the battle of Camperdown was declared by a court-martial to have +nobly maintained the honour of the Dutch flag. + +From 1798 to 1802 De Winter filled the post of ambassador to the French +republic, and was then once more appointed commander of the fleet. He +was sent with a strong squadron to the Mediterranean to repress the +Tripoli piracies, and negotiated a treaty of peace with the Tripolitan +government. He enjoyed the confidence of Louis Bonaparte, when king of +Holland, and, after the incorporation of the Netherlands in the French +empire, in an equal degree of the emperor Napoleon. By the former he was +created marshal and count of Huessen, and given the command of the armed +forces both by sea and land. Napoleon gave him the grand cross of the +Legion of Honour and appointed him inspector-general of the northern +coasts, and in 1811 he placed him at the head of the fleet he had +collected at the Texel. Soon afterwards De Winter was seized with +illness and compelled to betake himself to Paris, where he died on the +2nd of June 1812. He had a splendid public funeral and was buried in the +Pantheon. His heart was enclosed in an urn and placed in the Nicolaas +Kerk at Kampen. + + +DE WITT, CORNELIUS (1623-1672), brother of JOHN DE WITT (q.v.), was born +at Dort in 1623. In 1650 he became burgomaster of Dort and member of the +states of Holland and West Friesland. He was afterwards appointed to the +important post of _ruwaard_ or governor of the land of Putten and +bailiff of Beierland. He associated himself closely with his greater +brother, the grand pensionary, and supported him throughout his career +with great ability and vigour. In 1667 he was the deputy chosen by the +states of Holland to accompany Admiral de Ruyter in his famous +expedition to Chatham. Cornelius de Witt on this occasion distinguished +himself greatly by his coolness and intrepidity. He again accompanied De +Ruyter in 1672 and took an honourable part in the great naval fight at +Sole Bay against the united English and French fleets. Compelled by +illness to leave the fleet, he found on his return to Dort that the +Orange party were in the ascendant, and he and his brother were the +objects of popular suspicion and hatred. An account of his imprisonment, +trial and death, is given below. + + +DE WITT, JOHN (1625-1672), Dutch statesman, was born at Dort, on the +24th of September 1625. He was a member of one of the old burgher-regent +families of his native town. His father, Jacob de Witt, was six times +burgomaster of Dort, and for many years sat as a representative of the +town in the states of Holland. He was a strenuous adherent of the +republican or oligarchical states-right party in opposition to the +princes of the house of Orange, who represented the federal principle +and had the support of the masses of the people. John was educated at +Leiden, and early displayed remarkable talents, more especially in +mathematics and jurisprudence. In 1645 he and his elder brother +Cornelius visited France, Italy, Switzerland and England, and on his +return he took up his residence at the Hague, as an advocate. In 1650 he +was appointed pensionary of Dort, an office which made him the leader +and spokesman of the town's deputation in the state of Holland. In this +same year the states of Holland found themselves engaged in a struggle +for provincial supremacy, on the question of the disbanding of troops, +with the youthful prince of Orange, William II. William, with the +support of the states-general and the army, seized five of the leaders +of the states-right party and imprisoned them in Loevestein castle; +among these was Jacob de Witt. The sudden death of William, at the +moment when he had crushed opposition, led to a reaction. He left only a +posthumous child, afterwards William III. of Orange, and the principles +advocated by Jacob de Witt triumphed, and the authority of the states of +Holland became predominant in the republic. + +At this time of constitutional crisis such were the eloquence, sagacity +and business talents exhibited by the youthful pensionary of Dort that +on the 23rd of July 1653 he was appointed to the office of grand +pensionary (_Raadpensionaris_) of Holland at the age of twenty-eight. He +was re-elected in 1658, 1663 and 1668, and held office until his death +in 1672. During this period of nineteen years the general conduct of +public affairs and administration, and especially of foreign affairs, +such was the confidence inspired by his talents and industry, was +largely placed in his hands. He found in 1653 his country brought to the +brink of ruin through the war with England, which had been caused by the +keen commercial rivalry of the two maritime states. The Dutch were +unprepared, and suffered severely through the loss of their carrying +trade, and De Witt resolved to bring about peace as soon as possible. +The first demands of Cromwell were impossible, for they aimed at the +absorption of the two republics into a single state, but at last in the +autumn of 1654 peace was concluded, by which the Dutch made large +concessions and agreed to the striking of the flag to English ships in +the narrow seas. The treaty included a secret article, which the +states-general refused to entertain, but which De Witt succeeded in +inducing the states of Holland to accept, by which the provinces of +Holland pledged themselves not to elect a stadtholder or a +captain-general of the union. This Act of Seclusion, as it was called, +was aimed at the young prince of Orange, whose close relationship to the +Stuarts made him an object of suspicion to the Protector. De Witt was +personally favourable to this exclusion of William III. from his +ancestral dignities, but there is no truth in the suggestion that he +prompted the action of Cromwell in this matter. + +The policy of De Witt after the peace of 1654 was eminently successful. +He restored the finances of the state, and extended its commercial +supremacy in the East Indies. In 1658-59 he sustained Denmark against +Sweden, and in 1662 concluded an advantageous peace with Portugal. The +accession of Charles II. to the English throne led to the rescinding of +the Act of Seclusion; nevertheless De Witt steadily refused to allow the +prince of Orange to be appointed stadtholder or captain-general. This +led to ill-will between the English and Dutch governments, and to a +renewal of the old grievances about maritime and commercial rights, and +war broke out in 1665. The zeal, industry and courage displayed by the +grand pensionary during the course of this fiercely contested naval +struggle could scarcely have been surpassed. He himself on more than one +occasion went to sea with the fleet, and inspired all with whom he came +in contact by the example he set of calmness in danger, energy in action +and inflexible strength of will. It was due to his exertions as an +organizer and a diplomatist quite as much as to the brilliant seamanship +of Admiral de Ruyter, that the terms of the treaty of peace signed at +Breda (July 31, 1667), on the principle of _uti possidetis_, were so +honourable to the United Provinces. A still greater triumph of +diplomatic skill was the conclusion of the Triple Alliance (January 17, +1668) between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden, which checked the +attempt of Louis XIV. to take possession of the Spanish Netherlands in +the name of his wife, the infanta Maria Theresa. The check, however, was +but temporary, and the French king only bided his time to take vengeance +for the rebuff he had suffered. Meanwhile William III. was growing to +manhood, and his numerous adherents throughout the country spared no +efforts to undermine the authority of De Witt, and secure for the young +prince of Orange the dignities and authority of his ancestors. + +In 1672 Louis XIV. suddenly declared war, and invaded the United +Provinces at the head of a splendid army. Practically no resistance was +possible. The unanimous voice of the people called William III. to the +head of affairs, and there were violent demonstrations against John de +Witt. His brother Cornelius was (July 24) arrested on a charge of +conspiring against the prince. On the 4th of August John de Witt +resigned the post of grand pensionary that he had held so long and with +such distinction. Cornelius was put to the torture, and on the 19th of +August he was sentenced to deprivation of his offices and banishment. He +was confined in the Gevangenpoort, and his brother came to visit him in +the prison. A vast crowd on hearing this collected outside, and finally +burst into the prison, seized the two brothers and literally tore them +to pieces. Their mangled remains were hung up by the feet to a +lamp-post. Thus perished, by the savage act of an infuriated mob, one of +the greatest statesmen of his age. + +John de Witt married Wendela Bicker, daughter of an influential +burgomaster of Amsterdam, in 1655, by whom he had two sons and three +daughters. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J. Geddes, _History of the Administration of John de + Witt_, (vol. i. only, London, 1879); A. Lefevre-Pontalis, _Jean de + Witt, grand pensionnaire de Hollande_ (2 vols., Paris, 1884); P. + Simons, _Johan de Witt en zijn tijd_ (3 vols., Amsterdam, 1832-1842); + W. C. Knottenbelt, _Geschiedenis der Staatkunde van J. de Witt_ + (Amsterdam, 1862); _J. de Witt, Brieven ... gewisselt tusschen den + Heer Johan de Witt ... ende de gevolgmaghtigden v. d. staedt d. + Vereen. Nederlanden so in Vranckryck, Engelandt, Sweden, Denemarken, + Poolen, enz. 1652-69_ (6 vols., The Hague, 1723-1725); _Brieven ... + 1650-1657 (1658) eerste deel bewerkt den R. Fruin uitgegeven d., C. W. + Kernkamp_ (Amsterdam, 1906). + + +DEWLAP (from the O.E. _laeppa_, a lappet, or hanging fold; the first +syllable is of doubtful origin and the popular explanation that the word +means "the fold which brushes the dew" is not borne out, according to +the _New English Dictionary_, by the equivalent words such as the +Danish _doglaeb_, in Scandinavian languages), the loose fold of skin +hanging from the neck of cattle, also applied to similar folds in the +necks of other animals and fowls, as the dog, turkey, &c. The American +practice of branding cattle by making a cut in the neck is known as a +"dewlap brand." The skin of the neck in human beings often becomes +pendulous with age, and is sometimes referred to humorously by the same +name. + + +DEWSBURY, a market town and municipal and parliamentary borough in the +West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the river Calder, 8 m. S.S.W. of +Leeds, on the Great Northern, London & North-Western, and Lancashire & +Yorkshire railways. Pop. (1901) 28,060. The parish church of All Saints +was for the most part rebuilt in the latter half of the 18th century; +the portions still preserved of the original structure are mainly Early +English. The chief industries are the making of blankets, carpets, +druggets and worsted yarn; and there are iron foundries and machinery +works. Coal is worked in the neighbourhood. The parliamentary borough +includes the adjacent municipal borough of Batley, and returns one +member. The municipal borough, incorporated in 1862, is under a mayor, 6 +aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 1471 acres. Paulinus, first +archbishop of York, about the year 627 preached in the district of +Dewsbury, where Edwin, king of Northumbria, whom he converted to +Christianity, had a royal mansion. At Kirklees, in the parish, are +remains of a Cistercian convent of the 12th century, in an extensive +park, where tradition relates that Robin Hood died and was buried. + + +DEXIPPUS, PUBLIUS HERENNIUS (c. A.D. 210-273), Greek historian, +statesman and general, was an hereditary priest of the Eleusinian family +of the Kerykes, and held the offices of archon basileus and eponymus in +Athens. When the Heruli overran Greece and captured Athens (269), +Dexippus showed great personal courage and revived the spirit of +patriotism among his degenerate fellow-countrymen. A statue was set up +in his honour, the base of which, with an inscription recording his +services, has been preserved (_Corpus Inscrr. Atticarum_, iii. No. 716). +It is remarkable that the inscription is silent as to his military +achievements. Photius (_cod._ 82) mentions three historical works by +Dexippus, of which considerable fragments remain: (1) [Greek: Ta met' +Alexandron], an epitome of a similarly named work by Arrian; (2) [Greek: +Skuthika], a history of the wars of Rome with the Goths (or Scythians) +in the 3rd century; (3) [Greek: Chronike historia], a chronological +history from the earliest times to the emperor Claudius Gothicus (270), +frequently referred to by the writers of the Augustan history. The work +was continued by Eunapius of Sardis down to 404. Photius speaks very +highly of the style of Dexippus, whom he places on a level with +Thucydides, an opinion by no means confirmed by the fragments (C. W. +Mueller, _F.H.G._ iii. 666-687). + + +DEXTER, HENRY MARTYN (1821-1890), American clergyman and author, was +born in Plympton, Massachusetts, on the 13th of August 1821. He +graduated at Yale in 1840 and at the Andover Theological Seminary in +1844; was pastor of a Congregational church in Manchester, New +Hampshire, in 1844-1849, and of the Berkeley Street Congregational +church, Boston, in 1849-1867; was an editor of the _Congregationalist_ +in 1851-1866, of the _Congregational Quarterly_ in 1859-1866, and of the +_Congregationalist_, with which the _Recorder_ was merged, from 1867 +until his death in New Bedford, Mass., on the 13th of November 1890. He +was an authority on the history of Congregationalism and was lecturer on +that subject at the Andover Theological Seminary in 1877-1879; he left +his fine library on the Puritans in America to Yale University. Among +his works are: _Congregationalism, What it is, Whence it is, How it +works, Why it is better than any other Form of Church Government, and +its consequent Demands_ (1865), _The Church Polity of the Puritans the +Polity of the New Testament_ (1870), _As to Roger Williams and His +"Banishment" from the Massachusetts Colony_ (1876), _Congregationalism +of the Last Three Hundred Years, as seen in its Literature_ (1880), his +most important work, _A Handbook of Congregationalism_ (1880), _The True +Story of John Smyth, the "Se-Baptist"_ (1881), _Common Sense as to +Woman Suffrage_ (1885), and many reprints of pamphlets bearing on early +church history in New England, especially Baptist controversies. His +_The England and Holland of the Pilgrims_ was completed by his son, +Morton Dexter (b. 1846), and published in 1905. + + +DEXTER, TIMOTHY (1747-1806), American merchant, remarkable for his +eccentricities, was born at Malden, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of +February 1747. He acquired considerable wealth by buying up quantities +of the depreciated continental currency, which was ultimately redeemed +by the Federal government at par. He assumed the title of Lord Dexter +and built extraordinary houses at Newburyport, Mass., and Chester, New +Hampshire. He maintained a poet laureate and collected inferior +pictures, besides erecting in one of his gardens some forty colossal +statues carved in wood to represent famous men. A statue of himself was +included in the collection, and had for an inscription "I am the first +in the East, the first in the West, and the greatest philosopher in the +Western World." He wrote a book entitled _Pickle for the Knowing Ones_. +It was wholly without punctuation marks, and as this aroused comment, he +published a second edition, at the end of which was a page displaying +nothing but commas and stops, from which the readers were invited to +"peper and solt it as they plese." He beat his wife for not weeping +enough at the rehearsal of his funeral, which he himself carried out in +a very elaborate manner. He died at Newburyport on the 26th of October +1806. + + +DEXTRINE (BRITISH GUM, STARCH GUM, LEIOCOME), (C_{6}H_{10}O_{5})_{x}, a +substance produced from starch by the action of dilute acids, or by +roasting it at a temperature between 170 deg. and 240 deg. C. It is +manufactured by spraying starch with 2% nitric acid, drying in air, and +then heating to about 110 deg. Different modifications are known, e.g. +amylodextrine, erythrodextrine and achroodextrine. Its name has reference +to its powerful dextrorotatory action on polarized light. Pure dextrine +is an insipid, odourless, white substance; commercial dextrine is +sometimes yellowish, and contains burnt or unchanged starch. It dissolves +in water and dilute alcohol; by strong alcohol it is precipitated from its +solutions as the hydrated compound, C_{6}H_{10}O_{5}.H_{2}O. Diastase +converts it eventually into maltose, C_{12}H_{22}O_{11}; and by boiling +with dilute acids (sulphuric, hydrochloric, acetic) it is transformed +into dextrose, or ordinary glucose, C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}. It does not +ferment in contact with yeast, and does not reduce Fehling's solution. +If heated with strong nitric acid it gives oxalic, and not mucic acid. +Dextrine much resembles gum arabic, for which it is generally +substituted. It is employed for sizing paper, for stiffening cotton +goods, and for thickening colours in calico printing, also in the making +of lozenges, adhesive stamps and labels, and surgical bandages. + + See Otto Lueger, _Lexikon der gesamten Technik_. + + +DEY (an adaptation of the Turk, d[=a]i, a maternal uncle), an +honorary title formerly bestowed by the Turks on elderly men, +and appropriated by the janissaries as the designation of their +commanding officers. In Algeria the deys of the janissaries +became in the 17th century rulers of that country (see ALGERIA: +HISTORY). From the middle of the 16th century to the end of the +17th century the ruler of Tunisia was also called dey, a title +frequently used during the same period by the sovereigns of +Tripoli. + + +DHAMMAP[=A]LA, the name of one of the early disciples of the Buddha, and +therefore constantly chosen as their name in religion by Buddhist +novices on their entering the brotherhood. The most famous of the +Bhikshus so named was the great commentator who lived in the latter half +of the 5th century A.D. at the Badara Tittha Vih[=a]ra, near the east +coast of India, just a little south of where Madras now stands. It is to +him we owe the commentaries on seven of the shorter canonical books, +consisting almost entirely of verses, and also the commentary on the +Netti, perhaps the oldest P[=a]li work outside the canon. Extracts from +the latter work, and the whole of three out of the seven others, have +been published by the P[=a]li Text Society. These works show great +learning, exegetical skill and sound judgment. But as Dhammap[=a]la +confines himself rigidly either to questions of the meaning of words, +or to discussions of the ethical import of his texts, very little can be +gathered from his writings of value for the social history of his time. +For the right interpretation of the difficult texts on which he +comments, they are indispensable. Though in all probability a Tamil by +birth, he declares, in the opening lines of those of his works that have +been edited, that he followed the tradition of the Great Minster at +Anur[=a]dhapura in Ceylon, and the works themselves confirm this in +every respect. Hsuean Tsang, the famous Chinese pilgrim, tells a quaint +story of a Dhammap[=a]la of K[=a]nchipura (the modern Konjevaram). He +was a son of a high official, and betrothed to a daughter of the king, +but escaped on the eve of the wedding feast, entered the order, and +attained to reverence and distinction. It is most likely that this +story, whether legendary or not (and Hsuean Tsang heard the story at +K[=a]nchipura nearly two centuries after the date of Dhammap[=a]la), +referred to this author. But it may also refer, as Hsuean Tsang refers +it, to another author of the same name. Other unpublished works, besides +those mentioned above, have been ascribed to Dhammap[=a]la, but it is +very doubtful whether they are really by him. + + AUTHORITIES.--T. Watters, _On Yuan Chwang_ (ed. Rhys Davids and + Bushell, London, 1905), ii. 169, 228; Edmund Hardy in _Zeitschrift der + deutschen morgenlaendischen Gesellschaft_ (1898), pp. 97 foll.; _Netti_ + (ed. E. Hardy, London, P[=a]li Text Society, 1902), especially the + Introduction, passim; _Theri G[=a]th[=a] Commentary_, _Peta Vatthu + Commentary_, and _Vim[=a]na Vatthu Commentary_, all three published by + the P[=a]li Text Society. (T. W. R. D.) + + +DHANIS, FRANCIS, BARON (1861-1909), Belgian administrator, was born in +London in 1861 and passed the first fourteen years of his life at +Greenock, where he received his early education. He was the son of a +Belgian merchant and of an Irish lady named Maher. The name Dhanis is +supposed to be a variation of D'Anvers. Having completed his education +at the Ecole Militaire he entered the Belgian army, joining the regiment +of grenadiers, in which he rose to the rank of major. As soon as he +reached the rank of lieutenant he volunteered for service on the Congo, +and in 1887 he went out for a first term. He did so well in founding new +stations north of the Congo that, when the government decided to put an +end to the Arab domination on the Upper Congo, he was selected to +command the chief expedition sent against the slave dealers. The +campaign began in April 1892, and it was not brought to a successful +conclusion till January 1894. The story of this war has been told in +detail by Dr Sydney Hinde, who took part in it, in his book _The Fall of +the Congo Arabs_. The principal achievements of the campaign were the +captures in succession of the three Arab strongholds at Nyangwe, +Kassongo and Kabambari. For his services Dhanis was raised to the rank +of baron, and in 1895 was made vice-governor of the Congo State. In 1896 +he took command of an expedition to the Upper Nile. His troops, largely +composed of the Batetela tribes who had only been recently enlisted, and +who had been irritated by the execution of some of their chiefs for +indulging their cannibal proclivities, mutinied and murdered many of +their white officers. Dhanis found himself confronted with a more +formidable adversary than even the Arabs in these well-armed and +half-disciplined mercenaries. During two years (1897-1898) he was +constantly engaged in a life-and-death struggle with them. Eventually he +succeeded in breaking up the several bands formed out of his mutinous +soldiers. Although the incidents of the Batetela operations were less +striking than those of the Arab war, many students of both think that +the Belgian leader displayed the greater ability and fortitude in +bringing them to a successful issue. In 1899 Baron Dhanis returned to +Belgium with the honorary rank of vice governor-general. He died on the +14th of November 1909. + + +DHAR, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency, Central India. It +includes many Rajput and Bhil feudatories, and has an area of 1775 sq. +m. The raja is a Punwar Mahratta. The founder of the present ruling +family was Anand Rao Punwar, a descendant of the great Paramara clan of +Rajputs who from the 9th to the 13th century, when they were driven out +by the Mahommedans, had ruled over Malwa from their capital at Dhar. In +1742 Anand Rao received Dhar as a fief from Baji Rao, the peshwa, the +victory of the Mahrattas thus restoring the sovereign power to the +family which seven centuries before had been expelled from this very +city and country. Towards the close of the 18th and in the early part of +the 19th century, the state was subject to a series of spoliations by +Sindia and Holkar, and was only preserved from destruction by the +talents and courage of the adoptive mother of the fifth raja. By a +treaty of 1819 Dhar passed under British protection, and bound itself to +act in subordinate co-operation. The state was confiscated for rebellion +in 1857, but in 1860 was restored to Raja Anand Rao Punwar, then a +minor, with the exception of the detached district of Bairusia, which +was granted to the begum of Bhopal. Anand Rao, who received the personal +title Maharaja and the K.C.S.I. in 1877, died in 1898, and was succeeded +by Udaji Rao Punwar. In 1901 the population was 142,115. The state +includes the ruins of Mandu, or Mandogarh, the Mahommedan capital of +Malwa. + +THE TOWN OF DHAR is 33 m. W. of Mhow, 908 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1901) +17,792. It is picturesquely situated among lakes and trees surrounded by +barren hills, and possesses, besides its old walls, many interesting +buildings, Hindu and Mahommedan, some of them containing records of a +great historical importance. The Lat Masjid, or Pillar Mosque, was built +by Dilawar Khan in 1405 out of the remains of Jain temples. It derives +its name from an iron pillar, supposed to have been originally set up at +the beginning of the 13th century in commemoration of a victory, and +bearing a later inscription recording the seven days' visit to the town +of the emperor Akbar in 1598. The pillar, which was 43 ft. high, is now +overthrown and broken. The Kamal Maula is an enclosure containing four +tombs, the most notable being that of Shaikh Kamal Maulvi +(Kamal-ud-din), a follower of the famous 13th-century Mussulman saint +Nizam-ud-din Auliya.[1] The mosque known as Raja Bhoj's school was built +out of Hindu remains in the 14th or 15th century: its name is derived +from the slabs, covered with inscriptions giving rules of Sanskrit +grammar, with which it is paved. On a small hill to the north of the +town stands the fort, a conspicuous pile of red sandstone, said to have +been built by Mahommed ben Tughlak of Delhi in the 14th century. It +contains the palace of the raja. Of modern institutions may be mentioned +the high school, public library, hospital, and the chapel, school and +hospital of the Canadian Presbyterian mission. There is also a +government opium depot for the payment of duty, the town being a +considerable centre for the trade in opium as well as in grain. + + The town, the name of which is usually derived from Dhara Nagari (the + city of sword blades), is of great antiquity, and was made the capital + of the Paramara chiefs of Malwa by Vairisinha II., who transferred his + headquarters hither from Ujjain at the close of the 9th century. + During the rule of the Paramara dynasty Dhar was famous throughout + India as a centre of culture and learning; but, after suffering + various vicissitudes, it was finally conquered by the Mussulmans at + the beginning of the 14th century. At the close of the century Dilawar + Khan, the builder of the Lat Masjid, who had been appointed governor + in 1399, practically established his independence, his son Hoshang + Shah being the first Mahommedan king of Malwa. Under this dynasty Dhar + was second in importance to the capital Mandu. Subsequently, in the + time of Akbar, Dhar fell under the dominion of the Moguls, in whose + hands it remained till 1730, when it was conquered by the Mahrattas. + + See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908). + +[1] Nizam-ud-din, whose beautiful marble tomb is at Indarpat near Delhi, +was, according to some authorities, an assassin of the secret society of +Khorasan. By some modern authorities he is supposed to have been the +founder of Thuggism, the Thugs having a special reverence for his +memory. + + +DHARAMPUR, a native state of India, in the Surat political agency +division of Bombay, with an area of 704 sq. m. The population in 1901 +was 100,430, being a decrease of 17% during the decade; the estimated +gross revenue is L25,412; and the tribute L600. Its chief is a Sesodia +Rajput. The state has been surveyed for land revenue on the Bombay +system. It contains one town, Dharampur (pop. in 1901, 63,449), and 272 +villages. Only a small part of the state, the climate of which is very +unhealthy, is capable of cultivation; the rest is covered with rocky +hills, forest and brushwood. + + +DHARMSALA, a hill-station and sanatorium of the Punjab, India, situated +on a spur of the Dhaola Dhar, 16 m. N.E. of Kangra town, at an elevation +of some 6000 ft. Pop. (1901) 6971. The scenery of Dharmsala is of +peculiar grandeur. The spur on which it stands is thickly wooded with +oak and other trees; behind it the pine-clad slopes of the mountain +tower towards the jagged peaks of the higher range, snow-clad for half +the year; while below stretches the luxuriant cultivation of the Kangra +valley. In 1855 Dharmsala was made the headquarters of the Kangra +district of the Punjab in place of Kangra, and became the centre of a +European settlement and cantonment, largely occupied by Gurkha +regiments. The station was destroyed by the earthquake of April 1905, in +which 1625 persons, including 25 Europeans and 112 of the Gurkha +garrison, perished (_Imperial Gazetteer of India_, 1908). + + +DHARWAR, a town and district of British India, in the southern division +of Bombay. The town has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway. The +population in 1901 was 31,279. It has several ginning factories and a +cotton-mill; two high schools, one maintained by the Government and the +other by the Basel German Mission. + +The DISTRICT OF DHARWAR has an area of 4602 sq. m. In the north and +north-east are great plains of black soil, favourable to cotton-growing; +in the south and west are successive ranges of low hills, with flat +fertile valleys between them. The whole district lies high and has no +large rivers. + +In 1901 the population was 1,113,298, showing an increase of 6% in the +decade. The most influential classes of the community are Brahmans and +Lingayats. The Lingayats number 436,968, or 46% of the Hindu population; +they worship the symbol of Siva, and males and females both carry this +emblem about their person in a silver case. The principal crops are +millets, pulse and cotton. The centres of the cotton trade are Hubli and +Gadag, junctions on the Southern Mahratta railway, which traverses the +district in several directions. + +The early history of the territory comprised within the district of +Dharwar has been to a certain extent reconstructed from the inscription +slabs and memorial stones which abound there. From these it is clear +that the country fell in turn under the sway of the various dynasties +that ruled in the Deccan, memorials of the Chalukyan dynasty, whether +temples or inscriptions, being especially abundant. In the 14th century +the district was first overrun by the Mahommedans, after which it was +annexed to the newly established Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar, an +official of which named Dhar Rao, according to local tradition, built +the fort at Dharwar town in 1403. After the defeat of the king of +Vijayanagar at Talikot (1565), Dharwar was for a few years practically +independent under its Hindu governor; but in 1573 the fort was captured +by the sultan of Bijapur, and Dharwar was annexed to his dominions. In +1685 the fort was taken by the emperor Aurangzeb, and Dharwar, on the +break-up of the Mogul empire, fell under the sway of the peshwa of +Poona. In 1764 the province was overrun by Hyder Ali of Mysore, who in +1778 captured the fort of Dharwar. This was retaken in 1791 by the +Mahrattas. On the final overthrow of the peshwa in 1817, Dharwar was +incorporated with the territory of the East India Company. + + +DHOLPUR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency, with an area +of 1155 sq. m. It is a crop-producing country, without any special +manufactures. All along the bank of the river Chambal the country is +deeply intersected by ravines; low ranges of hills in the western +portion of the state supply inexhaustible quarries of fine-grained and +easily-worked red sandstone. In 1901 the population of Dholpur was +270,973, showing a decrease of 3% in the decade. The estimated revenue +is L83,000. The state is crossed by the Indian Midland railway from +Jhansi to Agra. In recent years it has suffered severely from drought. +In 1896-1897 the expenditure on famine relief amounted to L8190. + +The town of Dholpur is 34 m. S. of Agra by rail. Pop. (1901) 19,310. The +present town, which dates from the 16th century, stands somewhat to the +north of the site of the older Hindu town built, it is supposed, in the +11th century by the Tonwar Rajput Raja Dholan (or Dhawal) Deo, and named +after him Dholdera or Dhawalpuri. Among the objects of interest in the +town may be mentioned the fortified _sarai_ built in the reign of Akbar, +within which is the fine tomb of Sadik Mahommed Khan (d. 1595), one of +his generals. The town, from its position on the railway, is growing in +importance as a centre of trade. + +Little is known of the early history of the country forming the state of +Dholpur. Local tradition affirms that it was ruled by the Tonwar +Rajputs, who had their seat at Delhi from the 8th to the 12th century. +In 1450 it had a raja of its own; but in 1501 the fort of Dholpur was +taken by the Mahommedans under Sikandar Lodi and in 1504 was transferred +to a Mussulman governor. In 1527, after a strenuous resistance, the fort +was captured by Baber and with the surrounding country passed under the +sway of the Moguls, being included by Akbar in the province of Agra. +During the dissensions which followed the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, +Raja Kalyan Singh Bhadauria obtained possession of Dholpur, and his +family retained it till 1761, after which it was taken successively by +the Jat raja, Suraj Mal of Bharatpur, by Mirza Najaf Khan in 1775, by +Sindhia in 1782, and in 1803 by the British. It was restored to Sindhia +by the treaty of Sarji Anjangaon, but in consequence of new arrangements +was again occupied by the British. Finally, in 1806, the territories of +Dholpur, Bari and Rajakhera were handed over to the maharaj rana Kirat +Singh, ancestor of the present chiefs of Dholpur, in exchange for his +state of Gohad, which was ceded to Sindhia. + +The maharaj rana of Dholpur belongs to the clan of Bamraolia Jats, who +are believed to have formed a portion of the Indo-Scythian wave of +invasion which swept over northern India about A.D. 100. An ancestor of +the family appears to have held certain territories at Bamraoli near +Agra c. 1195. His descendant in 1505, Singhan Deo, having distinguished +himself in an expedition against the freebooters of the Deccan, was +rewarded by the sovereignty of the small territory of Gohad, with the +title of _rana_. In 1779 the rana of Gohad joined the British forces +against Sindhia, under a treaty which stipulated that, at the conclusion +of peace between the English and Mahrattas, all the territories then in +his possession should be guaranteed to him, and protected from invasion +by Sindhia. This protection was subsequently withdrawn, the rana having +been guilty of treachery, and in 1783 Sindhia succeeded in recapturing +the fortress of Gwalior, and crushed his Jat opponent by seizing the +whole of Gohad. In 1804, however, the family were restored to Gohad by +the British government; but, owing to the opposition of Sindhia, the +rana agreed in 1805 to exchange Gohad for his present territory of +Dholpur, which was taken under British protection, the chief binding +himself to act in subordinate co-operation with the paramount power, and +to refer all disputes with neighbouring princes to the British +government. Kirat Singh, the first maharaj rana of Dholpur, was +succeeded in 1836 by his son Bhagwant Singh, who showed great loyalty +during the Mutiny of 1857, was created a K.C.S.I., and G.C.S.I. in 1869. +He was succeeded in 1873 by his grandson Nihal Singh, who received the +C.B. and frontier medal for services in the Tirah campaign. He died in +1901, and was succeeded by his eldest son Ram Singh (b. 1883). + + See _Imperial Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908) and authorities there + given. + + +DHOW, the name given to a type of vessel used throughout the Arabian +Sea. The language to which the word belongs is unknown. According to the +_New English Dictionary_ the place of origin may be the Persian Gulf, +assuming that the word is identical with the tava mentioned by +Athanasius Nikitin (_India in the 15th Century_, Hakluyt Society, 1858). +Though the word is used generally of any craft along the East African +coast, it is usually applied to the vessel of about 150 to 200 tons +burden with a stem rising with a long slope from the water; dhows +generally have one mast with a lateen sail, the yard being of enormous +length. Much of the coasting trade of the Red Sea and Persian Gulf is +carried on by these vessels. They were the regular vessels employed in +the slave trade from the east coast of Africa. + + +DHRANGADRA, a native state of India, in the Gujarat division of Bombay, +situated in the north of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Its area is 1156 +sq. m. Pop. (1901) 70,880. The estimated gross revenue is L38,000 and +the tribute L3000. A state railway on the metre gauge from Wadhwan to +the town of Dhrangadra, a distance of 21 m., was opened for traffic in +1898. Some cotton is grown, although the soil is as a whole poor; the +manufactures include salt, metal vessels and stone hand-mills. The chief +town, Dhrangadra, has a population (1901) of 14,770. + +The chief of Dhrangadra, who bears the title of Raj Sahib, with the +predicate of His Highness, is head of the ancient clan of Jhala Rajputs, +who are said to have entered Kathiawar from Sind in the 8th century. Raj +Sahib Sir Mansinghji Ranmalsinghji (b. 1837), who succeeded his father +in 1869, was distinguished for the enlightened character of his +administration, especially in the matter of establishing schools and +internal communications. He was created a K.C.S.I in 1877. He died in +1900, and was succeeded by his grandson Ajitsinghji Jaswatsinghji (b. +1872). + + +DHULEEP SINGH (1837-1893), maharaja of Lahore, was born in February +1837, and was proclaimed maharaja on the 18th of September 1843, under +the regency of his mother the rani Jindan, a woman of great capacity and +strong will, but extremely inimical to the British. He was acknowledged +by Ranjit Singh and recognized by the British government. After six +years of peace the Sikhs invaded British territory in 1845, but were +defeated in four battles, and terms were imposed upon them at Lahore, +the capital of the Punjab. Dhuleep Singh retained his territory, but it +was administered to a great extent by the British government in his +name. This arrangement increased the regent's dislike of the British, +and a fresh outbreak occurred in 1848-49. In spite of the valour of the +Sikhs, they were utterly routed at Gujarat, and in March 1849 Dhuleep +Singh was deposed, a pension of L40,000 a year being granted to him and +his dependants. He became a Christian and elected to live in England. On +coming of age he made an arrangement with the British government by +which his income was reduced to L25,000 in consideration of advances for +the purchase of an estate, and he finally settled at Elvedon in Suffolk. +While passing through Alexandria in 1864 he met Miss Bamba Mueller, the +daughter of a German merchant who had married an Abyssinian. The +maharaja had been interested in mission work by Sir John Login, and he +met Miss Mueller at one of the missionary schools where she was teaching. +She became his wife on the 7th of June 1864, and six children were the +issue of the marriage. In the year after her death in 1890 the maharaja +married at Paris, as his second wife, an English lady, Miss Ada Douglas +Wetherill, who survived him. The maharaja was passionately fond of +sport, and his shooting parties were celebrated, while he himself became +a _persona grata_ in English society. The result, however, was financial +difficulty, and in 1882 he appealed to the government for assistance, +making various claims based upon the alleged possession of private +estates in the Punjab, and upon the surrender of the Koh-i-nor diamond +to the British Crown. His demand was rejected, whereupon he started for +India, after drawing up a proclamation to his former subjects. But as it +was deemed inadvisable to allow him to visit the Punjab, he remained for +some time as a guest at the residency at Aden, and was allowed to +receive some of his relatives to witness his abjuration of Christianity, +which actually took place within the residency itself. As the climate +began to affect his health, the maharaja at length left Aden and +returned to Europe. He stayed for some time in Russia, hoping that his +claim against England would be taken up by the Russians; but when that +expectation proved futile he proceeded to Paris, where he lived for the +rest of his life on the pension allowed him by the Indian government. +His death from an attack of apoplexy took place at Paris on the 22nd of +October 1893. The maharaja's eldest son, Prince Victor Albert Jay +Dhuleep Singh (b. 1866), was educated at Trinity and Downing Colleges, +Cambridge. In 1888 he obtained a commission in the 1st Royal Dragoon +Guards. In 1898 he married Lady Anne Coventry, youngest daughter of the +earl of Coventry. (G.F.B.) + + +DHULIA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters of West +Khandesh district in Bombay, on the right bank of the Panjhra river. +Pop. (1901) 24,726. Considerable trade is done in cotton and oil-seeds, +and weaving of cotton. A railway connects Dhulia with Chalisgaon, on the +main line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway. + + +DIABASE, in petrology, a rock which is a weathered form of dolerite. It +was long widely accepted that the pre-Tertiary rocks of this group +differed from their Tertiary and Recent representatives in certain +essential respects, but this is now admitted to be untenable, and the +differences are known to be merely the result of the longer exposure to +decomposition, pressure and shearing, which the older rocks have +experienced. Their olivine tends to become serpentinized; their augite +changes to chlorite and uralite; their felspars are clouded by formation +of zeolites, calcite, sericite and epidote. The rocks acquire a green +colour (from the development of chlorite, uralite and epidote); hence +the older name of "greenstones," which is now little used. Many of them +become somewhat schistose from pressure ("greenstone-schists," +meta-diabase, &c.). Although the original definition of the group can no +longer be justified, the name is so well established in current usage +that it can hardly be discarded. The terms diabase and dolerite are +employed really to designate distinct facies of the same set of rocks. + + The minerals of diabase are the same as those of dolerite, viz. + olivine, augite, and plagioclase felspar, with subordinate quantities + of hornblende, biotite, iron oxides and apatite. + + There are olivine-diabases and diabases without olivine; + quartz-diabases, analcite-diabases (or teschenites) and hornblende + diabases (or proterobases). Hypersthene (or bronzite) is + characteristic of another group. Many of them are ophitic, especially + those which contain olivine, but others are intersertal, like the + intersertal dolerites. The last include most quartz-diabases, + hypersthene-diabases and the rocks which have been described as + tholeites. Porphyritic structure appears in the diabase-porphyrites, + some of which are highly vesicular and contain remains of an abundant + fine-grained or partly glassy ground-mass (_diabas-mandelstein_, + amygdaloidal diabase). The somewhat ill-defined spilites are regarded + by many as modifications of diabase-porphyrite. In the intersertal and + porphyrite diabases, fresh or devitrified glassy base is not + infrequent. It is especially conspicuous in some tholeites + (hyalo-tholeites) and in weisselbergites. These rocks consist of + augite and plagioclase, with little or no olivine, on a brown, + vitreous, interstitial matrix. Devitrified forms of tachylyte + (sordawilite, &c.) occur at the rapidly chilled margins of dolerite + sills and dikes, and fine-grained spotted rocks with large spherulites + of grey or greenish felspar, and branching growths of brownish-green + augite (variolites). + + To nearly every variety in composition and structure presented by the + diabases, a counterpart can be found among the Tertiary dolerites. In + the older rocks, however, certain minerals are more common than in the + newer. Hornblende, mostly of pale green colours and somewhat fibrous + habit, is very frequent in diabase; it is in most cases secondary + after pyroxene, and is then known as uralite; often it forms + pseudomorphs which retain the shape of the original augite. Where + diabases have been crushed or sheared, hornblende readily develops at + the expense of pyroxene, sometimes replacing it completely. In the + later stages of alteration the amphibole becomes compact and well + crystallized; the rocks consist of green hornblende and plagioclase + felspar, and are then generally known as epidiorites or amphibolites. + At the same time a schistose structure is produced. But transition + forms are very common, having more or less of the augite remaining, + surrounded by newly formed hornblende which at first is rather fibrous + and tends to spread outwards through the surrounding felspar. Chlorite + also is abundant both in sheared and unsheared diabases, and with it + calcite may make its appearance, or the lime set free from the augite + may combine with the titanium of the iron oxide and with silica to + form incrustations or borders of sphene around the original crystals + of ilmenite. Epidote is another secondary lime-bearing mineral which + results from the decomposition of the soda lime felspars and the + pyroxenes. Many diabases, especially those of the teschenite + sub-group, are filled with zeolites. + + Diabases are exceedingly abundant among the older rocks of all parts + of the globe. Popular names for them are "whinstone," "greenstone," + "toadstone" and "trap." They form excellent road-mending stones and + are much quarried for this purpose, being tough, durable and resistant + to wear, so long as they are not extremely decomposed. Many of them + are to be preferred to the fresher dolerites as being less brittle. + The quality of the Cornish greenstones appears to have been distinctly + improved by a smaller amount of recrystallization where they have been + heated by contact with intrusive masses of granite. (J. S. F.) + + +DIABETES (from Gr. [Greek: dia], through, and [Greek: bainein], to +pass), a constitutional disease characterized by a habitually excessive +discharge of urine. Two forms of this complaint are described, viz. +Diabetes Mellitus, or Glycosuria, where the urine is not only increased +in quantity, but persistently contains a greater or less amount of +sugar, and Diabetes Insipidus, or Polyuria, where the urine is simply +increased in quantity, and contains no abnormal ingredient. This latter, +however, must be distinguished from the polyuria due to chronic granular +kidney, lardaceous disease of the kidney, and also occurring in certain +cases of hysteria. + +_Diabetes mellitus_ is the disease to which the term is most commonly +applied, and is by far the more serious and important ailment. It is one +of the diseases due to altered metabolism (see METABOLIC DISEASES). It +is markedly hereditary, much more prevalent in towns and especially +modern city life than in more primitive rustic communities, and most +common among the Jews. The excessive use of sugar as a food is usually +considered one cause of the disease, and obesity is supposed to favour +its occurrence, but many observers consider that the obesity so often +met with among diabetics is due to the same cause as the disease itself. +No age is exempt, but it occurs most commonly in the fifth decade of +life. It attacks males twice as frequently as females, and fair more +frequently than dark people. + +The symptoms are usually gradual in their onset, and the patient may +suffer for a length of time before he thinks it necessary to apply for +medical aid. The first symptoms which attract attention are failure of +strength, and emaciation, along with great thirst and an increased +amount and frequent passage of urine. From the normal quantity of from 2 +to 3 pints in the 24 hours it may be increased to 10, 20 or 30 pints, or +even more. It is usually of pale colour, and of thicker consistence than +normal urine, possesses a decidedly sweet taste, and is of high specific +gravity (1030 to 1050). It frequently gives rise to considerable +irritation of the urinary passages. + +By simple evaporation crystals of sugar may be obtained from diabetic +urine, which also yields the characteristic chemical tests of sugar, +while the amount of this substance can be accurately estimated by +certain analytical processes. The quantity of sugar passed may vary from +a few ounces to two or more pounds per diem, and it is found to be +markedly increased after saccharine or starchy food has been taken. +Sugar may also be found in the blood, saliva, tears, and in almost all +the excretions of persons suffering from this disease. One of the most +distressing symptoms is intense thirst, which the patient is constantly +seeking to allay, the quantity of liquid consumed being in general +enormous, and there is usually, but not invariably, a voracious +appetite. The mouth is always parched, and a faint, sweetish odour may +be evolved from the breath. The effect of the disease upon the general +health is very marked, and the patient becomes more and more emaciated. +He suffers from increasing muscular weakness, the temperature of his +body is lowered, and the skin is dry and harsh. There is often a +peculiar flush on the face, not limited to the malar eminences, but +extending up to the roots of the hair. The teeth are loosened or decay, +there is a tendency to bleeding from the gums, while dyspeptic symptoms, +constipation and loss of sexual power are common accompaniments. There +is in general great mental depression or irritability. + +Diabetes as a rule advances comparatively slowly except in the case of +young persons, in whom its progress is apt to be rapid. The +complications of the disease are many and serious. It may cause impaired +vision by weakening the muscles of accommodation, or by lessening the +sensitiveness of the retina to light. Also cataract is very common. Skin +affections of all kinds may occur and prove very intractable. Boils, +carbuncles, cellulitis and gangrene are all apt to occur as life +advances, though gangrene is much more frequent in men than in women. +Diabetics are especially liable to phthisis and pneumonia, and gangrene +of the lungs may set in if the patient survives the crisis in the latter +disease. Digestive troubles of all kinds, kidney diseases and heart +failure due to fatty heart are all of common occurrence. Also patients +seem curiously susceptible to the poison of enteric fever, though the +attack usually runs a mild course. The sugar temporarily disappears +during the fever. But the most serious complication of all is known as +diabetic coma, which is very commonly the final cause of death. The +onset is often insidious, but may be indicated by loss of appetite, a +rapid fall in the quantity of both urine and sugar, and by either +constipation or diarrhoea. More rarely there is most acute abdominal +pain. At first the condition is rather that of collapse than true coma, +though later the patient is absolutely comatose. The patient suffers +from a peculiar kind of dyspnoea, and the breath and skin have a sweet +ethereal odour. The condition may last from twenty-four hours to three +days, but is almost invariably the precursor of death. + +Diabetes is a very fatal form of disease, recovery being exceedingly +rare. Over 50% die of coma, another 25% of phthisis or pneumonia, and +the remainder of Bright's disease, cerebral haemorrhage, gangrene, &c. +The most favourable cases are those in which the patient is advanced in +years, those in which it is associated with obesity or gout, and where +the social conditions are favourable. A few cures have been recorded in +which the disease supervened after some acute illness. The unfavourable +cases are those in which there is a family history of the disease and in +which the patient is young. Nevertheless much may be done by appropriate +treatment to mitigate the severity of the symptoms and to prolong life. + +There are two distinct lines of treatment, that of diet and that of +drugs, but each must be modified and determined entirely by the +idiosyncrasy of the patient, which varies in this condition between very +wide limits. That of diet is of primary importance inasmuch as it has +been proved beyond question that certain kinds of food have a powerful +influence in aggravating the disease, more particularly those consisting +largely of saccharine and starchy matter; and it may be stated generally +that the various methods of treatment proposed aim at the elimination as +far as possible of these constituents from the diet. Hence it is +recommended that such articles as bread, potatoes and all farinaceous +foods, turnips, carrots, parsnips and most fruits should be avoided; +while animal food and soups, green vegetables, cream, cheese, eggs, +butter, and tea and coffee without sugar, may be taken with advantage. +As a substitute for ordinary bread, which most persons find it difficult +to do without for any length of time, bran bread, gluten bread and +almond biscuits. A patient must never pass suddenly from an ordinary to +a carbohydrate-free diet. Any such sudden transition is extremely liable +to bring on diabetic coma, and the change must be made quite gradually, +one form of carbohydrate after another being taken out of the diet, +whilst the effect on the quantity of sugar passed is being carefully +noted meanwhile. The treatment may be begun by excluding potatoes, sugar +and fruit, and only after several days is the bread to be replaced by +some diabetic substitute. When the sugar excretion has been reduced to +its lowest point, and maintained there for some time, a certain amount +of carbohydrate may be cautiously allowed, the consequent effect on the +glycosuria being estimated. The best diet can only be worked out +experimentally for each individual patient. But in every case, if +drowsiness or any symptom suggesting coma supervene, all restrictions +must be withdrawn, and carbohydrate freely allowed. The question of +alcohol is one which must be largely determined by the previous history +of the patient, but a small quantity will help to make up the +deficiencies of a diet poor in carbohydrate. Scotch and Irish whisky, +and Hollands gin, are usually free from sugar, and some of the light +Bordeaux wines contain very little. Fat is beneficial, and can be given +as cream, fat of meat and cod-liver oil. Green vegetables are harmless, +but the white stalks of cabbages and lettuces and also celery and endive +yield sugar. Laevulose can be assimilated up to 1 1/2 ozs. daily without +increasing the glycosuria, and hence apples, cooked or raw, are +allowable, as the sugar they contain is in this form. The question of +milk is somewhat disputed; but it is usual to exclude it from the rigid +diet, allowing a certain quantity when the diet is being extended. +Thirst is relieved by anything that relieves the polyuria. But +hypodermic injections of pilocarpine stimulate the flow of saliva, and +thus relieve the dryness of the mouth. Constipation appears to increase +the thirst, and must always be carefully guarded against. The best +remedies are the aperient mineral waters. + +Numerous medicinal substances have been employed in diabetes, but few of +them are worthy of mention as possessed of any efficacy. Opium is often +found of great service, its administration being followed by marked +amelioration in all the symptoms. Morphia and codeia have a similar +action. In the severest cases, however, these drugs appear to be of +little or no use, and they certainly increase the constipation. Heroin +hydrochloride has been tried in their place, but this seems to have more +power over slight than over severe cases. Salicylate of sodium and +aspirin are both very beneficial, causing a diminution in the sugar +excretion without counterbalancing bad effects. + +In _diabetes insipidus_ there is constant thirst and an excessive flow +of urine, which, however, is not found to contain any abnormal +constituent. Its effects upon the system are often similar to those of +diabetes mellitus, except that they are much less marked, the disease +being in general very slow in its progress. In some cases the health +appears to suffer very slightly. It is rarely a direct cause of death, +but from its debilitating effects may predispose to serious and fatal +complications. It is best treated by tonics and generous diet. Valerian +has been found beneficial, the powdered root being given in 5-grain +doses. + + +DIABOLO, a game played with a sort of top in the shape of two cones +joined at their apices, which is spun, thrown, and caught by means of a +cord strung to two sticks. The idea of the game appears originally to +have come from China, where a top (_Kouengen_), made of two hollow +pierced cylinders of metal or wood, joined by a rod--and often of +immense size,--was made by rotation to hum with a loud noise, and was +used by pedlars to attract customers. From China it was introduced by +missionaries to Europe; and a form of the game, known as "the devil on +two sticks," appears to have been known in England towards the end of +the 18th century, and Lord Macartney is credited with improvements in +it. But its principal vogue was in France in 1812, where the top was +called "le diable." Amusing old prints exist (see _Fry's Magazine_, +March and December 1907), depicting examples of the popular craze in +France at the time. The _diable_ of those days resembled a globular +wooden dumb-bell with a short waist, and the sonorous hum when +spinning--the _bruit du diable_--was a pronounced feature. At intervals +during the century occasional attempts to revive the game of spinning a +top of this sort on a string were made, but it was not till 1906 that +the sensation of 1812 began to be repeated. A French engineer, Gustave +Phillipart, discovering some old implements of the game, had +experimented for some time with new forms of top with a view to bringing +it again into popularity; and having devised the double-cone shape, and +added a miniature bicycle tire of rubber round the rims of the two ends +of the double-cone, with other improvements, he named it "diabolo." The +use of celluloid in preference to metal or wood as its material appears +to have been due to a suggestion of Mr C. B. Fry, who was consulted by +the inventor on the subject. The game of spinning, throwing and catching +the diabolo was rapidly elaborated in various directions, both as an +exercise of skill in doing tricks, and in "diabolo tennis" and other +ways as an athletic pastime. From Paris, Ostend and the chief French +seaside resorts, where it became popular in 1906, its vogue spread in +1907 so that in France and England it became the fashionable "rage" +among both children and adults. + +The mechanics of the diabolo were worked out by Professor C. V. Boys in +the _Proc. Phys. Soc._ (London), Nov. 1907. + + +DIACONICON, in the Greek Church, the name given to a chamber on the +south side of the central apse, where the sacred utensils, vessels, &c., +of the church were kept. In the reign of Justin II. (565-574), owing to +a change in the liturgy, the diaconicon and protheses were located in +apses at the east end of the aisles. Before that time there was only one +apse. In the churches in central Syria of slightly earlier date, the +diaconicon is rectangular, the side apses at Kalat-Seman having been +added at a later date. + + +DIADOCHI (Gr. [Greek: diadechesthai], to receive from another), i.e. +"Successors," the name given to the Macedonian generals who fought for +the empire of Alexander after his death in 323 B.C. The name includes +Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes, Antipater and his son +Cassander, Seleucus, Ptolemy, Eumenes and Lysimachus. The kingdoms into +which the Macedonian empire was divided under these rulers are known as +Hellenistic. The chief were Asia Minor and Syria under the SELEUCID +DYNASTY (q.v.), Egypt under the PTOLEMIES (q.v.), Macedonia under the +successors of Antigonus Gonatas, PERGAMUM (q.v.) under the Attalid +dynasty. Gradually these kingdoms were merged in the Roman empire. (See +MACEDONIAN EMPIRE.) + + +DIAGONAL (Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: gonia], a corner), in +geometry, a line joining the intersections of two pairs of sides of a +rectilinear figure. + + +DIAGORAS, of Melos, surnamed the Atheist, poet and sophist, flourished +in the second half of the 5th century B.C. Religious in his youth and a +writer of hymns and dithyrambs, he became an atheist because a great +wrong done to him was left unpunished by the gods. In consequence of his +blasphemous speeches, and especially his criticism of the Mysteries, he +was condemned to death at Athens, and a price set upon his head +(Aristoph. _Clouds_, 830; _Birds_, 1073 and Schol.). He fled to Corinth, +where he is said to have died. His work on the Mysteries was called +[Greek Phrygioi logoi] or [Greek: Apopyrgizontes], in which he probably +attacked the Phrygian divinities. + + +DIAGRAM (Gr. [Greek: diagramma], from [Greek: diagraphein], to mark out +by lines), a figure drawn in such a manner that the geometrical relations +between the parts of the figure illustrate relations between other +objects. They may be classed according to the manner in which they are +intended to be used, and also according to the kind of analogy which we +recognize between the diagram and the thing represented. The diagrams in +mathematical treatises are intended to help the reader to follow the +mathematical reasoning. The construction of the figure is defined in +words so that even if no figure were drawn the reader could draw one for +himself. The diagram is a good one if those features which form the +subject of the proposition are clearly represented. + +Diagrams are also employed in an entirely different way--namely, for +purposes of measurement. The plans and designs drawn by architects and +engineers are used to determine the value of certain real magnitudes by +measuring certain distances on the diagram. For such purposes it is +essential that the drawing be as accurate as possible. We therefore +class diagrams as diagrams of illustration, which merely suggest certain +relations to the mind of the spectator, and diagrams drawn to scale, +from which measurements are intended to be made. There are some diagrams +or schemes, however, in which the form of the parts is of no importance, +provided their connexions are properly shown. Of this kind are the +diagrams of electrical connexions, and those belonging to that +department of geometry which treats of the degrees of cyclosis, +periphraxy, linkedness and knottedness. + +_Diagrams purely Graphic and mixed Symbolic and Graphic._--Diagrams may +also be classed either as purely graphical diagrams, in which no symbols +are employed except letters or other marks to distinguish particular +points of the diagrams, and mixed diagrams, in which certain magnitudes +are represented, not by the magnitudes of parts of the diagram, but by +symbols, such as numbers written on the diagram. Thus in a map the +height of places above the level of the sea is often indicated by +marking the number of feet above the sea at the corresponding places on +the map. There is another method in which a line called a contour line +is drawn through all the places in the map whose height above the sea is +a certain number of feet, and the number of feet is written at some +point or points of this line. By the use of a series of contour lines, +the height of a great number of places can be indicated on a map by +means of a small number of written symbols. Still this method is not a +purely graphical method, but a partly symbolical method of expressing +the third dimension of objects on a diagram in two dimensions. + +In order to express completely by a purely graphical method the +relations of magnitudes involving more than two variables, we must use +more than one diagram. Thus in the arts of construction we use plans and +elevations and sections through different planes, to specify the form of +objects having three dimensions. In such systems of diagrams we have to +indicate that a point in one diagram corresponds to a point in another +diagram. This is generally done by marking the corresponding points in +the different diagrams with the same letter. If the diagrams are drawn +on the same piece of paper we may indicate corresponding points by +drawing a line from one to the other, taking care that this line of +correspondence is so drawn that it cannot be mistaken for a real line in +either diagram. (See GEOMETRY: _Descriptive_.) + +In the stereoscope the two diagrams, by the combined use of which the +form of bodies in three dimensions is recognized, are projections of the +bodies taken from two points so near each other that, by viewing the two +diagrams simultaneously, one with each eye, we identify the +corresponding points intuitively. The method in which we simultaneously +contemplate two figures, and recognize a correspondence between certain +points in the one figure and certain points in the other, is one of the +most powerful and fertile methods hitherto known in science. Thus in +pure geometry the theories of similar, reciprocal and inverse figures +have led to many extensions of the science. It is sometimes spoken of as +the method or principle of Duality. GEOMETRY: _Projective_.) + + DIAGRAMS IN MECHANICS. + + The study of the motion of a material system is much assisted by the + use of a series of diagrams representing the configuration, + displacement and acceleration of the parts of the system. + + _Diagram of Configuration._--In considering a material system it is + often convenient to suppose that we have a record of its position at + any given instant in the form of a diagram of configuration. The + position of any particle of the system is defined by drawing a + straight line or vector from the origin, or point of reference, to the + given particle. The position of the particle with respect to the + origin is determined by the magnitude and direction of this vector. If + in the diagram we draw from the origin (which need not be the same + point of space as the origin for the material system) a vector equal + and parallel to the vector which determines the position of the + particle, the end of this vector will indicate the position of the + particle in the diagram of configuration. If this is done for all the + particles we shall have a system of points in the diagram of + configuration, each of which corresponds to a particle of the material + system, and the relative positions of any pair of these points will be + the same as the relative positions of the material particles which + correspond to them. + + We have hitherto spoken of two origins or points from which the + vectors are supposed to be drawn--one for the material system, the + other for the diagram. These points, however, and the vectors drawn + from them, may now be omitted, so that we have on the one hand the + material system and on the other a set of points, each point + corresponding to a particle of the system, and the whole representing + the configuration of the system at a given instant. + + This is called a diagram of configuration. + + _Diagram of Displacement._--Let us next consider two diagrams of + configuration of the same system, corresponding to two different + instants. We call the first the initial configuration and the second + the final configuration, and the passage from the one configuration to + the other we call the displacement of the system. We do not at present + consider the length of time during which the displacement was + effected, nor the intermediate stages through which it passed, but + only the final result--a change of configuration. To study this change + we construct a diagram of displacement. + + Let A, B, C be the points in the initial diagram of configuration, and + A', B', C' be the corresponding points in the final diagram of + configuration. From o, the origin of the diagram of displacement, draw + a vector oa equal and parallel to AA', ob equal and parallel to BB', + oc to CC', and so on. The points a, b, c, &c., will be such that the + vector ab indicates the displacement of B relative to A, and so on. + The diagram containing the points a, b, c, &c., is therefore called + the diagram of displacement. + + In constructing the diagram of displacement we have hitherto assumed + that we know the absolute displacements of the points of the system. + For we are required to draw a line equal and parallel to AA', which we + cannot do unless we know the absolute final position of A, with + respect to its initial position. In this diagram of displacement there + is therefore, besides the points a, b, c, &c., an _origin_, o, which + represents a point absolutely fixed in space. This is necessary + because the two configurations do not exist at the same time; and + therefore to express their relative position we require to know a + point which remains the same at the beginning and end of the time. + + But we may construct the diagram in another way which does not assume + a knowledge of absolute displacement or of a point fixed in space. + Assuming any point and calling it a, draw ak parallel and equal to BA + in the initial configuration, and from k draw kb parallel and equal to + A'B' in the final configuration. It is easy to see that the position + of the point b relative to a will be the same by this construction as + by the former construction, only we must observe that in this second + construction we use only vectors such as AB, A'B', which represent the + relative position of points both of which exist simultaneously, + instead of vectors such as AA', BB', which express the position of a + point at one instant relative to its position at a former instant, and + which therefore cannot be determined by observation, because the two + ends of the vector do not exist simultaneously. + + It appears therefore that the diagram of displacements, when drawn by + the first construction, includes an origin o, which indicates that we + have assumed a knowledge of absolute displacements. But no such point + occurs in the second construction, because we use such vectors only as + we can actually observe. Hence the diagram of displacements _without + an origin_ represents neither more nor less than all we can ever know + about the displacement of the material system. + + _Diagram of Velocity._--If the relative velocities of the points of + the system are constant, then the diagram of displacement + corresponding to an interval of a unit of time between the initial and + the final configuration is called a diagram of relative velocity. If + the relative velocities are not constant, we suppose another system in + which the velocities are equal to the velocities of the given system + at the given instant and continue constant for a unit of time. The + diagram of displacements for this imaginary system is the required + diagram of relative velocities of the actual system at the given + instant. It is easy to see that the diagram gives the velocity of any + one point relative to any other, but cannot give the absolute velocity + of any of them. + + _Diagram of Acceleration._--By the same process by which we formed the + diagram of displacements from the two diagrams of initial and final + configuration, we may form a diagram of changes of relative velocity + from the two diagrams of initial and final velocities. This diagram + may be called that of total accelerations in a finite interval of + time. And by the same process by which we deduced the diagram of + velocities from that of displacements we may deduce the diagram of + rates of acceleration from that of total acceleration. + + We have mentioned this system of diagrams in elementary kinematics + because they are found to be of use especially when we have to deal + with material systems containing a great number of parts, as in the + kinetic theory of gases. The diagram of configuration then appears as + a region of space swarming with points representing molecules, and the + only way in which we can investigate it is by considering the number + of such points in unit of volume in different parts of that region, + and calling this the _density_ of the gas. + + In like manner the diagram of velocities appears as a region + containing points equal in number but distributed in a different + manner, and the number of points in any given portion of the region + expresses the number of molecules whose velocities lie within given + limits. We may speak of this as the velocity-density. + + _Diagrams of Stress._--Graphical methods are peculiarly applicable to + statical questions, because the state of the system is constant, so + that we do not need to construct a series of diagrams corresponding to + the successive states of the system. The most useful of these + applications, collectively termed Graphic Statics, relates to the + equilibrium of plane framed structures familiarly represented in + bridges and roof-trusses. Two diagrams are used, one called the + diagram of the frame and the other called the diagram of stress. The + structure itself consists of a number of separable pieces or links + jointed together at their extremities. In practice these joints have + friction, or may be made purposely stiff, so that the force acting at + the extremity of a piece may not pass exactly through the axis of the + joint; but as it is unsafe to make the stability of the structure + depend in any degree upon the stiffness of joints, we assume in our + calculations that all the joints are perfectly smooth, and therefore + that the force acting on the end of any link passes through the axis + of the joint. + + The axes of the joints of the structure are represented by points in + the diagram of the frame. The link which connects two joints in the + actual structure may be of any shape, but in the diagram of the frame + it is represented by a straight line joining the points representing + the two joints. If no force acts on the link except the two forces + acting through the centres of the joints, these two forces must be + equal and opposite, and their direction must coincide with the + straight line joining the centres of the joints. If the force acting + on either extremity of the link is directed towards the other + extremity, the stress on the link is called pressure and the link is + called a "strut." If it is directed away from the other extremity, the + stress on the link is called tension and the link is called a "tie." + In this case, therefore, the only stress acting in a link is a + pressure or a tension in the direction of the straight line which + represents it in the diagram of the frame, and all that we have to do + is to find the magnitude of this stress. In the actual structure + gravity acts on every part of the link, but in the diagram we + substitute for the actual weight of the different parts of the link + two weights which have the same resultant acting at the extremities of + the link. + + We may now treat the diagram of the frame as composed of links without + weight, but loaded at each joint with a weight made up of portions of + the weights of all the links which meet in that joint. If any link has + more than two joints we may substitute for it in the diagram an + imaginary stiff frame, consisting of links, each of which has only two + joints. The diagram of the frame is now reduced to a system of points, + certain pairs of which are joined by straight lines, and each point is + in general acted on by a weight or other force acting between it and + some point external to the system. To complete the diagram we may + represent these external forces as links, that is to say, straight + lines joining the points of the frame to points external to the frame. + Thus each weight may be represented by a link joining the point of + application of the weight with the centre of the earth. + + But we can always construct an imaginary frame having its joints in + the lines of action of these external forces, and this frame, together + with the real frame and the links representing external forces, which + join points in the one frame to points in the other frame, make up + together a complete self-strained system in equilibrium, consisting of + points connected by links acting by pressure or tension. We may in + this way reduce any real structure to the case of a system of points + with attractive or repulsive forces acting between certain pairs of + these points, and keeping them in equilibrium. The direction of each + of these forces is sufficiently indicated by that of the line joining + the points, so that we have only to determine its magnitude. We might + do this by calculation, and then write down on each link the pressure + or the tension which acts in it. + + We should in this way obtain a mixed diagram in which the stresses are + represented graphically as regards direction and position, but + symbolically as regards magnitude. But we know that a force may be + represented in a purely graphical manner by a straight line in the + direction of the force containing as many units of length as there are + units of force in the force. The end of this line is marked with an + arrow head to show in which direction the force acts. According to + this method each force is drawn in its proper position in the diagram + of configuration of the frame. Such a diagram might be useful as a + record of the result of calculation of the magnitude of the forces, + but it would be of no use in enabling us to test the correctness of + the calculation. + + But we have a graphical method of testing the equilibrium of any set + of forces acting at a point. We draw in series a set of lines parallel + and proportional to these forces. If these lines form a closed polygon + the forces are in equilibrium. (See MECHANICS.) We might in this way + form a series of polygons of forces, one for each joint of the frame. + But in so doing we give up the principle of drawing the line + representing a force from the point of application of the force, for + all the sides of the polygon cannot pass through the same point, as + the forces do. We also represent every stress twice over, for it + appears as a side of both the polygons corresponding to the two joints + between which it acts. But if we can arrange the polygons in such a + way that the sides of any two polygons which represent the same stress + coincide with each other, we may form a diagram in which every stress + is represented in direction and magnitude, though not in position, by + a single line which is the common boundary of the two polygons which + represent the joints at the extremities of the corresponding piece of + the frame. + + We have thus obtained a pure diagram of stress in which no attempt is + made to represent the configuration of the material system, and in + which every force is not only represented in direction and magnitude + by a straight line, but the equilibrium of the forces at any joint is + manifest by inspection, for we have only to examine whether the + corresponding polygon is closed or not. + + The relations between the diagram of the frame and the diagram of + stress are as follows:--To every link in the frame corresponds a + straight line in the diagram of stress which represents in magnitude + and direction the stress acting in that link; and to every joint of + the frame corresponds a closed polygon in the diagram, and the forces + acting at that joint are represented by the sides of the polygon taken + in a certain cyclical order, the cyclical order of the sides of the + two adjacent polygons being such that their common side is traced in + opposite directions in going round the two polygons. + + The direction in which any side of a polygon is traced is the + direction of the force acting on that joint of the frame which + corresponds to the polygon, and due to that link of the frame which + corresponds to the side. This determines whether the stress of the + link is a pressure or a tension. If we know whether the stress of any + one link is a pressure or a tension, this determines the cyclical + order of the sides of the two polygons corresponding to the ends of + the links, and therefore the cyclical order of all the polygons, and + the nature of the stress in every link of the frame. + + _Reciprocal Diagrams._--When to every point of concourse of the lines + in the diagram of stress corresponds a closed polygon in the skeleton + of the frame, the two diagrams are said to be reciprocal. + + The first extensions of the method of diagrams of forces to other + cases than that of the funicular polygon were given by Rankine in his + _Applied Mechanics_ (1857). The method was independently applied to a + large number of cases by W. P. Taylor, a practical draughtsman in the + office of J. B. Cochrane, and by Professor Clerk Maxwell in his + lectures in King's College, London. In the _Phil. Mag._ for 1864 the + latter pointed out the reciprocal properties of the two diagrams, and + in a paper on "Reciprocal Figures, Frames and Diagrams of Forces," + _Trans. R.S. Edin._ vol. xxvi., 1870, he showed the relation of the + method to Airy's function of stress and to other mathematical methods. + Professor Fleeming Jenkin has given a number of applications of the + method to practice (_Trans. R.S. Edin._ vol. xxv.). + + L. Cremona (_Le Figure reciproche nella statica grafica_, 1872) + deduced the construction of reciprocal figures from the theory of the + two components of a wrench as developed by Moebius. Karl Culmann, in + his _Graphische Statik_ (1st ed. 1864-1866, 2nd ed. 1875), made great + use of diagrams of forces, some of which, however, are not + reciprocal. Maurice Levy in his _Statique graphique_ (1874) has + treated the whole subject in an elementary but copious manner, and R. + H. Bow, in his _The Economics of Construction in Relation to Framed + Structures_ (1873), materially simplified the process of drawing a + diagram of stress reciprocal to a given frame acted on by a system of + equilibrating external forces. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of Configuration.] + + Instead of lettering the joints of the frame, as is usually done, or + the links of the frame, as was the custom of Clerk Maxwell, Bow places + a letter in each of the polygonal areas enclosed by the links of the + frame, and also in each of the divisions of surrounding space as + separated by the lines of action of the external forces. When one link + of the frame crosses another, the point of apparent intersection of + the links is treated as if it were a real joint, and the stresses of + each of the intersecting links are represented twice in the diagram of + stress, as the opposite sides of the parallelogram which corresponds + to the point of intersection. + + This method is followed in the lettering of the diagram of + configuration (fig. 1), and the diagram of stress (fig. 2) of the + linkwork which Professor Sylvester has called a quadruplane. + + In fig. 1 the real joints are distinguished from the places where one + link appears to cross another by the little circles O, P, Q, R, S, T, + V. The four links RSTV form a "contraparallelogram" in which RS = TV + and RV = ST. The triangles ROS, RPV, TQS are similar to each other. A + fourth triangle (TNV), not drawn in the figure, would complete the + quadruplane. The four points O, P, N, Q form a parallelogram whose + angle POQ is constant and equal to [pi] - SOR. The product of the + distances OP and OQ is constant. The linkwork may be fixed at O. If + any figure is traced by P, Q will trace the inverse figure, but turned + round O through the constant angle POQ. In the diagram forces Pp, Qq + are balanced by the force Co at the fixed point. The forces Pp and Qq + are necessarily inversely as OP and OQ, and make equal angles with + those lines. + + [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Diagram of Stress.] + + Every closed area formed by the links or the external forces in the + diagram of configuration is marked by a letter which corresponds to a + point of concourse of lines in the diagram of stress. The stress in + the link which is the common boundary of two areas is represented in + the diagram of stress by the line joining the points corresponding to + those areas. When a link is divided into two or more parts by lines + crossing it, the stress in each part is represented by a different + line for each part, but as the stress is the same throughout the link + these lines are all equal and parallel. Thus in the figure the stress + in RV is represented by the four equal and parallel lines HI, FG, DE + and AB. If two areas have no part of their boundary in common the + letters corresponding to them in the diagram of stress are not joined + by a straight line. If, however, a straight line were drawn between + them, it would represent in direction and magnitude the resultant of + all the stresses in the links which are cut by any line, straight or + curved, joining the two areas. For instance the areas F and C in fig. + 1 have no common boundary, and the points F and C in fig. 2 are not + joined by a straight line. But every path from the area F to the area + C in fig. 1 passes through a series of other areas, and each passage + from one area into a contiguous area corresponds to a line drawn in + the diagram of stress. Hence the whole path from F to C in fig. 1 + corresponds to a path formed of lines in fig. 2 and extending from F + to C, and the resultant of all the stresses in the links cut by the + path is represented by FC in fig. 2. + + Many examples of stress diagrams are given in the article on BRIDGES + (q.v.). + + _Automatic Description of Diagrams._ + + There are many other kinds of diagrams in which the two co-ordinates + of a point in a plane are employed to indicate the simultaneous values + of two related quantities. If a sheet of paper is made to move, say + horizontally, with a constant known velocity, while a tracing point is + made to move in a vertical straight line, the height varying as the + value of any given physical quantity, the point will trace out a curve + on the paper from which the value of that quantity at any given time + may be determined. This principle is applied to the automatic + registration of phenomena of all kinds, from those of meteorology and + terrestrial magnetism to the velocity of cannon-shot, the vibrations + of sounding bodies, the motions of animals, voluntary and involuntary, + and the currents in electric telegraphs. + + In Watt's indicator for steam engines the paper does not move with a + constant velocity, but its displacement is proportional to that of the + piston of the engine, while that of the tracing point is proportional + to the pressure of the steam. Hence the co-ordinates of a point of the + curve traced on the diagram represent the volume and the pressure of + the steam in the cylinder. The indicator-diagram not only supplies a + record of the pressure of the steam at each stage of the stroke of the + engine, but indicates the work done by the steam in each stroke by the + area enclosed by the curve traced on the diagram. (J. C. M.) + + +DIAL and DIALLING. Dialling, sometimes called gnomonics, is a branch of +applied mathematics which treats of the construction of sun-dials, that +is, of those instruments, either fixed or portable, which determine the +divisions of the day (Lat. _dies_) by the motion of the shadow of some +object on which the sun's rays fall. It must have been one of the +earliest applications of a knowledge of the apparent motion of the sun; +though for a long time men would probably be satisfied with the division +into morning and afternoon as marked by sun-rise, sun-set and the +greatest elevation. + +_History._--The earliest mention of a sun-dial is found in Isaiah +xxxviii. 8: "Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees which +is gone down in the _sun-dial_ of Ahaz ten degrees backward." The date +of this would be about 700 years before the Christian era, but we know +nothing of the character or construction of the instrument. The earliest +of all sun-dials of which we have any certain knowledge was the +hemicycle, or hemisphere, of the Chaldaean astronomer Berossus, who +probably lived about 300 B.C. It consisted of a hollow hemisphere placed +with its rim perfectly horizontal, and having a bead, or globule, fixed +in any way at the centre. So long as the sun remained above the horizon +the shadow of the bead would fall on the inside of the hemisphere, and +the path of the shadow during the day would be approximately a circular +arc. This arc, divided into twelve equal parts, determined twelve equal +intervals of time for that day. Now, supposing this were done at the +time of the solstices and equinoxes, and on as many intermediate days as +might be considered sufficient, and then curve lines drawn through the +corresponding points of division of the different arcs, the shadow of +the bead falling on one of these curve lines would mark a division of +time for that day, and thus we should have a sun-dial which would divide +each period of daylight into twelve equal parts. These equal parts were +called _temporary hours_; and, since the duration of daylight varies +from day to day, the temporary hours of one day would differ from those +of another; but this inequality would probably be disregarded at that +time, and especially in countries where the variation between the +longest summer day and the shortest winter day is much less than in our +climates. + +The dial of Berossus remained in use for centuries. The Arabians, as +appears from the work of Albategnius, still followed the same +construction about the year A.D. 900. Four of these dials have in modern +times been found in Italy. One, discovered at Tivoli in 1746, is +supposed to have belonged to Cicero, who, in one of his letters, says +that he had sent a dial of this kind to his villa near Tusculum. The +second and third were found in 1751--one at Castel-Nuovo and the other +at Rignano; and a fourth was found in 1762 at Pompeii. G. H. Martini in +his _Abhandlungen von den Sonnenuhren der Alten_ (Leipzig, 1777), says +that this dial was made for the latitude of Memphis; it may therefore +be the work of Egyptians, perhaps constructed in the school of +Alexandria. + +Herodotus recorded that the Greeks derived from the Babylonians the use +of the gnomon, but the great progress made by the Greeks in geometry +enabled them in later times to construct dials of great complexity, some +of which remain to us, and are proof not only of extensive knowledge but +also of great ingenuity. + +Ptolemy's _Almagest_ treats of the construction of dials by means of his +_analemma_, an instrument which solved a variety of astronomical +problems. The constructions given by him were sufficient for regular +dials, that is, horizontal dials, or vertical dials facing east, west, +north or south, and these are the only ones he treats of. It is certain, +however, that the ancients were able to construct declining dials, as is +shown by that most interesting monument of ancient gnomics--the Tower of +the Winds at Athens. This is a regular octagon, on the faces of which +the eight principal winds are represented, and over them eight different +dials--four facing the cardinal points and the other four facing the +intermediate directions. The date of the dials is long subsequent to +that of the tower; for Vitruvius, who describes the tower in the sixth +chapter of his first book, says nothing about the dials, and as he has +described all the dials known in his time, we must believe that the +dials of the tower did not then exist. The hours are still the temporary +hours or, as the Greeks called them, _hectemoria_. + +The first sun-dial erected at Rome was in the year 290 B.C., and this +Papirius Cursor had taken from the Samnites. A dial which Valerius +Messalla had brought from Catania, the latitude of which is five degrees +less than that of Rome, was placed in the forum in the year 261 B.C. The +first dial actually constructed at Rome was in the year 164 B.C., by +order of Q. Marcius Philippus, but as no other Roman has written on +gnomonics, this was perhaps the work of a foreign artist. If, too, we +remember that the dial found at Pompeii was made for the latitude of +Memphis, and consequently less adapted to its position than that of +Catania to Rome, we may infer that mathematical knowledge was not +cultivated in Italy. + +The Arabians were much more successful. They attached great importance +to gnomonics, the principles of which they had learned from the Greeks, +but they greatly simplified and diversified the Greek constructions. One +of their writers, Abu'l Hassan, who lived about the beginning of the +13th century, taught them how to trace dials on cylindrical, conical and +other surfaces. He even introduced _equal_ or _equinoctial hours_, but +the idea was not supported, and the temporary hours alone continued in +use. + +Where or when the great and important step already conceived by Abu'l +Hassan, and perhaps by others, of reckoning by _equal_ hours was +generally adopted cannot now be determined. The history of gnomonics +from the 13th to the beginning of the 16th century is almost a blank, +and during that time the change took place. We can see, however, that +the change would necessarily follow the introduction of clocks and other +mechanical methods of measuring time; for, however imperfect these were, +the hours they marked would be of the same length in summer and in +winter, and the discrepancy between these equal hours and the temporary +hours of the sun-dial would soon be too important to be overlooked. Now, +we know that a balance clock was put up in the palace of Charles V. of +France about the year 1370, and we may reasonably suppose that the new +sun-dials came into general use during the 14th and 15th centuries. + +Among the earliest of the modern writers on gnomonics was SEBASTIAN +MUeNSTER (q.v.), who published his _Horologiographia_ at Basel in 1531. +He gives a number of correct rules, but without demonstrations. Among +his inventions was a moon-dial,[1] but this does not admit of much +accuracy. + +During the 17th century dialling was discussed at great length by many +writers on astronomy. Clavius devotes a quarto volume of 800 pages +entirely to the subject. This was published in 1612, and may be +considered to contain all that was known at that time. + +In the 18th century clocks and watches began to supersede sun-dials, and +these have gradually fallen into disuse except as an additional ornament +to a garden, or in remote country districts where the old dial on the +church tower still serves as an occasional check on the modern clock by +its side. The art of constructing dials may now be looked upon as little +more than a mathematical recreation. + + _General Principles._--The diurnal and the annual motions of the earth + are the elementary astronomical facts on which dialling is founded. + That the earth turns upon its axis uniformly from west to east in + twenty-four hours, and that it is carried round the sun in one year at + a nearly uniform rate, is the correct way of expressing these facts. + But the effect will be precisely the same, and it will suit our + purpose better, and make our explanations easier, if we adopt the + ideas of the ancients, of which our senses furnish apparent + confirmation, and assume the earth to be fixed. Then, the sun and + stars revolve round the earth's axis uniformly from east to west once + a day--the sun lagging a little behind the stars, making its day some + four minutes longer--so that at the end of the year it finds itself + again in the same place, having made a complete revolution of the + heavens relatively to the stars from west to east. + + The fixed axis about which all these bodies revolve daily is a line + through the earth's centre; but the radius of the earth is so small, + compared with the enormous distance of the sun, that, if we draw a + parallel axis through any point of the earth's surface, we may safely + look on that as being the axis of the celestial motions. The error in + the case of the sun would not, at its maximum, that is, at 6 A.M. and + 6 P.M., exceed half a second of time, and at noon would vanish. An + axis so drawn is in the plane of the meridian, and points to the pole, + its elevation being equal to the latitude of the place. + + The diurnal motion of the stars is strictly uniform, and so would that + of the sun be if the daily retardation of about four minutes, spoken + of above, were always the same. But this is constantly altering, so + that the time, as measured by the sun's motion, and also consequently + as measured by a sun-dial, does not move on at a strictly uniform + pace. This irregularity, which is slight, would be of little + consequence in the ordinary affairs of life, but clocks and watches + being mechanical measures of time could not, except by extreme + complication, be made to follow this irregularity, even if desirable. + + The clock is constructed to mark uniform time in such wise that the + length of the clock day shall be the average of all the solar days in + the year. Four times a year the clock and the sun-dial agree exactly; + but the sun-dial, now going a little slower, now a little faster, will + be sometimes behind, sometimes before the clock-the greatest + accumulated difference being about sixteen minutes for a few days in + November, but on the average much less. The four days on which the two + agree are April 15, June 15, September 1 and December 24. + + Clock-time is called _mean time_, that marked by the sun-dial is + called _apparent time_, and the difference between them is the + _equation of time_. It is given in most calendars and almanacs, + frequently under the heading "clock slow," "clock fast." When the time + by the sun-dial is known, the equation of time will at once enable us + to obtain the corresponding clock-time, or vice versa. + + Atmospheric refraction introduces another error by altering the + apparent position of the sun; but the effect is too small to need + consideration in the construction of an instrument which, with the + best workmanship, does not after all admit of very great accuracy. + + The general principles of dialling will now be readily understood. The + problem before us is the following:--A rod, or _style_, as it is + called, being firmly fixed in a direction parallel to the earth's + axis, we have to find how and where points or lines of reference must + be traced on some fixed surface behind the style, so that when the + shadow of the style falls on a certain one of these lines, we may know + that at that moment it is solar noon,--that is, that the plane through + the style and through the sun then coincides with the meridian; again, + that when the shadow reaches the next line of reference, it is 1 + o'clock by solar time, or, which comes to the same thing, that the + above plane through the style and through the sun has just turned + through the twenty-fourth part of a complete revolution; and so on for + the subsequent hours,--the hours before noon being indicated in a + similar manner. The style and the surface on which these lines are + traced together constitute the dial. + + The position of an intended sun-dial having been selected--whether on + church tower, south front of farmstead or garden wall--the surface + must be prepared, if necessary, to receive the hour-lines. + + The chief, and in fact the only practical difficulty will be the + accurate fixing of the style, for on its accuracy the value of the + instrument depends. It must be in the meridian plane, and must make an + angle with the horizon equal to the latitude of the place. The latter + condition will offer no difficulty, but the exact determination of the + meridian plane which passes through the point where the style is fixed + to the surface is not so simple. At present we shall assume that the + style has been fixed in its true position. The style itself will be + usually a stout metal wire, and when we speak of the shadow cast by + the style it must always be understood that the middle line of the + thin band of shade is meant. + + The point where the style meets the dial is called the centre of the + dial. It is the centre from which all the hour-lines radiate. + + The position of the XII o'clock line is the most important to + determine accurately, since all the others are usually made to depend + on this one. We cannot trace it correctly on the dial until the style + has been itself accurately fixed in its proper place. When that is + done the XII o'clock line will be found by the intersection of the + dial surface with the vertical plane which contains the style; and the + most simple way of drawing it on the dial will be by suspending a + plummet from some point of the style whence it may hang freely, and + waiting until the shadows of both style and plumb-line coincide on the + dial. This single shadow will be the XII o'clock line. + + In one class of dials, namely, all the vertical ones, the XII o'clock + line is simply the vertical line from the centre; it can, therefore, + at once be traced on the dial face by using a fine plumb-line. + + The XII o'clock line being traced, the easiest and most accurate + method of tracing the other hour-lines would, at the present day when + good watches are common, be by marking where the shadow of the style + falls when 1, 2, 3, &c., hours have elapsed since noon, and the next + morning by the same means the forenoon hour-lines could be traced; and + in the same manner the hours might be subdivided into halves and + quarters, or even into minutes. + + But formerly, when watches did not exist, the tracing of the I, II, + III, &c., o'clock lines was done by calculating the angle which each + of these lines would make with the XII o'clock line. Now, except in + the simple cases of a horizontal dial or of a vertical dial facing a + cardinal point, this would require long and intricate calculations, or + elaborate geometrical constructions, implying considerable + mathematical knowledge, but also introducing increased chances of + error. The chief source of error would lie in the uncertainty of the + data; for the position of the dial-plane would have to be found before + the calculations began,--that is, it would be necessary to know + exactly by how many degrees it declined from the south towards the + east or west, and by how many degrees it inclined from the vertical. + The ancients, with the means at their disposal, could obtain these + results only very roughly. + + Dials received different names according to their position:-- + + _Horizontal dials_, when traced on a horizontal plane; + + _Vertical dials_, when on a vertical plane facing one of the cardinal + points; + + _Vertical declining dials_, on a vertical plane not facing a cardinal + point; + + _Inclining dials_, when traced on planes neither vertical nor + horizontal (these were further distinguished as _reclining_ when + leaning backwards from an observer, _proclining_ when leaning + forwards); + + _Equinoctial dials_, when the plane is at right angles to the earth's + axis, &c. &c. + + _Dial Construction._--A very correct view of the problem of dial + construction may be obtained as follows:-- + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.] + + Conceive a transparent cylinder (fig. 1) having an axis AB parallel to + the axis of the earth. On the surface of the cylinder let equidistant + generating-lines be traced 15 deg. apart, one of them XII ... XII being + in the meridian plane through AB, and the others I ... I, II ... II, + &c., following in the order of the sun's motion. + + Then the shadow of the line AB will obviously fall on the line XII ... + XII at apparent noon, on the line I ... I at one hour after noon, on + II ... II at two hours after noon, and so on. If now the cylinder be + cut by any plane MN representing the plane on which the dial is to be + traced, the shadow of AB will be intercepted by this plane and fall on + the lines AXII AI, AII, &c. + + The construction of the dial consists in determining the angles made + by AI, AII, &c. with AXII; the line AXII itself, being in the + vertical plane through AB, may be supposed known. + + For the purposes of actual calculation, perhaps a transparent sphere + will, with advantage, replace the cylinder, and we shall here apply it + to calculate the angles made by the hour-line with the XII o'clock + line in the two cases of a horizontal dial and of a vertical south + dial. + + _Horizontal Dial._--Let PEp (fig. 2), the axis of the supposed + transparent sphere, be directed towards the north and south poles of + the heavens. Draw the two great circles, HMA, QMa, the former + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.] + + horizontal, the other perpendicular to the axis Pp, and therefore + coinciding with the plane of the equator. Let EZ be vertical, then the + circle QZP will be the meridian, and by its intersection A with the + horizontal circle will determine the XII o'clock line EA. Next divide + the equatorial circle QMa into 24 equal parts ab, bc, cd, &c. ... of + 15 deg. each, beginning from the meridian Pa, and through the various + points of division and the poles draw the great circles Pbp, Pcp, &c. + ... These will exactly correspond to the equidistant generating lines + on the cylinder in the previous construction, and the shadow of the + style will fall on these circles after successive intervals of 1,2, 3, + &c., hours from noon. If they meet the horizontal circle in the points + B, C, D, &c., then EB, EC, ED, &c. ... will be the I, II, III, &c., + hour-lines required; and the problem of the horizontal dial consists + in calculating the angles which these lines make with the XII o'clock + line EA, whose position is known. The spherical triangles PAB, PAC, + &c., enable us to do this readily. They are all right-angled at A, the + side PA is the latitude of the place, and the angles APB, APC, &c., + are respectively 15 deg., 30 deg., &c., then + + tan AB = tan 15 deg. sin _latitude_, + tan AC = tan 30 deg. sin _latitude_, + &c. &c. + + These determine the sides AB, AC, &c., that is, the angles AEB, AEC, + &c., required. + + The I o'clock hour-line EB must make an angle with the meridian EA of + 11 deg. 51' on a London dial, of 12 deg. 31' at Edinburgh, of 11 deg. 23' + at Paris, 12 deg. 0' at Berlin, 9 deg. 55' at New York and 9 deg. 19' at + San Francisco. In the same way may be found the angles made by the other + hour-lines. + + The calculations of these angles must extend throughout one quadrant + from noon to VI o'clock, but need not be carried further, because all + the other hour-lines can at once be deduced from these. In the first + place the dial is symmetrically divided by the meridian, and therefore + two times equidistant from noon will have their hour-lines equidistant + from the meridian; thus the XI o'clock line and the I o'clock line + must make the same angles with it, the X o'clock the same as the II + o'clock, and so on. And next, the 24 great circles, which were drawn + to determine these lines, are in reality only 12; for clearly the + great circle which gives I o'clock after midnight, and that which + gives I o'clock after noon, are one and the same, and so also for the + other hours. Therefore the hour-lines between VI in the evening and VI + the next morning are the prolongations of the remaining twelve. + + Let us now remove the imaginary sphere with all its circles, and + retain only the style EP and the plane HMA with the lines traced on + it, and we shall have the horizontal dial. + + On the longest day in London the sun rises a little before 4 o'clock, + and sets a little after 8 o'clock; there is therefore no necessity for + extending a London dial beyond those hours. At Edinburgh the limits + will be a little longer, while at Hammerfest, which is within the + Arctic circle, the whole circuit will be required. + + Instead of a wire style it is often more convenient to use a metal + plate from one quarter to half an inch in thickness. This plate, which + is sometimes in the form of a right-angled triangle, must have an + acute angle equal to the latitude of the place, and, when properly + fixed in a vertical position on the dial, its two faces must coincide + with the meridian plane, and the sloping edges formed by the thickness + of the plate must point to the pole and form two parallel styles. + Since there are two styles, there must be two dials, or rather two + half dials, because a little consideration will show that, owing to + the thickness of the plate, these styles will only one at a time cast + a shadow. Thus the eastern edge will give the shadow for all hours + before 6 o'clock in the morning. From 6 o'clock until noon the western + edge will be used. At noon it will change again to the eastern edge + until 6 o'clock in the evening, and finally the western edge for the + remaining hours of daylight. + + The centres of the two dials will be at the points where the styles + meet the dial face; but, in drawing the hour-lines, we must be careful + to draw only those lines for which the corresponding style is able to + give a shadow as explained above. The dial will thus have the + appearance of a single dial plate, and there will be no confusion (see + fig. 3). + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.] + + The line of demarcation between the shadow and the light will be + better defined than when a wire style is used; but the indications by + this double dial will always be one minute too fast in the morning and + one minute too slow in the afternoon. This is owing to the magnitude + of the sun, whose angular breadth is half a degree. The well-defined + shadows are given, not by the centre of the sun, as we should require + them, but by the forward limb in the morning and by the backward one + in the afternoon; and the sun takes just about a minute to advance + through a space equal to its half-breadth. + + Dials of this description are frequently met with. The dial plate is + of metal as well as the vertical piece upon it, and they may be + purchased ready for placing on the pedestal,--the dial with all the + hour-lines traced on it and the style plate firmly fastened in its + proper position, if not even cast in the same piece with the dial + plate. + + When placing it on the pedestal care must be taken that the dial be + perfectly horizontal and accurately oriented. The levelling will be + done with a spirit-level, and the orientation will be best effected + either in the forenoon or in the afternoon, by turning the dial plate + till the time given by the shadow (making the _one_ minute correction + mentioned above) agrees with a good watch whose error on solar time is + known. It is, however, important to bear in mind that a dial, so built + up beforehand, will have the angle at the base equal to the latitude + of some selected place, such as London, and the hour-lines will be + drawn in directions calculated for the same latitude. Such a dial can + therefore not be used near Edinburgh or Glasgow, although it would, + without appreciable error, be adapted to any place whose latitude did + not differ more than 20 or 30 m. from that of London, and it would be + safe to employ it in Essex, Kent or Wiltshire. + + If a series of such dials were constructed, differing by 30 m. in + latitude, then an intending purchaser could select one adapted to a + place whose latitude was within 15 m. of his own, and the error of + time would never exceed a small fraction of a minute. The following + table will enable us to check the accuracy of the hour-lines and of + the angle of the style,--all angles on the dial being readily measured + with an ordinary protractor. It extends from 50 deg. lat. to 59 1/2 deg. + lat., and therefore includes the whole of Great Britain and Ireland:-- + + +--------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+ + | LAT. |XI. A.M.| X. A.M.| IX. A.M.|VIII. A.M.|VII. A.M.|VI. A.M.| + | | I. P.M.|II. P.M.|III. P.M.|IIII. P.M.| V. P.M.|VI. P.M.| + | | | | | | | | + |deg. |deg. |deg. | deg. | deg. | deg. |deg. | + | min.| min.| min.| min.| min.| min.| min.| + +--------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+ + | 50 0 | 11 36 | 23 51 | 37 27 | 53 0 | 70 43 | 90 0 | + | 50 30 | 11 41 | 24 1 | 37 39 | 53 12 | 70 51 | 90 0 | + | 51 0 | 11 46 | 24 10 | 37 51 | 53 23 | 70 59 | 90 0 | + | 51 30 | 11 51 | 24 19 | 38 3 | 53 35 | 71 6 | 90 0 | + | 52 0 | 11 55 | 24 28 | 38 14 | 53 46 | 71 13 | 90 0 | + | 52 30 | 12 0 | 24 37 | 38 25 | 53 57 | 71 20 | 90 0 | + | 53 0 | 12 5 | 24 45 | 38 37 | 54 8 | 71 27 | 90 0 | + | 53 30 | 12 9 | 24 54 | 38 48 | 54 19 | 71 34 | 90 0 | + | 54 0 | 12 14 | 25 2 | 38 58 | 54 29 | 71 40 | 90 0 | + | 54 30 | 12 18 | 25 10 | 39 9 | 54 39 | 71 47 | 90 0 | + | 55 0 | 12 23 | 25 19 | 39 19 | 54 49 | 71 53 | 90 0 | + | 55 30 | 12 27 | 25 27 | 39 30 | 54 59 | 71 59 | 90 0 | + | 56 0 | 12 31 | 25 35 | 39 40 | 55 9 | 72 5 | 90 0 | + | 56 30 | 12 36 | 25 43 | 39 50 | 55 18 | 72 11 | 90 0 | + | 57 0 | 12 40 | 25 50 | 39 59 | 55 27 | 72 17 | 90 0 | + | 57 30 | 12 44 | 25 58 | 40 9 | 55 36 | 72 22 | 90 0 | + | 58 0 | 12 48 | 26 5 | 40 18 | 55 45 | 72 28 | 90 0 | + | 58 30 | 12 52 | 26 13 | 40 27 | 55 54 | 72 33 | 90 0 | + | 59 0 | 12 56 | 26 20 | 40 36 | 56 2 | 72 39 | 90 0 | + | 59 30 | 13 0 | 26 27 | 40 45 | 56 11 | 72 44 | 90 0 | + +--------+--------+--------+---------+----------+---------+--------+ + + _Vertical South Dial._--Let us take again our imaginary transparent + sphere QZPA (fig. 4), whose axis PEp is parallel to the earth's axis. + Let Z be the zenith, and, consequently, the great circle QZP the + meridian. Through E, the centre of the sphere, draw a vertical plane + facing south. This will cut the sphere in the great circle ZMA, which, + being vertical, will pass through the zenith, and, facing south, will + be at right angles to the meridian. Let QMa be the equatorial circle, + obtained by drawing a plane through E at right angles to the axis PEp. + The lower portion Ep of the axis will be the style, the vertical line + EA in the meridian plane will be the XII o'clock line, and the line + EM, which is obviously horizontal, since M is the intersection of two + great circles ZM, QM, each at right angles to the vertical plane QZP, + will be the VI o'clock line. Now, as in the previous problem, divide + the equatorial circle into 24 equal arcs of 15 deg. each, beginning at + a, viz. ab, bc, &c.,--each quadrant aM, MQ, &c., containing 6,--then + through each point of division and through the axis Pp draw a plane + cutting the sphere in 24 equidistant great circles. As the sun + revolves round the axis the shadow of the axis will successively fall + on these circles at intervals of one hour, and if these circles cross + the vertical circle ZMA in the points A, B, C, &c., the shadow of the + lower portion Ep of the axis will fall on the lines EA, EB, EC, &c., + which will therefore be the required hour-lines on the vertical dial, + Ep being the style. + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.] + + There is no necessity for going beyond the VI o'clock hour-line on + each side of noon; for, in the winter months the sun sets earlier than + 6 o'clock, and in the summer months it passes behind the plane of the + dial before that time, and is no longer available. + + It remains to show how the angles AEB, AEC, &c., may be calculated. + + The spherical triangles pAB, pAC, &c., will give us a simple rule. + These triangles are all right-angled at A, the side pA, equal to ZP, + is the co-latitude of the place, that is, the difference between the + latitude and 90 deg.; and the successive angles ApB, ApC, &c., are 15 + deg., 30 deg., &c., respectively. Then + + tan AB = tan 15 deg. sin _co-latitude_; + + or more simply, + + tan AB = tan 15 deg. cos _latitude_, + tan AC = tan 30 deg. cos _latitude_, + &c. &c. + + and the arcs AB, AC so found are the measure of the angles AEB, AEC, + &c., required. + + In this ease the angles diminish as the latitudes increase, the + opposite result to that of the horizontal dial. + + _Inclining, Reclining, &c., Dials._--We shall not enter into the + calculation of these cases. Our imaginary sphere being, as before + supposed, constructed with its centre at the centre of the dial, and + all the hour-circles traced upon it, the intersection of these + hour-circles with the plane of the dial will determine the hour-lines + just as in the previous cases; but the triangles will no longer be + right-angled, and the simplicity of the calculation will be lost, the + chances of error being greatly increased by the difficulty of drawing + the dial plane in its true position on the sphere, since that true + position will have to be found from observations which can be only + roughly performed. + + In all these cases, and in cases where the dial surface is not a + plane, and the hour-lines, consequently, are not straight lines, the + only safe practical way is to mark rapidly on the dial a few points + (one is sufficient when the dial face is plane) of the shadow at the + moment when a good watch shows that the hour has arrived, and + afterwards connect these points with the centre by a continuous line. + Of course the style must have been accurately fixed in its true + position before we begin. + + _Equatorial Dial._--The name equatorial dial is given to one whose + plane is at right angles to the style, and therefore parallel to the + equator. It is the simplest of all dials. A circle (fig. 5) divided + into 24 equal ares is placed at right angles to the style, and hour + divisions are marked upon it. Then if care be taken that the style + point accurately to the pole, and that the noon division coincide with + the meridian plane, the shadow of the style will fall on the other + divisions, each at its proper time. The divisions must be marked on + both sides of the dial, because the sun will shine on opposite sides + in the summer and in the winter months, changing at each equinox. + + _To find the Meridian Plane._--We have, so far, assumed the meridian + plane to be accurately known; we shall proceed to describe some of the + methods by which it may be found. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.] + + The mariner's compass may be employed as a first rough approximation. + It is well known that the needle of the compass, when free to move + horizontally, oscillates upon its pivot and settles in a direction + termed the magnetic meridian. This does not coincide with the true + north and south line, but the difference between them is generally + known with tolerable accuracy, and is called the variation of the + compass. The variation differs widely at different parts of the + surface of the earth, and is not stationary at any particular place, + though the change is slow; and there is even a small daily oscillation + which takes place about the mean position, but too small to need + notice here (see MAGNETISM, TERRESTRIAL). + + With all these elements of uncertainty, it is obvious that the compass + can only give a rough approximation to the position of the meridian, + but it will serve to fix the style so that only a small further + alteration will be necessary when a more perfect determination has + been made. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.] + + A very simple practical method is the following:-- + + Place a table (fig. 6), or other plane surface, in such a position + that it may receive the sun's rays both in the morning and in the + afternoon. Then carefully level the surface by means of a + spirit-level. This must be done very accurately, and the table in that + position made perfectly secure, so that there be no danger of its + shifting during the day. + + Next, suspend a plummet SH from a point S, which must be rigidly + fixed. The extremity H, where the plummet just meets the surface, + should be somewhere near the middle of one end of the table. With H + for centre, describe any number of concentric arcs of circles, AB, CD, + EF, &c. + + A bead P, kept in its place by friction, is threaded on the plummet + line at some convenient height above H. + + Everything being thus prepared, let us follow the shadow of the bead P + as it moves along the surface of the table during the day. It will be + found to describe a curve ACE ... FDB, approaching the point H as the + sun advances towards noon, and receding from it afterwards. (The curve + is a conic section--an hyperbola in these regions.) At the moment when + it crosses the arc AB, mark the point A; AP is then the direction of + the sun, and, as AH is horizontal, the angle PAH is the altitude of + the sun. In the afternoon mark the point B where it crosses the same + arc; then the angle PBH is the altitude. But the right-angled + triangles PHA, PHB are obviously equal; and the sun has therefore the + same altitudes at those two instants, the one before, the other after + noon. It follows that, _if the sun has not changed its declination_ + during the interval, the two positions will be symmetrically placed + one on each side of the meridian. Therefore, drawing the chord AB, and + bisecting it in M, HM will be the meridian line. + + Each of the other concentric arcs, CD, EF, &c., will furnish its + meridian line. Of course these should all coincide, but if not, the + mean of the positions thus found must be taken. + + The proviso mentioned above, that the sun has not changed its + declination, is scarcely ever realized; but the change is slight, and + may be neglected, except perhaps about the time of the equinoxes, at + the end of March and at the end of September. Throughout the remainder + of the year the change of declination is so slow that we may safely + neglect it. The most favourable times are at the end of June and at + the end of December, when the sun's declination is almost stationary. + If the line HM be produced both ways to the edges of the table, then + the two points on the ground vertically below those on the edges may + be found by a plummet, and, if permanent marks be made there, the + meridian plane, which is the vertical plane passing through these two + points, will have its position perfectly secured. + + _To place the Style of a Dial in its True Position._--Before giving + any other method of finding the meridian plane, we shall complete the + construction of the dial, by showing how the style may now be + accurately placed in its true position. The angle which the style + makes with a hanging plumb-line, being the co-latitude of the place, + is known, and the north and south direction is also roughly given by + the mariner's compass. The style may therefore be already adjusted + approximately--correctly, indeed, as to its inclination--but probably + requiring a little horizontal motion east or west. Suspend a fine + plumb-line from some point of the style, then the style will be + properly adjusted if, at the very instant of noon, its shadow falls + exactly on the plumb-line,--or, which is the same thing, if both + shadows coincide on the dial. + + This instant of noon will be given very simply, by the meridian plane, + whose position we have secured by the two permanent marks on the + ground. Stretch a cord from the one mark to the other. This will not + generally be horizontal, but the cord will be wholly in the meridian + plane, and that is the only necessary condition. Next, suspend a + plummet over the mark which is nearer to the sun, and, when the shadow + of the plumb-line falls on the stretched cord, it is noon. A signal + from the observer there to the observer at the dial enables the latter + to adjust the style as directed above. + + _Other Methods of finding the Meridian Plane._--We have dwelt at some + length on these practical operations because they are simple and + tolerably accurate, and because they want neither watch, nor sextant, + nor telescope--nothing more, in fact, than the careful observation of + shadow lines. + + The Pole star, or _Ursae Minoris_, may also be employed for finding + the meridian plane without other apparatus than plumb-lines. This star + is now only about 1 deg. 14' from the pole; if therefore a plumb-line + be suspended at a few feet from the observer, and if he shift his + position till the star is exactly hidden by the line, then the plane + through his eye and the plumb-line will never be far from the meridian + plane. Twice in the course of the twenty-four hours the planes would + be strictly coincident. This would be when the star crosses the + meridian above the pole, and again when it crosses it below. If we + wished to employ the method of determining the meridian, the times of + the stars crossing would have to be calculated from the data in the + _Nautical Almanac_, and a watch would be necessary to know when the + instant arrived. The watch need not, however, be very accurate, + because the motion of the star is so slow that an error of ten minutes + in the time would not give an error of one-eighth of a degree in the + azimuth. + + The following accidental circumstance enables us to dispense with both + calculation and watch. The right ascension of the star [eta] _Ursae + Majoris_, that star in the tail of the Great Bear which is farthest + from the "pointers," happens to differ by a little more than 12 hours + from the right ascension of the Pole star. The great circle which + joins the two stars passes therefore close to the pole. When the Pole + star, at a distance of about 1 deg. 14' from the pole, is crossing the + meridian above the pole, the star [eta] _Ursae Majoris_, whose polar + distance is about 40 deg., has not yet reached the meridian below the + pole. + + When [eta] _Ursae Majoris_ reaches the meridian, which will be within + half an hour later, the Pole star will have left the meridian; but its + slow motion will have carried it only a very little distance away. Now + at some instant between these two times--much nearer the latter than + the former--the great circle joining the two stars will be exactly + vertical; and at this instant, which the observer determines by seeing + that the plumb-line hides the two stars simultaneously, neither of the + stars is strictly in the meridian; but the deviation from it is so + small that it may be neglected, and the plane through the eye and the + plumb-line taken for meridian plane. + + In all these cases it will be convenient, instead of fixing the plane + by means of the eye and one fixed plummet, to have a second plummet at + a short distance in front of the eye; this second plummet, being + suspended so as to allow of lateral shifting, must be moved so as + always to be between the eye and the fixed plummet. The meridian plane + will be secured by placing two permanent marks on the ground, one + under each plummet. + + This method, by means of the two stars, is only available for the + upper transit of _Polaris_; for, at the lower transit, the other star + [eta] _Ursae Majoris_ would pass close to or beyond the zenith, and + the observation could not be made. Also the stars will not be visible + when the upper transit takes place in the daytime, so that one-half of + the year is lost to this method. + + Neither could it be employed in lower latitudes than 40 deg. N., for + there the star would be below the horizon at its lower transit;--we + may even say not lower than 45 deg. N., for the star must be at least + 5 deg. above the horizon before it becomes distinctly visible. + + There are other pairs of stars which could be similarly employed, but + none so convenient as these two, on account of _Polaris_ with its very + slow motion being one of the pair. + + _To place the Style in its True Position without previous + Determination of the Meridian Plane._--The various methods given above + for finding the meridian plane have for ultimate object the + determination of the plane, not on its own account, but as an element + for fixing the instant of noon, whereby the style may be properly + placed. + + We shall dispense, therefore, with all this preliminary work if we + determine noon by astronomical observation. For this we shall want a + good watch, or pocket chronometer, and a sextant or other instrument + for taking altitudes. The local time at any moment may be determined + in a variety of ways by observation of the celestial bodies. The + simplest and most practically useful methods will be found described + and investigated in any work on astronomy. + + For our present purpose a single altitude of the sun taken in the + forenoon will be most suitable. At some time in the morning, when the + sun is high enough to be free from the mists and uncertain refractions + of the horizon--but to ensure accuracy, while the rate of increase of + the altitude is still tolerably rapid, and, therefore, not later than + 10 o'clock--take an altitude of the sun, an assistant, at the same + moment, marking the time shown by the watch. The altitude so observed + being properly corrected for refraction, parallax, &c., will, together + with the latitude of the place, and the sun's declination, taken from + the _Nautical Almanac_, enable us to calculate the time. This will be + the solar or apparent time, that is, the very time we require. + Comparing the time so found with the time shown by the watch, we see + at once by how much the watch is fast or slow of solar time; we know, + therefore, exactly what time the watch must mark when solar noon + arrives, and waiting for that instant we can fix the style in its + proper position as explained before. + + We can dispense with the sextant and with all calculation and + observation if, by means of the pocket chronometer, we bring the time + from some observatory where the work is done; and, allowing for the + change of longitude, and also for the equation of time, if the time we + have brought is clock time, we shall have the exact instant of solar + noon as in the previous case. + + In former times the fancy of dialists seems to have run riot in + devising elaborate surfaces on which the dial was to be traced. + Sometimes the shadow was received on a cone, sometimes on a cylinder, + or on a sphere, or on a combination of these. A universal dial was + constructed of a figure in the shape of a cross; another universal + dial showed the hours by a globe and by several gnomons. These + universal dials required adjusting before use, and for this a + mariner's compass and a spirit-level were necessary. But it would be + tedious and useless to enumerate the various forms designed, and, as a + rule, the more complex the less accurate. + + Another class of useless dials consisted of those with variable + centres. They were drawn on fixed horizontal planes, and each day the + style had to be shifted to a new position. Instead of hour-_lines_ + they had hour-_points_; and the style, instead of being parallel to + the axis of the earth, might make any chosen angle with the horizon. + There was no practical advantage in their use, but rather the reverse; + and they can only be considered as furnishing material for new + mathematical problems. + + _Portable Dials._--The dials so far described have been fixed dials, + for even the fanciful ones to which reference was just now made were + to be fixed before using. There were, however, other dials, made + generally of a small size, so as to be carried in the pocket; and + these, so long as the sun shone, roughly answered the purpose of a + watch. + + The description of the portable dial has generally been mixed up with + that of the fixed dial, as if it had been merely a special case, and + the same principle had been the basis of both; whereas there are + essential points of difference between them, besides those which are + at once apparent. + + In the fixed dial the result depends on the _uniform_ angular motion + of the sun round the fixed style; and a small error in the assumed + position of the sun, whether due to the imperfection of the + instrument, or to some small neglected correction, has only a trifling + effect on the time. This is owing to the angular displacement of the + sun being so rapid--a quarter of a degree every minute--that for the + ordinary affairs of life greater accuracy is not required, as a + displacement of a quarter of a degree, or at any rate of one degree, + can be readily seen by nearly every person. But with a portable dial + this is no longer the case. The uniform angular motion is not now + available, because we have no determined fixed plane to which we may + refer it. In the new position, to which the observer has gone, the + zenith is the only point of the heavens he can at once practically + find; and the basis for the determination of the time is the + constantly but _very irregularly_ varying zenith distance of the sun. + + At sea the observation of the altitude of a celestial body is the only + method available for finding local time; but the perfection which has + been attained in the construction of the sextant enables the sailor to + reckon on an accuracy of seconds. Certain precautions have, however, + to be taken. The observations must not be made within a couple of + hours of noon, on account of the slow rate of change at that time, nor + too near the horizon, on account of the uncertain refractions there; + and the same restrictions must be observed in using a portable dial. + + To compare roughly the accuracy of the fixed and the portable dials, + let us take a mean position in Great Britain, say 54 deg. lat., and a + mean declination when the sun is in the equator. It will rise at 6 + o'clock, and at noon have an altitude of 36 deg.,--that is, the portable + dial will indicate an average change of one-tenth of a degree in each + minute, or two and a half times slower than the fixed dial. The vertical + motion of the sun increases, however, nearer the horizon, but even there + it will be only one-eighth of a degree each minute, or half the rate of + the fixed dial, which goes on at nearly the same speed throughout the + day. + + Portable dials are also much more restricted in the range of latitude + for which they are available, and they should not be used more than 4 + or 5 m. north or south of the place for which they were constructed. + + We shall briefly describe two portable dials which were in actual use. + + _Dial on a Cylinder._--A hollow cylinder of metal (fig. 7), 4 or 5 in. + high, and about an inch in diameter, has a lid which admits of + tolerably easy rotation. A hole in the lid receives the style shaped + somewhat like a bayonet; and the straight part of the style, which, on + account of the two bends, is lower than the lid, projects horizontally + out from the cylinder to a distance of 1 or 1 1/2 in. When not in use the + style would be taken out and placed inside the cylinder. + + A horizontal circle is traced on the cylinder opposite the projecting + style, and this circle is divided into 36 approximately equidistant + intervals.[2] These intervals represent spaces of time, and to each + division is assigned a date, so that each month has three dates marked + as follows:-January 10, 20, 31; February 10, 20, 28; March 10, 20, 31; + April 10, 20, 30, and so on,--always the 10th, the 20th, and the last + day of each month. + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.] + + Through each point of division a vertical line parallel to the axis of + the cylinder is drawn from top to bottom. Now it will be readily + understood that if, upon one of these days, the lid be turned, so as + to bring the style exactly opposite the date, and if the dial be then + placed on a horizontal table so as to receive sunlight, and turned + round bodily until the shadow of the style falls exactly on the + vertical line below it, the shadow will terminate at some definite + point of this line, the position of which point will depend on the + length of the style--that is, the distance of its end from the surface + of the cylinder--and on the altitude of the sun at that instant. + Suppose that the observations are continued all day, the cylinder + being very gradually turned so that the style may always face the sun, + and suppose that marks are made on the vertical line to show the + extremity of the shadow at each exact hour from sun-rise to + sun-set-these times being taken from a good fixed sun-dial,--then it is + obvious that the next year, on the _same date_, the sun's declination + being about the same, and the observer in about the same latitude, the + marks made the previous year will serve to tell the time all that day. + + What we have said above was merely to make the principle of the + instrument clear, for it is evident that this mode of marking, which + would require a whole year's sunshine and hourly observation, cannot + be the method employed. + + The positions of the marks are, in fact, obtained by calculation. + Corresponding to a given date, the declination of the sun is taken + from the almanac, and this, together with the latitude of the place + and the length of the style, will constitute the necessary data for + computing the length of the shadow, that is, the distance of the mark + below the style for each successive hour. + + We have assumed above that the declination of the sun is the same at + the same date in different years. This is not quite correct, but, if + the dates be taken for the second year after leap year, the results + will be sufficiently approximate. + + When all the hour-marks have been placed opposite to their respective + dates, then a continuous curve, joining the corresponding hour-points, + will serve to find the time for a day intermediate to those set down, + the lid being turned till the style occupy a proper position between + the two divisions. The horizontality of the surface on which the + instrument rests is a very necessary condition, especially in summer, + when, the shadow of the style being long, the extreme end will shift + rapidly for a small deviation from the vertical, and render the + reading uncertain. The dial can also be used by holding it up by a + small ring in the top of the lid, and probably the vertically is + better ensured in that way. + + _Portable Dial on a Card._--This neat and very ingenious dial is + attributed by Ozanam to a Jesuit Father, De Saint Rigaud, and probably + dates from the early part of the 17th century. Ozanam says that it was + sometimes called the _capuchin_, from some fancied resemblance to a + cowl thrown back. + + _Construction._--Draw a straight line ACB parallel to the top of the + card (fig. 8) and another DCE at right angles to it; with C as + centre, and any convenient radius CA, describe the semicircle AEB + below the horizontal. Divide the whole arc AEB into 12 equal parts at + the points r, s, t, &c., and through these points draw perpendiculars + to the diameter ACB; these lines will be the hour-lines, viz. the line + through r will be the XI ... I line, the line through s the X ... II + line, and so on; the hour-line of noon will be the point A itself; by + subdivision of the small arcs Ar, rs, st, &c., we may draw the + hour-lines corresponding to halves and quarters, but this only where + it can be done without confusion. + + Draw ASD making with AC an angle equal to the latitude of the place, + and let it meet EC in D, through which point draw FDG at right angles + to AD. + + With centre A, and any convenient radius AS, describe an arc of circle + RST, and graduate this arc by marking degree divisions on it, + extending from 0 deg. at S to 23 1/2 deg. on each side at R and T. Next + determine the points on the straight line FDG where radii drawn from A + to the degree divisions on the arc would cross it, and carefully mark + these crossings. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.] + + The divisions of RST are to correspond to the sun's declination, south + declinations on RS and north declinations on ST. In the other + hemisphere of the earth this would be reversed; the north declinations + would be on the upper half. + + Now, taking a second year after leap year (because the declinations of + that year are about the mean of each set of four years), find the days + of the month when the sun has these different declinations, and place + these dates, or so many of them as can be shown without confusion, + opposite the corresponding marks on FDG. Draw the _sun-line_ at the + top of the card parallel to the line ACB; and, near the extremity, to + the right, draw any small figure intended to form, as it were, a door + of which a b shall be the hinge. Care must be taken that this hinge is + exactly at right angles to the _sun-line_. Make a fine open slit c d + right through the card and extending from the hinge to a short + distance on the door,--the centre line of this slit coinciding + accurately with the _sun-line_. Now, cut the door completely through + the card; except, of course, along the hinge, which, when the card is + thick, should be partly cut through at the back, to facilitate the + opening. Cut the card right through along the line FDG, and pass a + thread carrying a little plummet W and a _very_ small bead P; the bead + having sufficient friction with the thread to retain any position when + acted on only by its own weight, but sliding easily along the thread + when moved by the hand. At the back of the card the thread terminates + in a knot to hinder it from being drawn through; or better, because + giving more friction and a better hold, it passes through the centre + of a small disk of card--a fraction of an inch in diameter--and, by a + knot, is made fast at the back of the disk. + + To complete the construction,--with the centres F and G, and radii FA + and GA, draw the two arcs AY and AZ which will limit the hour-lines; + for in an observation the bead will always be found between them. The + forenoon and afternoon hours may then be marked as indicated in the + figure. The dial does not of itself discriminate between forenoon and + afternoon; but extraneous circumstances, as, for instance, whether the + sun is rising or falling, will settle that point, except when close to + noon, where it will always be uncertain. + + To _rectify_ the dial (using the old expression, which means to + prepare the dial for an observation),--open the small door, by turning + it about its hinge, till it stands well out in front. Next, set the + thread in the line FG opposite the day of the month, and stretching it + over the point A, slide the bead P along till it exactly coincide + with A. + + To find the hour of the day,--hold the dial in a vertical position in + such a way that its plane may pass through the sun. The verticality is + ensured by seeing that the bead rests against the card without + pressing. Now gradually tilt the dial (without altering its vertical + plane), until the central line of sunshine, passing through the open + slit of the door, just falls along the sun-line. The hour-line against + which the bead P then rests indicates the time. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + The _sun-line_ drawn above has always, so far as we know, been used as + a _shadow-line_. The upper edge of the rectangular door was the + prolongation of the line, and, the door being opened, the dial was + gradually tilted until the shadow cast by the upper edge exactly + coincided with it. But this shadow tilts the card one-quarter of a + degree more than the sun-line, because it is given by that portion of + the sun which just appears above the edge, that is, by the upper limb + of the sun, which is one-quarter of a degree higher than the centre. + Now, even at some distance from noon, the sun will sometimes take a + considerable time to rise one-quarter of a degree, and by so much time + will the indication of the dial be in error. + + The central line of light which comes through the open slit will be + free from this error, because it is given by light from the centre of + the sun. + + The card-dial deserves to be looked upon as something more than a mere + toy. Its ingenuity and scientific accuracy give it an educational + value which is not to be measured by the roughness of the results + obtained. + + The theory of this instrument is as follows:--Let H (fig. 9) be the + point of suspension of the plummet at the time of observation, so that + the angle DAH is the north declination of the sun,--P, the bead, + resting against the hour-line VX. Join CX, then the angle ACX is the + hour-angle from noon given by the bead, and we have to prove that this + hour-angle is the correct one corresponding to a north latitude DAC, a + north declination DAH and an altitude equal to the angle which the + _sun-line_, or its parallel AC, makes with the horizontal. The angle + PHQ will be equal to the altitude, if HQ be drawn parallel to DC, for + the pair of lines HQ, HP will be respectively at right angles to the + sun-line and the horizontal. + + Draw PQ and HM parallel to AC, and let them meet DCE in M and N + respectively. + + Let HP and its equal HA be represented by a. Then the following values + will be readily deduced from the figure:-- + + AD = a cos _decl._ DH = a sin _decl._ PQ = a sin _alt._ + + CX = AC = AD cos _lat._ = a cos _decl._ cos _lat._ + PN = CV = CX cos ACX = a cos _decl._ cos _lat._ cos ACX. + NQ = MH = DH sin MDH = sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + (:. the angle MDH = DAC = latitude.) + + And since PQ = NQ + PN, + we have, by simple substitution, + a sin _alt._ = a sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + a cos _del._ cos _lat._ + cos ACX; or, dividing by a throughout, + + sin _alt._ = sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + cos _decl._ cos _lat._ + cos ACX ... (1) + which equation determines the hour-angle ACX shown by the bead. + + To determine the hour-angle of the sun at the same moment, let fig. 10 + represent the celestial sphere, HR the horizon, P the pole, Z the + zenith and S the sun. + + From the spherical triangle PZS, we have + cos ZS = cos PS cos ZP + sin PS sin ZP cos ZPS + but ZS = zenith distance = 90 deg. - altitude + ZP = 90 deg. - PR = 90 deg.- latitude + PS = polar distance = 90 deg. - declination, + therefore, by substitution + + sin _alt._ = sin _decl._ sin _lat._ + cos _decl._ cos _lat._ + cos ZPS ... (2) + and ZPS is the hour-angle of the sun. + + A comparison of the two formulae (1) and (2) shows that the hour-angle + given by the bead will be the same as that given by the sun, and + proves the theoretical accuracy of the card-dial. Just at sun-rise or + at sun-set the amount of refraction slightly exceeds half a degree. + If, then, a little cross m (see fig. 8) be made just below the + sun-line, at a distance from it which would subtend half a degree at + c, the time of sun-set would be found corrected for refraction, if the + central line of light were made to fall on cm. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.] + + LITERATURE.--The following list includes the principal writers on + dialling whose works have come down, to us, and to these we must refer + for descriptions of the various constructions, some simple and direct, + others fanciful and intricate, which have been at different times + employed: Ptolemy, _Analemma_, restored by Commandine; Vitruvius, + _Architecture_; Sebastian Muenster, _Horologiographia_; Orontius + Fineus, _De horologiis solaribus_; Mutio Oddi da Urbino, _Horologi + solari_; Dryander, _De horologiorum compositione_; Conrad Gesner, + _Pandectae_; Andreas Schoener, _Gnomonicae_; F. Commandine, + _Horologiorum descriptio_; Joan. Bapt. Benedictus, _De gnomonum usu_; + Georgius Schomberg, _Exegesis fundamentorum gnomonicorum_; Joan. + Solomon de Caus, _Horologes solaires_; Joan. Bapt. Trolta, _Praxis + horologiorum_; Desargues, _Maniere universelle pour poser l'essieu_, + &c.; Ath. Kircher, _Ars magna lucis et Umbrae_; Hallum, _Explicatio + horologii in horto regio Londini_; Joan. Mark, _Tractatus + horologiorum_; Clavius, _Gnomonices de horologiis_. Also among more + modern writers, Deschales, Ozanam, Schottus, Wolfius, Picard, Lahire, + Walper; in German, Paterson, Michael, Mueller; in English, Foster, + Wells, Collins, Leadbetter, Jones, Leybourn, Emerson and Ferguson. See + also Hans Loeschner, _Ueber Sonnenuhren_ (2nd ed., Graz, 1906). (H. G.) + +[1] In one of the courts of Queens' College, Cambridge, there is an +elaborate sun-dial dating from the end of the 17th or beginning of the +18th century, and around it a series of numbers which make it available +as a moon-dial when the moon's age is known. + +[2] Strict equality is not necessary, as the observations made are on +the vertical line through each division-point, without reference to the +others. It is not even requisite that the divisions should go completely +and exactly round the cylinder, although they were always so drawn, and +both these conditions were insisted upon in the directions for the +construction. + + +DIALECT (from Gr. [Greek: dialektos], conversation, manner of speaking, +[Greek: dialegesthai], to converse), a particular or characteristic +manner of speech, and hence any variety of a language. In its widest +sense languages which are branches of a common or parent language may be +said to be "dialects" of that language; thus Attic, Ionic, Aeolic and +Doric are dialects of Greek, though there may never have at any time +been a separate language of which they were variations; so the various +Romance languages, Italian, French, Spanish, &c., were dialects of +Latin. Again, where there have existed side by side, as in England, +various branches of a language, such as the languages of the Angles, the +Jutes or the Saxons, and the descendant of one particular language, from +many causes, has obtained the predominance, the traces of the other +languages remain in the "dialects" of the districts where once the +original language prevailed. Thus it may be incorrect, from the +historical point of view, to say that "dialect" varieties of a language +represent degradations of the standard language. A "literary" accepted +language, such as modern English, represents the original language +spoken in the Midlands, with accretions of Norman, French, and later +literary and scientific additions from classical and other sources, +while the present-day "dialects" preserve, in inflections, pronunciation +and particular words, traces of the original variety of the language not +incorporated in the standard language of the country. See the various +articles on languages (English, French, &c). + + +DIALECTIC, or DIALECTICS (from Gr. [Greek: dialektos], discourse, +debate; [Greek: e dialektike], sc. [Greek: techne], the art of debate), +a logical term, generally used in common parlance in a contemptuous +sense for verbal or purely abstract disputation devoid of practical +value. According to Aristotle, Zeno of Elea "invented" dialectic, the +art of disputation by question and answer, while Plato developed it +metaphysically in connexion with his doctrine of "Ideas" as the art of +analysing ideas in themselves and in relation to the ultimate idea of +the Good (_Repub._ vii.). The special function of the so-called +"Socratic dialectic" was to show the inadequacy of popular beliefs. +Aristotle himself used "dialectic," as opposed to "science," for that +department of mental activity which examines the presuppositions lying +at the back of all the particular sciences. Each particular science has +its own subject matter and special principles ([Greek: idiai archai]) on +which the superstructure of its special discoveries is based. The +Aristotelian dialectic, however, deals with the universal laws ([Greek: +koinai archai]) of reasoning, which can be applied to the particular +arguments of all the sciences. The sciences, for example, all seek to +define their own species; dialectic, on the other hand, sets forth the +conditions which all definitions must satisfy whatever their subject +matter. Again, the sciences all seek to educe general laws; dialectic +investigates the nature of such laws, and the kind and degree of +necessity to which they can attain. To this general subject matter +Aristotle gives the name "Topics" ([Greek: topoi], loci, communes loci). +"Dialectic" in this sense is the equivalent of "logic." Aristotle also +uses the term for the science of probable reasoning as opposed to +demonstrative reasoning ([Greek: apodeiktike]). The Stoics divided +[Greek: logike] (logic) into rhetoric and dialectic, and from their time +till the end of the middle ages dialectic was either synonymous with, or +a part of, logic. + +In modern philosophy the word has received certain special meanings. In +Kantian terminology _Dialektik_ is the name of that portion of the +_Kritik d. reinen Vernunft_ in which Kant discusses the impossibility of +applying to "things-in-themselves" the principles which are found to +govern phenomena. In the system of Hegel the word resumes its original +Socratic sense, as the name of that intellectual process whereby the +inadequacy of popular conceptions is exposed. Throughout its history, +therefore, "dialectic" has been connected with that which is remote +from, or alien to, unsystematic thought, with the a priori, or +transcendental, rather than with the facts of common experience and +material things. + + +DIALLAGE, an important mineral of the pyroxene group, distinguished by +its thin foliated structure and bronzy lustre. The chemical composition +is the same as diopside, Ca Mg (SiO_{3})_{2}, but it sometimes contains +the molecules (Mg, Fe") (Al, Fe"')_{2} SiO_{6} and Na Fe"' +(SiO_{3})_{2}, in addition, when it approaches to augite in composition. +Diallage is in fact an altered form of these varieties of pyroxene; the +particular kind of alteration which they have undergone being known as +"schillerization." This, as described by Prof. J. W. Judd, consists in +the development of a fine lamellar structure or parting due to secondary +twinning and the separation of secondary products along these and other +planes of chemical weakness ("solution planes") in the crystal. The +secondary products consist of mixtures of various hydrated oxides--opal, +goethite, limonite, &c--and appear as microscopic inclusions filling or +partly filling cavities, which have definite outlines with respect to +the enclosing crystal and are known as negative crystals. It is to the +reflection and interference of light from these minute inclusions that +the peculiar bronzy sheen or "schiller" of the mineral is due. The most +pronounced lamination is that parallel to the orthopinacoid; another, +less distinct, is parallel to the basal plane, and a third parallel to +the plane of symmetry; these planes of secondary parting are in addition +to the ordinary prismatic cleavage of all pyroxenes. Frequently the +material is interlaminated with a rhombic pyroxene (bronzite) or with an +amphibole (smaragdite or uralite), the latter being an alteration +product of the diallage. + +Diallage is usually greyish-green or dark green, sometimes brown, in +colour, and has a pearly to metallic lustre or schiller on the laminated +surfaces. The hardness is 4, and the specific gravity 3.2 to 3.35. It +does not occur in distinct crystals with definite outlines, but only as +lamellar masses in deep-seated igneous rocks, principally gabbro, of +which it is an essential constituent. It occurs also in some peridotites +and serpentines, and rarely in volcanic rocks (basalt) and crystalline +schists. Masses of considerable size are found in the coarse-grained +gabbros of the Island of Skye, Le Prese near Bornio in Valtellina, +Lombardy, Prato near Florence, and many other localities. + +The name diallage, from diallage, "difference," in allusion to the +dissimilar cleavages and planes of fracture, as originally applied by R. +J. Hauey in 1801, included other minerals (the orthorhombic pyroxenes +hypersthene, bronzite and bastite, and the smaragdite variety of +hornblende) which exhibit the same peculiarities of schiller structure; +it is now limited to the monoclinic pyroxenes with this structure. Like +the minerals of similar appearance just mentioned, it is sometimes cut +and polished for ornamental purposes. (L. J. S.) + + +DIALOGUE, properly the conversation between two or more persons, +reported in writing, a form of literature invented by the Greeks for +purposes of rhetorical entertainment and instruction, and scarcely +modified since the days of its invention. A dialogue is in reality a +little drama without a theatre, and with scarcely any change of scene. +It should be illuminated with those qualities which La Fontaine +applauded in the dialogue of Plato, namely vivacity, fidelity of tone, +and accuracy in the opposition of opinions. It has always been a +favourite with those writers who have something to censure or to impart, +but who love to stand outside the pulpit, and to encourage others to +pursue a train of thought which the author does not seem to do more than +indicate. The dialogue is so spontaneous a mode of expressing and noting +down the undulations of human thought that it almost escapes analysis. +All that is recorded, in any literature, of what pretend to be the +actual words spoken by living or imaginary people is of the nature of +dialogue. One branch of letters, the drama, is entirely founded upon it. +But in its technical sense the word is used to describe what the Greek +philosophers invented, and what the noblest of them lifted to the +extreme refinement of an art. + +The systematic use of dialogue as an independent literary form is +commonly supposed to have been introduced by Plato, whose earliest +experiment in it is believed to survive in the _Laches_. The Platonic +dialogue, however, was founded on the mime, which had been cultivated +half a century earlier by the Sicilian poets, Sophron and Epicharmus. +The works of these writers, which Plato admired and imitated, are lost, +but it is believed that they were little plays, usually with only two +performers. The recently discovered mimes of Herodas (Herondas) give us +some idea of their scope. Plato further simplified the form, and reduced +it to pure argumentative conversation, while leaving intact the amusing +element of character-drawing. He must have begun this about the year +405, and by 399 he had brought the dialogue to its highest perfection, +especially in the cycle directly inspired by the death of Socrates. All +his philosophical writings, except the _Apology_, are cast in this form. +As the greatest of all masters of Greek prose style, Plato lifted his +favourite instrument, the dialogue, to its highest splendour, and to +this day he remains by far its most distinguished proficient. In the 2nd +century a.d. Lucian of Samosata achieved a brilliant success with his +ironic dialogues "Of the Gods," "Of the Dead," "Of Love" and "Of the +Courtesans." In some of them he attacks superstition and philosophical +error with the sharpness of his wit; in others he merely paints scenes +of modern life. The title of Lucian's most famous collection was +borrowed in the 17th century by two French writers of eminence, each of +whom prepared _Dialogues des morts_. These were Fontenelle (1683) and +Fenelon (1712). In English non-dramatic literature the dialogue had not +been extensively employed until Berkeley used it, in 1713, for his +Platonic treatise, _Hylas and Philonous_. Landor's _Imaginary +Conversations_ (1821-1828) is the most famous example of it in the 19th +century, although the dialogues of Sir Arthur Helps claim attention. In +Germany, Wieland adopted this form for several important satirical works +published between 1780 and 1799. In Spanish literature, the Dialogues of +Valdes (1528) and those on Painting (1633) by Vincenzo Carducci, are +celebrated. In Italian, collections of dialogues, on the model of Plato, +have been composed by Torquato Tasso (1586), by Galileo (1632), by +Galiani (1770), by Leopardi (1825), and by a host of lesser writers. In +our own day, the French have returned to the original application of +dialogue, and the inventions of "Gyp," of Henri Lavedan and of others, +in which a mundane anecdote is wittily and maliciously told in +conversation, would probably present a close analogy to the lost mimes +of the early Sicilian poets, if we could meet with them. This kind of +dialogue has been employed in English, and with conspicuous cleverness +by Mr Anstey Guthrie, but it does not seem so easily appreciated by +English as by French readers. (E.G.) + + +DIALYSIS (from the Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: luein], to +loosen), in chemistry, a process invented by Thomas Graham for +separating colloidal and crystalline substances. He found that solutions +could be divided into two classes according to their action upon a +porous diaphragm such as parchment. If a solution, say of salt, be +placed in a drum provided with a parchment bottom, termed a "dialyser," +and the drum and its contents placed in a larger vessel of water, the +salt will pass through the membrane. If the salt solution be replaced by +one of glue, gelatin or gum, it will be found that the membrane is +impermeable to these solutes. To the first class Graham gave the name +"crystalloids," and to the second "colloids." This method is +particularly effective in the preparation of silicic acid. By adding +hydrochloric acid to a dilute solution of an alkaline silicate, no +precipitate will fall and the solution will contain hydrochloric acid, +an alkaline chloride, and silicic acid. If the solution be transferred +to a dialyser, the hydrochloric acid and alkaline chloride will pass +through the parchment, while the silicic acid will be retained. + + +DIAMAGNETISM. Substances which, like iron, are attracted by the pole of +an ordinary magnet are commonly spoken of as magnetic, all others being +regarded as non-magnetic. It was noticed by A. C. Becquerel in 1827 that +a number of so-called non-magnetic bodies, such as wood and gum lac, +were influenced by a very powerful magnet, and he appears to have formed +the opinion that the influence was of the same nature as that exerted +upon iron, though much feebler, and that all matter was more or less +magnetic. Faraday showed in 1845 (_Experimental Researches_, vol. iii.) +that while practically all natural substances are indeed acted upon by a +sufficiently strong magnetic pole, it is only a comparatively small +number that are attracted like iron, the great majority being repelled. +Bodies of the latter class were termed by Faraday _diamagnetics_. The +strongest diamagnetic substance known is bismuth, its susceptibility +being--0.000014, and its permeability 0.9998. The diamagnetic quality of +this metal can be detected by means of a good permanent magnet, and its +repulsion by a magnetic pole had been more than once recognized before +the date of Faraday's experiments. The metals gold, silver, copper, +lead, zinc, antimony and mercury are all diamagnetic; tin, aluminium and +platinum are attracted by a very strong pole. (See MAGNETISM.) + + +DIAMANTE, FRA, Italian fresco painter, was born at Prato about 1400. He +was a Carmelite friar, a member of the Florentine community of that +order, and was the friend and assistant of Filippo Lippi. The Carmelite +convent of Prato which he adorned with many works in fresco has been +suppressed, and the buildings have been altered to a degree involving +the destruction of the paintings. He was the principal assistant of Fra +Filippo in the grand frescoes which may still be seen at the east end of +the cathedral of Prato. In the midst of the work he was recalled to +Florence by his conventual superior, and a minute of proceedings of the +commune of Prato is still extant, in which it is determined to petition +the metropolitan of Florence to obtain his return to Prato,--a proof +that his share in the work was so important that his recall involved the +suspension of it. Subsequently he assisted Fra Filippo in the execution +of the frescoes still to be seen in the cathedral of Spoleto, which Fra +Diamante completed in 1470 after his master's death in 1469. Fra Filippo +left a son ten years old to the care of Diamante, who, having received +200 ducats from the commune of Spoleto, as the balance due for the work +done in the cathedral, returned with the child to Florence, and, as +Vasari says, bought land for himself with the money, giving but a small +portion to the child. The accusation of wrong-doing, however, would +depend upon the share of the work executed by Fra Diamante, and the +terms of his agreement with Fra Filippo. Fra Diamante must have been +nearly seventy when he completed the frescoes at Spoleto, but the exact +year of his death is not known. + + +DIAMANTE, JUAN BAUTISTA (1640?-1684?), Spanish dramatist, was born at +Castillo about 1640, entered the army, and began writing for the stage +in 1657. He became a knight of Santiago in 1660; the date of his death +is unknown, but no reference to him as a living author occurs after +1684. Like many other Spanish dramatists of his time, Diamante is +deficient in originality, and his style is riddled with affectations; +_La Desgraciada Raquel_, which was long considered to be his best play, +is really Mira de Amescua's _Judia de Toledo_ under another title; and +the earliest of Diamante's surviving pieces, _El Honrador de su padre_ +(1658), is little more than a free translation of Corneille's Cid. +Diamante is historically interesting as the introducer of French +dramatic methods into Spain. + + +DIAMANTINA (formerly called _Tejuco_), a mining town of the state of +Minas Geraes, Brazil, in the N.E. part of the state, 3710 ft. above +sea-level. Pop. (1890) 17,980. Diamantina is built partly on a steep +hillside overlooking a small tributary of the Rio Jequitinhonha (where +diamond-washing was once carried on), and partly on the level plain +above. The town is roughly but substantially built, with broad streets +and large squares. It is the seat of a bishopric, with an episcopal +seminary, and has many churches. Its public buildings are inconspicuous; +they include a theatre, military barracks, hospitals, a lunatic asylum +and a secondary school. There are several small manufactures, including +cotton-weaving, and diamond-cutting is carried on. The surrounding +region, lying on the eastern slopes of one of the lateral ranges of the +Serra do Espinhaco, is rough and barren, but rich in minerals, +principally gold and diamonds. Diamantina is the commercial centre of an +extensive region, and has long been noted for its wealth. The date of +the discovery of diamonds, upon which its wealth and importance chiefly +depend, is uncertain, but the official announcement was made in 1729, +and in the following year the mines were declared crown property, with a +crown reservation, known as the "forbidden district," 42 leagues in +circumference and 8 to 16 leagues in diameter. Gold-mining was forbidden +within its limits and diamond-washing was placed under severe +restrictions. There are no trustworthy returns of the value of the +output, but in 1849 the total was estimated up to that date at +300,000,000 francs (see DIAMOND). The present name of the town was +assumed (instead of Tejuco) in 1838, when it was made a _cidade_. + + +DIAMANTINO, a small town of the state of Matto Grosso, Brazil, near the +Diamantino river, about 6 m. above its junction with the Paraguay, in +14 deg. 24' 33" S., 56 deg. 8' 30" W. Pop. (1890) of the municipality +2147, mostly Indians. It stands in a broken sterile region 1837 ft. above +sea-level and at the foot of the great Matto Grosso plateau. The first +mining settlement dates from 1730, when gold was found in the vicinity. +On the discovery of diamonds in 1746 the settlement drew a large +population and for a time was very prosperous. The mines failed to meet +expectations, however, and the population has steadily declined. +Ipecacuanha and vanilla beans are now the principal articles of export. + + +DIAMETER (from the Gr. [Greek: dia], through, [Greek: metron], measure), +in geometry, a line passing through the centre of a circle or conic +section and terminated by the curve; the "principal diameters" of the +ellipse and hyperbola coincide with the "axes" and are at ... + (_continued in volume 8, slice 4, page 0158._) + + + * * * * * + + +Corrections made to printed original. + +DETERMINANT, formula = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" - a"bc' - a"b'c. +changed to = ab'c" - ab"c' + a'b"c - a'bc" + a"bc' - a"b'c. + +DETMOLD, added missing comma after 'Detmold possesses a natural history +museum'. + +DEVENTER, 'The "Athenaeum" disappeared' corrected from the original +'disappered'. + +DEVIL, replaced comma with a period after 'according to 1 Chron. xxi'. + +DEVONSHIRE, EARLS AND DUKES OF, 'In November 1684' originally 'Novembr'. + +DIAGRAM, 'found to be of use especially' originally 'epsecially'. + +DIAL, table angles on the dial, column IX. A.M. III. P.M. bottom entry +corrected from '45 45' to '40 45'. + +DIAGRAM, missing closing parenthesis added after 'to mark out by lines'. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 8, Slice 3, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 8, SLICE 3 *** + +***** This file should be named 30073.txt or 30073.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/3/0/0/7/30073/ + +Produced by Don Kretz, Marius Borror, Juliet Sutherland +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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